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HARVARD  COLLEGE 

LIBRARY 

GOT  OF 

JAMES  STURGIS  PRAY 

=*TFV 

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CHAMBERS'S 

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CHAMBERS'S 

ENCTCLOP/?,DIA 

A  DICTIOKAEI 

OF    UNIVERSAL    KNOWLEDGE    FOE    THE    PEOPLE 

UXCFTKATZD 

WIIH  MAPS  An  KBMEROBS  WOOD  ENQBATINOS 

REVISED    EDITION 

VOL.  V 

LONDON 

1?.  AKD  I.  CIAVIEB3  47  rATEBSOSTGS  BOV 

AND   HIGH  STREET  EDINBVEOH 

I8T6 

AURighttartTttcntd 

Ou, 


B^BVMlO  twLiUl  LIBHAin 

Btf  I  Uf 

IMfS  fTUHbia  PRAY 

JAN    9  1924 


LIST  OF  MAPS  FOR   VOL    T. 


EKGLilrD  uiD  VILES, 66 

SOOTLAlfD, 70 

aRSCIA.  iHTKJUA,      ' TS 

INDIA,  OR  HnmusTAir, M< 

IRELAND,              ,..,.,.  623 

ITALY, 663 


.yi^oogle 


UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


GOOD-GOOD-CONDUCT  PAY. 


GOOD,  Josh  Mason,  a  phydcun  and  author, 
born  at  Epmug  in  Baei,  1764,  and  died  in  Lo 
in  1827.  Ha  commenced  practice  u  a  inrgec  _  ... 
Sndbuiy  in  1784,  but  meotinK  with  little  BucoeBa, 
he  removed  to  London  in  1793,  principally  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  literMT  amployment. 

Iq  addition  to  Tim  Boot  ofNahin,  the  work  by 
which  he  is  now  chiefly  known,  and  which  only 
appeared  ahortly  before  his  death,  he  published 
various  iMems,  trantlatioacL,Bnd  profesmonal  treatises. 
Of  his  orwinal  poems  we  need  say  nothingi  Amongst 
iiis  tramdatiana  we  may  notiee  his  Song  of  Bongi 
or  Sacred  IdylU,  traoilated  from  the  Hebrew,  1803 . 
bis  trandation  of  LncretiDs,  in  Terse,  in  18DS;  of 
thaBookof  Job,inl812;  of  the  book  of  Ptorerbs, 
in  IS2I ;  and  of  the  Book  of  Psabna,  which  was 
jiut  completed  at  the  time  of  his  death.  His  chief 
profesmonal  work,  his  Study  qf  Medicine,  in  foiir 
vdomes,  was  pablished  in  18^     It  is  a  learned 

stndent.    He  likewise 

,  _   -jnjonction  with  Oliothot  GregOTy 

and   Bovworth,  the   PtoOologia,   or  Encydoptsdia, 

'    toTmriguig  a  Oaurai  DicAonary  of  Arli,  SdaKa, 

mi  Omend  LUeratiire,  in  twelve  Ttilnmei,  which 

were  competed  in  1813,  and  oontribnted   Uraely 

!    to  Tarions  periodicals.      His   friend,  Br   Olinuiua 

I    '^IS'"^'    V^^^^    *    Memoir    of    his    Life   in 

I        GOOD  BEHATIOUR,  a  phrsae  rather  popular 

I    tlian  Ic^aL    It  is  used  chiefly  as  synonymous  with 

I    keeping  the  peaca      Thos,  if  one  person  assaolta 

1    another,  or  threatens  or  prorokes  him  to  a  breach  of 

the  peace,  tlie  offence  is  punishable  summarily  by 

I    jnatices  of  tJie  peace,  who,  besides  inflicting  a  fine, 

I    may,  and  often  do  bind  over  the  ofiending  party  to 

I    keep  the  peace,  and  be  of  good   bebnviour  for  a 

pmod  of  SIX  or  twelve  months.    The  mode  of  doing 

this  is  by  requiring  the  offending  party  to  enter 

into    his    Teoognizancefl  with    or   without    snretipfl. 

I    which  is,  in  fact,  the  givioj^  a  bond  for  a  specified 

•uiD  to  the  crown,  and  if  it  is  broken,  that  is,  if 


trorthr  gaide  to  tl 
^blishM,  in  con. 


tiie  recognisance  is  forfeited,  then  the  patty  may 
be  again  pnnisbed. 

GOOD-COITDnCT  PAT  is  an  addition  made 
in  the  British  army  to  the  duly  pay  of  corporals 
and  private  soldiers,  in  oonaideration  of  long  service 
unaccompanied  bf  had  behavionr.  The  amount 
awarded  at  one  time  is  Id  a  day,  with  one  white 
ohevTon  on  tiie  ann  ss  a  badge  of  distinctioii.  8no- 
cesaive  awards  of  good-conduct  pay  may  raise  the 
total  grant  to  6(L  a  day,  with  a  comeponding 
number  of  stripes  on  the  arm.  It  reckons,  m  part, 
towarda  increase  of  pension  when  the  soldier  quits 
theserrioe. 

In  each  regtmcnt  tbere  is  kept  a  'Hegimental 
Defanlten'  Book,'  in  which  the  commanding  officer 
is  bound  to  enter  the  name  of  every  soldier  in  the 
corps  who  shall  have  been  convicted  by  court- 
martial  of  any  offence,  or  who,  in  conaequenoe  ol 
miaconduct,  ihall  be  sabjected  to  forfeiture  of  pay, 
either  with  or  without  imprisonment,  or  to  any 
other  punishment  beyond  seven  days'  oonfinement 
to  barracks.  No  first  or  subsequent  Id.  of  good- 
conduct  pay  can  be  awarded  to  a  soldier,  onleas  two 


while  actually  in  receipt  of  ralod-oandnot  pay,  he 
loees  for  each  oKnoe  Id.  per  diem,  which  can  only 
be  restored  after  one  umntempted  year  of  good 
servioe,  dnrine  which  his  name  has  not  been  recorded 
in  the  defaulters'  book.  The  loss  of  the  l<i.  is  of 
course  accompanied  by  the  loaa  of  the  correaponding 
distingnishing  mark  or  stripe. 

The  first  Id.  is  obtainable  after  two  yeara*  service, 
withont  the  name  once  appearing  in  ute  defaulters' 
book  ;  the  second,  after  6  years ;  the  third,  after  12 
years;  the  fourth,  after  18  yearn;  the  fifth,  after  23 
years ;  and  the  sixth,  after  28  years ;  the  terviee 
being  only  reckoned  in  any  case  from  the  age  of  18, 
1  two  years  of  unintermpted  good  oondoct  inuae- 
,tely  before  the  time  at  which  the  award  is 
granted  being  requisite  in  every 


rniiTdhjCiOOgl' 


GOOD  FRTOAT-OOODEinACEA 


additional  indiieement  to  contiiinoni  good  behaviour, 
14  niiiiil^niT^ed  yean  without  an  adverge  eatiT- 
onldtUtl  a  aoldier,  after  16^  21,  or  26  yean'  serTice, 
to  the  avard  for  which  ha  -would  only  otherwise  be 
eUdble  after  18,  23,  <«  2S  yean. 

SoD-oonuniuiotiod  offloen  do  not  receEre  good- 
condnct  ^j,  an  addition  iiMte«d  thereof  of  2d.  per 
diem  haTing  been  made  to  their  regular  pay  a  few 
yearg  nnce.  A  mm,  hawever,  not  ezceedmg  £tWO 
a  year  is  dittribnted  among  sergeanta  of  long  service 
and  good  condncti  in  Ike  way  of  annoitie^  not  over 
£30  each.  The  anniiity  ii  receivable  during  active 
'eervioe,  and  also  in  ooujilnctiOD  witil  the  pension  on 


la  the  Ualta  Fendble  Ariillary,  good-condnct 
pay  ia  allowed  to  native  sotdien  for  siniilaT  perioda 
of  service,  but  to  only  half  the  above  amonni 

A  oonaiderable  increase  ol  the  army  causes  a 
large  decrease  in  the  snm  payable  for  good-oqnduct 


reoraita,  who  have  not  yet  had  time  to  earn  these 
extai  rewardA  The  total  charge  in  the  army  for 
good-condnct  pay  durinn  ihe  year  1873 — 1874  ia 
estimated,  exclusive  of  t£e  anuuitiea  to  sergeAuts, 
at  £133,lJfa 

Good-oondnot  pi^  and  badges  an  also  awarded 
in  the  navy  to  aeamen  of  exemplary  conduct ;  hot 
the  periods  for  obtaining,  and  the  rules  under  which 
it  is  granted  and  forfeited,  so  nearly  resemble  thoae 


the  grant  is  limited  to  three  badges,  and  3d.  a 
day;  tiiat  petty  officers  continue  to  hold  it;  and 
tijit  it  is  of  no  account  ia  the  pension  given  at  the 
expiiation  of  active  service. 

GOOD  FRIDAY,  the  Etiday  before  Eiater, 
nored  as  Hie  commemoraldon  of  tiie  cnicdflxion  of 
onr  Lord.  IDus  day  was  kept  as  a  day  of  mourning 
and  of  special  piayv  6vm  a  very  aa^  period.    U 


nnHmctyof 
Ak  PatAa  t 


tokan  of 


._  called  by  the  Oredta 
Oie  '  Paach  of  the  Onm.'  That  it  waa  observed 
a  day  of  rigid  fast  and  of  solemn  and  melancholy 
oeremonial,  we  learn  frora  the  apostolia  oonstitntiona 
(b.  V.  c  18),  and  from  Ensebiua  {Bed.  Min.  b,  ii 
c  17),  who  also  tells  tliat,  when  Ohri«tiani^  waa 
wtab^ed  in  the  emidre,  Oonitantine  forbade  the 
holding  tk  Iaw-ooiirl%  maAet^  and  other  pobUo 
ToooeedinRt  npon  thia  day.  In  tlte  Boman  CaUudio 
Chnrch,  &e  service  of  thia  d»;r  i*  ^^  peooliar; 
instead  <^  the  ordinary  mass,  it  oooMm  <f  idkat 
ia  called  the  Maaa  <rf  tite  Preaai  ""  ■  -'  -  ■ 
host  not  being  oonwontted  on 
rsMTved  fnnn  tha  [veaeding  day. 
and  attendants  are  robed  in  blaol . 
mourning ;  the  altar  ia  stripped  of  its 
the  kiss  of  peaoe  ia  onutted,  in  deter^' 
Hm  of  the  traitor  Judas ;  the  priest 
aeriea  of  pntyers  for  all  daasea,  oiders,  and  nnka 
in  the  ohuTCh,  and  even  for  hattica,  sfJiwnnalana, 
pagans,  and  Jewa.  But  the  moat  striking  part  of 
^S  oerononial  of  Good  Friday  is  the  SMwlled 
'adoration  of  the  croas,'  or,  as  it  waa  called  in 
the  old  Ei^lish  popular  vocabulan,  'ereeping  to 
tin  cross.'  A  lai^  crucifix  is  pUced  upon  the 
altar  with  appropriate  oaremonisa,  in  memory  of 
the  awful  event  which  Hm  (xadBx  rapMMita,  and 
Hit  entire  oongreratkm,  oommendng  wit^  tin  oele- 
brant  priest  awi  his  mhnstam,  approadi,  and  vpon 
their  knees  revwently  kin  the  figoro  of  our  omcified 
Lotd.  In  the  epa  of  Protcatanta,  this  ceremony 
wpeaia  to  partue  more  strongly  of  the  idolatrous 
etaantctor  than  any  other  in  uie  Goman  Catholic 
ritual ;  but  Cathclics  eameatly  repudiate  all  sooh 


of  the  ceretnc 
Imaqbi.  The  very  striking 
held  npon  Good  Friday,  as  well  as  on  the  prsoedinx 
two  days :  it  consiits  of  the  matins  and  landa  of 
the  office  of  Holy  Saturday,  and  haa  tiiis  peculiarity, 
that  at  the  close  all  the  lights  in  the  chnroh  are 
extinguished  except  one,  wBioh  for  a  time  (as  a 
symbol  of  our  Lord's  death  and  burial)  ia  hidden 
under  the  altar. 

In  the  English  Church,  Good  Riday  ia  also  cele> 
brated  with  special  solemniW,  Anciently,  a  BarmoD 
was  preached  at  St  Panl'i  Omu  on  the  afternoon  of 
this  d&y,  at  which  the  kid  m^or  and  aldanneo 
attended.  Tha  piaotica  of  eating  npoo  t^  day 
'  cross  buns ' — cakes  witli  a  erass  impressed  upon 
them — is  a  relic  of  tin  Bjmim  Cathouo  times,  but 
it  has  lost  all  ita  religious  significance.  In  England 
and  Ireland,  Good  I^iday  is  by  law  a  die*  turn,  and 
all  business  ia  suspended.  Li  Scotland,  the  day 
meet!  with  no  peculiar  attention,  except  from 
membera  of  the   Episcopal   and   Roman   CathoUo 


GOOD  £OFE.    See  Oapi  of  Good  Hopx. 


1822.     His  first  oil^iictute  was  entitiod,  '  findini 


medal  During  the  smmnen  of  1638—1842,  be 
visited  Nonnaady  and  Brittany,  and  in  1339,  when 
but  17  yean  of  age,  ho  exhibited  his  first  picture 
at  the  ICoyal  Academy,  'French  Soldiers  Flaying 
Cards  in  a  Cabaret'  His  '  Entering  Church,  as 
well  as  '  The  Betnm  from  a  Christening,'  which 
received  a  prize  of  £G0  from  the  Brildsh  Inatitntiou, 
and  othera  of  his  ear^  pictures,  wera  putchaaed 
by  Mr  WoUa.  '  The  Tired  Soldier,'  exlubiled  in 
1842,  was  purchaaed  by  Ur  Vernon,  aud  is  now 
in  the  Vernon  Galley.  Some  of  his  French  scenea 
are,  '  Veteran  of  the  Old  Guard  describing  his 
Battles,'  'La  Fate  dn  Mari«ge,'  'The  Wounded 
Soldier  Hetumed  to  hil  Family,'  'The  Conscript' 
In  1844,  he  went  for  anbiecta  to  Ireland,  and  sub- 
sequently visited  North  Wales.  Among  his  Irish 
unanaa   are,   'Irish  Courtih^'   'The  iish   Piper,' 


the  Maypole'  (1851),  '^rrest  of  a  Peasant  Loy^t 
—Brittany,  1793 '  (1866), '  Oronmer  at  the  Traitor'a 
Gate'  (1856),  'fiinng  of  the  Nile,'  'Subsiding  ot 
thpNiie'  (1873),  &;&,  have  also  added  greaUy  to  his 
reputation.  He  visited  Egypt  in  18^  In  185^ 
G.  waa  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
and  in  1863,  a  Boyal  Academician. 

GOODBKIA'OEJS,  a  natural  older  of  eujgm- 
ous  ^ants,  of  iriiich  about  160  spedes  are  known, 
mostiy  heiliaoeoaa  plania,  althoiuh  a  few  an  shrubs, 
and  mostiy  natives  of  AustraUa  and  the  ialanda 
of  the  Southern  Ocean,  a  few  being  also  found 
in  India,  the  south  of  Africa,  and  Sonth  Amerio^ 
Tha  order  ia  allied  to  OrmpaMuIaeea  and  LabtU- 
aeta,  but  ia  deatitate  of  the  milky  juice  which  ia 
found  in  both  of  UmMl  The  corolla  is  mono- 
petalons,  mc^e  or  leas  iite&ular.  A  remarkable 
ehanMiter  of  thia  ctdar  ia  Out  the  summit  of  IJie 
style  bears  a  Bttle  cap,  in  the  bottom  of  which 
the  atiffna  is  placed.  The  flowers  of  some  cf 
the  species  are  c£  considBEable  beauty.  The  young 
leavea  of  Seavola  Uueada  are  n*ed  a*  a  salad  by 
the  Malaya ;  and  the  pith  fumishea  a  kind  m 
which  they  make  into  artificial  flowen 


e.'GoOglc 


GOODS  AUli  CHATTEM— GOODWIN  SANDS, 


GOODS  AXD  CHATTELS,  a  legal  as  weU  w 
I  popular  pbrnao  in  comnum  uae,  to  mmify  petwDwd 
J  pwwrtjr.  It  iB  sot  nnfreqnantty  naS  in  mils,  but 
I  Kidom  in  t^ny  other  log^  ioatnanoixt ;  and  when 
I  used  in  -wills,  it  genv^^indndea  all  the  penonal 
I  property  of  tba  tMtator,  In  ScotUnd,  the  coirea- 
ponding  pJixa^^  is  gooda  and  gear. 
.  OOOTDS  JH  COMUUNIOK,  tiw 
1  the  law    of    SooUand,  Fnaea,  and 


S    glTOB 


.  to    _ 

I    eoQple, -wliioli  ii 


>t  (object  to  any 
the  oammcm  Ui 
M  nnkDOim,  for  upon 


but  left  to 

Qi^and, 

le,  all  the 

i  to  the 

>rwill]. 


a  (which  is  not  aecnred  by  any 

I   aa  weU  as  wlutt  waa  praTionaly  his  own, 

\  and  contiaoea  the  bosluind'H  abaolntely — he  u  entii« 
mMber  of  it,  and  can  do  what  he  Iik«a  with  it. 
\   Rgpi^BBB  of  the  wiahea  of  his  wife 


he  may  ereix  bequeath  it  away  to  >ti_„ 

Scotland,  Uie  theoiy  i«  nob  ao  Ubeial  toward!  tiia 
h^aaband,  i^Mwigh  in  pnctioe  there  ii  not  muoh 
diffarenoe.     By  tite  l«w  of  Sootlaod,  the        ' 


n  iho  do  umit  he  lihs  with  the  perwnal  proyrty 


He  cui  almovt  •qiuinder  it  atwuL    It  ia  otd^  at  his 

a  commimion  of  goods,  oomea  into  play. 

Until  1S6S,  when  the  law  waa  olteied,  this  theory 

prerajled  when  the  wife  died,  for  formerly,  at  her 

death,  the  goods  were  divided  into  two  parts,  if  there 

were  no  children,  and  one-half  went  to  the  next  of 

of  the  wife,  howerer  distant  tho  relationship, 


her  nszt  of  kin  takes  no  intoNdt  whatanr  in 
eooda  in  commnnioii ;  and  tha  law  in  this  respect 
u  now  the  same  as  it  ifl  in  Sn^and.  HmOA  1^ 
phraae  gooda  in  connmnion  ia  Isw  apfat^niate  than 
it  waa  before  186G.  I^howeTer,thehnab(uiddiB,flie 
goodain  ooammmion  aofFer  a  division  on  the  prinoiple 

hklf  goes  to  Um  widow,  and  t^  other  half  to  the 
next  at  kin  of  the  hnaband.  If  there  are  children, 
thai  (die-tliird  goes  to  tiie  widow,and  ia  often  called 
ho'  Jiu  JMido  <q.  tX  and  the  otlier  two-thirds  to 
the  diildrBn  eqnsl^,  a  then  is  no  will ;  or  if  there 
ia  B  will,  then  one^did  to  them,  oalled  the  Legitim 
(q.-T-.).  Hie  aame  drriaion  also  takes  place  in 
ff^ffKV*,  whan  ti^aa  is  no  will ;  but  this  is  done  in 
EiuJaDd  by  virtae  of  a  statute  29  Charles  II.  c  3, 
oalted  the  Statute  of  DistiibntionB  [q.  v.),  wbereaa 
this  effect  ia  prodnoed  in  Scotland  not  by  a,  atatnte, 
hut  by  the  eommon  law.  Practically,  thii  distino- 
tion,  thoD^  important  to  be  known  by  lawyers, 

Another  more  importuit  distinotdon,  however, 
both  Oieoietiaally  and  pradaoally,  is  thia:  The 
above  difision  oi  the  goods  in  commtuiion  prevails 
in  Sootland  vriiethei  the  hnaband  haa  left  a  will 
not;  in  short, 


;  it  prevaila  in  s^te  of  his  will, 
sbaad  faaTing  a  wife  and  ohildren 
-*  -  will,  is  to  beqneath  one-third  of 

e  to  Btiangen,  and  thia  Uurd  is 


all  that  a  hnsi 


(q.  V.}!  Thns,  in  Scotland,  <m  the  death  o(  the  hna- 
band, the  wile  and  children  have  an  indefeanble 
int«nrt  in  two-thirda  of  his  personal  property, 
and  t^  inchoate  interest  dotiw  life  ^ve  rise  lo 
12ia  jfiTasn  'goods  in  oommnniotv  Infhiglsnd,  on 
tiie  conba^,  tht  ■mU,  if  there  ia  one,  may  carry 
away  all  the  jloiBaDal  property  to  strangers,  regard- 
less of  tlw  wife  and  children.  Hence,  tba  result 
may  be  stated  ahortly  thna:  in  Scotland,  a  man 
his  wife  uid  children  ;  whcMas  in 


England  he  can.  See  other  inoidentB  of  this  distino- 
tion  in  Fatenon'a  Canmcndnini  qfSngUA  and  ScotA 
Law,  8^673,7381  If  theTeiaamatnu»«aiitnotM 
antennptial  settlement  between  thehnabajBd  amd 
wife,  the  riahta  both  ttf  the  wifa  and  children  may 
be  materially  varied,  for  the  rale  then  ia,  that  the 
parties  may  make  what  arrangaaMt  they  jJeaae  by 
way  of  contiaot,  and  in  nu3i  setUaments  a  fixed 
som  ia  geovalfy  provided  both  to  the  wifa  and 
children,  in  lien  of  what  ihey  wonld  be  entitled 
to  at  common  law,  i  &,  where  no  express  oontraot 


GOOD-WILL  is  rather  a  short  popular  e:.,___ 
sion  than  a  legal  tana.  It  means  that  Idod  o. 
interest  which  la  sold  along  with  any  profenion, 
trade,  or  bnsineaa.  In  reality,  it  is  not  tha  bnaineiB 
Uiat  is  sold,  for  that  la  not  a  distinct  thuK  recog- 
nised by  the  law,  but  the  honsc^  *^^^Vi  fixtauw, 
Ac,  are  sold, and  Uie  trade  debts:  and  ahmgwith 
transferring  these,  tho  sdlet  binds  himself,  dthar  by 
oovanant  or  agreament,  to  do  everything  in  his 
power  to  reoonunend  his  suooesaor,  and  promote  his 
iDteiesta  in  anch  bnmness.  IE  ^e  seller  acta  con- 
trary to  soch  agreement,  he  is  liable  to  an  action. 
But  Uie  more  usual  coarse  is  lor  tha  seller  to  enter 
into  an  express  covenant  not  to  carry  on  the  same 
business  wtUkin  30,  40,  or  100  miles,  or  some 
specified  moderate  distance  from  tiie  [dace  where  the 
purchaser  render  At  first,  sndi  a  covenant  was 
sought  to  be  set  aside  aa  invalid,  on  the  ground 
tliat  it  tended  to  naibajn  the  natoral  liberty  of 
trade ;  but  Qie  ooarts  have  now  finnly  established 
that  tl  a  definite,  radius  of  moderate  length  is  fixed 
upon,  it  doea  not  sensibly  restrain  trade,  inasmuch 
as  the  person  covenantmg  can  go  beyond  those 
limits,  uid  trade  aa  much  as  he  pleases.  Hence, 
such  limitations  are  a  fair  mattra  of  bwgMu,  and 
upheld  as  valid.  It  the  party  break  his  covenant, 
he  is  liable  to  an  action  for  damages. 

GOODWIN  SAIfDS,  famous  banks  of  shifting 
sands  atretdUng  about  10  miles,  in  a  direction 
north-east  and  south-west,  off  the  east  ooaat  of 
Kent,  at  an  average  distance  of  OJ  miles  from  the 
shore.  The  sands  are  divided  into  two  portiona  by  a 
narrow  channel,  and  at  low  water,  many  parte  ate 
uncovered.  When  the  tide  recedes,  tne  sand 
becomes  finn  and  safe ;  but  after  the  ebb,  the  water 
permeSiteB  through  the  mass,  rendering  tiie  whole 

elpy  and  treacherous,  in  which  condition  it  shifts 
such  a  dl^^ree  as  to  render  charta  uncertain  from 


on  the  northemmoat  extremity,  known  aa  North 
Sand  Head,  a  light-vessel  marks  the  entrance  on  this 
poilous  shoaL  This  light  is  distant  about  Beveu 
roilea  from  Kamsgate.  Gi  the  centre,  on  the  western 
side,  jutting  out  towards  the  shorty  is  the  Blunt 
Bead,  a  peonliartr  dangerous  portion,  also  marked 
by  a  light-sh^  Tba  aonthem  portion  is  10  n^ea 
in  length,  24  in  width  at  ita  norttiem  end,  and 
sloping  towards  tiie  sonth-weat,  to  a  point  c^ed 
Sou^  Sand  Head,  tdiich,  being  ma^ed  by  a 
light-vessel,  completes  the  triao^e  of  dangOTous 
proximity  recorded  for  llie  benefit  of  mariners. 

From  the  sunken  nature  of  these  sands,  they  have 
always  been  replete  with  danger  to  vessels  passing 
thro^di  the  Stnit  of  Dover,  and  resorting  either  to 
the  Ihames  or  to  the  North  Sea.  On  the  other 
hand,  they  serve  as  a  breakwater  to  foim  a  secure 
anchorage  in  the  Downs  (q.  v.),  when  essterly  or 
south-euterly  winds  are  blowing.  The  Downs, 
though  safe  under  these  circumstances,  become 
dangerous  when  the  wind  blows  strondy  off-shore, 
at  miich  time  ships  are  apt  to  dras  £ir  anchors, 
and  to  strand  upon  the  perfidious  breakers  of  the 


t,  Google 


OOOLE— GOOSE. 


Goodwin,  in  Uie  shifting  unda  of  wUcli  tiieir  wrecks 
are  booq  entirely  Bwalkiwed  np.  Many  cclebnted 
and  terribly  fatal  vreckn  have  taken  place  here, 
among  which  we  have  only  apace  to  eoumerate  the 
three  liQC-of-battla-shipB,  Slirling  CcutU,  Mary,  and 
^ortAumberland,  each  of  TO  gnns,  which,  with  other 
ten  men-of-war,  were  totally  loet  during  tho  fearful 
cole  of  the  26th  November  1703,  a  gale  so  tremen- 
dous that  vessels  were  actually  c^troyed  by  it 
while  riding  in  the  Medway.  On  the  21st  December 
1806,  here  foundered  the  Aurora,  a  transport,  when 
3'X)  perished  i  on  the  I7th  December  1814,  the 
BriliA  Qacen,  an  Ostend  packet,  was  lost  wi^  all 
hands ;  and  on  January  S,  1857,  dnring  a  gale  of 
eight  days'  duration,  in  which  several  ouier  veiselB 
were  lort,  the  mul.steanker  Violet  was  destroyed, 
involving  the  sacrifice  of  many  lives  in  the  catas- 
trophe. From  tiiese  date^  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
greatest  dangers  are  to  be  ftppreliended  in  the 
winter  months. 

These  dangerous  sands  are  said  to  have  oonaisted 
at  one  time  of  about  4000  acres  of  low  land,  fenced 
from  the  sea  by  a  wall  One  well-known  tradition 
ascribes  their  present  state  to  the  building  of  the 
Tenterden  steeple,  for  the  erection  of  which  the 
funds  that  should  have  maintained  the  sea-wall 
had  been  diverted ;  this  traditionary  acoount  is  of 
little,  if  aoY  value.  Lambu^  in  writing  of  them, 
says  1  '  Whatsoever  old  wives  tell  of  Qoodwyne, 
Earlo  of  Kent,  in  time  of  Edward  the  Confewonr, 
and  his  saodes,  it  appeareth  by  Hector  BoSttus, 
the  Brittish  clmjnicler,  that  theise  sondes  weore 
mayne  land,  and  some  tyme  oE  the  possession  of 
Karl  Godwyne,  and  by  a  great  inundation  of  the 
sea,  they  wearo  taken  therUoe,  at  which  tyme  also 
mnch  harme  was  done  in  Scotland  and  Flanders,  by 
tho  same  rage  of  the  water.'  At  the  period  of  the 
Conquest  by  William  of  Nonnandy,  these  estates 
were  Uken  from  Earl  Godwin,  and  bestowed  unon 
I  the  abbey  of  St  Augnstine  at  Canterbury,  the  abbot 
of  which,  allowing  Uie  sea-wall  to  fall  into  a  dilap- 
dated  oonditiOD,  the  waves  rushed  in,  in  the  year 
1100,  and  overwhelmed  the  whole.  How  far  this 
occonnt  of  the  formation  of  this  remarkable  shoal 
can  be  relied  on,  is  a  matter  of  considerable  doubt, 
the  dooumentary  evidence  on  the  subject  being 
■canty  and  onsatiafactory.  A  colourable  confirma- 
tion is,  however,  to  be  deduced  from  the  fact  of  the 
nicoessive  inroads  which  the  sea  baa  made  for 
centuries  past,  and  is  still  making  along  the  whole 
east  coast  of  E^^land. 

As  a  precaution,  now,  in  foggy  weather,  bells  in 
the  ligfat-shipa  are  frequently  sonnded.  Difficulty 
ta  experienced  in  finding  firm  anchorage  for  these 
vesBels ;  and  all  efibrta  to  establiah  a  fixed  beacon 
have  been  hitherto  unsaccessfiiL  In  1846,  a  light- 
house on  piles  of  iron  screwed  into  the  sand  was 
erected,  but  it  was  washed  away  in  the  fallowing 

Sir.  As  soon  as  a  vessel  is  known  to  have  been 
ven  upon  the  sands,  rockets  are  thrown  np  from 
the  light-veiseU,  and  ilie  fact  tbos  communicated  to 
the  ahore.  The  rockets  are  no  sooner  recognised, 
than  a  number  oE  boatmen,  known  all  along  the 
coast  as  '  hovellers,'  immediately  launch  their  boats 
and  mate  for  the  sands,  whatever  may  be  the  state 
of  wind  and  weather.  These  '  hovellers'  regard  the 
wreck  itself  as  their  own  property,  and  althongh 
during  fine  weather  they  lead  a  somewhat  regard- 
less as  well  as  a  wholly  idle  and  inactive  life,  their 
intrepidity  in  seasons  of  tempest  is  worthy  of  oil 

GOOLB,  a  thriving  market-town  and 


into  importance,  and  may  be  said  to  date  the  com- 
mencement of  its  prosperity  from  its  establishment 
as  a  bonding-port  in  1829-  It  has  commodious 
ship,  bar^,  and  steam-vessel  docks,  a  patent  slip 
for  repairing  vessels,  ponds  for  bonded  timber,  a 
neatly-built  custom  house,  and  extensive  warehouse 
accommodation.  G.  has  a  considerable  trade  in  ship 
and  boat  building,  ooil-making,  iron-founding,  and 
agricultural  machine-making ;  it  has  also  several 
corn-mills,  some  of  which  are  worked  by  steam. 
Coal  is  largely  exiwrted  along  the  coast,  and  in 
considerable  quantities  to  London.  In  1872,  4652 
vessels,  of  481,643  tons,  entered  and  cleared  tho 
pott.    Pop.  (1871)  768a 

OOOSAKDER  [itergut  ifergaiuer),  a  wcb- 
footed  bird  of  the  same  genus  with  those  commonly 
called  Merfcuuers  (q.  v.),  and  the  largest  of  the 
British  species.  It  is  larger  than  a  wild  duck ; 
the  adult  male  has  the  head  and  npper  part  of  the 
neck  of  a  rich  shining  ^^en ;  the  feathers  of  the 
crown  and  back  of  the  bead  elongated,  the  back 
bbck  and  ^rav,  the  win^  black  and  white,  the 
breast  and  belly  of  a  dehcate  reddish  buff  colour. 
The  female  has  the  head  reddish  brown,  with 
a  less  decided  tuft  than  the  male,  and  much 
grayer  plumage,  and  has  been  often  described  as 
a  difiorcnt  species,  receiving  the  English  name 
of '  i>urufiMr.  Both  mandibles  are  Eumiahed  with 
many  sharp  serratures  or  teeth  directed  back- 
wards (see  accompanying  illustratiOD),  the  ncaroit 


JiS^»t. 


Ooounder  [ifergia  Wtrganier). 

approach  to  true  teeUi  to  be  found  in  the  month 
of  any  bird.  See  also  BiLL.  The  G.  is  a 
native  of  Ule  arctic  r^ons,  extending  into  the 
temperate  parts  oE  Europe,  Asia,  and  America ; 
in  Uie  southern  ports  oE  Britain,  it  is  seen  only 
in  winter,  and  then  only  in  severe  weather,  the 
females  and  young  migrating  southwards  in  such 
circumstances  more  frequently  than  tho  old  males, 
arid  not  unfreqnently  appearing  in  small  flocks  in 
the  south  oE  Scotland  and  north  of  England  ; 
but  in  some  oE  the  norUiein  parts  of  Scotland 
and  the  Soottiih  isles  it  speada  tho  whole  year. 
It  feeds  on  fish,  crustaceans,  and  other  aquatic 
animals  which  its  serrated  bill  and  its  power  of 
diving  admirably  adapt  it  for  seizing.  'The  flesh 
of  the  G.  is  extremely  rank  and  coarse,  but  the 
eggs  appear  to  be  sought  after  by  the  inhabitants 
oi  some  northern  "■  "' 


01  ine  secuons  oi  uie  i.inngan  genus  Jimu  \q.  v.j, 
having  the  bill  not  longer  thui  the  head,  more 
hiffh  Uion  brood  at  tbc  oase.  the  upper  mandiblo 
dightly  hooked  at  the  tip ;  the  legs  placed  fuithei 


forw»nl  than  in  dncka,  and  >o  better  adapted  for 
walking ;  the  neck  of  moderate  length,  with  sixteen 
Tertebne,  >  chuacter  which  iridSy  distinguialieB 
them  from  nruu.  In  general,  gee«e  spend  more 
of  their  time  on  land  than  any  other  of  the  Ana- 
tida,  iee^Dg  on  gnM  and  other  herbage,  bcrriea, 


aeedi,  and  other 'r^etable  food.  Although  luge 
biida,  and  of  bnlkv  form,  they  have  great  powers  of 
fli^t  They  itrike  witii  their  wings  in  fighting, 
and  there,  ia  a  hard  callons  knob  or  tubercle  at  the 
bend  of  the  wing,  which  in  some  species  becomes  a 
■por.  The  Doiuffnc  G.  is  resided  as  deriving  its 
origin  from  the  Giu.;  Lao  O.  or  Common  Wiui  O. 
{A.  fenu) ;  but  all  the  ipecieB  seem  very  capable 
of  domestication,  and  several  of  them  have  beien 
to  some  eitent  domesticat«d.  The  Qray  Iab  Q.  is 
almoat  three  feet  in  lencth  from  the  tip  of  tfie  bill 
to  the  extremity  of  the  ^ort  taiL  Its  extent 
of  wing  is  about  five  feeL  The  wingg  do  not 
reach  to  the  extremity  of  the  taiL  The  weight  of 
thn  Un—H-  viwi.  io  .1 — t  t^  pounds.     The  colour 


the  laiigeat  birds  ia  about  b 


gravish  brovrn  sod  white ;  the  bid  is  orange, 
Hoil  at  the  tip  of  the  nm>er  mandible' white.  ' 
young  are  darker  than  the  adults,  The  Gray  Laa 
Xi.  is  common  in  some  parts  of  the  centie  and  south 
of  Enrope,  alao  in  many  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  the 
north  of  Africa,  but  it  is  not  known  in  America. 
It  is  a  bird  of  temperate  rather  than  of  cold  climates. 
In  some  countfiea,  it  is  found  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  bnt  it  deserts  its  most  northern  hanuts  in 
severe  weather,  migratiug  southward ;  its  fiocks, 
like  those  of  othera  of  this  genus,  flying  at  a  great 
height,  beyond  the  reach  of  shot,  except  of  the  rifle, 
one  bird  always  leading  the  flock,  the  rest  Eome- 
times  following  in  a  single  line,  but  more  generally 
in  two  lines  converging  to  the  leading  bird.  The 
Gray  lu  G.  was  formerly  abundant  in  the  fenny 
pufa  of  England,  and  resided  there  sll  the  year,  bnt 
the  drainage  of  tlie  fens  has  made  it  now  a  rare  bird, 
and  only  known  as  a  winter  visitant  in  the  British 
Islands  It  freqoents  bays  of  the  sea  and  eetuaries 
as  well  as  inJand  waters,  and  often  leaves  the  waten 
to  viait  mooTS,  meadows,  and  cultivated  fields, 
generally  preferring  an  open  country,  or  taking  its 
place,  as  remote  as  possible  from  danger,  in  the 
middle  of  a  field.  These  excursions  are  often  made 
by  nifiht,  and  no  small  mischief  is  often  done  by 
a  Sock  of  hongiy  geese  to  a  field  of  newly-spmng 
wheat  or  other  crop.  At  the  breeding  season,  the 
winter-flocks  of  wild  geese  break  up  into  pain  ;  the 
neata  are  made  in  moors  or  on  tussocks  in  marshes ;  ^ 
the  eggs  vary  in  number  from  five  to  eight  or 
nrely  twelve  or  fourteen )  they  are  of  a  dull  white 
coloor,  fnlly  three  inches  lon^  and  two  inches  in 
diameter. 

Although  the  common  G.  baa  been  long  domesti- 
cated, and  it  wsa  probably  among  the  very  first 
of  dranesticated  Inids,  the  varieties  do  not  differ 
widely  from  each  other.  Emden  Oeese  are  remark- 
able for  their  perfect  whiteness ;  Tmiloiue  Otoe,  for 
their  large  size.  As  a  domesticated  bird,  the  G.  is 
of  j;reat  value,  both  for  the  table,  and  on  aooount 
of  lis  quilla,  and  of  the  fine  soft  feathers.  The  quills 
■appUed  alt  Europe  with  pens  before  steel  pens  were 
invented,  and  have  not  ceased  to  be  in  great  demand. 
Geese  must  have  free  access  to  water,  and  when  tliis 
is  the  case,  they  are  easily  reared,  and  rendered 
profitable.  Two  broods  are  sometimes  produced  in 
■  Buson,  ten  or  eleven  in  a  brood,  and  the  young 
geve  are  ready  for  the  table  in  three  months  after 
they  leave  the  shelL  They  live,  if  permitted,  to  a 
great  age.  Willughby  records  an  instance  of  one 
that  reached  the  age  of  eighty  years,  and  was 
killed  at  last  for  its  miichievousness.    Great  flocks 


of  f^emo  are  kept  in  some  places  in  England, 
particularly  in  Lincolnshire,  and  regularly  plucked 
five  times  a  year,  for  feaUiera  and  quilla.  Geese 
intended  for  the  table  are  commonly  shut  np  for 
a  few  weeks,  and  fattened  before  being  killed. 
Great  numbers  are  imported  from  Holland  and 
Germany  for  the  Jjondon  market,  and  fattened  in 
England  in  eetablishmenta  entirely  devoted  to  this 
purpose.  Ooote-Jiama  are  an  esteemed  delicacy. 
The  gizzards,  heads,  and  legs  of  geese  are  also 
sold  in  sets,  under  the  name  of  gi&ta,  to  be  used 
for  pies.  The  livers  of  geese  have  long  been  in 
request  among  epicures ;  but  the  pdU  de  foU 
ifoie,  or  pM  de  fom  grot  of  Straaburg,  ia  made  from 
livers  in  a  state  of  morbid  enlargement,  caused  by 
keeping  the  geese  in  on  apartment  of  very  high 
temperature.  La^e  goose-livers  were  a  favourite 
delicacy  of  the  ancient  Komsn  epicures. 

The  Gray  Lag  G.  is  the  liwgest  of  the  native 
British  species.  The  next  to  it  in  size,  and  by 
far  the  moat  abundant  Britisli  wild  gooae,  is  the 
Bkam  O.  {A.  legelum),  a  very  similar  bird  ;  the  biU 
longer,  orange,  with  the  base  and  nail  black ;  the 

Elumage  mostly  gray,  but  browner  than  in  the 
rray  Lag  Q.,  the  nimp  dark  brown.     The  wings 


Bean  Goose  (Anoi  Kaetixra). 


1  all 

the  northern  parts  of  'Europe  and  Aaia ;  and  great 
numbers  breoit  in  Nova  Zembla,  Greenland,  and 
other  most  northern  re^ons.  Lai^  flocks  are  to  be 
seen  in  many  parts  of  Britain  in  wmter,  particularly 
during  severe  frosts,  but  a  few  also  breed  in  the 
north  of  Scotland,  and  even  in  the  north  of  England. 
The  Bean  G.  ia  easily  domesticated,  but  generally 
keq«  apart  from  the  ordinary  tame  geese. — The 
WHiTE-ntotrrED  6.,  or  LAtromHa  G.  {A.  aIh\froru), 
is  a  frequent  winter  visitant  of  Britun  ;  a  native 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  breeding  chiefly 
on  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  arctic  seas.  It 
ia  only  about  27  inches  in  its  utmost  length.  The 
plumage  is  mostly  gray ;  there  is  a  conspictioua 
white  space  on  the  forehead.  It  has  bocn  often 
tamed. —Similar  to  it  in  size  is  the  Pike-footid 
Q.  {A .  brarJa/Thundtut),  a  species  which  has  a  very 
short  bilL  In  England  it  is  rare,  and  a  mere  winter 
visitor,  but  it  breeds  in  great  numbers  in  some  of 
the  Hebrides.— The  Snow  G.  (^1.  hy^bortuA  ia 
found  in  all  the  regions  within  the  arctic  circle,  but 
mqst  abundantly  m  America,  where  it  migrates 
southward  in  winter,  as  for  as  the  Gnlf  of  Mexico. 
It  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Bean  Goose.  The 
general  colour  of  the  plumage  is  pnre  white,  the 


Xixjoglc 


GOOSEBEBEY-GOOSBBEBBT  CATEAFILLAB. 


quill  leBthenbrownuih  black.  The  feathen  imported 
from  the  Hodaon'e  Bay  tenitcoiM  an  in  gn«t  pMt 
the  produce  of  Urn  beautiful  ■pedM,  uuTpKibiibly 
many  oi  the  fine  white  gooM  Utxben  imponed  bxna 
Riiaiaa.  Its  flesh  is  ^mtly  MtoMtwd. — Tim  Oaxada. 
0.  lA.  Canadejttii)  ii  on*  of  the  nuwt  abimdant 
North  Aroeriiwji^eouM^  breeding  w>  in  the  mildM 
latitodee,  bnt  in  nrt  Dombei*  in  the  moie  northern 
parti,  frinn  whioh  it  nugrstei  sonlhwardi  on  tlie 
awroaoh  of  vinter.  It  ma  iotrodnoed  into  Britain 
atleait  200  S^af  (go,  and  may  now  be  r<««rded  aa 
fully  nataraliBad;  a  giMt  ornament  of  Ukea  and 

small  flocka  over  the  aniTODnding  distnots.  In  the 
uniform  breadth  of  the  bill  it  reeemhlea  iwans.  It 
il  fully  three  feet  and  a  half  from  the  tip  of  the  biU 
to  the  extremity  of  the  tail ;  but  its  neck  is  long 
and  slender,  aiM  it  doee  not  exceed  the  common 
G.  in  weight  so  much  aa  in  length.  The  bill,  the 
feet,  the  head,  great  put  of  tlie  neok,  the  quill- 
feauiert,  the  rump,  and  the  tail  areblftck;  thore  is 
a  mtaoent^haped  whito  pabth  on  the  throat,  iriwnee 
this  n>edcB  has  receiTBd  the  name  of  the  Ckatai 
O. ;  the  baok,  winoa,  and  flanka  are  nsyiah  brown, 
the  breaat  and  bdly  Tore  white.  Tb-p  Canada  O. 
haa  a  peculiar  naonnding  hoane  cry.  It  is  eaaCy 
reduced  to  the  most  complete  domeetlGstion.  Ita 
fleeh  »A>rd3  great  part  of  the  winter  mppliee  of 
the  Hndson's  Bay  rendenta,  and  ii  much  used  in 
a  talted  atate.— The  CmHi.  O.,  or  Ouihu  G.  {A. 
Otcmeauu  or  q/gnoidei)j  of  which  the  native  country 
supposed  to  be  Gumea,  has  long  been  known 


in  Britain  ii 


It  h 


which  has  obttdned  it  Uu  name  of  Knobbed  Gooee. 
— Other  speciea  of  gesM  are  notioed  in  the  articles 
Bi^HAQLx  GoosK  and  OoMOTsa ;  and  spedeti 
closely  allied  to  those  noticed  in  this  article  aie 
found  in  India  and  other  part*  of  the  worid. 

G005EBEBRT  {Qrouularia),  a  sab-genus  ol 
the  genus  SAet  (see  CuBiuirr),  distin^iiahed  l^  a 
thomy  stem,  a  more  or  lees  beU-sbaped  calyx  and 
ilowen  on  1 — S-flowered  stalks. — The  common  G. 
IBiba  Qrouuiaria)  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of 
Bnrope  and  the  north  of  Asia,  growing  wild  in 
rocky  Bitnations  and  in  thicketa,  particularly  in 
moDntainana  districts ;  but  it  is  a  doubtful  native 
of  Britain,  although  now  to  be  seen  in  hedges  and 
thicketa  ttlmoBt  everywhere.  Some  botanira  have 
diitiiigiiiahed  as  ^«cies  the  variety  havii^  the 
berries  covered  with  gland-bearing  hairs  (Mte) ; 
that  having  the  germens  covered  with  soft  onglan- 
dular  huis,  and  the  berries  ultimately  smooth  j 
and  that  which  has  even  the  germens  smooth  {B. 
Grotmilaria,  B.  utxi-erupii,  and  S.  redinalam) ;  but 
these  varieties  seem  to  have  no  definite  limits  in 
nature.    The  vaiietdw  noduced  by  cultivation  arc 


ticularly  in  lAncaahire,  gre* 


have  been  known  to  the  ancient*.    Its 
cannot   be  certainly  referred   to   an   earlier  date 
tiian  the  17th  a,,  and  was  only  in  its  infaooy  at 
the  middle  oE  tiie  18th,  when  the  larveet  go 
berriei   produced  in   I^cashire  acsro^  wm^ 
more  th^  10  dwte.,  whereas  the  pnze-goosebem< 
that  county  now  aometimM  exceed  30  dwta.    Many 
well-known  divennties  of  form,  colour,  and  flavour, 
as  well  OS  of  size,  marie  the  different  varieties. 
For  the  production  of  new  varieties,  the  G.  it  pro- 
parted  by  seed;  otherwiae,  generally  fay 


are  train^  in  various  ways,  bnt  it  is 
prune  so  that  they  may  not  be  choked  up  with 
•huota,  whilst  care  ought  to  be  taken  to  have  on 
'  '  (upph  of  young  wood,  whioh  produces 
t  hemes.     Beaide*  ita  well  known  whole- 

. and  pleaaantness,  and  ita  use  for  making 

an  exoelleat  piessrve  and  jelly,  the  ripe  fruit  is 
OKd  tot  matxag  wine  and  vinegar.  An  uEerveKent 
gooa^Mrry  wine,  whioh  mi^t  well  claim  attention 
'  "^-  —  name,  is  onen  fraudulently  acJd  as 
!he  use  of  nnripe  gooaebeinea  for 
the  value  of  this  fniit-shrab.  The 
ia  prolonged  by  training  planta  on  north 
walls,  and  by  covering  the  bnsbe*  with  matting 
when  the  frmt  is  about  ripe.  Unripe  gooseberries 
are  kept  in  jan  or  bottlea,  closely  sealed,  and 
placed  in  a  cool  cellar,  to  be  nsea  for  tarti  in 
winter.  When  the  bottlM>are  filled,  theyare  heated, 
by  meanB  of  boiling  watOT  or  otherwise,  to  erpel  as 
much  air  u  posiiDla  before  they  are  corked  and 
laoled.      Torious   derivations  have 


I  the  Scotch  g 


the  E 


fruit,  from  whioh  also  ■ . „ 

grotart.  In  tome  parts  of  England,  the  G.  is  called 
feabary. — Among  the  other  speciee  of  G.  most 
worthy  of  notioe  ore  B.  egnotibali,  a  native  of  Canada, 
of  Jmmui,  and  of  the  moaotains  of  India,  much 
resemtiling  the  common  Q.  in  foli^  and  hafait, 
the  fruit  more  aoid  than  the  oultirated  G. ;  B. 
dtvaricaium,  a  native  of  the  north-west  coast  of 
America,  with  smooth,  block,  globose,  odd  fruit ; 
B.  trrifTUum,  also  fnnn  the  north-west  coast  of 
America,  witii  vreU-flavoured  globose  fruit,  half  an 
inch  in  diametv ;  B.  txcyacaiu&oida,  a  native  of 
Canada,  with  cm^  dobose,  red,  green,  or  purplish 
berries  cf  hi  ogreeatile  taate ;  B.  grae^  found  in 
monntun-meadowa  from  Hew  York  to  Virj^nio, 
with  blue  or  punilish  berries  of  exquisite  flavour ; 
B.  adaiiare,  a  Siberian  speciee,  with  sweet,  well- 
flavoured  ycUowish  or  purplish  smooth  berries ; 
all  of  whidi,  and  probab^  others,  seem  to  deserve 
more  attention  than  they  have  yet  received  from 
horticulturists.  —  The  Euowt-tlowkskd  G.  {A. 
nitwum),  a  native  of  the  north-west  coast  of  America, 
is  remarkable  for  its  baantifnl  white  p«nduloua 
flowers.  Its  berries  in  site  and  colour  resemble 
black  euTtants,  are  acid,  vrith  a  Tery  agreeable 
flavour,  and  mue  delicioaa  tarts.  Another  species 
from  the  tame  re^on  {B.  ipeciogum)  it  very  orna- 
mental in  ^eaiure-grounda,  and  ia  remarkable  for 
its  shining  leaves,  its  flowers  with  four  stamens — 
the  other  species  having  five — and  the  great  length 
of  the  filMientt. — S.  taaatCU,  a  native  of  Siberia, 
and  other  species,  forming  a  tub-geaot  called  Botry- 
carpum,  have  a  character  somewhat  intermediate 
between  cunltnta  and  gooseberries,  being  prick^ 
shrubs,  but  having  their  fioweis  in  racemes.  Jl. 
mxtiUe  has  small,  smooth,  globose,  dark  porplo 
berries,  like  currants,  which  are  very  agreeable. 
GOOSEBBBBY,  ConoitAsiixi.     See   Cakui- 

GOOSEBEBBT,  Pkruviax.    See  PBraixis. 

GOOSEBEBBT  OATEBPILLAR,  the  larva  of 
AbraxoM  groaulariala,  a  moth  cf  a  whitish  colour, 
with  yellaw  streaks,  and  spotted  with  black.  Tho 
larva  is  beautifully  oolonrcd,  with  black  and  white 
(tripes,  and  in  its  progression  forms  an  elevated 
loop  with  ita  body.  It  feeds  on  the  foliage  of 
the  socaeberry  and  cnnant — Another  moth,  of 
whi^  the  oater^llar  alio  feeds  on  the  leaves  of 
these  shrubs  is  Baiia*  Vanaria.  Both  the  moth 
and  the  caterpillar  are  smaller  than  the  former. 
But  more  destructive  than  either  of  these  is  the 
larva  of  a  saw-fly,  N<7natu»  ribetU,  which  depotili 


GOPHER  WOOD-GORDUNtra 

a  the  under  mirfBoe  of 


minate  black  tnlmalea.  Many  remedies  have  been 
prDpooed  and.  taried  to  pnrrent  the  lavages  of  these 
urvKs,  of  irtiioh,  pediapa,  the  baat  ore  pioking  off 
the  UaTEB  obseiTM.  to  be  corared  with  the  esgi  of 
the  aaw-flT,  and  dnrtdDA  with  powder  of  white  helle- 
boro,  whiui,  if  eu«fnl^  and  taffideotly  Allied,  ii 
moot  afflomom,  killing  anjr  kind  ol  lura. 

GOTPHBB  WOOD.  The  probable  identity  of 
the  gopher  wood  of  Scriptore  with  the  Qfpren 
(q.  T.),  ii  muDtuned  partly  on  account  A  &e 
qnalitaea  of  the  wood,  and  p^tly  on  account  of  the 
agreement  of  the  ndicol  consonanta  of  the  nomee. 

OOTFIlf  GEN,  a  Rnall  town  of  the  kingdom  of 
WOrtemberg,  >b  aitnatad  on  the  n^t  bank  of  the 
Fila,  27  mUca  norUi-WMt  from  Ulm,  and  ii  a  statkni 
on  the  railway  frmn  Ulm  to  Stuttgart    It  is  an 


xgB  oaatla,  and  mineisl 
oanying  on  mannuotcrca  of  woollen  cloth,  eartben- 
waieo,  and  Mn»  trade  in  wool    Pop.  (1871)  S619. 
GORAIi  {AtOSope  Oorai,  or  lfemorhedu*Ooratl, 

hfsds  the  derated  jdaine  of  NepanL  It  is  of  a 
gra^^-brown  c<donr,  dotted  with  block,  the  cheelu 
white;  the  hair  ii  Aort;  tke  home  are  ahort, 
inclined,  recnrred,  and  pdnted.  It  ii  a  wild  and 
fleet  »nin»»t,  and  when  pmsaed,  takee  refuge  in 
tocky  heighta,    Ita  flesh  la  highly  esteemed. 

GOBAMY,  or  GOUBAUI  (Onihromenit  o^ax), 
a  flab  of  the  family  Aruibaiidie  or  Labj/nnOd- 
hraneJiida,  a  native  of  China  and  the  Ea«tem  Archi- 
pelago, highly  esteemed  for  the  table,  and  which 
has  on  that  account  been  introdaced  into  Uanritiua, 
Cayenne,  and  the  French  West  India  Islands.  Ita 
form  ia  deep  in  proportioii  to  its  length,  the  head 
email,  and  termmatiiig   in  a  rather  sharp  shoit 


Gonuuy  (0»jJm»iwiHi«  otfoi), 

anont,  the  month  email,  ]^  tail  rounded,  the  dorsal 
and  aiial  Sob  having  nnmeroua  rather  ehort  spines, 
the  Srtt  ray  of  tlu  ventral  fins  extending  mto  a 
Tciy  long  filament.  It  ia  aometimes  kept  in  large 
jan  \yj  the  Dutch  residents  in  Java,  and  fed  on 
water-ploata.  It  waa  introduced  into  Maurilitia 
abeat  the  middle  of  the  18th  c  and  aoon  spread 
from  the  tanks  in  which  it  was  at  first  kept  into 
Uie  rtreama,  mnltip^ing  abundantly.  The  ancceaa 
whidi  has  attended  the  introdsofaon  of  this  fish 
into  conntries  remote  fiom  those  in  which  it  i* 
indigenous,  holda  out  great  encouragement  to  other 
att^pts  ol  the  same  kind.  The  O.  is  interestiiig 
also  on  other  accounts.  It  is  one  of  the  neat- 
biiiJding  fishes,  and  at  the  breeding  season  forms 
its  nest  by  entangling  the  stems  and  leaves  of 
aquatic  grasses.  Both  the  male  and  female  watch 
the  nest  for  a  month  or  more  with  careful  vigil- 
•Dce,  and  violently  drive  away  every  other  nsh 
whidi    approaches,   till    the    spawn    is    hatched. 


afterwards 

to  the  young  fry. 

GOBDIAN-KNOT.  The  traditional  oripn 
of  this  fimoos  knot  was  as  followi :  Gordioa,  a 
r^an  peasant,  waa  once  ploughing  in  his 
I,  irtien  an  esAla  settled  on  ois  yoke  of  oxen, 
and  i«Eiiainod  tJlf  the  labour  ol  the  day  was 
over.  Surprised  at  so  wonderful  a  pheuomtoon, 
he  sought  an  erplanatiim  of  it,  and  was  informed 
by  a  prophetess  of  TelmiBsna  tiiat  he  should  offer 
BBcrifiae  to  Zsoa.  He  did  so,  and  out  of  crati- 
tnde  for  the  kindnen  shewn  him,  married  the 
prophetess,  by  whom  be  bad  a  son,  the  famona 
Midas.  'Whsn  Uidaa  grew  np,  disturbances  broke 
out  in  Phiypa,  and  the  people  sent  messengers  to 
the  Oracle  at  Delphi,  to  aak  about  dioosing  a  new 
king.  The  messengers  were  informed  Uiat  a  king 
woud  coma  to  them  riding  on  a  car,  and  that  he 
would,  restore  peace.  Betarnins  to  Phrygia,  they 
annoonoed  these  Oaaga,  and  while  the  people  were 
tnllrlng  abont  them,  Oordina,  with  his  father,  v^ 
opportunely  arrived  in  the  requimte  manner.  He 
wu  imniediately  elected  king,  whereupon  he  dedi- 
cated his  car  and  yoke  to  Zeiis,  in  the  acropolis  of 
Gordiom  (a  city  named  after  himself),  the  knot  of 
the  yoke  being  tied  in  so  skilful  a  manner,  that  an 
oracle  declared  whoever  should  unloose  it  would  be 
ruler  of  all  Asia.  When  Alexander  the  Groat  came 
to  Gordium,  he  oat  the  knot  in  two  with  his  sword, 
and  applied  the  prophecy  to  himaelL 

GOBDIA'ITUS,  the  name  of  three  Bomau 
emperors,  father,  son,  and  grandson. — The  first, 
Mjuicub  Atrroimjg  Q.,  was  grandson  of  Annina 
Severus,  and  waa  descended  by  the  btthei's  sido 
from  the  famous  family  d  the  Gracchi.  He  was 
remarkable  for  his  attaoliment  to  litenu;  ponnita. 
After  bdng  tedUe^  In  whidi  capacity  he  celebrated 
the  ^adiabrial  vporta  with  great  magnificence,  he 
twice  filled  tiie  ofiice  of  consul,  first  as  the  colleagoo 
of  Caracalla,  in  213  A.  D. ;  and  aeoond,  as  the 
colleague  of  Alexander  Severus.  Boon  afterwards, 
he  was  appointed  prooonaul  <^  Africa,  where  he 
gained  the  afiections  and  esteem  of  the  people 
by  his  modest  and  gentle  manners,  bia  splendid 


age  was  spent   i 
tScero,   Bnd  Yii; 


the  atudy  of  Plato,  Aristotle, 
YirgiL  The  lyranny|  sad  ininatioe 
ui  uie  luuperor  Maziminua  having  at  lengtii 
excited  a  rebellion  againvt  bis  anthon^  in  Afnca, 
the  imperial  procnratOT  these  was  mnrdered  by  a 
band  of  nobles  who  had  formed  a  eonspiiacy 
against  him  on  aooount  of  his  cruelty.  Q.,  now  in 
his  80th  year,  was  proclumad  emperor,  after  having 
VEunly  rESuaed  the  dangarons  honour.  He  received 
the  title  of  AJricamu,  and  his  son  was  conjoined 
with  him  iu  the  exercise  of  imperial  authority. 
The  Boman  senate  acknowlodged  both,  and  pro- 
claimed Maxtminua,  then  abeent  in  Pannoni^  an 
enemy  to  bis  country.  The  younger  G.,  however, 
was  defeated  in  baUle  by  dapellianiu,  viceroy  of 
Mauritania,  before  Carthage,  and  his  father,  in 
an    agony    of    grief,    pat    a    period   to    his    own 


said  to  have  greatly  resembled  Aogostus. — Mabcus 
Aktonidb  O.,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  Oresar  along  with  Puuienua 
Maiimoa  and  BalbinDS,  who  were  also  elected 
emperors  in  opposition  to  Uaximinaa ;  and,  in 
the  same  year^  after  all  three  had  fallen  by  the 

was  elevated  by  ^e  Prtetraian  bonds  to  the 
tank  of  Aogustus.  Assisted  by  his  father-in-law, 
Misithens,  a  man  distinguished  for  hie  wisdom, 
virtue,  ai^  courage,  whom  he  made  pt«feot  of  the 


D^fc 


OOaDIUS-GORDON. 


PnetotianB,  he  m&rched,  in  the  year  242,  into 
AsU,  kgunit  the  FeiBtam,  who,  mider  Shahpfir 
(SuKir),  Did  taken  ponenion  of  MsBopotamu,  and 
had  advanced  into  Syria.  Antioch,  whicli  waa 
tlireateiied  by  them,  was  raliered  by  G.,  the 
Ferdana  urera  obliged  to  withdraw  from  Syria 
beyond  thg  Eaphtatea,  and  G.  waa  juat  about  to 
maroh  into  their  conntry,  when  Ituaitheiu  died. 
Philip  the  Arabian,  who  succeeded  Mimtheoa, 
■tirred  ap  disutiafBction  in  the  army  agaioit  O.  by 
the  falaert  tieacheiy,  and  finally  goaded  on  the 
ignorant  and  paanonate  aoldiec;  to  aaaaaainate  the 
emperor,  241  iLS.  But  knowins  the  great  afEeotion 
which  Uie  Komao  people  had  Tor  the  gallant  and 
amiable  G.,  he  declared  in  hia  dispatch  to  the 
senate  that  the  latter  had  died  a  natnral  death, 
uul  that  he  tiiTnanTf  2iad  beeu  noaoiiooiialy  choeen 
to  mcoeed  him. 

GCyilDinS,  a  gentu  of  Annelida,  of  the  very 
■impleat  itmcture ;  very  much  elongated  and 
threadlike,  with  no  greater  marka  of  articnlation 
than  slight  tranavetae  folda,  no  feet,  no  gilla,  no 
tentacles,  although  there  i*  a  knotted  nervoua  chord. 
The  mouth  ia  a  mere  pore  at  one  end  of  the  animaj ; 
tho  other  end  or  tail  is  slightly  bifid,  and  baa 
been  often  mistaken  for  the  head.  The  species 
inhabit  moiat  situations,  are  sometimes  found  on  the 
leaves  of  plants,  but  more  frequently  in  stagnant 
pools,  and  m  mud  or  soft  clay,  tJirough  which  they 
work  thdr  way  with  great  ease.  ?%ey  often  twist 
tiumsdves  into  oomptet  knoti,  whence  their  name 
G.,  &om  the  celebrated  Oordian-btot — and  many  of 
them  are  sometimes  found  tiini  twisted  together ; 
but  they  are  also  often  to  be  found  ertended  in  the 
water.  The  most  common  species  in  Britain  ia  G. 
aqtiaUtui,  of  which  tho  popular  name  is  Haib  Vxi.  ; 
and  a  notion  still  prevails  in  many  parts  of  the 
coun^,  that  it  is  nothing  else  than  a  horae-bair, 
which  has  somehow  acquired  life  by  long  inuneniou 
in  water,  and  which  i>  desUned  in  due  course  of  time 
to  become  an  eel  oE  the  ordinary  kind  and  dimen- 
aiona ;  in  proof  of  all  which  many  an  honest  observer 
ia  ready  to  present  himself  at  an  eve-witneaa  who 
haa  often  seen  these  very  slender  eels  in  Ms  walks. 
A  popular  notion  pre^ila  in  Sweden,  that  the 
bite  oi  the  G.  causes  whitlow.  When  the  pools 
ia  which  the  G.  lives  are  dried  up,  it  becomes 
ahrivalled,  and  apparently  lifeless,  but  revives  on 
the  application  of  moistnie.  The  Abb6  Fontaoa 
kept  one  in  a  drawer  for  three  years,  and  olthou^ 


g  pnt  into  wi 
leXhamea, 


GORDON,  Thb  Family  or.  The  origin  of  this 
great  Scottish  historical  house  ia  still  wrapped 
in  Boma  measure  of  obscurity.  TlDcriticol  genealo- 
gists of  the  17th  c  affected  to  trace  its  descent 
uom  a  mythi<»l  Bigh  Constable  of  Charlemagne, 
a  Duke  of  Gordon,  who,  it  was  said,  flooriuied 
abont  the  year  800,  and  drew  his  lineage  from 
the  Goidaui,  a  tribe  which,  taking  its  name 
from  the  town  of  Oordunia,  in  Macedonia,  had 
settled  in  Gaul  before  the  days  of  Julias  Cssar. 
These  fables  and  fancies  have  kng  ceased  to  be 
believed.  Nor  is  more  credit  given  to  the  conjectore 
that  the  family,  having  earned  its  name  frem 
Normandy  to  England  in  the  train  of  the  Conqueror, 
soon  afterwards  passed  on  from  England  to  Scot- 
land. No  proof  has  been  found  of  any  connection 
between  the  Gordons  of  France  and  the  Gordons 
oE  Scotland.  There  is  little  or  no  doubt  now  that 
the  Scottish  Gordons  took  their  name  from  the 
lands  of  Gto^on  in  Berwickshire^  Their  earliest 
historian,  writing  in  the  16th  c,  says  that  these 
lands,  together  with  the  arms  of  three  boon'  heodi. 


were  given  by  Wing  Malcolm  Ceanmohr  (1057 — 
1093  A.D.)  to  the  progenitor  of  the  house,  as  a 
reward  for  slaying,  in  the  forest  of  Euntly,  a 
wild  boor,  the  terror  of  all  the  Merse.  But  in 
the  11th  c.,  there  were  neither  heraldic  bearings  in 
Scotland  nor  Ciordons  in  Berwickshire.  The  tirst 
trace  of  the  fonUly  is  about  the  end  of  the  12th  c, 
or  the  beginning  of  the  I3th  o.,  when  it  appears 
in  record  as  witnessing  charters  by  the  great  Eorla 
of  March  or  Dunbar,  and  as  granting  patches 
of  land  and  rights  of  pasturage  to  the  monks  ot 
Kelso.  About  a  century  afterwards,  it  enten  the 
page  of  history  in  the  person  of  Sir  Adam  of 
G^don.  He  is  found,  in  1306,  high  in  tho  con- 
fidence of  King  Edward  L  of  England,  holding 
under  that  prince  the  office  of  joint  justiciar  m 
Lothian,  and  sitting  in  the  l-Jngli'^*  council  at  Weet- 
minster  as  one  of  the  representatives  of  Scotland. 
He  aeema  to  have  been  among  the  last  to  join  the 
banner  of  Bruoe,  who  rewarded  his  adheienae,  tardy 
aa  it  was,  by  a  grant  of  the  northern  lordahip  of 
Strathhogie.  The  grant  failed  of  effect  at  the  time  j 
but  it  wo*  renewSl  bv  King  David  IL  in  1367, 
and  by  King  Bobert  IL  in  1376.  Under  this  last 
renewal.  Sit  J'ohn  of  Gordon,  the  great-giandaon  of 
Sir  Adam,  entered  into  possession,  and  so  trans- 
ferred the  chief  seat  and  power  of  the  familj  from 
the  Meree  and  Teviotdalo  to  the  banks  of  the  Dee, 
the  Deveron,  and  the  Spey.  Its  direct  male  line 
came  to  an  end  in  his  son  Sir  Adun,  who  fell  at 
Homildon  in  1402,  leaving  an  only  child,  a  danghter, 

through  two  illegitimate  brothers — John  of  Gordon 
of  Scurdargue,  and  Tbomoa  of  Gcordon  of  Kuthven 
— to  a  wi£i  circle  of  the  gentry  of  Mar,  BnchoD, 
and  Strathhogie,  who,  callins  themselves  '  Gordons,' 
styled  the  desoendonts  <u  their  niece  'Seton- 
Oordons.' 

LoKDH  or  GoRSOH  Aim  Bademoch,  Eabls  or 
Hlittlv,  Mas^iuhib  o>  Hdhtly,  and  Dukxs  of 
OoRDOH. — Elindwth  of  Gordon,  tiie  heiress  of  Sir 
Adam,  married  before  1408  Alexander  of  Seton 
(the  son  of  Sir  William  of  Seton),  who,  before  1437, 
was  created  Lord  of  Gordon.  Their  son  Alexander, 
who  took  the  name  of  Gordon,  was  made  Earl  of 
HonUy  in  144fi,  and  Lord  of  Badenoch  a  few  years 
aftervarda.  He  acquired  by  marriage  the  baronies 
of  Cluny,  Aboyne,  and  Olenmuick  in  Aberdeenshiro ; 
and  had  grants  btna  the  crown  of  the  Highland 
lordship  of  Badenoch,  and  of  other  lands  m  the 
counties  oE  Inveruess  and  Moray.  He  died  in  1470, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  second  son  George,  the 
second  earl,  who  raoiried  Annabella,  daughter  of 
King  James  I.,  and  added  to  the  territories  of  his 
house  the  lands  of  Schivas  in  Aberdeenshire,  and 
the  Boyne,  the  Enzie,  and  Netherdole  in  Bon^hiie. 
He  waa  chancellor  of  Sootland  from  1498  to  1602, 
and  dying  soon  afterwards,  was  succeeded  by 
his  sou   Alexander,  the  third    earl,  who  enlarged 


Lochaber  in  Inverness-shire.  He  commanded  the 
left  wing  of  the  Scottish  army  at  Flodden ;  and, 
escaping  the  carnage  of  that  disastrous  field, 
survived  till  the  year  1634.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  grandson  Goorge,  the  fourth  earl,  under  whom 
the  family  reached,  perhaps,  its  highest  pitch  of 
power.  He  added  the  earldom  of  Moray  to  its 
already  vast  possessioDS,  and  long  held  l^e  great 
offices  of  lieutenant  of  the  north  and  chancelbr  of 
the  realm.  He  had  the  repute  of  beins  the  wisest, 
the  wealthiest,  and  the  most  powerful  subject  in 
Scotland.  The  crown,  it  is  said,  was  connsedled  to 
clip  his  winn,  lest  he  should  attempt,  like  tho 
Douglases  in  the  previous  age,  to  awe  or  overshadow 
the  throoe.    He  was  stripped  of  the  earldom  «f 


tyGooglc 


He  died  in  1576.  The  fumlj  had  stood  aloof  from 
the  Refonnatioii,  and  hi>  son  nnd  Bucceesor,  Oeorge, 
the  lixth  eari,  vu  connHcuoiu  u  the  head  of  the 
KomMi  CaiJioIic  power  in  Scotland.  He  defeated  a 
FrotesUnt  army  aent  agaimt  him  nndcr  the  Earl  of 
Argyla  in  1S94 ;  bnt  rabmitting  to  the  Icing,  obtained 
an  eaaj  paidoD,  and  mu  made  MarqoiB  of  Hnntly 
in  1599.  He  died  in  1636,  leavine  a  character  of 
which  ve  have  an  initraddTe  Bketi£  by  a  oeighboar 
and  coatempocary.  'This  mighty  marqiuB,'  says 
the  northern  annalist,  John  SpaMing, '  was  oE  a  great 
■pLiit,  for  in  time  of  ttonbl««  he  was  of  invincible 
conrage,  and  boldly  bore  down  all  hia  enemies 
trinmpiiantiy.  He  wad  navet  inclined  to  War  nor 
troubla  himself ;  bnt  by  the  pride  and  inBolenco  of 
his  kin,  vas  diverae  fcnea  drawn  in  trouble,  which 
lie  bore  throngb  valiantly.  He  loved  not  to 
be  in  tbe  laws  oontendiog  against  any  man,  but 
loved  roat  and  qnietncsi  with  all  his  heart ;  and  in 
time  of  peace,  he  lived  moderately  and  temperately 
in  hia  diet,  and  fully  set  to  building  and  planting  of 
all  cmioDB  devicea.  A  well  set  neighliour  in  nil 
marchea,  disponed  rather  to  give  nor  take  a  foot  of 
ground  wnmeonaly.  He  waa  heard  say  he  never 
drew  aword  m  hia  own  quarreL  In  hia  yonth,  a 
prodigal  spender ;  in  hia  elder  age,  more  wise  and 
woriiDy,  ^rt  never  counted  for  coat  in  matteni  of 
credit  and  hononr ;  a  great  householder ;  a  terror  to 
liiB  enemies,  whom,  with  hia  prideful  kin,  he  ever 

hdd     ■  


nnder  great  fear,  subjection,  and  obedience, 
vaa  m^htily  envied  by  the  kirk  for  his  religion, 
by  otBeis  for  his  greatness,  and  had  thereby 


who  '  bought '  land.  Hie  son  George,  the  secocd 
marquii,  ditrtinguiahed  himself  by  the  zeal  with 
which  he  e^Nxued  the  royal  cause  in  the  great  civil 
war  of  his  tune.  'Ton  may  take  my  head  from  my 
shoDldeTB,'  he  said,  in  anxwer  to  tempting  offers 
frmn  the  Covenanters,  '  but  not  my  heart  from  the 
IdDg.'  Such  was  the  stete  he  kept,  that  when  he 
took  np  house  in  Aberdeen  in  1639,  he  was  attended 
dwlr  1^  24  gentlemen,  of  whom  three  were  of  the 
rmk  M  barona,  while  eight  gentlemen  were  charged 
with  the  watch  of  hia  mansion  by  ni^t.  He  was 
beheaded  at  Edinburgh  in  1649,  and  was  eucceeded 
by  hta  aon  Lewis,  the  third  marqais.  who  died  in 
16S3.  The  family  poBsesaiona  had  been  impaired 
1^  war  aod  tcafeihire,  bat  it  appears  that  they 
atm  snfficed,  in  1667,  to  yield  £24,771  Scots  a  year  to 
hia  son  GeOTge,  the  fourth  marquiB,  who  was  made 
Dnke  of  Ooi^on  in  1684.  He  held  ont  the  castle 
of  Edinburgh  (or  King  Jamea  at  the  Bevolntion  ; 
and  dying  m  1716,  waa  succeeded  by  hia  son  Alex- 
andO',  the  second  dake,  who  died  in  1728.  He 
waa  the  last  Roman  CathoUo  chief  of  hia  race,  and, 
aa  we  are  told  by  Boawell,  lived  'in  aeqneatered 
munificence^  corresponding  wiUi  the  grand  dakes 
of  Tmcany.'  with  whom  he  believed  t£lt  he  could 
coont  kindred.  He  never  travelled  in  the  north 
without  a  train  of  his  vaaaals  on  horseback.  Hia 
aon,  Coamo  Oeoi^,  the  third  duke,  died  in  17S2, 
leavil^  three  sons.  The  youogest.  Lord  George 
(fordon,  led  the  Protertant  mob  which  sacked 
London  in  1780 ;  the  eldest,  Alexander,  the  fourth 
dnke,  died  in  1827,  being  succeeded  by  his  Bon 
George,  tbe  fifth  duke,  on  whose  death,  without 
Moe,  in  1836,  the  title  of  Dnke  of  Gordon  (being 
limited  to  t^  heirs-male  of  the  body  of  the  £rst 
dnke)  beoama  extinct,  the  title  oC  Earl  of  Hnntly 
itU  ioto  abeyanoe,  and  the  title  of  Marquis  of 
Hmtly  w*«  adjudged  to  tbe  Eori  of  Aboync,  as 


hdr-male  of  tbe  body  of  tlie  fiist  marquia.  ^e 
estates  went  to  the  duke's  nephew,  Charles,  fifth 
duke  of  Kichmond  and  Lennox,  the  son  of  Lady 
Charlotte  Gordon,  eldest  daughter  of  the  fourth 
duke  of  Gordon  by  bis  marriage  with  the  sprightly 
Jane  Maxwell,  daughter  of  Sir  William  Maxwell  ot 
Monreith. 

VraCODNT  OF   MELOnHD,    VlBOODHTS   01'   ABOYIT^ 

Eabi^  or  Aboyhb,  .utd  Habqtjisis  or  Hethtlt. 
—Lord  John  Gordon,  second  son  of  the  first  Marquis 
of  Huntly,  waa  made  Yiaconnt  of  Melgnnd  and 
Lord  Aboyne  in  1627,  Three  years  afterwards,  he 
waa  burned  to  death  in  the  tower  of  SWidraught 
In  1632,  his  elder  brother,  George,  waa  made  Yia- 
connt of  Aboyna,  and  on  his  snccession  to  the  Mar- 
qnisate  of  Huntly  in  1636,  the  title  of  Viscount  of 
Aboyne  devolved  on  his  third  son,  who  distinguished 
himaelt  on  the  king's  side  daring  the  wars  of  the 
Covenant,  and  died,  it  is  said,  of  a  broken  heart,  a 
few  days  after  the  execution  of  Charles  L,  in  1649. 
Lord  Qutrles  Gordon,  third  son  of  the  second  Mar- 

Siia  of  Hnntiy,  waa  made  Earl  of  Aboyne  in  1660. 
is  great-gt^at-grandson,  Gco^e,  who  had  been  a 
favouiife  at  the  court  of  Marie  Antoinette,  succeeded 
as  fifth  Earl  of  Aboyne  in  1794,  on  the  death  ot  hia 
father,  and  as  eighth  Marqnis  of  Hnntly  in  1836, 
on  the  death  of  t^  last  Duke  of  Gordon. 

Ea&is  ot  SdthuuanDi.— About  the  year  J5I2, 
Adam  Gordon  of  Abojne,  second  aon  of  the  second 
Earl  of  Huntly,  mairied  Elizabeth,  the  heiiesa  of 
Sutherland,  and  in  her  right  became  Earl  of  Suther- 
land. Neither  he  nor  his  wife,  it  appears,  could 
write  their  own  names.  Their  descendants,  the 
Earls  of  Sutherland,  continued  to  bear  the  anmame 
of  Gordon  through  six  or  seven  generatiana,  till  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  c,  when  they  exchanged  it  for 
the  anmame  of  Sutherland,  whi^  had  been  borne 
by  the  Countess  Elizabeth  before  her  marriage  with 
Adam  Gordon. 

LoHDa  ov  LocHraVAR  ahb  Tmcouirra  of  Ebx- 

HDTiE.— William  of  Gordon,  the  second  son  ot  Sir 
Adam  of  Gordon,  who  figured  in  the  reign  of  King 
Kobert  1.  (1»)6— 1329).  had  a  grant  from  his  father 
of  the  barony  of  Stitchel,  in  T^viotdole,  and  of  the 
lands  of  Glenkens,  in  Galloway.  He  was  the  pro- 
genitor of  the  knuhtly  family  of  Lochlnvar,  which 
m  1633  was  raised  to  the  peerage  by  the  titles  of 
Ijord  of  XxKihinvar  and  Viscount  of  Eenmure. 
William,  the  sixth  viscount — the  Kenmure't  on 
and  awa'  of  Jacobite  song — was  beheaded  in  1716 
for  his  shore  iu  tbe  risiag  of  tbe  previous  year.    The 

which  was  then  forfeited,  waa  rest(H«d  in 

has  been  in  abeyance  since  the  death  of 


Adam,  the  ninth  v 

Eaku  ov  Abxbdesh. — Some  genealogists  have 
sought  te  ingraft  this  branch  npon  the  parent  stem 
before  it  was  transplanted  to  the  north  towards 
the  end  of  the  14th  century.  But  no  evidence  has 
been  produced  in  support  of  this  claim ;  and 
modem  research  holds  by  the  old  tradition,  that 
the  house  deacenda  from  one  of  the  illegitimate 
brothers  of  Sir  Adam  ot  Gordon,  who  waa  alain 
at  Homildon  in  1402.  Ite  first  poaaeseion  aeema 
to  have  been  Methlic  on  tbe  bonks  of  the  Ytlian. 
Patrick  Gordon  ot  Methlic  fell  nnder  the  banner 
of  the  Earl  of  Huntly  at  the  battle  of  Arbroath 
in  144^  Hia  son  and  successor  waa  of  sufficient 
mark  to  obtain  the  biahopric  of  Aberdeen  for  one 
of  hia  younger  aons  in  1516.  The  family  reached 
the  raidc  of  leaser  baron  in  1S31,  and  the  dignity  of 
kni^tbaronet  in  164Z  Its  chief,  at  this  last  date- 
Sir  John  Gordon  of  Haddo— one  of  the  moat  gallant 
of  the  northern  cavalien,  was  the  proto-martyr 
of  his  party,  tbe  firaC  of  tJie  royalists  who  sufiered 
death  by  a  judicial  sentence.  He  was  beheaded 
at   the  cross   of   Edinburgh   by  tho   Covenanters 


S^.' 


■w<aOOglc 


ia  lUi,  bequeatluiig  the  nune  of  'Haddo's  Hole ' 
to  one  of  the  aulea  of  St  Oilos's  Church,  which 
had  been  hia  piison.  His  son.  Sir  George  Qordon 
of  Ettddo,  after  ili^ngniatimg  hinuelf  at  the  uoi- 
venity  and  the  bar,  was  made  a  Lord  of  Seaaion 
JD  1680,  Lord  Preddent  of  the  Mart  in  1681,  and 
Lord  Chancellor  in  the  following  year.  Es  waa 
raiaed  to  thepearage  in  1682,  b;  <£s  titlea  of  Earl  of 
Aberdeen,  Vuoonnt  of  Fonnartina,  Lard  Haddo, 
Methllo,  Tarrea,  and  Eellia.  Ha  died  in  1720,  with 
the  ohwaotei  <rf  beinx  'a  mM  (tatesman,  a  fine 
orator,  apeakioA  alow  bnt  atroDg.'  Some  ot  thew 
lineamenti,  it  £aa  be«n  thosghti  reappeared,  with 
hia  love  of  letten,  in  hia  groat-greatjpwidaon, 
George,  fourth  Ead  <rf  Aberdam,  who  died  in  I860, 
after  hddinf  the  office  of  Fiime  Uiniater  of  Hm 
United  Ein^om  from  December  16S2  to  Febmair 
1855. 

The  history  of  the  Goidona  wa«  written  in  the 
middle  of  the  16th  a,  at  the  teqnest  of  Om  fonrth 
Earl  of  Hontly,  by  an  Italian  monk,  who  fonnd  hia 
way  to  the  Oiateroian  mooaateay  of  Einloat,  in 
Moray.  Hia  wmk,  which  haa  not  jet  been  printed,  ia 
entitled,  Bittoria  Conmndhim  da  Orviw  «<  ifunc- 
motto  OCTdonia  ^amiukt,  Johaame  ^mHo,  Ptck- 
moniano,  aulhon,  <^tid  Kinlo*  i.J>.  IbiB,  ^ddiia- 
aiOedmn.  A.  eemtary  later,  Uie  G<xdoiw  found 
another  and  abler  hiat(aia&  in  a  eoontiy  gtatlenan 
of  their  own  tao^  tha  esoaUent  and  aecompliahed 
Bobert  Gordcm  <d  Stralooh,  who  died  in  1661,  before 
he  bad  comfdeted  hia  Origo  <t  Progreuui  I^miUa 
IlbutrumniB  Oordonionaa  in  BeoUa.  It  ia  still  in 
nuunucript.  A  HUtory  of  tin  AnaaU,  Ifoble,  and 
lUuttrimu  FamUg  <if  Qordon,  by  William  Gordon,  of 
Old  Aberdeen,  was  pnbliahed  at  Edinburgh  in  I72S 
—1727,  in  2  vols.  8to.  A  Concue  HiSory  of  the 
Aniient  and  lUuttriaut  Houit  <tf  Oordon,  by  0.  A. 
Gordon,  appeared  ^t  Aberdeoo,  in  I  vcJ.  12m0b  in 
17M.  The  chief  valno  of  both  bookaia  now  in  thor 
rarity.  A  wmk  of  mtu^  greater  nxrit  ia  iha  Cfenea- 
togieat  Silory  of  &e  BaRdom  ^  SuAtHand,  ot,  at 
ita  author  oallM  it, '  Hie  Oeneuofpe  aod  Pedigree 
of  the  moat  Anoimit  and  Nobla  FuuDia  <rf  the  Euka 
of  Sontherland,  wherein  alao  main-  Particnlan  are 
related  touchiiu  the  Samame  ot  Qordoim  and  ibe 
Familyof  Hontiey-'  ThiawaapablishedatBdinbnigh 
in  1813,  in  1  vd.  foL  It  waa  wiittm  in  1639,  by  3^ 
Bobert  Gordon  of  Gordmihnm,  Uie  fonrth  aon  of 
the  twelfth  Earl  of  Sntheriaod  by  hia  mairiage  with 
Uiat  Lady  Jane  Godon  (dao^Uw  of  the  fourth  Earl 
of  Hnntv),  irito  waa  diTorwd  from  tha  infamoni 
Eari  Bothwell,  in  order  that  be  nuAht  nurn  Marf 
Queen  of  Soota.  Along  viUt  Sir  fiobert  GRirdoD  a 
work,  there  ia  ^iiited  a  oontinnatioD  of  it  to  the 


n  thia  acqtul  that  tha  Hooae  of  Gordon  ot  Gight 

Earl  ot  Hontly),  which  ^arebirth,  at  the  end  of 
the  18th  0.,  to  the  poet  George  Gordon,  Lord  ^lon, 
gave  birth,  at  the  end  of  the  ISth  o.,  to  one  of  tha 
BrmBimini  of  Wallenatein,  Colonel  John  Gordon, 
gaveni(»  of  Egra,  in  Bohemia. 

GORDON,  Gbhzru  Patbiok,  one  ot  the  tooat 
diitingnished  of  the  many  aoldiera  ot  fortune  whom 
Scotland  aent  to  the  wan  of  Europe,  wat  bom  at 
Eaater  Anchledichriea,  a  bleak  homcatead  on  the 
eoatem  ooaat  <^  Aberdeenahir^  on  Qie  81st  cf 
March  ]63S>  Eii  father, »  '  goodman'  er  yeoman, 
waa  a  gnndson  of  the  family  of  Qordon  of  Haddo, 
afterwaida  raiaed  to  the  earldom  of  Aberdeeni.  Bii 
mother,  an  Ogilvig^  wlto  ooold  oonnt  kindred  with 
the  noble  hmuaa  of  DMktori  and  Tindlater,  waa  the 
heireaa  <rf  Anohletuhriea,  an  eatate  of  fire  or  lii:  petty 
fannsi  worth  in  tiiofle  daya  abont  £960  Soota,  or 


morteagefti 


neighbouring  pariah  echool,  when  he  aeema  to  hare 
got  a  Ut  knowledge  irflAtin.  llisgatea^thenniTer- 
sity  were  doted  agiUiift  him  by  hia  derotion  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith  of  hiamoUier;  and  to,  at  the 
age  of  aiztean,  he  reeolved-'to  nse  ms  own  words — 
'  to  go  to  some  foreign  country,  not  carinc  mnoh  tm 
wha£  pretanoe,  or  to  what  country  I  Ukoold  gt>, 
teeing  I  had  no  known  friend  in  any  forram  plao^ 

A  abip  from  Aberdeen  landed  him  at  Danzig  in 
the  EummerofieGl,  and  some  ScoUJahacqnaiutaocea 
or  kinsfolks  placed  him  at  the  Jeanit  college  of 
Branntberg,  Hia  )«stleaa  tai^;>ar  eotild  not  long 
eadnra  the  atillnesB  and  wwtaniy  of  that  retread 
and  mtJdng  his  eacm  bom  it  in  1663,  he  led  for 
aome  time  an  nnaettled  life,  nntil,  in.  1656,  he 
enlisted  nnder  the  flag  ol  Sweden,  then  at  war  with 
Poland.  Daring  the  aix  yean  Uiat  he  took  part 
in  the  sbnggle  between  theae  two  poweit,  ha  waa 
repeatedly  made  prisoner,  and  as  often  took  aerrice 
with  hia  captors,  nntil  again  retaken.  He  had 
risen  to  the  rank  M  captain-lieutenan^  when  ho 
reaolred  to  tty  his  fort^me  next  with  the  ozar, 
and,  in  1601,  joined  the  UuMSOTite  ttandard. 

Here  lus  services  in  disciplining  the  Eotnan 
toldien  were  duly  appreciated,  and  his  rise  waa 
rapid.  He  was  made  LeutmuitMMtlonel  in  1662, 
fcTirt  colonel  in  166&    Hearing  that  Ihe  death  of  his 

lenchiieo,'  ha  wished  once  more  to  return  to  Scot- 
land ;  but  he  found  that  there  was  no  escape  from 
the  Rufflion  service.  The  czar,  however,  sent  him 
on  a  miaaion  to  Eoglaod  in  1666.  On  his  return, 
he  fell  into  diagroce,  tor  what  reason,  doea  not  rety 
dearif  af^ear.  In  1670,  he  was  sent  to  terre  in 
the  Dknme  agaiuat  the  Coeaacks ;  and  when  these 
were  anbdued,  he  was  sent  bock,  in  1677,  to  defend 
l^higirin  against  the  Turks  and  the  Tartars.  His 
gallant  peiuamance  of  that  duty  gained  tiijii  high 
militarr  lepntaticm  and  the  rank  oiE  mi^or-general 
In  1683,  he  waa  made  Uentaiant-genBraf ;  and  two 
yeara  afterwatds  he  obtained  leave  to  nnt  England 
and  Sootland.  Eing  Jamea  H  wished  him  to  enter 
the  T^g1i«lt  service ;  but  it  was  in  vain  that  he 
petitioned  for  leave  to  quit  Russia.    lu  1688,  he  waa 

Oaar  Peter,  who,  in  the  following  year,  owed  to 
G.'a  zeal  and  courage  his  signal  triumph  over  the 
oonspiratois  against  his  throne  and  life.    Nor  waa 


during  tJie  onr't  abeonce  from  Rnaaia.  Peter  was 
not  ungrateful,  and  Q.'a  Uat  years  were  paaaed  in 
opolenoe  and  honour.  He  died  at  Mcaoov,  in  the 
morning  of  the  2dth  November  1699:  "Bm  otar,' 
says  hit  latest  birarapher,  'who  had  vinted  him 
five  timea  in  his  iSneaB,  uid  had  been  twice  with 
him  daring  tha  ni^t,  stood  weeping  by  hia  bed  aa 
he  drew  his  last  breath  ;  and  tha  eyes  of  him  who 
had  left  Scotland  a  poor  unfrimided  wanderer,  were 
closed  by  the  hands  of  aa  emperor.' 

Q.  k^  a  journal  for  the  laat  for^  yeait  of  his 
life.  It  seanu  to  hare  filled  ei^t  or  ten  thick 
quartos,  of  which  only  tiz  are  now  known  to  esiat. 
An  abridgment  of  them,  rendered  into  Qennao,  nnder 
tha  title  of  Tagebv^  du  QeaeraU  Fairick  Oordon, 
«M  publiahed  at  Uoecow  and  8t  Petenbnrg,  in 
3  Tob.  Svo,  in  1849—1861—1863,  Tory  car^illy 
edited  I^  Dr  PooeltL  In  1869,  Panagmjron  Ihi 
Diary  t^  Oentrai  Falriet  Gordon,  in  the  original 
Kngli»ti,  edited  by  Mr  Joseph  Boberlaan,  were 
printed  by  the  Spalding  Club  in  1  toL  4ta 

GORDON,  Lo&D  GusflK,  oelebiatad  in  connec- 
tion with  tha  London  Froteatant  riota  of  1780,  the 
third  son  of  tha  tJiicd  Duke  of  Gordon,  waa  bom 
September  19,  1760.  At  an  early  age  he  entered 
the   navy,   and   rose  to   the  rank  of  lieutenant, 


GORDOH-OOBOX. 


bat  quitted  the  lerviee  during  the 
in  oonaeqaence  of  a  dinnite  with  the  Admiialtj 
nUmiUve  to  pranuititm.  Mooted  in  1774  MJ*.  for 
tkot  bonm^iB  dia- 
T  the  Befcam  ^ill  of  1S32,  lie  Mm 


nnmMittt*,  vA  the  freMom  irith  wliich 
all  p«ra«;  bat  UMM(di  eeocotna,  he  diaplayed  coa- 
•idanble  idoit  in  daMtc^  and  no  defioieiicy  of  wit 
or  argameikt.  A  UU  hsviiiE,  in  1778,  puied  the 
legiilktm  for  the  relief  of  Kotoan  Oatholice  from 
certain  penaltira  sod  diubiUtieB,  the  PniteAuit 
A— mnatMm  of  London  vu,  among  other  societies, 
fonned  lor  the  porpose  of  procuring  ita  repe^  and 
in  November  1779,  O.  vaa  elected  its  presideDt. 
In  June  17S0,  he  headed  a  vast  and  exated  mob, 
of  About  100,000  penons,  which  went  in  proceisioa 
''     "  '  Comnuma,  to  present  a  petitioa 

when  he  addresiod  them 
to  inflame  their  pewions 
and  bigoby.  Dieadlnl  riots  ensued  in  the  metro- 
polia,  bating  for  Bereral  direa,  in  the  oouna  of 
which  maoj  Catholic  ohapeb  and  pmwte  dwell- 
ing-bouMa,  Newgate  prison,  and  the  mansion  of 
tbe  chiaf-joitice,  Iiora  Manafield,  were  destroTod. 
G.  wai  aneated,  and  tried  for  high  treaion ;  but 
no  evidence  being  adduced  of  treaaonable  dodgn,  ha 
was  acquitted.  His  subaequent  conduct  seemed 
that  of  B  person  of  unsound  mind.  HaTing,  in 
17S6,  refused  to  come  forward  as  a  witneea  m  a 
court  of  law,  ha  was  azcommnnicated  1:^  the  Aroh- 
biabop  of  Canterhniy  for  contempt.  In  1787,  he 
was  oonTicted,  on  two  official  information^  for  a 
pamphlet  reflecting  on  the  laws  and  criminal  justice 
of  tbe  country,  and  for  publishing  a  libel  oa  the 
qneen  of  France  (Mario  Antoinette)  and  the  French 
ambaandor  in  London.  To  evade  sentence,  he 
retired  to  Holland,  bat  was  sent  back  to  England, 
and  a^irehended  at  Birmingham.  Sentenced  to 
impritonneat,  he  died  in  Newgate,  of  fever,  Novem- 
ber 1,  1793,    Ho  had  latterly  becoma  a  prooelytc  to 


Vweatii  Enioeition  of  1856,  and  may  be  reckoned 

aa  among  the  happiest  examples  of  portraiture  in 
existence  in  any  conntty.  '  He  died  June  1864. 

OOKDO'NIA,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shmbs  of  the 
natural  order  Tenutramiacete,  having  five  styles 
combined  into  one,  which  is  crowned  with  five 
stigmas,  a  6-oelIed  cajwole,  and  winged  seeds- 
Several  speotea  are  natives  of  America,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  the  Loblollt  Bar  (O. 
LamMAtu),  which  is  fonnd  in  swamps  near  the 
seo-coMt  of  the  Gulf  of  Medea  Moist  tracts  of 
conaidenble  extant  are  often  oovered  with  tiiia  tr«e 
alone.     It  attains  a  hei^t  of  60  «r  60  feet,  has 


OOBDON,  Sin  John  Watsoit,  President  of  the 
Boyal  Scottish  Academy,  son  of  a  oaptaJD  in  the 
navy,  waa  bom  at  Edmbnrgh  about  1790.  He 
stmued  for  four  years  nnder  John  Giaham, 
director  of  the  Academy  of  the  Trusteaa  for  the 
Edieonrsgement  of  Manufsotore,  where  bo  shewed 
tbe  usual  desire  of  young  artista  to  become  an 
historical  painter,  but  ultimately  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  porttaitlire,  in  which  he  achieved  a  distia- 
gnished  reputation.  G.  continued  to  reside  in  hit 
native  city.  He  first  exhibited  in  the  Koyal 
Scottish  Academy  in  1827,  was  elected  in  1841 
an  AsMciate,  in  1S60  on  Academician  of  the  Lon- 
don Kc^al  Academy ;  and  on  the  death  of  Sir 
WilKuQ  Allan,  President  of  the  Boyal  Scottish 
Acadenn,  when  tbe  honour  of  knighthood  was 
coafwred  on  him.  G.  was  as  national  in  bis  art 
at  it  ia  poHdUe  for  «  portrait-puuter  to  be — that 
is  to  M^,  be  ezoelled  in  transferring  to  the  canvas 
tiinan  liUMmenfa  of  chaiaoter  whiui  are  oonoeived 
to  be  pre-onlnaitly  Scotch.  The  shrewd,  cant 
fttl^n^lm^g  ooontenaiice  of  the  Caledonian 
never  been  so  hawiW  rendwed.  Nearly  every  man 
of  iwte  ID  Bootiui^  and  not  a  few  in  Eogland, 
lat  for  their  portrut  to  this  artist.  Among  his 
beet-known  works  may  be  mentioned,  'Sir  Walter 
Scott'  (1831),  'I>r  Cbabnars'  (1837),  'I>ake  of 
Baodeuch '  (1842),  '  Lord  Cockburo '  (1842), 
■Thomas  Be  Quincsy'  (1843),  'Lord  Bcberison' 
(1846),  'Prindpat  Lee'  (1817),  'Professor  Wilson' 
(1861), 'bri  of  Aberdeen'  (1852),  and  'the  Provost 
of  Peterbaad'  (1863).  The  lost  picture,  which  is 
the  property  of  the  Merchant  Maiden  Hospital, 
Edinmrgb,  gained  for  G.  the  gold  medal  at  the 


dianuter.  Hie  bark  ia  mneb  uaed  for  tw"ill^  In 
England,  it  is  cultivated  with  some  difficult,  and 
generally  appears  as  a  mere  bush. 

OOBB,  in  Heraldry,   a   charse   

insisting  of  one>third  of  the  ahii 
cut   off  by  two  arched  lines,  n 
drawn  tram  tJie  dexter  or  sinisi 
chief,  and  tbe  other  from  the  botttsn 
of  the  esontoheon,  meeting  in  the 
fesi    point.      A   Gore    Sinister   is 
enumerated  by  heralds   sa  one   of 
the  abatements   or   marks  of   dis> 
honour  bome  for  unkni^tly  con-  Qore. 

duct    See  GimKr. 

OORE,  Mas  Oathkrixs  Gkaos,  an  English 
novelist,  wu  bom  at  Bast  Retford,  Nottiogham- 
shire,  in  1799.  Her  father,  Mr  Moody,  was  a  wine- 
merchant  in  moderate  circmnittanceB.  In  1823,  aha 
was  married  to  Captain  Charles  Arthur  Gore,  with 
wham  she  resided  for  many  yeani  on  the  continent, 
supporting  her  family  by  her  literary  labours. 
These  were  varied  and  volnminous  to  an  extraor- 
dinary degree,  amonntingbi  all  to  seventy  works. 
She  died  at  Lynwood,  Hants,  January  ZJ,  1661. 
Her  first  published  work  was  Thcraa  AfanAmonl, 
or  tie  Maid  of  Sonmir,  published  in  1823.  Some 
of  her  early  novel^  as  the  Leitre  de  Cadiet,  and  tho 
Tti'Qma,  were  vivid  descriptions  of  the  French 
Revolution ;  bnt  her  greatest  snccessea  were  her 
novels  of  English  fashionable  life,  conspicaous 
among  which  were — CeeU,  or  Ok  Advmtvra  qf  a 
Ooxcmnb,  and  CtiM,  a  Peer,  Tht  AmboModor't  W^i, 
The  BarJca'i  Wyi,  &c.  She  also  wrote  a  pitia 
comedy,  entitied  Tht  School  for  OoqutUei;  ZonJ 
Daere  qf  the  SouA,  a  tragedy ;  Boad,  a  dramatic 
poem ;  and  other  poetical  and  descriptive  worts. 

QOBBX,  a  very  small  island,  belon^ng  to  tbe 
French,  is  sitoated  immediatelv  south-east  of  Citpo 
Yerd,  on  the  western  ooast  of  **H"»i  It  is  only 
aboat  three  miles  in  circumference,  contains  a  town 
defended  by  a  fort,  and  covering  two-thirds  of  the 
entile  snrfaoe  of  the  island.  It  is  conudered  by  the 
French  as  an  important  commercial  entrepAt ;  ita 
exports  are  gold-dust,  ivory,  wax,  &a.  Population 
of  tbe  island  about  7000 ;  of  the  town,  3042. 

OOHEIHT,  a  small  municipal  borongh  and  market- 
town  of  Ireland,  in  the  oonnty  of  Wexford,  is  situ- 
atcd  about  24  inike  nratb-iuvui-eMt  ct  the  town  of 
tiiat  "Tnii,  uid  three  miles  inland  from  the  coast 
of  St  GeOTge'i  ChanneL  It  is  an  old  town,  having 
received  its  charter  of  inooiporatiou  from  Jame*  I., 
and  eonsists  mainly  ot  one  street  of  nearly  a 
mile  in  length.  Beiddei  the  national  school  and 
the  BaviDgMwnk,  tho  Roman  OathoUc  chapel,  with 
nooneiy  iStaohed,  built  noently  in  the  pointed  stylo. 


trJei 


]  f I  zodTi'"'LJI  O  O  Q'  1 1?" 


OOBOED-GOEQO. 


between  tho  eitremities  of  the  two  side*,  u  between 
the  faces  of  a  nvelln,  or  between  the  fl«iik>  of  > 
biutioa.  The  demi-gorgea  of  &  bastion  we  lines  in 
coDtinuation  of  the  cuiwni  on  each  aide,  extending 
from  the  extremltiea  of  the  flanlca  to  the  point  tu 
inteneetjon  of  the  lines,    See  aUo  Fobtttication. 

GORQBD.  When  >  lion  or  other  uum&l  hu  a 
crown  bf  ws^  of  collar  ronnd  its  neck,  it  is  said 
heraldically  to  be  gorged. 

GdBOEI,  Abthcr,  general  conunonding-in-chief 
of  the  Hangaiian  army  during  134S — 1S40,  was  bom 
■,t  loporcz,  in  the  county  of  Szepea  (Zips),  Febnuuy 
0,  1818,  and  after  a  tlioroagb  military  ednoation, 
got  a  eommiiwion  as  lieutenant  in  the  r^ment 
of  Palatine  EosBare.  Finding  garrison-life  too 
monotonous,  and  promotioa  slow,  Q.  took  leave 
of  it,  and  turned  a  lealoos  student  of  chemisti? 
at  Pragae.  At  the  oatbreak  of  tiie  revolution,  Q, 
hastened  to  the  seat  of  the  fint  independent  Hun- 
garian miniBtry,  offering  his  services,  and  was  sent 
to  Belgium,  where  he  effected  a  pnrchiise  of  arms 
for  the  new  levies  of  HonvEds.  He  first  exhi- 
bited hii  great  military  capacity  after  the  rout  of 
the  Hungarian  army  near  oi^wechat,  when  he  was 
made  a  general,  and  conducted  the  retreat  that  had 
to  be  effected  with  consummate  skill  and  coorsfe. 
His  raw  levies  had  to  be  kept  togeUier  and  drilled 
under  the  roaling  cannon  of  the  enemy ;  the  dis' 
affected  officers,  many  of  them  foreigner,  and 
addicted  to  monarchy,  to  be  retained  under  the 
revolutionaTy  flag ;  a  commissariat  to  be  organised 
during  &tiguiDg  marches  and  constant  fighting. 
PerczeTs  com  was  totally  dispersed  at  Moor  jgovem- 
ment  and  <iuet  were  fleeing  towards  the  Transyl- 
vanian  frontier,  and  the  £«ary  wilderness  of  the 
Carpathians  Uireatened  to  become  the  tomb  of  all, 
in  the  midst  of  a  winter  little  lest  severe  than  that 
which  destroyed  the  Orand  Army  of  Kapoleon  I. 
At  the  end  of  December  1848,  Hungaiy  seemed  to 
be  lost ;  at  the  beginning  of  March  1849,  O.  was 
coDcertijig  a  plan  for  driving  the  enemy  out  of  the 
country.  After  Dembinski's  failnre  as  general-ia- 
cliiof,  G.  was  declared  the  head  of  tho  united  army 
corjis  of  the  north  (hitiierto  Ms  own),  of  the  Opper 
Theiss,  under  Klapka,  and  of  S«Jnok,  under  Dam. 
janich.  Forty  thousand  men,  the  finest  army  Hun- 
gary ever  saw,  broke  forth  from  behind  the  Theias, 
and  drove  the  Austrians,  with  bloody  loasai,  from 
one  position  to  another.  The  battles  of  Hatvan, 
Bitske,  Isaaz^,  GildQUi],  V&cs,  Nagy.Sarlo,  were  a 
succession  of  triumphs.  Pesth  was  evacnated  by 
the  enemy,  the  siq^  of  Komom  was  raised,  and 
before  the  month  SC  April  was  over,  nothing  was 
left  in  the  enemy's  hands  except  a  small  stnp  on 
the  western  frontier,  and  the  impregnable  fastnesses 
which  Burnmnd  Tittcl  on  the  I<ower  Theiss.  Buda, 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  realm,  well  fortified  and 
garrisoned,  was  to  be  stormed,  and  for  this  the  vic- 
torious campaign  had  to  be  interrapted.  Hie  delay 
was  fatal  Bussian  armies  hastened  to  the  rescue  of 
Austria,  and  regiments  of  veterans  were  despatched 
by  Badetzky,  the  war  in  Italy  being  nearly  over. 
The  fortresa  of  Bnda  was  carried  on  the  2lBt  of  May, 
but  the  flower  of  the  Hungarian  infantry  was  buried 
among  its  ruins.  In  tlie  Utter  part  of  June,  the 
Austro-Rusaian  army,  nuder  Haynau  and  Panjutine, 
beat  G.  near  Zngard ;  atul  the  affair  at  GySr 
(Raab)  resulted  in  the  retreat  erf  the  Hungarians 
close  to  the  walls  of  the  fortress  of  Komora.  On 
the  2d  <rf  Julr,  a  bloody  battle  was  fought  near 
SzUny,  where  G.  ^ve  proofs  of  indomitable  eoniage. 
On  tiie  IQth  of  July,  a  desperate  fight  took  place 
in  and  near  V&ci  between  Buasiana  and  HmigsHans. 
G.,  after  some  weeks,  arrived  in  the  nelghbcnuhood 
of   Arad   with  an   army  decimated  by  continual 


in  order  to  allow  an  agonising  march  of  a  few  daya. 


and  on  the  10th,  Q.  was  declared  dictator  I^  a 
council  held  in  the  fortress  of  Arad,  under  the 
presidency  of  Kossuth.  But  further  reaistaDce  on 
the  part  of  the  Hungarians  was  now  hopelew, 
and  on  the  13th  O.'i  army  surrendered  at  Viliga* 
to  Prince  Palldewitch,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Russian  forces.  This  enrrender  has  been  often 
imputed  as  treachery  to  Giirgei.  Whether  such  an 
imputation  is  excusable,  may  be  best  judged  from 
the  circumstance,  that  on  the  day  of  suirendering 
G.  had  24,000  men  with  140  cannon,  and  that  five 
annies,  with  more  than  200,000  men  and  1000 
cannon,  were  dosing  upon  him  from  different  direo- 
tiona.    G.  was  oonSaed  to  Klagenfnrt,  whenc 


at  Leipsic  (a  translation  of  wni^  appeared  at  lin- 
den in  the  same  year),  under  the  tttlc^  Meia  Ldien 
und  Wirkea  in  Ungarn  in  den  JaJiren  1848  untl 
1649. 

GOTIGBT  (ItaL  gorgieUa,  from  porm,  a  throat), 
that  part  of  ancient  armour  which  defended  the 
neck.— Also  a  cresoent-shaped  ornament  formerly 
worn  by  military  officers  on  the  breast. 

GOBOET  (Pr.  gargera,  from  gorge,  the  throatj, 
a  surgical  instinment,  or  rather  a  series  of  surgical 
iDstrumenbi,  devised  to  fadlitato  the  operation  of 
lithotomy  (q.  v.).     They  are  now  almost  entirely 

GO 

the  ti  .  .  _     .  .  _^ , 

and  settled  in  Greece,  redding  for  the  most  part  at 
Athens,  and  at  Lariasa  in  Theasaly.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  105  or  109.  Q.  has  been  mimortaliaed  by 
Plato  in  a  Dialogue  which  bears  his  name.  Two 
works  attributed  to  him  are  extant.  The  Apolom  of 
Patamedet,  and  the  Bnanniiim  on  Hdata,  but  Ulcit 

ruinenees  has  been  diaputed  by  several  critics, 
displayed  little  aptitude  for  theorising  on  the 
art  which  he  profened  to  teadi,  and  was  not 
■■  ',  but 
been  a  quick  and  jud 
avoided,  according  to  Plato,  general 
of  virtuo  and  morably,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  Aristotle  notices  that  he  had  a  true  apprecia- 
tion of  the  foots  of  morality,  as  they  are  manifested 
in  life  and  character,  and  the  picture  given  of  him  by 
Plato  is  in  harmony  with  this  remark.  He  did  not 
wish  to  be  thought  a  lophUl,  but  only  a  rhetoriaan, 
and  the  ancients  were  m  fact  at  a  loss  whether  to 
consider  h™  the  latter  or  both. 

GO'BGO,  or  GORGON,  according  to  Homer,  a 
frightful  monster  inhabiting  the  infernal  rwions, 
the  bead  of  which  was  pecuharly  appalling.  Homer 
and  Euripides  make  mention  of  only  one  G.,  the 
daughter  of  Terra,  who  was  slain  by  Minerva, 
while  Hcsiod  mentions  three  Qorgones— Stheno, 
Earyale,  and  Medusa,  the  daughters  of  Phorcya  and 
Ccto,  for  which  reason  they  are  called  likewise  the 


1  Libya.  They 
e  represented  as  girded  with  serpents  with  heads 
ect,  vibrating  their  tongues,  and  gnashing  their 


with  brazen  claws,  and  enormous  teeth,  fiaving  ti 
serpents  round  their  bodies  by  way  of  ^rdle.  Tne 
name  G.  was  given  more  especiatly  to  Meduaa. 
According  to  later  legends,  Medusa  was  originally  a 


Li-rirz-ai;  Google— 


GORGONIA-GOEILLA. 


reiy  beautiful  maiden,  and  the  only  one  of  the  three 
•iaten  who  wm  mortaL  Bat  sho  naving  become  a 
mother  by  Neptime  in  one  of  Minerv*  »  templea, 
that  virgin  {{odden  nu  ao  aShinted,  t^t  ihe  changed 
Mednso^  hjui  into  Berpenta,  which  gave  her  (k> 
fearful  an  apjiearance  that  whoever  looked  on  her 
waa  tamed  uito  itooe.  Medoaa  waa  killed  by 
Peraena  (q.  v.)i  and  her  head  waa  afterwards  placed 
in  the  ahield  of  Minerva.  Various  eiplanationa  have 
been  given  of  the  myth  hoth  by  the  ancienta  and 
the  ntodema,  but  no  one  in  partdcnlar  can  be  said 
to  be  aaldafactory. — Compare  Levezow,  Utber  die 
Entwieieluitg  dei  OorgonmiiUtiit  hi  der  Potme  und 
bilda»de»  jEunrf  do-  AlUa  (Beclin,  1S33). 

GORGO'NIA,  a  genua  of  zoophytes  (AnCJiozoa), 
allied  to  Aieyonium  fq.  v.).  The  whole  Btmoture 
(polype-maaa)  ia  rooted  and  branching,  conaiating  of 


calcareona  spicule*.  The  hard  atem  ia  compoaed 
of  cdncentric  layHra,  probably  formed  in  aucceuioQ 
by  oonaoUdation  of  the  fleshy  lubatance.  The  stem 
ia  naoally  brown  oi  black,  whilst  the  Seah,  or 
even  the  dried  crust,  often  eihibita  colours  of 
great  biilliancy.  The  polypee  havo  ei^t  tentacles. 
Sereial  species  of  O.  are  ran  British  zoophytes ; 
but  the  apectes  moat  generally  known  ia  O,  Jlab^tim, 


Goreonia  {Oorffonia  fitlellum), 

or  the  FlabeUum  VenerU,  also  called  the  Sea-fnn,  .. 
tmpical  species,  often  brouoht  home  bb  a  curiosity 
Irom  the  Wart  Indies,  which  eihibita  in  a  rtrikinc 
manner  the  flat  shape,  more  or  leas  characteristic  of 
this  genoa,  and  of  the  family  Oorgoniada. 

GO'RHAM  CONTROVBBSY.  The  Gorham 
ttintroveray  arose  out  of  the  refusal  of  Henry  Phil- 
pott,  Biah<^  of  Eietcr,  to  institute  the  Rev.  Come- 
liiB  Gorhain,  formerly  fellow  of  Queen's  College, 
i'unbiidge,  and  then  vicar  of  St  Just-in-Peorith,  to 
the  Ticarage  of  Brimpford  Speke,  on  his  presenta- 
tion thereto  by  the  Lord  Chancellor.  The  allc^ 
erouDd  of  this  refusal  Was,  that  after  examination 
the  bishop  found  Mr  Qorbam  to  be  of  noaound  doc- 
tiiae  as  to  the  efficacy  of  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism, 
inasmuch  aa  he  held  uiat  spiritual  regeneration  ia  not 
given  or  conferred  in  that  sacrament,  and  in  parti- 
cular, that  infants  are  not  made  therein  '  members 
of  Christ  and  the  children  of  God,'  as  the  catechism 
snd  lormularies  of  the  church  declare  them  to  be. 
The  case  was  brought  before  the  Arebes  Court 
<4  Canterbury,  which  decided  (1849)  that  bap- 
temal  regeneration  ia  the  doctrine  of  the  Chorch 


of   England,    and    that   Mr    Gorham   muntained 

doctrines  on  the  point  opposed  to  those  of  the 
church,  and  that  conseqnently  the  bishop  had 
shewn  sufficient  cause  for  his  refusal  to  institute, 
and  that  the  appeal  must  be  dismissed  with 
costs.  From  this  decision,  Mr  Gorham  appealed 
to  the  judicial  committoo  of  Privy  Council.  The 
committee  complnined  that  the  bishop's  questions 
were  intricate  and  entanglinx,  and  that  the  answers 
were  not  given  plainly  and  direcdy.  Their  deci- 
sion was  m  substance  OS  follows ;  and  it  must  be 
noted  what  pointii  tkev  undertoolt  to  decide,  and 
what  not  The  court  declared  that  it  liad  no  juris- 
diction to  settle  matters  of  faith,  or  to  determine 
what  ought,  in  any  particular,  to  be  the  doctrine  of 
the  Chorch  of  England,  its  duty  being  only  to  Con- 
sider what  is  by  law  artablished  tobe  her  doctrine 
upon  the  legal  construction  of  her  articles  and 
formularies.  It  appeared  that  very  diOerent  opinions 
as  to  the  sacrament  of  baptism  were  held  by  the 
promoters  of  the  Sefonnation ;  that  differences  of 
opinion  on  varioua  points  left  open  were  always 
thought  consistent  with  snbscription  to  the  artldea ; 
and  2ao,  that  ordniaos  in  no  important  particular  to 
be  distingnishod  from  Mr  Oorham's  had  been  main- 
tained without  censure  by  many  eminent  prelates 
and  divines.  Without  expressing  any  opinion  as  to 
the  theological  accuracy  of  Mr  Gorham  s  opinions, 
the  court  decided  that  Uie  judgment  of  the  Arches 
Court  should  be  reversed.  Mr  Gorham  waa  accord- 
ingly instituted  to  Brampford  Speke.  During  the 
two  years  that  the  suit  was  pending,  the  theological 
question  was  discnased  with  all  degrees  of  ability 
and  acrimony  in  aermona  and  pampUets  ;  and  it  was 
expected  that  if  the  judgment  bad  gone  the  other 
way,  a  large  body  of  the  evangelical  clergy,  who  |or 
the  most  part  hold  views  more  or  leas  in  aooordance 
with  thoae  of  Mr  Goiham,  would  hare  seceded  from 
the  church. 

GOBI'LLA  (Troglodvla  OorUUi),  a  great  African 
ape,  generally  referred  by  natiualists  to  the  same 
genus  with  the  chimpanzee,  although  Professor 
Isidore  GeoHrdy  St  Hilaire  h»s  attempted  to  estab- 
lish for  it  a  separate  genus.  It  has  received  the 
name  by  which  it  is  now  known  in  consequence  of 
ita  being  snppoeed  to  be  the  some  animal  which  is 
mentdoned  in  the  Periplat  of  Uumo  the  Cartha- 
ginian navigator,  who  visited  the  tropical  parts  of 
Uie  west  coaat  of  Africa  about  the  year  360  B.C., 
althongh  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  O.  of 
Honno  is  not  the  chimpanzee.  Vague  accounts  of 
apes  of  great  size,  and  of  which  very  wonderful 
stories  were  told,  were  from  time  to  time  brought 
from  Western  Africa ;  bnt  it  was  not  till  1S47  that 
the  O.  became  really  known  to  naturalists,  when 
a  sknll  was  sent  to  Dr  Savage  of  Boston  by  Dr 
Wilaon,  an  American  missionary  oit  the  Gtuxran 
river.  Since  that  time,  not  only  have  skeletons 
and  eklns  been  obtained  in  sufficient  number  for 
scientific  examination,  but  information  has  also  been 
procured  concerning  the  habits  of  the 


The 


of  the  G.  given 


the  highest  scientific  authorities,  and  particularly  by 
Owen,  as  in  the  main  trustworthy,  notwithstanding 
all  the  doubt  that  has  been  cast  over  that  traveller's 
narrative  of  his  adventures;  and  there  is  Uttle 
doubt  that  t^^  are  in  accordance  with  all  that  we 
have  learned  from  other  sources,  and  with  the 
inferences  to  be  deduced  from  the  dentition  and 
osteolo^  of  the  animaL 

The  G.  diflTers  from  the  chimpanzee  in  its  greater 
._Ee;  the  height  of  an  adult  male  in  on  erect  posture 
being  commonly  about  five  feet  six  inches  or  five  feet 
eight  inches,  although  there  ia  reason  to  think  that 


,i,..dL,G00R 


QOREUiA— OOEKHA. 


eds  ni  feet.  Ita  strength  anpean 
also  to  be  greater  in  proportiDD  to  it«  size,  and  eren 
ita  ekeleton  indicstea  vsrj  ga>t  muiciuar  power 
both,  in  the  Jaws  and  limbo.  The  bony  ridgei  in  the 
akull  aboTo  ^e  eyce  are  extremely  prominent ;  and 
the  skull  of  tiie  male  also  exhibit*  a  large  occipital 
ridge  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  brain  is  amall. 
Tba  nasal  bones  project  more  than  io  the  chim- 
panzee,  thai  producing  an  approximation  to  the 
hiunan  face,  in  a  somewhat  prominent  note.  The 
lower  part  of  tie  face,  however,  proiecti  very 
much ;  and  besides  that  Hha  teeth  do  not  form  a 
perfectly  munterrapted  series  as  in  man,  the  canine 
teeth  are  very  hure,  parMcnlarly  in  the  nuJe, 
projecting  considerably  more  than  ul  inch  &om 
the  apper  jaw,  much  lawar  in  proportion  thtm  in 
the  chimpanzee;  although,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
molars  bear  a  greater  proportion  to  the  indson, 
and  thus  approach  more  to  the  human  character. 


OoiiUa. 

The  breadth  at  the  ahouMera  is  greaL  lliere 
thirteen  pair  of  riha.  The  pelvis  approaches  the 
human  form  more  than  in  any  other  ape.  The 
arms  are  not  so  long  as  in  ^a  chimpanzee,  bnt 
reooh  nearly  to  the  knee  in  the  erect  position.  The 
lower  limbs,  altbon^  shorter  in  proportion  than  in 
man,  ore  longer  than  in  the  chimpanzee.  The  foot  is 
less  turned  laward  than  in  the  ohimpauzee,  and  is 
better  fitted  for  walking  on  the  enmnd  ;  the  great 
toe  is  a  true  thmnb,  as  m  llie  chimpanzee,  standing 
out  from  the  foot  at  an  angle  of  abont  60°,  and  is 
remarkably  large  and  strong.  The  hands  or  paws 
of  the  fere  limbs  are  also  remarkable  for  their  great 
size,  their  thickness,  and  their  itreneth.  Thefingers 
are  short,  bnt  Hie  circmnferonce  of  Uie  middle  finger 
at  the  first  joint  is  sometiniee  more  than  six  inches, 
— The  O.  baa  a  black  skin,  covered  with  short 
dark-gray  hair,  reddish  brown  on  the  head;  the 
hair  on  the  anna  longer,  that  on  the  srm  from  tlie 
shoolder  to  the  elbow  pointing  downwards,  and  that 
on  the  fore-arm  poiniinsiipwarda  to  the  elbow, 
where  a  toft  is  formed.  The  faoe  is  covered  with 
hair,  bnt  the  chest  is  bare.  Hiere  is  Bcan»ly  any 
appearance  of  neck.  The  month  is  wide,  and  no 
red  appears  on  the  lips.  The  eyes  are  deeidy  sunk 
beneath  the  projectiDg  ridge  ci  the  skol^  ^ving 


ofthateetL   !^^belly  is  very  large  and 


Skeleton  of  Qorilla. 

in  accordance  with  which  character,  the  O.  is  repre- 
sented as  a  most  voracions  feeder,  its  food  being 
exclusively  vegetable— partly  obtained  by  climbing 
trees,  and  paruy  on  the  ground.  It  is  very  fond  of 
traits  and  of  some  leaves,  as  the  fleshy  parts  of  the 
leaves  of  the  pine-apple;  and  employs  its  great 
strength  of  jawa  and  teeth  in  tearing  vegotablo 
subs^ces  and  cracking  nuts  which  wi^d  requiro 
a  heavy  blow  of  a  biunmer.  It  ia  not  gregarious  in 
its  habitiL  It  vpends  most  of  ita  time  on  the 
ground,  although  often  climtnog  trees.  It  ia  capable 
of  defending  itaelf  agamst  almost  any  beast  of  prey. 
It  has  a  kind  of  barking  voice,  varying  whea  it  is 
enraoed  to  a  tetrific  roar.  It  inhabits  eidiuiively 
the  dense«t  parts  of  tro^oal  foreeta,  and  is  only 
fonnd  in  regions  vriiere  freeh  water  is  abimdant. 
It  is  much  dreaded  by  the  people  of  the  countries 
in  which  it  is  found,  although  by  some  of  the 
tribes  its  flesh  is  sought  aft^  for  food.  Many 
strsjige  steriea  ore  current  among  them  about  ita 
habits,  which  seem  entitled  to  litue  regard~H^  for 
example,  of  its  carrying  away  men  and  womeii,  and 
detaining  them  for  some  time  in  the  woods-:-oI  its 
lying  in  wait  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  till  a  man 

Ctea  beneath,  furtively  stretching  down  one  of  ita 
der  legs  to  catch  him,  and  holdiiig  Tiim  in  the 
grasp  of  ita  foot^  or  ratiier  hand,  till  heisstraiu^; 
and  the  like. — The  G.  has  not  been  biSerto 
tamed,  and  in  an  adult  state  at  least,  seems  very 
inca^ble  of  it.  The  stories  of  gorillas  tamed  \^ 
the  inhabitants  of  Western  Afiioa,  and  made  to 
work  for  them,  are  worthy  of  no  credit.  Hie  wmn 
given  to  this  animal  in  ita  native  connt^  is  2fgma, 
or  Ingtaia. 

Dm  Chaillu  boa  described,  as  discovered  by 
himself,  two  other  species  of  T'Toglodsta,  the  Eoolo- 
kamba  {T.  Koolo-iatnba)  and  ^e  Nshi^;o-MbouvC 
(7*.  ealau),  smaller  tlian  the  O.  i  the  latter  remark- 
able for  making  an  nmbre1Ia.like  shelta'  of  leaves 
placed  against  a  branch  to  protect  itself  from  the 

OOltKHA,  a  town  of  Nepaol,  stands  ia  lat. 
27°  6Z  N.,  and  in  long.  84°  28' £.    Ongtnally  tlw 


hyCOO^IO 


GOEKTTM— GORTSCfHAKOPP. 


t  of  tba  mgning  dynasty  of  the  _ 

ii«  to  tha  domiuant  nee— a  nco  notei  alike  for 
fidelity  ai^  tbIodi  during  the  matdi^  of  161^.  Q. 
is  53  milea  to  the  west  St  Klurtmawdn,  tho  oajdtal 
of  the  Btate. 

OOrKKTTH  (Dntcfa,  Qorinditm), 
f ortrooi  of  the  NatherUad^  in  the  prorinoe  of  Sonth 
BoU«ad,  u  ntnated  on  like  ri^t  bank  of  the 
lUerwede,  at  the  junction  of  the  Linge  with  that 
livar,  22  miles  eaat-sonth-east  of  Bottmdam.  It  la 
-wall  bnil^  haa  a  town-honaa,  BBreial  militaij  wtab- 
liahmento,  and  a  great  tniMH  tmde  in  agrieoHmaJ 
jKodnoe  md  fldi,  wpeoiaUy  Baboon.    Pop.  9000. 

O&BLIT^  a  fortified  tgwa  of  PnuaiB,  in  the 

proviuoe  of  Kksa,  ia  aprincipal atataon  on  tia  zaU- 

"  '  "      "      '      ■    -*     '       gad  ia  aitnated  on  i 


by  old  walla,  and  flonhed  with  towers,  the  chief  of 
irlii<ili  ia  Ilia  Eaiaartratz,  now  tbo  gnajd-houae  and 
amUKuy  of  ttie  town.  Among  the  many  bcMltifnl 
Gothio  chmohes,  the  moat  intereating  is  that  of 
8t  Peter  and  St  Paul,  built  1423—1497,  and 
ha-ring  five  uaveaj  a  ma^iificent  ormo,  and  a  bell 
12^  tons  in  wraght.  d  the  oot^-weat  of  the 
town  ia  the  EMuduqiella  (Cluqiel  of  the  Croaa),  an 
imitation  of  the  Holy  Sepoldire  at  Jenualem.  O. 
has  also  a  mnnasiam  with  an  cocellent  library, 
uujDiCroiia  educational  "^^  baner^cfit  inatitntiona, 
and  k  theatn.  A  viadnet  opwarda  of  1600  feet  in 
leoffUi,  "jt^  115  feet  ^igli,  one  c^  the  gfandest  in  the 
north  of  Qarmany,  here  aroaace  iha  tuI^  of  Keiaae. 
Q.  haa  maimfactDreB  of  cloth,  pens,  leather,  glaaa, 

and  a  Hrely  ttansit  trade.  In  ei^t  cloth  faotoTiel^ 
driTm  by  wator  and  steam  power,  1S90  worketa 
prodnoa  18,14S  pieces  of  dolli  annually.  Pop. 
{1871)  4%ooa 

OOBLITZ  process  ii  the  name  ol  a  cele- 
brated bial  'B^iich  took  ^lace  in  Qemumy  in  1860. 
It  was  oecationed  in  this  way :  On  the  13th  of 
Jqim  1847,  the  Conntew  of  GSrlits  wm  atnmgled 
by  a  servant  of  her  own  named  Johonn  Stanff, 
mom  ahe  had  caught  stealing  some  valoablea  from 
an  open  desk  in  her  aitting-room,  and  har  corpae 
waa  fiMmd  a  faw  honia  after  bnmed  by  a  combna- 
tible  staff  heaped  open  hsr.  After  more  than  two 
ycAra  spent  in  prehminaiy  investigBtion,  the  case 
waa  bied  bafcm  the  aaaizea  at  Darmstadt,  11th  of 
March  I8SIX  and  occamed  a  idiole  mcaith.  The 
morderer,  who  obstinately  denied  having  comndtted 


ited  to  him, 
for  life,  Bnt  the  soientilSa  interest  of 
the  case  arose  from  its  having  led  to  a  diaooasioii  od 
the  poamUli^  ot  the  ^KUita^OD*  oombuation  of  ths 
hoinan  body.  WMIe  the  plgvicdan.  Ton  Siebold, 
dedated  in  (avoor  of  the  posntnhty,  the  chemista 
Badtoff  (q.  T.)  and  liebig  (q.  v.)  sought  to  demon- 
■trate  the  oppaaite  opinion,  which  is  cnierally  held 
by  aciontifio  men.    See  Sfohtaiteodh  CoHBUsi^oir. 

GOBRES,  J.4XOB  JoBETB  TOH,  a  djatingniahed 
Getman  anthor,  waa  bom  at  Coblenz,  Jannai; 
S5,  1776.  In  common  with  moat  of  the  ardent 
youth  of  Ihe  time,  Q.  threw  himself  eagerly  into 
&e  movement  of  the  Fi«iicb  Bevolation;  became 
an  sctiTa  member  of  the  dubs  and  debating 
■oeieties  which  ipmng  op  in  all  tiia  towns  npon 
the  Fnodi  border,  and  eatabliahed  a  newspaper, 
oititUd  the  .fied  Joitnud,  which  was  Ihe  exponent 
of  the  most  extreme  opinions  of  the  time.  In 
the  yeu  1790,  he  went  to  Paris  aa  the  chief  of  a 
deputation  to  negotiate  the  annexation  of  the  Rhine- 
land  to  the  Ti^Kh  Bepublie,  bnt  the  leTolution 
(^  the  18th  Bramaire  put  an  end  to  this  ajid  all 
Bmilar  dnama.    G.  letiuned  to  Germany,  disgusted 


with  politio,  quietly  settled  down  in  a 

in  his  nstiyo  town,  and  devoted  hinweL , 

to  literature  for  aeveral  ye*is.  Hi*  woib  on  art, 
on  phymology,  on  the  lawa  c€  oiganian,  and  on 
the  Tcuationa  of  faith  and  soienee,  atttaoted  mnoh 
attention.  In  1806,  he  ^rnbliahed  the  first  put 
of  his  well-known  colleotioa  of  Qtman  Pojmlar 
Legend*;  and  in  1808,  his  work  on  the  mythology 
of  tha  Asiatic  nations,  and  a  farther  contribution 
to  tha  l^endary  lit«nt(nm  of  Qermany.  From 
these  studies,  however,  ia  common  with  die  great 
bod;  of  the  Qeiman  oatioD,  he  was  aroused  to  the 
hope  of  liberation  from  EVench  granny,  hy  tha 
reverses  of  the  French  arms  in  the  Ruaaiaii  expe- 
dition. O.  was  not  alow  to  appeal  to  tha  national 
aeutunent  of  his  conntr^en  in  the  Bhertuh  Merctirg, 
of   the   most    apirit-atirring    joamals   which 


the  literary  oente  ol 


continiied  die< , ,  —^ 

himself  against  the  eucroachmenta  of  domestic 
abadutiiin  with  the  sama  eneray  with  which  he 
had  denoDnoed  tiie  tyranny  of  forei 


.  .  dsto,  G.  made  Mumch  his  home,  uid  hii 
later  years  were  devoted  to  literature,  and  in  part 
UsQ  to  the  animated  relinous  controverdes  occa- 
sioned in  Qenoany  by  the  oant«sta  between  the 
Archbishop  of  Cologne  and  the  Pruasion  govern- 
ment on  the  subject  of  mixed  marriagee  and 
Henneaianism.  See  Hebiibi.  In  all  theee  oon- 
trovHisiee,  G.,  who  was  an  ardent  Roman  Catholic, 
took  an  active  and  influential  part.  He  waa,  U 
not  the  orinnator,  at  least  the  main  supporter 
of  the  well-known  Boman  Cathnlio  journal,  the 
Hittariaeh-PoMtdu:  BUaer.  His  last  work  of 
importance  was  hia  ChrilltieJte  MytUk  (Ratisboii, 
1S36~1842).  He  died  Jaauaij  27,  1S4&  See 
the  HiOoritA-PolMtiM  Biatter,  1818,  and  Wetwr's 
Kirdter  Laaeon,  voL  iT. 

OORT,  a  small  but  thriving  town  of  Irelaod,  in 
the  province  of  Connaoght,  is  prettily  aitnated  on  a 
small  stream  in  the  county  of  Galway,  and  cImb 

to  ita  southsm  boundaiT,  17  

of  the  town  of  Ennia.    Ita  in 
Pop.  (1871)  2077. 

GOUTSOHAXOVF,  a  Bossiso  family,  taaoea  its 
ancestry  through  St  Hi"hsrl  of  Tsohemigoff  (bom 
1246)  to  Rurik  and  YUdunir  ths  Great— PBlHtn 
pEnB  O.,  governor  ot  Smoleod^^  dcj^ded  that 
town  two  Tears  {1609 — 1611)  aoainst  Sigismnnd  of 
Poland,  wnen  it  mm  taken  ny  •twm.—PBnraB 
BoDTBi  Q.,  bom  17H,  was  a  oeldmted  Bnsaiaa 
poet,  and  wrote  odes,  satires,  and  (jostles.  Bedied 
1824^-FBOiaB  AunAMSBH  G-,  hon  1764,  served 
under  his  nnole  Suwaroff  in  Turkey  and  Poland, 
dispbyed  great  courage  at  the  capture  of  Piaga 
(a  Euburb  of  Warsra),  and  was  in«de  lieutenant- 
general  in  179a  In  the  eampuga  of  1799,  he 
commanded  under  Koisakoff  at  Ztlriob,  was  aidise. 
quently  made  militwy  sovemor  of  Tiborg,  repulsed 

right  wing  at  the  battle  of  Friedland.  Arocinted 
"""V^*-  ,oS  war  in  1812,  he  filled  this  post  to  the 
end  of  the  war,  when  he  waa  made  general  of 
infatvtiy,  ajid  member  of  the  imperial  counciL  He 
died  in  182G.— Pbincb  AmoKua  Q.  served  in  1799 
aa  major-senei«l  nnder  Suwaroff  in  Italy;  and 
commuid^  a  dividon  of  grenadiers  at  Borodiiio,  is 


,i,z.,dt,Guui^le 


OORTSCHA  KOFF— GOSHAWK. 


1812,  where  ho  wu  woanded.  Id  the  campaign  of 
1813—1814,  he  coramiuided  the  lot  oorpa  of  ItuBainn 
infanti7,  and  dUtingulBhed  Unuelf  at  Leijisic  and 
Faris.  He  was  made  geooral  of  infaotr;'  m  1S19, 
and  in  1828  retired  from  active  wrvice. — FniNCE 
Frtib  G.  wai  born  in  1790.  Having  made  the 
camp^ns  of  1813  and  1814,  he  lerved  m  Caucasia 
nndcr  General  Yermoloff.  Aa  chief  of  the  general 
staff  oE  Wittgentitein  in  1S26,  he  was  one  of  the 
mgnera  of  the  Treat;  of  Adrionople.  In  1S39,  he 
woa  appointed  governor-general  oi  Eastern  Siberia, 
and  occupied  t&t  iniportont  post  until,  in  1861,  he 
retired  from  active  life.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Crimean  war,  however,  ho  offered  his  servicer,  which 
were  accepted ;  and  at  the  battle  of  the  Alma  he 
commanded  the  left  wing  of  the  Russians.  He  also 
tookportinthebattleof  &kermtum.  He  died  in  18GS. 
GOBTSCHAKOFF,  Fkwcb  Mixul,  brother 
of  tha  preceding,  was  bam  in  1795,  commenced  his 
militaiy  career  aa  an  officer  of  artillery,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  1828  at  the  sieges  of  Silistris 
andSohmola.  Chief  of  the  staff  of  Count  Pahlen  in 
1831,  ha  gave  proofs  of  extraordinary  valour  in  the 
battle  of  Ostroleuka  and  at  the  takmg  of  Warsaw. 
He  was  wounded  at  Orohoir,  and  made  general ; 
auoceedad  Count  Toll  aa  chief  of  the  otaff  of  the 
whole  army,  was  appointed  general  of  artilloty  in 
1843,  and  inilitacy  governor  of  Warsaw  in  1846. 
In  1853,  he  commanded  the  Raseian  forces  in 
the  Danubion  provinces,  crossed  the  Danube,  at 
Biaila,  March  23,  1854,  occupied  the  frontiers  of 
Sessarabia,  and  in  March  1855  directed  the 
defences  of  Sebostopol,  attacked  by  t^e  armies  of 
Great  Britain  and  France.  As  a  reward  for  his  ser- 
vices in  this  unsuccessful  but  still  brilliant  defence, 
Fiince  G.  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Alexander 
IL  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland, 
and  was  for  several  years  a  wise  and  conciliatory 
representative  of  hia  youthful  emperor  at  Warsaw. 
He  died  May  30.  1861.— Prince  Ai-KiAiiDEit  M., 
Kostian  diplomatist,  brother  of  the  preceding,  was 
bom  in  1798.  He  was  secretarv  of  the  Russian 
embassy  in  London  in  1824,  oiargt  d'ajiura  at 
florenoe  in  1830,  counsellor  of  'Uia  embassy  at 
Vienna  in  1832,  and  envoy  extraordinary  to  Stutt- 

Ct  in  1841.  In  1854,  he  was  chained  by  the 
peror  Nicolas  with  the  interests  of  Russia  in 
the  Vienna  conferences ;  and  in  1866  he  succeeded 
Connt  Nesselrodo  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affaire. 
In  1870,  he  issued  his  dronlar  upsetting  the  treat]' 
of  1856,  and  leading  to  the  London  Conference  of 
1871.  which  granted  the  demands  of  Russia. 

GORDCKPO'aE,  a  city  of  Hindustan,  in  tho 
lient-govenionhip  of  the  North-West  Provinces, 
and  oapitsl  id  a  district  of  the  same  name,  stands 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rapid,  which  joins,  85  miles 
further  down,  the  Ghagra  from,  the  left,  the  whole 
of  the  iDtermediate  course  being  navigable.  It  is  in 
lat.  26°42'N.,aadbng.83'23^£.,  being  430  miles 
to  the  north-west  of  Calcutta ;  and  it  contained 
{1871)  6(^863  inhabitants— The  district  of  G.  has 
an  area  of  4685  sqnara  miles,  and  a  population  of 
^0I9,3Sa 

GORT  DEW,  a  dark  red  slimv  fihn  not  nnfre- 
qnently  to  be  seen  on  damp  watls  and  in  shady 
places ;  often  on  the  whitewashed  walls  of  damp 
cellars,  where  its  appearance  is  apt  to  occasion 
alarm  from  its  resemblance  to  blood.  It  is  one  of 
the  lowest  forma  of  vegetable  life,  one  of  the  alga 
of  the  group  Pal/ndtaeea  (included  in  Conjemaaa), 
and  Dearly  allied  to  the  plant  to  which  the  pheno- 
menon of  Rkd  Snow  (q.  v.)  appears  to  be  ddefly 
owing.  Its  botanical  name  is  PaimMt  emaila.  It 
sometimes  extends  over  a  conaderable  surface,  and 
bectnnes  a  tough  gelatinous  mass.    The  structure 


and  mode  of  growth  of  this  and  aUied  plants  will  ba 
noticed  under  the  head  Faixsllkcex.  Its  charac- 
teristic red  colour  appears  also  in  Htrmatococcui 
taitgtaneiu,  a  nearly  allied  plant,  found  in  similar 
situations,  but  which  seems  to  extend  more  as  an 
aggregation  of  cells,  not  soon  meltingdown  into  an 
i^efinite  slime  like  the  cells  of  the  f'almeUa.  The 
prevalent  colour  of  the  gronp,  however,  is  green. 

GORZ,  or  QCXRITZ,  an  important  town  of 
Austria,  In  the  crown-land  of  the  Kustenlond 
(Coast  Districts),  (q.  v.),  and  capital  of  a  district  of 
the  same  name,  is  channingly  situated  in  a  fruitful 
plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ibodko,  about  25  miles 
north-north-west  from  Trieste.  Among  its  principal 
buildings  are  the  old  castle  of  the  former  Counts 
of  Gara,  now  used  as  a  prison ;  and  the  cathedral, 
with  a  beautiful  lacrarhim.  G.  has  extensive  sugar- 
refining,  and  man  ufacturcB  of  rosoglio.  silks,  linen, 
cotton,  and  leather ;  it  has  also  a  thriving  trade  in 
its  manufactures  and  in  dried  fruits.  Charles  X.  of 
France  die!  here,  Nov.  6,  1837.    Fop.  (1869)  16,8Za 

GO'SHAWK  lAsluT),a  genus  of  Fakonida  (q.  v.). 
distinguished  from  the  true  falcons  by  a  lobe  or 
festoon,  instead  of  a  sharp  tooth,  on  the  edge  of  the 


upper  moudible,  and  by  the  shortness  of  the  win^, 
wiiich  reaches  only  to  Uie  middle  of  the  tail  It  is 
more  nearly  allied  to  the  sparrow-hawks,  from  which 
it  is  distinguished  by  its  more  robust  form,  by  its 
shorter  legs,  and  by  the  middle  toe  not  beln^  don- 
gated,  as  m  that  genus.  The  species  U>  which  the 
name  G.  originally  and  strictly  belon pi  {A.  palum- 
bariiu),  is  very  widely  diffuswi  over  Europe,  Asia, 
the  -north  of  Africa,  and  North  Ajnerica,  chiefly 
inhabiting  hilly  and  wooded  regions.  It  is  now 
very  rare  in  Britain,  particularly  in  England. 
Altnough  one  of  those  that  were  called  ifjtwbU  birds 
of  prey,  it  was  much  used  for  falconry,  being  easily 
tramed,  and  very  successful  in  catchmg  such  game 
as  is  either  confined  to  the  ground,  or  does  not  rise 
for  from  it,  or  such  as  is  to  be  found  in  woods, 
through  the  branches  of  which  the  O.  readily 
threads  its  way  in  porsnit.  The  6.  vras  thus  flown 
at  hares,  rabbits,  pheasants,  partridges,  tc  It 
ordinarily  seeks  ita  prey  by  flying  near  the  groond, 
and  can  remain  a  very  long  tune  on  the  wing.  It 
follows  its  prey  in  a  straight  line,  not  rising  m  the 
air  to  descend  upon  it,  like  the  falcons  ;  and  when 
baffled  by  the  object  of  pursuit  entering  a  wood 


jt.GoogIc 


1  some  coreit,  will  perch  o 
a  reappearance  witii  wondei 
pafaenee  for  maiij  houn.  Its  flight  U  very  rapid. 
The  Q.  haUdi  in  trees.  Ita  nest  in  very  Ivge. 
The  female,  which  ii  mncb  laraer  than  the  male,  '~ 
about  two  feet  in  entice  length.  Both  Bezes  k 
of  a  dark  grayiih-browD  colonr,  the  npper  loriace 
of  the  tau-feathen  barred  wiOi  darker  brown  j 
th^re  is  a  broad  white  stzeak  above  each  eye ;  the 
under  parts  are  also  whitish,  with  brown  bars  and 
■tteaka. — OUier  spedea  are  foond  in  India,  SouUi 
Africa,  Australia,  tc 

GO'SBES,  the  name   of  that  part  of  andt 
E^ypt  which  Pharaoh  made  a  present  of   to  t 
kini&ed  of  Joseph  when  thev  came  to  sojourn 
that  country.    It  appears  to  have  lun  between  the 
eastern  delta  of  the  Nile  and  the  frontier  of  Pales- 
tine, and  to  have  been  suited  mainly  for  a  pastoral 
people,  which  the  Hebrews  were.     Ramesea,  the 
principal  city  of  the  land,  was  the  starting-point 
of  tlie  Eiomu  of  the  chosen  people,  who  reached 
the  Ked  Sea  in  three  days.    From  this  and  other 
drcntostancce,    it   has   been    concloded   that   the 
Wtide-i-Tumei/ldi  {&«  valley  througli  which  formerly 
passed  the  canal  ot  the  B^d  Sea,  and  at  the  weatem 
extremity  of  which  Rameaes  was  situated)  is  prob- 
ably the  O.  of  the  Old  Taitiuneiit. 

GCSIiAB,  a  small  hut  uideDt  and 
town  ot  Hanover,  is  situated  on  the  border 
Brunswick,  on  the  Gosc^  from  which  the  town 
derives  its  name,  26  miles  sooth-eaat  of  Hildesbeim. 
It  was  at  one  time  a  free  imperial  city,  and  the 
reudence  of  the  emperor.  Of  alt  the  foitificatioos 
of  whicli  it  once  boasled,  the  walla  and  one  tower 
— the  Zwinger,  the  walls  of  which  are  21  feet  tiuck 
— alone  remain.  Of  the  venerable  cathedral,  tlie 
porch  ( VorAalU,  date  1150)  is  the  sole  relic ;  the 
eom-m«garine  is  a  portion  of  an  old  impecial  palace ; 
the  Gothic  chnrch  in  the  mai^et-place  dates  from 
1521 ;  the  hotel  called  the  KaiteneoTlh  has  ei^t 
portraits  ot  German  emperora.  O.  was  founded  oy 
Eeiniich  L  abont  920 ;  and  under  Otto  L  the  mines, 
for  which  Q.  has  ever  since  been  celebrated,  were 
opened  in  986.  The  manufBctores  of  Q.  are  unim- 
portant ;  and  the  mines  of  gold,  ailver,  copper,  lead, 
and  zinc  are  nearly  exhaoated.    Pop.  (1871)  8923. 

GOSPEL  SIDE  OP  THE  ALTAR,  the  right 
side  of  the  altar  or  cnmmnnioii  table,  looking  from 
il^  at  which,  in  the  English  Cbnreh  service,  the  gospel 
anKHnted  for  th»  d*]^  is  read.  It  is  of  hlKher 
distinction  flkan  the  enatle  aide,  and  is  occnpied  by 
the  cleigniiMi  of  lusbest  ecclesiastical  rank  who 
hai^Mnt  to  be  prcMUt.  In  some  cathedrals,  one  of 
the  decgy  has  this  special  duty  to  perform,  and  is 
dsognated  the  Oospeller. 

GOSPELS.  The  expreamon  is  derived  frcon  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  meajis  litenUIy  good  nam.  The 
message  of  Christ,  or  the  doctrine  of  Christianity, 
waa  called  the  Ooapel  (to  euaggdion);  and  the 
bspired  record*  by  which  this  message  or  doc- 
trine have  been  traoamitted  to  the  church  in 
BDccesnve  ages,  have  received  the  name  of  the 
Oc^iel*  {la  ttuifffdia).  When  this  name  waa  &at 
diatmctly  apphed  to  these  records,  is  uncertain. 
The  nan  ot  it  in  Justin  Martyr,  abont  the  middle 
of  the  3d  o.,  is  a  subject  of  dispute.  It  appears 
to  bare  been  in  oomnuM)  nse  in  the  conrse  of  the 
thinl  oentoij. 

1.  OflMitMnaa— The  primary  and  moat  intereat- 
ing  inquiry  oonoeming  the  Gcapels  is  a*  to  their 
genmnauB.  They  profess  to  be  the  inspired 
records  ot  onr  Lorf s  life — of  his  aayinga  and 
doings — proceeding  in  two  oases  from  men  who 
were  his  apoal^  and  oomponions  (Matthew  and 
John);  and  in  the  two  other  oases  icom  men  who, 


(Mark  and  Luke.)  According  to  their  profession, 
they  were  all  composed  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  1st  c. ;  the  three  Synoplie  Ooepels,  as  they  are 
called,  probably  during  the  decode  preceding  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titos  (60 — 70),  and 
the  fourth  Gospel  of  St  John  oesr  the  dose  of  the 
century.  The  questioii  a*  to  their  genoineneaa  ia 
in  the  main  the  qneation  as  to  Qie  fact  of  thdr 
existence  at  tbia  early  period  ;  the  special  authorship 
of  each  Gospel  is  a  comparatively  less  important 
question. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  existence  of  the  Gospels 
within  the  Jst  o.  ia  a  point  which  can  only  be 
settled  by  the  ordinary  ndes  of  historical  evidence 
What  Izacea  have  we  of  their  existence  at  this 
early  period?  As  Paley  jllustrates  the  matter, 
we  can  tell  of  the  existence  of  Lord  C  ~  '  ' 
Hitlory  qf  Hie  RAtUion  at   I 


to  Bi^p  Burnet's  RiMory  of  hit  Own  7%nw, 
by  the  iaot  that  Butnet  qnot«s  Clarendon.  If 
the   QcapeU  existed  in  the   1st  o.,  therefore,  i 


ahall  expect  to  find  similar  evidences  of  their 
cziateace  in  the  Christian  vrritinrai  ot  the  2d  and  3d 
centuries.  We  do  find  such  evidence  in  abundance 
during  the  3d  centory.  In  such  writen  as  Origen 
and  Cyprian,  we  not  only  find  quotations  from 
the  QoBpela,  but  We  find  the  Gospela  themselves 
mentioned  byname  as  booka  of  authority  amongst 
Chriaidana.  From  the  writings  of  Origen  alone,  if 
tbey  had  survived,  we  mi^t  nave  colleoted,  it  hsa 
been  said,  the  whole  text  not  only  of  the  Gospels, 
but  of  the  Old  and  New  Teatamenta.  At  this  point, 
then,  there  is  no  question.  No  one  can  dispute  the 
existence  of  the  Gospcjs  in  the  age  of  Ongen,  or 
that  immediately  preceding — that  la  to  aay,  in  the 
begiiming  of  the  3d  century.  But  We  can  asoend 
with  an  almost  equally  clear  light  of  evidence  to 
the  time  of  Irensus,  or  the  last  qnarter  of  the  2d 
CQitury.  The  passage  in  which  Jrenieas  apMks  of 
the  Gospels  ia  so  significant  and  important  that  it 
deserves  to  be  extracted.  'WB,'haBavs{Ct»iftair{eTi«. 
lib.  iiL  o.  1),  'have  not  received  the  knowledge  ot 
the  way  of  our  salvation  by  any  others  than  those 
through  whom  the  Qoapel  has  come  down  to  us ; 
which  Ooapel  they  first  preached,  and  afterwards, 
by  tho  will  of  God,  transmitted  to  na  in  writing, 
that  it  ought  be  the  foundation  and  pillar  of  our 
faith.'  *  EW  after  onr  Lord  had  riaoi  from  the 
dead,  and  they  (the  apostles)  were  clothed  with  the 
power  of  the  Holy  Spirit  descending  upon  them 
from  on  high,  were  filled  with  all  gifts,  ana  poasesaed 
perfect  knowledge,  they  went  forth  to  the  ends  of 
the  earth,  apreoiSng  the  glad  tidings  of  those  bless- 
ings which  Ood  has  conferred  opon  us.  MaUheto 
among  the  Bfbrans  pTibla/ied  a  Ooipei  in  iieiT  oton 
languaga;  while  Peter  and  Paul  were  preaching  the 
Got^>el  at  Some  and  founding  a  church  there.  And 
after  their  departure  (death),  Mark  the  dudpU  and 
tMterprsIcr  of  Ptttr  himae^  ddivard  in  wr^ing  vAat 
Peter  kad  preaAed;  and  LaJce,  tiie  eompanioa  of 
Paxi,  reeorded  the  Ooepd  prtaehed  hy  him.  AfUr- 
Kordt,  John,  lAe  diteipla  of  As  Lord,  tiiAo  boned  u/wn 
Ail  brtatl,  liheuiee  pxaiUthed  a  Oo^ptt  loAtfe  ht  (fuwU 
at  £pAotu  ut  Alia.'  These  words  are  veiy  explicit 
and  to  the  point ;  and  elsewhere,  Irenanis  speaks 
still  more  particularly  of  the  several  Gospels,  and 
endeavours  to  characterise  them  in  a  somewhat 
fanciful  way,  which,  if  it  does  not  prove  his  own 
judfment,  at  least  provea  the  kind  of  veneration 
~itn  which  the  Qoapela  were  regarded  in  his  time. 
;  ia  equally  beyond  qneation,  then,  that  the 
CSoi^ielB  were  in  existence  in  the  end  of  the  2d 
c,  and  that  they  were  attributed  to  the  author* 


tyCUUl^lC 


wbow  nuDM  thejr  b«M.  '  It  ia  mllow«d  Ijj  thoM 
who  have  reduucd  tlie  gennins  apoetolio  workt  to  tlis 
nuTciiTMt  limits,  tb*^  bom  the  time  of  IreiuBus, 
Uia  New  Teatemeot  was  (ioiD]>aeed  euentiallr  of  the 
Nune  books  u  we  reoaive  at  pnaaut ;  and  that  they 
ware  regarded  with  the  aame  reTsreDoe  aa  ia  dow 
ahewn  to  tham.'— Wettoott,  Hitloni<ifCmoit.  The 
evideno*  npm  which  we  Mo«pt  m  DudonbtMU^ 
genuine  the  produolion>'<rf  niaay  elMrio  antbon,  u 
Dot  ta  be  MHopared  in  oleamM*  and  fulncM  to  the 
eTidenoa  for  Uie  genuineiieai  of  the  Ovapeli  at  this 
sta^  Any  difficultiea  that  the  lubjeot  involvea 
brain  at  a  point  higher  np  than  thia. 

The  age  of  Ireiueus  ia  the^A  generatiOQ  from 
the  beginoing  of  the  apoitolio  era — the  Ihird  from 
ji .  .  —  ■ _.   ■.     nn._  —"ending  ganeratioiM 


John,  or  the  later  apottolio  age.  It  is  within  theas 
tiirae  generationt,  and  eapeciaU;  within  the  third 
and  fourth,  that  the  mbjet^  of  the  genuinanesa 
of  the  Gotpela  givn  any  oauae  for  hetitation  and 
diKUMion. 

Such  writers  aa  Juatln  Mat^r  and  Ignatiua 
nowhere  quote  the  Qoapell  by  name.  In  a  fngment 
id  Papiaa  preaerred  by  Euaebius,  there  ia  mentioD 
of  Matthew  kod  Mark  having  written  accounts  of 
the  aotiona  and  discouteea  of  our  Lord ;  bat  with 
thi>  eioeption,  there  ia  no  mention  of  the  GoipeU, 
or  of  theiT  authora  by  name,  in  theae  earlier  Chris- 
tian wiiteiB.  Not  only  ao,  but  Juatio  Martyr 
appeala  conatantly  to  sourcee  o(  infonoatioQ  which 
ha  atylea  not  ■  Ooapels '  of  St  Matthew,  St  Lnke, 
or  8t  John,  but  MemMrt  of  lAc  AjkuUm  {aptmaa- 
mmaanala  ita  apotlolSa).  The  phrase  a  Weito* 
ataggdia  (which  are  oaUed  goapela),  which  follows 
the  former  in  the  common  versiona  of  Joatin's 
text,  ia  lappoied  by  many  to  be  an  interpoUtiUL 
Thia  baa  given  rise  to  a  good  deal  of  discoMian  as 
to  the  effect  of  Justin  Martyr's  evidenoe  on  this 


Martyr' 
subject.  The  diaouadon  haa  been  of  this 
Weie  these  Menutin  q/"  Vit  ApoMe*  ma  Ooapel^  or 
were  they  some  other  books  of  ioformation  as  to 
Christ's  aayings  and  doings  to  which  he  had  aoceaa  t 
Many  Qerman  critjci  have  been  oonHdent  they 
w«l«  not  our  Goepela ;  and  Biabap  Marsh  haa  gone 
the  length  of  aaymg.  that  Justin  did  not  quote  our 
Qotpola.  The  question,  therefor^  as  to  whether 
Jus^  Martyr  qnotea  our  Ooapels,  may  be  aud 
to  be  the  tnmin^point  in  the  eridenca  for  theii 
genainenMa.  Aluuxij^  not  altogether  free  from 
difficulty,  it  appears  to  oa  that  no  raaaooable 
doubt  oan  be  entertained  that  the  Menunrt  of  the 
ApodUi  to  vhidi  Jnatin  constantly  refen  were 
no  oiher  than  oar  OoepelE.  This  ai^aai«  oondu- 
Btdf  eat^iahed  by  the  three  following  oon- 
-'—" —     jjj  r^^  degree  of  coincidenoe  which 


Jnatin,  who  quotes  the 
ggnaral  manner,  and  ia  the  very  same  aa  we  find  in 
other  wrilen  both  before  and  after  him.  Further, 
the  accoont  which  he  giTea  of  the  origin  of  the 
Mtmoiirt  ooRwponds  wi£  the  origin  of  the  Qo«p^ 
— vie,  that  two  were  written  by  apostles,  and  two 
by  oompai^anB  of  the  apostlea.  (3)  The  extreme 
improbability  that  there  could  have  been  other 
booka  bendea  the  Gospels  of  the  aame  a^iparently 


authoritatiTe  character,  all  trace  of  vhidi 
diaappeared,  and  of  which,  in  fact,  we  find  lu 
cation  save  in  Justin  Martyr.— Bverytlung 


against  suoh  a  soppontion.  The  booka  of  whidi 
i^atin  speaks  were  read  in  the  assemblies  of  tlie 
Christiana  on  Snndaya  j  they  were  reganled  with 
respect  and  veneration ;  they  were  evidently  looked 
upon  as  authoritativs.  It  is  wholly  inconceivable, 
that  if  there  were  such  bo(^  other  than  the  Gos- 
pels, they  ahonld  not  have  been  mentioned  by  other 
wiiten  as  veil  «a  Joatin  {  or  that  tbay  diould  hare 
nttsriy  psriahed.  (Sj  The  asrtainty,  from  the  state- 
nwDts  of  nieli  wntsra  aa  Ir«n«at  in  the  geuer- 
atioD  immsdiately  foUowing  Um,  that  Justin  must 
have  known  our  QoapeU.— In  ttu*  later  generatioa 
we  find  the  Gospela  everywhere  difftued :  reoeived 
and  reverenced  alike  at  Aleiandria,  Lyons,  and 
Cartha^ ;  by  Clemens  AleiondrinuH,  IrenBus,  and 
Tertullian.  The^  could  not  all  at  ouca  have  attained 
this  wide  diffusion,  or  started  into  this  position  of 
anthority.  The  manner  in  which  Irensus  speaks 
of  then  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact,  that 
he  had  reoeived  them  from  hia  teachers ;  that  they 
had  been  haoded  down  to  him  aa  inspired  authorities 
from  the  first  ages.  We  mnat  take  the  light  of 
such  a  statement  with  ua  in  ascending  to  }ha  aofi  of 
Justin  Martyr ;  and  in  this  light  it  ia  uoiuteUigibla 
that  the  Ooepela  ahould  not  have  been  known  to 
Juatin,  and  conaulted  by  hrm.  The  mere  fact  of 
hi^  calling  hia  auUiorities  by  the  peculiar  name  of 
ilemoirt  cannot  be  set  agunst  idl  this  evidence. 
The  name  of  Memoirt,  indeed,  rather  than  Gospels, 
was  only  a  natural  one  for  thjB  writer  to  use,  with 
his  cliaaieal  predilectiaos  and  philoaophical  training, 
and  conaideruig  that  he  waa  addressing  a  heathen 
emperor,  and  through  him  the  Gentile  world  at  large. 

When  we  ascend  beyond  the  we  of  Justin  to 
Ignatins  and  Pa[aat,  we  find  in  a  Ragment  of  the 
mter,  aa  haa  been  already  stated,  meAion  of  Mat^ 
thew  and  Made  hanna  written  accounts  of  the  life 
of  the  Lord  y  while  in  the  letters  of  the  former,  aa  in 
the  atill  earher  Epistle  of  Clemens  Bomaana  and  the 
BOH^ed  Epiltle  of  Barnabas — both  of  which  belong 
to  the  Ist  c,  and  consequently  reach  the  apoetolio 
age  itself — we  find  various  quotatioai  that  seem  to 
l^  nude  from  the  Gospels.  The  qnotatiDaa  from  St 
Matthew  are  the  most  numerous.  If  these  quota- 
tions stood  by  themselvea,  it  might  be  doubtful  how 
far  they  constituted  evidtaioe  of  the  ezisteDce  of 
the  Ooepela  at  thia  early  period.  They  might  poa- 
sibly  indicate  merely  a  nniformity  of  oral  tradition 
aa  to  the  sayinga  of  onr  Lord ;  bat  when  we  re^rd 
thatn  in  oonneotioB  with  tlu  position  of  the  writers, 
and  the  whole  taua  of  thouAt  and  assocnation  in 
which  tii^  occur,  they  ae«m  to  bear  out  tlte  widest 
ooncIuaioD  vre  could  with  to  found  on  them.  The 
ezistenoe  and  charaoter  of  such  men  as  lEoatias  and 
Clemena  are  unintelligible  save  in  the  light  of  the 
Gospel  history. 

In  addition  to  thia  ohain  of  direct  Catholic 
evidence  for  the  senuineneas  of  the  Gospels,  the 
fragments  which  have  been  preserved  of  heretical 
wntera  famish  important,  and  in  some  reepeola 
singularly  conclusive  evidence.  The  Gnostic  Basi- 
Ldee  quotcB  the  Gospels  of  St  Jobo  and  St  Luke 
about  the  year  1S(X  The  heretica  appealed  to  them 
aa  well  aa  the  Cath<^c  writer*,  and  in  thia  fact 


church  in  the  2i 

theory  as  to  the  ori^  of  the  Gospeta  virtually  eup- 
pones.  Upon  a  review  of  all  the  evidence  from  vm 
apoetolio  fathers  down  to  the  counml  of  Laodicea, 
when  the  foor  Gospels  are  reckoned  as  part  of  the 
canon  of  Scripture,  '  there  can  hardly  be  room  for 
any  candid  person  to  doubt,'  it  hat  been  said, '  that 
frcon  the  beginning  the  four  QospBl*  were  recognised 
B«  genuine  and  inspired — that  a  line  of  distinc- 
tion was  drawn  between  them  and  Uie  so-c^led 


,i;;at,,(jOOg|e 


B  of  the  Goipala  omtwnly 

•  thu  th&t  on  whidi  wa 

nuDT  uunant  mitii^ 

nd  ContraiL—^ASUa  ths 

I  of  the  Gnpel^the  naxt  point  of  importr- 

™"  ♦'"•m  u  the  lelotion  -which  th^  Mar 

„,  w„  -M..»«   oi  Twpect  of  th«tr  omtenti   — ' 

anangement — the   ooinoidcnoM   and  diacrepaL 

with  <MM  anotha  whieh  they  present.  The  nioat 
obriini*  diitiitatiMi  amtms  the  Ooapela  aa  a  whole  i* 
between  the  Ocapel  id  St  John  and  the  three  Synop- 
tical Ooapall,  aa  they  are  oalled.  Matthew,  Mark, 
•nd  Iflke,  in  namting  the  miniEtry,  diacoDTaee,  and 
mindea  of  oar  Lord,  confine  thamselTca  excliuirBly 
to  what  took  place  in  Galilee  until  the  last  journey 
to  Jerusalem.  Weihanld  not  know  from  them  of  the 
iiii  I  iiBii  II  jiiiiiiii  jii  that  oar  Lord  made  to  Jeruulem. 
John,  on  the  contrary,  brinee  into  view  promiaently 
his  relation  to  Jadea ;  and  of  the  diacoitrsea  dsliTered 


-_,chapt«r.    _, , 

Hat  Jotm  bad  a  tpecial  object  in  rnlting  his  Ooapel, 
an  object  in  somi  '         -    ■  -' 

histoncal;  and  it 


pecial objei  „  i-  ■ 

1  respecn  more  dojnnatieal  than 
is  probable  that,  having  seen  the 

„  G«n>elB,  he  purposely  abstained  from 
g  what  they  had  already  recorded,  and  Kntght 
to  SDppIy  inch  deficiencies  aa  appealed  to  exist  in 
their  recotda.  When  we  have  no  knowledge  of 
the  mbjeet,  this  at  )ea«t  seems  as  probable  a  sappo- 
■ition  ■«  a^  other.  A  comparison  of  the  three 
^□optical  GMpeLi  reveals  tame  icteitstdng  results. 
if  we  suppose  them  respectively  divided  mto  100 
sections,  we  shall  find  that  they  coincide  in  abont 
£3  of  them ;  that  Matthew  and  Loke  further 
oomcide  in  !1 ;  Matthew  and  Mark  in  20 ;  and 
Ualk  and  Lnke  in  6.  This,  of  conrae,  applies  to 
the  sabstantia]  coincidence  of  fact  and  narrative 
in  each  esse.  The  relative  verbal  coincidence  is 
Irf  no  meant  so  marked ;  it  it,  however,  very  con- 
Eiderable,  and  presents  some  interesting  featnrea, 
which  Frofeasor  Andrew  Norton  has  set  forth 
oleariy  in  his  sdmirabla  work  on  the  OanUnaiett 
il/'AeOo^>tU. 

It  is  not  dodrable  to  go  into  further  details  in  thtt 
[daee  ;  bnt  th«  lesnlt  of  tiie  extremely  critical  and 


it  a  aJngiilM-  ooin^itoK*  in  substance  in  the  three 
Syaoptie  Goapels.  'Snbatantial  unity  with  cir- 
oonatantial  variety,'  i*  a  saying  stridJy  troe  of 
thaift-^iiire  bue  of  them  uian  of  any  anthers 
|iiiifi»iiig  to  narrate  the  Bams  cireomstancea.  The 
oaineideBca  is  greatly  more  apparent  in  the  dis. 
cowaes  than  in  the  narrative  parts  of  the  Gospels, 
most  of  all  apparent  in  the  spoken  words  of  oar 
Lord.  At  ths  same  time,  there  are  certain  pot- 
tioDt  id  aanmtive  of  p«*i  importance,  that  thew 
ui  the  aevaMl  svaagMistt  almost  a  Wbal  coinoi- 
dmce,  aa  in  the  e«U  of  the  finrt  four  disciples  and 
Um  acooonta  of  the  TnunsfiguratioD.  '  The  agree- 
nwDt  in  the  narrative  portions  of  the  Goapels  begins 
vith  the  baptism  of  John,  and  reachea  ttt  hiKbeat 
point  in  tha  aoooant  of  the  psssfam  of  our  Lord,  and 
the  &c1b  that  preceded  it ;  so  that  a  direct  i»tio 
might  be  laid  between  the  amount  of  agreement 
ana  die  iMiarnnas  of  the  facts  related  to  Uks  Passion. 
After  this  event,  in  the  aoconnt  of  his  bnriaJ  and 
rasorrection,  the  ooincidencea  are  few.'  There  are 
no  paita  that  fnniish  more  difBcnlty,  in  the  way 
of  tonnal   harmony,  than   the  narrativet   of   tlie 


Tlie  langnage  of  all  the  Ootpelt  is  well  known 
to  ba  GnA  with  Hebrew  idloma,  or  what  has  been 
osOed  BeUenistio  Greek.  The  tradition,  however, 
ef  a  Hebrew  original  of  8t  Matthew't  gospel  it 


uniform.  In  the  fngment  of  Papiat,  and  in  the 
statement  of  Iren«nt — the  earliwt  sources  in  which 
we  have  any  dittinot  mention  of  the  Gospels— it 
is  plainly  aaetted  that  Matthew  wrote  bis  Gospel 
in  the  Hebrew  dialect.  The  fact  ia  made  a  mark 
of  distinction  between  his  Gospel  and  the  others. 
The  same  uniformity  of  tradition  ascribes  tha  Gi»pel 
of  St  Mark  to  the  teaching  of  St  Peter.  The  Gospel 
of  St  Mark  it  the  most  summary  of  the  three,  yet, 
in  soma  respects,  it  is  stamped  with  a  special 
individually  and  oripnality.  It  deacHbea  sccnea 
'and  acts  of  our  Lord  and  others  with  a  minutely 
graphic  detail,  throwing  in  partionlars  omitted  by 
others,  and  revealing  throughout  the  observant 
eye-witness  and  independent  historian. 

S.  Origin  i^  Ihe  Ootptit. — This  ia  a  separate 
inquiry  from  tjieir  genuineness,  although  intimately 
ocnnected  with  it,  and  sprinsH  imme^tely  out  of 
those  facts  aa  to  the  intenuU  sfreement  and  dis- 
agreement of  the  Gospels  of  which  we  have  been 
The  inquiry  has  been  treated  tn  an 
technical  msimec  by  many  crildce,  and 
not  suit  our  purpose  to  enumerate  and 
examine  the  various  theories  which  have  been 
propounded  on  the  subject  We  may  only  state 
generally,  that  the  object  of  Hiaa  theories  lias  been 
to  find  s  common  original  for  the  Gospels.  Seme 
mxrfess  to  find  such  an  original  in  one  of  the  three 
Gospels,  from  which  the  others  have  been  mora 
or  less  copied,  and  each  of  them  in  turn  has  been 
taken  as  the  basis  of  the  other  two.  The  mors 
elaborate  theories  of  Eichhom  and  Bishop  Marsh, 
however,  presume  an  original  document,  differing 
from  any  of  the  existing  Gospels,  and  which  is 
supposed  to  psB  through  variont  modificationa,  into 
tiie  tiiresfold  form  which  it  now  bears  in  them.  It 
appeared  to  Eiohh^n  that  the  portiona  which  are 

^.  ^  ^^  three  Gospels  were  contuned  in 

Mnmon  document  from  which  they  all 
drew.  It  had  been  already  sasumed  that  copies  of 
suoh  a  doaament  had  got  into  circulation,  and  had 
been  altered  and  annotated  by  different  hands. 
But  Mohhom  works  oat  an  elaborate  hypothesis 
"■  -  presumption.    Herequiree  for  "■" 


no  fewer  ti 


a  documents. 


rs 


of  the  problem  cannot  be  met  otherwise. 
These  are  in  order :  1.  An  original  document ; 
2.  An  altered  oopy  which  St  Matuew  nsed ;  Z.  Aji 
altered  oopy  which  St  Lnke  used ;  4.  A  third  copy 
made  from  the  two  preceding,  used  by  St  Mark  ; 
5.  A  fourth  altered  copy  used  tre  St  Matthew  and 
at  Luke  in  common,  fijihop  Hotsh,  in  fallowing 
out  the  same  procesa  of  aonttmotion,  finds  n 
necessary  to  increase  the  supposititioas  documents 
to  eight,  which  ws  need  not  describe.  There  is  not 
the  subtest  external  evidence  of  ths  eiittoice  of 
saoh  documents  ;  and  theories  of  this  kind,  which, 
in  order  to  explain  difiicultiea,  call  into  eostence  at 
evm7  stage. an  imaginary  solution,  do  not  require 
■eiions  refutation. 

Another  and  more  probable  BUppoaltioa  is, 
that  the  GoBpels  epnung  ont  of  a  common  oral 
tradition.  Toe  preaching  of  the  apostles  was 
necessarily,  to  a  great  extent,  a  preaching  of  facts ; 
and  so  zealously  did  they  give  themselves  to  the 
task  of  promulgating  the  wondrous  life  and  death 
of  Christ,  that  the^  early  divested  themselves  of 
the  labour  of  mimstering  to  any  of  the  lower 
wanta  of  the  oonxregatitmB  of  diaeiples  that  they 
gradually  gatherea  rcund  them.  It  is  obvious  that, 
m  the  course  of  their  active  *  ministry  of  the  wocd,' 
the  facts  of  onr  Lord's  life  and  destb,  of  whidh  they 
had  been  eye-witnesses,  would  gradually  aioume 
a  regular  outline.  What  the  readmg  of  the  Gospels 
is  to  us,  tha  preaching  of  the  apostles  would  be 
very  mnoh  to  tlie  early  ChriitisiiB.    The  sermon  of 


L.oogit 


Peter  ftt  CROsrea  (Aots  z.  34)  iiiay^  give  some 
imp^ect  idea  of  the  charaotel  at  tliu  preaching 
Hie  faota  thtu  briefly  indicated  would  expand 
in  fiequcnt  communioitioD  to  •omething  of  the 
mure  detached  and  Jiving  form  which  tLey  exhibit 
in  the  Goepels,  or  rather  in  what  we  may  mppose 
to  have  been  the  common  mhstrstom  or  ground- 
work of  the  GoapelB.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that 
tha  apostles  were  promiwd  that  the  Holy  SlMrit 
would  ■  brina  all  things  to  their  remembrance 
whataoover  Uie  Lord  had  said  nnto  Uiem.'  And 
UuB  constant  guidance  and  snperinteodeace  of  Uie 
Divine  S[arit  wonld  anffioiently  account  for  the 
unifonnity  and  consistency  of  their  oral  inatruc- 
tioD,  even  althoudi  not  reduced  to  writing  for  a 
considerable  number  of  yean.  Allowing  lor  the 
widest  space  of  ^ean  it  may  be  necenaly  to  OMnme 
before  the  writing  of  the  first  Oospe^  the  chief 
aposdefi  tbenuelvea  are  yet  living  at  the  end  of 
thia  space.  It  is  not  a  mere  badition  of  their 
teaching  that  inrvivea,  but  it  is  their  own  living 
witneeB  that  ia  cinmlated  from  church  to  church, 
as  they  pau  to  and  fro  in  their  evangelistio  loboura. 

It  ia  imposaiUe  to  say  whether  tius  hypothesis  of 
the  origin  of  the  G<»pela  be  really  the  correct  one 
or  not;  all  we  need  to  say  is,  that  it  seems  to 
poneae  more  probabili^  in  iteelf  than  any  hvpO' 
thesis  of  a  common  written  souroe,  from  which 
they  were  imiectively  borrowed,  and  which  has 
disappeared.  It  fits,  moreover,  into  the  facts  of 
the  case. — Westcott,  lalroduelion  to  rAe  Study  of 
lie  GotpeU,  p.  189. 

According  to  this  view  of  tlie  origin  of  the 
Qospels,  that  of  St  Mark,  if  not  the  oldest  in 
composition.  Is  yet  probably  the  most  direct  and 
primitive  in  form.  In  its  lifelike  simplicity  and 
comparative  unoonsciousness  of  aim,  it  represents 
most  immediiLtely  the  apostolic  preaohinff ;  it  ia 
the  testimony  d^vered  by  St  Peter,  possibly  with 
little  adaptation.  Histoncal  evidence,  as  we  have 
already  said,  is  uniform  sa  to  the  association  of  Mark 
and  ret«r:  Mark  is  everywhere  interpret  Petri. 
The  Oo^iels  of  St  Matthew  and  3t  Luke,  >Kun, 
'  represent  the  two  great  types  of  reoension  to  wtuch 
it  may  be  supposed  that  Uie  simple  narrative  was 
subjected.  St  "Lake  represents  llie  Hellenic,  and 
St  Mattliew  the  later  Hebraic  form  of  the  tradition, 
and  in  its  present  shape  the  latter  aeems  to  rive 
Uie  last  authentic  record  of  the  primitive  OoapeP 

A  common  oral  Gospel  seems  also  to  present  the 
most  natural  explanation  of  the  accordances  and 
variations  of  the  three  Synoptic  Gospels.  The  words 
of  the  Lord,  which  preseot  in  all  such  a  marked 
uniformily,  would  necessarily  aesume  a  more  fixed 
character  in  such  an  oral  tradition,  while  the  narra- 
tive surrounding  them  would  remain  comjvuatively 
free.  Single  (£raaBs  oC  a  peculiar  and  important 
character  would  be  closely  retained;  there  would 
be,  exactly  as  we  lind,  a  uniform  strain  of  hallowed 
language  mingling  witii  variatioiis  in  detail — a 
mu'fy  of  tone,  and  even  of  speech,  with  variety  of 
ntodulation  and  emphasis. 

This  theory  of  a  common  or^  origin  of  the 
Qospels  is  of  conrae  widely  separated  from  the  well- 
known  Tubingen  theory,  which  carries  the  period 
of  tradition  down  to  the  middle  of  the  2d  c.,  and  sup- 
poses the  Ootids  to  have  been  then  called  forth  by 
the  influence  of  i^poang  teachers.  The  faoti  of  the 
c««e,  B«  wdl  aa  tos  evUence  for  their  gem  ' 
which  we  have  already  qooted,  ara  whdly 
to  such  a  snppoiition,  lorln  this  ease  the  rmresenta- 
tion  ot  the  Ooepels  would  be  wholly  ideaL  There 
might  be  a  ground  of  fact  in  the  mere  exislenoe  of 
Jesus  of  Noxareth,  but  the  picture  of  His  life  and 
death  would  be  merely  the  imaginative  dream  of  men 
'    '   i  by  religious  enthaaiasm.    And  this  is 


the  TQbingen  expUaation  of  the  rise  of  Christianity ! 
It  may  be  sorely  said  that  there  never  was  a  more 
inadequate  ex^onation  of  a  wonderful  historical 
phenomenon ;  for  how  was  the  Jewish  mind,  in  its 
feebleness  and  decay,  capable  of  conceiving  such  an 
ideal  at  the  life  and  character  of  ChrirtT    Their 


whatem  difficulties  it  may  present — the  oonclu- 
m  alike  sanctioned  by  orthodoxy,  and  approved 

by  impartial  historical  inquiry. — Tbe  reader  who 


desires  fnrther  infoimatiini  on  the  subject  may 
consult  Professor  Norton's  work  on  the  Oenuinmem 
of  the  Qotpde,  and  Westcott's  InlrodiKUon  to  (As 
Study  of  tie  Ootpd*. 

GO'SPOBT  {'God's  port'),  a  market-town  aud 
seaport  of  England,  in  the  county  of  Hiutts,  stands 
on  the  western  shore  of  Portsmouth  Harbour,  and 
direcUy  opposite  Portsmouth,  with  which  jt  it 
connected  by  a  floating  bridge.  It  ia  14  miles 
south-east  of  Southampton,  ana  89  miles  south-west 
of  London  by  the  London  and  South- Western  Rul- 
way.  It  is  enclosed  within  ramparts,  which  seem 
a  portion  of  those  which  also  surround  Portsmouth 
and  Fortsea.  The  Haalar  Gun-boat  Ship-yard, 
connected  with  the  town,  is  used  for  bmiUng  up  and 
keeiHug  in  repair  all  the  gun-boats  belonging  to 
this  port.  All  extensive  iron  foundry  mr  the 
mannlactnre  of  anchors  and  chun-cablea,  and  con- 
■ideTable  coastins-trado  are  here  carried  on.  The 
main  feature  of  G.,  however,  is  the  Hoval  Clartaee 
VUtuaUing  Yard,  which  contains  a  brewery,  a 
biscuit-baking  establishment  worked  entirely  by 
steam,  and  numerous  storehousce.  The  bakery  con 
tnm  out  ten  tons  of  biscuit  in  one  hour.  In  tlio 
immediate  vicinity  is  Haslar  Hospital,  erected  in 
1762,  the  chief  establishment  in  Great  Britain  for 
invalid  sailors,  of  whom  SOOO  can  be  accommo- 
dated and  supplied  with  medical  attendance.  Fop. 
(1871)  7368. 

GO'SSAUER,  a  light  filamentous  substance, 
which  often  fills  the  atmosphere  to  a  remarkable 
degree  during  fine  weather  in  the  latter  part  of 
autumn,  or  is  spread  over  Uie  whole  face  of  t^s 
ground,  stretching  from  leaf  to  lea^  and  frcan  [dant 
to  plant,  loaded  with  entangled  dew-drops,  which 
glisten  and  apaiUe  in  tlie  sunshine.  Various 
opinions  were  fonnerly  entertained  oonceming  the 
nature  and  origin  of  gosHsmer,  but  it  it  now  suffi- 
ciently ascertained  to  be  produced  by  small  spiders, 
not,however,byanfgiiiglespecieB,butbyseveisl,not 
improbably  many  species  ;  whilst  it  is  also  said  to 
be  produced  by  yonng,  and  not  by  mature  spiders,  a 
ciraumstanoe  which,  if  placed  b^ond  doubt,  would 
help  to  ocaoont  for  its  appearance  at  a  particular 
season  of  the  yew.  Tbe  production  of  gossamer  by 
apidert  was  fiivt  demonstiated  by  the  observations 
of  Dr  Hulse  and  Dr  Litter  in  the  17th  c,  but  these 
observstions  did  not  tor  a  long  time  meet  with  due 
regard  and  credit,  porticulady  amongst  the  natur- 
alists of  continental  Europe.  It  is  not  yet  well 
known  if  the  gostatner  spread  over  the  surfikce  of  the 
earth  is  produced  by  the  same  speciet  of  spider  which 
produce  that  seen  fioating  in  the  air,  or  falling  as 
if  from  the  clouds.  Why  goatamer  threads  or  webs 
are  produced  by  the  spiders  at  all,  ia  alto  a  ques- 
tion not  vary  easily  answered.  That  they  are  meant 
merelv  for  entangling  isiMt  prey,  does  not  seem 
probaue ;  the  exveme  eagemta  which  some  of  the 
small  tpiders  known  to  produce  them  shew  for 
water  to  drink,  hss  led  to  the  supposition,  that  the 
dew-drops  which  collect  on  them  may  be  one  of  the 
objects  of  the  fonnation  of  tliose  on  the  surface  of 
the  gronnd,  whilst  it  has  been  also  supposed  that 
theymay  aSbrd  a  more  rapid  a~  '  '    ' 


t.CoogIc 


OOSSYHtfM— OOTBIC  AECHTTECTTJEE. 


of  tmwit  from  iilaoe  to  place  than  the  emjdoTiiient 
of  the  legg  of  Uie  animal.  Aa  to  the  goBumen  in 
the  air,  coDJeotars  ii  (till  more  at  a  Ion.  They 
•re  certainly  not  accidentally  wafted  np  from  the 
gruiuid,  aa  might  be  iuppoeed ;  the  nnderB  which 
prodace  them  are  wafted  up  along  with  them ;  bnt 
-whether  for  the  mere  enjoyment  ^  an  aSrial  eicor- 
aion,  or  in  order  to  find  miect  pny  in  the  air,  ii 
not  clear,  althoogh  the  latter  Enppoaitioii  is,  on  the 
whole,  the  moat  probable.  The  uueada  of  gomamer 
are  lo  delicate  IJiat  a  einsle  one  cannot  be  lean  nnleai 
the  ann  ehinea  on  it;  but  being  ^ren  about  by 
the  wind,  tber  often  become  beaten  together  into 
thicker  thrmda  and  flakes.  They  are  oRen  to  be 
felt  on  the  bee  when  they  are  scaTcely  viaible.  The 
■pidera  which  produce  these  threadji  ehoot  them 
out  from  thor  spinnerets,  a  Tisdd  fluid  being  ejected 
with  great  force,  which  presently  becomea  a  thread  ; 
aoiDetmiea  Bertnal  such  threads  are  produced  at 
oiusB  in  a  radiatmg  form,  and  these  being  caught  by 
the  ascending  current  of  heated  air,  are  borne  up, 
and  the  apioer  along  with  them.  It  would  seem 
that  tbe  aplder  baa  btbd  some  power  of  guiding  in 
the  air  the  web  by  which  it  la  wafted  up. 

GOaSTPITJM.    See  Cotton. 

OOTHA,  a  town  of  Gomuuiy,  capital  of  the 
dnchy  of  Saxe-Cofaurg-GoUia,  is  iituated  on  aa 
elevation  in  a  beatitifiil  district  on  the  ri^t  bank  of 
the  Leine,  18  miles  west  of  Erfurt,  by  the  Thurin^an 
Railway.  It  is  a  handsome,  weU-btiilt  town,  la 
qnadrilatoral  in  form,  and  WM  formetly  aurtounded 
by  walls,  which,  however,  have  been  thrown  down, 
and  public  walks  laid  out  in  their  place.  The 
principal  pnblio  building  ia  the  Urge  ducal  palace 
of  Fnedeostein,  with  two  large  side-winga,  and 
two  toweiB  of  144  feet  in  height.  Thia  paliioa  con- 
fauns  a  pictore-galleiT,  in  which  Cranach,  V.  Eyck, 
UiJbein,  Robeus,  and  Bembiandt  are  repieaentcd ; 
a  cabinet  of  engraTinsa  (a  very  valuable  collection) ; 
a  library  (founded  by  Emat  the  Pioua  in  1640) 
of  150,000  volumes  and  6000  manoscnpta,  among 
which  are  SOOO  Arabic,  and  from  300  to  400 
Persian  and  TuiUah ;  a  collection  of  about  80,000 
coitia  and  13J)00  medals,  one  of  the  flneat  collec 
tiona  in  Enivpe ;  and  a  Japanese  and  Chinese 
ntnsenm.  G.  has  also  an  aiwnal,  a  new  and  old 
toWD-hall,  and  muneroua  edocational  and  benevo- 
lent inilJtationa.  The  principal  manufaeturea  are 
mualiuH,  cottons,  porcelain,  colom^  paper,  cloth, 
linen,  tobacco^  musical  and  amvical  inatmmenta, 
*"       Gotba  aausagea  have  a  widespread  celebrity. 


^ njJoyed  here  in  Justus 

Pettlua's  large  geographical  ea^blishment.     Pop. 
(1S71)  2(^S9L 

OOTHA,  Aliuhach   DC,  a  miiveiBal   political 
register,  is  published  annually  at  Qotha  (q.  v.).    The 

Clication  of  tliia  almanac  commenced  in  1764,  in  the 
man  language,  in  which  it  was  continued  until 
Napoleon  L  becune  emperor,  when  it  waa  changed  to 
the  Freaofa  langnage ;  it  has  recently  been  puWahed 
in  both  tonglira.  Ihe  almaaao  ia  a  smill  pocket 
volmua,  containing  at  present  nearly  one  thousand 
paoea  of  small  tn>e,  aiid  recording  the  soverei^ 
and  royal  fagiilJM  Ol  every  dviliaad  country,  with 
the  cini,  diplomatic,  military,  and  naval  officers,  a 
great  amomit  of  statistical  mformation,  a  compact 
— muiy  of  historioal  events,  obituary  notices  of 
most  distinguished  persons,  and  other  matters 
oi  political  inteiieet.  No  book  ever  printed  contains 
so  much  political  and  statistical  inlormation  in  so 
■mall  a  compssa.  Tbe  boundariea  of  atates  are 
given  according  to  the  latest  treaties,  with  their 
eitont,  population,  and  revenues.  The  an 
tUpiomalujue  contains  the  name  of  every  dipli 


ditnrea  and  debts,  with  the  interest,  the  number  of 
representativea,  under  representative  governments, 
and  their  praportion  to  the  population,  are  caiefnlly 
civen.  As  a  work  of  sucli  an  extent  cannot  be 
down  to  the  end  of  the  year,  the  date  of 


Cbhcation  is  stated,  and 
I  been  given  to  each  pa 


page,ai 


changes.  When  the  AlrtumaA  de  Q.  woa  c 
menced,  there  was  but  one  republio  in  existence^ 
that  of  Switzerland.  It  was  then  little  more  than  a 
register  of  the  crowned  heads  and  loyal  families  of 
Europe.  It  has  been  slow  to  recognise  political 
chsnfea,  and  for  yeata  after  the  French  Revolntion, 
continued  to  print  mider  the  bead  of  '  France,' 
Louis  XVit  aa  the  reigning  monarch.  It  was  not 
until  Napoleon  became  emperor  that  hia  name  found 
a  place  in  its  psgea,  and  then  his  whole  family 
waa  dyen,  as  With  the  other  royal  honaea.  It  ws« 
at  tMa  period  that  it  bc^an  to  be  printed  in 
French,  which,  being  the  recognised  language  of 
courta,  is  found  the  most  convenient,  and  baa  been 
ever  since  retuned.  During  the  Empire,  Napoleon 
L  oonsidered  this  little  pubhcation  so  important, 
that  he  ezerdsed  over  it  a  risid  mperviaiau,  and  in 
1S08,  an  entire  edition,  which  bod  just  been  worked 
off,  waa  seised  by  a  body  of  French  gendarmes.  The 
editor  hurried  to  Paris,  and  found  that  his  error 
waa  in  hia  alphabetical  arrangement;  by  which 
Anhall;  of  the  Emeatinian  line  of  Sazon  princes, 
took  precedence  of  Napoleon,  who  claimed  the  ri^t 
"-  be  placed  at  the  head  o(  the  nobility  of  the  Rhma. 
_  >  aecore  this  re-arrangement  of  the  alphabet,  the 
edition  of  that  ^eor  waa  printed  at  Paris.  It  is 
probable  that  a  similar  anperviaion  of  the  press  kept 
out  of  the  historic  pages  the  succesiea  of  the  allies 
against  the  Empire  in  the  aucceeding  numbers,  in 
which  there  waa  no  mention  of  the  oompaigus  of  the 
Peninsula  and  the  victory  of  Trafalgar.  On  the 
reettaation  of  the  Bourbona,  however,  these  events 
were  recorded  in  a  nruntt,  which  mode  up  for  the 
previous  omissions. 

GOTHA,  DncKT  or.    See  SAsa-CoBima-GOTHA. 

GOTHABD,  St,  a  mountain  group  in  the 
Helvetian  Alps,  reaches  in  its  highest  peaks  tbe 
height  of  12,000  feet.  See  Axre.  St  O.,  however,  ia 
chiefly  famous  for  the  pass  over  the  Alps,  which  at 
its  summit  rises  to  the  hmght  of  6800  feet.  By 
means  of  this  pass,  the  hi^-road  from  Fluelen, 
on  Lake  Lucerne,  is  carried  without  interruption 
in  a  south-south-east  direction  to  I^ago  Maggiore,  in 
the  north  of  Italy.  The  construction  of  the  road 
waa  commenced  m  1820,  and  opened  in  IS32.  In 
1834,  nearly  one-third  of  the  rtHid,  with  nomeroua 


of  thc» 


;  and  in  1839  a 


n  the  snromi 


toot 


that  time,  however,  the  road  has  been 
of  repair.  It  ia  one  of  the  best  and 
most  convenient  of  the  Alpine  carriage-wayB,  ia 
free  from  snow  for  four  or  five  months  of  the  year, 
beginning  with  June,  and  is  equal,  if  not  superior, 
to  any  other  in  the  interest  and  grandeur  of  its 
scenery. 

GOTHIC  ABCHITECTITRB.  Under  this  title 
are  comprised  the  various  styles  of  architecture 
which  prevailed  in  Western  Europe  from  the  middle 
of  the  12th  c  to  the  revival  of  cUsaic  architectnre 
in  the  16th  century.  The  term  QoiMi:  was  at  lirst 
bestowed  by  the  Bansiaaance  architects  on  the  ■ 
medieval  styles  aa  a  term  of  reproach.  Thia  epithet 
they  apphed  to  every  kind  01  medieval  art  which 
had  existed  from  the  dodina  of  the  classic  atylea 


ii^Googk 


GOISIO  A2U7HITEOTCBK 


till  their  revivml,  all  bIm  being  bjr  Uiem  eoiuidered 
as  barbarDui  and  Oothie.  The  nune  has  now,  how- 
ever,'beeoDM  geoerally  adopted,  and  ha*  ontlived 
tlu  reproaob  at  fint  implied  in  it  It  haa  also 
bacom«  limited  and  defined  ia  its  applicatioii.  Bnr- 
ing  the  preaent  oentory,  the  arte  of  the  middle  agei 
have  beea  atteDtirely  stadisd,  and  their  origin  and 
hiatory  carefully  baoed ;  and  as  the  knowledge  of 
theae  itylea  hai  incraaaed,  a  feding  of  admintion 
hai  fucceeded  to  that  of  eontempt,  and  Gothic  now 
nmka  oa  one  of  the  noblert  and  oompletoit  ttyle* 
of  architecture  ever  invented. 

Origin. — The  origin  of  Oothio  architectnre  has 

Csn  riae  to  many  very  ingenioua  ipaculatioiia.  It 
been  eaid  that  the  i^le  was  copied  diieotly 
from  nature ;  that  the  painted  archea  and  groioi 
of  tiie  vault!  were  imitated  frani  tiie  overarching 
bnwebee  ol  trma ;  and  tliat  the  atema  of  an  avenue 
were  the  originala  of  tiie  pillar*  (rf  the  Gothic  aialee. 
Other*  have  etrennonily  maintained  that  the  inven- 
tion of  the  pointed  aldl  waa  a  mere  accident,  ariiing 
from  this  form  having  been  observed  in  the  inter- 
lacing of  the  circular  archea  of  a  Nonnan  arcade. 
It  haa  alto  been  etated  that  the  ttyle  waa  imported 
from  the  Eaat  during  the  Cruaadea,  and  that  the 
medieval  amhiteota  had  but  little  to  do  witii  ita 

Here  caretal  atndy  of  the  OoQiie  bnildinn  which 
remain  to  u/l,  bu  diepelled  theae  [aneifal  ideas, 
and  settled  the  ori^  and  proEreea  of  the  art  on 
historical  Bi  well  as  internal  evidenoe. 

To  trace  Oothio  ap  to  its  primary  elements,  we 
ahould  have  to  go  far  back  in  tiie  world's  hiatory. 
Soma  maintain  that  there  are  only  two  it^lea  of 
architecture  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge— 
viz.,  Greek  architectore  and  Gothic  architecture 
that  these  are  the  two  typical  styles,  and  that  ii 
them  are  contained  all  the  elements  of  which  all 
other  styles  are  composed. 

This  la  no  doubt  to  eome  extent  true,  just  as  it  is 
also  true  that  all  things  in  nature  are  tferived  from 
a  few  primary  elements.  But  as  there  are  many 
varietiea  in  nature,  so  there  are  many  development 
of  the  two  typical  forms  of  architecture,  all  of  which 
deaerve  to  be  classed  as  s^les. 

Greek  architecture  ia  the  type  of  the  trabeatcd 
■tyle — i.  e.,  the  style  whose  principal  feature  is  the 
atiaight  lintel ;  Gothic  is  the  type  of  arcoated  archi- 
tecture,  in  which  the  voids  are  spanned  by  arches. 
Of  these  Epical  forma  there  ate  many  varieties. 


form  of  decoration  and  the  Gothic  form  of  construc- 
tion ;  they  deoorsted  their  ezterion  with  columns 
oroinied  by  straight  architraves  and  cornices,  and 
jnnde  these  they  nmned  the  real  conatmction  with 
arches  and  vaulta.  The  nae  of  the  latter  gradually 
extended,  especially  in  the  constmction  of  mteriors, 
and  by  means  of  vaulta  the  Rornana  were  able  to 
loof  in  large  areaa  without  encumbering  the  floor 
with  pillars.  This  waa  found  to  be  a  very  advuntoge- 
ons  syatem  of  comtructian,  and  was  carried  out  In 
man;  important  examples,  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
hatha  ot  Canusalla  and  Diocletian  (see  BATBa),  the 
fiaailica  of  Constaotine,  Ac  In  their  works  of 
public  utility,  where  uae,  not  decoration,  waa  ihe 
chief  object,  the  Romans  always  adopted  the  arch 
as  the  titteat  mode  of  construction — as  in  their 
aqnedncta  (q.  v.),  bridges,  &M.  The  arch  thus  came 
sraduaily  more  and  more  into  use ;  and  about 
Ule  time  when  the  barbarians  flrst  overrun  the 
provinces,  the  arcuated  form  of  construction  was 
universal,  and  some  attempts  hod  been  made  to 
conform  the  Greek  decoration  to  the  circular  arches 
W  bending  the  entablature  round  the  curve — aa  in 
the  palace  of  Diocletian  at  SpaUto,  in  Dalmatia. 


To  tile  Romans,  Uterefore,  ia  due  the  introdoction 
ot  an  arcuated  conatruction  with  a  well  developed 
LutenuJ,  and  a  partially  developed  extenud  decora- 
tion. The  earlv  Chrittiant  adopted  their  fonu  <A 
construction  and  deooration  from  the  Bomans.  Thi^ 
were  alao  indebted  to  them  for  the  plans  lA  the 
buildings,  whioh  beoame  the  types  of  the  Christian 
aacrad  edifices  during  the  middle  sgea.  The  Basilica 
(q.T.l,  or  Roman  eoiurt-hoBse  and  market-place,  was 
foond  to  be  admirably  adapted  for  Mrly  Christian 
worship,  and  the  cirmilar  twnplea  were  the  proto- 
type* of  the  Christian  Baptisteries  (q.  *.)  which 
usually  accompanied  the  basiJioas.  In  erecting  their 
buildings,  the  Christians  not  only  adopt' 
plans  and  mode  of  construction,  but  osed  the  actual 

which  hod  bean  desboyed  by  the  barbarians.  Wnere 
such  materiala  were   abundant — aa   in  Borne  and 

Central  Italy-~-tlte  early  Christian  architecture  very 
doeely  resembled  that  of  the  Boman  buildings 
whioh  had  preceded  it     ■""'  ■ '-  ■^■- 


of  the  constructional  than  the  deconAve  element* 
of  Roman  arehit«ctnre.  The  Boman  ornament  tl 
dropped  out  of  use ;  and  when,  in  process  of  tii 
decoration  waa  de^red,  each  new  people  followed 
its  own  ideas.  The  traditional  Roman  decoration 
thus  became  to  a  great  extent  loet,  and  new 
styles  introduced.  These  new  style*  each  retuned 
some  ot  the  oiigiDal  Boman  forms  and  modes  ,of 
coostmction ;  ud  each  style  depended  for  ita 
peculiar  character  on  the  puticular  Boman  form* 
It  retained  and  developed.  Thus  Constantine,  and 
the  architects  of  the  £aet,  seized  upon  the  dome 

the  distinguishing  feature  of  their  style,  and  the 
srchitects  of  Lombardy  adopted  the  plain  tunnel- 
vault.    The  farmer  style  is  called  Bymntdne  (q-  v.), 

'   has  been   the  iypt   of  all   Eastern  mediev^ 
itectnre;  and  the  latter  Romanesque  (q.  v.),  and 

_  been  tlie  origin  of  all  the  westcxn  architectvire 
of  medieval  Eorope. 

Hittory. — From  Lombardy — in  those  agea  part  of 
the  German  emjnre — the  Romanesque  s^le  readily 
d  into  Germany  and  Switserland,  and  was  also 
most  naturally  adapted  in  the  souUi  of  France, 
where  examples  of  Boman  architecture  abounded. 
This  architecture  waa  carried  out  with  various 
modificatJons  in  theae  different  countries,  all  of 
which  may  have  contributed  to  the  general  progrew 
of  the  art ;  but  as  mishi  be  expected,  it  is  to  the 
banks  (i  the  Rhine  where  the  ■oooeasorB  of  Char- 
lemagne chiefly  dwelt,  that  we  must  look  for  the 
lint  step  in  the  development  of  Gothic  arehiteetnre. 
The  fallowing  short  sketeh  of  the  development  of 
vaulting  will  shew  how  this  oocurrad. 

The  ilomsn  *"*■'■'■",  and,  like  them,  the  enly 
Christian  churobea  (fio.  l),were  divided  into  a  eentia] 
nave  with  two  side-aislea,  the  former  sepanted  from 
the  latter  by  a  row  of  columns  on  each  side.  Theae 
columns  earned  arnhea  on  which  tested  the  side 
walls  of  the  nave.  Which  were  canried  sufficiently 
hif;h  to  dear  the  roof*  of  the  stde-aislea,  and  admit 
vnndowB  to  light  the  central  nave,  "thia  row  of 
windows  afterwarxis  became  the  Oothio  Clerestery 
(q.  v.).  The  apse  at  the  end  of  the  nave  was 
semicircular  on  plan,  and  waa  usually  roofed  with 
vault  in  the  form  of  a  semi-dome.  Thi*  fentore 
was  also  afterwards  more  fully  developed  in  the 
chapels  of  Gothio  churehea.  The  nave  and  side- 
aisles  were  originsUy  roofed  with  wood,  bat,  owing 
'-   their  frequent   destruction   by  fire,  it  became 

cesaiy  to  cover,  the  chorohea  irith  a  more 
enduring  kind  of  conttamotiiHi.    Vaulting  was  then 


4;,  Google 


OOTHIO  ABOHITECTDBE. 

Mchaa  AB,  CD 


tli«  progrew  at  ■milting  fnun  Uia  ninple  tunnel- 
v»alt  of  the  Rcnuiu  to  the  fully  dereloped  and 


<it  the  dcTeloimient  of  Qotbia  arcluteahire.  Then 
is  one  conmdatttion  which  wfll  help  to  (oplun 
now  Om  RonuQ  archee  were  abandoned  and  new 
fomu  aonght  out.  To  the  Boman  emperois  who 
bnilt  the  splendid  vanlta  of  the  bathl,  and  who  had 
a  nibdned  world  at  command,  ma^rialt  and  labour 
were  a  Bmall  coniidetation.  Tbey  coi^  thtrafore, 
sSbid  to  bofld  in  a  rtyle  which  required  perfect 
materiala  and  wotimanEhip.  But  m^eval  princes 
and  biahope  could  obtain  neither,  except  with  (seat 
cost  and  trouble;  to  economiae  these,  therSore, 
great  skill  and  attentiou  were  required.  It  waa 
Decenary  to  rtady  to  aToid  those  large  and  expen- 
sire  materiala  itf  whidi  the  Romana  were  lo  laviih, 
and   to  adopt  tha  nmpleat  and  easiest  formi  of 


The  fust  Tanlts  tried  were  simple  BeTaicireuhLr 
tannel-vanlts.  It  wai  found  that  these,  beoidM 
™py  TOtjr  doomy,  required  very  maaaive  walls  to 
nmst  their  UunsL  An  attempt  was  then  made  to 
roliere  this  thrust  by  Inaitverte  artJia  [a,  a   " 

2)  thrown  across — at  interrals— under  the  tui... 

vault,  to  act  as  atrangthBning  arches.  Battrrosea 
with  a  slight  projecboa  were  applied  ootside  to 
sapport  these,  and  a  beam  of  wood  was  eometimes 
introduced  at  the  waij-head  from  bnttreas  to 
bnttress  to  assist  in  oppoMog  the  thniat  of  the 

This  was  the  first  attempt  to  throw  the  weight  of 
Mio  Tanlt  on  single  points.  In  the  side-aiilM,  whero 
the  span  wm  ^lal^  the  Boman  interaectiDg  vaults 
(6,  (,  £g.   2}  were  osed;    and  u  tiia  roofs  with 


Kg.  2. 

tmmel-TMlting  were  found  very  rioomy  and  01- 
li^ted,  it  was  desirable  that  simdar  intersecting 
TanHs  should  be  used  to  oovei^  the  main  roof,  in 
order  to  admit  windows  raited  to  light  the  Tault- 
iog.  But  how  was  this  to  be  manued  with  the 
smsll  materials  at  comnuuidl      If  the  transrerie 


senudimdar,  and  the 
nme— the  vault  being 
'--   cylinders — then  the 


inteseating  groins  AD  and  OB  must  be  alliptioaL 
This  was  a  difflonlt  form  of  oonstruotion  i  the 
nedisval  bnilclen  found  it  easier  to  oonstmct  aend' 
oircolar  groin  arohes  with  radios  ElA  (fig.  4),  and  to 
fill  in  the  triangular  spaces  ABE,  b^,  with  slightly 
domed  vanlts.  Hare,  thm,  we  have  tha  origin  it 
the  groin-rib,  the  dereloiimeat  of  which  play^ 
BO  important  a  part  in  Gothic  Taulting;  When  the 
spaoe  to  be  coTered  was  square,  thie  form  of  rault 
"a  found  to  answer,  and  usually  included  two  bays 
the  sids-aislea.  Bat  this  airangement  looked 
awkward  eztamally,  the  windows  of  the  clerea- 
toi7  not  groufring  well  with  those  of  the  tide- 
aisles.     A  transTerse  arch  (a,  a,  fig.  4)  was  thui 


^ 


piers  to  thi 
hexsltiartite. 


the  above  forms  of  vaulting  were 
folly  developed  in  the  round  arched  s^les  of  the 

Id  Ftsdos,  these  forms  were  also  tried;  but  it  was 
found  tliat  tha  semicircle  is  not  a  good  form  of 
aroh  nnleas  loaded  on  the  honnohes,  many  of  the 
chuTohcs  which  wars  vaulted  Jn  this  manner  during 
the  nth  0.  having  to  be  buttressed  or  rebuilt  in  the 


12th  and  13th  centnnet;    In  the  tonth  of  Franoe 
(where  the  Bjiantme  mflnence  had  been  strongly 


tytiOOgk* 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


felt,  throngli  the  McditetTaneiui  commerce),  the 
pointed  toDnel-T&ult  {Sg.  5)  had  been  long  in  use, 
tmd  had  Hnpeneded  the  gemicircotar  tunnel-vaolt 

Srobahly  u  early  m  the  Bth  or  10th  century.  ThU 
)nT>  of  arch  woa  thos  probably  anggested  to  the 
arohjtecta  of  the  oorth  of  France,  trho  at  onoe 
eaw  bow  well  it  would  overcome  the  difficulty  of 
the  yielding  of  the  haunches  in  the  lemicircnl&r 
arch.  They  were  thui  lad  to  the  adoption  of  the 
pointed  form  for  their  tranaverae  arches  at  a  ttne- 
luToi  aptdient,  and  still  retained  the  aemlcirculat 
form  in  the  groina.  The  next  question  which 
engaged  attention,  and  the  solntioa  of  which  led  to 
the  further  use  of  the  pointed  arch,  was  the  vault- 
ing of  oblong  spaces.  Tbia  had  been  tried  with 
Bemicircular  arcJieB,  but  it  wiu  found  that  in  thia 
way  the  vault  would  require  to  be  very  much 
domed—^the  diameter  of  the  arcbes  (f^  e,  fig.  2)  being 
•0  much  nnaller  than  that  of  a  a— wheresa  by 
nsing  pointed  arches,  o!  different  radii,  for  the 
traoocene  and  side  arches  all  might  be  kept  to 
aboat  the  same  height  (figi.  6  and  TjT  Thii  is  more 


KftB. 


Rg.7. 


folly  expbuned  by  Gk  6.  If  AB  be  the  diameter 
of  the  tranaveree  arch  (aa),  and  AC  that  of  the 
aide  arches  (ec),  it  is  clear  that  the  »emicircular 
aide  arch  AX)C  cannot  reach  the  heigbt  of  the 
trsnaverse  arch  AEB,  even  when  itilted  be  at  D'. 
But  in  the  pointed  arch,  CEB,  the  same  diameter  risea 
to  very  nearly  the  height  of  the  tranareraa  arch. 
The  pointed  arches  ACB  and  A'CB'  {fig.  7)  ahew 
how  easily  arches  of  this  form,  whatever  their 
diameter,  can  be  built  of  the  same  height.  By  the 
introduction  of  this  new  ffirm  of  an£  the  vault- 
ing was  strengthened,  and  the  thnut  brought 
to  bear  ateadily  on  aingle  points.  We  have  thus 
traced  the  hiatory  of  vaulting  from  the  time  of 
the  Bomans  to  the  12th  o.,  when  the  principles 
of  Qothic  pointed  vaulting  vere  fully  developed ; 
and  we  have  dwelt  particularly  on  this  subject, 
because  it  includes  the  principles  which  regulated 
the  whole   of  the  C   ■"       ''  "  ■■  ■ 

the  invention  of  s 


requirement  This 
to  the  vaulting,  as  we  have  traced  it  above,  and 
the  same  might  be  proved  regarding  every  member 
of  the  style.  Thus  it  mi^t  be  shewn  how  the  ribs 
became  i^^nally  more  decided,  expressing  the  part 
they  bore  in  the  support  of  the  roof ;  how  the  Have 
Pier«  (q.  v.)  were  gradually  subdivided  into  porta, 
each   shaft  beaiine  on  a  separate  cap   a  separate 

Sartion  of  the  vaultiDg ;  how  the  buttresses  were 
eveloped  as  they  were  required  to  resist  the  thntst 
of  the  groins  concentrated  on  points ;  and  how 
the  flying  bnttreascs  were  forced  upon  the  Gothic 
architecto  much  against  their  will,  as  a  mode  of 
lapportdng  tbe  arcbes  of  the  roof. 

The  history  of  the  latter  is  very  ciu-ions.  The 
thmit  of  the  tunnel-vault  was  sometimes  resisted 
bv  half  tunnel-vaults  over  the  side-aisles  (see  Gg.  5), 
These,  therefore,  required  to  bo  high,  and  a  gallery 
was  usually  introduced.  In  Uie  Ifarthex  at 
Vezelay  (Eg.  8)  we  have  thia  galleiy  with  the 
vaulting  used  as  a  counterpoise  to  that  of  the  nave. 
This  is  a  tine  example  of  vaulting  '     " 


state,  the  vaulting  of  the  gallery  resists  the  main 
vault^  as  in  fig.  5,  and  is  at  the  same  time  groined. 
This    leaves   rather   a  weak   point    opposite   the 


arches,  and  to  atrengtbea  these,  flying 

buttresses  are  introduced,  which  timidly  shew  them- 
selves above  the  roof.  The  galleries  were,  in  later 
examples,  dispensed  with  to  admit  of  larger  cleres- 
tory windows,  and  the  flying-buttresses  were  left 
standing  free.  The  architects  finding  them  indis- 
pensable, then  turned  their  attention  to  render  them 
ornamental  Pmnadei  may  also  be  shewn  to  owe 
their  origin  to  their  use  :  Uiey  acted  as  weights  to 
steady  tiie  buttresses  and  piers.  We  shall,  under 
their  separate  heads,  point  out  how  each  element 
of  Gothic  architecture  was  in  the  strictest  sense 
constructional,  the  decoration  being  in  harmony 
with  Ha  actual  use,  or  as  Pugin  has  said,  *  decorated 
couBtritctioD  not  constructed  decoration.' 

Tbe  full  development  of  Gothic  vaulting,  which 
was  the  foremnner  of  the  whole  style,  was  first 
cirried  out  in  the  royal  domun  in  France  about  the 
middle  of  the  12th  century.  The  Normans  had 
settled  in  tbe  north  of  France  more  than  a  century 
before  this,  and  bod  applied  their  talents  and  the 
fruit  of  their  conquests  to  the  building  of  splendid 
temples  in  honour  of  their  victoriee.  In  doing 
BO,  they  followed  out  the  round-arched  style,  and 
brought  it  forward  by  a  great  stride  towaids  true 
Gothio.    See  Nobmak  ARcmTEcrnRK. 

South  of  the  royal  domain,  in  Buivundy,  there 
had  existed  for  centuries  great  estabUebments  of 
monks,  famous  for  their  architecture.  The  Abbey 
of  Cluny  was  their  central  seat,  whence  they  sent 
out  colonies,  and  built  abbeys  after  the  model  of 
the  parrait  one.  The  sMe  in  which  they  worked 
was  also  an  advanced  Romanesque,  but  different 
from  that  of  the  Normans. 

Bel;ween  these  two  provinces  lay  the  royal  domun. 
Owing  to  the  weak  state  of  the  kingdom,  archi- 
tecture had  hitherto  made  little  progress  in  the  Isle 
of  France.  About  the  beginning  of  the  12th  c.  the 
monarchy  revived,  and  for  the  next  two  centuries 
was  governed  by  wise  and  powerful  monarchs,  who 
socc^ded  in  re-establishing  the  royal  supremacy. 
A  new  impulse  was  thus  given  to  the  hteratnre  and 
arts  of  the  country,  by  miich  architecture  proGtcd 
largely.  From  the  state  of  rain  into  whioh  the 
kingdom  had  fallen,  there  were  almost  no  churches 
existing  worthy  of  the  new  state  of  things.  New 
and  great  designs  were  famed :  hitherto,  almmit 
all  the  important  chnrches  of  France  were  abbey 
churches ;  now,  under  the  royal  patronage,  caUiedTals 


t,  Google" 


GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 


were  to  be  built.    The  btshopB,  ennooB   of   the 

S'ym  of  th«  monln,  lent  thair  powerful  ud,  and 
B  whole  of  tiie  l&ity  joined  beutily  in  the  work. 
'With  meli  ft  nnivanu  impulae,  no  wonder  tb&t 
arcMteetnre  itxik  a  great  Btride,  uid  new  fomu  were 
in'bodoced.  It  it  to  this  period  and  people  that  we 
ovre  the  derelopment  of  the  true  or  pointed  Gothic 
■tyle. 

Wa  bare  already  seen  at  Vezdajr  bow  nearly  the 
Ba>;giindiaa  manki  had  approached  to  Gothic.  To 
Ctanplete  the  development,  it  only  required  the  >ide- 
irajla  and  vaulting  of  the  oave  to  be  raised,  so  as 
to  admit  of  windows  over  the  roofs  of  the  aide- 
gslleriei ;  anif  the  flying  buttresses  to  be  raised 
with  them,  to  as  to  receive  the  thrust  of  the  vaolt 
— the  latter  being  constmoted  with  pointed  groin 
ribs,  and  the  nde  and  transvene  arches  carried  to 
the  height  of  the  groins.  The  laic  Brohitecta  of 
the  royal  domain  sooD  accomplished  this  step,  and 
the  new  style  sprung  up  and  progressed  with  the 
moat  asbmishing  rapidity. 

The  eariiest  example  we  have  of  the  fully 
developed  Gothic  style  is  the  Cathedral  of  St 
Denis,  in  which  ore  deposited  the  remains  of  the 
kings  of  France.  It  was  founded  by  the  Abbfi 
Soger  in  1144.  The  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dune  of 
Paris  Boui  followed,  and  almost  contemporai;  with 
it  aAsa  the  magniGcent  cathedrals  of  Chortres, 
Rheima,  Amiens,  Beauvais,  Bourgee,  and  a  host  of 

Another  cause  which  tended  much  to  hasten 
the  progreas  of  the  style,  was  the  invention  about 
the  same  time  of  painted  class.  The  Romanesque 
architects  had  been  in  the  habit  of  decorating  their 
churches  with  frescoes  and  other  p^ntings ;  bnt 
this  new  mode  of  introducing  the  moat  orilliant 
coloara  into  their  designs  was  at  once  seized  upon 
by  tiie  northern  architects.  The  small  circular- 
arched  mndowB,  which  were  still  in  many  instances 
retained  long  after  the  pointed-arch  had  become 
Qsual  in  the  vaulting,  no  Jouger  sufficed  to  light  the 
chuidies  when  filled  with  stained  glass.  They 
were  therefore  enlarged,  two  or  even  three  were 
thrown  into  one,  divided  only  by  mnlliona ;  this 
compoand  window  was  again  increased  until  the 
comiuutmeot  of  the  clerestory  became  almost  wholly 


absorbed.  He  architects  were  then  forced  to 
conform  the  arches  of  their  windows  to  the  pointed 
outline  of  the  side-arches  of  the  vaulting.  Thia  desire 


for  more  and  more  space  for  stuned  glass  was 
the  origin  of  the  wiodow-tracery,  which  forms 
so  heautifnl  a  feature  of  the  atyle.  It  is  the 
last  attenuated  remuna  of  the  wall  apace  of  the 
clerestory,  which  was  at  last  entirely  absorbed. 

Pig.  8,  from  Notre  Dame,  ia  a  good  illustration 
of  tl^  pn^eem  of  French  Gothic  The  left-hand 
portion  of  uia  elevatian  shews  the  mode  of  fenes- 
tration adopted.  Tba  clereatOTy  windows  are  small ; 
and,  in  order  to  give  more  li^ht,  the  vault  of  the 
gallery  next  the  window  is  kept  very  high. 
This  was  the  origioal  design ;  but  durmg  uie 
construction  of  the  cathedral,  the  importamM  of 
stained  glass  had  become  so  great,  that  the  design 
was  altered  to  give  larger  windows  for  ite  display, 
as  shewn  on  the  right-hand  portion  of  the  eleva- 
tion. These  windows  also  shew  the  simple  early 
forms  of  tracery ;  that  in  the  aisle  vrindows  being 
later  and  more  advanced.  Fig.  10  shews  two  bays 
from  Toumay  Cathedral,  and  is  a  good  specimen 


Hg.  U.^Salisbury  Ciathedral. 

of  the  mode  in  which  the  whole  space  of  the  sido- 
walla  was  made  available  for  window  tracery  and 
stained  glass. 

The  ftirther  histoTT  of  Gothic  architecture  in 
France  is  simply  the  following  ont,  to  their 
furthest  limits,  of  the  priaciplcs  ahove  indicated,  on 
which  the  early  architects  had  nnconacioualy  been 
working  when  they  origioated  the  stylo.     So  long 


t,  Google 


GOTHIC  AHCHITECTtraE. 


u  the  Gothio  srchitectB  worked  on  theM  principlea, 
they  advanced  and  improred  their  arohitectura. 
When,  howevBT,  tha  «tyla  had  become  fully  devel- 
oped and  matured  (about  1300  A.D.),  the  spirit  of 
■mogreu  died.  No  new  featnret  were  developed. 
The  arohitecta  seemed  to  think  that  in  its  main 
elements  their  style  was  complete,  and  contented 
themselves  with  continuing  the  trsditioual  atvla  of 
their  forenmners,  ptuhins  to  their  ertremett  limits 
the  principles  handed  down  to  them.  Thos,  the 
height  of  the  cathedrals  was  extended  till,  at 
Bcauvais,  it  exceeded  the  power  of  the  arohiteeia 
to  prop  up  the  vaultinR,  The  system  of  buttreasea 
and  pionacles  was  developed  with  the  utniost  skill, 
till  at  last  the  original  nmpltcity  and  repose  of  the 
designs  were  lost,  and  the  exterior*  prewnted  an 
elalMrate  system  of  scaffolding  and  propping-up  in 
•tone.  The  beautiful  forms  of  the  early  tracery 
became  distorted  into  all  manner  of  flowing  curves, 
gtacefnl  but  mmieaning,  of  the  Flamboyant  period 
{q.  r.) ;  and,  m  short,  the  art  became  lost  in 
moe  clevemeis  of  dedgn  and  dexterity  of  eiecu- 
tioD,  and  tlia  architect's  place  waa  uati^>ed  by  the 


I  in  &t>  oathedrala  of  the  ISth  and  13th 
cfflitnriea,  above  referred  to,  that  we  find  the  noblest 
develcnonent  of  the  Oothic  style.  Everything  tended 
to  make  them  lo.  The  nation  was  united  in  the 
effort— all  the  science,  all  the  arts,  all  the  learn- 
ing of  the  times  were  centred  in  ibe  church.  In 
it,  and  that  almost  aiclusively,  the  sculptor,  the 
punter,  the  historian,  the  moralist,  and  the  divine, 
all  found  scope  for  the  expression  of  their  ideas 
on  the  sculptured  walls,  porches,  and  niches,  or  the 
painted  vriodows  of  the  cathedrals — the  dliuches 
of  the  peojde. 

The  progress  of  this  style  in  other  countries  ia  no 
less  reraarkable.  At  no  time  in  the  world's  history 
did  taif  at^le  of  aivhitectnre  ever  apread  so  wide,  or 
give  rise,  m  so  short  a  time,  to  so  many  eplendid 
buildings.  Vo  sooner  had  the  atyle  been  invented 
in  the  central  proviooeB  of  France,  than  it  imn  ~ 
diately  spread  over  the  whole  of  the  west  of  Futoi 
supei>ed][ig  all  other  styles,  and  producing  simiJ 
splendid  buildings  wherever  it  went. 

We  will  oote  shortly  a  tew  of  the  peculiarities 
of  the  s^le  in  England,  Oerm^y,  and  Italy 
spread  also  over  the  south  of  Erance  and  Of 
but  the  latter  countries  have  not  yet  been  fully 
iUustrated. 

Snpluh  Qolkic — The  Normans  introduced  their 


Durham '  Cathedral ;  Kelao  and  Jedburgh  Abbeys, 
&C.  But  these  bnildings  ore  not  oopiea  of  those  of 
Normandy.  The  THnglirih  have  always,  in  adopting 
styles,  raven  them  a  national  impress.  As  it  was 
with  the-  Norman,  so  it  waa  to  a  still  greater 
nlegree  with  the  pointed  Qothio.  Thi«  naa  intro- 
duced into  England  about  117^,  by  WiUijun  of 
Sena,  who  anpenntended  the  rebuilding  of  Canter- 
bnty  CathedraL  The  Englui  architecte  soon  began 
to  follow  out  a  pointed  style  of  their  own.  Ttey 
borrowed  much  from  France,  aod  worked  it  oi  ' 
their  own  way,  forming  what  is  now  called  the  1 
EngliiJi  style.  The  differences  between  the  early 
Gothic  of  France  and  England  extend  to  almost 
every  detail  The  mouldings,  bases,  cape,  pinnacles, 
bottresses,  and  foliage  of  the  latter  are  all  mipreesed 
with  the  early  English  feeling.  In  France,  the 
feeling  of  the  early  Gothio  is  one  of  onreat — a  con- 
stant sbnggle  forward.  In  England,  the  effort  foi 
pragreas  is  not  so  marked — that  of  carefulness  and 
completeness  prevails.  In  the  plant  of  the  cathedraU 
the  differences  are  marked  (see  figs.  11, 12),  ai 


accompanying  plans  of  the  Cathedrals  of  S^ishnry 
and  Amiens  shew.  The  termination  of  a  French 
cathedral  or  church  is  invariably  oiicnlar  ended  or 


K»  IZ— AmieDS  Cathedral 

apaidal — a  form  derived  from  the  circular  tomb- 
hxiiise  or  baptistery,  which  in  early  Chriitian  times 
waa  built  separately,  and  afterward*  tcAen  into  the 
cathedral.  The  Ei^ish  cathedral,  on  tha  oontrary, 
is  almost  always  square  ended.  The  French  tran- 
septa  have  almost  no  projection;  the  English  ones 
have  great  projections— Salisbury  and  Canterbury 
having  two  transepts.  Tte  French  cathedrals  are 
short  and  very  lofty ;  the  English,  long  and  oom- 
parattvely  low.  The  French  buildings  are  perhaps 
the  grandest  and  most  aspiring,  the  English  the 
most  finished  and  picturesque. 

The  exterior  of  the  chevet  was  a  difficulty  with 
the  French  and  Germans,  and,  as  at  Beauvais  and 
Cologne,  resemblee  an  intrioats  and  coofosed  mass 
of  scaffolding.  This  difficulty  was  avoided  by  the 
English  square  ends,  which  afforded  soope  for  the 
veiT  English  arrangement  of  the  '  Five  Bieteia' 
at  York,  or  tor  a  large  field  of  stained  glass  in  a 
single  window. 

The  western  portals  of  the  French  catliedrals, 
such  as  Eheims  and  Amiens,  are  among  the  boldest 
and  most  magnificent  features  of  their  architecture. 
In  these  the  English  were  not  far  behind,  as  the 
western  portals  of  Peterborongh  and  York  ^ew. 

The  oatlines  of  the  En^h  cathedral*  ue  usually 


laiBsatfGoOglc 


GOTHLAND— G0TH3. 


toweni  gronpiiiff  bannoiiioiuly  with  the  caotral,  and 
in  thii  respect  the  *'!"el">'  have  the  advintage. 

In  the  Applicition  <u  Tanltiiig,  the  Ebgliih  carried 
out  tbdr  own  ideas.  Thej  were  always  fond  of 
irooden  roofi,  and  [sobably  this  may  have  led  to 
the  invEntian  of  the  many  bMiitlfal  Und«  of  Tanlbi 
which  form  lo  fine  a  featuM  of  T^Wlith  Ootliio 
(see  ViULTDra,  FAN-raicntT).  In  England  the 
•t}^  lasted  longer  than  on  the  eontiuent. 

The  Qennaiu  ware  neariy  a  centnrr  in  adopting 
tb*  pointed  (tyle  after  its  inrention  in  France  ;   and 


introdaced,  it  retained  the  appearance 
of  >  fondjfa  importation.  It  never  was  so  completely 
natnraliaed  *•  in  England.  The  BO-called  beauties 
of  the  Qensan  Ootluc  are,  for  the  most  part,  to  be 
regaided  ntther  ai  excellent  ipecimeni  of  maionry 
than  aa  artiitic  developments  of  the  style.  He 
open-work  spires,  for  example,  are  fine  piecee  of 
oonatroetion,  and  have  a  striking  effect ;  but  from 
the  flirt  there  is  a  tendency  to  commit  the  work 
to  maaoDj,  who  lejoicfl  in  maplaying  their  maunal 
dexterity.  The  Uter  Oothio  in  Germany  is  the 
most  splendid  development  of  the  stone-cutter's  art 


Kg.  11 

and  the  draughtsman's  ingenuity,  theu  mil  riot, 
while  the  artdat  ii  entirely  awanting.  The  distor- 
tioiu  of  fig.  13  may  serre  as  an  example. 

The  Gothic  atyle  forced  its  way  also  into  daamc 
Italy,  but  there  it  waa  never  undenitood  nor  prac- 
tiaed  in  ita  true  spirit  It  was  evidently  i£  imita- 
tion from  the  beginning.  The  Italian  architects 
tried  to  vie  with  those  of  the  north  in  the  size  of 
their  boildingB,  some  of  which,  as  Ban  Fetronio  at 
Bologna,  and  Milan  Cathedral,  are  enormous.  The 
former  illnabates  Ihe  defects  of  Italian  Gothic 
The  arches  are  very  wide,  and  there  are  few  piers. 
There  ia  therefore  a  bare  and  naked  effect,  which 
is  not  compensated  for  by  any  lichness  o[  scnipture 
or  colour.  There  is  a  want  of  icaU  about  Italian 
Gothic  buildings,  ai  there  ia  about  those  o[  Italian 
daasio  aichitecture,  both  ancient  and  modem.  Bize 
alone  is  depended  on  for  prodadng  grandeur  of 
effect.  Iliere  is  no  attempt  mode  to  mark  the  size, 
and  «ve  a  scale  b^  which  to  jodge  of  the  dimeneione 
of  the  bnildinni  m  those  styles.  A  large  classio 
temple  is  simply  a  small  one  magnified.  In  true 
Ckithic  aichitecture  the  case  i«  different.  Not  only 
are  the  genenkl  dimensions  magnified  in  a  large 
edifice,  but  also  the  ports  are  multiplied.  The 
colnmnB  and  shafts  remain  of  the  same  size,  but 
their  nnmhei  is  increased.  The  arches  are  Bnlaiged 
in  pnntortion  to  the  general  dimensions,  but  Uie 
caps,  baaes,  and  monldlngs  remain  of  the  same 
size  aa  in  a  smaller  building,  and  thus  indicate  the 
gi«ater  (iie  of  the  arch.    A  true  Gothic  building  of 


r°™ 


be  found  oat.  Stained  glass  wM  little  used  in  Italv. 
It  may  have  been  intended  to  decorate  the  waua 
with  bescoea — as  indeed  is  the  case  in  a  few 
examples.  The  Church  of  8t  Franois,  at  Asaiii,  is 
the  most  remarkable  building  of  this  kind,  and  is 
a  most  interestins  example  of  fresoo-deooration. 

The  towns  of  Itsly,  being  early  enfranohised, 
have  many  moaicipal  bnildings  in  the  G^ithie  style. 
These  will  be  treated  along  with  those  of  Belgium 
heresJter.    8ee  Munioip*i.  Ahohithttubx, 

We  miirht,  in  the  some  mamier,  trace  the  Gothic 
style  in  all  the  other  conntriee  of  Western  Europe  ; 
bnt  its  histoiy  is  similar  in  alL  It  is  in  England 
and  Prance  that  the  true  spirit  of  the  style  was 
most  felt,  and  the  finest  eiamplee  remain.  Onr 
u  not  peimitted  ns  to  enter  minutely  into 
ouB  styles  of  Gothic  in  each  conntay.  The 
more  important  of  these  will  be  treated  separately. 

gee   EutLY  EHOLIBH,  DKORATID,  PlBFIHDtCn.lA, 

Plamboyiitt. 

We  may.  however,  state  generally,  that  both  is 
France  and  England  the  style  bad  a  complete  exist- 
ence— it  was  born,  arrived  at  maturity,  and  died. 
When  the  spirit  of  the  early  architects  had  pushed 
the  design  to  its  utmost  limits,  they  rested  from 
their  Uboun,  well  satisfied  with  Uieir  splendid 
achievements.  Their  soooesBors  ooonpied  tiiemMlves 
with  forms  and  details,  and  with  the  perfecting  of 
every  minute  port  The  art  finally  passed  away, 
and  left  architecture  in  the  han^  of  trade  cor- 
porations— masons,  carpenters,  plumberv,  to. — who 
monopolised  the  whole  work,  and  acted  independ- 
ently to  the  eiclutdon  of  one  directing  mind.  The 
remilt  was  as  we  have  seen  :  architecture  became 
masonic  skill,  and  Qotiiia  was  finally  supenedsd 
by  the  revival  of  daaaio  aiuhiteoture  in  the  Ifith 
century. 

GOTHLAND  (Swed.  OolUand),  an  island  in  the 
Baltic,  lying  between  67*— 58*  N.  lat,  and  18"— 
19*  SC  £.  long.,  which,  with  Fai«e,  Qotska,  SandSe, 


S(]uare  milea.  Chief  town,  Wiaby  (q.  v.).  6.  con- 
sista  mainly  of  terrace-like  abpea  of  limestone 
formation,  enoiTcled  by  cliffs  which  are  broken  by 
numerous  d»ep  fiords,  more  eapeoiaUy  on  the  west 
coasts  of  the  island,  the  eastern  parts  of  which 
are  flat.  The  surface  is  in  many  ^arts  hilly  and 
well  wooded,  and  the  soil  is  fnutful  and  well 
cultivated.  The  climate  is  sufficiently  mild  to 
allow  of  the  grape  and  mulberry  npttung  in 
favourable  situations  in  the  open  air.  The  land 
is   divided   among  many   smaQ   proprietors,    who 


live  in  sepoiate  and  detached  \ 
island  of  G.  was  for  ten  yean  (from  1439  to  1449) 
the  self-elected  place  of  batiishinent  of  King  Eric 
X.,  who,  after  long-oontinued  dissensions  with  his 
Swedish  and  Danish  snbjects,  retired  to  Wisby, 
where  he  shut  himself  up  in  the  castle  witE 
his  favourite  mistress  and  a  band  of  followers. 
Having  nfnsed  to  nsnme  bis  duties,  he  was  declared 
to  have  forfeited  the  ctowns  of  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark, and  thenoefcHinud  he  anbaisted  by  piUagiDg 
the  ships  and  infesting  the  coasts  of  the  lands  he 
had  formETly  governed    The  remains  of  numerous 

but  more  especially  in  and  around  Wisby,  attest 
its  former  wealth,  and  afford  many  noble  spedmeilB 
of  the  Gothic  architecture  of  the  11th  and  I2lh 
centuries.  The  chief  aiporta  of  Q.  are  wood, 
sondatooa,  marble,  lime,  tud  leather. 

GOTHS  (Lat  Qofhi,  Oothona,  OuOona,  Gvia, 
tc.;  Or.  OiMoi,  OolM,  OouttAoi,  OtMena;  Gothic, 
<hiithiwla\,  the   name    of   a   powerful   i    " 


I,  Google 


antiquity,  belongiDE  to  the  OennAiua  tsc«.  By  Kme 
wrilen  they  are  Uunight  to  h&ve  had  a  Scandi- 
naTian  orum,  which  was  the  belief  of  their  own 
hiitfrriaii,  JonumdeB.    Indeed,  Jomandei,  Pioco 

Capitolinil%  uid  l>ebelliua  Pollio  identified  i 

with  Ha  Oetn,  a  bianch  of  the  Thraoian  gninp  of 
nationa ;  but  later  reeearchea,  especiallr  thoae  of 
Dr  Tjthain^  leave  it  almoat  without  a  doubt  thtA 
the  Q.  were  originally  Qenoant.  The  eorlieHt 
notice  of  them  eztiuit  among  the  wiiten  of  antigmt; 
is  that  of  Fytheaa  of  Mamills,  who  lived  about 
the  time  of  Alazander  the  Qreat,  and  wrote  a  book 
of  tTavela,  some  fragmente  of  which  have  been 
preserred  in  the  works  of  other  writeta.  Is  one  of 
these  fragment!,  we  find  mention  made  of  a  tribe  of 
OvUona  bordering  npon  the  Qermnna,  aud  who 
lived  round  a  atm  of  the  sea  called  Mentonomou, 
a  day's  sail  nom  the  island  of  Abalos,  where 
they  used  to  gather  amber,  and  sell  it  to  the 
neighbouriuK  Teutonea.  This  gulf,  there  is  every 
reason  to  b^eve,  was  the  FrixJie  Haff,  sitoated  on 
tbe  Prunian  shore  of  the  Baltic.  The  next  notice 
that  occniB  of  the  G.  is  in  the  Oermania  ot  Tacitos, 
in  which  they  are  c&llsd  Oothones,  and  are  repK- 
sented  as  dwelling  beyond  the  Lygii ;  ■□  the  same 
direotion,  that  is,  as  the  one  pointed  oat  by  Pytheao, 
though  not  on  tiie  sea-ooast.  Tacitus  also  distiii- 
tniishes  them  from  the  Oothini,  a  tribe  east  of  the 
Qoadi  and  Marcomanni,  and  who  are  represented 
t^  him  as  using  the  Oallican  tongae.  The  Ootiionas, 
according  to  tbig  historian,  were  under  regal  govern- 
ment, and  on  that  account  not  quite  so  tree  as  the 
other  tribes  of  Oermanv,  bnt  a^  they  enjoyed  a 
considerable  amount  of  liberty.  The  tribes  next 
beyond  them,  and  dwelling  mimediately  on  the 
sea-coast,  were  the  Bugii  and  Lemovii,  whose  form 
of  govenuDent  was  Mso  monarchical,  and  their 
weapons,  like  those  of  the  Gothonei,  ronod  shields 
and  short  swords. 

We  next  hear  of  the  O.  aa  settled  on  the  coast 
o(  the  Black  Sea,  about  the  months  of  the  Danube, 
early  in  the  3d  century.  But  «t  what  time,  or 
under  what  circnmstaocea,  their  migration  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  Euxine  took  place,  it  is  impossible 
to  BBcertain.  'Either  a  pestilence  or  a  famine,' 
says  Gibbon,  'a  victory  or  a  defeat,  an  oracle  of 
the  gods  or  the  eloquence  of  a  daring  leader, 
were  sufficient  to  impel  the  Gothic  arms  on  the 
milder  climate  of  the  south.'  In  their  new  home, 
which  was  also  the  country  of  the  Getie  (whence, 
perh^iB,  the  error  that  confounded  them  with 
that  people),  the  O.  increaaed  both  in  nnmbers 
and  streogth,  so  that,  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
Alexander  Severos  (22!^23S  a.  s.),  they  made  some 
formidable  inroads  apon  the  itoman  province  of 
Dacia.  In  the  rei^  of  Philip  (244— 249  A.  D.),  they 
ravaged  that  provmca,  and  even  advanced  to  the 
siege  of  Marcianopolia  in  Mcaia  Secanda.  The 
inhabitants  ransomed  their  lives  aud  property  Ijy  a 
large  sum  of  money,  and  the  invadera  wiuidrew  for 
a  tmie  to  their  own  coantn.  Under  Decius,  however, 
y  again  entered  Mceaia  to  the  number  of  about 
_  ,DO0,Ted  leaking  named  CnivB.  Decius  himself 
advanced  to  meet  tnem,  and  found  them  engaged 
before  Nioopolia.  On  his  approach,  they  raued 
the  si^e,  and  marched  away  to  Philippopolis,  a 
city  of  Thrace,  near  the  foot  oE  Mount  Esmus. 
Decins  pursued  them  by  forced  marebes ;  but  at  a 
convenient  opportunity,  the  G.  turned  with  unex- 
ampled fnry  upon  the  Boman  legions,  and  utterly 
defeated  them.  Fhilippo^iolis  next  fell  before  them 
by  stonn,  after  a  long  resurtance,  during  which,  and 
l£e  massacre  that  followed,  100,000  of  its  inhabitants 
are  reported  to  have  been  shun.  This  was  in  260 
A.  D.  In  the  following  year,  another  tremendous 
battle  took  plaoe  near  on  obscure  town  called  Fonim 


3>ebonii,  in  Hcesia,  in  which  tlie  Romans  were  again 
defeated  with  great  sUiighter,  the  Emperor  Decina 
and  hia  son  being  in  the  nomber  of  the  slain.  The 
flucceeding  emperor,  Gallus,  pnrohased  their  retreat 
by  an  immediate  present  of  a  large  sum  of  money, 
and  the  promise  of  an  aonnal  tribute  for  the  futnra. 
The  O.  now  Bet  themselves  to  the  acquisition  of 
a  fleet,  and  with  this,  in  2S3,  advanoed  to  the  con- 
quest of  Fityus,  a  Greek  town  on  the  north-eastern 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  which  they  completely 
destroyed.  In  258,  they  besi^ed  and  took  l^bi- 
lond,  when  B  great  fleet  of  ships  that  were  in  U>e 
port  fell  into  their  hands.  In  these,  they  deposited 
the  booty  of  the  city,  which  was  of  immense  value ; 
chained  the  robust  youth  of  the  sea-coast  to  their 
oare ;  and  returned  in  triumph  to  the  kingdom  of 
Bosporus.  In  the  following  year,  with  a  snll  more 
powerful  force  of  men  and  ships,  they  took  Chalce- 
don,  Nicomedia,  Nice,  Fnisa,  Apaunea,  and  Cios. 
In  a  third  expedition,  which  numbered  as  many  as 
GOO  vessels,  they  took  Cyzicus,  then  sailed  down 
the  jEgean,  ravaged  the  coast  of  Attica,  and  in 
262  anchored  at  the  Pir^ua.  Athens  was  now 
taken  and  plundered,  and  many  other  renownod 
places  in  Greece  were  either  partially  or  wholly 
destroyed.  Even  Italy  was  threatened;  but,  aays 
Gibbon,  'the  utproach  of  such  imminent  danger 
awakened  the  indolent  Gallienns  from  hia  dream 
of  pleasure.'  The  emperor  appeared  in  arms ;  and 
his  presence  seems  to  have  checked  the  atdour, 
and  to  have  divided  the  strength  of  the  enemy.  A 
portion  of  the  O.  now  returned  to  (heir  own 
country.  But  in  269  they  again  ataited  on  a  mari- 
time expedition  In  far  greater  numbere  than  ever. 
After  ravaging  the  coasts  both  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
the  main  armament  at  length  anchored  before 
Thessalonica.  In  Claudius,  the  successor  of  Galli- 
enuB,  however,  the  G.  found  a  far  abler  general 
than  any  they  had  yet  contended  with.  This 
emperor  defeated  their  immense  host,  said  to  num- 
ber as  many  as  320,000  men,  in  Uuee  successive 
battles,  takme  or  sinking  their  fleet,  and  after  an 
immense  slan^ter  of  tbeir  troops,  pursuing  such  as 
escaped  until  they  were  bemmed  in  by  the  passes  of 
Uount  finmos,  where  they  perished  for  the  moat 
part  by  famine.  This,  however,  was  only  a  single 
reverse.  Anrelian,  the  successor  of  Claudius,  was 
obliged  to  cede  to  them,  in  272  the  large  pro- 
vince of  Dacia,  after  which  there  was  compara- 
tive peace  between  the  combatants  for  about  fifty 
years.  In  the  reign  of  Constantine,  their  king, 
Araric,  again  provoked  hostility,  but  was  obliged 
eventually  to  sue  for  peace  with  the  master  of  the 
Roman  empire.  Under  Yalena,  they  once  more 
encountered  the  Roman  legiooa,  with  whom  they 
carried  on  a  war  for  about  throe  years  (367—369) 
with  tolerable  success.  They  now  began  to  be 
distiDguishedbythe  appellationa  of  Ottro-Goths  and 
Visi-Ootha,  or  the  G.  of  the  East  and  West ;  the 
former  inhabiting  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and 
the  latter,  the  Dacion  province  and  the  banks  of 
the  Danube.  On  the  irruption  of  the  Huns,  the 
Visigoths  sought  the  protection  of  Valens  against 
those  barbanaus,  and  in  376  were  allow^  by 
him  to  paaa  into  Mcesia,  to  the  number  of  about 
200,000.  Great  numbers  of  them  also  now  took 
service  in  the  Roman  army ;  but  a  dispute  aoon 
arose  between  the  G.  and  their  new  allies,  which 
led  to  a  decisive  bottle,  in  378,  near  Adnanople, 
in  which  tho  emperor  Valens  loet  his  life.  The  Q. 
now  threatened  Constantinople,  but  were  not  able 
to  take  it ;  and  during  the  rclga  ot  Tbeodotius^ 
there  was  again  a  period  of  comparative  peace. 
Henceforward,  the  history  of  the  Visigoths  and 
atrogoths  flows  in  two  rather  divergent  sCreuus. 
Before  tracing  cither  of  these,  however,  it  should 


t.GoogIc 


GOTHS— GOTLAND. 


be  mentioQed  that  the  G.,  for  the  n 


;paTt,  became 
to  Chriatiani^  about  the  nuddle  of  the 
4th  IX,  adoptdng  the  Anan  form  of  belief,  in  aocwd- 
BiMMi  with  the  inatmctiona  of  their  renowned  teacher 
and  apoeUe,  Bishop  Ulfilaa.  Here,  also,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  term  Moaeo-Gotha  was  applied  to 
certain  of  the  Weatem  0.,  who  having  settled  in 
Wn— i«^  theie  devoted  thenuHtlvea  to  agricultural  pnc- 
Buita,  nnder  the  protectian  of  the  Roman  emperors. 

VitigoOi*. — Upon  the  death  of  Theodosiui  the 
GreNt  in  3tlfi,  and  the  paititiDii  of  the  empire 
between  Honorina  and  ArcadiuB,  the  renowned 
AbLric,  long  of  the  Vijufothfl,  Bought  the  command 
of  the  wmia  of  the  eaatem  empire,  and  Upon  being 
refnaed,  invaded  Greece  with  on  army  of  his  conn- 
trymen.  Abont  400,  he  invaded  Italy,  took  and 
pillaged  Borne  (410),  and  wae  prepuing  to  carry  hii 
anoB  into  Sicily  and  Africa,  when  biB  career  was 
arrested  by  death.  See  AlJutlC-  Alario  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  soverei^ty  b^  Athaulf  (410 — 416), 
who,  having  married  Flacidio,  the  sister  of  Hon- 
orioa,  with£ew  from  Italy  into  the  south  of  Gaul, 
and  abont  412  crossed  the  Pncneea  into  Spain. 
Athanlf  waa  aasaaainated  at  Barcelona,  and  his 
Bucceeaor,  Sueric,  dying  the  same  year,  the  choice  of 
the  O.  now  ^  on  WaSia  (41S— 4IS},  who  extended 
hie  power  over  a  great  part  of  SoaUiem  Qaul  and 
Spam,  and  made  Toitloiue  his  capitoL  The  G.,  under 
this  monarch,  greaUy  auisted  the  BfimanB  in  their 
contest!)  with  Bie  VandaU  and  the  Alani  Wallia 
waa  Bocoeeded  by  Theodoric  I,  (418;-451),  eon  of 
the  great  Alarie.  He  lost  his  life  in  the  bloody 
engagement  of  CMlonH-suc-Marne,  leaving  tht 
tbione  to  his  ton  Thorismnnd  (4S1 — 4£!),  who,  how- 


at  length  himaelf  asussinated  by  his  brother  Enric 
1466 — 483),  whose  reign  waa  tmusaally  brilliant  and 
succMsfnL  He  extended  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Visigoths  considerably  both  in  France  and  Spain, 
introduced  the  arts  ol  civilisation  among  his  snb- 
jects,  and  drew  up  for  their  use  a  code  of  laws,  in 
which  were  embodied  many  sound  principles  of 
JDrisprudoice.  Under  his  aucceesors,  Alarie  IL 
(483—506)  and  Amalaric  (£06—631),  however,  the 
luDcdom  of  the  VisigothB  declined  before  that  of 
the  Franks.  The  former  fell  by  the  hand  of  Clovia 
in  battle  in  607,  and  the  latter  waa  killed  eiUier  in 
battle  or  by  the  hand  of  an  assasain  in  tbe  year  631. 
TTnder  his  aucceaior  Theudes,  the  role  of  the  Visi- 
goths  waa  confined  exclusively  to  Spain.  Theudes 
waa  in  hia  turn  aseaaainated  in  hia  palace  at  Barce- 
lona in  the  year  648.  It  will  not  be  neoessaiy 
to  tnce  tiie  long  line  of  Visigothic  kings  that 
Bubaequently  rul^  in  Spain  m>m  this  period 
down  to  the  year  711-  The  Vidgothic  power  was 
completely  broken,  and  their  last  Icing,  Bodrigo  or 
Koderick,  slain  by  the  Saracen  inraders  on  the 
batUe-fieU  of  Xeres  de  la  Frontera. 

Oilrogotia.—A\  the  tdme  when  the  Visigoths  were 
admitted  by  Valens  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
Roman  empire,  the  same  favour  was  soUdted  by 
the  Ostro^tbs,  but  was  refused  them  by  th^ 
empenw.  They  revenged  themsetves  for  this  sUght 
or  mjniy  \i^  making  freqaent  incursions  into  the 
Roman  terntories,  sometiBiei  on  their  own  account, 
and  Bometiinea  as  the  allies  tA  the  TisigoUu.  In 
386,  tie  Ostrogoths  sustained  a  Ufnn  defeat 
under  their  king  or  general,  Alatheus,  in  attempt- 
ing to  cross  the  Danube,  when  many  thousands 
of  them  perished,  either  by  the  sword  of  the  Romana, 
or  in  the  waves  of  the  river.  After  this,  they 
obtained  a  settlement  in  Phryda  and  Lydia,  but 
were  ever  ready  to  ud  any  fresh  Dond  of  iKirbarians 
that  prepared  to  assault  the  empire.  Thua,  they 
joined  Attila  in  hia  lenowned  expedition  against 


Gaul  (460—463),  and  fell  by  tboosands  under  the 
swords  of  thrar  kinsmen  the  Visigoths  at  the  battle 
of  C3iU(nu»«tir-Mame.  After  this,  they  obtained  a 
settlement  in  Pannonia,  whence  they  pressed  upon 
the  eastern  empire  with  such  effect,  t^l  the  sove- 
reigns dl  Constantano^e  were  f^ad  to  purcbase  their 
forbearance  by  large  presents  of  money.  In  476, 
Theodoric,  the  greatest  of  the  OBtrogoth  sovereigns, 
succeeded  to  uie  throne  upon  the  deaUk  of  hie 
father  Theodemir.  He  directed  his  arms  ahnort 
immediately  a^inst  the  eastern  emperor  Zeno ; 
and  having  gained  oonniderable  advanljwes  over 
him,  obtained  a  grant  of  some  of  tbe  richest  pro- 
_; ;_  •!..  .^ — :_,     '"'entuallj',  he  w ' 


of  i 


..    .    ...len   he   dethroned   Auguatulus,   tbe 

last  of  the  western  emperois.  Theodoric  utterly 
defeated  Odoacer,  slew  nim,  it  is  said,  with  bu 
own  hand,  and  reigned  undisturbed  sovereign  of 
Italy  until  his  death  in  626.  The  seat  of  his  empire 
waa  at  Bavenna,  which  he  sometimes  exchanged  for 
Verona,  and  once — Le.,  in  60ft— he  visited  Borne, 
when  he  convened  a  meeting  of  the  serute,  and 


declared  that  it  was  his 

committed  to  his  charge  with  even-banded  justice. 
To  a  great  extent,  he  fulfilled  this  promise,  and 
governed  his  eubjocta  upon  the  whole  wisely  and 
to  tbeir  advonta^  The  glory  of  hia  reign  was, 
however,  sullied  by  the  execution  of  two  of  the 
most  diatiuguiahed  men  of  that  age,  Boetbiua 
and  Symmachus,  upon  the  plea  that  they  were 
engaged  in  a  conspiracy  against  hii"  Dormg  hia 
reign,  the  Ostrogoth  kingdom  included,  besides 
Ituy,  all  the  adjoining  conntries  within  the  Bbone 
and  the  Danube ;  also  the  modem  Bosnia,  Servia, 
Transylvania,  and  Wallachia.  In  the  disorders 
consequent  upon  tbe  death  of  Theodoric,  tbe  Emperor 
Justinian  sought  to  win  bock  Italy  to  ■  the  alle- 
giance of  the  emperon  of  Constsntdnople ;  and  for 
Uiis  purpose  he  despatched  Beliaarius  at  the  head 
of  an  army  into  that  country.  In  636,  Belisarius 
entered  Rome,  which  he  held  for  his  master, 
although  invited  by  the  Q.  to  become  himself 
their  king ;  but  all  his  and  his  successor's  e&brta 
to  subdue  the  G.  were  at  that  time  ntteriy  fruitless. 
Totik  (641—662),  a  noble  Goth,  was  elected  aa 
successor  to  Vitiges.  the  antagonist  of  Belisarius, 
bnt  was  conquerM  in  the  batUe  of  Ti^ina,  by  the 
imperial  graierol,  Narses,  in  tbe  year  662.  In  'Uiat 
battle,  Totila  received  his  deatn-wonnd,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Teias,  who  did  all  that  a  brave  man 
could  to  repair  the  misfortunes  of  his  countrymen. 
It  wsB  to  no  effect,  however,  for  he  also  was  killed 
in  battle  in  the  follovring  year,  when  'his  head,* 
says  Gibbon,  'exalted  on  a  spear,  proclaimed  to 
tbe  nattons  that  the  Gothic  kingdom  was  no  more.' 
The  Ostrogoths,  broken  and  dispersed  by  their 
calamities,  henceforward  disappear  from  bistory 
OS  a  distinct  nation,  their  throne  in  Italy  being 
filled  by  the  exarchs  of  Raveoiia ;  while  the  natitm 
genenmy  became  absorbed  in  the  indisortminat« 
mass  of  A^ftTiJ,  Huns,  Vand^s,  Bnrgundians,  and 
Franks,  who  had  from  time  to  time  established 
themselves  in  the  do    '  '  *   "        "   -^ 


GOTLAND   (GdTAIASI),   or   GOTARIKE). 

le  most  south^n  of  the  three  old  profinces  or 
main  divisions  of  Sweden  (q.  v.).  G.  it  now  divided 
into  12  Isna  or  dHuartuients;  it  has  a  superfioial 
area  of  about  37,()00  square  miles,  or  one-fifth 
that  of  aU  Sweden,  and  a  population  of  2,202,306. 
The  fpreater  port  of  tbe  r«pon,  more  especially  in  the 
nwtQondin  the  interim,  is  comwl  with  mountains. 


tydoogle 


GOTTBNBOBG— G0TT8CHED. 


foresU,  uid  UkM,  bnt  its  •outhern  diitricti 
eontkin  loinc  of  the  mort  fertUs  Und  in  Sveden. 
The  principal  Ukea  are  the  Wener  (q.  r.)  and  the 
Wetter  (q.  T.}.  The  river  QOta,  wbidi  ir»  unfit 
for  naTigatian  on  account  of  its  cataracts,  the  most 
pictnrenus  of  irhicli  la  IVollhltttan,  hai '  been 
rendered  navigabla  by  the  oonrtmotion  of  Diimeroni 
ImIu  and  oaMls,  and  it  ii  now  open  to  naaeli  of 
DOnnderaUe  burden  from  Qottenbor^  on  the  Catte- 
gat,  to  Lake  Wener,  from  wbaice  tne  Q4ta  Canal 

sxtenda  the  line  (of  S80  milee)  of  intenud 

I  tl»  kingdMn  to  "■"   """"" 


yieldi  good  copper,  nickd,  ooal,  ko.    The  ^ . 

are  enperetdtioni^  attached  to  their  old  traditional 
naagea  and  their  national  coetome,  bnt  are  honeit 
and  induitrioni,  hoapitabla  and  oontcnted. 

QOTTENBOBO  (Swed.  OOlaborg),  next  to 
Stockbobn,  the  moat  important  city  of  Swedeo, 
in  lat  67°  41'  N.,  Ions.  Ir"  Sff  E.,  and  the  principal 
tovn  of  the  Inn  of  Oottenborg.  The  population, 
in  1872,  WBB  69,329,  exclnmre  of  its  extenuve 
eavirona.  O.,  which  vai  founded  bj  Giutarua 
Adolphna  in  1618,  in  situated  on  tba  river  Oiita, 
a  fair  miles  from  the  Cettegat,  and  conmsta  of  a 
lower  and  upper  town ;  the  former  intersected  hj 
nntnerout  canals,  whioh  are  bordered  b;  alltei  of 
fine  tree^  and  spanned  by  numerous  bridges ;  and 
the  latter  picturesquelj  scattered  over  the  adjacent 
rocky  heights.  Its  admirable  harbour,  which  ia 
protected  oj  three  forts,  afford*  safe  anchoiage  to 
ship*  of  heavy  burden,  and  ha*  long  been  noted 
' ' )  extensive  foreign   commeroB.      The   upper 


dcaemng    i 


is  houses  ;  bnt  there  are  uw  buildings 
special  notice  excepting  the  new 
onurou,  tns  Exchange,  the  Cathedral,  the  Town- 
hall,  and  AnenaL  O.  is  tiie  see  cf  »  bishop  and 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  diatrict  It  baa 
good  schools,  one  of  them  founded  by  Oscar  L,  the 
ute  king,  for  the  children  of  soldien ;  a  public 
library ;  and  an  acadenw  of  science  and  litetatnre, 
which  was  inoorporatfd  in  177S;  bcttdes  various 
educational,  literary,  and  bsnevoleat  institntions 
of  merit  Tlie  oompletion,  in  1632,  of  tiie  CMta 
Canal,  which  conoeots  the  Oerman  Ocean  and  the 
Baltic,  exerted  a  very  important  influence  on 
the  oommeraial  relation*  of  O.,  by  bringins  it 
direct  conrnmnication  with  StockAoIm  ana  a  g 
portion  of  the  interior  of  the  kingdom. 


i  a  neat 


,       The  Utter  has   of 

late  years  attained  considerable  importance,  and 
now,  beaidee  ahip*  building,  includes  extenmve 
manufactories  of  voollen  and  cotton  goods,  sail- 
cloths, tobacco,  soutT^  glass,  paper,  sugar,  and 
pOTter.  In  1866,  3832  vesKls,  of  770,071  tons, 
entered  and  cleared  the  port.  The  exports  are 
iron,  oopper,  deal*,  tar  and  pitch,  alum,  fish, 
Ac ;  and  the  imports,  salt,  cereals,  wine,  and 
articlea  of  colonial  bads. 

GOTTFRIED  VON  STRASBUHG,  or  GOD- 
FREY OP  STRASBUBG,  so  called,  it  is  beliered, 
either  from  baving  been  bom,  or  from  having  resided 


Pareival,  to  the  prologoe  to  which  he  allude*. 
Eilhui  of  Oberge  bad  worked  np  the  sbay  td 
TVisfan  from  a  French  poem.  G.  founda  hia  atoty 
on  another  French  poem  (of  which  oonsidetaua 
fragments  are  still  a^iant],  and  names  as  the  antbor 
Thomas  of  Brittany,  who,  however,  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  half  or  wboUy  fabulous  nunuaa 
of  EioildoaiM,  referred  to  in  the  old  Kngli«li  rtofy 
ot  Tritkat,  published  by  Sir  Waltw  Soott.  Beodes 
TViitiM,  some  lyric  poems  by  0.  are  stall  extant 
O.'s  woAb,  with  Ulrieh  von  Illrheim's  a4id  Heiniioh 
von  Freiberg's  oontinnationl  of  Tridan,  were  pub- 
lished by  Fr.  E.  von  der  Hagen  (Breslan,  1823).  An 
edition  worthy  of  the  poet  is  still  a  desideratum. 
A  translation  of  Trittan  into  modem  German 
with  an  original  conoluBiou,  baa  been  published 
by  H.  Eurts  (atnttgart,  18M). 

GOTTINOEN,  a  town  in  the  former  king- 
dom of  Hanover,  in  lat.  CI*  31'  N.,  long.  9°  56'  E., 
and  one  of  the  pleasantest  in  Lower  Gertnany, 
is  situated  in  a  n'uitFal  valley  on  both  bai^  of 
an  artificial  arm  of  Uie  Leine,  called  the  New 
L^e,  about  60  miles  south  ot  Hanover.  It  is  in 
general  well  built,  but  is  almost  destitate  of  -fine 
edificea,  and  bas  an  air  of  soLtnde,  which  even 
the  number  of  students  cannot  dissipate.  Hie 
SaMuau,  an  old  castellated  and  mctureeiiue  edifice ; 
the  educational  iikstituldons,  of  which  then  are 
many ;  the  hospital,  and  the  university,  are  the 
only  buildings  of  any  note.  The  univnvt^insti- 
tut«d  by  George  IL,  king  of  En^dand,  and  JEleotor 
of  Hanover,  in  1734,  and  opened  ITth  Septonbw 
1737,  is  regarded  u  the  great  national  school  <it 
Brunswick,  Uecldenbuiv,  and  Naasan,  as  well  as 
ot  Haoover.  Connected  with  it  are  the  library, 
containing  400,000  vols,  and  SOOO  maonscripts; 
the  observatory ;  the  art  museum,  with  ooUec- 
tioDS  of  old  oil-puntingi,  of  engravings,  of  coins 
and  models  of  all  sorts,  and  some  casts  from  the 
antique  ;  the  lying-in-hospital,  the  chemical  labora- 
tory, and  the  botanic  mdena  (laid  out  under 
Haller'B  superintendence  m  1739),  one  of  the  chief 
ornaments  of  the  towrL  From  1822  to  1826,  the 
nmnber  ot  studauts   attending  the   nnimwty  of 


in  1834  had  fallen 
inld,  however,  still  boast 
inguisbsd  teactLera,  such 
as  Blumenbach,  Dablmann,  Ewald,  Gauss,  Oervinu^ 


Idnring  the  Utter 

haff  of  the  12tli  oentarv.  His  cUat  woA,  Tritlaii, 
in  the  compaction  of  which  he  was  enqdoyed  at  his 
deatk  snd  which  extends  to  about  20,000  stansas, 
was  written  about  tlie  year  1207,  during  tlie  lifetime 
ot  Hartnaann  ot  Aue,  whom  he  edebrata  ■*  tbe 
first  of  Oerman  namtors,  and  after  the  publication 
ot  tlie  first  potion  of  Wolfram  von  Gechenbaoh's 


to  9B0.     The  onlvendt; 
iblam 

Oieseler,  Herbart,  LOcke,  6^.  MUller,  the  brothers 
Grimm,  &c.  ;  but  the  expuMon  in  1S37  of  the 
'  seven  proteasors,'  Albrecht,  Dablmann,  Ewald, 
Qervinns,  the  two  Grimms,  and  W.  Weber,  tor 
political  reasons,  inflioted  a  blow  upon  the  imiver^ 
aity  from  which  It  ha*  never  recovered.  It  has 
upward*  of  100  professon  of  various  grade*,  many 
of  whom  are  men  celebrated  throughout  Europe, 
Tbe  average  number  of  students  is  TOO:  The  cduef 
mannfaotUM*  of  tlie  town  an  hosiery,  leather,  mA 
musical  and  ecientiflo  instruments;  bnt  the  only 
fiourishing  trade  Ot  Q.  consist*  in  the  sale  A 
tobacco  and  tobaooo-plpM,  books,  and  iautagea. 
Pop.  (1871)  1B,81L 


near  KBnipbei^  in  Prnstia,  Febmai^  2, 1700,  and 
at  the  Me  of  14  entered  the  onirenity  ot  Ettnin* 
berg  wit£  the  tatmHaa  tt  studying  for  the  ehntcb, 
but  he  soon  turned  hia  attsntion  to  pbiloaophy, 
the  fine  ar^  and  lansuagea.  In  1724,  he  removed 
to  Leipsic,  where  in  1730  he  beoaffie  aitiaordinaiy 


aitiaordinaiy 

ihy  and  poetry,  and  in  1734 

metaphysics.    He  died  12th 

1766.      G.'*    great    merit    lay  in   his 


professor  of  philoeaphy 
professor  of  logic  and  mi 
December    1766.      G.'s 


hyCOOgIC 


GOUDA^-GOURD. 


a  forhu  conutaTiiiaii  in  litera- 
tiir«  and  icienDa.  In  (Fther  reapeots,  he  wu  eoien- 
tuUy  French  ;  and  hia  dear,  calm,  and  '  correct ' 
nnderatending  natnnlly  lad  him  to  odmira  irritan 
like  BlMiiie  and  Boileau,  and  to  Tolne  alegsDoe, 
pT«eUkiD,  ftod  pmi^  of  i^le  mors  highly  tlian 
tdl  otba  nerHa.  O.  executed  &  mnltatode  ot  ponou, 
oritioal  aad  philoeophicai  works,  truulstioaB,  ftc 
BJa  ta^edy,  Der  SterbmiU  Colo  ('The  Dying 
Cato  'I,  which,  in  the  days  of  ita  pipnluity,  went 
throng  not  leaa  than  ten  editiona,  a  now  Tsgardad 
by  hia  conntrynien  aa  a  frightful 
*  correct '  and  watery  verae. 

OOTTDA  (Dutch,  Ter  Qmuet),  >towD , 

in  the  pTovince  of  South  Holland,  is  ntnated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Yssel,  at  the  junction  of  the 
GoDwe  with, that  river,  11  miles  noriJi-east  of 
Botterd&m-  It  has  the  largest  market-place  in 
Holland,  conaiatinK  of  a  epocionB  aqnare,  which 
oont^na  the  town-noii«e  uid  the  church  of  St  John. 
The  latter  building  has  31  munificent  stained 
glasB  wiodows,  most  of  them  30  feet  high,  and 
two  of  them  Dearly  twice  that  height  These 
windows  were  execated  between  1360  and  1603  by 
the  brothera  Orabetli,  and  are  among  the  finest  in 
Europe.  0.  is  said  to  have  hod,  in  1751,  374 
day-pipe  works ;  it  has  now  only  16.  The  day 
used  m  this  manulactare  is  brought  from  Cobleni 
and  Kamllr.  It  has  also  numerous  potteries,  exten- 
live  brick  and  tUe  works ;  the  bricka  ore  called 
Clinkers,  or  Dutch  clinkers,  and  are  much  used 
in  buildiag  and  in  pavinK.  Q-  slso  manufoctores 
cotton,  woollen,  and  Ball  cloths,  has  rope-walks, 
gin-distUleries,  breweries,  and  ft  fsmoos  cheese- 
marke^  at  which  Q.  chees&insde  from  new  milk, 
and  esteemed  the  best  in  Holland,  is  exteiuively 
■old.    Fop.  16,325. 

.  OOn'KEKA,  GOTCHA,  or  SEVAIfa.Lixi  or. 
a  deep  inland  lake  gf  Russian  Armenia,  in  lat.  40° 
S'-40'  as*  N.,  and  long.  44''  43'--45°  3ff  K,  30  mUe* 
north-eest  of  the  town  of  Eriwan.  It  Is  47  miles  in 
length  from  north-west  to  south-east,  is  15  miles  in 
average  breadUi,  and  is  situated  in  a  monntainons 
district  at  on  elevation  of  G300  feet  above  aea- 
leveL  The  principal  facta  known  about  this  lake 
are,  that  it  ia  very  deep,  and  yields  good  fish  ; 
th»t  ita  banks  abound  in  volcanio  Jirodnots ;  and 
that,  without  having  any  connderBhie  outlet,  it 
reoeivca  the  watms  of  sevmal  nnimporbuit  Ktreoms. 

Q  O  n  It  A  (Lov^jpiu  eomnatiu  or  ColuTnba 
eoronata),  by  fu  the  largest  of  the  pioeon  family 
(ColuTT^da),  a  native  of  Java,  New  Guinea,  and 
other  ialands  of  the  Indian  Arcbipelo^  It  is  two 
feet  four  indiM  in  length  from  the  bp  of  the  bill 
to  the  extremity  ot  the  tuL  It  is  a  velr  beautiful 
biid,  of  a  sn>yuh-blne  colour,  parta  of  the  back 
and  wings  bla^^  and  piurJish-brown,  a  broad  white 
bar  acnm  the  wings.  The  head  is  adorned  with 
a  laive  semicircular  crest  of  narrow  straight  silky 
fcsthera,  always  carried  erect  The  G.  is  in  the 
hi^iest  esteem  for  the  table,  and  might  probably 
be  domestiwted  irith  great  advajitue  in  tropical 
coantTiw ;  bat  attempts  which  have  been  made  to 
introduce  it  into  the  poultry  yards  of  Holland  have 
oompletdy  failed,  owing  to  the  climate. 

OOURD  [Otiearbila),  a  genus  of  plants  ot  the 
natoi*!  order  OuearbUaaa,  nearly  allied  to  the 
encumber ;  having  mole  and  female  flowers  on  the 
tame  plant,  the  flowers  larse  and  yellow.  The 
■pedea  ore  onouai  fJants  of  very  rapid  growth ; 
ueir  leaves  and  stenis  rongh ;  their  leaves  broad 
and  lobed ;  their  items  often  very  long  and  trail- 
ing ;  nativea  of  warm  dimatee,  although  the  native 
je^n   of   the   kbda   chiefly   cultivated   is   very 


uncertain,  and  they  have  probablv  been   gretttlr 

modified  by  long  coltivatioD,  so  that  perhapa  aU 
of  them  may  be  forma  of  one  original  species,  a 
native  of  some  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia.  The 
Common  O.  or  FtniFKnr  {O.  pepo),  with  smooth 
globose  or  pesr-ali«)ed  fruit,  varying  from  the  size 
of  a  large  apf^e  to  fifty  or  seventy  pounds  in  weight, 
is  much  cultivated  Ixith  in  gKnleus  and  fields  in 
almost  all  ports  of  the  world  ot  which  the  climate 
is  warm  enough  tor  It ;  and  the  fruit  is  not  only  a 
veiy  important  article  of  human  food,  but  is  also 
used   along   with   the    superabundant  shoots   tor 


into  soups,  Ac  Pumpkius  are  much  cultivated  _ 
North  America.  In  England,  they  ore  also  culti- 
vated, but  not  to  a  ^reat  extent,  and  never  sa 
food  tor  cattle.  It  u  not  unusual  toi 
cottagers  to  plant  them  on  dunghills,  and 
the  shoots  along  the  neighbouring  grasa — The 
VsarrABLX  Mauiow  {O.  oi>i/era  or  8.  twxada) 
appears  to  be  a  mere  variety  of  the  pumpkin.  It 
was  introduced  into  Europe  from  Persia  since  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  c,  but  is  now  more  gener- 
ally cultivated  in  Britain  than  any  other  kind  of 
Q.,  being  one  ot  the  most  hardy,  and  its  fruit  of 
excellent  quality  and  useful  for  cnliDory  punraeea  at 
almost  every  stage  of  its  growth.  When  foil  grown, 
the  fruit  is  elliptic,  very  smooth,  geoeially  about 
nine  inches  long,  and  tour  inches  in  diameter ;  but 
these  dimensions  are  occssionally  much  exceeded, 
— One  of  the  most  valuable  gourds  for  culinary 
purposes  is  the  OauT  G.  (0.  maaana) ;  of  which 
the  Spanish  O.  is  a  green-fruited  variety ;  and  the 
Great  Yellow  G.,  the  largest  of  all,  has  yellow 
fruit,  with  firm  flesh  of  a  deep  yellow  colour.  It 
is  sdmetimee  fully  200  lbs.  in  weight,  and  eigjit 
feet  in  drtmmterence.  The  form  of  tlie  tmit  is  a 
somewhat  flattened  globe  ;  when  boiled,  it  is  a  very 
[dessant  and  wboteeome  artide  of  food.  It  is  much 
cultivated  in  the  south  ot  Europe. — The  3<iUAaH 
10.  mtlopaio)   differs  from  all  these  in  generally 


outline  of  which  is  generally  irregular,  and  its  whde 
form  often  so  tike  some  kinds  of  cap,  that  in 
Germany  one  variety  ia  cranmonly  known  ~  " 
Sieetor't  Sat,  and  the  name  Turif  j  Cap  ' 
on  another.  The  Squash  is  regarded  as  one  ot  the 
best  gourds,  and  ia  much  cultivated  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  and  in  North  America. — The  Waxtkd  O. 
{C.  vtrTKCota),  whioh  has  a  very  haid-ekinned  fruit 
covered  with  large  warts,  and  the  IdlTSK  Q.  (0. 
mosokota),  diatingnished  by  its  musky  smell,  ore 
lesa  hsrdy  than  the  kinds  already  named ;  aa  ia 
also  the  Oramoe  G.  {C.  auraiUia),  sometimes  oulti- 
vated  on  account  of  its  beaattfu!  orangS'like  fruit, 
which,  however,  although  sometimes  edible  and 
wholesome,  is  not  unfrequently  very  unfit  for  use, 
on  account  of  colocynth  developed  in  it  This  ia 
apt  to  be  the  case  in  some  degree  with  other  Boards 
auo,  but  the  bitter  taste  at  once  reveals  the  £uiger. 
I^  same  remark  is  api^csble  to  the  young  shoots 
and  leaves,  which,  when  perfectly  fno  from  Mtter- 
ness.  are  an  excellent  substitute  tor  spinach.  Is 
ScoUand,  even  the  most  hardy  goords  are  ^nerally 
reared  on  a  hotbed  and  planted  out  In  England, 
it  has  been  suggested  that  railway-banks  nil^t  be 
made  productive  of  a  great  quantity  ot  human  food 


plaoe,  nor  are  they  injured  by  ontting  off  portjona 


-.Google 


for  nae  as  required.    The  nutte  G.  ia  often  extended 

to  many  other  CtKurbHeuen. 

CrOTJT  (Fr.  gotttte,  from  Lat  guUa,  a  drop),  a 
medieval  term  of  nncertam  date,  derived  from  iha 
hiuBOral  pathology  (aoe  Rbkhiutibm),  indicatmg 
a  well-known  form  of  diaeue,  which  oorars  for 
the  moat  part  in  peraouB  of  more  or  leea  luznrioiu 
habibs,  and  put  the  middle  period  of  life.  The 
acute  attack  of  gout  begins  most  commonly  hy 
a  painful  iwelling  of  tlie  ball  of  the  great  toe  or 
of  the  inatep,  aometimea  of  the  ankle  or  knee ; 
much  more  rarely,  it  attacks  both  lover  limbs 
at  once;  and  more  rarelr  still,  it  seizes  first 
upon  •ome  other  part  of  the  body,  the  foot  bdng 
either  not  attacked  at  all,  or  becoming  inT<dved 
at  a  later  period.  In  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  the  foot  is  not  only  the  first  part  attacked, 
but  the  principal  seat  of  the  dieeaae  through- 
out  i  Boo<»ding  to  Scudam'ore,  indeed,  thli  is  uie 
order  of  ereote  in  not  much  l«aa  than  four-fifths 
of  the  case*.  Id  excepttooal  instances,  the  ankle, 
knee,  hand,  elbow,  Ac,  are  attacked  at  first ;  now 
and  then,  the  disease  smouldera  in  the  system  in 
the  form  of  disorders  of  the  digeetive  or  nervoo* 
fonctionB,  or  oppntsiion  of  the  circulation  for 
some  considerable  time  before  it  takes  the  form 
of  '  regular '  gout — that  is,  of  an  acute  attack,  or 
fit,  of  gout  in  tba  foot.  The  name  podagra  (Gr. 
pod,  foot,  and  agra,  seizure)  indicates  the  leading 
character  of  the  disease  as  apprehended  by  all 
antiquity ;  and  the  very  numerous  references  to  the 
disorder  so  called,  not  only  in  the  medical  writings 
of  Hippocrates,  (!^en,  Aretteus,  Cielius  Aurelianos, 
and  the  later  Greek  physicians,  but  in  such  purely 
literuy  works  as  those  of  Lucian,  Seneca,  Orid, 
and  Hiuy,  shew  not  only  the  frequency,  but  the 
notoriety  of  the  diseaee.  The  allusions,  indeed,  are 
of  a  kind  which  give  ample  proof  that  the  easentlal 
characters  of  gout  have  not  been  changed  by  the 
lapse  of  centonee  ;  it  is  caricatured  by  Lucian  ip  his 
burlesque  of  Tra^iopodagra  in  language  quite  appli- 
cable to  the  disease  as  now  observ^ ;  while  the  con- 
nection of  it  with  the  advance  of  luxiuy  in  Bome 
is  recoKoised  by  Seneca  {Epul.  95)  in  the  remark 
that  mbia  day  even  the  women  hod  become  gouty, 
thns  settiiig  at  naught  the  authority  of  phytidans, 
which  hod  asserted  the  little  liability  of  women  to 
gout.  Pliny  likewise  (book  26,  chap.  10)  remarks 
upon  the  increase  of  gout,  even  within  hie  own 
time,  not  to  go  back  to  that  of  their  fathers  and 
grondfatheiB  ;  he  is  oE  opinion,  farther,  that  the 
disease  must  have  been  imported :  for  if  it  hod  been 
native  in  Italy,  it  would  surely  have  had  a  Latin 
name.  Ovid  and  Lucian  represent  gout  as  mostly 
incurable  by  medicine;  from  this  view  of  it,  Fliny 
disBenta.  The  list  of  quack  remedies  given  l^ 
Lucian  is  one  of  the  most  curious  relics  of  antiquity. 

In  the  present  day,  gout  is  observed  to  prevul 
wherever  there  is  an  upper  class  having  abundant 
means  of  self-indulgenoe,  and  living  withoat  r^(ard 
to  the  primeval  law  of  humanity,  '  in  the  sweat  of 
thy  faoe  shalt  thou  eat  bread.  The  directness, 
however,  with  which  gout  can  be  timoed,  in  particu- 
liu  coses,  to  tti  predi^omng  cmsea  ia  very  various ; 
and  in  many  inatancesi  a  well-marked  heieditaiy 
tendency  to  the  disease  may  be  observed,  which 
even  a  very  active  and  temperate  life  can  SMTCely 
le;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  Ihe  moat  gross 
t  ezoess  may  be  practised  for  a  whole  life- 
time without  incurring  the  gouty  penalty.  It  is 
difficult  to  explain  these  variations ;  but  toey  leave 

~    ■   ■    ■■  it  is    a 

>f  allof 


Ulose  who  have  little  Dhyaical  exertion,  and 
great  scope  to  the  bodUy  appetites.     The  preven- 
tion and  ouiv,  accordingly,  tiAve  been  at  all  times 


aa  brang  munly  founded  on  tampa 


of  self-indulgence.    Withafew 

spsoiBl  ^coeptions,  indftfttt,  it  may  be  sud  that  ths 

the  open  air,  ars  almost  if  not  alt««ther  free  from 
thia  disease.    Those,  again,  that  labour  muoh  with 

the  mind,  not  being  subject  either  to  great  jHiva- 
tions,  or  to  the  restraint  of  unusually  ■''~' — '  — 
habits  of  life,  are  remarkably  subject  '  ~ 
more  so  if  their  bodily  and  mentu  c< 
been  originally  robust,  and  fitted  by  nature  ica  a 
degree  tS  activity  which  the  artificial  neceiaitiea 
of  fashion  or  of  occupation  have  kept  within  too 
narrow  limits.  Hence,  the  well-known<  aaying  of 
Sydenham,  that  gout  is  almost  the  only  disoase  of 
miich  it  con  be  said  that  it  '  destroys  more  rich 
men  than  poor,  more  wise  men  than  simplo.'  And 
in  this  maimer  accordingly  (he  adds),  there  hsva 
lived  and  died  '  great  kings,  princes,  generals, 
admirals,  philosophers,  and  ouiers  like  these  not  a 
few.'  Oout  is,  therefore,  the  counterpoise  in  tha 
scales  of  fortune  to  many  worldly  advantages  ;  the 
poor  and  needy  have  it  not,  but  suffer  from  their 
own  peculiar  calamities  ;  the  favourites  of  fortune 
are  exempt  from  many  privations,  but  this  very 
exemption  paves  the  way  for  the  gout ;  wheroby 
ovon  in  thia  world  Dives  sufieis  as  well  as  Lazanu, 
and  sometimes,  it  nuy  be,  learns  the  lesson  of  his 
suffering.  Such  is  the  sense,  thou^  not  the  exact 
words,  m  which,  nearly  two  huiidred  years  ago, 
Sydeidiam  expreosed  the  convictions  of  a  lifetime 
on  this  anbject. 
"  'denham's   treatise  on  gout  is  interesting  not 


description  of  the  d 


here  with  some  abbreviation, 
weeks  of  previous  indig^tion,  attended  with  flatu- 
lent Bwellmg  and  a  feeling  of  wei^t,  rising  to  a 
cUmai  in  spasms  of  the  uii^is,  the  patient  goes 
to  bed  free  from  pain,  and  uving  had  ra'^'' " 


the  great  toe,  or  sometimes  in  the  heel,  the  ankle, 
or  the  coif  of  the  leg.  The  pain  resembles  that  of 
a  dislocated  bone,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  sense 
as  if  water  not  perfectly  cold  were  poured  over 
the  affected  limb ;  to  this  succeeds  chilllDess,  with 
shivering,  and  a  trace  of  feverishnees,  these  last 
symptoms  diminishing  as  the  pain  increases.  From 
hour  to  hour,  until  the  next  evening,  the  patient 
suffers  every  variety  of  torture  in  overy  separate 
joint  of  the  affected  limb ;  the  pain  being  of  a 
tearing,  or  crushing,  or  gnawing  character,  the 
tenderness  such  that  even  the  weight  of  the  bed- 
clothes, or  the  shaking  of  the  room  from  a  peiwin's 
walking  about  in  it,  is  unbearable.  The  next  night 
is  one  of  tossing  and  turning,  the  uneasy  limb  being 
constantly  moved  about  to  find  a  better  position  ; 
till  towards  morning  the  victim  feels  sud&n  rehef, 
and  falls  over  into  a  sleep,  from  which  he  wakes 
refreshed,  to  find  the  limb  swollen ;  the  venous 
distention  usually  present  in  the  early  stage  having 
been  suoceedad  by  a  more  general  form  of  swelling 


mpletely  relievodi  or  the  attacks  loaj  occur  in 


t.Googli: 


bo&  limlx,  or  in  tereral  oiber  parti  OC  the  body 
aucceMum,  the  real  terauiution  of  the  '  fit '  beiiig  it 
hut  indkaied  hy  to  ftpptreotly  complete  reetontion 
of  heilUi,  and  ereii,  in  aotoe  CMea,  by  a  pmod  of 


comparad  with  the  (tate  of^tbe  patient  before  tiie 
attack. 

Such  are  the  principal  featnieg  of  the  '  iwoUr 
soot.'  In  thi«  form,  it  might  klmogt  ht  ctl&d  a 
looaldiseaM;  although  the connectioii  of  the  attaclu 
with  denuded  digertion,  or  with  a  rarietf  of  other 
miikor  aOmenta  too  complex  to  be  deecnbed  here, 
and  His  obriona  rdief  oWiued  thnmgh  the  'fit' 
fnsD  tiie  aymptoniB  of  constitationid  anfiering^ 
point  to  a  caoae  of  the  diaease  operating  aver  a 
ta^er  range  of  fnnctiona  than  those  indnded  in 
the  oidinaiy  local  manifeatationi  at  this  period. 
B«gidar  goat^  accordine^,  fcams  onlv  part  of  a 
noaologicv  ptctnn^  in  much  the  ao-calfed  uregnlar, 
atonic,  metaitatia,  ct  retiooedent  fonna  have  to  be 
included  hefore  it  can  be  >aid  to  be  at  all  complete. 
These,  indeed,  foim  almoet  all  the  darker  ah^om 
of  the  mctore  j  for  regular  goat,  thoagh  a  veiy 
pajnfnl  disorder,  can  haraly  be  laid  to  be  dangerous 
to  life,  or  even  to  the  limb  aSeoted,  at  least  nntil 
•iter  many  attacks. 

It  ia  the  teodeiicy,  bowever,  of  gont,  when  recur- 
ring often,  to  fall  into  irregnlar  nirms,  and  herein 
liea  ita  danger.  One  aontce  of  local  aggravation 
ia,  indeed,  eoon  apparent,  and  it  leads  rapidly  to 
other  evihk  The  joutla  «4iich  bare  been  repeatedly 
the  teat  of  the  nf^nlar  paroiTim,  become,  more  or 
htm  permanent^,  cdpided  and  diatorted.  A.  white, 
friaU^  cbalk-like  natmal  ia  graduallv  deposited 
waoDd  the  cartilaget  and  liEsmeata,  and  sometimea 
in  iLhe  cellQlar  tiesoe  and  nnder  the  ftkin.  Sometimea 
thia  material  is  diacbuged  eKtCToally  by  ulceration, 
and  thai  usually  with  relicL  At  other  times,  it 
accnniulatea  into  irr^nlar  maasee,  or  *  Qodoeitiea,' 
which  entirely  destroy,  or  at  least  greatly  impair, 
tbe  movement  i^  Ota  "Hmb.  The  pabent  is  laid  up 
more  cr  kae  permanently  in  bis  sim-chair;  and 
exercise^  the  ^r^tt  natural  apedfic  remedy  of  the 
gonty,  u  denied  by  the  Teiy  eonditiona  of  the 
oiMMed  ttate  itedt 

Iben  follow  aggiaratiraii  of  all  the  constitutional 
•offmngi ;  the  mMe  m,  perhaps,  in  proportion  m 
the  looiil  attacks  in  the  foot  become  obecurely 
nai-ked.  Indigestion  continuee,  or  becomea  con- 
stant, aesuming  the  form  chiefly  of  aoidity  after 
msola ;  the  hTer  becomes  tumid,  tile  abdomen 
corpulent,  the  bowels  disposed  to  coetivenen ;  the 
kidney  discharges  a  vitiated  secretion,  and  not  unfre- 
ouantly  there  is  a  tendency  togravd  and  CMculna 
Iq.  T.) ;   the   heart   ia   affected  witii   palpitaticoB, 


;  tiie  arteries  become  the  m 


attack*  of  pain.   

calaweona  aepoeita,  and  the 
the  limb*  and  in  the  uwj^bonrhood  of  the  lower 
Iwwel  <aee  Fils)  ;  the  temps'  is  tingulady  irritable, 
and  (rftsa  moroae ;  then,  sooner  or  iMer,  the  qipetite 
CmIs,  w  ia  only  kept  ap  by  very  stinmlating  and 
nnwhohsome  diet,  with  an  excess  of  wine  or  of 
alooholio  liquors ;  in  the  end,  the  body  emaoiBtfls, 
the  energy  of  all  the  functions  becomes  enfeebled, 
•ad  Hm  patient  falla  a  prer  to  diorrbtea,  or  to  some 
■light  sttaHf  of  in^fntaj  diaeaae.  Sometiiues  the 
enSit  sodden,  a*  by  upa^mcf  or  abnetaral  disease 
of  the  heart ;  atnnetimea,  on  tiie  other  hand,  it 
oocura  in  tiia  midst  of  one  of  those  vicdent  spasma 
which  bav«  poptdariy  acquired  tiia  aanM  <A '  gout  in 
the  •toawoh ;'  the  true  ebaiacter  of  thsae  attacks, 
bowerw,  being  by  BO  uesaa  well  understood. 

Ue  fketdi  here  {pven  of  the  leading  eztranal 
phcBMBena  «f  govt  w  very  inoompleta,  aa  ereiy 
popnlar  deaermion,  to  be  at  all  inteUisUe,  mmt 
2U 


it  the  reader  will  not  fail  to  si 


constitution,  at  times,  under  the  most  > 
anomalous  disgnises,  or  even  under  the  geiwral 
aspect  of  robust  or  rude  health.  It  ha*  been  an 
object,  accordingly,  with  phymcians  to  trace  out 
the  gonty  predisposition  under  the  name  of  a  habit 
of  bcdy,  or  ^oiKait,  oognisable  previously  to  any  o( 
the  Iroid  manifestations.  At  tius  poin^  however, 
the  ideaa  of  authorities  usnally  become  hazy,  and 
their  descriptions  correspondiiu^y  ill  defined  or 
contradictory.  The  anomoloitt  ^ms  of  the  disease 
itself  are  also  exoeei^ngly  difficult  to  describe 
accurately,  and  must  on  this  account  be  left  oat 
of  the  preeent  summary  ot  the  characters  of  the 
more  usnal  aepeeta  of  gout,  as  it  presents  itself 
to  physiciaii  and  patient.  The  causes  ot  the 
disuse  have  been  mffidentiy  indicated  above. 

One  fact  in  r^ard  to  gout  has  relation  to  its 
intimate  chemioal  and  structural  pathology,  not  Icaa 
than  to  its  outward  charaoten ;  and  forms,  in  fad, 
the  pathological  eonnection  cf  a  great  number  of  it* 
phenomena.  The  concmtiona  loond  in  the  joint* 
m  all  caaes  of  well-marked  and  hi^ily  devd^ped 
gout  have  nearly  a  uoifram  eompoiition,  into  which 
VM  orate  i^  soda  jsee  Usio  Aom)  enter*  a*  a 
considwrahle  jm^ortioiL  Urio  add  nas  long  been 
known  aa  <me  of  the  constant  organio  elmuenta  ol 
the  urine,  throu^  which  it  seems  to  be  habitually 
a^)elled  from  the  aystem.  In  certain  oinnun- 
stuuM*,  nrio  acid  i*  deposited  also  in  the  form,  ol 
urinary  gravel  or  Calculus  (q.  v.) ;  and  it  is  thi* 
particnlar  kind  of  gravel  to  which  the  gouty  are 
especially  subject,  as  we  have  indicated  UMive.  A 
conjODctioil  of  facta  so  striking  as  these  oould  not 
but  arrest  the  attention  ot  paUioIogistB ;  and  it  is 
long  since  Sir  Henry  Holland  and  ouiers  threw  out 
the  liypotheais,  that  urio  acid  was  to  be  regarded  as 
'*"  ~  vsrv  maitria  morU  of  goui^  of  which  ancients 

moaemshadbeensalouEin  search.   It  would  be 

out  of  place  to  enter  on  the  tOscussion  of  this  subject 

here  ;  but  it  must  be  indicsted  as  a  fact  cf  recent 

discovery,  that  niio  acid  in  a  certain  excess  has 

been  shewn  by  Dr  Gorrod  to  be  characteristic  of 

the  blood  of  the  ^onty,  although  a  minute  amount 

of  this  sabstuice  is  probably  present  even  in  perfect 

health.      The  most   recent   speculations,    acoord- 

ly,  tend  to   connect  the   gonty  predispositian 

ler  with  an  eioeeaive  fonnation,  or  a  checked 

ration,   ot  this   important  nitrogenous  oivania 

acid,   the   product,   as  physiology  teoohee,  of  the 

vital  disintu^tion  of  uie  fleah  and  of  the  food, 

after  these  have  subserved  tile  daily  wonta  of  the 

system.    At  this  point,  the  inquiry  rests  tor  the 


of  gout,  in  tlie  highest  sense  of  the 
nds  the  earetnl  consideiation  ot  all  its 
predisposing  csnses  in  tiie  individual,  and  the  striot 
regulation  ot  the  whole  life  and  habit*  aoowdindy, 
frwn  the  earliest  pouble  period.   It  is  the  difficult 


after  the  habits  have  beoi  faUy  formed  whiolk  a 
most  odveise  to  tiie  cnreL  liigid  temperanoe  m 
eating  and  dlitikin|^  with  daily  exercise  propor- 
tion&  to  tiio  strength  and  oondition  ot  the  indi- 
vidual, in  reality  ooMtitute  the  only  radical  onra  oE 
nmt,  the  lesson  of  agea  of  e^erieuoe  a*  read  to 
the  gonfy  by  the  light  of  science.  But  the  laason 
ii  not  Isanied,  or  <mly  learned  irtiai  too  latct  It 
dionU  never  be  forgotten  that  a  man  ot  gouty 

of  the  disease,  can  only  hops  to  escape  it  in  lus  ^ 
age  by  habits  of  Ufa  frarmed  at  an  aar^  P"'*"^  *'*^ 


C.  0013  It 


oouT-WEED— ooTEBinaarr. 


by  ft  owrfnl  ftToidaiiM  of  niart  of  the  onmnvw  diMi- 
pstaoM  of  yonth.  Tbmt  tiia  disoHs  nwy  b«  «ud«d 
offin  thii  way,  thare  it  uaide  endano6;  and  it  u 
~^1«N  Mrtun thkt  thioe  w DO otharmy of  linng 
on  faiaii.gonk  Hie  beatment  of  tke  fit  in  so 
u  H  doca  not  naolTe  itaaU  into  the  ocfeWatad 


of  «n»l  Tiliw  perlkna  an  certain  nataial  minml 
waten,  u  thaw  of  vic&r  and  Carldud.  Alkalis* 
and  their  nlti,  «nMaial^  potath  and  lithiamtei^ 
H  impMed  ariaficuIW,  wiut  minute  dous  of  iodine 
Mid  tBomina,  hanli)»wiBa  been  roocli  lecom- 
-  -^^^-e  cure  of  ■  '  -  "  ■' 
goat  end 
between 


aOVT-WMMD,  or  BISHOP-WEED  {Mgopo- 
dium  poibigrttrki),  a  poamial  nmbellifennu  pbmt, 
vitb  coane  twice  temate  liaTW,  ovate  nnaqoally 
■nrate  Iraflrta.  ataui  frcm  one  to  thiee  feet  hi^ 
and  OOTUioTiiid  nmbela ;  now  a  very  ocounon  weed 
jB  Mrdsoa  and  waste  pounda  in  Kitain,  althooflb 
belwnd  to  bare  been  originally  inbodaoad  by  tbe 
monka  from  the  continent  of  Ennme,  om  aooonnt  of 
Qw  Tirtoe  aaoribed  to  it  ol  allaying  tiie  pain  of 
Boat  and  [nlea.  It  ia  a  bonblcaoms  weed,  very 
SilBunlt  of  madication.  Iti  medidnal  viltoe  ia  now 
diacredited.  Iti  amell  ia  not  agreeable,  bat  ita 
yoang  leaTca  are  naed  in  Bwedm  in  ««dy  ipnng  aa 
a  pot^Wb.    Another  F^g'"''  name  ia  Herb  Geiaid. 

OOTAIT,  a  thriving  and  juiitureaijae  liai|^  of 
Scotland,  in  llie  ooonty  of  Lanark,  la  pleaaantl^ 
nbisted  two  mil«e  weet  td  CHaagcn^  with  irtiich  it 
ia  connected  by  an  elepnt  line  ot  villaa,  on  &« 
left  bank  of  the  Clyde.  The  pn^erit^  of  Q.  ia 
chiefly  dapmdeut  apon  Qlaasow,  into  which  indeed 
it  haa  beooma  almoet  abated.     It  now  containa 


and  a  factory  for  throwing  nik.  Fop.  (ISTI)  19,20a 
In  the  16th  &,  thia  antdeiit  village  woa  considered 
one  of  Uia  largeat  in  ScotUud,  and  even  down  to 
tbe  middle  of  the  ITth  o.,  it  received  the  name  of 
'Ueikle  Qovane.* 
GOTEBHHENT,  in  ita  political  aigniflcation. 


ja^ceed  to   mentaMi  the  vaiiooaloana  whidt  ita 
maohintry  haa  aaanmed,  or  ia  capable  d  aJamning. 

1.  It  ia  of  the  raarnrn  of  eveiy  govemmant 
that  it  ahaU  tepwaent  tbe  anpreme  powtr  or 
aovoogn^id  the  atate^and  that  it  ahall  thna  be 
ct^ble  of  anbjedmg  cmy  ctiier  will  in  the  com- 
manity,  whdiner  it  be  that  of  an  individoal,  ot  of 
a  body  of  individaala,  to  ita  own.  Than  ia  and 
cao  be  no  eupaUtuUenal  <b;  fondamental  law,  not 
aeU-impoeed,  which  ia  Innding  tm  a  government  in 
thia,  ita  hi^^eat  eenae.  W^tevar  be  the  reatninti 
vrtuch  hnmanity,  Cfariatiajuty,  or  pudenee  ma^ 
impoae  npon  govanmiBLta  aa  on  individoala,  it  la 
■"pH— ^  in  HiB  idea  of  a  gDVemment  that  it  ahonld 
be  politically  reaponaible  to  no  hmnan  power,  at 
leaM  for  ita  uit«nial  anang«ment(,  or  in  the 
'*"g"*g*  of  pcJitica,  OitA  it  ^rald  be  antooomona. 
*"  "of  itatM   which  are   membeia 


of  a  contadenrtion — m,  for  example,  the  atatia  ol 
the  American  repnblio,  or  the  mriai  oantma — do 
not,  it  ia  tiae,  poaaeM  tliia  indepandwt  diantet«Bi 
But  in  ao  far  aa  they  fall  ahcwt  of  it,  tim  are 
de£maDt  in  the  AaTanhiriatifla  of  a  ffOTemmvit  in  tbe 
ahaohte  aanae^  jnat  aa  the  atatca  are  atatea,  not  in 
tbe  hi^iert,  bid  odIt  in  a  anbndiary  aeDa*.  nw 
aoTtmgn  power  win  vhtdi  gonnBient  is  Ham 
aimed  may  be  an  exfnaaioii  eitbar  of  Uia  general 
will  of  the  eonnnnnity  iteet^  aa  in  free  etMa^  «c 
of  the  win  of  a  conqueror,  and  of  the  army  whidi 
Boppoarta  him,  aa  in  lobjeot  otates.  In  the  formw 
caaa,  the  power  of  gorernment  over  tiie  indiridaal 

^^ —  ; '-- lofe  aa^in  the  latttt;  br^  "—  '- 

'netwecd  t 
Tolnntai^y  i 

batea  a  portion  of  the  abaolute  power  to  whiek 
he  anbmtt^  wheieaa  in  tbe  lalta  it  ia  antiTd.T 
independent  ot  hie  volition.  In  the  power  whiui 
govenmient  paaaaaaea  of  conbolling  every  other  will, 
IB  implied  l£e  power  cf  protecting  evoy  aeparate 
will  Bom  being  neoHleaily  ot  wtonffully  confaolM 
by  any  other  will,  ot  nnmber  tl  willa,  Uia  viD  cl 
the  sovemment  alw^  excited.  With  a  view 
to  the  exerdae  of  thia  latter  power,  gonmroMit 
poaaeBea  a  li^t,  irtiicli  pc^ticady  ia  alao  nnlimited 
— the  li^tt  namdy,  of  inqnirf  into  the  telatkna 
between  dtuen  and  citiMiL  It  n  of  ita  eaamoa  that 
ita  acmtiny  ahonld  be  aa  ineaiatible  aa  tiie  esecn- 
tion  of  ita  decreei.  &  Every  govanmen^  whatever 
be  ita  fonn,  aeeka  the  realiaabon  of  irtiat  we  have 
dfocribed  aa  ita  neceeaary  character,  by  tbe  exetciae 
of  three  dlatJDct  fnuctiona,  which  am  known  aa  ita 
Ic^ialative,  jadunal,  and  executive  fonctiana.  TIw 
fint,  or  l^ialative  fmictiop  of  government,  ""HP^ 
in  ezpmaing  ita  aovordgn  will  with  reference  to  a 
particular  mattov  izra^ediTe  altogether  «E  tba 
eSect  iriiich  it  11117  hwo  on  tJw  inteieata  <d  indiri- 
dualt;  the  aecond,  01  judicial,  cmiaiiU  in  wj^riiw 
the  general  mle^  thna  animaated,  to  in^viduM 
oasea  in  vHiich  diapntea  as  to  ita  ap^Uoatioi  bate 
ariaan;  wliilat  tile  third,  or  eiecntiTe  fnncti«m, 
oonmata  in  oanyii^  into  effect  the  deteiminatiMa  of 
Uie  aoven^  will,  whether  theae  detenuinatioDa  be 
expreased  in  the  exerdae  of  ita  l^jidative  or  its 

In  large  oainmanitie^  whieh  are  at  the  aame  time 

Be — that  ia 
the  people  ia  aovereign- 
ItgialatiTe  functuma  m  ^ 

aazily  im^iea  the  rasteno*  of  a  ...._. 

pariianwat,  w  aa  it  ia  i^ten  called  a  Iwudatme; 
whilat  the  parfcamaooa  ot  ita  jo^oial  nmetiona 
inmliea  the  eziatenoa  <if  judges  and  courts  of  jnatice, 
and  of  ita  eiecntive  Otic  of  a  police  and  an  army. 
Bat  all  of  theae,  like  the  axiatence  of  ooundla 
<£  miniateta,  or  acaranta  of  the  aovermgn  will — 
oDvemmenta  in  tiie  narrower  aoiaB — and  the  tvlm 

regulated,  aae  practioal  neocaaitieB  of  BCTemnieot 
in  oertaun  dieumitaiioa^  not  theamtacaTneoeaaitiea 
of  gorenunent  in  the  abstract. 

The  fonna  in  whieh  oonunimities  hava  aon^  to 
realiaa  the  idea  of  government,  aa  thua  eapbuned, 
have  been  divided,  from  very  eariy  trmea,  into 
three  ohaaei :  let,  monan^y,  or  that  form  in  which 
the  aomeignty  ti  the  atate  ia  placed  in  the  handa 
of  a  ain^  individoal;  2d,  ariatooacy,  or  that  in 
which  it  ia  confided  to  a  aeteot  claaa,  anppceed  to 
be  poaaesaed  cf  pemiliar  aptitude  lor  ita  teniae ; 
and,  3d,  democraof ,  or  that  in  which  it  ia  retained 
b^  the  commnm^  itaelf,  and  eieroiaad  ettbsr 
directly,  aa  in  the  amall  repablioa  of  ancient  Gieeca, 
or  indirectly,  by  meana  of  repreaentative  ioatitai- 
tiona,  aa  in  the  conatitational  atates  of  modem 
timea.   Ekch  of  theae  fonns  <d  pditioal  etgamtatign, 


L,nlizodhyGoO>^k 


GOTEBNUSNT. 


.-    __.__-   _, ^ of  the 

gBwnl  win.  of  Sis  eomiuiiii^,  mamtuned  by  ita 

-^  ,n4  moored  fw  tti  bcnofit,  ia  nid  to  be 

uraent  (Ariatot  PoOfc.  lib.  iii 

%y,  »  gDTenuumit  which  Tiodi- 


K  hgUhBato  «m 
tt.^_a>t  b  to 
«t«a-Uw  iaf 

baMCHi  <<  a 


irf  the  ooHedire  boc^  of  the 
' "  ■  "*  '  'off  on  individiul 

_ .  _  _  and  by  the  andent  pablieiBtafi^iiatot, 
■rf  wpi  «iid  iii  4^  7)  to b»Te  a  paitioolat  dcgenen'- 
fonn  to  riudi  it  waa  fnm&  Uonatdiy  temded  _ 
tte  dindaon  «f  ^itaaj,  at  •  gOTanment  (of  the 
excJudre  benefit  of  the  rinsle  mis;  ariatocncy  to 
ol^irdij,  <r  «  BOTemineiit  for  the  excImiTa  benefit 
of  file  niliiig  data;  and  demodacy  to  ochlooracf, 
~  — *"  ■gawataacxit — a  gorernmeiit  in  which  Wb 
r,  who  wen  ncccoariljr  tiie  mdeet  and  meet 
portion  of  the  comminu^,  ezerdsed  a 
orer  the  mem  refined  uid  cuItivBtad  few. 
tfaeae  vamn*  formi,  in  the  order  in  which 
ire  enmiunted  them,  each.  lentimate  form 
tbtknred  by  ita  correapooding  degenerate  or 
rtad  finm,  goremment  waa  ntppiiaed  to  ran 
_  _  pffpetoal  ^cle;  tho  lost  farm,  ocUocraf^, 
beina  toOowed  by  anarcln,_  oc  no  gCFTomment  at  all, 
wbien  fonned  ft  q«de*  <d  iuterr^niuii  bo  abborront 
to  the  aocuJ  and  pcJHicAl  inrtiiicte  of  mankind  aa  to 
indoM  them  needily  to  nttat  to  monarchj,  at  the 


e  of  mSjeetiiu  &mKlTeB  to  a  repetHiDn  of 
lualorlunee  ldiii£  &ey  bad  aibeadj  experienced, 
t  nfnge  from  these  erilB,  the  eo-calTed  mixed 


at,  or  gorernment  which  should  oombine 
element  <i  ot^er  and  permanence  of  two,  at 
law^  if  not  id  all  the  three  pure  farrai  of  soreni- 
ment,  whilat  rejeetiag  their  tendaiciea  to  dennge- 
■Dent  and  degooenu^,  i»  soppoaed  to  have  been 
deviled.  A  nnion  a  aristocTacv  and  demoorBoy 
waa  Om  form  in  whidi  Ariatoue  conceiTed  the 
mixed  goremment,  and  ipoke  of  it  nnder  the  title 
<4  the  poUtaa.  Bnt  tiie  tripartite  ^vemment  waa 
not  nnknown  to  apecnlatoTS  of  even  ui  earlier  date. 
nato  had  ahadowed  it  forth  in  his  laws,  and 
Ariatotle  Mmte"  talla  lu  that  it  had  been  treated 
«i  by  other  writeti  IPolitk.  iL  o.  3).  Who  these 
wiilai  lealhr  were  bit  been  a  lubjeet  of  moch 
speoolatioa,  bat  theie  i*  n«aon  to  believe  Qiat  their 
woAm  eontainedmeie  Unto  of  the  principle,  and  the 
fint  writer  wHh  whom  we  are  acqn^nted  te  whose 
mind  its  pnetinl  u^ottonee  waa  fnlly  present  ii 
Folybio^  who,  witb  (Seero,  bv  whom  he  wai  vei; 
doMyfoQawedin'the  BepobUo,'  boldiit  to  hare 
been  realtaed  in  the  fioman  oonatitntim.  !nie  moet 
bmona  einnide  of  Ihe  mixed  goremment,  howerer, 
ia  anppowd  to  be  exhiUted  in  that  balance  of 
power*  iritich  baa  been  lo  often  said  to  form  the 
eaaoiee  of  the  fttgUih  ccsutitation.  Bnt  in  addition 
to  the  fact  that  taeae  am  not  separate  powers,  but 
onlrieMnte  ngaoaof  the  tme  power  or  Borerdgnty 
whidibifrt      ■'  *  "         ^--'^ — 


raieral  wiQ   (aee 


Con 


)5). 


any  period  ooald  be  pointed 
own  hiato^  or  in  the  huitoiy  of  any 
other  natioo,  in  iduch  the  lOTereignty  did  not  find 

many;  oc  whether  encli  a  period,  if  it 
raa  not  a  mere  period  of  atmggle  and 


•mment 

part  of  a  Ine  people, 

or  are  diftatfid  to  them  by  mflueiic«a  which  are 
b^ond  Ibdr  vdition,  haa  been  diaciuaed  in  a  very 
intonating  mann^  by  Mr  Uill  in  hia  important 
woAaaStpraenlaiheChmentiatBt.  The  oonchiaion 
at  wbidi  he  arrives  is,  that  'man  did  not  wake 


dec^nsj'  b 
tence  they  » 


'are  »e  gnnrina'  i^iila  men 

that  'in  eveiy  nage  of  thmi ^ 

made  what  they  are  by  hmnan  voluntary  agency ' 
(p.  4).  Ihis  alMohito  power  of  human  choice,  bow- 
ever,  ia  limited  by  thrae  conditions  which  Mr  MiTl 
atatea  thos :  '  The  people  for  whom  the  government 
ia  intended  nmst  be  inUing  to  acoept  it,  or  at  least 
not  so  nnwilliiig  aa  to  oppose  an  nuanuotmtable 


and  abletodo  what  ia  nrrnasaryfn  frnnri  I,  ... 

ing;  and  they  mnat  be  willing  uid  able  to  do  what 
it  reqnirea  li  them  to  enabte  it  to  fulfil  its  pnr- 
poees.  .  .  .  The  faiXuTe  of  any  of  these  conditiooa 
renders  a  form  of  government,  whatever  favourable 
promise  it  may  oQierwiae  hotd  oat,  onsaiteble  to 
the  particular  case '  (p.  6).  Bnt  there  ore  itill  moM 
important  conditions,  not  here  enumerated  by  Ht 
Mill,  bat  one  of  which  at  least  is  fully  recognised 
in  the  eeqoel  of  his  work,  which,  if  not  complied 
with,  rendec  forma,  of  government  nnsniteble  not 
only  to  ime  case,  <a  st^e  of  social  develi^nent,  hot 
to  all  caaea  and  aB  stages  ot  development.  These 
conditiona  may  be  broaoW  itated  aa  falling  imder 
a  single  category — vix.,  niat  forma  of  govenunent 
most  conform  to  Hie  eonatitntion  of  hnman  nature, 
and  recognise  those  oirangements  of  Fnividenoe 
which  are  beyond  the  reach  of  hnman  control. 
This  conditioD  seems  so  obvious,  that  one  would 
snppoee  it  could  scarcely  be  overlooked  in  fixing  on 
a  piuticuliu'  form  of  govenunent,  and  yet  there  ia 
none  which  has  been  overlooked  more  frequently. 
The  moat  prominent  example — to  whidi,  in  recent 
yean,  much  importance  h^  been  attached  by  Mr 
J.  S.  Mill  and  aD  speculative  politicians  of  note — 
which  a  form  of  government  is  constracted 
equal,'  Uie  fact 


can  be  made  te  work  only  by  the  direct  leaiutB  M 
its  action  beiiu  counteracted  hy  indirect  means, 
aa  haa  been  the  oaae  in  all  the  Bo-called  pure 
democraciea  that  have  had  any  permanent  existence. 
The  atato  in  theae  caaea  is  governed  not  in  accord- 
ance witii,  bnt  in  spite  of  the  fonn  cd  government. 

The  fanunu  diaonssion  as  to  what  is  abaalntcly 
and  in  itself  the  best  form  of  govamment,  which  has 
occupied  so  Urge  a  portion  of  human  time  and 
iagenoity,  is  one  which  we  must  here  dismiss  with 
tte  obserration,  that  it  teats  on  another  qneation 
iriudk  has  been  not  has  kem^  and  perhqia  scarcely 
leas  fntilely  diaenaaed.  Hie  sewmd  question  i^ 
What  is  &a  end  of  EoreRimentl  for  it  is  clear  that 
could  the  eod-in-itaeu  (the  telM-CtMon)  be  discovered, 
we  might  limit  the  diacusmou  aa  to  the  best  fonn  of 
government  te  an  inquiry  into  the  meana  which  led 
most  directly  to  the  attainment  of  this  end.  K<nr 
there  are,  and  have  always  been,  two  claaaea  of 
Bpecnlators,  who  assign  what  aOT>eaT  to  be  difierent, 
and  what  by  many  ore  believea  to  be  irreconcilable 
ends  or  objects  to  government,  and  indeed  to  human 
effort,  sepanto  as  well  as  i^mgate.  By  the  one^ 
■    '  -       .  --  jj2d  to  be  '  the  greatest 


hy  the  other 
of  the  idea  D 


ip^inesa  abadntely  considered ; 
t  u  aaid  to  be  tbe  realisation 


to  say,  of  the 
divine  conception  of  hnman  natnr^  through  the 
inatramentah^  of  sodety.  The  manner  in  which 
the  first  or  TTtilitariiui  creed  haa  recently  been 
expoanded  by  ita  moat  important  adhetoila,  haa 
had  the  effect  of  shewing  that  the  two  ends  are 
in  reality  coincident.  IT  hajipiiieaa  be  so  defined 
aa  te  render  it  identical  wiu)  monl,  inteDe^oaL 
and  phydcal  perfeotion,  the  advocate  of  the  ideal 
end  acknoiriedgcs  that  its  attainment  woold  inTolva, 
of  necesd^,  tlu  realisation  of  hla  own  aaiindiDna, 


,dhyGuU^|i 


OOWEB— OOWBIE  OONaPnLA.CT. 


A  diSeieiiM  of  opinion  m  to  the  object*  of 
gomiuiMiit  Marcely  more  ra*l,  though  attended 
with  far  mora  faUl  couBM^uanoca  tiian  that  whioh 
haa  dindad  apaoolative  politicuna,  haa  raided  thoae 
irtto  haTe  dealt  with  gormu 
intwooppomteaohoola.  By  the  oiiaaahod,ita  object 


■olrtoa) 


»Te  dealt  with  gomninaiit  aa  a  piutieal  art 
oppooite  aohoola.  By  the  one  aohodiita  object 
to  oe  Older ;  by  the  other,  liber^ ;  and  each 
•a  d)jecta  haa  beea  anppoMd  to  be  attainable 


, to  Uiat  to  which  the 

aaeciflcea.    Atmer  inaight  into  the  lawa 

of  KNiiety  haa  led  a  more  enlightened  achool  than 
rither  eniarelj  to  reverse  thia  latter  opinion  ;  and — 
whilst  holding  the  two  objeota  referred  to,  to  be  <" 


that  aaoh  is  attunable  only  in  and  throng  the 
other,  and  that  the  peifectioD  with  which  either  ii 
realised  in  any  partacolar  instance  will  be,  not  in 
invene  bat  m  direct  proportioa  to  that  to  which 
the  otiier  is  ao.  Order,  ao  for  from  being  the 
□ppoaite  of  liber^,  is  tima  the  principle  by  which 
conflicting  oUims  to  liberty  are  reconciled.  The 
prindple  whidi  is  really  oppoaed  to  liberty  is 
Ucence,  in  Tirtne  of  which  tlie  sphere  of  the  liberty 
of  one  individual  is  endeftvonred  to  be  carried  into 
that  of  another.  To  the  extent  to  which  thia  takee 
rJace,  the  liberty  of  botii  is  McriSced,  for  tiie  teni- 
toiy  in  dispute  is  free  to  neither  of  IJie  cUimanta; 
whereas  oroer,  by  preserving  the  bonndar^  between 
tJiem,  arsrigns  to  each  the  portiou  which  is  his  due, 
and  prerenta  the  waata  ol  liberty  whioh  is  necea- 
aaiily  inTolved  in  tlie  gra^cation  of  lioenoe,  and 
the  consequent  wdrtence  of  anarohy.  The  reasons 
whioh  hare  led  men  to  believe  that  the  union 
between  tba  principles  of  order  and  liberty,  which 
it  is  thna  their  mutual  interest  to  effect,  can,  in 
large  states,  be  eSectad  by  means  of  repr«sen- 
tabva  inttitntioau  better  than  by  any  other  poli- 
tioal  expedient  that  ha*  yet  been  devised,  wiO  be 
frrplaiivil  undsr  KEFiuraaNT^TiVK  QovKuraKNT. 
See  also  Corhtitutioh,  ItosM-xcBV,  Dsiockaci', 

LiBKBTT  KiluuiT  and  f  IU.TKBinTT. 

OOWEB,  John,  Om  date  of  whose  birth  is 
unknown  (jSNttwb^  about  13Q0],  ia  supposed,  by 
his  latest  tnomwr,  to  have  belonged  to  the  conn^ 
at  Kant  ^u  hirtoiy  is  cmvelcfed  m  almoat  tobu 
ofaaeiui^,  but  ha  aeems  to  have  been  one  of  the 
most  aooomplisbsd  gentlemen  of  hia  time,  uid  to 
have  beui  in  posses  lion  of  conaiderabla  landed 
property.  He  was  a  personal  friend  of  Chancer's, 
who  ariUreaaee  him  aa  'a  moral  Oower'  in  dedi- 
cating to  him  his  Troiiiu  and  Orwida — an  epithet 
which  haa  indissolnbljr  linked  itself  to  his  name. 
He  did  not  long  surviTe  his  great  contemporary, 
having  died  in  tile  aotumn  of  1408.  6.  wa> 
a  volnmiuooa  writer,  and  produced  the  Speculum 
ItaditaatU  (a  poetical  discouise  on  the  duties  of 
married  life}.  It  consisted  of  ten  booka,  written  in 
French  verse,  but  is  suppoaod  to  have  perished ; 
the  Vox  Clavuattu,  in  Latin  (of  which  tltera  are 
mannacript  copies  in  the  Cottcniau  and  Bodleiaa 
libraries] ;  and  tiis  Cntftstio  Anumti*,  by  which 
he  is  best  known,  in  "■gl"*'  Thia  latter  work, 
extending  to  the  portentona  length  of  30,000  verses, 
wa«  first  printed  by  Baihelet  m  1G73.  An  excel- 
lent  edition  o(  the  woHn  of  O.  waa  published  in 
18ST]  under  tlie  editorial  care  of  Dr  Reinhold 
Panlt,  with  a  mamdr  and  raitieal  disaertadoo. 

mnch  in  K^enoh,  hia  Ti^jH*^^  poem  ia  full  cd  Norman- 
French  word^  and  in  nis  native  tongue  he  never 
■'■''"■  '  '  Apart  from 


literaiT  merit  or  demerit,  hia  poem  is  interesting  t 

Hie  sctKJar  and  the  antiquary,  bee         

elements  which  fbnn  oar  modem  i 


le  ^  side, «  but  indiffinently  f OMd  togetber. 


OOWBIE,  Oabss 
Cjjiai. 

OOWBIE  OONSPIBAOT,  one  of  the  moat 
singular  events  in  the  bistcvy  of  SooUand,  to<A 
place  in  August  1600.  On  the  5th  of  that  month, 
ss  King  Jamea  TL,  then  residing  at  Falkland  Palace, 
~~  Fife,  was  going  oat  to  bunt,  Alexander  Snthven, 

otlier  of  we  Earl  of  Oowrie,  whose  father  had 
1584, 


brotlier 

been  executed  for 

majesty,  and  infoimed  him  tlia^ 


e  previons 


wpsaiuce,  and  evidanUy  disguised,  w^  a  pot  foil 

fined  him  in  hia  brother's  houae  at  Ferth.  Conceiviiig 
him  to  be  an  aoent  of  the  pope  or  the  king  of  Spaii^ 
the  king  agreu  to  axamine  the  man  hi'm«alf,  tuA, 
without  waiting  to  chann  hia  hone,  set  out  fcr 
Perth,  attended  onlv  by  um  Duke  of  Lomox,  the 
Earl  of  Mar,  and  about  20  oHiets.  Soon  after  hii 
amvol,  while  his  retinue  were  at  dinner,  BnHiTeo 
conducted  the  king  up  a  winding  stamcaae  and 
tliroUKh  several  apartments,  the-doon  of  which  he 
locked  behind  him,  and  brought  him  at  last  to  a 
small  study,  where  stood  a  man  in  aimonr,  with  a 
Bword  and  dagger  bv  his  aide.  SnatcUng  the  daggn 
from  the  man's  drdla,  Bathven  held  it  to  the  k^a 
breast,  and  aud:  'Wbo  moidered  my  &tlisrl  Is 
not  thy  oooadence  burdened  I7  his  innocoitblMdl 
Tbon  art  now  my  prisoner,  and  most  be  oontent  to 
follow  oar  will,  and  to  be  used  aa  we  list    Se^  not 


so  far  relented  Uiat  he  went  to  consDlt  his  brother, 
leaving  the  king  in  charge  of  the  man  in  annour. 
In  the  meantime,  one  of  Qowrie's  Berrants  hastily 
entered  the  apartment  where  the  kiug's  retinue 
were,  and  annonnoad  that  the  king  had  juat  ridden 
off  towards  Falkland.  All  hurried  into  the  street, 
and  the  eari,  with  the  utmost  eagemesi,  called 
for  their  horses.  On  Alexander  Bidhven'a  retan 
to  the  king,  he  declared  that  there  was  now  no 
remedy,  but  that  he  must  die,  and  prooeeded  to 
bind  his  hands  with  a  garter.  The  long  gnppled 
with  him,  and  a  fierce  strusglB  ensued,  ftag^ng 
Buthven  towards  a  window  looking  into  the 
street,  whioh  the  man  in  armour  bad  opened,  the 
king  cried  aloud  for  help.  TIi»  attendants  knew 
his  voice,  and  hastened  to  his  assistance.  Lennox 
and  Mar,  with  tlie  greater  number  of  the  royal 
tnin,  ran  up  tlie  principal  staircaas,  but  foimd 
all  the  doom  shnt.  Sir  John  Bamaay,  of  the 
Dalhousie  family,  one  of  tlie  royal  pages,  ^^'nl^ing 
by  a  back  stair,  entered  the  study,  ti^  door  <3 
which  was  open,  and  seizing  Birtliven,  sbi^bed 
him  twice  with  his  dagger,  and  thmst  him  down 
the  stair,  where  he  was  killed  by  Sir  lliomas 
Erskine  and  Sir  Hugh  Herriea.  On  uie  death  at  hia 
broths,  Oowrie  nubed  into  the  room,  with  a  drawn 
sword  in  each  band,  followed  by  seven  retainers, 
well  aimed,  and  was  instantly  attacked.  Pierced 
Quough  the  heart  by  Sir  John  Bamsay,  he  fell  dead 
without  uttering  a  word.  The  inhabituits  of  Perth, 
by  whom  Gowne,  who  was  their  jativaat,  was  mnch 
beloved,  hearing  of  his  fate,  ran  to  aimi,  and, 
surrounding  the  house,  threatened  revenge.  "Qib 
king  addressed  them  from  a  window,  and  admitted 
the  magistrates,  to  whom  he  fully  related  all  the 
circumstances,  on  which  they  dispersed,  ud  be 
returned  to  Falkland.  Hues  of  the  eail'a  •nranti 
were  executed  at  PerUi.  The  man  in  annour, 
Andrew  Henderson,  tlie  earl's  steward,  was  par- 
doned. All  who  were  examined  were  total^ 
ignorant  of  the  mottVM  which  had  prompted  the 
brothers  Bnthren  to  sach  a  deed,  vid  they  still 
remain  in  some  degree  of  mysteiy,  althoogh  reoint 


Google 


OOYA  T  LUCIENTES-OBAAL. 


diMiFT«ri<a  ia!n  led  to  a  pretty  general  bdief  tbat 
tb«  object  of  the  MU^TMon  nw  to  poMtM  them- 
«eh«e  of  Qi0  kinj^i  penon,  to  oonTer  nim  fay  water 
to  FMt  Caetle,  ud  either  to  ffwa  him  vp  to  Eng- 
liadt  iM  to  fti^twinfa**!*  1^  goTtnutteikt  in  liii  nmme 
in  tiie  intaeat  of  that  tountry  and  ot  the  Preeby- 
teriiB  leedeie  at  hmie.  HMt  irf  the  docninente 
Telating  to  Ae  jdot »«  prioted. 

GOTA  T  LUOIKNTES,  VBUmooo,  the  auit 


Ifarch  1746,  and  reatdved  his  fint   education  

art  in  uie  academy  U  San  Loia,  SanMsa,  On 
hia  letnin  from  a  viiit  to  Boau^  tiie  talent  and 
need  witk  -which  he  ezeosted  sraue  paintingi  for 
we  Toyal  tapesby  mann&otory  gained  the  appro- 
latiom  of  the  celebrated  Meo^  who  laperintenoed 
tiiat  wo^  Hia  iceiMa  from  the  ocmnum  life 
of  Uie  SpaniBh  peofde  excited  apeci*!  admiration; 
hat  tin  the  pnidnctianB  cf  hii  eaiel  dnnng  this 
Mu-fy  period,  to  iriiich  belong  tha  tltw-^ieoe  and 
tLa  emdfix  at  the  —•*—-»-  *-  •*—  -Vi™-  «*  *ii" 


, effectire  ahiai~oecuro. 

In  1780,  he  ma  deoted  nuonber  of  tbe  academy  of 
San  Fonanda  Ttma  tliM  time,  the  inflnence  of 
VelaaqneE  and  Bembnndt  m  dwerraUe  in  his 
nintii^L  Among  t^  meet  oelobrated  of  thcae 
w  hia  poitnit  of  Charica  IV.,  for  which  he  was 
made  conjTt-Tiainter.  In  g 
execDled  wiUk  gnat  felici^ 

went  to  Pari*  &  hia  bealtli, __  . 

in  Fraace  tin  hia  death,  whidi  took  place  at 
Boideaux,  101b  April  181!8>  Baaidea  hia  work*  in 
ml-etjonr,  0.  ia  cetebrated  for  hia  eaaya  in  faeaoo- 
paintiD^  etetiin^  lithopvphy,  and  in  almoat  evef; 
department  (rfhia  art. 

OOTA'KITA,  a  city  of  Bnaal,  in  the  provinoe  of 
Fernambnco,  ia  aitoatad  on  a  rirer  of  the  tame  namc^ 
36  milea  nntii-weat  ol  Olinda.  It  hai  nnmarooa 
factoriea  and  an  active  tnde.  Pop.apwardaof  lO/MO. 

OOTA%  a  <nty  i^  Brazil,  ia  aitnated  on  the 
rinrVermdbo,lnlat.  16*21'  B^Joag,  IWSG'W.. 
neaily  in  ttte  middle  of  ihe  empir^  being  tha 
cental  of  tibe  oantial  icorinoat  wbioh  beua  ite 
name.  Ue  ci^  oootaina  aboot  7000  inhab" 
•nd  the  proTiDW^  with  an  «Ma  of  290,000 

miles,  haa,  aocordiitE  to  the  gorenuncut  reti 

1807,  a  population  of  only  100,000  (beaidea  ISOOO 
IndiaoaX  moat^  abcavioea.  llie  duef  prodnctiooi 
are  cotton,  tunber,  aod  cattle. 

OCZOjOT  QOZZO  (oalled  by  the  Bomana  Qavlo$), 
an  viand  in  the  liediterranean,  belonging  to  Britaio, 
ia  aboot  10  milea  in  leneth,  and  alnnt  S  miloa  in 
Ireadth ;  haa  an  ate*  ot  36  ag.  m.,  and  a  pop^  td 
nfiOO.  Ita  aarfaoe  ia  agreeably  direraified,  and  it 
haa  many  feitQe  valleya.  It  appeara  to  have  been 
formerly  eoonected  wiUi  MalU,  from  which  it  ia 
now  aeparated  by  a  channel  foor  milea  in  width. 
On  thia  account,  and  from  ita  netnral  prodncti<nia, 
it  ii  a  tpot  of  the  highevt  interest  to  the  natoraliat, 
wtule  the  ^dt^iean  waDa  of  Hia  'Giant's  Tower' 
and  Boinan  monoments  ot  a  later  period  eidte  tin 
attenttok  of  the  antdquary.  Tht  laland  abonnda  in 
game,  and  ia  mnch  frequented  t^  aportamen.  It 
^xidnoea  large  qnastdtiea  of  grun  and  cotton,  and  ia 
eelebntad  for  cattle  and  for  a  bteed  of  large  tsaea. 
From  the  dnnmatanoe  of  ita  having  two  harbboia, 
it  ia  likewiae  of  importance  in  a  oommerciel  and 
nautical  point  id  tibw.  The  chief  town  ii  Babato, 
aitnated  near  the  oentre  of  the  island.  The  British 
goremcK  ncidw  h)  the  Csetel  del  Oouo. 

flOZZOLI,  Bixoxzi,  a  famooa  freaoo-painto', 
was  ban  at  nonnce  about  the  beginning  of  the 


.,  and  studied  under  Vi*  Angelioo,  whoee 

1  aabjecta  he  fuUy 

A  glow  ot  rejoicing  life 


ezoellenoe  . 

seems  infused  into  aH  O.'a  productiona.  His  chief 
worka  bearing  tiacea  <d  hia  master'a  inflnenM  are 
* ~  the  chuTchea  of  Orvieto  and  Borne;  *"'" 


a  a  painter  id  aacred  s 


Fietro  de'  Hedioi,  in  a  ch^)al  of 

Medtai,nowRiccordiPBlace,  at  Florence.    The 

>t  worl^  however,  on  which  Q.'a  fame  reata,  ia 

immense  frescoes  eiecnted  on  the  north  wall  of 

the  famous  cemetery,  or  Campo  Santo  of  Piaa.    This 

wonderful  aeries  of  paintings,  not  inaptly  teimed  by 

Yatari  tnu  (errfititamma  opem  ('  a  terrific  woA '), 

was  nndertakan  by  the  artist  at  the  uw  of  sixty, 

and  accompliihed  in  sixteen  yesra.     The  accnes, 

which  an  sill  teriptmal,  are  21  in  numbei',  and  aie 

-'illinwtoeUeDtpMaerTation.    Q.  died  in  148S. 

ORAAF,    BxamxR    si,   a    celebrated    Dutch 

lyaioian,  waa  bom  at  Schoonhove  in  1611,  and  died 

Delft  in  1673.    He  atudied  at  the  univeiaity  of 

Leyden  under  Dubois  (De  le  Bo6),  who  ia  better 

known  under  his  Lstiniaiad  name  of  Savins ;  and  on 

the  death  ot  the  latter,  in  1672,  would  have  been 

leant  chair,  if  hii  rehgica 

(he  waa  a  Catholic)  had  not  proved  an  inaiqierable 

obstacle  to  hii  ^^ointment.    In  16U,  when  laily 

twen^-three  years  of  age,  he  puUiued  his  J>>*- 

pidalw  Mfdioa  de  Xalura  et  Umi  Sued  PanertaHei, 

which,  although  contsiniog  aeversl  nrors — aa,  for 

instaooe,   that  the  pancreatio  juioe  is  aoid,  and 

that    uumy  diieases,  and    eapeoially    intermittent 

levers,  are  doe  to  a  morbid  condition  of  this  fluid 

'   '  im  a  great  lepntation.     Attn  a  ihMt 

France,  where  he  took  his  dooto^sdegiee 

Angers  in  166S,  he  retained  to  Holland,  and 

settled  at  Delft,  where  hia  saoecai  in  praetioe  j^iined 

him  much  enry.     He  rendered  great   sarvioe  to 

'    '    '       the  inventor  of  those  inieetiona 

which  Swammetdam  and  Buysdi 

brondkt  to  a  state  (d  oomparstiTe  exoellenot^  and 
whion  are  at  the  Lroeent  daflr  tJie  basii  of  our  sound 
knowledee  of  moat  of  the  tiMuei  o(  the  body. 
He  pqUiahed  aeversl  iliaanilatiiiin  on  the  organs  c( 


gmwatioD  in  botfc  aexe^  whioh  invcdred  him  in  a 
proloaged  and  aag^  oonlniveisy  wiUi  Swamuwr- 
dam.  AoGording  to  Halle^  his  death  waa  oeosHoned 
1^  an  attack  of  janndioe^  brought  on  by  the  excite- 
ment of  this  oontroveray,  but  we  do  not  know 
EsUer'a  authority  for  this  assertioa.  All  hia  woriu 
were  collected  in  one  octavo  volume,  aod  published 
under  the  title  of  Opera  Omnia  in  1677i  and  they 

ere  repnblished  in  1678  and  in  170S. 

GIUAFF-BBTNET.  the  chief  tovm  ot  the 
divinon  of  ita  own  name,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
snd  proqwTOQi  towns  in  Cape  Colony.  The  num- 
ber ti  inhabitants  Is  about  wOa  During  the  ten 
yeu*  immediately  ^seeding  I8S7,  it  had  risen  from 
an  inland  villue  to  be  a  great  oentre  of  oommeree, 
having  its  pnbuo  library,  tta  eoUage,  ita  agrioultnral 
aooie^,  ita  banks,  and  ita  newspaper,  n  owes  ita 
•dvanoament  pwrtly  to  ita  poaition  on  the  high-road 
between  Port  EhiUMth  and  the  northern  bonndary. 
It  ii  ntnated  on  the  Sunday,  which  enters  Algoa 
B^,  near  Fwt  Elisabeth. 

GHAAFIAM  VESICLES.    Sea  OVABT. 

GBAAL,  OBAL,  or  GB^AL  (a  word  dnived 
TOotiaUy  from  the  old  ^endi,  p«riiapi  Celti<^  grt^ 
Provencal,  graxai,  medieval  I^tm,  ffradalit),  tignifiea 
a  kind  of  dish.  In  the  legends  and  poetoy  of  the 
middle  ages,  we  find  aooonnts  ot  the  Edy  Gnat — 
San  CfaJM  a  miraenlons  ehaIioe,made  of  a  ainde 
preoona  stone,  annetimM  said  to  be  an  auanld, 
which  PBiseaiBd  the  power  ol  isMaiiiiig  ehastify, 
imliHiging  lif^  and  other  wontefnl  jropEittes. 


Uinilizsd  bv 


Googh 


GKABS-GRACCHUa 


^nua  clulice  wh  bsUered  to  htm  been  fint  broo^t 
from  heaven  by  uigela,  and  wu  tha  one  from  which 
Chriit  dnnk  at  the  Last  Sapper.  It  vu  preeerred 
by  Joseph  of  AjimathBa,  tni  in  it  were  uught 
the  lui  drope  o{  the  blood  of  Cbiiat  aa  he  waa 
taken  iiom  the  orosa.  Tbia  holj  chalioe,  thna 
treUr  aanctifled,  was  guarded  bv  aiu;ehi,  and  thai 
\y  tm  Templisea,  a  society  of  kni^ta,  choeai  tor 
their  obartitf  ana  demotion,  who  'watohed  orer  it 
in  a  tem|ile-like  oaatle  on  the  inocceaDble  numntaiu 


__..  ,  Jewidi,  and  CbrUiuu  elementa, 

the  favourite  aabject  of  tbe  poett  and 

of  the  middle  agea.    The  tight  centnries 

of  warfan  between  Uie  Chriirtdana  and  Mocira  in  Spftiii, 
^piT  ^htt  foundation  of  Iho  tnder  of  TTnight  Tetnplan, 
uded  in  its  devdopment.  The  aloiies  and  poetua 
of  Arthur  and  the  Boond  Table  were  connected 
with  this  legend.  About  1170,  Chittien  of  IVoys, 
and  after  Ti™  other  troubadonrs,  sang  of  the  seuch 
for  the  holj  graal  by  the  Enighta  of  the  Itonnd 
Table,  in  whicD  th^  met  with  mocT  exlraordinaiy 
adventares.    Some  have  anppoeed  that  the  atoiy  of 


f  the  tniraculoiu  chalice 
Last  Silpl>er  and  Uie  blood  of  Cbiiat  anise  from  a 
wrong  division  of  ths  worda  mn  grtal,  holy  venel, 
which  were  written  sang  rtai,  royal  blood,  blood  of 
the  Lord ;  but  although  the  coinddence  is  cnrioiu, 
there  ia  no  good  reason  to  auppose  that  a  pun  could 
have  been  the  fmndation  <n  a  luperEtition  which 
■preod  over  Europe-  The  legend  of  the  cnial  was 
introduced  into  Qerman  ponry  in  the  Isth  c  by 
Wolfram  von  E^chenbach,  who  took  Quiof  a  tales  in 
Parcival  and  Titnrel  as  the  foundation  of  hia  poem, 
but  filled  it  with  deep  allegorical  meanings.  It  ia 
more  elaborately  treated  b^  the  author  ^  Titurel 
the  Tounger;  and  much  cnnoiu  information  may  be 
fooud  in  a  work.  On  lie  Daeriptbm  qflJie  Tanpie  of 
lAe  Bdf  Qraal,  hj  BoiaierCe  ('  Ueber  die  Beschrei- 
bang  defl  Tempua  dea  Heiligen  Graal,'  Mnnifth, 


1834). 


GRABS,  Teasel*  of  front  ISO  tc 
on  the  Halabar  eoaat;    They  an  .  . 

with  two  or  three  nuwti,  and  oiiiruted  for  veiy 
heavy  weather. 

QftA'COBtrS  ii  the  name  of  a  Boman  tanuly, 
of  the  gens  Sempronia,  which  contribated  sevend 
famous  citaaens  to  the  state.  Fiiat  we  have  Tibtsiua 
Sempnmiai,  who  waa  conaol  fn  238  B.C.,  and 
oondocted  sane  warlike  operationa  in  Cottrica  and 
Sardinia,  Another  Tib.  Sempronius  distinguiBbed 
tiimmlf  in  the  aecond  Pome  war,  and  for  hia  anccesa 
Hannibal,    was   honoured   with   the 


and  8000  voUma,  or  volunteer  slave*  (irilo  after- 
word* gained  their  liberty  as  a  reward  for  their 
braver^,  he  withstood  the  Cartha^niana  In  South 
Italy,  defeated  Hanno,  and  checkmated  Hannibal 
himself ;  but  ^ter  many  victoiiea,  he  at  length  lost 

hi*  life,  either  in  battle  with  Uuo,  r-  jj-- ■- 

others,  bf  beachety,  Hannibal  binu 
A  sploidid  funera£  PasDng  bv  some  Omcchi  of 
minor  note,  aa  the  angnr  id  203  b.  a,  the  tribune 
d  189  s.  □.,  and  other^  we  come  to  Tiberius  Sem- 
woniua,  the  father  of  those  two  reformers  and 
friends  of  the  people  whone  fame  has  ovenhkdcwed 
sll  the  otbera.  He  was  bon  ftbont  210  a.  a,  and 
yeara  oconpied  *  foremost  position  in  the 

r j^^  tribune,  tedil^  pnetor, 

or,  and  distingoiabea  fiiinMJf 
He  iBbodoeed  aome  important 
oonatitntional  ebMUgea,  and  waa  often  empltiyed 
on  foteigh  embosaica,  ui  whioh  hia  judgment  and 


conciliatory  snirit  woe  of  great  service  to  the  state. 
He  married  Cornelia,  the  yoongert  daughter  of  P, 
Scipio  Africanoa,  by^  whom  be  bad  twelve  children. 
Nine  of  these  died  in  youth ;  a  daoghter,  Cornelia, 
married  Scipio  Afrieanus  the  younger-  IQie  history 
of  hi*  two  Bona  follows : 

1.  TiBEBits  SmFBOimis  Qbacohi;?  was  bom 
about  168  B.  a,  and  was  educated  with  gnat  care 
by  his  excellent  mother  (hia  father  bavinff  died 
while  he  was  yet  veryyoung).  He  fir«t  law^Iitsiy 
service  under  his  brother-m-law,  Sdpio  Africonns 
the  younger,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Africa.  He 
was  present  at  the  capture  of  Carth^e,  and  ia  said 
to  have  been  the  first  of  the  Bomans  to  scale  the 
walls.  In  1^  B.C.,  be  acted  as  quiestor  to  the 
army  of  the  consol  Mandnoa  in  S^in,  where  the 
remambianoe  of  his  tsther'a  good  fiutb  and  clemency 
waa  so  &e«h  after  for^  ^iar^  ioterval,  l^t  the 
Numantines  would  treat  with  no  other  Bcman  but 
the  son  of  their  former  benefactor.  He  was  thn* 
enabled  to  save  from  utter  destmction  an  army  of 
S0,000  Romans,  who  bod  been  defeated,  and  were 
at  the  mercy  of  the  Knmantines.  Bnt  the  peace 
was  considered  by  the  aristocratic  party  at  Borne 
OB  diagraceful  to  the  nataonal  honoor,  and  was 
repudiated,  Mancinua  being  stripped  naked,  and 
sent  back  to  the  Ifumanone^  tbat  the  treaty 
midit  thus  be  rendered  void.  Disgust  and  disap- 
poinbnent  at  this  reeult  are  aaid  by  some,  thou^ 
without  cood  reason,  to  have  determined  G.  to 
espouse  the  cause  of  the  people  against  tiie  nobles ; 
but  a  much  more  feasible  ground  for  hi*  con- 
duct ia  to  be  found  iu  the  oppreaied  state  of  the 
conunonn  at  tbo  time.  Being  elected  tribune,  he 
endeavoured  to  reimpose  the  Agrarian  Law  of 
Licinins  Stolo,  and  alter  violent  oppoBition  on  tlie 
part  of  the  aristocratic  party,  wno  had  bribed 
his  colleague  M.  Octavius  Cradna,  he  Bucceeded 
in  passing  a  bill  to  that  effect.  (For  a  detailed 
accoont  of  the  meaaore,  see  Aqulbiab  Law.) 
Tiberius  G.,  his  brother  Coins,  and  his  father- 
in-law  Ap.  Glaudina,  were  oppointed  triumvirs  to 
enforce  ito  proriaions.  Meantme,  Attaloi,  king  at 
FernmuB,  died,  and  bequeathed  all  his  wealth  to 
the  B<»iuu]  people-  O.  therefbie  proposed  that  thia 
Bhonld  be  divided  among  the  poor,  to  enable  them 
to  procure  agricultural  unplements,  and  to  Mocik 
their  newly  acquired  fsnns.  It  is  ssid  that  be  also 
intended  to  ertend  the  faanchjae,  and  to  leoeiv* 
Italian  allies  aa  Roman  citizens.  M»  also  diminished 
the  time  iriuidi  dtixens  wire  required  to  atm  in 
the  army.  Bnt  fortune  turned  Sj^nat  the  good 
tribune.  He  was  accused  of  hanng  violated  the 
■acred  character  of  the  tribuneahip  by  the  depo- 
Bition  of  Cvcina,  and  the  fickle  pec^  in  large 
numbers  deserted  their  champion  and  benefactor. 
At  the  next  election  for  the  tribuneahip,  his 
enemies  used  all  their  efibrta  to  oust  him;  and  a 
violent  Bcuffle  having  sriaen  between  the  oKKwng 
factions,  O.  was  alain,  along  with  upwaida  of  300 
other*.  His  sarriving  frienda  were  inpriaoned, 
sjdied,  or  put  to  death. 

2.  Caicb  SmcFHOHTVB  Qbaooeub,  who  waa  nine 
year*  younger  than  hi*  brother,  waa  poeeessed  td 
much  gnatti  natural  powers,  and  of  mora  com- 
prehensive views.  HiB  brothar'B  death,  which 
occurred  while  he  wo*  serving  in  Spain  under  Sdpio 
Africanoa,  deterred  him  for  aome  yean  from  enter- 
ing into  public  life ;  and  the  noblea  seeinK  hi*  great 
abilitiea,  and  fearing  his  infiuence  with  uie  people, 
endearoiued  to  ke^  him  as  Itoig  as  pooible  on 
(orewn  lervioe  in  Sardinia  and  «Uewhou.  Bat  at 
length  be  nnexpeotadly  retnned  to  Boma,  being 
urged  by  hi*  brother's  abode,  as  was  said,  to  enter 

''    great  missioiL    Goaded  bytlie  peneentio« 
"  isatioua  of  his  enemies,  he  stood 


OBAOB— GRADTJAIk 


Tengeanca  on  Mb  brother'*  murderon,  he  set  himself 
to  cany  ont  the  sgrariui  law,  vMch,  though 
not  repealed,  had  by  ue  machinatiooR  ot  the  noble* 
b#en  Vept  in  Bbeyaaoe.  The  tiro  great  siaus  ot 
his  legiuation — viz.,  to  fmproTB  the  condition  ot 
the  poor,  aiii  to  cniiail  the  power  of  the  senate 
and  nobles — were  now  proaecnted  with  the  utmost 
vigour,  and  with  nnflincliiiiK  steadiness  of  pntpose. 
To  derdop  the  reaonices  oTItaly,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  empby  the  poor,  hemadenewroadi  through- 
ont  all  puts  of  Qie  eonntty,  KjMured  old  ouet, 
and  eiect«d  milestoneB.  By  his  Keal,  and  1^  his 
unwearied  indnstiy  in  penonally  earning  ou  his 
own  meaaoKe,  even  to  soperinteiidinff  uie  exeetttion 
of  the  pnblio  worio,  and  by  Iiia  a&buitystid  Undfy 
good  natme,  he  gsined  the  esteem  and  apimibatieii 
of  all  men  with  whom  be  came  in  contact.  With 
the  eqnitce  and  the  poorer  chusea,  he  was  in  speinal 
fsTonr.  But  he  at  length  fell,  as  bis  brothsT  had 
done,  by  the  intrigues  of  the  nobles.  One  of  his 
colleuues,  M.  livias  Dtueue,  was  bribed  by  the 
oppoene  faction,  and  soon  suc(»eded  in  ondermining 
the  influence  of  Cains  by  far  surpassing  him  in  the 
liberality  of  his  public  measune,  and  by  his  benefits 
to  the  commons.  G.  haying  stood  for  the  tribnne- 
ship  a  thjrf  time,  was  rejected.  Ultimately,  by  a 
aenea  of  mores,  the  histoty  of  which  is  too  long 
for  onz  space,  violence  was  employed  against  Caiua 
and  his  psrty — a  teorfol  stro^Ie  took  place  in  the 
streets  of  Borne,  in  which  3000  men  Km  said  to 
have  perished.  Uany  othen  were  imprisoned,  and 
sfterwsida  executed.  Cains  held  aloof  from  the 
&^t,  but  was  at  length  compelled  to  seek  safe^ 

first  d_.. , 

.     .     f--c-    -■■■■  when  too  lat^  the 

foU^  of  which  th^  had  been  giulty  in  abandoning 
their  best  friend  m  tiie  hour  of  need,  snd  endeST- 
onred  to  atone  for  their  crime  ty  ereeUng  statues 
to  tihe  brothers  G.,  by  declaring  sacred  Uie  spots 
where  their  blood  had  been  shed,  and  by  offering 
sacriSces  to  them  as  to  deitiea.  Caiui  left  a  son, 
idioae  after-fate  is  unknown. 

OBACE  is  an  expreMioii  frequently  used  in  Scrip- 
ture and  in  theolt^cal  discussion.  Its  distinctive 
meftniiig  ii  the  idea  of  frm  and  wantrUtd  U.vcna. 
According  to  Aristotle,  this  is  the  proper  meaning 
of  Aarit  (Gr.  gpux),  even  when  apphed  to  man. 
It  is  a  benefit  springing  out  of  the  liberality  and 
fredteartedneos  of  the  giTer,  and  bestowed  without 
any  hope  or  expectation  of  reward.  Applied  to 
God  in  the  New  Testament  and  in  theology,  it 
denotes  the  free  Dntcoming  of  his  love  to  man ; 
and  when  man,  on  the  other  hand,  is  said  to  Vie  in 
a  stato  of  OTQce,_it  imtdiee  that  he  is. in  the  enjoy- 
nient  of  this  i^vine  love  and  favoor.  St  Fral 
draws  a  ihaip  contrast  (Bom.  xL)  between  lAarit 
and  erga  (Or.  works),  as  mutaallf  excluding  one 
anothtr.  '  And  if  by  grace,  then  is  it  no  more  of 
woriu :  otherwise  grace  is  no  more  graoe.  But  if 
it  be  of  woA%  tLen  is  it  no  more  graoe :  otherwise 
■woA  Is  no  more  work.' 

nieoloraans  have  distingiuahed  grace  into  conunoit 
or  iKMm^  and  spwioJ  or  partiailar.  Onninon  graoe 
is  mnDooed  to  omiote  the  love  which  God  has  to 
creatures,  and  the  tight  of  nature  and  of 
.  .  ceiriiich^eyaUe^'oy.  £p<ctal  grace  is  the 
love  which  God  has  toe  Hjs  elect  peorie,  and  by 
which  He  ures  them  from  their  sins.  Tliis  tpa^ 
or  tavmg  g/sce  is  sometimes  also  divided  in  various 
ways,  ana  spoken  of  as  electing,  justifying,  sancti- 
fjring  grace ;  also  in  respect  of  man,  as  impuUd  or 
niAa-aif  grace — the  grace,  that  is  to  say,  of  Christ's 
rijjiliiiiiiniiiw  impnted  or  reckoned  to  the  account 


of  those  that  believe  oi 

and  pious  dispositions  1        ^ 

spirit  of  G)od.  Grsce  is  also  spoken  of  as  ^ffieactoua 
and  irraiitihle,  and  the  relation  in  which  the  eleot 
or  believing  people  stand  to  God  is  represutted  as 
a  eoBtnant  of  graoe,  in  contrast  with  wie  primitiTe 
relation  which  Adam  bore  to  his  Maker  before  tike 
fall,  which  is  called  a  corenarvt  qfrnoria. 

All  these  tiieoloocal  distinctions  have  arisen  In 
the  course  of  eztei^ed  srgument  and  discnnion  on 
divine  truth.  They  are  not  to  be  found — at  leaat  in 
their  more  teahniral  sense— in  t^e  New  TMbunsnt. 
"nie  Aari»  ot  St  Panl  is  not  a  logioal  dirtlnetiot^ 
but  a  spritnil  fact  It  is  the  loving  aspect  lA  God 
towordi  the  dnner—towarda  all  Koaect,  whereby 
all  who  coufeM  their  dns  have  free  aooess  into  "Sm 
favour,  and  reoeiTe  the  'adoptint  id  sons.'  The 
teehnioa]  distinctions  of  tfaealasy,  how«vw,  am  not 
withcnt  tiieir  value  when  righ^  qifcehended  aod 
interpreted.  They  mark  the  coune  of  part  contro* 
veray^^they  give  premsion  to  thed<^^eal  tlumght 
—and  when  not  allowed  to  deface  the  simpler 
proportians  of  divine  but^  they  may  teach  neeofnl 
and  importaiit  lessons. 

GRACE,  D&TB  or.    See  BUJ. 

GBACES,  the  goddeases  of  grace^  favour,  and 
gentleQesB,  the  sources  ot  all  grace  and  beauty, 
appear  in  Eomer  in  indefinite  numbers  as  the 
attendants  at  Cytherea  (Tenus),  whom  it  is  their 
office  to  bathe  and  anoint.  Hesiod  and  moet 
other  poete  mention  three  G. — A^da,  Ihslia,  and 
Euphioniie,  the  daughters  of  Zeus  and  Eniy- 
nomsL  Their  woiship  is  sud  to  have  been  fint 
intiodnoed  into  Greece  at  Orchomenoa,  in  B<Botia, 
bjr  Bteoolea.  The  T*oed«moniana  and  Atheniana 
or^jiuJly  recogniaed  only  two  Graees,  called,  by 
the  fomtf,  PWma  and  Eleta;  by  the  latter, 
Hegsnone  and  Aoxo.  In  the  early  ages,  the  G. 
wme  repreaented  in  el^uit  drapery;  at  a  later 
period,  slif^y  dr^ed,  or  entiralv  nude.  Tbaj 
appear  bedding  eai^  othtr  by  the  nand,  or  looked 
in  each  otlier's  emloace. 

OBACIO^A,  one  of  the  Asires  Uaodi  (q.  -v.), 
nth  ol  that  group  in  population  and 


GBA'DIGNT.     A  tortoise  vralking  ia  said,  in 

Eeraldty,  to  be  gradient. 

GBASIENT,  a  tarm  used  ehiefly  In  oonnecriaim 
with  railways,  to  mgnify  a  depwtnre  vt  tb«  Um 
from  a  perfect  leveL 

GRADUAL,  in  the  Uttugy  of  tite  Boman  and 
other  Weatem  churches,  means  that  portion  of  the 
mass  which  intervenes  between  the  epistie  and 
gospel,  and  consists  of  a  few  veiies  of  the  HoW 
Scnptures,  generally  taken  from  the  Fsalms.     It 


it  from  other  portions  of  the  service 
ie  same  name,  its  present  appellation  has 
tuted.  The  name  'gradual'  is  derived 
from  the  place  at  which  this  response  was  chanted, 
and  wiiich  was  either  the  ambo,  or  chanting  pulpit^ 
which  is  approached  by  '  steps '  {gradut)  or  the 
'steps'  themselvea,  whether  of  the  ambo  or  of  the 
altar.  Originally,  as  we  find  from  St  Augustine^ 
the  gradual  reeponse  connsted  ot  an  entire  psalm, 
and  m  the  moss  of  the  flist  Sunday  of  Lent  the 
entire  of  the  9lEt  (90th  in  the  Yulgato)  psalm  ii 
chanted.    In  the  Ambrorion  LittUK^,  the  gradual 


ia   iJways  followed    by  lie   'alleluia,'  ■ 


.OUi^ 


GRADUAL  PSALHS-OSADUATION. 


OKADUAI.  PSALMS,  or  '  PSALMS  OF  THE 
steps;  or  '80NQS  OF  DEGKEES,'  a  DBme  gireii 
batii  hv  the  Hebrew!  «iid  in  the  Chriitum  Berrioe- 
boolu  to  the  fifteen  pnlnu,  180—134  [11»— 133  in 
tlie  Tijgate).  The  origin  of  thi«  name  ii  nnoar- 
tain.  Ttw  nbbini  tnoa  it  to  »  fabnloiu  incident 
oonnected  with  the  building  ti  tha  Moond  t«mple ; 
othen  ezpb^  it  H  Ml  allndoa  to  the  fiftMn  iti^ 
hy  which  (ikekiel  xL  22— S6)  tlw  ten^  wm 
retchad ;  ctheit,  •CMn,  n^ard  theaa  pnlma  ■■ 
containing  a  pnfb^is  kUnaiOD  to  the  ratucn  £ram 
captiTitr>  which,  in  th«  langwage  of  Hm  Jswb, 
was  '•  gtung  np,'  th*  IStth  patlai  being  the  full 
onttmnt  of  exultation  at  the  aooomplMiment  of  that 
great  object  of  hope  and  longing.  IheM  pwtlmi,  in 
file  Bomiah  Church,  foim  put  of  the  office  o(  ekeh 
Wedneeday  during  the  Lent. 

OBADTTALE,  the  name  siTen  to  the  mniio  of 
the  above  deecnbed  portion  oi  Uie  Roman  Liturgy. 
It  is  perf<H*med  during  niaaa  after  the  epiitle  a  read. 
It  ia  laid  to  have  been  nied  from  tile  earliest  times 
to  allow  the  officiating  prieat  time,  during  its 
performance,  to  take  hia  place  on  the  itepa  «  the 
reading-deak,  or  on  the  atepa  of  the  goapel  tide  of 
the  altar.  The  mwio  i*  aooording  to  the  character 
of  t^  words,  and  nuLj^  be  either  on  ana,  duet,  or 
ohinns.  The  compontion  must  not  be  long,  aa  the 
priest  haa  litUe  oeremonj  to  go  through  duriiu  its 
performaiUM  The  best  ■pecimeni  of  the  sraduale 
are  Haydii's  Intana  tt  Vana  Cura ;  Sakt  Ryiaia ; 
or  Mozart'i  JViaeHwrdiM  Dovunii  Stmeta  iiaria; 
De  PrqfitndU,  to. 

GRADUATIOl)',  Uie  art  at  dividing  mathe- 


•inmleBt  problem  m  gradtiation  it  the  dtTiding  of 
■  straight  line,  mch  m  an  ordinarr  scale  or  role; 
"~ '    ■  ......    ipyWfrom 


^lit  is  commonlf  done  by  ^ 

scale,  for  whidt  purpose  a  dividm^ 
suitable  knife  for  ontting  the  diTiai  . 
The  dividing  square  ie  a  hard  *ted  sbmi^t-edg^ 
with  a  shoulder  at  right  aaolea  like  a  esn>aitar'B 
square.  This  is  mode  to  tlide  along  the  standsrd 
SMle,  and  halt  at  each  required  division,  when  t, 
OMreoponding  one  ia  out  upon  the  rule,  ic,  by 
using  the  steel  itrsight-edge  aa  k  guide  to  the 
knife.  The  orif/mal  graduatim  of  a  itrsight  line 
into  equal  divisions,  aa  is  mafcing  a  first  standard 
scale,  •&,  is  perfonned  either  on  the  i^indple  of 
biteetion  or  iltppi^.  In  biieeting,  the  points  of  a 
basm-Manpaas  (see  CoMFAas)  u«  MLjnsted  to  nearly 
half  the  length  of  the  line  to  be  divided ;  one  point 
is  then  plM«d  at  one  end  of  the  line.  Kid  a  funt  arc 
■tmck  towards  the  middle :  this  is  repeated  at  the 
other  end ;  the  small  distance  between  these  arcs  is 
then  carefolly  bisected  with  the  aid  of  a  fine  pointer 
and  magnifier,  which  gives  an  accurate  boU  of  the 
line.  Ilie  half  thus  obtained  is  again  bisected  in 
like  manner,  and  these  quortcii  bisected  Sfoin, 
and  to  on  until  the  required  subdivinon  is  attained. 
Stepping  is  performed  with  delicately  poiutad 
■pnng^vlders,  which  are  tet  at  once  ss  nearly 
M  possible  to  the  opening  of  the  small  division 
reqniced ;  then  the  points  are  made  to  step  on, 
leaviiw  at  each  step  a  very  fine  dot ;  and  when 
it  is  Kinnd  tiiat  the  Isst  dot  either  fsDs  short  of 


divided 

thooiotul  ports,  and  each  diviaion  were  -[hw^  ^<^ 
long  or  too  short,  the  error  would  amount  to  a 
whMe  divinon  st  the  end  of  a  thousand  steps.  The 
method  of  bisection  is  practically  the  meet  accurate, 
and  has  been  adoptea  by  Qraham,  Bird,  Bomsden, 
Troughton,  and  other  eminent  attiBta  in  original 
graduation.      Cumd    lines    are    divided   on   this 


principle.  The  chxHrd  of  an  arc  of  60*  is  eqnal  to 
radius ;  Uiarefore,  tlie  iqientng  of  the  oompai 
required  for  striking  tke  oirote  gives  tliis  am 


required  for  striking 
onoe  to  start  with.  An  oio  90°, 
obtained  by  biaecting  60°,  and  adding  the  hoIL 
By  eontinnu  bisection  of  60*,  t^  finer  ^radnatiuia 
are  pradnoed.  The  amount  ol  care,  pMience,  ikilL 
'  delicaay  of  tooeh  nquired  in  ttw  original 
islionia:'  '  '  '  '    '  '    ' 


._.  ,  ._  .  not  above  one  or  two  men  ii.  .  „._  .  . 

have  been  found  oompetcot  to  tbe  task,  and  these 
h»ve  b««<»ne  almost  m  famous  as  tiie  aabonomets 
who  hs?e  ■naeestfuUy  nsed  the  instnumant^  It 
would  be  out  of  place  here  to  point  out  in  dotail 
file  minute  precautions  **m^  meuods  of  oorreofcioa 
that  ore  adopted  in  M***  mottt  dedicate  tnuipulatioD ; 
bu^  as  an  ezsmple,  we  may  mention  the  fac^  that 
Graham,  when  dividing  the  mural  guadnuit  for  tlie 
Qreenwich  Obserratory,  measured  hu  Umr  chords 
from  a  scale  mode  for  the  pnipcee;  but  beure  lining 
these  down  on  the  quadrant,  he  left  the  Male,  beam- 
compasses,  and  quadrant  to  stand  for  a  whole  ni^it, 
in  order  to  acquire  ezocfiy  the  same  temperatnn^ 
and  tliat  neglect  of  this  ■pnemaJaoa  would  have 
involved  a  notable  amount  of  emr.  ^le  nwesMty 
of  Buch  extreme  accuisOT  will  be  understood  ' 
we  consider  tiie  amJicMirai  Uiat  ia 
divisioos.    When,  tor  *T>mpl«,  Ute 

his  latitude  by  taking  the  mi . 

'"-'   —  of  the  Innb  ot  the 
,  pracijaan^, 

magnified  just  to  the  same  extent  as  the  radius  of 
the  earth  exoeedji  that  of  the  divided  ue  ef  the 
instrument.  Supposing  this  an  to  be  psrt  of  a 
dide  of  60  inches'  circomfercnce,  each  i&Kree  will 
occu^  4th  at  on  ineh.  An  error  of  yi^  °(  *» 
inch  in  uie  dividMi  would  thus  mialMd  vu  mariner 
to  on  extent  <d  mora  than  four  ststote  mila  as 
regarda  hit  position  on  the  waters,  But  such  a 
ship's  quadrant  is  but  a  coatee  and  rude  instru- 
ment compared  with  sstaDnomical  instruments  for 
meaanriiu  celeatial  angular  distances  by  means  of 
a  dividea  arc ;  in  fiiee^  on  error  □£  a  thousandth 
part  of  an  inch  would  be  regarded  as  one  of  serious 
tnunutudcL 

Tlte  methods  otorigiiu^jfradiiation  above  described 
ore  not  prautically  adopted  except  for  Uie  largest 
and  most  important  astronomic*!  or  gaodesical 
instruments,  Ordinoiy  ins^imeziti  ore  graduated 
l^  dividing  plates  or  engines  whl^  ocpy  and  adj^ 
a  set  of  abeady  existing  dlrimoaa.    The  dividing- 

S'ate  which  is  used  for  oommon  jmipoees,  eath  sa 
riding  compau  rings,  kc,  is  a  divided  circle  with 
a  steel  straigat-edge,  made  movable  on  the  axis  or 
arbor  of  the  plate  m  such  a  manner  that  its  edge 
during  every  port  of  its  revolatioD  shall  foil  in  Se 
exact  line  from  centre  to  circumference.  Tbe  ring, 
protractor,  or  other  inttniment  to  be  divided,  u 
clamped  upon  the  tilate  with  its  centre  exacfiy  coin- 
ciding with  that  <n  the  plate,  and  the  straigbt-edge 
is  moved  round,  and  made  to  bait  at  fiie  required 
divisions  on  the  circumference  of  the  dividing- 
plate,  and  by  using  the  steel  straight-edge  as  a 
—'"-  •ponding  divisions  are  marked  off  npoQ 

10  am  of  the  tBstnunent  to  be  divided. 

ig-en)^  ia  a  very  complex  machine, 
requiring  the  greatest  accuracy  and  care  in  ita 
construction ;  so  mnoh  so,  that  the  possession  of 
a  good  one  affords  the  mesns  of  obtaining  a  very 
good  income,  with  a  moderate  amount  <i  laboul 
in usingit.  Such  was  the  case  vith  the insbument 
of  Mr  Persons  of  London,  who  tor  many  yeois 
divided  a  large  proportion  of  file  best  Uteoddito^ 
sextuiti,  Ac,  Chat  were  made  in  fids  oonntoy. 
Among  the  most  oelebiftted  dividing-coiginM  'nrj 


t.Gooi^le 


a&£ou— oRAnnTt 


to  meitioiied  thoM  of  Bamadan,  TWnghton,  Simma, 
tad  Bom.  A  deUilad  aocaant  of  the  coiutrne- 
tion  of  UMBe  woold  fu  exoeed  our  limiti.  Their 
prindpal  puta  oooaiat  of  k  luge  circk  divided 
'with  extaeme  o«re  by  origiiul  gndution.  Thia 
wked  ia  raoked  <ri  ita  edfie  with  teaUi  ac  equal  **"* 
•ocmate  aa  iht  dmvon*;   a  very  caNfoUy 

■tnieted  cmdles  scnrw  wnrka  in  tliCM  teeu, 

is  moTcd  thntogh  any  girea  miinlier  et  terolutiiHia, 

or  any  meaBoied  fnotion  of  a  reroIntiMi,  liy  ir 

of  a  treadle  tn  other  inttable  jpower,  thoa  mi „ 

the  Rqniaite  itc^  for  each  diviaiaii ;  onoQi^  part 
of  the  mat^ine  oattang  a  fine  Hue  at  the  nw — * 
at  the  halt  of  each  tbvp. 

Theee  divirion*  am  cnt  upon  an  aic  irf  ailTer, . 
or  vlMtinma,  which  ia  aoMtsed  or  inUid  mda  the 
limb  of  tbe  inaboment,  the  predona  metaU  being 
naed,  on  aooxmt  of  tha  (mdaboii  to  irtuch  oommon 
metab  are  liable. 

OBiBGIA,  Haoka.    See  Maona  Okacu. 

GRAP,  the  Geniuui  equiTolent  for  Count  (q. 
Oomte,  ComsB,    and    for    our   Eari   (q.  v.). 
«^m<dogy  of  the  word  ia  deputed,  bat  the  moat 


and  tiie  iki«Io-Saxon  ra^on,  to  anatch  or  amy  off 
haatily;  aDCt  alao  with  oar  worda  reve,  grrvt,  and  the 
lact  aylUUe  A  Aa^.  If  thia  view  be  correct, 
tha  gMf,  in  aD  ptobwiility,  waa  origiDally  a  fiacal 
officer,  whose  d^  it  waa  to  collect  the  revenue 
of  a  diatnct.  The  title  fiirt  appean  in  the  I» 
nKca  (oomuled  in  tbs  fith  c),  mider  the  Latinised 
form  tA  Qrafos  *t  a  later  period,  the  ofBce  ia 
oftea  ilHiign«H  by  the  I«Un  equiTslent  <A  Oomea. 
CSiailanMine  divided  hia  whole  kingdom  into 
gnJd  di^et*  ((?n)/«ni7aue)  or  oonntaea,  each  of 
whiidL  WM  }«c8>ded  over  b^  a  grat  Tie  people 
were  in  iLe  habit  of  appomtiiig  a  represectative 
caOad  the  Otnl-grnf  to  attend  to  their  intereeta 


aHAXTITI  (ItaL  ijn^fo,  a  aontching),  a  oUm 
of  anoient  inacriptiona  to  which  attention  baa 
recently  been  called,  and  of  which  aeveral  oollectiona 
have  been  made,  or  are  in  progreai.  The  giaffito 
i*  a  rode  acribbliiig  or  sar>tching  with  a  stjlna,  at 
other  ibMp  inateument,  on  the  plaster  of  a  wall, 
a  pUIar,  or  a  door-poat.    Such  aaribblingi  are  inotty 

ruina,  aa  m  the  Golden  House  of  Nero,  the  palace  of 
the  Caaara  and  the  Palatine,  uid  in  still  greater 
nnmhera  in  Pompeii  and  in  the  Boman  cataoombs. 
Their  literary  value,  of  oonrae,  ia  Teiy  alight ;  bat 
aa  iDnatnting  the  character  and  habits  of  a  oertaiu 
olaaa  o{  tiie  snctent  Bomana.aod  what  maybe  oalled 
the  'street-life'  of  the  oaanc  period,  they  are 
deaarving  of  study.  A  small  selecSon  ol  Pompeiian 
graffitj  was  published  in  1837  by  Dr  Wordsworth  j 
W  tbe  most  complete,  or,  at  all  events,  ths  most 
popular  collection,  is  that  of  Padre  Ouruoci,  a 
Neapolitan  Jesuit,  which  was  published  in  Paris  in 
1S56.  Greek  graffiti  occsaionally  are  found  up<Hi 
Potaan  miiw,  but  thay  *i«  commonly  in  Latin,  and 
in  a  few  instances  at  Pompeii,  in  the  ancient  Oacan. 
A  few  specimens  may  not  be  uniu'terestang. 

Some  of  them  are  idle  scribblingB,  such  as  we 
may  suppose  some  loiterer  to  indite  at  the  preeent 
day ;  thus,  aome  lounger  at  the  door  of  a  wine- 
ahop  at  Pompeii  aninsea  himaelf  by  eciatdiing  on 
the  door-poat  the  tareni-keepn's  name — TaSima 
Jj)pii('Appiai^aTaTnn'},  fig.  L  InoUier  c«act,we 


with  tbe  graf,  aiid  profakbly,  if  neoeeaary,  to  s^mI 
hia  ^fiwigiftTiH  to  the  centAJ  govOTunent,    Then 
"    -  Bt»ble-gr»f;  tiieCoinsf 


StabuU,  or  eonataUe  of  later  time* ;  tha  Pfaias-graf 
{CoBitt  PtHa^,  who  presided  in  tha  domestic 
(?}nrt  irf  the  monaich,  which  as  such  waa  the 
*^'g*l»tt  court  in  fhe  realm  ;  the  Said-graf,  who 
waa  aent  aa  an  extraordinary  deputy  of  the  king 
to  oontnd  the  <adinaiy  gou-^q/in ,'  and  lastly,  the 
M<ark-m^,  at  marqui^  on  whom  the  important 
dntrw  defending  the  border-lands  devolved.  When 
feudal  office*  became  hereditary,  and  the  power 
of  the  princee  of  the  emmre,  secular  and  ecclesi- 
Mtieal,  developed  itself  the  graf  gradoallv  ceaaed 
to  be  an  officer  poMtned  of  r^l  power,  ana  became 


merely  a  taUed  noble.  InOcnnany,  inmoocmomeB, 
fliua  are  two  dasie*  <£  graf* :  those  who  are 
repreaentativea  of  the  old  givel  famihea,  who  held 
■overeign  jnriadictbn  immediately  nnder  the  crown 
(ImuMoAeit],  and  niio  atiU  bel<ng  to  the  hi^er 
mAnlity,  UJar  chief  taldng  the  title  BriattiM 
(fflnstnaUB} ;  and  thaw  who  fram  the  hi^ieat  class 
ot  the  lower  noUlity.  The  former  ia  a  very  small, 
the  latter,  an  ezbremely  nomeioiu  clssa  of  paraons, 

GBATENBEBO,  a  little  village  in  Austrian 
Sileoa,  ia  an  extenaion  of  tbe  town  of  I*~" — "~~ 
towarda  the  OOTth,  and  ia  celebrated  ai 
where  the  w»ter-cnre  (see  HnmoTATHT) 
dnoed  about  the  year  1828  by  Friesti 
village  ia  aitnated  ii  an  elevation  of  1200  feet  above 
be  Cvel  U  tbe  Baltie  Seaj  the  climate  is  inclement. 


ibere*.    The  lodgings 


and  the  vi^etation  acanty.     It 
vaU^,  half  way  up  the  Qilfenbe 


of  the  hiU,  Of  IB  frnwaUan. 


or  villages ;  thoa,  Amq*  amat  .Jrnbtmiint 
('Auge  i«  in  love  with  Ambieuus'),  S^  2.    Uany 

ng.3. 

rude  aketohe*  abo  are  found  uptm  Ihe  walli,  some 
-'  them  evidently  catioatnies,  others  seriously 
in^  and  grotesone  from  the  extreme  rudeness. 
A  great  many  of  the  subject*  of  tiu)«e  akatchea  an 
gladiatcrial.    "       '  '    -■■  "     — 


from  Pompeii,  bat  many  h 


tyCOUl^l! 


J 


QkAOTrn-GEAPTlSO. 


ins  character. 

in  1856,  in  a  ■ ^ 

ot  the  Cceiara,  poasetaea  a  ttrange  and  truly  awful 
intereat,  as  a  tnemorial  of  the  rode  early  confiicta 
of  pagamam  nith  the  ruing  Christian  creed. 
It  is  no  other  than  a  pagan  caricature  of  the 
Chriitian  wonhip  of  our  Lord  on  the  croM,  and 
contaiiiB  a  Qreek  inacription  deacnptiTe  of  one 
Alexamenna  as  engaged  in  worahipping  Ood.    The 


The  graffiti  ot  the  cataoomba  are  aJmost  all 
sepnlchral,  and  are  foil  of  intereat  as  iUnBtrating 
early  Chriatian  life  and  doctrine.^ — See  for  the 
whole  subject  the  Edinburgh  Stfiea,  voL  ex.  pp.  411 
— *97. 

ORAFTINO,  the  naitiDg  of  a  young  ahoot  [teum) 
of  one  kind  of  pUut  to  a  Bt««a  (itoM)  of  another  kind, 
ao  that  the  tdon  may  receive  noomhinent  from  the 
atock.  Oraftlng  haa  been  proctiaed  from  aocient 
times,  01  may  be  aeen  from  paaaagea  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  in  Virgil  and  other  Latin  clai 
although  it  cannot  be  certunly  traced  to  a 
remote  antiqnity ;  and  its  introduction  among  the 
Ohineaa  ia  asoiibed  to  Boman  Catholic  misaionaries. 
important  port  of  the  art  of  gardeoiiii 
"-'  *"        "■  ""   purposes,  but    '  ' 


being  cut  orer,  ia  cleft  down,  and  the  grafl^  ont  into 
the  shape  of  a  ir«lge  at  its  lower  end  by  a  sharp  thin 
knife,'  ia  inserted  inlo  the  cleft  Tbia  mode  of  Raft- 
ing if)  pattioulariy  applicable  to  bnochea  of  laig* 


could  not  be 
plished  by  seed,  and  is  accotnpliahed  by  grafting 
more  rapidly  and  eadly  than  by  lajHrs  of  cuttings. 
Beeides  this,  bowerer,  grafting  is  of  great  use  m 
hastenine  and  iccreauug  the  fnitfol^as  of  fruit- 
trees  ;  the  dnmlation  of  the  i&p  being  '  '  ' 
at  the  junction  of  the  atock  and  Bcioa- 
deep  vonnd,  removal  of  bwk  or  the  lil 
paitioularly  when  there  ia  a  oonsiderable  difference 
between  the  stock  and  scion;  and  repeated  graft- 
ing (technically,  toortiitg)  is  often  resorted  to  by 
^mlenera  to  obtain  flowers  and  frnit  mnch  sooner 
than  would  naturally  be  the  case.  Grafting  is  also 
employed  to  turn  to  account  the  vigour  of  a  root 
and  stem  of  which  the  branches  are  exhausted 
or  otherwise  unprodnctiTe,  and  large  crops  of  fruit 
may  often  be  thua  obtained  in  a  garden,  mnch  sooner 
thui  by  any  other  mean& 

In  grafting,  it  ia  particularly  to  be  attended  to 
that  tnejl&urnum  (q'-t  of  the  aoioo  is  brooght  into 
contact  with  that  of  the  stock.  The  hard  wood  of 
the  one  never  unite*  with  Utat  of  tiie  other,  remaining 
sepaiBte  and  marking  the  place  of  the  operation 
even  in  the  oldest  trees.  For  sciona  or  grafts, 
pieces  of  about  six  to  eiaht  inches  long  are  generally 
taken,  from  the  shoots  of  the  previous  summer,  with 
several  buds,  but  portions  of  ahoots  of  two  yeara  old 
are  sometimes  aumieasf ully  employed.  The  time  for 
-pafUng  is  in  spring  as  soon  as  the  sap  begir  ~  '  ~ 
ippear.  The  sman  should,  if  possible,  be  taken 
I  healthy  and  fruitful  tree,  but  sdons  from 


of  lateral  branches  are  more  likely  to 
become  speedily  IruiUuI  than  those  bom  the  ni9«r- 
most  branches,  where  sToWthia  most  viswous.  The 
scion  ahonld  be  kept  for  a  few  days  before  grafting, 
BO  that  the  stock  may  rather  exceed  it,  not  only  m 
vigonr,  but  in  the  progress  of  its  sprii^  growth ; 
and  for  this  puipose  may  be  placed  m  iSe  ground, 
in  a  rather  my  aoil,  shelter«d  from  the  dii«ct  rays 
of  the  son.  S^ons  may  bs  kept  far  some  time,  and 
easily  cairied  to  a  distance,  bv  atickins  their  lower 
end  into  a  E'^'t'ito-  Til*  end  shoulil  always  ba 
freshly  cut  offiriiai  the  sdonii  to  be  used.  There 
an  various  modes  of  gnfting.  d^/Ugnffling  (fig,  1] 
ii  Terr  oommonl^  pnetissd  whoi  the  stock  is  tcit 
coDsMarably  thicker  than  the   scion.     The  stooK 


Kg.  L— Oef  t-grafting. 

trees,  when  the  introductdon  of  a  new  variety  ot 

fruit,  or  incieaaed  fruitfulneas,  ia  tou^t—Croym- 

grufHng  is  noed  for  still  thicker  stocks,  which  are 

cat  across,   and  then   cleft  down   by  two    clefts 

crossing  one  another  at  right  angles,  two  adocui 

being  inserted  close  to  the  bait  m  each  deft ;  or 

no  daft  at  all  is  made, 

and  any  desired  nmn- 

ber  of  scions  obliqnely 

out  away  on  one  aide 

are      simply     inserted 

between  the  bark  and 

wood  of  the  stock,  t^ 

operation  in  this  case 

being  deferred  till  &e 


of  the  stock,  opposite  _jy^i^>,^    iK 
*"   esch   graft,  is   ad-      '^'-~'*» '- 
itige«u8.  —  Tongue-  Fig.  2. 

grafting  (fig.  2)  is  tiie  a,  taacna-gnMng ;  i,  ..._.  , . 

mode  most  commonly     ^  i  '•   tongaB-griftiiig  iibU- 
pr«!ti«led     for     young    S^\",Vt^i^^^~ 
bMdod 


that  the  stock  and  the 

scion  should  be  of  not  Tory  different  thickness.    A 

■lit  or  a  very  narrow  angular  incision  is  made  in  the 

itre  of  the  stock  downwards,  and  a  nmilar  one 

tiie  scion  upwards,  both  having  been  first  cut 


ornamental     trees, 

performed    by   cut!    „ 

obliquely,     and     then    Flff.  3l— flhonlderfiaAfii^ 

cutting  acroBB  a  small 

SrtS  top  of  the  stoc^  so  as  to  form  a  dtonMsr, 
s  tcsim  bong  cnt  to  m  ifc — Pegi/ir^tbig,  not  now 


duGoDglc 


GftAaKAlTO— GRAHAM. 


Lpluliod  hy  T"*^^g  ths  end 
^  and  boring  the  iCop  of  the 


of  the  M 

Whichever  of  Uiese  modes  of  grattdug  is  adopted, 
the  K^t  tniurt  be  futeced  in  its  place  07  tying,  lor 
vhiiSi  poipoes  a  >trand  of  bast-matting  ii  commonly 
tued.  Xhe  access  of  air  ia  further  presented  by 
means  of  day,  which  has  been  worked  up  with  a 
little  chojmed  hay,  hone  or  cow  dung,  and  water, 
and  which  is  aplJjed  to  the  place  of  junction  so  aa 
to  fonn  a  ball,  tapering  both  apwards  and  down- 
wania.  In  France,  a  eamiioaition  of  28  parts 
black  pitch,  2S  Buijmndy  pitch,  16  yellow  wax, 
14  tallow,  and  14  iBted  ashes,  is  genemlly  used 
instead  of  clay.  Ghitta-percha,  applied  in  a  soft 
state,  has  also  been  nsed,  or  even  blott^-paper 
held  fast  by  stripes  of  stickicg-plaater.  The  pro- 
gress of  the  buds  shews  the  umon  of  the  paSt 
and  stock,  bat  it  is  not  generally  safe  to  remove 
the  clay  la  less  than  three  mantha ;  and  the  liga- 
tures, although  then  loosened,  are  allowed  to  remain 
for  some  Hiaa  longer.  From  soma  kinds  of  fraiU 
trees,  fniit  ia  often  obtained  in  the  second  year 
after  grafting. 

Budding  (q.  t.)  is  in  princi^e  the  same  as  fp^sftisg ; 
and  Fltde-grtfftinff  a  a  kind  of  budding  m  whi^ 
a  ring  of  hark  ia  used  instead  of  a  single  bud,  and 
a  stock  of  similar  thickness  baring  been  cut  OTer, 
a  nng  of  bark  is  remorcd,  and  the  foreigu  one 
■ubstSuted.  This  is  commonly  performed  in  sprinfc 
when  the  bark  parts  readi^,  uid  ia  one  d  the  surest 
modes  of  graftdnA. — Inareaixg  (q.  t.),  or  grafiing  bg 
eLpprooiA,  m  which  the  scion  u  not  cot  off  from  itt 
parent  stem  until  it  is  united  to  the  new  stock,  is 
pntctiaed  chiefly  in  the  case  of  some  valoaUe  shrubs 
Kept  in  pots,  in  which  success  by  the  ordinary 
methods  is  verj'  doubtfuL 

An  effect  isjjroduced  by  the  stock  on  the  scion 
which  it  nounsbes  analogous  to  t^t  of  a  change 
of  soil;  mneh  irf  the  figonr  of  a  strong  healthy 
■toek  is  also  eommtinicatod  to  a  sdon  tuen  even 
from  an  aged  tree.  There  is,  moreover,  in  sonw 
dqgPMk  an  mfiuenee  of  the  elaborated  mf  descending 
from  toe  scion  on  the  atodc  iriuoh  mipportfl  " 
in^mtaut  put  of  the  practical  skill  i^tlw  {, 
or  umserymaa  conriata  in  tiis  selectioii  of  the  proper 
kmds  of  stocks  for  different  spedes  and  varistisB 
of  tniit-tieeL  Ths  stock  aitd  saion,  howertr,  mnat 
not  be  of  msrisi  cxtnmely  diMimilar.  No  credit 
is  due  to  t&s  statamcnis  <a  sninent  anthon  about 
grafted  on  fiptreea,  i^iplGa  on  piaua,  Ac,  the 
Vmee  ^  whioh  mn  couy  have  been  broiight 
bysona  dtJiwre  artifice;  for  all   " 


s  c^  plants,  of 
loist  hothonssfl 


^  nnder  Tiiill  nfinnrti.  whilst  Vbt  ^nnetioii 

-•^jck  IB  going  on,  iriucii  m  these 

I    plaoe  vetT  smt^  and  tut 

_, ,.     Bat  an  accumniatioii  of  too  moen 

molstnrs  mader  the    bell-^asa   most   be  guarded 

QRAOITAITO,  a  town  of  11,243  inhabitant*,  in 
the  invrinoe  ol  Naples,  two  miles  sonth-east  of 
OssteUaiBMe^  ia  sitaated  on  the  flank  of  Honnt 
Oaniano,  fruu  which  it  is  said  to  have  derired  iti 


ikhabituiti  of  Stable  in  dread  of  the  vioiiuty  of 
the  vfdcano,  fled  from  their  dwellings,  and  sonf^t 
refuge  ob  the  mountun  of  Oanrwio.  Q.  lies  in 
a  besntifnily  [dctareaqae  ndshbourhood,  which 
prodnces  erwJlent  wine^  and  nai  g 


GRAHAM,  FiwTT.T  oT. 

GRAHAM,  Su  Jajos  Robebt  Obobqb,  ism 
RiQHT  HoNomuBbi,  of  Netberby,  Cumberiand, 
statesman,  eldest  salt  of  Sir  James,  the  first 
baronet,  by  I^y  0.  Stewart,  eldest  dau^ter 
of  the  serenth  Earl  of  GsUowsy,  waa  bom  June 
1,  17E>^  The  Qrahams  of  Ketherby  are  a  junior 
bcanoh  of  the  Grahams  of  £sk,  Yiacounts  of  Preston. 
de«cended  from  the  Barls  of  Stratheme  and 
Menteith.  G.  waa  educated  at  Westminster  School, 
whenoe  he  pioceeded  to  Queen's  College,  Cambridge. 
He  afterwards  became  private  secretary  to  Lord 
Montgom«cie,_the  Biiliah  mioistoi  in  Siolv,  during 
the  moat  critical  period  of  the  war,  and  the  entire 
maaagsment  of  the  mission  devolved  vpon  him  at 
a  most  important  moment,  in  conseqoence  of  ilie 
illness  of  his  ohiel  On  the  airivaf  of  Lord  W. 
Bentinck,  he  was  contimied  in  his  poet,  and  ha 
afterwards  accepted  a  military  rituation  attadied 
to  the  person  of  Lord  Wllllaoi,  who  was  commander- 
in-chief  in  the  MediterruieaD.  He  was  sent  in  this 
capacity  to  Murat^  with  whom,  at  Naples,  he  nego- 
tiated the  armistice  which  separated  that  geoOTsl 
froiD.  Napoleon.  In  1S18,  he  waa  returned  for  HnQ 
on  Whig  prindplee ;  bnt  at  the  next  election,  in 
1820,  lost  his  seat,  and  aome  years  elapsed  befora 
he  re-entered  parliament.  In  1SS4,  he  socceeded 
to  t^e  baronetcy  on  the  death  of  his  father.  In 
I82Q,  he  was  returned  for  Carlisle  aa  a  Whig,  nod 
a  warm  supporter  of  Catholic  emancipation.  He 
displayed  so  mnch  abiliiy  in  opposition,  that  Earl 
Grey  offered  him,  in  1830,  the  post  of  lint  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  He  was 
~ '  '  the  committee  of  the  cabinet  impointed 


with  the  extreme  liberal  party,  and  was*  supposed 
to  be,  of  all  the  members  M  the  Grey  cabinet  most 
favourable  to  radical  chances.  In  183^  he  seceded 
&om  the  government,  with  Mr  Stanley,  on  the 
appropriation  clause  of  the  Irish  Church  Tempor- 
alities Act.  He  refused  to  join  the  Feel  adminis- 
tration in  that  year,  but  gradually  in  opposition 
approximated  to  Uie  politics  of  that  statesman :  and 
in  1341  became  Setxetary  of  State  for  the  Horns 
Department  in  the  government  of  Sir  Robert  Feel, 
who  on  one  occasion  declaj^  ttiat  O.  was  the 
ablest  administrator  and  the  htA  man  of  business 
he  had  ever  known.  In  1844,  he  issued  a  wairant 
for  opening  the  letters  of  Mojaini,  and  caused  the 
infoijnation  thus  obtained  to  be  commmiicated  to 
the  Austrian  minister,  an  act  b] 
and  G.  in  particular,  incnrred 

also   eneonntered  great  disple ._ 

Tweed  by  his  high^luuided  method  of  dealing  with 
tbe  Sooniah  Church  during  the  troubles  which 
ended,  cootrary  to  his  anticipation,  in  the  Disrup- 
tion, and  the  lonuation  of  the  Free  Church.  He 
Era  Peel  a  wonn  support  in  carrying  the  Com 
w  Repeal  BUI,  and  resigned  office  with  his  ohief 
as  soon  as  that  gieat  measure  was  carried.  On  the 
death  of  Peel  m  ISGO,  he  became  leader  of  the 
Peelite  party  in  the  Lower  House,  and  led  the 
opposition  to  the  Ecclesiastical  Titles  BilL  In 
December  1852,  he  took  office  in  tiia  Coalition 
Ministry  of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  and  accepted  his 
old  office  of  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  This 
was  a  post  much  below  his  talenti  and  pretensions, 
but  he  held  it  until  February  1866.  O.  refiued 
to  take  office  dther  in  the  first  or  second  admin- 
istration of  Lord  Palmerston,  but  he  gave  that 
minister  a  general  support.  He  died  from  disfiniifi 
of  the  hea^  October  ZB,  188L  Whoi  tlia  House 
of  Commons  arain  met,  it  felt  that  it  had  bat 
one  who  stood  m  the  first  rank  of  statesmen.  "Hia 
stature,  fine   personal   piesiiins    his 

GoogI 


GEAHAM— OBAOAIO. 


oklm  and  un;H«Mire  deliverj,  hu  ripe  and  gantle 
wudom,  ponred  forth  U  a  ■tream  of  quiet,  yet 
irintung  and  itenaaiiTe  eloquence,  made  him  the 
Neator  of  Um  Honae  of  ComTnoiii.  Tet  hia  ohanna 
of  opinion,  from  the  Wliigdam  o(  liia  7011th  to  we 
Tdienient  Conaerratiani  of  hia  manhood,  and  the 
Radiealiam  of  hia  old  age,  expoa«d  him  to  inceaaant 
and  wen-tomidBd  diatgea  of  political  inconaiateo^. 

GBAHJlM,  Jobh,  ViacoDNT  Duhdr,  «aa  the 
eldeat  aon  of  Sir  William  Qraham  of  CSaTariuxiae, 
head  of  a  branch  of  the  noble  fam^  (rf  Uontroa^ 
in  Forfaxaliire.  He  wu  bom  in  1U3,  entered  8t 
Aodrewa  nnivendfrr  in  1965,  aerred  in  tiie  frenoh 
ann^  from  1568  tiQ  167S,  next  entet«d  the  Dutch 
aervice  aa  comet  iu  the  Prince  of  Orange's  hone 
gnaida,  and  it  tepoited  (but  on  no  good  anthoritv) 
to  have  aaved  the  Ufa  m  the  prinoe  at  the  battle 
of  8en«db  in  1674.  Batnnung  to  Bcctiaod,  he 
obtained  (Febmaiy  1678)  aa  app<antment  aa  lieu- 
tenant in  a  troop  <a  hone  oommanded  by  Ma 
the  third  Harquii  of  Mo  '  . .  -r. 


attempt  to  foroa  Epiacopacy  npon  the  people  of 
Scotland.  A  ijitem  of  nnea  and  militarr  ooercion 
had  been  carried  on  for  years  against  all  Noncon- 
formists; oonventiclcB  and  fleld-preachinga  were 
prohibited,  penalties  were  inflicted  on  all  who 
even  harboured  the  recnaanta,  and  the  nation  lay 
at  the  meniy  of  infomieta.  Maddened  by  opprea- 
at<Mi,  and  find  by  a  fierce  seal  for  the  Corenaiit, 
tiie  people  flew  to 'arms;  but  their  tfSattt  were 
inegolar  and  detached,  and  each  mixamvo  failure 
only  ugravated  their  eufleriDra.  Many  wen  exe- 
cnted,^e  ]ul«  were  filled  with  captirea,  and  thoae 
who  fled  were  outlawed,  and  their  property  aeized. 
In  this  miserable  service,  G.  now  engaged.  He 
encountered  an  armed  body ,  of  Corenantera  at 
Drmncioz,  Jnne  1,  1679,  bnt  wa«  defeated,  about 
fortv  of  bis  troopers  being  alun,  and  himself  forced 
to  flee  from  the  field.  Three  weeks  aftcrwuda 
(Jnne  22],  he  commanded  the  cavalry  at  Bothwell 
Bridge,  where  Uie  royal  forces,  under  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth,  achieved  an  easy  victory  over  the  Cove- 
nontera,  bi  this  battle,  tla«e  or  lour  were  killed 
while  defending  the  bridge,  but  in  the  pnrauit, 
400  were  cut  aawa  (chiefly  by  O.'a  dragoona),  and 
1200  Buirendered  unconditionally,  to  be  afterwards 
treated  with  atrodona  mhnmanitr.'  Tlieae  iiB^xt 
at  Dmmdog  and  Bothwell  are  the  only  oontesta 
that  can  even  by  courtesy  be  called  battles  in 
which  G-.  was  engaged  ia  Scotland  previous  to  the 
abdication  of  James  IL  They  gave  no  scope  for 
valour,  and  displayed  no  geuenuMpt  In  his  other 
duties — ^purauing,  detecting,  and  hoDldng  down 
unyielding  Covenanters — O.  evinoed  the  ntmoat 
loaL  He  roae  to  the  rank  of  major-general,  was 
■worn  a  privy  councillor,  had  a  gift  from  the  crowD 
of  the  estate  of  Dodhope,  and  was  mads  constable  of 
Dundee.  In  1688,  on  the  eve  of  the  devolution,  he 
was  raiaed  to  tlie  peerage  by  James  IL  as  Viioonnt 
Dundee  and  Lord  Qralum  of  ClaveriioaBe.  When 
the  bigotry  of  James  had  driven  him  from  the 
throne,  Dundee  remained  faithful  to  the  intereets  of 
the  fsllan  monareh.  He  waa  Joined  by  the  Jaootdte 
Wiolil.nH  clana  and  by  auziliariea  from  Ireland, 
anS.  niaed  the  ataudard  of  lebdlion  againat  the 
govemmcot  of  William  and  Mary.  After  Tarioos 
movemenla  in  the  north,  he  advanced  upon  Blair 
in  Athol,  and  Oonenil  Maokay,  commanding  the 
govemmeDt  foroea,  battened  to  meet  him.  The 
two  armiea  otm&ontod  each  otiier  at  the  Pass  of 
Eilliaeiankie,  July  27, 1680.  Mockay'B  force  waa 
about  4000  mm ;  Dondatfa,  2500  foot,  with  one 
troop  of  honch  A  few  mlnntw  decided  tiie  coatest. 
After  both  umiM  had  ■xehanged  fin,  the  High- 
landera  nuhed  «ii^  their  awwda,  and  the  enemy 


istantlv 


a  way.     Uackay  lost 


field  to  Urtard  Hooie,  or  BUir  Claatle,  and  then 
expired.  In  the  Bodleian  Ltlvary,  Oxfoid,  ia  pre- 
iwred  the  letter-book  of  Kaime,  [oiTate  •ecreCsty 
to  James  IL,  and  in  tiiia  book  ia  the  oopy  ol  a  Isttv 
ponorting  to  be  written  t^  Dundee  uter  '  -  - 
reeeivednii  death-wound,  giving  James  1 


he  had 


of  the  victorv.  The  letter  waa  first  pub- 
lished in  Maephweon  s  Original  Papen,  1775,  and 
has  been  treated  as  a  forgery;  but  Naime  ooold 
have  bad  no  ooneeivable  motive  for  forging  siirch  a 
document,  which  romuned  unprinted  above  ei^ty 

The  character  and  servicea  of  Dnndea  have  been 
greatly  exugerated  and  blackened  by  party  spirit. 
With  the  Jacobitea,  be  was  tiie  brave  and  handsome 
cavalier,  the  last  of  the  great  Scots  and  gallant 
Qraham*.  With  the  Covenanters,  be  was  'bloody 
(jlsTerse,'  IliB  most  emel  and  rapsdooa  of  all  the 
meroanaiy  aoldien  of  that  age.  He  was  neittier  tiie 
best  nor  the  w<»*t  of  his  clua.  As  a  militaiyoom- 
mander,  he  bad  no  opportnnitiGs  for  display.  He 
was  the  hero  of  only  one  important  battle,  and  in 
that  his  (kill  waa  uiewn  chiefly  in  hia  ohoioe  of 
poution.  Aa  a  persecutor,  he  did  not,  like  DalyeQ, 
mtzodnee  the  ummb-acraw,  nor,  like  Grierson  of 
Lagg,  drown  helpless  women  at  atakea  on  the  sea- 
sandi.  'In  any  aervioej  hare  been  in,' he  laid,  'I 
never  inqnired  farther  in  tlie  lawa  thu  His  oidars 
d  tav  saperior  <rfBcers;'  and  in  Sootiand  he  had 
very  bad  superior  offioetf — low-minded,  crnel,  relent- 
less taaki  '■  ...... 


It  waa  fortunate  for  Us  npa- 


a  romantio  interest  to  his 


prise  has  given  a  ci 
name  and  memory. 

GRAHAM,  THOiua,  a  celebrated  ohemfat,  v 
*~"    '    OUaguw  in  the  year  1800.    HsTing  etodi 
and  Bdinbnivh,  he  beoame,  in  ll3(^  P 


SOIaagow 


.   ._. iM7,  lAenhe  ___ 

ceeded  Dr  Tomer  in  llie  ohemioal  diaic  of  UnWeasity 
College,  London.   In  1855,  he  waa  ^pointed  V*-'— 


Alcoates,  Definite  OnaqKninds  of  Salts  and 
Aloohol,'  app^ed  in  the  nvniaetioiu  nf>S»  Sofot 
Soeid]/<tfSdiiJ>myhj  to  the  time  of  his  death.be 
was  otmatantly  pnoUahing  important  oontnhvtioiia 

i.    _!. — i_._       > L   ,!._   jji^jg^  imp<wtant   of 

the  fcdlowing:  'On 
Qasea'  (ZV.  B.  Soo.  RUit. 
le  Aneniates,  FhoaidMtei, 
ocpbwio  Aeid*  (iWt  Tr. 
1833) ;  'On  the  Motion  <a  Oaaea,  ilkeir  SOemtm 
and  Tnnapiratioo '  (Ibid.  1846  and  1849)1  'On 
the  Difinaimi  of  Liquids'  {Ibtd.  1850  and  1851); 
•  On  Osmotic  Poroe '  [/iid.  1854] ;  'LiqnidDiffiuioA 
Applied  to  An^ysiB,'  and  'On  Liquid  nanirnrB' 
Hoa  in  Rdatirai  to  Chemical  Composition'  (TUd. 
1801).  In  addition  to  these  memdr^  he  bnught  out 
an  exoeUest  trestiae  on  Chemisby,  which  has  psned 
throD^  mon  than  one  edition.  G.  was  one  of  the 
founden  and  first  President  of  the  Chemical  and 
the  Cavendish  Societies  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal 
Society,  and  waa  mon  tiiau  once  apptdnted  Mie  <d 
its  Tice-prendent&  He  waa  likewiae  freqaently 
placed  by  government  on  important  BaimtiDo  00m- 
missiona.    He  died  16th  September  186SL 

GBAjIAMB,  JuRs,  a  Scottish  poe^  sou  of 
a  leral  practationet,  was  bom  in  Qlosgow,  Aprfl 
32,  1765,  and  was  educated  at  the  umran^  of 


Google 


ORAHAME'S  ISLAKD— ORAELK 


t  aty. 


mrad  to   Edinburgb  in  1784, 

i  ths  Btndr  of  law  mxiv  the 

taitnn  of  *  KUtire,  aod  wu  adfoitted  •  member 
«f  the  Soeie^  of  Writan  to  tlu  Signet  in  1791, 
knd  in  1795,  el  tlw  Facnl^  of  AdvocaiW  Findme 
tha  l^al  pnifeMion  luwnited  to  bii  tMtea,  »nd 
liBTiiig  B  infficieiioy  of  woridl;  msMit,  he  vrithdreir 
from  pnrfeanoiutl  pnotice,  aod  deroted  hinuelf  to 
tfae  ciutiratiou  of  bn  muae.  He  had  long  r^uded 
tlu  life  and  dutiea  of  a  country  clergynun  with 
•  wittful  ere,  and  an  opportonity  ofFermg,  he  took 
otdas  in  ue  Cbmch  U  Engkud,  being  ordkined 
by  the  Biih<»)  of  Norwich  on  Triiii^  Snnd^,  the 
SSth  HAf  1809:  He  wu  mooeHdTC^  cnnte  of 
Shipton  m  aioaoeatetaluTe,  and  of  Sedgefleld  in 
the  eonntjr  ot  I>UTli>m.  Ill  heUth  oompuled  him 
'  *  hia  aaored  dntdea;  and  he  tetomed  to 
pending  ft  lew  ixjB  ia  Ediabnrgb,  he 
a  Qlaagow,  and  died  at  hit  brother'! 
ear  that  citT,  on  the  14th  September 
1811,  in  tha  fcst^-iamita  jear  of  his  age. 

O.  hai  Ut  behind  aoreral  poetioal  woAs,  the 
chiaf  of  irtiii^  an — JfanQueoi  ii/'foD(f,adramatio 
poon ;  lie  SaUalh;  TtU  Bird*  of  Scotiand;  and 
TAe  BritiA  Omv^  It  ii  on  2%«  8<MaA  that 
hia  fame  iwt*.  He  waa  a  cetiring,  amiable,  and 
aflbeticaiate  man,  and  povened  a  deep  love  tor 
naton^  and  thoae  paaaagea  in  hii  poenu  are  the  beat 
lliat  gira  nttttanoa  to  that  lore.   There  was  nothing 

jdentaoua   (smnmand  of   moaical  Tone   and   rural 

GOAHAHE^  or  HOTHAITS  ISIuUTV.  A 
maaa  of  dnat,  aand,  and  eeon«  thrown  out  ti  a 
mbmarine  TcdEano  in  the  Ueditertanean,  and  whidi 
remained  for  aome  time  abore  the  roriaM  of  the 
water,  reoeiredtheaanameB.  Itmadeitaappeanuice 
about  thirty  miki  offtheoout  of  Sidly,  oppoaitoto 
Sciacc^  in  Jnly  1831.  In  the  beginning  <rf  Angnat, 
when  tha  action  cj  tha  Tolcano  had  a«>aed,  it  had  a 
dreumferenoa  of  about  a  mile  and  a  qnarter,  the 
hi^ieat  point  wm  eatimated  at  170  feet  above  the 
aea,  and  the  inner  diametei  of  the  enter  abont  400 
ytria,  Aa  aoon  ai  the  emption  oeaaad,  the  action 
U  the  wavea  began  to  reduce  Uie  igland,  and  before 
many  montha  tnuupired,  the  whole  maaa  of  acoriv 
and  nnd  diwppeaied,  being  scattered  aa  a  stratnm 
of  Tolcanio  ouuier  in  that  portion  of  tJie  bed  of 
the  Meditenanean. 

QRAHAM'S  luUTD,  an  ialand  of  the  Antarctio 
Ocean,  diacorered  by  Biacoe  in  Febrnaiy  1832,  lies 
in  lab  64°  4fi'  &,  and  long.  63*  CI'  W^  being  neariy 
on  the  meridian  of  the  eaat  extremity  of  Tierta  dd 
Taega,  and  within  a  ccmparatiYely  short  distance  of 
the  polar  circle.  The  position,  aa  above  defined,  is 
preaaelv  that  of  Monnt  Williiun,  the  highest  spot 
Been.  In  front,  towards  the  north,  are  a  number 
of  islets,  called  Bisooa'a  BangSL  No  living  thing, 
exoepting  a  few  birda,  appean  to  exist. 

OBAHAH'S  TOVIT,  the  capital  of  the  eaaten 
pnirince  ti  tiie  Oap«  Colony,  standi  near  the  centre 
of  the  maritinie  division  of  Albany.  It  is  about  2S 
nuka  from  the  sea,  in  lat  33*  ig'  S.,  and  long.  26* 
31'  E. ;  and  it  conbuna  about  8000  inhabitant^ 
chiefly  English.  Q.  T.  is  the  see  of  two  bishops 
— one  of  the  Chomfa  of  England,  and  another  of  the 
Chnrch  of  Borne,  and  poaaeasea  a  cathediaL  It  haa 
also  aevend  Wealeyaii  tniniaters,  besides  the  pastors 
cf  the  Dnteh  Betwmed  ChoKh.  Among  the  other 
institntioDa  of  the  plaoa  are  ita  banks,  insnrance 
<Aces,  a  botuio  ganien,  a  public  library,  a  general 
hg^tal,  large  baincks,  and  two  newspapers. 

ORAIIT  (Lat.  gramtm,  any  small  hard  seed  or 
— ^"-•-'  -  • — Q  often  used  as  eqnivslent  to  corn, 
9ds  of  the  Ctra^ia. 


OBAIN  COAST.    See  OuncKk 

GRAIITBS  D'ATiaNON.  See  FitcncE  Bmum, 

ORAIBINO  [Leueiteut  XoMaiAvnju),  a  fish  of 

the  family  Cypriuida,  of  the  same  genns  with  the 

Dace  (q.  v.),  whieh  it  much  resembles.    It  was  first 

podntea  ovt  aa  a  difEuent  specisa  by  Pennant  who 


Qiainiiv  (Ltvtttetu  ZoTteaitrieiuu). 

fonnd  it  In  Ute  Ueney.  It  ooenis  in  a  few  Eiwlish 
atreama,  and  in  some  of  the  lake*  of  SwitzerUnd. 
It  is  rather  more  slender  than  the  dace.  In  its 
habits  and  food  it  imi  iiiMni  'Qie  tronL  rises  readily 
affords  good  sport  to  the 


at  the  artificial  fly,  and  a 


ORAINS  OF  PABADISE,  or  MELEQUFTTA 
PEFFEB,  an  arcsnatio  and  extremely  hot  and 
pongent  aaed,  imported  from  GiUnea.  It  is  the  pro- 
aai»UAnai>nimMtieg>i^ta,otA.OTaMaParadui,a 
plant  of  the  natunl  Older  &iCa»uN«iB  or  Zin^ibcmiias^ 
with  lanceolate  leaves,  one-floweied  acapea  (laafleaa 
sterna),  about  tiiree  feet  high,  and  ovate  or  elliptic* 
oblong  eapmles  containing  many  seeds.  Sy  Hie 
natives  ot  Africa,  these  seeds  are  used  as  a  spioe  or 
condiment  to  season  their  food ;  in  Europe,  thay 
are  chiefly  employed  as  a  medidne  in  Teterinaiy 
practioe,  and  fnndulently  to  increaae  the  pongency 
of  fermented  and  spiritoous  liqoon.  By  68  Qeo. 
TTT.  c  Bis,  brewers  and  dealas  in  beer  in  ''^"glnild 
are  pndiibited,  under  a  heavy  penalty,  from  even 
having  grains  of  psrsdise  in  ttunr  possession.  This 
drng  u  much  nsed  to  five  ^tparent  strengtli  to 
bad  gin.  The  name  Meleguetta  Pepper,  or  Quioea 
Pepper  (q.  v.),  is  also  given  to  other  pungent  seed* 
from  the  weat  of  Africa. 

GKAKLE,  the  common  name  of  many  birds  of 
the  Starling^  family  fSbtmida),  all  tropical  or  sub- 
tropical. They  have  very  much  the  habits  ot 
starlings,  and  some  of  them  even  excel  starlings  in 
their  imitatiTe  powers,  and  partkndarly  in  the 
imitation  ot  human  apeech,  Thn  is  remarkably  the 
case  with  the  Mina  Biid*  (q.v.)  (d  the  East  ladiea, 
whidi  may  be  regarded  as  raakks.  Vnmerons 
spedes  inhabit  Africa.  Some  of  them  are  bird*  of 
splendid  jdnmage.  The  Pabajibs  G.  [Oracvla  grgt- 
{Mwra]  of  India  has  aoqnired  a  peonliar  celebrity  as  a 
dsstrom'  ot  locoata  and  caterpulan.  It  it  about  the 
size  of  a  blackbird.  BufTon  tells  nt,  that  in  order 
to  stop  the  devastations  of  locusts  iu  the  island  of 
BouriMm,  'Uiit  bird  was  iotrodaced  from  India  by 
the  government.  The  graklea,  however,  beginning 
to  examine  the  newly-town  fields,  excited  tha 
alarm  of  the  planters,  and  were  exterminated;  hut 
it  waa  fonnd  nacMwry,  after  a  few  yeara,  again  to 
inlrodnoa  them,  and  iihey  are  now  vetj  nnmvrona. 


jbji^oogle 


nUATiTiifC    fiTtAMTtrnuT- 


thi*  wpeiMt,  kspt  in  a  biraTud,  luw  been  kucfwn 
to  inuUta  ntort  of  it*  otdinuy  woiid^  m  tliote  ol 
iogt,  abetp,  ^ff,  uid  ponltry, — Some  ol  tlia  ^raklet 
■re  known  h  (nmmer  bird*  of  puaage  in  Ulb 
DortlieTn  part*  of  Ameriok 

GBA'LLJEL  or  6IlALLA.T01lSiS  (Lat  clalt- 
mllierg),  an  order  of  birds,  genenJlf  oharaeteriBed 
by  reiy  long  Ugfi,  the  tiir«ii*  (dunkl  in  partJcnlar 
being  mnch  elontjated,  and  by  the  naVirdmiiii  of  the 
lower  part  ed  the  tibia,  ad^)tins  them  fv  wading  in 
water  without  wettiiu  their  feather*.  Hey  hare 
alio  generally  long  ne^i  ■ii4  long  billa  The  fonn 
of  t^  bill,  liowever,  i*  TMioni :  uul  in  it*  nn, 
(trength,  and  baidneii,  it  i«  adapted  to  the  kind  ot 
food ;  (ome,  a*  mipM,  yAieh  feed  ohiefly  on  wonni 
and  otlus  toft  m™"-!",  having  a  rery  toft  weak  bill, 
whilst  othen,  which  feed  on  larger  and  abonger 
'"'"■»'-i  bare  the  bill  proportianatoty  laiaa  and 
itrong.  "Dm  form  of  tha  body  i*  ^en^lly  deztder. 
The  greater  nnmber  of  the  O.  are  inhabitanta  td  the 
*ea-coB*t  or  of  marshy  diitricta.  Many  are  bird*  of 
paiaage.  Even  those  which  are  not  aqnatio  are 
senemly  driveD  from  the  district*  vbich  they 
frequent  either  by  (roat  or  dtovight.  Cuvier  divided 
tbis  order  into  BrenipmTia  (q.  v.),  (Ostrich,  Casso- 
woiy,  Rmn,  &•:.) ;  Prtuiroitres  (Bustards,  Plovers, 
Lapwings,  ix.)  ;  CvUriroitTa  (Cnmea,  Herons, 
Sticks,  Adjutant*,  Spoonbills,  kc.)  ;  Longiroatru 
(SnipeB,  Curlews,  Godwit*,  Sandpiper*,  ftc) ;  and 
iiaerodaOijU  (BaOs,  Crakes,  C^xtta,  Aic).  The 
Branpvma  are  constitated  by  *ome  into  a  distinct 
order,  Curtora,  and  differ  very  widely  in  many 
reepect*  from  tiie  true  Grallm. 

OIUU.    SeeCmoKPsa. 

ORAMIITE^    S««Gkassb. 

GBAMMAB,  in  it*  niiud  tense,  and  a*  applied 
to  a  partioolar  langnage,  inveetigatea  and  *y«tem- 
atiaaa  the  facta  of  tliat  langnage,  a*  exhiUted  in 
'  approved  writan  aiii  spNtkeii ;  the  main 
or  neada  boiw  i  (I)  the  way  in  which  the 
Monda  or  spoken  wnds  are  n^esented  by  letten 
(Orthography) ;  (2)  the  division  of  wonls  into 
olaaaea,  ta  'part*  <^  apeeoh,'  the  cbanrae  or  infleo- 
tion*  tiiey  nndargo,  tiieir  derivatdon  and  oompodlion 
(Etymology) ;  end  (3)  the  way  in  which  they  are 
ioiiwd  togetiker  to  form  aentenoM  (Syntax).  A  book 
embodying  tbe  results  of  such  investigatians,  with  - 

view  to  ooable  leamets  b>  understand  a  ' 

and  to  Dsa  it  properly,  ia  a   grammar 
langaagii 

Xjanguagc 
ing  to  nui 

bat  nammat  mlea  were  dednoed  from  longoages 
alieMy  in  oxistenoe.  In  the  day*  of  Plato,  perhaps 
the  greatest  master  of  language  that  ever  wrote,  toe 
diviaum  of  words  into  cusse*  or  parts  of  speech 
bad  not  yet  been  made.  Plato  himi^Jf,  according 
to  Max  Mailer,  todc  tbe  first  step  in  formal  gramir  — 
of  noun  and  verb, 


advanoas  in  t 


txnctun _ ..  _  .    . _  .. 

he  was  making,  rather  tiian  in  the  words  themselves* 
Aristotle  and  tlia  Stoic  philosopher*  made  fnrUier 
in  tike   anaWsis   of  langnagi^  bat  th^ 

ittia  to  tiks  form*  of  wrad*,  tiieir  object 

being  li>riod  ratbar  Oiap  gramroatinal  (pee  QnnnVB]. 
tt  was  tne  Alazandnan  scholars,  engaged  in  prepar* 
ing  critical  editiMia  of  Homer  and  ths  otha  Greek 


di**if*t  lAo  fliat  aoalyssd,  fUssiflw?.  and  named 
the  phenomena  of  language  ss  language;  and  it 
ms  Mks  Diwwina  Iliraz,  who  bad  been  trained 
In  tlu  Alasau&iaa  sohool,  and  became  a  teacher  of 
QaiA  {QrvBimMau,  btm  Gi,  gramma,  a  letter; 
M  tluee  who  taught  My*  tiior  Soman  lett«n  woe 


called  Lilerakm*)  at  Boaut,  that  published  the  fiiat 
Dractdcal  syttematio  (keek  grsounat  for  the  use  <d 
Lis  Bomanpupils  (aboat  eOn.a).  1^  work,  which 
still  exists,  though  much  interpcdated,  became  tha 
basis  of  all  subs^uent  grammar*,  both  Greek  aikd 
Latin ;  and  when  grammars  of  the  modern  European 
tongues  came  tc  be  written,  tb^y  naturally  fcllowed 
the  classical  models.  The  chief  matter*  tnated  of 
in  grammar  are  considered  under  such  head*  *■ 
An^uynvt,  CoMJxmcnoK,  Diclenbiok,  &a. 

In  quite  recent  times,  the  stod;  of  language  has 
advanced  beyond  this  emp^ical  stage,  in  which  ite 
olnect  was  confined  to  tie  ■TpImii.JT.g  ami  teaching 
inoividnal  lanmiagei ;  and,  under  the  name  3 
*  CtmuisntiTS  Gitumuir,'  has  brooght  to  light  the 
ifenrnnlsiiiiii*  and  difteiBnce*  of  toe  various  lan- 
goages  of  the  world,  so  as  to  classify  them,  after  the 
maimer  of  natural  history,  into  families  and  mioor 
groaps,  according  to  their  greater  or  less  acuities. 
Still  hi^er  qnestdona,  ent^iog  into  the  origin  aod 
growth  of  speech,  and  eeekijig  to  give  a  adentiBc 
account  of  ita  phenomena,  noir  occupy  the  mors 
advanced  student*  of  this  subject.  See  Lujodaqi^ 
InrLBTTioir. 

GRAMMAR  SOHOOLS  received  their  name  at 
a  time  when  the  grammar  ot  the  English  language 
was  not  written,  and  \vlien  tH  knowledge  ol^a 
principlee  of  language  could  be  obtained  only  thrcu^ 
a  ttody  of  the  grammar  of  the  ancient  tonguea, 
particufarly  Latin.  The  idea  which  lav  at  the 
basiB  of  these  insLitulious  still  pervades  uiem,  and 
the  ancient  Isjignwea  sie  the  prtncdpal  subjecta 
J  ;_j — u —      Hwtoiy,  geogrqihy,  and  mod«nk 


language*  have  of  late  yean  been  adimitted  into  the 
oumcumm  of  the  great  majority  of  tiieae  achool* ; 
but  liieee  subject*  (till  bold  a  subordinate  pko^ 


B  great  majority  of  theae  school*  j 
tt*  (till  bold  a  subordinate  plao^ 
in  I^lin  and  Greek  0ves  pre- 
eminence,  and  is  tike  great  object  of  ambition  botii 
to  master*  and  pujnls.  ^or  can  it  be  otharwise 
•0  Icaig  as  the  onivervties  recognise  the  n»Hfnt 
tongnea  as  the  only  sonod  basis  of  a  liberd 
edocation.  For  a  further  notice  of  the  grammat 
schools   of   Great   Britain,    sea   Publio    Bcbooi4 

GRAMMI!  ia  the  standard  unit  of  ^mch 
measure*  of  vdi^t;  and  is  the  wdght  ot  a  cubic 
centimetre  of  distdled  water  at  0°  Centigrade 
(corresponding  to  32°  Fah.) ;  the  other  wmght* 
have  receivea  names  corTcspDnding  to  the  number 
ot  gi«mmee  they  contain,  or  the  number  of  time* 
they  are  contained  in  a  gramme:  in  the  forma 
case,  the  Greek  numerals  deca,  hecto,  kilo,  mytia, 
expreaaiiig  weights  ot  10  grammes,  100  gramme^ 
1000 erammee,  10,000  gramme*;  in  the  latter  ease, 
the  Boman  numeral*  deci,  eenti,  are  {oellxed,  to 
expreaa  tenHii,  burkdredth*  of  a  gninmo.  Startins 
frinn  the  ration  between  the  Engtish  yard  txA 
the  French  okbbe,  we  are  enabled  fo  oompare  the 
units  of  weight,  and  it  is  found  that  a  gramme  ^ 
16-43248  grains  Trc^,  from  which  the  eqnivslenta 
in  T'hglish  measure  lor  the  oOux  wtd^bia  can  eatily 
be  fowd :  thus— 

■IbiTrh.  LbLlnMnrti 

'iBissM  =     -ooooiiMja 
I'MiiH  a     -Dooiiota 

1S«IM  =       -OOIEMSI 

Dwapuona  -        IH  UU  lo      imOMl 

H«tsfruDBt>i      Ua-at  *>      'SHHSl 

EUDfiimiu    o    lHt3»  =    IUMI 

llTrlsrnmin*  =  IHSM'4  •=  1MI4S3        =   -IMM  owt 

QDlntil[l.i.)-lliaiM  i=nO'WI  =]'»6S4     I. 

OBAMMONT,  a  small  town  of  Bdgium,  in  the 
province  of  East  flsndett,  is  situated  on  botlk  banks 
of  tha  Dendcr,  20  miles  sonth-aoaUi-MtBt  of  fflient. 
It  baa  manufacture*  ot  laoe,  fine  linen,  ^'"<"^  ami 
woollen  fabrica,  and  tobacco ;  and  cairiea  on  eottcm- 


DkIiisidiim    e 


T5 


,,Guui^(| 


_ 


QBAiafOBT—GKAJTADA. 


Pop.  (IS 


■aF>.ll87D)*bont90aa 

JOHT,    at    GRAMONT, 

CouFT  or,  a  Mlabmtad  Vtmuh  oomtdw,  md  of 
Authonjr,  Dak»  of  Onumiont,  vu  bom  •boot  10^ 
Wliile  ttiD  TOf  7P™^  ''"  aarred  m  k  Tolnnteer 
tmder  Condt  ud  \^iioiiiii^  and  dirtnuraUud  bim- 
aelf  hj  tbe  most  obiraliio  braTeiy.  At  the  ocniTt 
of  Lonii  XIY.,  with  tiii*  npntatiaD  addad  to  bii 
youth,  cable  btrtb,  ft  haadaane  penon,  fine  taltnts 
And  aociHnplighiaeata,  a  lively  wit,  and  itnngelT 
good-fortnne  at  pUy,  at  irbioh  he  won  iuoh 
smoniitB  M  fa>  nq^Htrt  oven  bit  oitiKTagant  expea- 
ditnres,  it  ia  no  iroiider  tbat  be  became  a  favonrite. 

king   in  the   aSeotdi  ...  . 

Tbia  oanaed  bint  to  be  baoiahed  from  Fnuioe ;  and 
he  foond  a  pleaaant  lefoge  and  oonffeoial  aode^ 
in  the  say  ud  lioenticnia  comi  of  ChaHM  U.  of 
England.  Here,  after  To»aj  adventoKe,  be  engaged 
to  many  flliza  Hanulton,  tiater  of  An^ODv,  Count 
Hamilti^  bat  (lipped  oat  of  London  witbont 
fulfilling  hia  promiae.  Two  of  the  ladv'a  brothers 
•et  on  in  pniaoit  of  the  forsetfol  Freocbinui, 
and  coming  np  with   bim  at  Dover,  a^ed  him 


e  to  be  the  rival  of  the 


Maria  Thereaa  of  Austria.  B7  tliia 
bad  two  daugbten,  one  of  whom  was  mamed  . 
Hemy  Howard,  Marquia  of  Stratford,  and  Mia  other 
became  Abbess  of  Fodbuj,  in  Lorraine.  He  died 
in  1707.  See  Meadn  qf  Ae  Condi  de  OrammotU 
hy  hia  hrother-in.law,  Anthony,  Count  Eamitton 
(edited  by  Sir  Walter  Soott  in  IBIl;  reprinted  in 
Bobn'a  '  extra  YOlmnea '). 

aRAIfPIAKS,   the   name   of   the   principal 
— j._-_  — .^^  jji  Scotland.     The  system  min 


sbire,  forfaiBhire,  and  Pertbabire.  The  nverage 
elevation  of  the  aiumDita  of  tbia  main  nuge  is  from 
3000  to  3000  feet,  and  the  higheat  elevatiOD  reached 
ia  tbat  of  Ben  Neria  (4406  feet)  at  its  western 
extremity.  An  outlying  branch  of  tlis  O.  extends 
northward  from  near  the  bead  of  tbe  valley  of  the 
Dee,  and  oompriacB  among  ita  chief  annmuta  Bon 
Uuicdbni  (CSS  feet)  nod  Cairo^onn  (J0S3  feet). 
Sontbmid  of  the  western  cottremi^  of  tbe  Q.  are 
■itnated  nnmenma  gronn  and  chains  of  greater  or 
leas  estcot.  Anong  taeae  tbe  ohief  lummits  are 
Ben  Croaohan  (3698  fert),  Ben  Lomond  (3192  feet), 
Ben  Hon  (3M3  feet),  Ben  lowers  (3984  feet),  ai^ 
Schieballion  (3547  feet). 

OBAKPIAKS,  nuxmtuns  in  Australia,  run 
north  aod  sontit  in  tin  weai  part  of  Victoria, 
atretcbing  in  &  lat  from  36°  BS*  to  37*  38',  and  in  H 
long,  from  14!r  Sfi*  to  1^  47*.  From  iheir  eaatem 
alopeflowtbeGleoe^anditaafflnenta.  Tbe  loftiest 
peak  of  lb*  langc^  l£nuit  William,  ia  4fi00  feet  high 
above  the  aea. 

GRAMPUS  (nobaUy  from  tlie  French,  dnoid 
poiixM,  ptti  tab),  a  oetaeeona  animal, 
the  arobo  seaa^  as  on  the  oossta  of  Gn 


pitzbergan,  not  «B&e;giient  in  the  Atiantie,  and 


veUt 


Itia 


DdpAMda^  or  Dt^thin  family,  and  is  conunanlv 
referred  by  uatarsliiti  to  the  asaw  genu  with 
the  poipoiaah  n^br  the  naiaea  Ph(xxma  Oreo,  P. 
Onatpat,  and  P.  gUtdiator,  ahhoogh  a  new  genns, 
Orarmu,  baa  uo  bean  ptqpowd  for  it.  It  ia 
the  largert  ot  tfaa  D^pkmUa,  nOm  mora  thsB 


twento  teat  it 
bat  tfliflkiff'  in 
iriuobit  alao 


Isogthj  its  lonn  ainndle-lhuMd, 
lortion  than  the  porpdae,  beau 
in  the  mncb  greater  bei^  ol 


Oiauipai  (Plioaaaa  Orca). 


wbicb  are  about  eleven  on  each  side  in  each  ji... 
The  toil  is  powerful ;  ia  a  apeoimmi  twcmty'.oae  feet 
lonf^  it  waa  found  to  be  seven  feet  broad.  The 
n  ,.  — lenUW  seen  in  small  herds.  It  ia  very 
,  and  pursuee  salmon  up  the  months  of 
die  tide        


and  of  its  tearing  ont  and  devouring  the  wbale'i 
tonffu^  bnt  even  the  leaat  improbable  require 
oonflrrnation.    The  O.  pcssceaes  great  strength  ani 


activity. 

ORAiT  (Mag.  Matergam),  a  town  of  Hnnaaty,  is 

lelv  aitn^ed  on  an  elevation  on  tbe  light  bajik 

:  the  Danube,  20  miles  north-weat  of  Feath.    It 

ia  a  royal  free-town,  ia  the  see  of  the  primate  of 

"  '  '  ■''"''  ia  rich  in  fine 

'hich  ia  01 

, .  10  resident . 

the  Hungarian  prince,  Qejza :  and  here  hia  son,  8 

"■  jpbon,  the  Srtt  id        '  ^  '         ' 

),  and  oonverted  tc 

fortified,  am 

loat  withoQt  munber. 

ORAN    SAfiSO   D'lTALU.  (' Great  Bock  of 

Italy'),  alao  called  Motm  CoKMo,  from  the  resem* 

blance  to  a  bom  wbicb  it  jpresenls  on  tbe   eaat, 

is  tbe  hiobest  emnmit  of  the  Apennines,  having 

an   elevation   of   10,206  feet      It  is   aitusted  on 

the  borders  of  the  Abroxsi,  between  Teramo  and 

Aqoils,      It  o\na  its  name  partly  to  its  height, 

and  partly  to  its  being  formed  of  a  single  moaa 

of  calcareous  earth  from  ita  middle  to  ita  summit 

It   is  seen  to  great  advantage  froin  the  nde  of 

Teramo,    where    it    is    broken    into    tremendous 

precipioae.    The  aummit  is  covered  with  perpetual 

scow.     Wotvca,  bean,  and  chamois  abound  on  the 

mountun — tbe  last  of  these  anuuals  being  found 

in  no  other  part  of  the  Apennines.     The  general 

dumtoter   of   tbe   aoenery   is   more   Alpine   than 

Apennine,   and  in  wild   grandeur  and  variety  it 

--  not  surpassed  by  any  landscape  in  Italy.     To 

e  painter,  ^ologist,  and  botanist  it  affords  a  rich 

Id  for  their  reapeotive  pnnraits.     See  Itineriirj 

of  F.  Caldane. 

GRANADA,  an  andent  kingdom,  and  one  of  tha 

iM  ntovinoea  in  the  south  of  Spun,  waa  bounded 

we  W.  by  Andatnsia,  on  tbe  E.  by  Mnnii^  and 

ihs  S.  ud  B.F,   by  the   ^Caditmianaan.     Its 


tyGoogle 


..    I 


QKANASA^-ORAKBT. 


erattart  lengUi  tnm  iiorth-«Mt  to  aoath-WBat  wm 
ftbont  210  milet,  Mid  Hi  gr^*^  bra^th  about  SO 
DliltK.  It  ii  now  dindca  into  the  threg  modam 
proriiuMB  of  Gnuitid%  AlmerU,  uid  Mklagm,  Uw 
xuited  mas  of  whiehunonnt  to  11,003  iqiiare  milca, 
Mkd  the  nnitadpopolation,  in  1870,  to  1^1,009:  The 
■arlM*  of  tiiia  aueiaut  ^oriitoe  »i  nunntainoiu  and 
(tctnrMqna  in  a  bidi  da((TM.  The  moDntain-ianaM 
— IJu  chief  of  wluoh  an  Hit  Siemi  Narada,  ua 
Siena  de  Bond*,  aad  the  AlinijaRaa-~aa  m  g/mml 
aim,  run  paialld  vith  the  ooaab  Tho  pnndpal 
riTHB  an  the  Almaiuoia,  Almeiu^  Jenil,  Oniaal- 
hoine,  and  Gtiadiaro,  all  of  whibh,  aave  the  Jenil,  an 
affluent  of  tiie  QnadalqniTer,  flow  into  the  Uediter- 
nnean.  ^le  proTinoe  id  Q-im,  oa  the  whole,  fruit- 
ful and  highlf  coltiTated.  Hie  moantaina  ore  rich 
io  eilTer,  oopper,  lead,  and  iron ;  and  man;  of  the 
inhabitanti  an  mgaged  io  "'i"'"g  and  meltings 
Saline  and  minenl  ipringa  aboond.    Id  the  time  ot 


M0,0a0  iuhabitanto,  aod  to  have  been  Kuronnded 
l^  a  wall  fortified  with  1030  towera.  The  Vega 
ti  Q.,  in  frcoLt  of  the  city,  was  celebrated  for  two 
hnndred  yean  aa  the  Boene  of  contest  between  the 
Uoon  and  the  ohiraliy  (rf  CSiiiitaadam — a  oontert 


America,  rtawida  1.     .    .    

whieh    bean    the    name    of    the    state. 

foanded  W  Hernandez  da  Cordova  in  1B22.  The 
of  ita  inhabitacta,  inolnding  the  sabiuba 
nicipality  of    Jalatava,    !■   about    ISfiOO. 

Prior  to  18M,  it  was  the  Uinving  aeat  of  manj 

commercial  emablkhments.  It  anffend  mMj, 
-      -     -         t  in  tte 


independent  Mootub  kingdom.    For  a  time  it 
exoeedindy  wmlthr.     "From  th*  year   IMS 
Ifooriah  kinn  of  O.  wen  otdiged  to  noc^piae 
•Qpmnacy  m   the    kiofa    of    Caatilh    A  qnarral, 
however,  which  arose  between  tiie  vassal  king  of  O. 
and  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  the  ISth  o.,  resulted 
in  a  war  of  eleven  Tears'  dontioo,  tbe  acnseqnenca 
td  which  was  the  oomplete  oonqneat  of  O.  17  the 
Spaniards  in   1492,  and  the    total  deatmotion^  o( 
Hoomh  authority  in  Spain.    The  modem  provinoe 
of  Q.  has  an  area  of  0030  sq.m.;  pop.  (1870)  4SG,34S. 

ORAIf ADA  {Spanish,  OruitaHi,  Arab.  Oarm- 
thak,  said  to  be  a  oonnption  of  SanUUaA,  the 
anctent  fortreas  ct  Phatuoian  orien),  a  famooa 
city  of  Spain,  fonncri^  eqital  of  tne  kingdom  of 
Gianada,  and  now  chief  town  of  the  modieni  pn>- 
vinoe  of  the  same  name,  is  built  on  a  nortnem 
Inanoh  of  the  Sieira  Nevada,  at  an  demtkn  of 
aUB  feet  above  sesrlevel,  in  lat  37*  IS'  N.,  long. 
3*  40'  W.,  and  is  about  140  milea  east-aouth-aaat 
of  Seville.  It  stands  on  the  risht  bank  of  the 
Jenil,  overlookinf;  the  fertile  and  aztensive  Vega 
oz  plun  of  6.,  and  is  watered  also  by  the  Dairo. 
a  nqiid  monntain-straam,  which  joins  the  Jenil 
about  a  mile  below  the  town,  llwngb  now  sadly 
decayed,  it  is  still  one  of  tha  peatest  towns  A 
Spain,  is  the  aeat  of  an  archbishop,  and  has  a 
nniversily,  attanda^  it  it  said,  by  about  800  atad«Dt& 
One  of  the  two  hiUi  on  iiiiieh  the  town  is  mainly 
built  is  imnonnted  by  the  Alhambn  (q.  v.) ;  the 
other  hill  i*  occupied  hf  the  suborb  called  the 
Alb^rzin,  the  oldest  part  of  the  town,  and  now 
inhabited  ^moat  entirely  by  gipsies.  The  atf  of 
Q.  proper,  namely,  that  portion  of  it  that  cont*--- 
the  ADuunbra,  is  •lurouuded  by  bidi  bat  mi 
walla,  and  by  (troDK  towers.  The  stieeta 
narrow,  orooked,  ana  nneren;  tJie  hoosea,  which 
for  the  moat  part  are  well  built,  an  hsavy  and 
gloomy  in  outwaid  Mppearance,  having  the  flat 
roofe  and  projeotiiw  baloomea  of  the  Moorish  style 

of  anhitectam;  ue  interion,  however,  an 

venient  and  suitable  to  the  climate^    O.  has  •• 

^»li^n^^¥ip  pnblio  squuea.  The  caUiedral,  a  splendid 
■truatnre,  profusely  dsoorated  with  Ja^an  and 
ooloimd  marblBa,  and  having  a  hi^-altsr  placed 
nnder  a  domsksupported by 22 mllan, containa  the 
nw>Tnnifn1gAf  "fFm^r'^^'^  °-"^  TsaiwTTaj  ir*^  nf  Philip  T. 
and  hit  consort  Jnana.  lite  indnstrv  and  tnt'  ' 
the  town  an  quite  inwmiidenble.     Pop.  6S,00i  _ 

The  modem  city  of  G.  was  foimded  b^  the  Uoon 
In  the  Sth  c.,  and  for  sometime  remained  subject 
to  the  califa  of  Cordova;  bnt  In  1230  it  became 
capHal  <d  the  kingdom  of  Qnnada,  and  nmdly 

to  distaoiatian  as  a  woaHlijr  taading  dty  and  at 

•eat  <rf  arts  and  Mdiitacrtank    Undar  &m  hteon,  it 


whkji  1 


broodit  to  a  tenninatiaD  01^  I^  the 
captnn  and  complete  fabjeetion  of  G.  by  Iwdmand 
KM  Itballa  in  US2,  after  a  u^e  d  twelve  months. 


a  the  dvil  w 


r  that  broke  out  ii 


repnlui 


bnvely  and 
defended*^  Don  EVnto  Chamorro,  tto 
leader  of  the  conservative  party.  In  1S66,  Chamoiro 
having  in  the  meantiine  died,  G.  was  aniprised 


After  the  ccnoli 

toward  the   rest 

yet,  however,  ragainad  ita  former  prosperity  and 

unportance. 

OBANADI'LI^A,  the  edible  froit  of  ceitun 
Bpedee  of  Paaaioa-flower  (q.T.).  Tlie  name,  wigin- 
ally  bestowed  by  Spamih  aetUert  in  the  WMt 
Indiea  and  warm  parts  of  America,  is  a  diminntavs 
of  jptuiada,  a  pomegranate.  The  CoKHOV  O. 
{PatMora  ^aadTaitgidaTi*)  is  oxtensivelydiAised 
over  ULcse  regions,  and  mnim  cultivated.  The  plant 
is  a  luxuriant  and  very  ornamental  climbw,  often 
enqployed  to  form  arbonn  and  coveted  walks ;  it 
has  um,  betrntiful,  and  fragrant  flowen  j  oUcng 
fmit^  often  six  inclua  in  diameter,  of  an  anaeaUe 
fragrance  and  a  sweet  and  slightly  aeid  pnlp,  voy 
gnSetolly  cooling.  It  is  often  eaMn  with  wme  and 
sugar.— The  AFPLE-nniTiD  O.,  or  Bwxnr  Cai.A- 
USE  [P.  raali/brmu),  is  pUotifnl  in  the  woods  cS 
Jamaica,  where  it  f<nins  a  principal  part  of  the  food 
of  wild  iwina.  It  ia,  however,  a  very  aerwnble 
frait,  about  two  inches  in  diameter,  its  pdp  gda- 
tinons,  the  rind  so  hard  as  to  be  eometuoea  made 
into  snoff-boies  and  toys.  The  Licbcl-luved  G. 
{P.  Icaoifolia],  sometimes  oalled  water-lonon  in  the 
West  Indies,  it  a  fmit  about  tin  nxe  of  a  hen's 


pulp,  ,.  ^  „. 

a  hole  in  the  rind  j  it  has  a  delicions  funonr,  and 
a  ili^  acidity.  It  is  mnch  coltivated.— Sevwal 
kinds  of  G.  are  oocamonally  cnltivated  in  hothontea 
m  Britain.  In  the  south  of  Earope^  they  grow  in 
the  open  air. 

GRANABT  WEEVIL,  another  name  of  tha 
CoRir  Wkbtil  (q.  v.). 

GRAITBT,  John  hLuumts,  Mjuuiuis  or,  an 
English  genera],  the  eldest  son  <rf  the  third  Duke 
of  Rutland,  wat  born  Janoary  2,  1721.  Educated 
"  "'  and  Cambridge,  he  waa  at  an  early  age 
M.P.  for  Grantham.      In  the  nbdlion  of 


,  178^  he  reoeived  tha  rank  of 

gennal,  and  toon  after  was  s«ot  to  Oaimany, 
as  second  in  command,  under  Ii<ad  George  Sack- 
ville,  of  the  Britlth  troops,  o>.opemting  witii  the 
king  of  Pnuu.    Alter  die  batOe  of  SGndvi,  for 


iCioogIc 


ORAND-OEAHD  JUBY. 


Iiit  aondnot  in  irtuch  he  reoeiTad  the  thanha  of 
I^ince  Ftsdinuid  of  Bnmnnak,  to  the  diipangs- 
'   ' '  I   npcrior   offioer,  trba  wwipiwi,  ud 


nunder-in-chirf  at  tha  Brita^  boopi,  and  held  that 
port  dnriiig  the  ranuMndar  of  ue  Seren  Tean' 
War.  He  partitnilarly  diattngoiahsd  himaeU  at  the 
battle!  ol  Warborg  in  1760,  <A  KirchdenlHan  in 
1761,  and  of  Gnebeostein  and  Hombn^  in  1762. 
Id  1760,  daring  his  abaenoe  with  the  atnqr,  h«  wm 
appointed  a  member  of  the  priTy  ooonciL  Ait«t  the 
peacs  of  1763,  he  waa  con>atated  maeter-genenl  of 
the  ordaance,  and  in  1766  commaadec-in-cliief  of 
the  umv.  He  died  October  20,  1770,  in  his  SOth 
venr.  Thmgh  very  popular  in  hia  time,  m  evidenced 
by  the  ficqoency  with  which  hia  portrait  was  used 
BB  a  mgn  to  pnblic-honaa,  he  waa  the  enbject  of 
eame otthe toast tenible  inTectirea of  Jnniiu ;  and 
hig  military  qnalitiea  appear  to  hare  been  much 
ovemted  by  oia  contempcraries. 

GRA2ID,  in  Moaic,  ia  &  word  synotiyiiioiic  with 
great — loeh  aa  grand  tonata,  gnud  aymi^iaiy, 
oTertare,  or  choma,  signifying  that  the  oompoaition 
ia  fall,  Md  not  aintple  or  ea«y. 

GRAND  CAPE,  io  Ei^h  Law,  the  name  of 
the  writ  whereby  in  an  action  of  dotrer,  on  the 
failnre  of  the  defoidant  to  a^ppear  to  answer  to  the 
snmmona,  a  third  part  of  his  lands  are  attached  to 
await  the  deciaion  of  the  court.  The  writ  contains 
an  order  for  the  defendant  to  appear  on  a  day 
BpeciGed.  If  the  defendant  do  not  appear  on  the 
retom  o(  the  writ  of  grand  cape,  jodgment  ia  eiven 
in  lavoor  of  the  widow,  who  is  thereupon  entitled 
to  take  poBMMsion  of  Uie  lands  in  satisfaction  of  her 

GRA2m  0017TUMIBB  OF  NOBMAITDT 
ia  a  colleetiaa  irf  the  aneisnt  laws  of  Normandy, 
and  is  said  to  hare  bean  compiled  in  the  third  year 
of  Henry  m.  It  oontainB  the  laws  and  crutoms 
which  were  in  toe  ia  Bngland  dnting  the  reigna  of 
Henry  IX,  JBichard  L,  and  John,  and  such  also  as 
weie  in  force  in  Normandy  after  tiie  separation  of 
that  docby  from  *^^"^  It  is  therefore  a  collec- 
tion of  the  lawB  of  Hoimaiidy  aa  they  stood  sabee- 
qnent  to  the  muMi  with  fiigland.  The  customs 
of  Normandy  were  to  a  gnat  extent  adopted  in 
England  afts  the  CMtqneat ;  and  the  laws  of  this 
conntrj,  faiticnlaily  dnring  tile  rEigns  ol  the 
Nonnan  aovneigni^  prsaent  a  great  nmilari^  to 
those  of  NeuBu^.    Sir  M.  ^^  jeakma  for  the 

aroae  from  the  introdnotion  of  Bi"g>''t'  cnatcnm  into 
Normandy.  In  the  mlea  of  deeoent,  of  writs,  of 
ptoccaa,  and  of  trial,  the  laws  of  EIngland  and  Nor- 
mandy were  at  fint  almost  identicu.  It  appears 
from  the  Grand  CoDtomiar,  that  though  the  verdict 
<J  twelve  men  was  always  required  on  a  trial  by 
jury,  yet  in  case  of  a  diSerence  of  opinion  among 
the  oriniial  Jnrois,  the  toinority  were  set  aside 
and  fr«sh  jurora  chosen,  notil  twolTe  men  could  be 
fnund  to  agree  io  a  verdict.  By  the  custom  of 
Normandy,  where  a  married  woman  died  pocaessed 
of  land,lier  husband  was  entitled  to  hold  Uie  lands, 
but  only  while  he  remained  a  widower.  By  the 
courtesy  of  En^and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  widower 
held  the  lands  lor  hia  life,     Lands  held  by  Knights' 


lands  held  on  an  inferior  tenure  were  divided  .  ^ 
the  sons.  And  where  a  man  had  oohabited  before 
marriue  with  the  woman  who  afterwards  became 
his  wi^,  a  son  bom  before  marriage  inherited  the 
land  to  the  exclusion  of  children  Irani  in  wedlock. 
See  Hale'e  Hiatory  ofOie  Common  Laa,  The  islands 
of  Onema^,  Jers^,  Aldemey,  and  StA  were 
212 


anpiallj  part  of  the  dn<^  of  Normandy,  and  were 
muted  to  the  orown  if  W"gl»"^  by  the  first  prinoea 
of  ttie  Noiinan  line.  Iho^h  still  attached  to  Eng- 
r  the  old  feudal  lawa,  or 
They  have  Ihsir  own 


n  in  these  islands.   A  loytl 
tat  seal  of  oonne  ha*  fcmsi. 


ooanniMkm  nndsT  the  great  bmI  of  oonne  ha*  fcmsi, 
hot  Uia  ooamiiwioneia  mmt  Jndge  aoootdiag  to  the 
lawof  theiislandik  All  oanaesare  onainallv  detec- 
>  bsilifi  and  *  ■ 
code  of  laws 
Fran  their  deoiHon, 
privy  oonnotL    Aota  ol  the 


GRAND  DATS  were  those  days  in  every  taim 
solemnly  kept  in  the  Inns  of  Court  and  Chancery 
— viz.  in  Easter  term,  Ascension-day ;  in  Trinity 
term,  8t  John  the  Baptist's  Day ;  in  Michaelmas 
term,  All  Saints'  Day  (and  of  late,  All  SouV  DsJ) ; 
and  in  HQary  term,  the  festival  of  the  Fmifica^on 
of  our  Lady,  commonly  called  Candlemas  Day; 
and  these  are  diet  non  Juridid,  no  days  in  court. 
— Coiai.  On  those  d^s  were  formedy  held  the 
Eevels  for  which  the  uns  of  Court  were  famous. 
The  last  revel  held  in  the  Inner  Temple  waa  on 
Candlemaa  Day  1733,  on  the  occasion  of  Mr  Talbot's 
elevation  to  the  woolsack.  At  this  feast,  fourteen 
stodentB  of  the  Inn  waited  at  the  benchers'  table. 
After  dinner,  a  play  waa  performed  by  actors,  who 
came  full  dressed  from  the  Haymarket  in  chairs, 
and  it  is  said,  refused  to  receive  payment  for 
the  honour  of  the  oocasion.  After  dinner,  judges, 
aerjeanta,  and  benchers,  formed  a  ring  ronnd  the 
stove  in  the  centre  of  the  hsll,  and  danced,  or  rather 
iBalied  aiovt  the  eoai  Jire,  according  to  the  old 
ceremony.  Oirm  dma,  and  ^  the  time  the  ancient 
gOTtg  was  sung  by  one  Toby  Aston,  dressed  in  a 
bar^gowo,  Ths  Prinoe  of  Wales,  Frederick,  father 
of  ^jrge  nX,  witnessed  this  part  of  the  ceremony 
inoog.  The  room  was  then  prepared  for  dancing, 
which  was  kept  up,  with  the  pleaaing  interlude  of  a 
splendid  sapper,  nntil  morning.  See  Fearce's  Innt 
qf  Court  aaid  Ohanary,  Grand  daya  continne  to  be 
observed,  bnt  they  have  no  longer  the  solemn  char- 
acter fonnerlj  attached  to  them.  Nor  are  they  hdd 
on  the  same  days  as  formerly  ;  for  by  the  situation 
in  the  law  tetms  made  by  11  Geo.  IV.  and  1  Will.  IT. 
c.  70,  those  days  no  longer  fall  within  the  tenn. 
Grand  days  are  now  fixea  at  the  jileaanre  of  the 
benchers.  On  these  days  an  entertamment  is  given 
in  hall  to  the  Judges  who  had  formerly  oeen 
membeia  of  iba  Lm,  and  on  this  occasion  an  addi- 
tional battle  of  wine  ia  supphed  to  every  mess  of 
four  men  among  the  barristers  and  studoits.  On 
circuits,  also,  the  circuit  bar  appoints  a  special  day 
for  the  grand  day,  on  which,  after  dmner,  tlM 
Tsrions  matteia  of  sodal  interest  afleotiDg  th» 
oircnit  are  disoussed  and  settled. 

GKAND  HAVEN,  a  small  but  rapidly 
increasing  town  in  the  atate  of  Michigan,  IT.  3.,  ia 
situated  on  the  eaatem  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  at 
the  moitt^  of  Grand  ffiver,  and  forms  the  western 
terminns  of  the  Detroit  and  Milwaukee  railroad, 
which  has  here  a  mrat  extensive  depOt  and  a  pier 
3000  feet  long  eiteoding  into  the  lake.  It  has  a 
spadons  and  excellent  harbour,  with  a  depth  of 
&am  30  to  SO  feet.  It  exports  timber,  fish,  leather, 
^psnm,  stucco  lime,  and  flour.  The  erfortt  have 
aEready,  in  some  years,  exceeded  one  million  dollan 
in  value.    Pop.  (IS70)  370a 

GBAND  JUBT  is  the  assembly  of  sood  and 


..Goo'^le 


OKAUD  MASTBB— OEAin)  SIVXB. 


of  oyw  Hid  tmninar  tad  nn«nJ  {mil 
Ikkf^Mid,  tor  tlu  ptapoM  3  mqninng 
into  the  dMTBM  tor  ofinoai,  and  A  ntoning  to  the 
MDrt  their  detfrery  thenom.  The  inilitatint  of  the 
gnod  jnrT  datM  bwk  to  the  Mrliert  period  of 
&igii(h  taatary,  having  been  in  om  aoMW  th« 
SkxoM.  B7ekwotGadnditiganMted,'Bmut 
■raioTM  dvodemia  tluni,  et  unsfMiiu  onm  eii,  at 

quod  ndbiit  vBam  iimoOMMUi  Boonnre,  nea  iBqaMii 
noxjimi  om1m«.'— Wilkiiu,  L«gt*  Ang.  Saai.  117. 
JFrom  thit  eoMtnuiit,  it  kpPMn  th*t  tiie  mnnber 
of  tlie  grand  jwr  mi  onguudlf  twelve ;  bnt  — ' 
kani  &MI1  Bnwton  tliat,  in  the  tune  of  Hcny  E 


twelve  UkrM  «1  legaleM  homma,  to  take  part  with 
them  in  the  inqneet  Towaida  iiix  latter  part  of  the 
raigD  of  Edward  IIL,  in  addition  to  lie  mqoeat  for 
the  hundred,  the  sheriff  wai  reqnired  to  retum  a 
pannel  of  knights  for  tbe  whole  conn^.  Thie  iiU7 
wu  called  le  grmmie  ittqw^  and  made  nu^nirj  for 
the  ootuity,  while  tiie  jni;  for  the  hundred  inquiied 
for  ita  own  district  cad; .  After  the  eateHinhment 
of  the  graunde  imutt,  the  practice  of  nunmoniiig 
a  jmy  of  the  hundred  giwlnally  went  out  of  me ; 
bat  oatil  6  Geo.  IV.  &  HI,  it  waa  deamed  neoMHaT 
tiiat  Kane  Mf  ihe  grand  iury  ihoold  be  ninunoned 
for  evei7  hundred.  In  the  praarait  day,  the  grand 
jury  miut  coniiat  of  not  leae  than  twelve,  or  more 
than  twenl^-thtee  member*.  A  aand  juy  ia  aom- 
moned  for  evety  aaaiie,  and  for  the  quartw  eeroiona 
in  connties  and  bor^u.  It  is  not  neoewarr  that 
grand  juron  ehould  be  freeholder* ;  they  may  be 


vet  it  profidea   an   ad 
mwij  A  the  anbleat  in 


Inveatigating  and  brii 


teasehoTdera  or  ratepayera,  but  often  ue  gentlemen 
of  wealth.  Tlie  qiulifioation  of  grand  jurors  ia 
fixed  by  6  Geo.  IT.  c  60,  and  ia  the  aune  la  that  of 

Ai *,4- : — .     o*-  T»nir  TriT.T     To WU" oounoiHc* 

on  juriee  with 
a  a  member 
»  Brand  jury 
l£)  nand  Ja 
HiddWi,ti 


:tit  itay.  See  JtntY  Tbui.  Town-ODunoiltoi* 
of  a^urgh  are  exempt  from  aerving  on  juriee  within 
the  bnrgb.  An  Iriah  pea^  who  ia  a  member  of 
puliamoDt,  ia  liable  to  awa  or  "" 
aaaiaea.  AJi  alien  cannot  aovi 
nnleaa  ho  hai  been  natnraliaed. 
stand  jnriea  WW*  loinaioned  every  term,  and  awom 
before  the  aenior  judge  of  the  Queeo'a  Beach,  bnt 
thiaiadiaoontinuedunreBaonBpadBloeoationa.  After 
having    the    oath    adminiatered,  and    receiving 


The  doty  of  the  giand  jury 
ia  aimp^  to  inguire  vrftethtt  there  ia  auffiiuent 
prima  /ad»  eTidenoe  to  reqnira  n  tiiaL  For  thia 
purpOBOithey  may  require  Uie  same  avidenoe,  written 
ana  parol,  aa  may  be  neoeaaary  to  aupport  the  in- 
dictment at  tlie  biah  Bnt  in  ^acboe,  having 
aaceitained  that  the  orown  haa  a  anfGcient  prima 
/octe  owe,  Uiey  patum  a  teuo  bill,  the  priaoner"! 
evidence  bein^  twerved  for  the  trial  Witneaeee  an 
■worn  on  their  eiaminatjon  before  the  grand  jury 
by  an  officer  appointed  bv  tbe  ooort  When  the 
jury  have  oome  to  a  conoluaioa,  the  dark  indonea 
on  the  indictment  a  Irue  bUi  ia  case  the  jury,  i— 
a  majority  of  twelve,  are  aatiafied  that  the  caae 
sofficientw  etroug.  In  caae  they  are  not  satisfied, 
the  indic&nent  la  indor«ed  not  a  tnie  hlU.  The 
foKmau,  accompanied  by  one  or  mora  of  the  juron, 
then  carriei  the  indictmeota  into  courti  and  pre- 
aenta  them  to  the  cUdt,  who  itatei  to  the  court  iLe 
nature  of  Uie  eluage  and  tlM  indoraement  of  the 
jury.    A  bill  bavijig  been  thrown  ont  I^  the  n»nd 

Jury,  it  cannot  be  preferred  to  the  aame  grana  lory 
litrinc  the  aame  aasizea  or  aaaaiona.  The  grjoA  Jury 
usnally  aerve  tar  tiie  whole  aeeaion  to  which  tbey 
are  aummoQed ;  but  in  an  emargency,  aa  where  a 
aerioua  orinte  hJN  been  committed  and  the  priaoner 
brought  in  after  the  jmy  haa  been  dtaoharged,  it  ia 


of  offeDoea,  and  aa  no  koget  raqnired, 

addilumal   aafeguard  to   *J** 

Ithaa,  however. 


amagiatrat^  who  haa  like  dntiea 


_„  _.  trial  in  that  l ^ 

proaaentor.  BeeAuTOOAT^ 

GRA9D  UASTEB  (Lat  mo^nui  maa^ar  ;  Ger. 
Bo^tmMa),  the  title  of  the  bead  ef  the  military 
orders  the  Hoapitallari,  the  Tamilian,  and  the 
Tevtcmio  knighta;  •••  theaa  *itide&  The  title 
miginaUy  borne  by  the  npeiiar  of  the  Hoaritallen 
waa  nimly '  maater'  {maAU)  j  but  in  1308  Hu^ 
de  Beral  took  that  by  midi  tbey  an  ainca  kBown 
— grand  maitTT,  titagmn  magiMer.  In  the  Teatonio 
ordttv  the  title  '  maater,'  with  diffennt  modifi* 
waa^pliedtothe  aeveral  •qwrian  of  the 
oonubiM.  ThvM,  tia  ai^erier 
jlad  Tmttdi  mtiilv,  *a«man 

_ .     EMT  of  livcnia  waa  called  .ffetr- 

tneMbr, '  milUaiy  maatar.'.  la  all  theae  oiim  the 
office  of  grand  maater  waa  bald  (or  life.  The 
-- ime  was  alao  uaed  in  the  Dominioan  order. 

OKAND  PE1TSIONABT.  Formarly  the  nndic 
of  each  of  the  impotent  towna  of  Hdland  waa 
termed  a  Penaionary,  and  the  atate-teoretary  for 
the  |90vinoe  id  Holland,  a  Grand  Fenaicmary.  Until 
the  time  of  Olden  Bamanldt  (q.v.),  the  Grand 
Pannoner  waa  alao  advooKta-genual  for  the  aame 
Ho  had  no  Tota  in  the  aaaamUy  of  tiie 
oonld  OD^  Mng  forward  the  aubjeota 
in.  He,  DowOTer,  colleotad  the  vote^ 
decreea,  read  tha  letten  addreeaed  to 
oondnoted  n^otiationa  with  foreisn 
■  and  miniaten,  and  took  charge  ot  ue 
rerennea  tA  the  pnrriDae,of  ita  rigbta  and  privQegeai, 
and  irtiaterver  elea  pertained  to  ita  wdfara.  He  waa 
a  peo'petnal  member  of  the  atatea^fleneral  of  the 
Uttited  Netheriaoda,  and  tbna,  aa  fiat  magistrate 
of  the  first  of  the  United  Pmvinoea,  he  aoqoired 
immenae  infloanoa  over  all  HoIIaiid,  aitd  may  be 
ooniidared  pramier  of  the  Dutch  pariiament.  Hie 
Gnmd  Fonaionaqr  held  hia  offloa  for  five  yean^ 
but  waa  in  moat  caaea  n>eleoted.  Hie  office  wa* 
aboliahed  in  1796.  after  the  ecnqoest  d  Hdllattd  by 
the  French  rerolutioiUBta. 


QEAND     RAPIDS, 

turing  city,  in  Uia  ata£a  of  Michigan,  United  States, 
ia  aituated  in  a  pleaaant  and  healtl^  diatrict  on 
both  banks  of  the  Grand  BJver,  about  33  mile* 
from  Lake  Minhigao,  and  60  miles  oortii-weit  of 
T*n»ing.  The  rivar  ia  here  about  900  feet  wide, 
and  deecenda  18  feet  in  the  couiae  of  one  mile, 
prodnoina  abundant  watei^powu'.  The  G.  K.  ia 
oandatmidy  built,  commanda  a  fine  view,  and  ia  one 
of  the  mMt  important  trading  and  mannfacturing 
dtdea  in  the  state.  The  vidm^  ia  rich  in  aalt  and 
gypaom,  and  in  limettooe,  pine-lnmber,  and  other 
Ending  materiaU.  Pop.  (1870)  18,167.  The  city 
waa  fiiat  settled  in  1833;  and  inooipcrated  in  186a 

GRAKD    RrVBK,  a  river  ol  North  AmenM, 
riaea  and  flows  throoghont  ita  antiie  OOOIM;  within 


tiGuu^jk 


QEAKD  SEBJKANTT-OKAITOFATEEE. 


the  Btata  of  MwtiigM,  and  fiUa  Into  tiie  lake  of 
tlut  muae  at  the  town  of  Qrand  Hares  (q.  r.). 
Xta  Knuce  ia  in  ths  ■ooth-oast  of  the  state,  in  two 
bntnchea  'whidi  imita  near  tba  town  of  Jackaon. 
O.  R.  ia  naTisaUe  for  large  eteamen  to  the  lapida, 

irhioh  are  40  mflea  from  the  month  of  the  i 

and  for  amaller  bosta  for  50  milea  fnrthei 
vrhole  ootu««  ia  370  milea. 

GRAin>  SBnUTEAIITT  (moona  Mrfeaniia,  or 
ma^Tttan  termSim,  peat  aervic^,  WM  tiie  moat 
hoDooraUe  of  the  ancient  fendaltenntta.  Aocoiding 
to  I^ttieton,  tannre  by  grand  ierjoanty  ia  where 
a  man  hoMa  liia  landa  or  teneneDts  of  our  Bovereiga 
lord  tbe  king  by  audi  aerriccfl  u  he  ought  to  do  in 
his  proper  peiaoa  to  the  king,  u  to  cany  the  bomiet' 
of  Uie  King,  ta  his  Unce,  or  to  lead  hia  army,  or  to 
ke  his  msnhal,  or  to  cany  hi*  aword  before  him 
kt  his  coronation,  or  bit  oarrer,  or  hia  bntler,  or  to 
be  one  of  hia  chamberlaiaa  of  the  receipt  of  Ua 
exchequer,  or  to  do  other  like  aerricea.  'nij  tenure 
most  liaT«  tmmi  hold  Ol  the  king.  Where  landa 
were  held  id  a  cobject,  on  amdition  of  perfotmanoa 
of  aervioea  idantiial  with  thow  Thioh  were  rendered 


helcf  of  Uke  kii^  by  comage— i  e.,  oi 
windiiw  a  hom  to  giTe  notice  when 


giTo  n 

but  land*  held  of  a  aabject  for 
vere  held  in  kni^f  a  aerrioe.  Tenants  holdiag 
by  gnnd  aerjeant?  were  free  from  eaonaoe,  whioh 
nauaUyappeitunedto  koight'a  aerrioe,  andLi  genenl 
could  only  be  called  apoa  to  perform  theiz  aervicaa 
infra  quaiuor  laaria,  within  the  kingdom.  The 
aervicea  in  grMid  aerjeMity  were  to  be  performed 
by  the  tenant  in  penon,  where  he  was  able  to  do 
BO.  Ilie  office  of  attendance  on  the  aovereign'a 
peraon  waa  esteemed  ao  honourable,  that  no  one 
below  the  dignity  of  a  knight  could  perfona  it. 
Hence,  where  Unda  held  by  grand  acrjeant;  were 
in  the  poeaeamon  of  a  dtizen,  ne  waa  permitted  to 
perform  his  aervioe  W  depirty.  Thia  tenure  by 
grand  aerjeaoty  waa  by  12  Charies  IL  c  24,  in 
conuBOn  with  other  nulitaiy  tenures,  rednced  to 
common  Socs^  (q.  t.I,  except  ao  far  aa  regards  the 
honorary  temcea,  which  continue  to  be  observed 
to  thia  day.  Thus,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  holds 
ot  the  crown  hia  estate  of  Strathfields^  on  con- 
diHon  of  presenting  to  the  sorereign  a  flag  bearing 
the  natioud  colonia  on  eadi  ancoe«liiig  anniTersaiv 
of  &e  battle  of  Waterioo.  The  manor  of  Wood- 
■tock,  wi&  the  demaane,  in  which  ia  mtnated  Ken- 
heim  Park,  ia  held  by  the  Dnke  of  Mariborough 
by  ramd  aerjeanty,  on  condition  of  presenting  to 
the  Queen  and  her  heirs,  at  the  castle  of  Wincbor, 
a  itandard  of  France,  on  the  13th  Angoat  yearly, 
being  the  anniTeraary  of  the  day  on  which  the 
battte  of  Eochstet  waa  fonght,  near  the  Tillage 
of  Bleitheim,  on  the  banka  of  the  Dannbe.  The 
tenuie  of  gtand  amjeonty  waa  obaerred  thron^ont 
the  oontmeDt  of  Europe.     '  Tlie  freeboiu  Franks,' 


aaya  Mr  Hallam,  Mid  Age$, '  law  nothing 

the  titles  of  cimbeBier,  steward,  inantuu,  or  mascer 

of  the  hone,  irtdoh  are  still  boms  by  the  noblMt 


f  amiliee  in  erery  ocumtry  in  Eoropi^  and  by 
Ttiga  prinoea  in  the  en^re.  ^is  Coant  of  Ai^oo, 
under  Louis  TL,  daimed  ttte  ottce  of  great  senea- 
chal  ot  France— 4.  e>,  to  carry  dithes  to  the  king'a 
table  on  state^daya.  Thua,  the  feudal  uotiona  of 
grand  ieijeasty  {repared  the  way  for  the  restoration 
ot  royal  mpiEmacy,  aa  the  mihtary  tennrea  had 
impaiiedib' 

In  Scotland,  grand  aerjeanty  was  not  known  aa 
a  Kpuate  tenore— that  ia  to  say,  lands  held  on 
coDiUtion  of  honorary  aervices  rendered  to  the 
WTeceign  were  not  attanded  with  any  priTileges 


.  ffnmdtt),  the  name  by 
y  priTileeed  olaaa  of  the 
of^Castib  has  been  known 


other  tluuitiioae  attaching  to  Unda  held  In  aaWEIir 
nuumcT  of  a  aabjeet  anpeiior.  In  that  aonntry,  a 
tmniQ  by  bonoiary  temeewas  known  aa  a  BuiraH 

ORASDEB'B 
whioh  the  moat 
nobility  _of  tiie  kingdom 
aince  the  13th  century.  To  thia 
whole  of  that  Tery  powerful  portion  of  the  nobility 
who,  from  their  wealth,  were  called  the  Rieo* 
Sombrtt  by  pre-eminence;  and  to  whom,  more- 
orer,  the  crown  had  Kraoted  the  right  of  bearing 
a  banner,  and  ot  gathering  mercanariea  around  it 
OD  their  own  aocount.  T^  membera  of  the  royal 
family  were  not  inoloded  amongat  the  grandees. 
The  hououis  of  the  grandees  were  haredita^  i  tbey 
held  landa  from  the  crown  on  Uie  teunie  d!  military 
aerrice,  being  bonnd  to  {ovdoee  a  certain  nnmber  M 
lanoea,  each  lanoe  being  represented  hy  a  knight 
with  fonr  or  fiTS  men-at-arms.  The  grandees  were 
exempted  from  taxation,  and  oould  not  be  aom- 
moned  before  any  oivil  or  criminal  Judge  withoat 
a  apecial  warrant  from  the  king.  They  were  enti-Ued 
to  leave  the  kingdom,  and  even  to  enter  the  aervioe 
of  a  foreim  prmce  at  war  with  Castile  without 
incurring  the  penaltiea  of  treason.  Besidea  thne 
privileees,  which  were  common  to  them  with  the 
rest  of  the  higher  nobility,  the  grandees  poatesaed 
aevaral  which  were  peculiaz  to  themselves,  or  whioh 
they  shared  only  with  the  oo-oalled  '  Titnladoa ' — 
the  counts  and  dukes.  Of  these  mnat  eapeeially  be 
mantiooed  the  ri^t  in  all  public  transactions  of 
being  covered  in  the  preeenoe  of  the  king.  The 
Idng  addreaaed  a  grandee  aa  ml  primo,  'my  condn- 
garman ; '  whereaa  any  other  member  of  the  hjgho' 
nobility  he  called  only  mi  pariatU,  'my  relative.* 
In  the  national  aaaembliea,  the  grandees  aat  imme- 
diately after  the  prelates  and  before  the  titled 
nobitttv  (tituladoa).  They  had  free  entfanoe  into 
the  pSilaoe,  and  into  ths  ^vate  ohambett  of  the 
monaroh;  and  on  the  occasion  of  religions  aohmmtiea, 
they  had  their  place  in  the  chapel  ro^  next  to  the 
altar.  Their  wivea  shored  their  dignittea,  the  qneea 
riling  from  bsr  teat  to  greet  them.  Under  FMdi- 
nand  Mid  faabiJIai  Catduial  Trir^*Tiftt  snooseded  in 
breakiiig  the  power  ol  the  feudal  noluli^  so  oom- 
tdetely,  that  t?  the  end  of  tlie  IDth  &  the  piivilegis 
batik  of  the  graudesa  and  of  the  rest  of  the  hi^fer 
nobility  were  almost  irtiolly  aboliahed.  Fndi- 
nand'a  auooceaor,  Charles  V.,  who  conaidend  it  stiU 
neoeaaary  to  bind  to  hia  party  aome  of  the  noldes, 
and  to  reward  others  for  the  important  aervices 
which  they  had  rendered  him,  contrived  oat  of  an 
independent  feudal  nolnlity  to  oonstroct  a  depen- 
dent court  nobility.  Gradaally  three  Blaaica  of 
rudeee  arose  out  ot  this  merely  nominal  nobility. 
WBB  the  privilege  of  the  finrt  claaa  to  be  com- 
manded by  the  monaroh  to  be  eonred  bdore  thqr 
^-^  bcffnn  to  addrpsa  himi  the  aeoond  olsM 
[ved  this  commuid  as  soon  as  they  had  finished 
their  address,  and  heard  the  kiiu>  wflj  with 
covered  head ;  but  to  the  thira  dMS  it  was 
addressed  (ujy  after  Oi0j  had  already  liitaoed 
nwwvsmd  to  the  royal  raply.    AH  grandees  had  Iha 

u*i H ._j  j„ta^  .^Mre  bound  to 

_„   the  revdntiou  and  un , 

government  of  Joseidi  Bonaparte,  the  i1lgni^3j«  uid 


privileges  of  the  graudeaa  were  entirely  abolished; 
but  they  were  partially  restored  at  the  aubsonuent 
reatontun,  thoogh  no  vary  Impoiiaut  ^vilagea 
were  bestowed  on  them.  By  the  constitution  of 
1S34,  the  first  place  in  the  chamber  of  peers  ia 
aaai^ied  to  the  giandees. 

QRA'NDFATHEB.      A  mndtather  is  not 
ible  at   oommon   law  in   En^and   to  maintHn 


t.GuLil^le 


OEASBTnXE—OEAinTE. 


pandohildran  1  bat  it  they  *re  destitnte,  and  are 
relieved  b;  the  pvilb,  the  paiuh  may,  under  the 
■tatuta  43  Wix.  e.  2,  call  nvwx  him,  if  able,  to  con- 
tribute to  their  npiiort.  &  Scotland,  the  liability 
eziite  at  comisoa  law,  and  ii  soforoeable  witiiout 
the  aid  of  a  statute  if  the  father,  trbo  a  primarilr 
liable,  is  unable  to  maintain  the  children. 

OBAXDTILLB,  Jus  Iqhaok  Ihidou  0£kasi>, 
a  French  artist  and  cohcatorist,  wui  bom  at 
Nancy,  3d  September  1S03.  In  the  year  1828,  he 
published  the  first  of  a  aeries  of  humoroos  sketchea, 
entitled  La  Mttamorphoaa  da  Jour,  which  were 
hi^y  thought  of ;  and  soon  afterwards  another 
■enea,  entitled  La  Animmix  Pariantt.  After  the 
July  revelation,  G.,  with  Decamps  and  Daumier, 


perfect  coUeotionB  of  which  are  ni 


ins   s^rit   of   the   '  Caricatures,' 

.    lofwhicharenowin^eat  reqnest 

Hi*  Oottvoi  de  ia  lAberti,  hia  Satte  Cour,  Jfoi  de 
Ooeagne,  Ac,  as  [notarea  of  the  politics  amd  man- 
nera  of  the  timea,  are  of  great  and  lasting  value. 
When  the  law  of  September  put  an  end  to  political 
caricature,  O.  used  hia  penoil  to  satirise  the  less 
impM'tant  fdlies  and  vices  of  mankind.  He 
aUo  contributed  illnstrationB  to  new  and  nilendld 
editjons  of  the  FiMa  of  Lafontaine  and  Flonan,  the 
A  dventura  iff  Babhuoa  Cnuoe,  OvUiva'i  Travtii, 
Abel  Hugo's  Vie  de  Ifapoleon,  Sayband'a  Jir(yme 
Polurot,  sc  O.  ia  remarkable  for  depth  and  deli- 
cacy of  observation  and  criticism,  for  his  ingenious 
turn  of  thought,  and  aoourai^  in  portraiture. 
Hit  drawing  ia  correct,  hi*  anaton^  accurate,  his 
foreahortemng  careful^  studied;  the  whole  is 
occasionally  hard  and  cold,  tlie  idea  cranplicated,  but 
always  umted  with  rare  delioacy  of  aUusion  and 
affluence  of  symbolical  detaila.  O.  died  at  Paris, 
17th  March  1S4T. 

GRANE,  GRAIT,  or  QUADE,  a  town  and 
•eapoit  of  Arabia,  is  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  bmds 
name  at  tiie  nortli-weBteiii  extremity  of  the  Qnlf  ot 
Penda,  in  lat.  39°  SS'  If .,  long,  about  48'  E.  Ita 
trade  ia  of  some  importance.  Pop.  eatimated  at 
about  8000. 
ORANI'CUa,  the 


now  known  aa  the  Kodiho-su.  The  G.  is  cele- 
brated aa  the  acene  of  the  first  victory  goiaed  by 
Alexander  the  Great  over  the  Peraiana  after  he 
crossed  the  Hellespont,  334  B.a 

QRAIIITB,  a  well  known  igneous  rock,  composed 
of  the  three  minerals,  qowta,  felspar,  and  mica, 
united  in  a  oonfiued  crysUUisation ;  that  is,  without 
a  regular  anangement  of  the  crystals.  The  felspar 
ia  1&  neat  abondant  ingredient,  and  the  proportion 
of  qnarti  is  greater  than  that  of  mic^  'Die  name 
has  been  given  to  it  on  account  of  ita  gnumlar 


_.  _ . .  strata  or  deep  k«s.  On 
thia  aooount  the  graiutio  rooks  have  been  called 
'  Plutonio  rooks ; '  and  L^ell  has  applied  to  them  the 
term  '  hypogene,'  from  vpo,  under,  and  ginomai,  to 
be  bom.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  all  aranitio 
rocks  were  formed  before  the  deposition  of  any  erf 
the  sedinientary  strata,  and  hence  they  were  named 
'  Primitive  roeks.'  But  it  having  been  found  that 
granito  is  asaociated  with  fonnationa  of  Torions 
i^ca,  and  that  even  since  the  bennning;  of  the  Ter- 
tiary epoch  ita  intnudon  among  ue  Eocene  stt&ta  of 
Central  Europe  has  raised  the  Alps  more  than  10,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  aeo,  this  name  has  been 
entirely  dropped.  Although  granite  is  not  absent 
from  the  Secondary  and  l&tiary  atrata,  it  ia  more 
frequently  asaodated  with  the  P^»ozoic  fonnationa ; 
indeed,  it  appe«r«  to  be  tha  fnodanental  rock  of  the 
earth's  cniat  Wherever  we  reach  the  base  ot  the 
stratified  rocks,  we  lind  them  resting  upon  gnuiite ; 
and  whatever  the  age  of  the  strata  t£na  lying  on 
this  igneoua  rock,  wa  have  no  reason  to  auppoae 
that  below  the  granite  thme  ooour  bed*  of  older 
dato ;  for,  although  granite  penetrates  tlie  itt*ti6ed 
rocks,  it  baa  not  been.  noti(^  to  spread  over  them 
like  graenstone,  ao  that  wherever  it  pressnta  itself 
ia  a  large  mass,  it  is  believed  that  no  other  rock  ia 
beneath  it.  Some  granites,  however,  occur  inter- 
stratified  with  undoubted  sedimentary  rock^  and  it 
is  orgned  that,  as  the  tnoaition  ircaa  these  aedi- 


Granite  differs  from  greenatone  and  the  later 
igneoQS  rocks,  in  the  large  quantity  of  quarts  that 
•nteis  into  its  composition.  In  the  tnppeau  and 
other  igneous  rooks,  the  silio*  or  silioio  acid  is  only 
sufficient  for  nnion  with  tbe  basea  to  form  felspar 
and  hornblende,  the  eonatitueuts  of  these  rocki, 
none  ranoined  free  to  raystallise  aa  pnre  quartl ; 
while  in  granite,  so  great  is  the  excess  of  ailex, 
that  in  ita  pore  state,  as  quartz,  it  forms  a  oonsidar- 
aUe  bulk  m  the  rook.  Gnuiita  ia  always  a  oompaot 
rook,  it  nsrarpaaaa  Into  or  altsmatea  with  toflb 
CT  hmooia&  'nds  peooliari^,  asurnatttd  wiHi  tiie 
crystalline  alruclure  of  the  rock,  and  the  absence  ot 
prodnced  in  trappeao 
of  the  oon- 
:  granito  has 
1  the  earth, 


itage  of  these 
of 


itory  rooks  to  the  crjatalline  granito 
ed  by  gradual  stages  throagh  '  ~  ' 
„  ias,  the  granito  is  only  the  aai 
metamorphio  chanjies.  Many  of 
"  'Jjind  are  accordingly  believed  to  be  oMer  pal«o- 
sedimenta  greatly  utered.  It  is  not  maintained 
tiiat  all  gnnitea  have  such  an  ori^;  but  no  litho- 
logical  ^aractec  has  yet  been  oliaerved  whereby 
tha  igneom  granite  can  be  diatinguishad  from  that 
prodiwed  by  netomorphic  action. 

iMtga  extent*  of  the  earth's  sortace  kb  oovered 
with  granite*  i  oecadonally,  it  is  the  auperficial  rock  in 
flat  undulating  plains,  but  it  most  treqaent^  makea 
it*  appearance  m  monntaunoas  regions.  It  seems 
[mibable  tiiat  sometimes  igneoua  granito  has  been 
raised  from  below  aa  a  solid  indurated  rock;  it 
has,  however,  generally  been  in  a  fluid  oondition, 
aa  is  evidenced  by  the  number  of  veins  which  ar« 
protruded  from  it  into  the  adjacent  rocks. 

The  vaiietjes  ot  granite  depend  npon  the  numbor 
and  quantity  ol  it*  mincovl  conititoent^  and  nptn 
the  state  of  ajjgregation  of  these  matenala.  Oidi- 
nary  gianito  ■*  eomposed  of  telipar,  mica,  and 
quute.  de  fdspar  m^  be  eitW  the  flesb- 
coloured  potash  varie^,  orthodaae,  or  the  pure 
white  soda  variety,  olblte,  or  both  potash  and  soda 
may  enter  into  ita  oomposition.  The  mica  varies  in 
colour  from  "  ~ "' '"''"  ""  — 

white,  seldom  dark-gray  or  brown.  The  predc 
inanoe  of  one  or  other  of  the  in^vdiente,  or  ot  a 
particular  variety,  gives  tie  peculiar  colour  to  the 
maai,  which  is  generally  either  red,  gray,  or  white. 
Tba  red  i*  produoed  from  the  predomjc 
<»thocla*a;  the  white,  of  olbito;  aid  the  inb 
aatj  fma  the  mica,  or  sometinies  from  the  quarts 
Tiui  felspar  forms  oenerally  a  bal^  and  sometime* 
even  more  of  tha  balk  of  tlie  rock ;  the  mica  in  me 
Tariety,  and  the  quartz  in  another,  are  so  minute 
a*  to  be  aeaicely  visible.  Sconetime*  the  felspar 
separates  into  large  and  distinct  crystals  forming  a 
. — -^■.  ._ .   ...^    The  substitution  of  homblends 

that  variety  called  Syenite  (q.  v.) ; 

the  plaoe  of  the  mic^  tiie  to^ 
ia  called  Protigine  (q.  v.).  When  tha  ingrediento 
exist  in  a  compact  and  finely  gn&nlar  condition,  the 
Ecnnponiid  is  known  aaEtnite.  Sometime*,  espewlly 


hyGoo'^le 


OBAirr-GRABB. 


,  felapw  ) 
>  pmduM  . 


r  mi  dark  qurtt   ue  amikged 
.   i>duo«  an  impetivet  lMnin«f  rt 
wMch,  whea  bndun  it  right  •nglei  to  tha 


bridcea  and  auuuwring-woifc^  and  a^  in  pnbUo 
buil£ii^  and  dwaUinga.  The  difficult  of  troik.- 
inf  it  makea  it  azpenaiTe,  but  tliia  u  conntar- 
KJ.w^juMJ   ijy  itg   neirt  durability. 


Ii  ^nnted  cluaeb.    Hm  m 


^  ja  with  vhich  the 

Egypbana  operated  TjpoB  thit  nbtxitorj  atoita  ia 
very  exttaordmuy.  They  woAed  and  poliahed  it 
in  a  -way  which  v«  cannot  excel,  if,  indeed,  we 
can  coma  )q>  to  it,  with  all  the  applianoea  of  modeni 
~~~ — ;  and  not  otmtrat  with  poliahing,  they 
the  moat  dedicate 


covei«d  soma  of  Uw  bloc^  wiUi  the  i: 
and  ahaiply  oat  hieroglyphica  I 
The  gianibea  beat  known  for  oi 


coloored  Peterhead  granite. 

Tarie^,  ham* i!->--i  -. 

have  been  c( 


Ipnrpoeea 
le  reddith 


enta.  The  grnat 
hardneaa  <rf  Uia  rock,  and  ita  reairtance  to  Ktmoa- 
nhetio  Inflwenwia,  prcrent  a  toil  of  any  thictaieM 
being  formed ;  aQcfeven  where  it  eziata,  at  leait  in 
our  temperate  r^iooi,  it  ia  generally  ao  hi^  and 
expoaed,  that  it  i*  miiavoaiable  to  Tegetabon;  in 
-warmer  climitna,  nush   aoila  are  freq^ilfy  very 

GRANT,  in  Engliah  bw,  the  oouveyanoe  of  real 

piOf-^'^-    '      '       '^-.-     -      ..       .  — - 


d  to  the  conveyanoa 
menta  and  eatatea  in  revei 
maiim  that  incorporeal  propertr  lay  in  grant,  and 
corporeal  propOTty  in  livery,  it  being  impoosible  to 
give  actual  aamne  of  that  which  bai  no  tangible 
existence,  or  waa  not  in  the  poaeeaioD  of  tile  granter. 
In  order  to  complete  the  conveyance  of  s  revenioil 
or  remainder  by  gnmt,  it  woa  necfwefiry  that  the 
tenant  of  the  partjcnlar  eitate  ahoold  acknowledge 
the  giantee  by  attommeot.  The  neoeaeity  for  attorn- 
ment was  aboliabed  4  and  6  Anne,  a  16,  >.  9.  By 
8  and  9  'VloL  c.  106,  it  ia  enacted  that  eatatea, 
corporeal  aa  wdl  aa  incorporeal,  may  be  oonv^ed  by 

0RA7TTBAU,  a  municipal  and  ^ariiamentsry 
boron^aodmaricet-townof  England,  in  the  ooiinty 
of  Lincoln,  ia  litiiated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Witbam,  ^  nules  Boath-soatb-west  of  the  city  of 
IJneoln,  and  abont  110  milea  north-north-weat  of 
London.     Q.  haa  a  &ee  grammar-aohool,  with 


of  i 


The 


.  it^  itroDg  mawMr  to  a^nit  of 
ita  being  monnied  with  oaonon,  aikl  the  old  pariah 
c^nroh  oi  gray  gtamta,  bnilt  in  llu  ftunboyant 
■tyle,  being  almoat  tb«  only  notewoolhy  faatnrak 
Ita  harboiir,  th«idi  weU-iheltered  and  e^aUe  of 
accommodating  9u  abipa,  i«  alwa^  dry  at  low 
water.  The  principal  trade  of  Q.  it  in  tlw  whale, 
ood,  and  oyetei' fiiheriea.    Fop.  [1872]  14,747. 

GBAPB-SHOT,  called  alao  Her-Ait,  eotuitt  <rf 
bnlleta  oi  snail  iron  balls  piled  round  an  iron  pin, 
HijiliTig  together  a  leriea  of  parallel  iron  plates  (each 
the  ilijTfmtf  of  the  cannon  naad),  between  which 
are  the  ahot,  kmt  in  their  placet  by  bolea  in  the 
platea.      Small   Sl-inc^   or  4-incb   ther  '  ~ 

—"^-J  together  b'~ '-  "-—  •- 

'  "^  ' 

In  either  oaae,  tha  exidadan  of  the  charge  bvittt 
•amider  tiie  binding,  mA  the  that  (ot  ahdlt)  b^n 
t«  aoatter  dimotly  on  leaving  the  mncde  of  tn* 
pieccb  6n^  are  very  fonmdaUa  oMintt  dtoae 
I  ol  tmopt;  bu^  of  ooune,  cur  at  oom- 
V  thrat  ranges.  The  ihot  empbysd  difligr 
t  from  6  OE.  to  4  Iba.,  acooMing  to  the 


loritb  ohnrch,  a  beantifnl  stmctnre  of  the  13tJi 
baa  a  fine  qnre  273  feet  high.  Here  Newton  was 
inatracted  In  daotics  before  entering  Cambridge. 
A  ami  30  mileB  long  oonnecta  thii  town  with  the 
river  Ttent.  The  trade  ia  chiefly  in  malt,  corn, 
and  coal  Q.  retnmi  two  memben  to  the  imperial 
parhameat.  Pop^  in  ISfl,  of  pariiamentaiy  borongh, 
1^250. 

GBANVIiA'TIONS,  the  materiala  of  asw 
texture  aa  first  fmned  in  a  wound  or  on  an 
nlcemted  torface.  See  iKir.uau.'noii,  Cioatsisa- 
noH,  WooxiM,  VlCtR. 

OBANVlIiLE,  a  fortified  town  and  teaport  of 
France,  in  the  deparbnent  of  La  M»in'hn,  ig  aittiated 
on  a  prommtory  snrmonnted  by  a  fott,  23  milea 
"      It  Of  St  Halo.    It  ia  ft  bwlly  bnilt,  dir^, 


■tinj  town;   the  extmuire  i 


GBAPE-SUGAB.    See  aco.ut. 

OBA'PHITK    See  BulOX  Lus. 

GKATPLING-IKON,  or  GRAFNEL,  a  aort  of 
tmall  ancboT,  having  teveral  pointed  dawt,  oted 
generally  in  making  fast  boata  and  other  tmall 
vetaelt.  A  timilar  uttrument  of  more  fMViidabIa 
dimentiont  ia  emjdoved  during  action  for  gnqtpHng 
the  rignng  and  yanla  of  a  boitile  abip  ^«paratory 
to  bowding; 


GKATTOLtTES,  a  gFonp  of  fomil  aoorJ^tea, 
apparently  nearly  njjrted  to  the  recent  Sertolaria. 
Tbef  had  aimple  or  brandied  polypidoma,  formed  of 


a  homy  mbtunce.  The  edit  in  which  the  ;«lype 
lived  wen  amnged  in  a  «n^  teriea  on  one  tide  of 
the  nchit,  <r  in  a  double  aeries  on  both  aidea ;  the 
tscbii  WM  gmerally  prolonged  beyond  tba  oella  at 

the  growing  end  of  the  polypidom.  Egg  oapanlet 
have  been  obaerred  attached  to  the  polypidom, 
exhibiting  a  method  of  reprodoctioD  similBr  to  that 
in  the  bj^roid  zoophytee.  The  gsnerio  division  <^ 
the  graptolitee  haa  been  baaed  on  the  arrangement 
of  tbeceUt. 

Nearly  eiAb^  speciee  of  graptolitea  have  been 
deecribed.  Obey  are  confined  to  the  Silurian  stoata, 
ud  are  moat  abundant  in  the  hard  ala^  ahalc^ 
which  were  the  fine  mud  of  the  Silurian  seat. 

OBA'SIiITZ,  a  tmall  town  of  Bohemia,  is  titu- 
atcd  cm  the  border  of  Saxony,  2D  miles  north-north- 
eaet  of  the  town  of  EU^.  It  has  manufaotores 
of  ootton  goods,  paper,  Moking-gLisBeB,  musical  and 

(1869)6649. 

ORA'SHBRB,  the  name  of  a  village  and  lake 
in  Westmoreland,  abont  three  milea  north-weat  of 
Ambleside.  The  viUagst  which  ia  beantifolly  sitiiated 
at  tbe  head  of  the  l^e,  haa  an  ancient  dmrch, 
containing  Wordsworth's  grave,  which  is  marked 
by  a  plain  and  modestly-bahionad  slab.  The  lake 
is  upwaids  of  a  mile  hmg,  and  about  half  a 
mile  broad,  it  oval  in  form,  and  encloBes  a  small 
island.  It  is  girdled  abont  by  hi^  mountains, 
and  forms  one  of  the  most  lieautuiil  scenes  in 
EngWd.    Pop.  (1871)  806. 

GRASS  (in  I^w).     The  rraat  growing  on  land 
belonge  to  the  person  entitted  to  the  soil, 
his  dnith  goes  to  tiie  heir,  and  not  ' 
Tha  period  of  «aby 


Pop. 


hyCoogle 


OBASS  CLOTH— GKISSES. 


,  Where  tlu  oattla  of 
pnti  into  the  fialda  of  »  tenant  in  SooUuid  to  graie, 
the  landlord  cumot  eequMtrate  the  cattle  foe  hw 
rant;  whereaa,  in  TiinglMiii,  he  nii^  diftrain  the 
cattle,  end  pay  hinmll  the  isnt. 

OBASB  OLOTH,  a  nuna  often,  althoiuh 
(noji«nul;ri  ^^^^  to  certain  beaoMM  Eabiua 
mannfaetimd  m  the  Btrt  frtun  diSicent  kind*  of 
fibrae,  none  <ri  «iiieh  an  prodvoed  by  gra«M.  One 
of  theee  fabrica  ia  made  from  the&bmtrf  BahtMria 
nhea,  popularly  called  CSiina-snai;  another,  dao 
known  aa  Pitta  Ifialin,  Izom  the  Ebn  oi  Bnmdia 
PifftM.  See  SaxMKBiA  and  Bxomuxuxx. — The 
kindi  of  cloth  raally  made  from  the  fibre  of  graaaaa 
are  extremaly  ooareft 

aiLASS  OF  FABKA'aanS  iParnoMUi,  a  g«nna 
of  planti,  pen«ral^  ngaidad  aa  beloDSDg  to  the 
natural  or&r  Dmisraetx,  bnl  ntrnitdltv  Lindlc; 
to  BfpaicatoB.  The  cafyx  la  daap^  S-oIefl,  tben 
an  6  petals  B  atemena,  and  5  toum  fringed  with 
^bnlar-headad  thmda  altetsata  with  the  atameni. 
lAieh  are  repuded  I^  liudlqr  aa  bntidla*  of  altered 
■taiiMiu ;  thin  am  four  atiginaa,  and  tha  fruit  ia 


i;eDtia  OMukta  of  _  ..  ,        . 

with  flowBta  ot  oonaidetaUa  bewity,  growing  in  wet 

itheoold«riioithemputaof  thowmid. 

m  are  found  within  the  arctio  dnile,  and 
r.line  id  tiia  A^  Himalara,  aod  other 

„__    the  ODOunon  OtMB  of  PamaHiu  {P. 

pahutri*)  ii  an  onument  ot  boga  and  wet  nlacea 
m  Britain  and  other  parta  of  Europe,  with  heart- 
■haped  leaTea,  mostly  ndioal  and  on  long  foot- 
(bJju^  and  one  aimitii  leaf  <mi  the  atom,  which  ia 
about  cdght  or  ten  inohet  hiiA,  and  bean  a  aolita^ 
yellowi^-whitc  flower.  It  fioware  in  autmnc  It 
IB  called  Agnntit  M  to  FamoMo  by  DioaeorideB, 
whence  iti  modem  name. 

GRASS  OIL,  ft  fragrant  volatile  oil  obtained 
from  the  leavea  and  atenu  ot  certain  graisea  of  tlie 
genua  Andropogon  (aee  Lkuok  OiOBa},  oativea  of 
Wia.  The  kind  known  aa  Orau-ml  t^NmucUT  is 
produced  at  the  foot  irf  the  Vindhys  Hilla,  and  ' 


to  flower,  ia  bound  in  tmall  bundlea,  which 
tiirown  into  a  boiler  wilii  water,  and  the  oil,  as  ii 
diatila  over,  ia  teoeiTed  in  cold  water,  from  which 
it  ia  afterward*  akinuned.  It  ia  of  a  ll^t  Btniw 
oolonr,  hai  a  peculiar  rich  agreeable  odoni,  and  is 
rerr  pungent  and  stimulating.  It  ia  employed  in 
meaiain&  aa  a  stimulant  and  diaphoretiai  nut  more 
faequentfyaaft  liniment  in  chronieritenmattam.  Its 
chief  oae,  however,  ia  in  perfumery.  Itiasometimea 
oalled  0HVW4KMt  Oil^  but  ia  oommonly  aaQed  OH 
of  Ommitm  hw  perfnmen,  aod  by  druggicta  Oi{ 
(/  jbOENanl— Similar  to  thia,  but  diSemt,  and 
obtained  from  otb«  ■[lecin  of  the  aame  genua,  i* 
Uia  <h1  known  aa  Oil  ofLemon  Graa  (q.  v.). 

ORASS  TBBB  {SaittJtoniiaa),  a  genua  of  planta 
of  the  natural  order  IMiaaat,  native!  of  Austmlia, 
and  oonatjtating  a  veir  peculiar  feature  in  the  v^e- 
tation  of  that  put  al  t£e  world.  They  have  shrab^ 
sterna,  with  trati  of  long  wiry  foliage  at  the  aummit 
Bomewhat  reaembling  imall  palms ;  a  long  cylindrical 
B^ke  of  denady  aggregated  flowera  uuJotinc  up 
IromttieoMitiaofthetaAoCleaTM.    l>ebaae^the 


pattindariy 


of  aome  apedea  i 
wban  roartad,  an 


agree«Ue  aztiela 


food.  It  haa  ft  balaamia  taate ;  and  bQ  the  apeciea 
abound  in  a  rcainona  juioei  which,  on  erpoBuie  to  the 
air,  hardens  into  a  reddiah  yellow  inodoroua  sub- 
•buKe  with  a  diining  fraotnra,  aolnble  in  alcohol. 


M  Tree  (XanMomhsB  liatUU*). 


and  BB  a  cement  for  various  purposee.  The  a 
eran  tree  {X.  hastUU)  has  a  stem  about  four  feet 
high,  but  Bometimea  a  foot  in  diameter.  It  is  of 
very  alow  growUi,  and  is  suppoeed  to  be  many 
centuries  old  when  it  has  reached  sodndinentiona.^ 
Several  spedee  are  found  in  Eastern  Aturinlia, 
irtiera  their  leaves  sn  used  aa  fbdder  for  all  kinds 
□f  cattle. 

GBASSE,  a  tuanofaeturing  town  ot  France,  ii 
the  denortmeat  ot  Alpea-Mantimea,  is  situated  ii 
the  midst  ot  flowei^gardens,  on  the  southern  slope 
of  a  ^ni,  23  miles  east-north-east  of  Draguiraan, 
file  sbeeta  are  steep,  narrow,  and  crooked,  but 
the  housea  are  well  b^&  The  princip^  boildinmi 
ara  the  college,  hospital,  and  ecclesiaatieal  achooL 
G.  ia  second  only  to  Paris  in  its  manafactnres  ot 
essencea  and  perfumea,  made  bom  the  roeea,  orao^ 
flowers,  heliotropes,  mint,  Ac,  which,  from  1 
mildneas  ot  the  climate,  are  moot  succeesfully  grown 
in  the  viciiiity.  It  has  also  manufacturea  of  wooUea 
gooda,  Boap,  leather,  and  olive  oil;  several  silk- 
sirinniDg  uctories  and  tanneries ;  and  a  consider- 
able  trade  in  oranges,  citrons,  wax,  and  honey. 
Pop.  (1872)  12,660. 

OBABSBS  {Oraminea  or  OramuuKta),  a  natural 
order  of  endogenous  plants,  oontaioing  ilmost  4000 
known  speciea,  about  one-twentieth  of  all  known 
phanerogamous  plant* ;  whilst  the  tocial  habit  of 
many  oE  them,  and  the  vast  number  of  individual 
plants  within  even  ft  limited  tract,  pve  them  a  still 
greater  proportion  to  the  whale  pbanen^amoai 
vegetatitni  ot  the  earth.  They  are  djjstribii(«d  over 
all  parta  of  the  world ;  tome  are  characteiiitia  of 
the  wannest  tro)nciJ  regions,  and  some  of 
vicinity  of  perpetual  anow  ;  but  they  abound  it 
of  all,  and  pwticniariy  in  their  smoal  character, 
□lotiiing  the  ground  with  verdure,  and  farming  the 
chief  vegetation  of  meadows  and  pastures,  in  tbe 
norDutn  teniptt«te  soue.  Hero  is  no  kind  of  soil 
whieh  ia  not  Boitable  to  Boma  <»' other  (rf  the  graaacB ; 
and  whilst  some  are  peculiar  to  diy  and  sterilt 
aoila,  Mitn  are  only  found  on   nob  aoila  witik 


tyCOO^It' 


sbnndaat  moirtore ;  Mou  grow  to  iiuitahM,  ttogtuutt 
mtcis,  ot  ilow  itrwmi,  toma  only  on  th«  t««H^Mt ; 
none  mn  truly  mMioK  Soma  gnwM  an  Mintul, 
uid  will*  perannial ;  tkqr  hftve  flbtcui  tdoti ;  tha 
iw>t-«t(M^  oftMi  titfon  oat  rtuauat;  tin  atenu 
(mAm)  >n  nrand,  Jaintnl,  SBnarmllr  Ixjlow,  except 
ii  tbe  joints,  nndj  filled  wnh  pith,  genamllj  »nnn»l| 
and  of  him^ls  growth,  bat  nmetiiiui  ptrenni^  miH 
woodj,  miMliiiiillj — ■■  In  bamboot — Ktttining  th» 
hauht  aid  munitada  of  toeaa.  Tha  WTaa  ara  Img 
BB<r  narrow,  aUamata,  aikd  at  tha  baas  ahaatii  tha 
oahn  [  tba  ^laatlt  ia  aptit  on  tha  nda  mioaite  to 
that  from  iriudi  tha  blade  ^rinsa;  and  at  tha 
JDDotion  <d  tiia  blada  and  aheMi,  utete  ia  otta  a 
abort  Trtflffl^rafHwif  pr'A^aif***"*!  of 
tha ahaath, MDad tha l^wCi.  Tbal 
raUy  han^loodita,  bat  aomatiinee  aniaanal,  and 
iBDta  ftaqoraitfy  ao  in  tha  iriiMiia  ol  totjuoal  than  in 
tboiaot  ooldo'ClimBbeB;  UOT  are  dii^ioaad  in  jpUc- 
UU,  and  tbeaa  again'  gtmarally  in  nokes,  raoemea, 
or  r*"'"!—  J  th^  hava  no  proper  atlyi  nor  001011% 
bat  ooniiBt  of  Ute  parta  of  froctification  encloaad 
in  two  aerica  of  amall  t^aota,  •ome  or  ^  of  which 
are  aometjittee  awoed.    See  Awv.    Tha  two  ontar 


to  man;  the  farinaceona  aeeda  of  ume  of  tha 
^miLi  being  the  com  or  grain  which  forma  a  ohiel 
part  of  hnman  food.  The  graawe  onltiTated  on  thia 
aooonnt  are  noticed  in  the  article  Czkulia  and  in 
aeparate  artiolea.  Staioh  ia  the  principal  aubatance 
anttring  into  the  oompooitian  of  theae  farioaceoua 
nada,  uid  ia  of  tao  ertraotad  from  them,  nthar  to  ba 
naad  b^  itaelf  aa  an  article  of  food,  or  for  other 
•aonaauoal  pwpoaea,  according  to  the  kind.  Beaidea 
atarch,  thiv  CMitaia,  in  greater  or  laaa  proportioDB, 
gluten  and  other  aimilat  aubataneea,  on  whioh  not 
a  little  of  their  DotritiTe  value  dependa.  The  pecn- 
liaittiea  of  ocoi^otitioo  of  the  moat  impOTtant  graina 
are  noticed  In  the  aittolo  Mw*t.^  or  nnder  their 


I1g.L 
jt;  tvo  laaan :  t,  iplk^C  with  two 
— d  (roBi  tha  glDmi*:  tlma  uitlwrB: 
a,  wpiMxm  siui  BHuir  Hotit* ;  thrM  niQicn. 

tincta  o(  each  Bjnkdet  ar«  ottOed  abuna.  In  amne 
graaeea,  only  onedotne  ia  properiy  developed  for 
each  apkelet.  mtiiin  the  glnmea  ar«  thejtorela 
fonning  the  mikelet,  aomstimea  only  one,  but  often 

a  Iwei' nombar,  each  fir—'  "- — '—- 

•maUbiaata  called  jMleta 

■---"Lapartaelt-.- ^ 

the  caljz  by  the  older  botamata,  and 
tha  evoIU,  but  tnaeourately.  Ha  atament 

letamea  on^  one,  tometimea  aiz 

or  more,  but  Tery  gener- 
ally tht^e,  the  anthen 
attached  to  the  flUmenta 
by  the  middle  of  their 
back,  and  eaaily  ' 
ditoat 


'*  ^'TP^'S 


aia  hypogynoiu, 


by  the  ali^tei 
Ibe  orazyia  aL 


tba  aiigBaa  fe^iury  or 
hairy.  TIm  frdt  ii  a 
earj/aj»i»,  the  pericarp 
baug  inoorporated  wiui 
tha  aeed ;  wa  aeed  eon- 
,  .^  '  aiati  ot  a  aaiall  embryo, 
^"*''«'-     lying  at  tha  baae  and  on 


PIf.  £.— SpiUa 
Flont;  ^uaa 


iik«latwitliOD«  . 


(aeelCiX^, 


part  of  tf 


ataroh  of  the  grain  haa 
„  .  a  fermented  Itqaor  ia 
made  from  it,  of  which  Bub  or  ^'»  made  from 
barlciy  ia  the  moat  familiar  exsmple :  and  from  this, 
again,  a  apiritnons  liquor— aa  whi^y — ig  obtained 
by  diatillation.    Fertneated  and  ipiritaoiu  lii^nora 

different  part*  of  the  world,  particalarly^arley, 
maii^  rice,  and  miQet. — Subab  ib  another  miportant 
prodnct  of  graaaaa,  '"•M'"g  in  large  quantity  i    '^''  ~ 


sterna  of  many  apedea,  and  paittcnlarly  abonnding 

in  the  aoft  intanul  part  of  vtatfa,  aa  S~~ 

iSaiia,  and  Shaloo  or  Sngar-graaa  iSorgh 


m  Sogar-caoc^ 


alum,  we  Ditkaa),  from  which  it  ia  extracted  for 
nae.  Tha  aogar-cane  yielda  far  more  augar  than  all 
the  other  planta  oultiTated  on  that  account  in  the 
world.  Rnm — obtained  by  fermentation  and  distil- 
lation  from  augar — ia  anouier  wall-known  product  of 
the  gugar-oane,  and  similar  liquoia  may  be  obtained 
frraa  tha  other  sugar-producing  graaua.— ^Baaidea 
theaa  na«a,  graaaea  are  alao  of  gnat  importance  m 
affording  pasture  and  foddar  (hay  and  Mnaii)  for 
cattle.  Sea  Fobbkb.— ITie  woody  «t«nu  of  the 
larger  fp'aaaea  are  ap^'ed  to  a  great  variety  of 
eoonomical  pnrpoaea.  See  Ruiboo.  Thoae  of  aome 
of  the  amaUer  grataes  are  mnch  used  for  thatch,  and 
are  also  made  by  plaiting  into  atraw-hata,  ladiea^ 
bomete,  fto.  See  Stulw-plutikQi — The  nnder- 
nound  mnnen  of  aome  ipedet,  aa  the  Mamm 
Otmi  and  Sea  I^rtiio-graa*,  make  them  putlcalaily 
uaeful  for  Innding  ud  ftxing  looae  aonda. — Tha 
sterna  and  leaves  of  many  grasses  have  fibres  ot 
such  length  and  strength  that  they  are  twisted  into 
coane  ropes  for  many  pmrpoaee  in  whioh  no  great 
durability  ia  required.  Thus,  hay  and  straw  rope* 
are  commonly  used  on  every  fann  in  Biitsin,  and 
differmt  naaaea  are  used  in  the  same  way  in  many 
parte  of  the  world.  Some  graeiee,  as  the  Moonja 
\8aedamm  Jfuf^'a)  of  India,  are  not  simply  twisted 
into  ropea,  but  their  fibree  are  fir«t  aeparated  by 
moiatemng  and  beatiiiE ;  and  the  fibrea  of  aome,  aa 
the  Eepano  (q.  v.]  c€  ^wjn,  are  made  not  only  into 
ropea,  bat  into  mate,  aacka,  and  other  very  eoarae 
fabric*. — The  Chinnsc  make  paper  luxa  the  young 
ahoota  of  bamboo )  paper  is  alao  made  from  tha 
straw  of  tj'e,  wheat,  barley,  and  oata,  and  might 
be  made  bom  that  of  maoy  gtaasea.  See  Papeb. 
— The  perennial  roota  and  nmnera  of  aome  graaaea 
contain  peonlior  sabstaooea,  on  acoonnt  of  which 
they  are  uaed  medidnally,  aa  thoae  U  conch-graffi. 
The  stems  and  leaves   of  some  contain  CoDmaria 


ie^Eaat. 


anbstancea  in  tiia  1 


if  Britain.    A  few, 
liam  and  root,  pai^ 


of  AnSvpogm,  w^w  viald  ____ 
htm  baas  •Baged  that  tike  aaeda  ol  a  few  grasaea 
an  poisonona,  but  thia  In  arery  case  reqoirea  oon- 
-^--    alt^cngh  Damd  (q.  v.]  in  partieular  baa 


tyCoogle 


aEASSHOFPEB— GBAIR 


s  bad  repatetion. — The  atenu,  leavM,  knd  glninea  of 
gnaiea  ooqImu  fc  large  proportian  of  ailioa,  paitica- 


which  reqnirea  attentioD  in  qoeatioiia  Telative  to  the 
manuies  proper  for  particular  ciok  and  tiie  moat 
profitable  alternation  of  crops  in  hnabandiy.  The 
loUowing  are  t^  tnbeB  into  which  bobuiiftB  b«va 
divided  the  natnnl  Older  of  OrasBea,  with  the  names 
of  tome  of  the  mo«t  impt^tont,  aa  example* : 


kad  the  elftoeorwing-aoTetfof  naallnte.    Host  of 

them,  however,  hare  well-developed  winn :  and  tha 

winsHjoven  tt  Om  males,  m  in  oiok 

at  <£e  base  ct  a  talo-liks  ai 

togfitber  -'  —»•:->■  *>■-'■  -< 

wfiohii] 


Kce. 

Timothy  Orus. 

FotherOna;  l&paito. 

Agroitea. 

Arundca. 

SeS"""- 

Cord    Gi«i    iapartina):     CynocUm; 
Oati;  Vernal  OnBaMira. 

Aptnra. 

Fe«De;  HeadowOnn;  Manna  Orav; 

Wheat;   Barley;   Bye;  Spdt;    Eye- 
gnua ;  Ljine  Onm. 

I  Sunt  C 
u;  "nttiai 


The  word  Orati  ia  probably  from  the  same  root 
[ikt.  CTtKO,  Eng.  groin. 
Among  fanners,  the  t«im  graaseB  ii  extended  to 

-"'"■'*    -1 ^1-  >ijg  jj^g  graaaei 

and  forage,  bi , 

..    _.    diatingoiuiad   by   the   term 

Art^dai  Onuaa,  whilit  the  tnio  grasses  ore  celled 
SfiUural  Qraua, 


OrAoplera,  sectJon  Sallaioria,  called  OrjfiSda  by 
•ome  (chiefly  English)  entomologista,  and  LoeuMda 
by  others— those  who  adopt  the  former  nunc  desig- 
nating the  Crioketa  (q.  v.)  Achetida.  Locosts  (q.  v.), 
howerer.  do  not  belong  to  this  family,  although  very 
closely  allied,  bat  are  distingoished  from  it  by 
greater  tobostness  of  fram^  shorter  legs,  ami  shorter 
aiitmiu&  The  antenns  of  the  grasshoppers  are  king 
and  threadlike,  •■  in  the  cri^ets.  The  wings  (3 
grasshoppers,  sa  of  locnsts,  fold  together  like  (be 
sides  of^B  roo^  whilst  those  of  cncketa  Me  horizontal 
whenatr«at   Onuaho^ien, like criokets and loonsta, 


Onsshoppei,  Female  (OryUtu  vMdisn'ntw), 

have  the  thighs  of  the  hinder  legs  very  laif^  and 
adapted  for  Iraiping,  But  graasboppen  do  not  leap 
with  so  gre«t  eneiOT  as  locusts,  nor  are  tbey  capable 
of  so  anstained  a  flight  There  are,  indeed,  some  of 
Uie  lanily  in  which  the  wings  are  merely  mdiineutal. 


of  the 


innshiny  days.  Gkaashoppeis  are  herbivoroos.  They 
ue  numerous  in  most  parts  of  the  world.  Hie 
Iwgest  British  apeoiee  la  the  Objlax  Gann  O. 
{QryHu*  viriditiimiu,  aLso  known  as  Locatla  viridu- 
tima  and  Acrida  viridisrima),  about  two  inches  in 
length,  and  of  a  fins  green  colonr ;  ■  somewhat  rare 
inswt  in  Britain,  althoogh  not  nnComman  in  some 
parti  of  Eorope.  A  green  colour  prevails  among  the 
grasshoppoB  of  Britain,  and  gen^»lly  of  tempemte 
climates,  enabling  them  mon  readily  to  elude  obaet^ 
ration  among  the  herbage  in  midat  of  iriuoh  they 
live  ;  hot  some  of  the  bi^ical  spemes  are  richly 
coloured,  and  some  hare  ve^  la^  winff,  almost 
like  those  of  lejndopteroos  msects.  1m  greater 
number  of  grasshoppers  feed  on  grass  uid  the  leaves 
of  hwbaoeoos  ploi^  but  some  prefer  tha  leaves  of 

OBA'SSUM,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  ia  a  lump 
som  paid  by  pertons  who  take  a  lesse  of  landed 
property,  la  the  case  of  entuled  eatatee,  tha  heir 
m  possession  it  generally  prohibited  from  taking 
large  sums  in  the  form  of  a  grassnm,  and  letting 
Uie  property  at  a  lower  rent,  because  it  tends  to 
premdice  thoae  who  succeed  him  in  the  woper^. 
In  England,  the  word  is  not  used,  but  the  word 
premium  in  some  cases,  uid  fine  in  others,  means 
the  same  thing.  Where  a  person  is  entiro  owner 
or  freeholder,  Im  is  entitled  to  let  his  land  at  any 
rent  he  pleases,  and  to  stipulate  for  a  grassum  aa 
large  as  he  con  get. 

ORABSWRAOK  [Zoilira).  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  iftaadet,  one  of  the  few  genera  of 
phanerogamoos  ptanta  which  grow  amongst  sea- 
weeds at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The  leaves  are 
narrow  and  gross-like ;  and  the  Sowers  oonsist 
merely  of  stamens  and  pistils,  without  any  perianth, 
inserted  on  the  central  nerve  of  one  side  of  a  flat 
til  in  linear  tpadix,  with  a  lesiy  tpathe.  The  pollen 
is  oonfervoid. — The  Common  Grass  wrack  (Z.  manna] 
is  a  perennial  plant,  which  fonns  green  meadows  on 
the  sandy  bottom  ol  ahallow  parts  of  almost  all  the 
European  seu,  and  abounds  in  creeks  and  salt-water 
'''  '         ''  '   found  in  great  plenty  on  tlie  British 


made  of  it,  and  it 
bottles  and  other 
used  in  Holland,  Gothland,  uid  Iceland  for  stuffing 
pillows  and  mattresseii,  uid  this  use  has  of  lata 
vears  very  mnch  extended,  so  that  the  plant  hsa 
beoome  ui  artiole  of  commerce,  under  the  name  d 
Alga  marma,  or  more  oommonlj,  but  incorrectly, 
Abia  marma  (Ger.  Sm-stto*). 

ORATE,  the  iron  cage  which  supports  the  cool 
fire.    Considerable  improvammts  have 


B    of    1 


1   the 


originally  tor  buming  a  pile  of  wood.  TbJM  was 
large  square-sided  reoeM,  with  a  very  wide  opening 
for  the  chimney.  Count  Rumford  pointed  out  the 
disadvantagea  of  thia,  and  the  principles  upon  which 
they  ahonld  be  i«nedied.  Sob  Chduist.  In  the 
modem  grate,  the  filling  up  of  the  sqaare  oavi^ 
raoomm^ed  by  Count  Kumford,  and  also  his  plan 
of  lowering  and  narrowing  the  throat  of  the  chimney, 
an  usually  effected  by  inm  platea  forming  part  ol 


t.LiOogle 


OKATUir-OBATIOLA. 


ndute  and  reflect  tlte  hest  into  .__ 

room,  >nd  thcrebr  eflect  b  oonndeiitble  saving  of 
coal,  beaidea  whiim  the  grate  itself  is  bronsht  for- 
ward lerel  with,  or  srenprojectiDgbejond,  t£a  wall* 
of  tlie  room,  whereby  the  radiation  from  the  heatad 
coal  U  ntiliaed  to  tlie  ntmcat.  One  of  tiie  most 
effediTs  u  wdl  u  elcwuit  ftsma  ot  grate  it  that 
-wbicdi  emsiita  uhpIt  ^  a  '■'8^  square  iron  plate 
■at  nearijr  Aodi  wtth  tlw  w^  in  the  middle  of 
-which  is  a  liemiaplieiical  cavi^  with  bowed  ban  in 
&oot,BndabBppedop«mingiiitotbeofaimuey  in  the 
iqiper  part  cJ  tnia  OKvily.  Wbea  there  is  a  fair 
dru^t,  this  form  ot  gnte  ffYt*  a  Kood  fire,  and 
eSecti  the  "«"'""'"  eeoDomr  of  fuel  for  u  ooen 
flreplaoe  (which  of  o 
fol  comparad  with  .. 
behind  and  abore  the  fiie  nidiatea  and  reflects  into 
the  room  from  every  part  of  ita  surface,  and  the 
plate  flush  with  the  wall,  which  ia  heated  by  con- 
dnction,  may  be  reguded  aa  a  part  of  the  room,  and 
thus  the  mun  coamtian  of  economy  ia  effected,  vis.. 
thiDwing  as  much  m>  poaaiblo  of  uie  heat  into  the 
room,  and  allowinz  as  little  u  possible  to  go  ap 
the  chimnty.  A  ""'"g  of  firebrick  or  of  fiAclay, 
moulded  to  the  form  <S  the  back  of  the  grate,  u 
nsefal  in  retaining  the  beat  which  ia  neceaaary  [or 
con^ileta  onnbiubon  ai  coal;  the  fltebridi,  being  a 
bad  condnctor  and  ao  excellent  radiator,  beoomee 
red-hot  oa  ita  aurfaoe  next  to  the  ooal,  and  thii 
heat  ia  not  carried  away,  bat  ia  radiated  into  tiie 
fire,  and  s»ilts  in  burning  the  cuhon  of  the  smoke. 
The  conditions  lor  securing  an  eSeotiTa  draught 
are  beated  under  CEUKxr. 

ORA'TIAIT,  the  ooUector  of  the  well-known 
body  of  canon  law  which  is  oommonly  cited  under 
the  title  of  Derreliim  OraiianL  It  is  singular, 
however,  that  alUion^  few  aothoritiea  have  been 
M  &eqnently  inted,  or  have  obtained  so  wide  and 
pennancnt  aecapt^ce  a«  this  celebrated  coUectioa, 
iu»dly  auything  ia  known  of  the  collector's  own 
perMDal  histoty.  The  som  of  our  knowledge 
regarding  him  is,  that  he  was  a  native  of  Chiusa 
in  Tnacany,  and  that  he  became,  in  later  life,  a 
Benedidina  monk  of  the  monaatery  of  St  Felix  in 
Bologna.  ^Hiadatecommonly assigned toO.'scollec- 
tdon  la  1141  or  1151  j  its  title,  however,  Deerelam, 
or  Cmeordia  iKsDontantiinn  Canon,  is  believed  to 
be  of  later  origin.  How  far  the  collection  is  the 
wo^  of  O.  hiiiu)glf,  or  how  far  he  was  indebted 
for  hia  materials,  and  even  for  their  arrangeroent, 
to  U>e  laboni*  of  earlier  collectora,  it  Is  oiflicnlt 
to  determine.  Tlie  work  conaiitB  not  only  of  the 
decrees  of  councils  and  popee  down  to  Innocent 
IL  (including  the  spnrions  Isidobian  Dkckktais, 
q.  v.),  but  also  of  pasaagea  from  the  Scripture, 
bum  the  Fathen,  and  even  from  the  Homan  law. 
It  is  divided  into  three  puta.  The  first  r^ards 
the  liierarchicsl  conatitation  of  the  church,  and 
chiefly  relates  to  doctrinal  and  moral  sabjecta.  It 
ia  divided  into  '  distinctiona.'  Ihe  second  treats  of 
external  jniiadiction,  under  the  head  of  'causes'  and 
'questions.'  The  third  regards  Uie  inner  life  of 
the  cboidi — the  lituivy  and  the  sacraments  From 
what  haa  been  alreafr  said  r^;arding  hia  adoption 
of  the  ladorian  dacietala,  it  will  be  inferred  that 
in  point  of  cnticiam  Q.'i  authori^  is  of  Uttls 
Tame,  and,  in  general,  it  may  be  added  that  no 
anthori^  ia  given  to  any  document  beyond  what 
it  irt'^fi'^'g  rnninnnnri.  fnoa  the  fact  '  ~*~  '-  --  - 
plfteed  in  O.'i  otdei 
of  the  canon  law,  ■ 


Sinnium  in  Pannouia,  on  the  19th  of  April  3S9 
A.  D.  While  he  was  still  noMIiisHniu  nuer  [or  heir> 
pparent),  he  was  created  consnl,  and  in  3B7,  was 
levated  by  his  father  to  the  raiik  of  Augustus  at 
Ambiani,  or  Amifms,  in  GaoL  la  the  ftjlowing 
ha  accompanied  hia  father  in  his  expedition 
„  «t  tha  Alemanni,  in  order  that  hs  might 
b«  aodutomed  to  wubre.  On  the  death  of  Valen- 
'  '  1,  the  troopa  elevated  Q.  to  the  throne, 
giTing  him  at  the  same  time  aa  a  oolleagoe  hia 
half-brotho'  Valentiniaa  IL  Qanl,  Spain,  and 
Britain  fell  to  O.'s  share;  and  as  hia  brother  waa 
dy  four  years  old,  G.  is  auppoaed  hy  mai^ 
lUiorities  to  have  been  the  monarob  de  /ado  ot 
,e  rest  of  the  Weiteni  Empire,  fixing  mi  resi- 
dence at  Treviri  (now  TrtPelj.  During  the  iint 
part  of  his  reign,  a  fieroe  wajfaro  was  carried  on 
af;ainat  the  tribes  who  posseased  the  Danubian  pro- 
vmcea  and  Ulyrioom ;  and  he  was  on  the  point  ot 
maicliing  into  Thrace,  to  assist  his  uncle  Talent 
against  the  Ooths,  when  he  waa  suddenly  called 
Opon  to  defend  his  dominitms  agunst  the  Lenttenses, 


Valent  had  been  defeated  and  kiUed  by  the 
Goths  near  Adtitaoflo  (Almost  3TS].  The  sove- 
reignty of  the  Eastern  Emfma  then  devolved  upon 
G.,  but  feeling  his  inadequacy  to  the  taak  cf  ruling 
the  whole  empire,  he  recalled  niecdoains  (q.v.) 
from  Spun,  and  ^ipointed  him  his  colleagne  on  the 
19th  January  919.  O.  pMsesaed  aome  admirable 
virtues  :  he  waa  piona,  chaste,  and  temperate  ;  hia 
understanding  waa  well  cnllavxted,  alUKm^  not 
strong,  and  hia  eloqnence  attraotivch  Bnt  Ids 
character  was  too  yielding  and  nUaut.  and  ha  was 
consequently  often  fed  to  the  c 


His 


oft 


jtouiaH 

eat  favourite  with 


orthodox  eoc^eaiaBlics,  bnt  rwier 
aSectiona  of  his  sohjects  generally,  while  his 
fondneas  for  frivolous  amnaement^  uid  unworthy 
ssaociates,  excited  the  contempt  of  the  army,  so 
that  when  jfaximus  was  proclsimed  emperor  by 
the  ]»ioua  in  Britain,  crowds  of  the  disaffected 
flocked  to  hia  standard.  G.  was  defeated  by  him 
near  Paris,  and  afterwards  Bed  to  Lym,  where  he 
was  overtaken  and  killed  by  Andragathius,  whom 
Maiiinus  had  sent  in  pursuit  of  him,  on  the  iiSth 
Angurt,383. 

ORATI'OLA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  BemphuioTmax,  having  a  S-partite  calyx,  the 
npper  Lp  i^  the  corolla  bifi^  the  lower  trifid,  only 
two  stoinens  fertile,  and  the  anthers  pendulous. 
O.  oMeinalit,  sometimes  called  Eedoi  Evbsop,  is 
found  in  meadows  and  on  the  margins  of  ponds 
and  river-banks  in  most  parts  of  Europe,  but  not  in 
Britain-  It  has  seeaile  lanceolate  serrulated  leaves, 
and  Biillaiy  solitary  flowers.  It  is  extremely  bitter, 
acts  violentlv  as  a  purgative,  diuretio,  and  emetic ; 
and  in  overdoses  is  an  acrid  poison.  It  is  admin- 
istered in  cases  of  wornis,  jaundice,  droj«iy,  scrofnta, 
mania,  and  venereal  diseases ;  but  requires  to  be 
used  with  caution.  It  is  said  to  render  some  of 
the  Swiss  meadows  useless  aa  posturos.  It  waa 
formerly  so  highly  eateemed  as  a  medicine,  that 
the  name  of  Oraiia  Dd  (Grace  of  Ood)  was  given 
to  it,  and  for  the  same  reason  it  ia  known  in 
France  as  Herbe  au  Pauvre  Homme  (Foes'  Man'a 
Herb).  It  is  aaid  to  be  the  basis  of  the  famous 
gont  medicine  called  Eav  medicinaU. — O.  Peru- 
viana, a  Sooth  American  species,  hat  somewhat 
nmilar  propertie«.  These  properbea  sxe  rippoaed 
to  depend  apon  a  hittv  reainons  principle  called 


„Googl 


OR^Trur-OBATEL 


OKATTAN,  Thi  Biesi  Hoiroimuut  Bmkxt, 
WM  bom  in  Dablin  8d  July  1746.  Hi*  father  waa 
noorder  and  M.P.  foe  that  dty  until  faia  death  in 
1706.  Tha  Tear  after  that  evmit,  haTing  oompleted 
hia  aniTenito  rtndiea  with  diatinatioii  at  l>mi^ 
College,  Itauin,  Q.  entered  aa  a  atudent  of  law 
at  <lu  Middle  Temple,  London,  wbers,  however, 
he  neglected  the  peoM  of  Blaok^tone,  to  brtaa  to 
Uie  liTinsoratorj  of  parliament,  and  In  partimdar 
of  Lord  Chatham.  In  1772,  ha  waa  called  to  the 
Iridi  bar,  aod  in  177fi  waa  retonud  to  the  Iriah 
parliament  aa  repreaentatiTe  for  the  borough  of 
CSiaiiemont,  for  which  he  eat  outdl  1790,  wb^  he 
waa  elected  aa  one  td  the  repnaeutotivee  ot  the  citv 
et  Dublin,  to  anoh  an  extent  had  hie  patriotaam  and 
eloqnenoe  leoGomiended  him  to  the  Iriah  people. 
Hamly  to  him  waa  owing,  among  other  thinga,  the 
pMtial  abolition  of  the  luiav7  reatrictiona  on  Iriah 
commerce.  Bnt  hia  popularity  ebbed  aa  it  had 
flowed  (and  oftener  than  once)  in  the  hearta  and 
hoBM  of  hia  immlMTe  and  ther«toe  iiia(»ataiit 


''ioklow,  to  i^ipoae  the  Union,  and  that 
to  fldtt  for  thepeopla'a  idea  of  the  oooatitution. 
Bat  the  'omoa  wm  effected  in  qote  o(  him,  and  in 
180S  he  WM  retnned  to  tha  Imperial  pwliameut  for 
the  borough  of  MftUon,  in  ToiKUure.  Next  year,  he 
waa  indnoed  to  atand  for  Dublin,  and  waa  re-elected. 
He  Bat  for  it  in  aucoeanTe  pariiamenta  till  his 
death,  which  happened  on  4th  June  1820,  in  London, 
to  which  he  had  gone  when  in  a  w«^  state  of 
health,  oonbary  to  tha  advice  <rf  hia  phyiiaians, 
to  adTocste,  aa  he  had  been  won^  the  caoae  of 
Catholioemani^-' 


I  pubBo  and  private  diaraoter  waa  unimpeaoh- 
ante.  For  the  vanUationa  of  hia  popnlaniy  in 
Inland,  bii  oomtrynMn  had  reaaon  to  be  athamed, 
and  it  la  ewiaiii  that  he  now  holda  a  proper  and 
exalted  ^aoe  in  the  eateem  of  the  peo^  for 
whom  be  laboured  witli  anoh  ainocri^,  integcitj, 
and  genius.  The  Uatarr  of  hia  life  ia  in  peat 
meaauie  the  history  of  the  Iiiah  oonatitirtion,  and 
entir^  tha  hiatory  of  tha  rariiamant  of  IreUnd. 
The  hiatoiy  of  hia  Z^  nul  Tiiittt,  in  four  volnmai, 
haa  bean  pabliihed  by  hia  ton. 

Ai  an  orator,  he  atanda  in  the  fitat  rank.  Hia 
a^le  IB  foil  at  pitint,  rapidity,  aotitheeit,  aod  poetio 
tnggestiTeiieat.  His  eulogy  on  Oiatluun,  and  hie 
invectiTe  agunat  Bonaparte,  are  not  snrpaaaed  in 
Briiiah  eloquouco.     Bjron  declarea  him  to  be  an 

■oted,  endowed. 


1821) 

ORATtrrroTrS  deed,  io  the  Law  of  Scotland, 
meane  a  deed  granted  without  any  value  received. 
&  it  Is  made  in  tavonr  of  a  third  partry,  in  order  to 
defeat  creditor*,  it  it  null  and  void,  by  ttat  1621 
e.  1&  lltra^  it  tbjt  peculiarity,  aleo,  that  when  a 
person  it  too  generous,  and  oontracta  voluntarily 
to  give  away  property  at  a  futnre  period,  if  he 
beo^ne  destitute  in  the  meantime,  the  court  will,  at 
least  where  the  deed  waa  in  favour  of  children 
grandchildren,  retain  sufficient  for  hia  own  su 
tlstence.  Sua  it  in  imitatint  of  the  Boman  law 
to  toiffciKm  MmjKtoitio,  bnt  tiie  Bomaa  Uw  went 
tnrther.  Such  a  proTuian  it  wholly  unkuovm  in 
Bngland.  In  Engun^mtnitont  deedt  are  usually 
atyled  Qitta  (q.  tJ  or  Vdnntaty  ConvcTanoee  (q,  v.], 
according  to  cmmmatafioea. 

GRATZ,  the  capital  (rf  the  orown-land  li  Btjam, 


in  Austria,  la  a  piotureeque  old  town,  built  on  botli 
aidea  of  the  Hnr,  and  mcdrcled  by  fine  gatdoia  and 
pleaiare-gronndt.  It  is  140  milea  aooth-aoutii-ireat 
of  Vienna,  by  the  Vieima  and  Ideate  Railway.  Hie 
civil  populatian    omonnte  (1B69)   to  8(^73:1      The 

town,  which  ia  oratnected  with  ^e  suburb 

side  of  the  river  by  two 


and  crooked  atreata,  and  is  not 
remarhable  for  aleaalineaa.  It  fa  worUc^  of  notue, 
bvwever,  fr<nn  the  number  of  old  bnil£iisa  which 
it  oonti^  at  the  oathedial  of  8t  A^  boflt 
in  the  14th  & ;  Oka  aseMst  eaatla  of  the  S^rrian 
dnkee,  ^riuch  powtitca  many  euriooa  telica  ol 
antiquity ;  the  Lsndhaoa,  when  the  noblea  of 
the  dnimy  held  their  meetings ;  the  uniiaiaily, 
founded  in  1580,  with  its  library  containing  5^000 
volumaa ;  its  moeeum,  Ac,  the  arsenal,  and  vanona 
paUcea  belonnng  to  the  Styrian  nobility.  Q.  ia 
well  ptovided  with  gymnasia  and  other  pubUo 
aducab<»ial  eetaUishnuots  for  the  laity,  and  aomi- 
nariea  for  the  <dergy.  Aa  the  eeat  ti  govomnent 
for  the  cirol^  O.  haa  apedal  eonrta  M  law  and 


Qm  direct 

Vienna  and  Trieste,  it  is  favourably  sitnated  aa  an 
intennediaiy  station  for  the  trade  of  the  Austrian 
oapital  and  the  Adriatic  provinoea.  A  handsome 
new  nniverti^  is  in  oourse  of  erectdon  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  O.,  and  irill,  when  completed, 
form  one  of  the  finest  baildinfli  of  t^  kind  in 


GBAU'DEKZ,  an  old  town  and  important 
fortree*  of  Pnuaia,  in  the  province  ti  West  Prussia, 
stands  on  the  ri^t  bank  of  the  Vistula,  60  miles 
in  direct  line  aouth  of  Dansig.  A  kidge  of 
boata,  2780  feet  in  length,  here  cronei  the  river. 
O.  contains  numerous  seminaries  and  edooatiMial 
eatabliahmenta.  It  carriea  on  a  trade  in  com  and 
tobacco,  and  mannfactnrea  of  woollena  and  cottons, 
Ac  The  town  is  fortified  by  a  wall;  and  about 
a  mile  north  of  it  on  a  bill,  and  in  a  posildon  that 
ccanmands  the  ooulse  of  the  Vistula,  is  the  bomb- 
proof fortress  of  Grsudwa.  Pop.  (1671)  10,668^ 
ineluding  the  garrison. 

ORAU'WAOKE.    Bee  Oksywaxxm. 

ORAVB  ROBBING.  The  offence  of  taking 
up  dead  bodies  has  often  been  attempted  to  be 
declared  fdony  fay  act  of  pariiamaat  (  but  it  ia  only 
a  miadameonoor,  pontshoble  by  floe  and  impriacm- 
V,  howmr,  the  ihMud,  ooffln. 


sr^l 


ir  in  tlie  nature  of  a  chattel  ia  taken  away 
a»  gf*y*,  Uw  portv  may  be  indicted  for 
fdouy  in  stealing  theea.    See  Ahatomt  (in  Law). 

ORATE  STOITBS.  The  right  to  grant  or 
refuse  pannitsioa  to  erect  grave  stones,  tombs,  or 
tnonnmenta  in  the  diuroh  or  churchyard,  in  England, 
is  vested  in  the  ordinair,  who  it  genenlly  the 
bishopL  In  Sootland,  a  sunilar  power  it  vested  in 
the  heritors,  i.«.,  the  proprieton  of  tha  landa  in 
the  pariah. 

GRAVEL,  the  name  given  to  aggngaticnt 
of  water-wcm  and  rounded  fnumenta  of  rooks, 
varying  in  sise  from  a  pea  to  a  iWa  ^g.  When  the 
fragmenta  are  smaller,  the  deposit  ia  sand;  when 
larser,  it  ia  called  shingle.  Beda  of  (pwel  occur 
in  Tormationa  «t  every  age.  While  the  materialt 
have  been  a  long  lime  m  being  pmared.  and  have 
travelled  p^bJ^  a  great  distance  &Hn  Uie  mother- 
rook,  giwvd  d^oaita  hove  be«n  f  ocmad  speedily  and 
by  tiw  aetioa  et  »  stang  emant  «l  watv.    Timf 


t.Google 


OBATEL— GEA.TITAXION,  GttAVlTT. 


fomi  Tny  iiregnlar  ud  linited  dqicisitB,  ooomriiu 
gmtxtikf  aa  Miikt  w  luBiniock*  in  itavte  of  wmL 
Unl«M  m  tha  mart  leMat  dtfptmkt,  tksy  abnoat 
hMd  rook  nUad  eou^unenta  or 

'^■^'  -  l)«ia»«DmpM*Bdtogrth«r 

I,  iridcli  la  moal  fnMNrtlj 
I  K»  reetot  aa  tba  Olad^ 
period,  gnmb  am  a«tatim«a  fonuad  into  »  compact 
oonoeta^  Odi^  tiuaa  md  later  dmnt*  an  OMka- 
nllj  looaiL  ftr  Fraakwioh  hai  drridad  Um  Plaii- 
tooma  pank  into  'Bigb  Lofd'  and  'Low  Laval 
QiaTeb?  Tbe  )u^  lore)  gnmli  an  tha  mon 
•BoiMt;  &17  ham  bMndqwaHed  aBbaaqaanUfto 
the  bcMMoa  of  tha  prawai  TaBayi,  bntupanal^ 
at  k  tioM  wbMi  time  «m  Bmoli  moM  wafw  fai  tbe 
TaUayi  thaa  than  i*  d»w.  Tb»  low  laval  ^wrala 
haTa  betn  pcodnmdliT  &a  p«ni>  limM 

OBATEIi,    Sea  Ouonun. 

GItATELIirES,  a  amall  fortifiad  town  ud  sea- 
port of  Fnno^  in  the  d^artmeut  of  If  ord,  b  aitaated 
in  a  Toanhy  localilf  at  UM  month  of  the  Aa,  12  milea 
■ouQi-weat  of  Daakerqae.  Althou^  now  a  deaolate- 
loiAiDS  town,  with  gntM  ^rowisa  in  ila  atreeta, 
it  ia  M  importuioe  In  a  hiBtorical  point  of  yiew. 
Hen  the  Coont  dligmont  obtained  a  victorr  OTer 
the  n«neh  eni^r  oommanded  l^  the  Hai«cbal  ds 
Ttumam  in  ICfiSj  a  Ticfanj  which  compelled  the 
French  to  aoonit  the  aerere  oonditioiui  of  the  peace 
of  Oatean-Cantirtaia.  Ten  Tean  later,  it  wai  taken 
by  Looia  XtV.,  who  had  it  fortifled  by  Vanbui. 
The  inbabitanta  are  employed  chieSy  in  the  herring 
and  Dod  fiaberiee,  and  ute  trade  to  bqaenn,  timber, 
■alt-fiah,  Ac  The  haibonr  has  now  becoioe  naelesa 
from  neglect    Pop.,  with  garrison  (1872),  7733. 

OKATSaElfD,  ft  market-town,  manidpal 
boroo^  and  riTer>p<wt  et  Kigland,  in  Uw  ooon^ 
of  Koi^  b  aitmted  on  the   ri^  bank    of    the 


of  the  town  of  Bari.  It  eontaiua  about  10,000 
ioh^ntanla,  and  ooetipiea  die  aito  of  anoieat  Mara. 
ona  of  tha  rtataona  on  tha  Tim  Appaa,  whMi  paand 
at  Pmgio  Otaiii^  abont  k  mile  Inwi  the  toiira.  In 
MSt  «  ■Mtainid  a  matnoraUe  aiege  aipdnrt  the 
Samoena.  It  waa  a  faTonrite  htrntnig-pUae  tt 
tha  Shnpator  JVedariok  IL  Hm  nMjEboariiood 
poweaaea  riob  paatnrn  and  nuaea*  a  oalabnted 
bleed  of  horaea,  in  which  tha  in 
trade  at  theii  annual  e*ttta-Iair. 


alai^ 


■,  marked,  and  oolenui 

OBATirATIOlT,  OBATITT.  All  bodi^ 
what  niaed  into  ah*  air,  and  left  unanpported,  fall 
to  Um  earth  in  Unaa  parpandicnlai  to  it    l^e  force 


atriotly,  it  acta  peipendionluiy  to  the 
atnfiwe  of  alill  water.     But  if  a  body,  aa  a  ator~ 
be  projected  obliaaaly  into  the  air,  it  ia  made 
diaariba  a  cnrvaa  path,  barina  a  hi^ieat  poii 


ratex,  cr  ^ogoe  1  and  wtMU  it  maata  the  earth  in 
ita  dcaoBo^  ita  direction  ia  not  toward*  tlie  caub^ 
bat  iadined  to  it  at  the  angle  of  pnjaotion.  " 
PnonoriLM.  Obaarving  Una,  and  &at  tha  boc 
-"  '-^-—^'  --the  eaitt^ 


■onUi-eaBt  of    IiondoD   by  t 


North  Kant  Bailwaj.  It  occnpiea  a  aomewhat 
commatidii^  position  od  the  fint  rising  gnnmd 
after  entcrmg  Ibe  river ;  and  oonaiata  of  ue  old 
town,  witilL  narrow,  inconTenient,  and  not  too 
deauy  aLieet^  and  of  the  new  town,  west  of  the 
older  portion,  with  handsome  atreeta,  aqnarea,  and 
tcrracea.  G.  ia  not  famona  for  its  architecture. 
In  the  vicinity  are  ertensive  markBt-gaidena,  great 
put  of  tiie  laodnce  of  which  ia  setS  to  London. 
Uaoy  of  the  inhatntanta  are  employed  in  fiahing. 
Q.  forma  the  limit  of  the  port  <»  London.  Here 
[alata  and  costom-honaa  officers  are  token  on  boud 
...        -  .,       .  For  '        ■ 


■hipJiafldiBg  and  a  oonaidnable  tnde  in  sopplyinx 
ahipa'  atotw.  PopnlatiiHi  of  mnnicipal  bornuh 
(1871),  21,260;  of  parliamentarv  borou^  27,493. 

G.  was  cnginallj  a  hytbe,  or  landing-place,  and  i« 
mentianad  as  aoch  in  Domeaday.  Arcund  thia  land- 
tng-I^aca  a  town  grew  up  aoon  after  the  Conquest 
Hrae  Oka  fleeto  <n  the  eariy  toyaoera,  aa  tlut  of 
SebaaUak  Cabot  m  1BS3,  and  of  Martin  nnbisher 
in  m6,  naed  to  aaiiiiiiililii.  and  heoa  the  lord 
mayw,  aldermen,  and  oity  conqianiea  were  woat  to 
reoeiTO  tU  strai^geri  of  eminence,  and  to  condnot 
them  np  1^  river  in  state,  farming  prooeenona, 
which,  says  Oie  historiaD  Fronde,  were  'speotaelca 
scarcely  rivalled  in  gorgsoosneaa  by  the  worid- 
tamom  wedding  of  the  Adriatic.' 

GBATI'NA,  a  oommercisl  and  indusfarioat 
•piscopal  town  in  the  aonth  of  Italy,  in  the  novince 
of  Ban,  ia  ntnated  «n  a  hill  above  the  left  bank  irf 
•  ibeam  ot  tha  laBte  name,  37  milea  aoatii-WGat 


.  Mddoon- 
in  a  oorv^  with  its  tangwt  always 
awav  from  the  coitoe,  it  ia  ea^  to  inkwine  titat  if 
not  intemptad,  it  mi^it  oimdato  ronnd  the  oentn 
aa  the  moon  doea  ninnd  the  eartit.  Next,  knowing 
that  the  fince  of  gnvi^  is  axartad  at  all  aooaaaible 
heighto  above  the  eartn,  Um  qneation  adsea — Mav 
it  not  be  exerted  as  far  off  as  tha  moonl  which 
we  know  to  be  inflnanoed    1^  sodm  fone  iidii^ 


See  Cmmui.  Fobov.  Observing;  now  the  time  of 
revolntian  of  the  moon,  and  oalculsting  ita  Oentri- 
fngal  Force  (q.  v.),  which  we  know  nnst  equal  the 
omtiqietalfora^  wepnt  the  qneatitm:  la  this  force 
the  SMne  as  jt^vi^  t  The  answer  ia,  that  it  is  a 
fwea  3600  tunas  tsaa  «ier«tia.  U,  then,  gravity 
be  tite  fone  which  nally  n<flda  the  moon  to  hv 
path,  it  mast  be  explained  why  it  aots  npon  her  ao 
mneh  men  fa^y  uan  it  wonld,  wan  ua  a  body 
OD  tha  earth's  anrfaot.  The  andanation  is  gifen  A 
onoa  if  w«  siqtpaaa  gnvity  to  ba  a  force  whoae 
entcgy  diminishes  with  incmae  of  distanoti  and  is 
inTsnely  as  tha  sqasrea  of  the  diatuiaes  st  wbidi  it 
ii  exerted;  for  the  distance  of  the  moon  from  the 
earth's  oantoe  is  jnst  abont  60  tLmea  that  of  the 
earth's  anrfaoe from  ita oentre, and 8000  :  l:;  60'  :  1. 
We  infer  that  it  does  so  from  the  tact,  that  then  ia 
nothing  inadmissible  in  snob  a  diminntion  of  ener^ 
with  iuOTease  of  diatanoe — that,  on  the  contiuy, 
then  an  many  analogisa  f(«  it,  aa  in  the  emanations 
of  light  and  heat ;  and  in  the  argmnent  drawn  fnun 
the  neoeesi^  of  otiherwise  snpposiog  some  other 
fone  tium  gravity  to  be  employed  in  deflecting  the 
moon,  and  the  tame  of  gravi^  to  oeasa  at  some 
unknown  level  On  theee  views,  snd  a  generalisa- 
tion  to  be  afterwards  msntioned,  Newton  is  under- 
stood to  have  st  first  rested  bu  law  of  onivenal 
gravitatimL!  'Every  partiole  of  matter  in  the 
univena  attaacta  every  other  partiole  with  a  ttwoa 
directly  proportianed  to  the  mass  of  the  attracting 
particle,  and  invaeely  to  the  aqtun  of  the  diatanoe 
between  tlian ' — a  law,  the  truth  oi  whitJi,  since  it 
first  broached,  has  been  put  beyond  all  «iestion 


Uw^uatnre. 


t,  Google 


OKA.VlTy— O&AY. 


Hi^^Koa,    Mid  Hooke,  and  witJi   the 


rarer,  the  aifnuocnt  on  tbe  exb 

gnmtj  to  wte   (phere  of  the  

ooolil  hBTa  bsMnne  pregnant  witli  m>  great  a  nralt, 
wncli  inTeiti^ation  had  to  take  pboe  in  other 
fialdi ;  and,  m  fact, '  Newt<m  had,  prerionilj  to 
oonoeiving  the  law,  explained  the  three  great  Kep- 
larian  lam  of  order  obtuning  in  the  lolaF  STitem 
by  referenoe  to  an  attractiTe  force  rending  m  the 
■on.  lluae  lawa  are^l.  That  the  planeti  ravolre 
round  liie  lun  in  dlipaei,  havinff  the  sun  for  a 
oommoQ  fociu :  2.  That  every  [donet  niorea  in 
meh  k  way  that  the  line  drawn  from  it  to  the  mn 
aweepa  orer  eqnal  areas  in  equal  timea:  3. 1%at  the 
■qnaiea  of  ti>e  timea  oconpied  by  the  aereral  planeti 
in  tliar  nvolntiona  in  their  elLptic  orbiti,  are  pro- 
portional  to  the  enbei  of  their  meaa  diitaaoes  fiom 
their  coDUnoafooni,  the  mn.  Fimn  the  law  of  e^nal 
anaa,  Newbm  iuf  eited  that  every  ^Uaet  ii  rstamed 
in  it*  orbit  tnr  a  f  OMe  of  attntctton  dirvoted  towardi 
the  oentoe  of  the  inn ;  from  Uu  orbita  being  ellip- 
tioal,  he  infeiied  that  in  each  caae  thia  force  vaiie* 
in  inteniity  aocording  to  tiie  inTerae  aquaie  of  the 
bodiee'  disbuice  tnm  the  aon ;  while  from  the  third 
law  he  inferred  the  bomogeneity  of  the  central 
foroa  thion(^ont  tb*  acdar  ayatam.  It  waa  then, 
after  being  *""■"*■"  with  the  notion  td  tcneabial 

S^BO,' 

notion  <  =  , 

■qnan  of  tha  ■<■->■"■«»  of  j^  object,  thnngh  hia 
explanatioiui  of  the  lawa  of  Kepler,  that  he  pnt  to 
himaelf  the  qnectioD:  Is  not  the  force  with  which 
the  moon  RiKvitatee  to  the  earth  the  aame  with 
pavity ! — fte  foree  which  canaea  a  atone  to  fall  on 
ita  tDrfaee.  A  qneotion  anawered  afGrmatively  on 
the  •nppomtion  in  aranty,  like  tiie  ann'a  atbaction, 
bong  a  ffooe  Himimjiiiiig  with  increue  of  distance, 
and  according  to  the  aame  law.  The  reanlt  waa  to 
bring  the  whole  aolar  i^atem,  the  planeti  and  the 
ann,  and  aatellitea  and  tbcdr  ]daueta— the  aatellitea 
being  obaerred  to  obey  the  aame  Uwi  of  order  with 
reference  to  liieir  piimarie*  that  the  latter  obeyed 
in  reference  to  the  aon — under  tile  law  of  gravi- 
tation. And  the  imagination  lifted  np  by  the 
rawulenr  of  the  conception,  wonld  refnae  to  limit 
tbe  operation  of  that  law  to  onr  own  ayatem,  were 
there  no  facta  to  entitle  na  to  extend  it  beyond. 
The  phenomena  of  donble  atan,  however,  of 
themselves  joitify  the  eitenaioii  and  the  state- 
ment of  the  law  as  we  have  given  it  in  nniveraal 
terma.  It  may  be  observed,  in  conclusion,  that 
the  Kepleiian  laws,  which  may  be  aoid  to  have 
been  the  basia  of  Newton's  researches,  are,  owing 
to  pertnrbationa  caosed  by  the  matoal  action  tS 
the  ^aneta,  fte.,  only  approiimatalv  correct ;  and 
tiMt  theoa  pertnrbatioiis  a&brd,  whsi  examined, 
a  farther  pnot  of  tlie  truth  and  nniveraalitr  of  the 
law  of  gnmtation. 

For  a  notice  of  speculations  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  law  of  gmvitation,  see  FoRCX ;  see  also  PjULINO 
BosiKS,  Fbojiciilxs,  Ac 

QBAVITY,  SFBOma    See  Spiomo  Quvirv. 

OBAY,  a  small  town  ot  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Haute-SaSne,  is  sitnated  on  the  slo]- 
of  a  HIU  overlooking  a  beantifal  meadow,  on 
left  bank  of  the  Sadne,  26  miles  west-north- 
of  Beatngon.  It  is  commanded  by  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  caatle,  the  residence  in  former  times 
of  the  Dnkea  of  Burgundy,  and  has  a  pleasing 
appearance  from  a  distance,  althongh  its  streets 
are  ciooked,  narrow,  and  steep.  O,  is  so  important 
entrepot  for  goods  from  tJie  north-eastern  <£stricts 
of  France^  which  sre  conveyed  1^  the  Satae  to  the 
■onth.  Ita  tawie  is  chiefly  in  com,  flonr,  timber, 
wine,  iron,  and  colonial  produce.    Fop.  (1872)  63S9.  \ 


*.5 


GBAT,  Asa,  an  eminent  Ameriaan  botanisl^ 
bom  at  Paris,  Oneida  Ca«uity,  New  York,  Novaoiber 
18;  18ia    He  took  bis  d^rae  of  M.D.  in  1831,  bat 


devoted  *■■'""".  under 
farourite  study  of  botany.  In  1834  lie  leoMved 
the  Bppointanent  (rf  botaiuat  of  the  United  State*' 
£xpl<Hiiifi  Expedition ;  but  u  a  long  delay  took 
place  before  it  was  ready  to  sail,  he  resigned  his 

St  in  1837.  He  was  afterwards  appoinied  Pro- 
or  ot  Botany  in  the  univmitv  of  Miohina ;  bat 
before  h*  had  entered  upon  tha  dutiea  of  tbat  office 
he  waa  eleoted,  in  18^  Fiaber  PadMMa  <4  Natural 
HistoiT  tX  Harvard  Universi^,  Cambridge  Maaa- 
(duwetii.  In  addition  to  his  pwleetsom  at  Gam- 
bridge  ProtsMorQnn'haidelirNMlMiDe  oooiaeaof 
leetareaatthsLOTMllbMtitaitcsinBortoii.  Hentnka 
among  the  l—jiing  botafiiata,  not  only  <rf  Amsricaa 
but  M  the  age.    In  ' '        — tn        »  -  <-  -  - 


shewn  eqnid  ability  in  c 


au£to 


knowledge  uid  in  elucidating  m>aa< 

He  oane  totwari  at  a  time  when  the 

•yitema  of  botany  were  giving  way  to  tlie  natural 

nstem  whidi  has  taken  udr  place,  and  be  w*a  the 

mat  in  America,  in  conjnnction  with  Dr  Torrey, 

who   amuged   the   heterogeneona   assemblage   of 

apeeiea  wpoa  the  natural  bans  of  affinity.    In  1896 


with  Dr  Torrey,  tha  ^loro  q^XortA 
^mtnca,  vt  ne  completed  in  three  lar^  voluntes, 
bat  still  nnfinished.  In  184S  appeared  Oie  MaMuU 
ofSolany  for  the  Northern  UniUi  Slata.  and  tha 
first  volume  erf  the  Oaiera  Bortalia 
lUuttrata,  of  whii^  another  volume  baa  . 
inned.  Amcog  his  remaining  work*  may  be 
tioned-  BotaagofOitUHUtdStaial  Pat' 

wf  JxpafUion,  nnifcr  Ooftaat  fPatie(lt__    

How  PioMtt  Grow;  LemoM  n»  Bol<mgj  Strachtral 
and  Sj/itematie  Botam;  a  rsvised  edition  of  the 
BtOatiical  TeiA^hoiit,  wiUi  1300  illustrationa ;  Flora 
of  Me  BmtOern  UniUd  Btatet;  School  oad  Field 
Boot  of  Albnu  (1809) ;  and  Botanu  fyr  Tottng 
Peopk  {1869).  Frofnaor  Oraj'  ivtu>  visited  Enrope 
in  1S38--.I839,  and  again  in  1S5D— IBfil,  baa  also 
contributed  many  papers  to  scientifio  periodicals 
and  the  transactioiM  oC  learned  sodetieK 

GRAY,  Thohah,  an  English  poet,  was  bom  in 
London  on  the  26th  Deoember  1716.  Hia  father, 
Philip  Gray,  a  money-scriveDer,  was  of  a  dispo- 
sition so  violent^  that  his  wife  was  oUised  to 
separate  from  Vin  ;  and  it  was  mainly  Oaoa^ 
her  exertions  that  her  son  was  placed  at  Eton,  and 
afterwards  at  Cambridge.  At  Kton,  he  made  the 
ac^naintauce  of  Horace  Walpole,  the  son  of  the 
prime  minister;  and  when  his  college  edocalJon 
was  completed,  he  accmnpanied  his  friend  on  a  toor 
through  France  and  Italy.  After  spending  a  vear 
in  the  search  of  the  ^ictnresqne  and  in  the  explora- 
tion of  picture-galleRea,  the  friends  quarrellect,  and 
O.  returned  to  England,  aod  went  to  Cambridge  to 
take  his  degree  in  oivil  law.  At  the  univenity,  tha 
greater  portion  of  hia  hfe  was  spent,  breathing  tha 
serene  air  of  noble  libnuiea,  and  corresponding  with 
friends,  as  only  the  men  Ot  that  day  could  ootre- 
spond.  In  1T06,  in  oonaeqoenos  of  a  practical  joke, 
he  removed  from  8t  Petor'a  CcQ^e  to  Pembroke 
Hall.  He  had  a  just  appreciation  of  tbe  natural 
beaaty  of  bia  native  conntov,  and  rambled  in  Soot- 
land,  Wales,  and  the  EngUih  lake  counties.  He 
made  notes  wherever  be  went,  and  wrote  copioos 
descriptions  of  what  he  bad  seen  to  his  literary 
friends.  He  publiahed  bis  Ode  to  Bton  CoUege  in 
1747,  and  his  SUgg  mittea  in  a  Ommby  Ckurdtgard 
two  years  afterwards.  His  Ptitdarie  Oda  amaaied 
in  ITS7;  but  however  muck  tbey  might  daane  tlw 


„Google 


ORAY-OBKA.T  'BASIS. 


immfnn%.Hi\n  iHtK  brilH&nt  inugeiy,  &Dd  dhtim  the 
ear  with  inrolvied  and  intriote  tunnony,  they  did 
not  touch  the  popaUr  heut  liks  the  Megy.  Od 
the  de»th  of  CoIIey  Oibb«r,  he  «m  offered,  but 
declined,  the  pert  of  poet-l&areftta.  Shortly  titer  ha 
ma  ai^xnnted  Fyahnor  of  Modem  Histon.  Farti- 
dioQB  m  his  tastea,  fond  <rf  book*  and  lettered 
ease,  iadiiposed  to  minglo  in  the  grettt  world,  bnt 
delif^itiiig  to  oomment  upon  it  in  tetten  to  frienda, 
blesMd  with  a  reputation  peculiarly  dear  to  a 
acholar^  heart,  comparatiTdy  rich,  hia  life  glided  on 
intbittend  bat  by  one  eDsmy — gont.  Dining  ona 
day  in  the  eidlege  haU,  he  was  aavarely  attacked, 
■nd  aftv  anfiering  a  week,  he  died  on  the  30th  July 
1T71|  aoed  K  Tci-  He  waa  bnried  by  the  dda  of 
hia  mouier  at  SUAa  near  Eton. 

mke  poetnr  of  G.,  with  tha  ezoeption  of  the 
£leffy — which  ererybody  knowa— ha«  nerer  become 
popnlar ;  yet  in  ita  own  iphese  it  i«  toj  perfect ; 
dclicatdy  if  not  rkhly  imagmative,  enriooily 
stodded  witii  imiwery;  exquintdy  finithed,  Uks 
miniatorea  painted  on  iToiy.  But  hii  cabjeota 
are  often  remotes  o*^  "^  '^  the  tt*ck  d  ordinary 

GBAT,  in  Heraldry,  signifioa  a  badger. 

GRATIilKO  {Th^maUiu  milgari»),  a  fidi  of  the 
family  8aini«»ida,  utd  of  a  genna  diatingoiahed 
from  aahooD,  txnit,  Ac,  by  smaller  moirth  and 
much  nnalla'  teeth,  and  by  the  greater  aiie  of  the 
doiaal  fin.  Tha  acalee  are  alao  much  larger.  Tho 
G.  ia  found  in  many  ibeama  in  En^and,  bnt  ia, 
however,  very  local;  and  of  two  liTeia  in  the 
■ame  neighboorhood,  one  often  containa  it,  and  the 
other  doea  not.  A  rappoaition.  that  it  waa  brought 
to  £n^Bnd  by  the  "'"'^■i  ia  nnaopported  by  any 
evidence.  It  la  foand  in  the  Eden  and  the  Eak  in 
Ciunbertand,  in  the  Clyde  in  Lanarkahire,  and  in 
the  Orkney  lalando.  It  ia  plentiful  in  many  parts 
of  Enrope,  and  equally  in  Switzerland  and  in  ijipland. 
It  inhahite  clear  atoeama,  with  rocky  or  gnvelly 
bottoma,  and  '  iirmiiii  to  require  an  alternation  of 
ftrnm  and  pooL'  It  will  live  in  clean  newly  made 
ponda  in  hwd  aoil,  alUion^  it  doea  not  meed  in 
thev,  but  will  not  lira  in  thoae  of  mnddy  bottom. 
Ita  food  eooBBta  tdtiafly  of  fliea  and  aqn^ic  larvie, 
and  it  is  taken  by  ai^ling  in  the  aame  manner  as 
the  trooL  It  aometinwa  attaina  the  weight  of  four 
or  fiTepoonda.    Hie  back  and  adaa  are  advery  gray. 


Grayling  (ThiftMiUtu  valgarui. 


thed 


»ti>e 


Itb  nnmenms  longitudinal  dusky  streaks ; 

&■  H  spotted,  £be  spots  arranged  in  lines 

.  fin.    The  abduniinal  line  ia  almost  straisht, 

the  dainl  line  i*  oonwleTably  elevated.  The  G.  is 
greatly  esteemed  for  the  tsUe,  but  requires  to  be 
cooked  nhai  newly  can^t^  when  it  has  an  odour 
which  haa  been  compared  to  that  of  wild  thyme. 
It  «p>wna  in  A)ail  nr  Hay,  and  ia  in  the  best 
oonditton  when  trout  are  out  of  leMon,  in  Octobn 
and  Korembn. — There  are  several  other  species  of 
TkynmUv^  none  of  which  are  British.   One  of  them. 


dear  aSnenIs  of  the  Mackenzie  Biver,  is  called 
Jffealulpouiak,  or  the  ibA  loilA  lie  mngliit^  by  the 
Euuinuoi.  It  iauid  to  affcsd  excellent  ^rt  to  the 
angler ;  althoogh  the  streams  in  which  it  is  found 
tue  visited  by  Uff  an^en  far  mere  umuemeut. 

This  beautiful  fish  a  very  local  in  its  distribution, 
and  although  hardly  found  in  Sootland,  is  abund- 
ant in  mort  of  the  Scaodiuavian  liven.  Angling 
for  grayling  is  excellent  sport.  It  rises  to  tha  aame 
flies  as  tlioaa  which  are  used  for  trout ;  it  also 
takes  worma,  maggota,  and  other  amall  larvs  and 
insects.  From  July  till  the  end  of  October  are 
the  best  months  for  grayling  fishing,  but  in  fine 
open  days  they  afford  sport  tuough  the  winter. 

OKATS  INN,  one  of  the  four  Inns  of  Court 
having  the  sole  power  of  calling  persona  to  the 
d^ree  of  bairister-at-Uw.    See  Ihhb  of  Codbt. 

GRAZALE'MA,  a  small  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Cadiz,  and  eitaated  about  60  miles 
east-north-east  of  the  city  of  that  name  in  a  strong 
position  on  a  rocky  hill  approachable  only  by  a 
narrow  and  easily  defended  ledge,  between  the 
Sierra  de  Konda  on  the  east,  and  the  Cerro  de 
Cristoval  on  the  west.  It  was  compared  by 
the  French  (a  whole  division  of  whom  were  here 
repulsed  by  the  inhabitants)  to  a  land  Gibraltar. 
*    great  deal  of  smuggling,  and,  it  is  suspected, 

ibbery,  is  carried  on  by  the  inhabitants.     Fop. 

100. 

GRAZIO'SO,  an  Italian  term  in  Uusio,  meaning 
with  graceful  eipresaion. 

OBEASE,  a  term  of  general  application  to  all 
oily  or  fatty  matters,  but  geuersUy  to  those  having 
degree  of  solidity,  as  tollow.  It  is  more 
ally  apphcd  to  fatty  mattera  which  ore  so 
iorated  with  dirt  or  other  impurities  aa  to  be 
unfit  for  candle-making  and  other  manufactures 
requiring  some  degree  of  purity  in  the  material. 
Oiease  is  largely  employM.  as  a  lubricant  for 
macbineix  and  especially  for  the  wheels  of  car- 
riages. The  grease  employed  for  the  axlee  of 
carriages  and  carts  consists  of  the  moat  inferior 
kinds  of  grease  mixed  with  a  Uttle  tar- 
In  commerce,  tha  term  Mares'  Greaae  ia  now  well 
known.  It  is  the  fat  of  horses  which  ore  killed  in 
large  numbeiH  at  Bueoos  Ayrea  and  Monte  Video; 
and  their  products,  coosistijig  of  bides,  greaae,  bone*, 
and  hair,  are  largely  exported  to  this  and  other 
aiee.  Owing  to  the  practice  of  alangh'^ng 
the  mares  chieSy,  this  particular  kind  of  fat  haa 
been  designated  Morti  Oreat,  It  is  a  very  oily 
fat,  and  so  penetrating,  that  it  is  difficult  to  make 
casks  suffidently  tight  to  prevent  leakage.  It  ia 
nsed  for  lubricating  machinery,  for  which  it  is  well 
adapted. 

lUiLWAT  Gbkasb  is,  in  reality,  a  kind  of  soap, 
a  small  portion  of  soda  being  mingled  with  the 
materials  to  effect  an  imperiect  sapon^cation.  The 
object  is  to  prevent  the  too  rapid  melting  of  the 
material,  which,  without  this  precaution,  would  be 
excessively  rapid,  owing  to  the  heat  caused  by 
the  friction  of  wheels  revolving  with  such  rapidity, 
also  made  of  very  superior  materials,  and 
..__9ts  generally  of  the  vegetable  fata  called 
cocoa-nut  oil  and  palm-oil ;  aometimes  animal  fat 
is  used,  liiis  compositioa  is  placed  in  small  metal 
boxes  on  the  axtes,  with  which  they  eommimicata 
by  a  small  hole,  so  that,  as  the  axle  heats  the 
Hurrounding  ports,  the  grease  in  the  boxee  melt^ 
and  runs  through  the  httle  orifice  on  to  the  axle. 
See  Beak's  Grbasi;  also  GRZisxin  Sufp.,  VoL  X. 

GBBAT  BASIN,  or  FREMONT'S  BASIN,* 
remarkable  tract  ol  country  in  Nortli  America,  lying 
in  the  west  of  ITtoh  Tenitory,  and  bounded  on  the 
W.  by  the  Sierra  de  Nevada,  and  on  the  E.  by  the 


hyGoogle 


GEEAT  BEAR  LAKE-OEKAT  BETTAIN. 


WiluBteh  UonnUiii* 


d  to  be  SOO  milM  i 


extent  from  eut  to  west,  and  about  SBO  fnmi  norUi 

to  Bouth ;  is  eirdled  mand  on  tvery  nda  by  bi^ 


.  ...  rt*oli  the  ooean,  but 

■re  either  taken  up  hj  eraporation,  or  ue  lost 
the  more  and  diibicta.     The  O.  B.  u  eaMntia 
»  deaert.    Some   portdona  of  it  are  eovered  by  a 
jieldiDS  nuB  oompoeed  of  Band,  lalt^  and   olay; 
othen  by  a  cnut  ot  alkaline  and  aaline  lobetanoeL 
See   Bub   Lik« 


GRSAT  BBITAIN.  Under  ttiu  head  are 
noticed — L  ^te  Iilaod  of  Oreat  Britaiu— 4ta  geo- 
logy and  geography ;  2.  The  United  KinKdom  of 
Great  Btttain  and  Ireland — its  general  iUtutioe, 

'    '**■ f  Endand  and  Scotland 

two  langdcou  are  dren 

j0  J  tiuhutotyof  Ireland 

to  iti  nnion  widi  Great  Biitaiin  ii  alio  Biven  nnder 
Us  own  name,  together  with  its  geognjmy. 

The  Isi.4in>  or  Ghkat  Bkiiaiv — bo  called  to 
dietrngniAh  it  from  Britannia  Minor,  or  Little 
Britain  (*ee  BBjn'AO?r>)  in  France— Uei  between 
lat  49-  57'  30"  and  68*  40'  24"  Jf^  and  between 
long.  1°  4?  B.  and  6*  13'  W.,  and  is  the  largest 
island  in  Enropa  It  is  boonded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Atlantio,  on  the  E.  by  the  North  Sea,  on  the  S.  by 
the  F^ng^^'K  Channel,  and  on  the  W^  by  the  Atlantic, 
the  IriskSea,  and  St  Georgia  Channel  The  moat 
northerly  pomt  is  Dnimet  H^d,  in  Caithneaa ;  the 
most  sontlKrly,  Licard  Foint,  in  Cornwall  j  the 
most  tatttxly,  Loweatoft  Ness,  in  Suffolk;  and 
the  meat  weetcaly,  Aidnamnieban  Point,  in  Ajgyle- 
shire.  lb  greatest  lenf[th  is  about  608  milee,  and 
ita  peatest  breadth  (ftiun  Land'e  !Ekid  to  the  east 
ooast  of  Kent]  abont  320  milei ;  while  it*  surface 
contuna  aboat  SS;600  iqiiare  miles. 

Oedoffy. — The  geology  of  O.  B.  ia  ot  peculiar 
importance.  The  rocki  of  the  earth's  crust  having 
been  first  ByitematicaUy  stadied  and  expounded 
here,  British  seologiste  have  given  to  the  world  the 
names  whereby  the  rarioua  strata  are  known,  and 
British  rocks  form  the  typical  series  of  the  earth's 
strata.  The  whole  rect^used  series  of  stratified 
depoaita  oconr  in  Britain,  one  or  two  only  being 
more  fully  developed  elsewhere  ;  and  it  is  only  in 
these  singular  oases  that  the  foreign  eonivaleDta 
—  taken  as  the  types.  British  gmlogy  is  no  leoi 
lortsnt  from  the  utdafinoe  it  has  had  in  the 
The  mineral  wealth, 
iron,  OJV  Uie  real  einewB 
No  other 

We  shall,  in  this  ^etch  <7the  distribution  of  the 
British  rooks,  follow  the  ordcx  of  the  strata,  begin- 
ning with  the  lowest  and  oldest  It  may  be  said 
that,  in  general,  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
north  and  west  are  fonned  of  the  oldest  eedimeatary 
rocks,  and  that,  as  we  move  south-eastwards,  we 
gradually  pass  over  newer  strata,  until,  in  the 
east  <rf  Endand,  we  come  to  the  only  extennve 
FInstooene  oepcdta  in  the  coontty. 

The  baae  rooka  of  the  whole  series  occnr  in  the 
Onttt  Helaidra,  in  Tiree  and  Coll,  and  along  the 
western  ahorea  of  Sntherlond  and  Boes.  The  true 
podtion  of  these  stiata  has  been  only  recently 
determined  by  Murcbieon  and  Qeikie,  who,  noticing 
hat  their  strike  was  at  right  angles  to  tiie  beds 
resting  al 


important  £  .  _ 

development  ol  the  countl^. 

especially  the  cool  and  the  Iron,      .    ._.  __ 

—  '  muscles  of  Britain's  mighty  power. 

'e  shall,  in  this  sketch  oF  the  distribut 


fVjfani,  described  ^  Sir  W.  Lc^an  in  Cwaadik  Tba 
predcminant  rock  la  OTitalliBe  gnms.  A  band  ei 
limsstons  ooonrs  en  tba  nc(th-«ast  dioc*  of  Loda 
Usres,  but  this  has  hHheita  ptored  ufoHili&dtMia. 
Besting  on  the  oonvolnted  edge*  of  thii  old  gaaiM^ 
on  the  mainland,  and  fbnaiiig  thrs  hasisnwit  nx^ 
in  Cnmberland,  Angkwy,  and  North  Waka^  w* 
have  the  OttmbrUm  terit*  of  dsporitai  In  Bootland. 
these  itMika  aM  brownirii-nd  sanditmes  and  eca- 
glomarates ;  in  T^glajw*  aud  Wal«^  ttey  are  eom- 
J.. — !_. _..-i 1,  and-'-'—      *' — 


fossils,  ehiafaimpHW&nsof  snppossdInoiHd 
annelid  bacK%  umI  soophytee,  bsTs  been  loann  m 
the  slates. 

Ths  ffiJurioM  fnsBMrs*  oooamr  a  Is^  psrtiau 
of  the  snrfsoe  of  the  omintoy.  The  tTpisM  rooka 
ooonr  in  Wales,  ext«siding  over  the  western  poftiiMk 
of  Hm  prutmpaUty  from  Pembrdce  to  Donbi^ 
and  indading  the  owthstn  portious  of  fsmbrolu, 
Caetmartheu,  and  Brseknock,  tlu  w^mIs  of  Badnor 
and  HoBtgomery,  tiw  aoollt-waat  ef  DeoUg^  and 
theiAolBof  thsoonntieato  thewsst.  Th«  oldest 
or  Lower  Silorisn  beds  an  next  tha  ooasb  Hw 
series  oonsists  of  an  Jmntanss  thickness  of  shales, 
slates,  and  sandstones,  with  intsnalatsd  limsrtones 
more  or  less  vara.  T»nn»im  tracts  haTe  bithetto 
proved  devoid  ot  fossils;  in  other  disWots,  the 
Dslosreoos  rooks  are  almost  entmly  emnposed  of 
the  T«mslns  of  marine  invertebrate  iinimaV  vi^dle 
the  shales  abound  in,  zoophyte*  and  eraataeea.  Tha 
hi^  lands  in  the  north  of  Lancashire  and  sootii  of 
Westmoreland  are  Sihirian ;  but  it  ia  ia  Beotlaad 
wbeto  these  sttata  a» most  azteasivaly  dsvdopsd; 
indeed,  slmost  ths  iriiola  ooonta;  ooudMs  (rf  Sitoiaa 
strata,  witb  tbsexe^ttoti  of  a  large  tron^  ia  the 
centt^  ooonped  with  newer  looks,  A  lins  dnwn 
from  Dnabar  to  fSrvan  forms  the  iMitluni  limit  of 
these  beds  in  the  Bonth  of  Sootlaad.  Bxeept  the 
lower  half  of  the  vall^  of  the  Tweed,  tha  iriiola 
region  from  tins  lins  to  near  the  bass  4rf  the  Chsnoto 
ia  Klnrian.  "Bia  rodcs  are  chicdy  gwnraoke, 
with  scatlaied  beds  <rf  inqHm  limestoasL  llie  oUef 
fossils  sie  gmtolitss,  orostaoea,  and  moihuea.  Tha 
lead-mines  ot  Wanlookhsad  and  friwdhills  are  in 
this  district  A  line  drawn  from  Stcmehavem  to 
Helensbnrdi  wonkt  niaik  ths  termination  of  tlw 
Simian  tnmta,  iritidi  oonpeae  the  whole  of  the 
north  of  SooUand,  witli  the  ezoeptioD  of  the  newer 
beds  on  ths  uorth-esst  coss^  and  the  I^nientian 
ud  Cambrian  seriea  already  described.  AU  the 
series  is  greatly  metuuHphowd ;  the  lower  strata 
■re  oonvrated  mto  qtMrinse  fl^tones  and  qnarti 
Fook,  the  urns  into  ohloriks  and  nck-alate,  and 
qnaitaaas  andgnaiHaM  Noks. 

I    8<mdtlont   Urala,   oonalstlng  of 


SHarians  ia'saveral  diatricts  in  Scotland.  Neariy  til 
Caithness  and  ttie  seaward  portions  of  Snthmand, 
Boas,    Cnmurty,    Innsneaa,    Nsim,   and    Ifomy, 


Andrewa,  stMbdiea  across  tha  aumirj  to  fislsns- 
tmreh  and  Dmnbarton  on  ths  west^  The  same 
str^  appear  apin  in  Haddington,  Berwk^  and 
mr^  in  Innai^  and  in  Ayrshne.  An  aitsn- 
baot  of  these  strata  ooour*  in  South  Wslsi 
and  the  neighbonring  BSirijfh  eoontsss,  SKteskding 
fnnn  tilie  Suorisa  distriottv  the  Serem  aod  ths 
Bristol  Chsnnd,  and  oonttining  in  a  hme  baaia 
the  Sooth  WsIm  ooal-field.  The  highly  fnasililsr- 
oos  strata  of  North  Dsvon,  aad  of  Booth  Derm 
and  Cornwall,  belong  to  thia  peria«L    Tbtij  niwsist 


-tr 


TOgtC 


mtXAT  BRFTAIK. 


mBMVou  oonli  Mid  ihttll-fiilL 

Hm  itosta  of  te  Cart(M{/in)M  jMrlod  miij  be 
Mid  to  oeenpf  «  IcMd  faaat  axtemding  fram  the 
BtJatol  OhaBBal  fa  Oe  bMi  of  the  0]Mnot&  Thsy 
*ra  not  wntinuiMt  brtwato  Uiaaa  limilH,  but  kn 
brokaft  19  ia  m««  j^bom  W  tlw  BpnanniM  «d 
tiw  •nrfM  «<  old«  ftnti^  wUla  in  otben  ther  ua 
ooTsnd  by  iibw»  dflpontiL    Tiut  a.*^  j 


-      -,  -         -  -  of  Wyie,iii 

WoiwrtW!   (6)    BhnwibiDT,    ud    (d)    Oolebrook 


Sbnfallin!  (7)  North  uid  (8)  Sontb 
'an;  (9)  Warwiokahire;  (lOt  Lrnxmber- 
■un:  111)  Hint  and  DttMgk;  (13)  lAnnahiTe; 
{l«i  Toric  Mtd  DnIit  ;  (14)  ^nbwUad ;  and  (16) 
N^wtitnulMriflid  and  Dnnum.  ^  tiie  notidiflni 
ptctioa  «l  thu  gn«t  tanet  of  mibI 
tlw  mObtMM  gnt  and  cariwnifw 


■  of  ooat  vi  any  valiw 
tone  in  Deifaj  m  fioh 
The  Mutonifaraw  atiaU  td  tiie 


Sohrayto  Uia  North  8«a,  in  the  oonntiM  <d  DomMM, 
Hoxbwxii,  and  B«rwiok  ^le  only  ooal-fleld  in 
tin  di«mt  li  one  d  imaU  «Kt«it  at  Oanonbia,  in 


land,  vritt  the  axoeption  Jnat  itatad,  aM  oonfinad 
totiM  imnwDBe  faontfi  betiPMn  Uie  SilnriinmeMon* 
on  the  BOTitti  and  ww  Old  Bed  Sandatone  on  the 
Boitti,  whioh  ■  oomplctely  oeonpivd  by  titem,  except 
wfane  the  Old  Red  Sondatone  riaat  to  the  aoifeoe. 
C«naidaTaUe  toaote  of  aandatona  and  linuatone 
withoal  ooat  braak  np  the  troe  ooal-beariiu 
meaaont  into  tlw  following  Mal-fialda:  the  Mut 
Lothian,  the  FUe,  the  Lana^  and  Stirling,  and  the 
Old  Cnnoodc,  in  AynbiM.    BeaidaB  ooal,  the  -whola 

of  aigilUMoaaeaftionataof  inn,  the  ore  from  iriiidi 
ia  pndneed  tiie  great  bnlk  of  (he  iion  naad  in  tiie 
ooMttry.  nw  aandatonea  of  tiua  peiiod  form 
baaotinl  and  dnmbia  bnilding-itane^  toe  limaatonca 
are  <d  gaat  oonnnaMul  Tatne,  and  many  of  the  Ian 


■aitaa    Mrala,  eonairting  of  magOMian  linie- 

and  aandatont  edlonmd  with  oxida  of  iron, 

occupy  a  ooDmdenble  ana  in  Dotiuun,  and  bonkr 

.i_  ___i_-. Tooka  in  Dnmfriea,  Oambariand, 

nnoaahire,  Ghedura,   Shropahin, 

__. ,    V,  Warwiok,   Nottinriuun,   and 

Yd  A,  and  in  fflamorgan.  "Sha  aandrtnko  u  qnatiied 
forbvUdu^ 

nte  ^pioal  triple  aariea  of  the  Triauie  maaturm 
ooaat  in  Cbrmviy;  tbe  Briliah  repreaantatiyee 
ooBBit  of  variooaly  oolonrad  aandatonea  and  marla. 
niey  oMupy  a  oonaiderablB  «tu&ce  in  I^ncaahire, 
CiMahira,  Sliropahire,  and  Staflbtd,  and  eztoid  aa  a 
ribbao  1^  varying  breadth,  faon  the  montt  of  the 
Eze,  tkroogh  Deron,  flonwtart^  Qlonoaats,  Wor^ 
oeatac,  Wanridt,  Leioeatar,  Notttngham,  Ttnk,  and 
iDnrhun,  to  the  coeat  at  'BtLt&apvA.  The  only 
denoata  of  nn\  wltr  in  Britain  oocnr  in  the  IViaaaio 
roeka  of  Chadure  aid  WonMsteithira. 

like  lAit  onwiata  of  white  aandatonea,  limeatonaa, 
ahalel,  mnlL  and  alinn  alataa.  l^iey  abonnd  in 
foaaOa,  eipecMllyin  lite  remaina  of  leptilaa,  flihea, 
nunoBoa,  and  aoDrinitea.  llie  abata  of  (ilia  am 
oMopT  a  band  between  the  Iriaa  and  Um  OcAta, 
extendmg  frou  Lyme  lUgia  to  the  month  of  the 
Teea.  iW  anull  traota  «l  liaa  ooonr,  Uie  one  in 
OlaoMigan,  and  the  other  in  Shropriure.  In  Soot- 
•  *  -  -"  -'-•■-  eoiat  at  Bi —  ~  '■-"■-'—' 
8kye,Eigg, 


BBiiea  of  Umaatonea,  aaadatonn,  aad  ahalea.  «diioh 
oomniy  a  belt  of  UMriy  SO  ndlea  broao,  from 
Tortdure  fa  Doiaetahirek  paaaiitf  throng  linccdn, 
Northampton,  Huntingdon,  BeAnd,  Bnokin^iam, 
Ozf tnd,  and  ^mta.  'Sm  beat  building  nutKula  in 
En^and  are  obtained  from  theae  abate.  Oolita 
atraU  ooonr  in  Sootland  at  Biora  and  in  Skye.  In 
the  Bioia  Oolite,  a  aaam  <A  taiX  3t  feat  in  thiokneaa 
haa  b«an  w<aked  for  npwaid*  oit  a  oantnry.  ""■  '- 
the  thiokeat  bad  of  pme  vefrataUe  maf^-  ' 
in  any  fieocmdary  foimation  in  Britain. 
'"""  ' — ■- — '^—  fPfoUm  asrin,  with  their  abnnd- 


in  the  aonOi  of  Deron. 

The  beda  of  the  Orttaetout  ftriod,  oonaitting 
chidy  of  ohalk  witli  intcDoalated  aanda  and  olaya, 
all  very  rioh  in  foaail  remaina,  ooonpy  a  broad  tract 
to  the  eaat  of  the  OoUfa  atrata,  and  paraUal  fa  Uiem. 
Beginning  a  little  ncoth  of  Ftambaton|^  Head, 
thi^  may  be  traBtdthratu^  Ym4i  and  Unooln,  tiien 
aoroaa  the  Waah  into  I^olk,  Snffblk,  HeiUord, 
Bnokin^iain,  Oxfiw^  B«Aa,  to  Hampuiire,  vrfiere 
tUey  Btparato  into  three  ama,  the  me  aiteiding 
WMdh-weatwanl  throudi  Wilta  and  Dmaet  to  ijke 
iontli  ooaat;  another  taking  a  aonth-eaat  direotion 
fa  Baaahy  Head;  and  the  third  atretcha  aa  a 
nanowbuid  in  an  eaaterlydireotion  thnngh  Snrrey 
and  North  Kaot,  widening  ont  u  it  neaia  the  ooaat, 
wbrae  it  ocon^ea  the  diatrict  between  a«in.g>t« 
and  Pidkatooo. 

Booms  ttrola,  oonaitting  of  ola^  Mada,  and 
tnnrlti  abounding  in  fofldla  whioh  wcppaiaitly  indi' 
oato  a  tnb-ttopKal  climate,  ooonpy  the  Tauey  «l 
the  Thamea,  from  Hnngerford  to  the  aea,  and 
from  OaatO'biiry  to  Saznmndhaui,  aa  well  aa  a  la^ 
,-_.  .     ,..  D0tsBt^3imt^imdaaaMx,from3aliabnfy 


Unleaat^bediinlfDll,< 
impieaaioDa   of    leavea    of    ezi^moni    jtlanta, 
Iftotau  itnda,  thare  ale  no  rapreaentatiTea  of  thia 


Suffolk.  The  still  more  raeent  PUaloeme  iaomtt 
of  freab-water  aand  and  pmrel,  and  munmaliferona 
oiag,  are  found  on  the  ooaata  of  Norfolk,  finffblk, 
EiMCE,  and  Kent.  The  till  and  fflaoial  beda  of  the 
aoattared  aa  annmoial  dapoaita  OTW 

. ^_     ..  Caitlmeaa,  in  the  valley  of  the 

O^de,  and  in  Lanoaahire ;  tiiey  oontain  ronaina  of 
moUoBoa,  many  cf  whioh  atill  lire  ia  the  aeaa  of 
boreal  AJnerioa. 

MintraU — OoaL — From  the  ooUioiea  in  Britain 
m  1B71  ware  niaed  117,439,861  tona  of  ooal. 
greatly  increaaing  conanmptioa  of  ooal  haa 
latad  feata  aa  fa  the  poaaibility  of  tha  bz- 
ir  tointcal  fnal.  It  ^jpeam  that, 
only  ULOOOiOOO  tone  ware  ruae^  in 
IS40,  the  amount  had  rewihed  30,000,000^  and  in 
I8eO,itwaaneariy84,00O,O0a  At  the  lama  rate  of 
inaraaaa,  the  known  ooal,  within  a  wnkable  diatanoa 
from  the  BUi^Me,  wonld  laat  at  laaat  100  yeara. 
But  tha  eonaomption,  dniing  Uie  bat  90  ytaia  of 
the  cantory,  wotud,  at  the  praant  inoieaaing  ratio, 
amount  to  1464  anUion  tima  a  year, 
Taatly  greatw  than 


originated  f 


.  ...poHibly  benaed.    We  need 
_  *  basin  to  fear  l««t  our  coal-fiilda 
be  neadi^  UBBd  lq>. 
, — Tumedy,  the  inily  iion  prodnaed  in  the 


tite  of  the  De^  Fo'reet  The  ore  waa  auelled 
widi  oharooaL  Bnt  die  intmduotiini  of  coke  and 
ooal  bx  amalting,  and  Uie  diaoonty  of  aameion* 


-.Gooi^l' 


OEEAT  BRITAIN. 


meltins. 


additioDftl  and  untlioiight-of  depodls,  enMOullj  in 
connection  with  coal-baarii]^  itnta,  haa  immsnaely 
iocreaaed  the  }«odaction  oE  iron,  and  met  the  greatly 
iDcreaied  demandi  for  this  importuit  metaL  Tn 
1760,  when  charooal  alone  waa  naed  for  Boieli 
not  more  than  26,000  bnia  of  in 
while  in  1S60,  no  lera  than  3,i 
obtained  from  6,024,206  toiw  of  ore.  The  market 
value  of  the  metal  was  £lS,703,05a  In  1871,  the 
total  iron  ore  production  of  iba  United  Kiuraiom,  of 
which  retuma  were  received,  amomited  to  16,334,8S1 
tona,  of  the  value  of  £7,670,572.  The  moat  import- 
ant ore  ia  the  fen-uginoua  ahale,  or  impure  aroil- 
laceoui  carbonate  of  mm,  which  occun  in  oonnectton 
with  every  coal-field  in  Brit«ii.  The  laiiwn  and 
red  luMDBtite,  oasociated  with  the  oldeat  Palnotoio 
rocha,  yi«ld  alio  a  large  amount  of  metallic  iron. 

Tin  la  obtained  from  only  two  countieB^-Comwoll 
and  Devon.  In  186S,  the  143  mines  prodnoed  9300 
tona  oE  metallio  tin,  worth  £001,400. 

Cornier  ia^ineipolly  obtained  from  the  same  two 
oonntiea.  There  are  about  160  diiOeront  mines, 
which  prodnced,  in  1868, 157,330  tona  oE  ore,  yielding 
9817  tona  of  metallio  copper,  worth  £761,602. 
In  1S60  there  waa  a  yield  of  I3,7S9  tona  of  ore,  pro- 
ducing 936  tona  of  metal,  worth  £100,691,  chiefly 
from  the  oounties  t£  Lanoaater,  Casrmarthen,  and 
Anglesey,  very  amall  qoantitiea  being  supplied  from 
miow  in  ComberUnd,  Chester,  CanUgau,  and  the 
Isle  of  Man. 

Lead  and  Silver  are  obtained  from  the  fame  on 
m  in  Palsozoic  diatricts.    The 


Yo^  and  Derl^>  in 
SbropsUrss  and  in  OomwaJl  and  Devon,  ^iiall 
qnantitiea  are  obtained  in  Somerset,  Weabnorehmd, 
Staffcod,  and  Cluster.  All  the  Silurian  connties  oE 
Walea  contain  minea.  The  Isle  of  Man  yields  nearly 
3000  tons  of  ONh  In  Scotland,  the  moat  prodnctive 
mines  are  at  Wanlockhead  and  Leadhills ;  Argyle, 
Pertti,  and  Kii^codbii^t  abo  anpply  small  auanti- 
ties.  7^  total  amount  of  ore  nuaed  in  18o8  waa 
90,236  twM)  yielding  71/)17  tons  of  matal,  worth 
£1,378,404  FrmntUa  there  were  Bepatrated836,M2 
ounoes  U  nlvw,  worth  £229,77% 

Zine  ia  obtained  from  Cornwall  and  Devon, 
Cardigan  and  North  Wales,  Derby,  Comberland, 
and  tha  Isle  of  Han.  The  prodnoe  ia  186B  vaa 
12,781  tona  oE  ore,  valued  at  £39,191.  Hie  metallic 
BOO  obtained  from  thia  amounted  to  abont  3800  tons, 
valued  at  £Tt^4SS. 

Sidphtr  Orit  (iron  p^tes)  were  raised  in  different 
parta  oE  6.  B.,  diieSy  m  Cornwall,  to  the  extent,  in 
1868.  of  76,4S4  tona,  worth  £S3,636. 

The  following  minerals  are  alao  raised  in  Cornwall, 
0,  nkkd,  iQvet-oopper, 


flnor-spar,  and  wolfram. 

Salt  oocnrs  in  Cheahire  and 


Worcestershire  : 


PKgtiauOto^pktt. — Tha  physical  featui«a  of  a 
coontiy  are  intmu^ely  connected  with  ita  pvoloeical 
slruuture.    The  older  Faheosmo  rocks  prodi 


tunons  ruons,  intosected  witii  de^  and  narrow 
valleys.  Ilie  newer  strata  seldom  use  to  a  great 
height  Thmr  high  lands  are  rounded  undula- 
tions of  the  strata,  exoqit  where  igneous  rocks  are 
iDtnided,and  the  valleys  are  broad  and  shallow.  In 
Scotland,  we  have,  ocmae^neotlv,  two  extensive  monn- 
tainons  disbicts,  occnpied  chiefly  with  rocks  of 
Silurian  age,  and  an  intervenins  vaUe^fiUed  np  with 
Old  B«d  Sandstone  and  Carboniferou*  meamres. 
Thb  lunihem  moontun  region  ia  intersected  by  the 
Great  ffleo,  which  ia  s  &snred  anticlinal  axia  in 
the  Sih»an  atrata,    It  is  difGonlt  to  group  the 


mountains  in  thia  district.  The  Grampians  from 
Aberdeen  to  Argyle  shew  the  most  maned  liniTr 
arrangemcait ;  tha  greatest  eminenoa  in  thia  range 
is  Ben  lowers  <dw  feat).  Between  the  GranqaaH 
and  the  Great  Glen  a  succession  oE  grest  nrninmnn 
occur,  the  hidiwt  <rf  wh^ih,  and  tiie  onhninatine 
point  oE  the  irtiole  British  Isles,  is  Ben  Nevis  (4406 
leet).  To  the  north  oE  the  valley  of  the  Caledoniaa 
Canal,  the  re«on  ia  a  confnj^  mass  of  monbtains, 
reaching  in  Ben  Attow  a  height  of  4000  feet 
Caithneoa  consists  of  plains  of  uni£ilating  sandstone 
covered  with  drift ;  the  headlands  and  sea-olifb  in 
this  county  are  bold  and  striking.  The  ooaat-Iiiie 
of  the  PoJMotoic  T^on  of  the  north  of  Sootland  is 
repeatedly  broken  by  numerous  and  large  fritiis  m 
sea-lochs,  and  the  interior  abounds  in  piotoreaqne 
lakea.  The  Silnriane  of  the  south  of  Scotland  form 
an  extemdve  mountain  range  crossing  the  ialuid 
from  St  Abb's  Head  to  Stranraer,  ^le  rooks  an 
less  indnnited  than  in  the  nortb,  and  the  aooioy 
is  consequently  not  so  wild.  The  mountains  have 
genenUly  broad  flattened  forms,  intersected  l^  deep 
pastonl  ^ens,  which  widen  out  into  broadtf  valleys 
and  dales.  The  principal  heights  are  Haitfell 
(2790  feet)  and  Black  Lug  (2690  feat).  The  great 
cenbal  valley  of  Scotland  embraces  the  basins  of 
the  Clyde,  Forth,  and  Tay.  It  contains  several 
tracts  oE  noh  tab^land,  and  ia  frequently  broken 
throngh  by  igneous  looka,  chiefly  tnppean,  whielt 
prmect  into  bold  and  picturesque  nills. 
England  and  Wales,  in  the  Camlnian  and  Silurian 


t  as  so  much  of 
En^and  ia  ocon^aed  with  newer  strata,  it  may 
be  conridered  on  the  whole  as  a  level  coootry, 
traversed  by  ridges  of  varying  elevatiMl,  whidi 
form  the  water-uieds  oE  tha  country.  The  range, 
beginning  with  the  Cheviot  WilU,  is  continiwd 
from  the  borders  of  Scotland  southwards,  as  liie 
Pennine  range,  through  Nixthumberland,  Cumber- 
land, Westmoreland,  Lancashire,  and  Yorkshire, 
to  the  middle  of  J>erbyshire ;  it  varies  in  height 
from  1200  to  3000  feet,  reaching  its  highest 
summit  in  CrossfeU,  Cnmberland,  which  is  3383  feet 
high.  The  band  of  Lias  and  Oolite,  extending  from 
Yorkshire  to  Doc«et,  forma  a  tortuous  range  oE 
table-land,  rising  sometimes  into  hills  to  the  height 
of  IGOO  feet,  and  ihrougbont  its  course  presantang 
generally  a  bold  escarpment  to  the  west,  uid  having 
a  gentle  slope  to  tiw  esat  To  the  west  of  this 
range  of  table-lsiid  are  die  valleys  of  the  York- 
shire OnSB,  the  Trent,  and  the  Severn ;  on  the 
east,  the  Great  Ouae  and  the  upper  portiou  of  the 
Thunel.  Beyond  these  two  nvers,  the  coonby 
rises  into  a  range  of  low  chalk.hills,  which  follow 
the  cretaceous  strata  from  Norfolk  to  Wilts, 
dividing  with  the  strata  into  three  isngee,  two  of 
which  take  an  easterly  direction  throngh  Snssex 
and  Surrey  and  Kent,  bordering  the  WeaJden  strata, 
and  forming  the  South  and  T^rth  Downs.  Devon 
and  C<niiwsll  aro  mountainous,  from  the  intrusion 
of  granite  and  other  igneous  rocks  through  the 
Falffiozoic  strata, 

The  details  of  the  physicsl  geography  are  given 
under  the  nsmea  of   the  sevwal  counties,  Ues, 

Clinial«.— The  climate  oE  G.  B.  derives  ita  peanliar 
character  from  the  insular  situation  of  the  coont^, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  prevailing  direotion  of 
the  winds.  It  is  mild  and  equaUe  in  a  remarkable 
d^ree,  the  winters  being  considerably  warmer,  and 
the  summers  colder  than  at  places  within  the  same 
parallels  of  latitude.  For  A  least  three  months, 
the  mean  monthly  temperature  isngfs  between 
S0*-0  and  60*'0 ;  for  other  three  montiia  it  continues 
about  WD,  or  occaaionally  a  little  higher,  seldom 


.Google 


QBEAT  BBITAIN. 


mon  thuk  tluee  degrees  j   Mid  for  the  remaii 

■ix  moatha  it  oidiuuily  nuges  between  X'H 

48^4  Since  the  Keporta  of  tba  lUgiatmt-geneml 
cleAriy  wove  Uut  the  tempentore  moat  conduciTe 
to  h«altb  IB  between  B0°-0  and  60°-0,  it  follawi  th^ 

u  iat  sa  eoncens  tempetkture,  the  climAto  of  Q.  ~ 
I  ia  doe  of  the  healUikat  in  the  world. 
I  A»  appean  from  data  farnished  bj  the  Beporte  of 
I  the  Bi^lisli  and  Scottjah  Meteorological  Societies, 
I  the  mean  temperature  of  Snghuid  is  49°-fi,  and 
]  of  Scotland  47"'6.  The  mean  temperatum  of  the 
I     following .  places,  arranged  according  to  the  lati- 

tadt,  hare  been  dedno^  from  the  same  somrces ; 
I  OaaoMaj,  60"-2;  Traro,  fil°-3;  Ventnor,  61'6; 
I  Barnataple,  BO'S ;  Aldenhott,  4g°-4 ;  Greenwich, 
!    tT-5i    Bedford,  49°>3;    Derby,   48^-8 ;    Liverpool, 

AS'-O;  Mancheater,  48°-0;  lale  of  Man,  iVS; 
I  Scarboronch,  47'0;  Hilne-Oraden  (Berwick),  46°-8; 
I  DalkeiUi,  46'-9 ;  Bothesay,  4r'S>  Greenock,  47''-9; 
1  Arbroath,  46*-6;  Culloden,  46°'8;  Tongae,  46°'5; 
,  Sandwick  (Orkney),  4Jr-6 ;  and  Breaaay  (Shetland), 
I  4£r'3.  There  ia  thus  a  difference  of  folly  aii 
,     decrees  between  Ventnor,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and 

Shetland.  A*  this  diSereace  is  chiefly  attnbutable 
I  to  the  difference  of  their  latitodea,  it  follows,  ttiat 
I  it  will  becooM  mater  as  th«  forae  of  the  sun's  ray* 
I     inoreaaM ;  and  nence,  while  the  winter  tanpeiatuTM 

are  re^ectivdy  42''2  and  39°^  liie  sninmer  tempera- 
I    turea  are  Sl'-S  and  S3°-4    A  jnetty  iwnlar 

«f  temperatnre.  With  an  inereaae  M  laStnde,  will  be 
I    ohMrred,  particolarly  if  the  places  on  the  west 

aide  of  Uie  island  be  regarded  as  a  distinot 

Kthemselyea.  It  will  appear,  on  ezamiuatioE 
i  temperstnces  of  places  on  the  west  are  about 
1  a  degree  in  excess  of  those  of  places  in  the  same 
I  latitudes,  but  at  some  distance  from  tiie  Atlantic. 
I  Id  winter,  tlie  differences  between  the  west  and  the 
I  other  parts  of  iim  coontry  are  still  greater.  Thus, 
.  whilst  the  winter  tempoatore  of  ^&uro  is  45°'0 ; 
I  Goemaey,  43'S ;  Ventnor  and  Bainataple,  42°-S ; 
I     lale  of  Man,  41°-8 ;  liverpool,  4ff-^ ;  and  Qrecoook, 

and  the  whole  of  the  west  oraat  of  Scotland  *a  far 
I    aa  Shetland,  39*-ff— that  of  Oreenwioh  ia  37''-9 ;  Not- 

tindiam,  aTS;  YoA,  37*-l ;  ScarborDngh,  3S°'S; 
I  DaJkaith,  ST-Oi  Arbroath,  ST'l ;  and  Cullodan,  3S°-2. 
j        The  aoath-weat  winds  are  the   most  prevalent 

thnmghont  the  year,  OEcept  in  April  sjkd  May, 
I  when  thn  pre  place  to  the  north-east  winds. 
I    Tira  notonoDsly  diy  and  parching  character  of  Qm 

latter  i«ider  them  very  deleterious  to  health.  On 
I    tiie  other  hand,  the  sonUi-weet  winds,  coming  from 

the  Atlantic,  are  moist  and  genial,  and  it  is  on  their 
I    greater   freijoancy — being,  as   compared   with   the 

north-eMl^  m.  the  proportion  of  two  to  one—that 

ttte  nlnbn^  of  the  climate  in  a  great  measure 


I    ttte  salnbr 
depends. 
In  those 


_n  those  diabicta  of  Eo^and  where  hilla  do  not 
interCnCi  tiie  annnal  rain&iriaabont2Si&ahea,Bndin 
aiinilarputa<tf  Scotland  about  28  inoheti  but  these 
I  amnnnts,  iriiioh  may  be  considered  aa  the  mjniiminn 
I  falli^  are  Taiiooaly  moreBBed  by  froximi^  to  hiUa, 
aocOTding  as  the  place  is  titoated  m  the  ewt  or  west 
of  the  iibnd,  viewed  in  relatioii  to  the  direction  of 
the  wind  which  things  ttie  nin,  and  by  its  lying  to 
I  the  wind  or  lee  side  of  these  hills.  Smce  it  ia  the 
aoatb-west  winds  which  bring  the  rain,  the  heaviest 
IbUb  take  place  among  the  hills  in  the  west  of  the 
country ;  and  it  may  ba  here  observed  that,  in  the 
west,  where  there  are  no  hilla  lying  to  the  north- 
west, west,  or  soath-WHt,  the  annnal  rainfall  is 
abfsit  the  ininimam.  The  annual  rainfall  in  Com- 
wall,  Walea,  Cumberland,  and  the  West  Hielilands, 
may  be  estimated  at  from  46  to  S6  inchea.  In  some 
place*,  however,  this  amount  is  far  exceeded.  At 
Be^waite,  in  Cumberland,  for  instance,  tbe  rainfall 
ia  ta^  tropical,  the  mean  annnal  amonnt  being  127 


inches;  in  1861, it  was  IS2 inches;  and  in  the  month 
of  November  of  that  year  the  enormous  quantity  of 
3S-4I  inches  fell  at  this  atatiDn.  At  Tyudrum,  in 
Perthahire,  131'S  inches  fell  in  1861 ;  and  at  thia 
plaoe,  and  among  the  Arrochar  HillB,  the  monthly 
rainfall  ia  occaaionaUy  between  20  and  30  inches. 

Batumi  Huiory. — The  natural  history  of  Q.  B. 

comeponds    genaiUIy   with   that   of    continentel 

Euro(»  (q.  v.}.     Very  few  species,  either  of  plants 

or  animals,  are  peculiar  to  Great   Britain,      The 

Sera  oE  the  greater  part  of  the  island  most  nearly 

resemblea  that  of  Germany ;   but  in  the  south  of 

England  there  is,  as  might  be  expected,  a  clcacr 

correBpondenca  with   that   of    the   nortii-weat    of 

France;   and  some  plants  found  in  Uu   Channel 

lands  and  on  the  French  coast  appear  nowhere 

Britain  but  in  the  south-west  of  i^igtand.    The 

mountains   of   Wales,  Cmnbraiand,    and  Scotland 

^-~-  k  vt^tation  resembling  tliat  of  Scandinavia 

than  that  of  the  mountains  of  Central  or 

Southern  Europe.     The  rtata  of  the  case  is  much 

the  same  as  tit  the  fauna.     There  are,  however, 

many  remarkable  instances   both   of   plauta    »"H 

animals,  which,  from  iiieto  apparent  relations  to 

1  Enrope,  might  be  expected  in  G.  R,  and 

not  indigenona  to  it    As  examples,  may 

among  plants,  the  Noway  spmoei 

ScandinaTO.  The  progress  of  idvilisation  and  of 
enltiVBtion  has  completely  banished  front  G.  B. 
many  of  the  -"■"■*'■  which  were  onos  unmeroua,  as 
bean,  wolves,  to.  But  on  the  oontraty,  many  pWt« 
which  were  unqneetionably  introduced  1^  man, 
have  become  thoroughly  naturalised. 

EOuuiiogy. — The  present  population  of  the  island 
of  G.  B.  is  the  resott  of  sucoeasive  wave*  of  inuni- 
itiou  and  conquest  When  tJie  Eomana  invaded 
itain  (fi4B.c.l,  the  inhabitanta  were  Celtio;  and 
thay  continued  to  be  essentially  so  until  the  5th 
and  6tll  centuries,  when — the  Bomana  having  pre- 
viously retired— the  level  mrts  of  the  counby  were 
gradually  overrun  and  anndned  hj  Gennan  bribes 
man  the  oj^ioaite  coasts.  Then  followed  invaaiona 
of  Danes  and  other  Scandinavian  nationa,  and 
lastly  the  Norman  Conquest  As  the  Normans^ 
however,  were  originaUy  from  Scandinavia,  they 
cannot  be  considered  ss  adding  any  new  ethno- 
logical element ;  so  that  the  inhuntants  c^  En^and 
[excepting  Wain)  and  of  the  Lowlands  o(  Scouand 
may  be  conaidered  as  sprung  from  an  amalgamation 
of  uie  original  Celtic  with  Qennan  and  Soandinavian 
blood,  the  latter  having  predominated  BO  as  to 
determine  the  language,  inBtitutJODS,  and  character 
of  the  resulting  race.  Wales  and  the  Highlands 
of  Sootiand  are  still  inhabited  by  representatives 
of  the  ancient  Celtic  tiibes.  See  Wklsh  La»- 
avAOB  AKD  LrmiATUBB ;  Sootujid  ;  Pictb  ;  Ibk- 
tiUTD;  CKLTia  Nat[0.vb;  Beitaknia;  andAJiOLO- 

S  AXONS. 

Notwithstanding  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms 
ito  which  the  isumd  was  once  divided,  the  distinc- 
tion, for  certain  purposes,  is  still  kept  up,  England 
(including  Wales),  the  larger  and  southern  divuion, 
extends  as  tar  north  as  tne  parallel  of  fi£°  48',  the 
boundary-line  running  between  Berwick-on- Tweed 
and  the  Solvay  Firth  (see  Bobdeb,  Thz)  ;  its 
greatest  length  ia  about  400,  and  itsgreatest  breadth 
about  320  miles.  Area,  about  68,300  square  milea. 
England  resembles  to  some  extent  a  tadangle  in 
shape,  its  southern  shore  forming  the  broad  base, 
and  its  east  and  west  coasts  era^ally  approacUnff 
until  the  apex  is  reached  A  Berwick-on-Twee<£ 
Scotland  occnpisB  the  northern  part  ot  the  island ; 
leiwth  (from  the  UuH  of  Galloway 
[e»d)  ia  about  S8T  milea  j  Its  greatest 


to  ^^et 


hyGoog  e 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


breadtli  (from  PetsriiMd  to  Ardiumordiui  Point) 
about  1^  mileB ;  elBewhere,  hovrever,  the  breadth 
ii  macb  lew.  Between  Alio*,  od  tlie  Forth,  and 
Dumbnton,  on  the  Clyde,  it  it  only  33  milea 
between  tiw  head  of  Looh  Broom,  on  the  wer 
ooaEt,  and  <d  Domooh  Firth,  on  the  east,  only 
26  niilee ;  and  north  of  Invemen,  the  aterage 
breadth  does  not  exceed  70  miJea.  The  entire  area 
ii  abont  31,300  aqnare  miles.  The  greater  part 
of  the  Eoriace  of  Scotland  is  irr^ularly  diitribnted 


tion  spreading  into  level  plains, 
forma  a  navmg,  ooatinnona,  and  rarely  broken 
line ;  bat  tbe  weatem  is  exbWely  iiregiUar,  being 
deeoly  indented  with  bays  and  anna  of  the  lea, 
exfaibitin^  tteep  promontoriea  and  momitainon* 


...idinx  the  north-west,  weat,  and  cenlral  portii 
the  latter,  generally  speakino,  the  eaat  ooait,  and 
the  conntiy  south  of  the  Forui  and  Clydsi 

/«tafub.— The  island  of  O.  B.  is  surromided  by 
the  Isle  of  Man,  Anglesey,  the  Sdlly  Islea,  the 
lele  of  Wuht,  the  outlying  Channel  lalandl,  the 
Bbetland  Ues,  the  Orkneys,  and  the  Hebridea, 
each  hHTins  generally  a  mainland  enciroled  bv 
■mall  islaniu  and  rocks,  bare  or  soantQy  oorered, 
which  aea-fowli  inhabit,  fishermen  in  uieir  boat* 
vimt,  and  shepherds  eometimea  dwell  in  during 
snmmer.  The  coast  against  the  North  Sea  has 
few  i«i«Ti'i«,  ezoept  Thanet,  Sheppey,  and  some 
lowlands,  which  are  isolated  at  high  water.  Coquet^ 
Staples,  Holy  Island,  May  Island,  Inchkeith,  and 
Inchqolm,  are  the  only  ones  inhabited.  The 
Orkn^B  and  the  ShetLuida  lie  to  the  north.  8t 
Michael,  Loos,  and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  are  the  only 
islands  on  the  south  coast,  eicopt  those  sometimes 
oonnect«d  with  the  land,  and  the  Channel  Islands 
off  the  coast  of  Normandy.  All  the  other  island* 
lie  on  the  west  coast,  extending  from  the  Scilly 
Isle^  through  Anglesey  and  Man,  to  the  Island  of 
Lewis.  According  to  the  cenans  of  18S1,  there  were 
ahont  SOO  of  these  islands  and  rooks,  of  irtiich  only 
ITS  were  inhabited;  but  in  1861  a  more  carefiu 
enumeration  was  made,  when  it  was  ascertained 
that  Scotland  alone  haid  787,  of  which  166  were. 
inhabited.     The  nnmbar  belonging  to  QiglanJd  ia 


not  stated. 

For  administrative  purposes,  G.  "B.,  with  ita 
■urronnding  islands  (exoeptins'  the  Channel  Islands 
and  the  lue  of  Man,  which  are  undw  peculiar 
imrisdiction),  is  divided  into  84  counties  or  ahiree. 
The  following  tablea  exhibit  their  seTeral  areas  and 
population* : 


c™.. 

.£-.5u 

'isr 



SiST-.-: 

fS^r? 

K- .-.■.■ 

Honilngimi,      . 

S9,U« 

I7*,870 

Oifort,     ,  '.  '. 


Total  otBuclaad, 


WI.TJT 

Stt.OM 
SM,T84 


9ss:«i8 


iBborfli, 


LlnUthfgir,  .    ■ 

PHih,  .'.','. 
n*Binw,     .    . 

Rov  &  Cromanj, 

3i;.,v'. 

Wlftin,.    ,    . 
Total  efSoBllind, 

Thr  Usited  Kin<jdoh  or  Qexat  Bbitaim  akd 


lu.sot 

41,311 

t.LiOogle 


byGoogle 


byGoogle 


I 

,db,Google 


byGoogle 


GREAT  BEITAIir, 


over  «very  ptui  of  the  globe,  and   ooaititatiDg  'an 
emioTe  on  whiclL  tlie  mn  neTsr  wta.' 

Tha  foUoiriiig  tables  exhibit  the  extent  and 
population  of  the  leTeral  conctitaent  parta  of  tbia 
empire,  acoording  to  the  lateat  avulable  acooonti  t 


j  iBELAm)  ia,  iince  the  nnion  ot  Ireland,  the  fnll 
I  offici&l  deaianatioa  of  the  oonntty  tnore  generally 
I  known  aa  Oieat  Britain,  Britain,  or  the  United 
I  Kii^dian.  In  addition  to  the  home  temtoriee, 
~  mnltitndeof  dependemseaooattered 


-&■ 


■Il.TW 
1,S90,1M 


COLOKIK  AltD  TOKMian  FOStSaHORB. 


Hsv  SiinUi  WilH,     . 


n  AsalnU*, 


<kpt  at  Good  Hope, 
St  Hdma,  .  . 
OotdCout,  . 


War  IHDU  Intni — 
Tuk^Und, 


BrtUab  adma, 


tn,UT 
US,3U 


>u 


<U1,1U| 


Host  of  the  tnbjecti  which  enter  into  a  complete 
acconnt  of  the  United  Kingdom  are  treated  under 
tepante  headi.  We  can  only  ^otd  apaoe  here  for 
the  followiog  brief  indicatioQi  of  a  genwal  kind : 

AgritulOre.—'DiB  coil  of  O.  B.  ia  almost  esoln- 


■inigu. 


J  Id  laet.       I  In  IML 


mvely  devoted  to  the  prodootion  of  the  tiro  primai; 
neceaaitjes  of  Mciety — bread-etnb  (chieflj  vbea^ 
barley,  and  oata),  and  gTasa,  roota,  to.,  a*  food  for 
domortio  animala.  For  this  porpoae,  both  the  aoil 
and  Uie  climate  are  admirablj  luited,  M'CuUoch 
estimated  the  nnmber  of  aorea  in  England  under 
grain  crops  in  1S52— 1853  at  6^  milliouB  (wheat,  3 
milliona ;  barley,  1 ;  oata  and  rye,  2 ;  beana  and 
peaa,  }),  and  the  total  produce  at  271^  million 
quarters— valne     £37,000,000.      The     prodi 


tiie  oarefai  sbitirtiaa  ocdlaotod  by  .   .    ..„ 

Agiionltnnl  Sometj  ol  Scotland,  thwe  were  in 
SooUand  SJWMTTZ  aena  under  rotation,  the  chief 
oropa  being  graa«  and  hay,  1,409,800  acrea;  oats, 
988,613  acres,  yielding         ""  """ 


;  bailey,  199,387, 


yielding  6,69C^109    i 


yielding  A 
to  6^,S( 


»,S6S— vit,  180,409  honen,  974,437  cattle, 
$,683,168  sheep,  and  14MM  swine.  Thetotdsiteot 
of  land  ratnraed  in  1872  as  being  nnder  all  kinds  d 
orops,  bsM  fallow,  and  grass  was  31,004,173  aores  in 
Great  foitain,  1S,74C,«7  acres  in  Ireland,  88,573 
acra  in  the  Isle  erf  Man,  18,026  acres  in  the  island 
of  Jensv,  and  12,00?  acres  in  tha  islands  of  Guern- 
sey, Alaemey,  &o.,  making  a  total  for  the  United 
Kingdom  of  46,869,326  acres,  llie  total  aorea^  of 
land  TStniiwd  as  under  cultivation  in  Great  Bntain  | 
has  been  larger  in  eaoh  jtear  einoa  the  returns  wen  I 
first  collected  from  all  oooupieis  of  land  in  1863.  ' 
nie  live-stock  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1873  was 
aa  follows ;  The  number  of  hoises  inoloded  in  the 
uiionltnral  retnma  was  1,808,269;  tlie  number 
heenaed  in  Great  Britain  wss  867,048 ;  the  numbw 
of  other  than  agricnltnral  hones  siempt  from 
licence  doW  was  [aobably  about  36,000  ;  and  the 
number  belonang  to  the  army  at  home  may  be 
stated  at  1S,0W^  lAich  would  Mng  the  tot^  num- 
ber of  hones  in  the  United  Kingdom  upb>2,716,00a 
The  total  namb<e  U  cattle  returned  for  the  United 


hi  1872  waa  «,718,O00i  <d  ibaep 
DiunDer  wat  82,246,000 ;  and  of  pin,  4,178 
these  mimben  it  livestock,  Grsat  Britain  (ezdi 


r8,ooa   Of 


islands)  powessed  2,lliOjOOO  hones,  and  Ire- 
land 640,000 ;  giving  a  proportionate  nmnber,  per 
100  acres  of  land  ui^r  cultivation,  of  6'9  in  Great 
Britain,  and  34  in  Ireland.  Of  oattle  of  aU  kinds 
there  were  0,624,000  in  Great  Britain,  or  ISl  per 
100  acres;  and  4,067,000,  or  208  per  100  acres,  in 


d  by  Google 


ORBAT  BRITAIN. 


I  IrelMid.  Sheep  numbered  27,921,000,  or  90D  pet 
I  100  aorta,  in  Great  Britaia,  uid  not  more  tb»n 
'  4,262,000,  or  271  per  100  acres,  io  Ireland.  There 
:  were  2,771,000  pigi,  or  8-9  per  100  acres,  in  Ore>t 


BriUiD,  ezcliuiTe  of  Hum  kept  by  cottasen  uid  a 
towna;  and  1,386,000,  or  8-8  per  100  acrea,  ID  Ireluid 
MamifaelttTtt.—'Ihe  following  table  ezhiblU  tlu 
couditian  of  the  textile  manafactaret ; 


^-.^. 

»»,„>. 

^.«^        ^ 

■w. 

im  {   UH  1   in. 

ua. 

1H 

■w 

»m 

,m.    !    iiH. 

IHC 

m     1 

o."« 

*«!!«■.  ■    ■    ■ 

ssi-'-'.  ■:■:■: 
itt 

i.m 
am 

l.»M 

1 

ISO 

»,ei7 
a,ui 

M.M* 

iilsii 
I4.:>a 

llilM 

B,aM 

11  BIS 

«;»7 

M,9DS 

as 

«»,J[» 

as 

109.300  1 

10«.1M| 

a.m  \ 

4.S1J 

im 

1,117 

«,1M 

i<>t,m 

1M,H7 

ISl.lM 

1M,T»1 

4}3,«0 

m.Mi 

M1,W 

7*1.  us 

The  jato  trade  ii  rapidly  riaing  into  importanoe, 
especially  in  Scotland.  In  1801  there  were  30 1  in 
1868,  41 ;  and  in  1870,  63  jate  factories  in  tbe 
United  Kingdom ;  and  Uie  horae-power,  both  tteam 
noA  water,   pnt   forth   in    thia    mani^actuie  wm 


For  other  great  braucliea  of  ioduBtry,  see  iROEf, 

pAFin,  POTTEKT,  fto. 

Imporlt  and  BtporU. — The  following  table  ez- 
bibita  the  Talae  of  the  imports  and  exporta  for  tbe 
yean  1837, 1SC>8, 1861,  and  1871 ! 


.». 

IM. 

,HL 

-:. 

»;ios,iH 

ClH,K3,Sn 

ii«;»s;7M 

»,i7i,csa 

£»7,M1,U1 

isB.iis.m 

^T^f-,  {Si^p,  u,d"^«iUi  Prodi™;  .    '  ,    ■  . 

T«WB«P"'". 

Total  ImpoTli  ana  Eiparti, 

ia«,174.Ml 

£in,7«).7ia 

£igo,«(»,«w 

aK.m,Tn 

£SM,M»,m 

£m,96t,<ii 

07M.1..11 

mi,t».im 

The  chief  im[>orts  are  raw  cotton,  com  and  floor, 
sugar,  wool,  ailk  manufactures,  and  tea ;  tbe  ohief 
ezporba  are  cotton  manufactures,  woollen  and 
wortted  manufactures,  iron  and  steel,  linen  mana- 
facturea,  coals  and  oulm,  and  macbinery. 

Gold  and  SUaa-  Buliion  and  Sped*. — The  com- 
puted real  value  of  the  gold  and  silver  bullion  and 
specie  bronsbt  into  the  United  Kinj^om  in  ' 
waa  £29,49^190;  in  1859,  £37,070,163;  in  : 
£22,97^196;   and  in   1861,  £18,747,040.     Of  this 

Juantitr,  Aostraha  sent  by  tar  tbe  most — viz.,  in 
858,  £9,066,289 ;  185^  £8,627,654;  1860,  £6,719,857; 
and  1861,  £8,331,828.  Mexico,  South  America,  and 
tbe  Vest  Indies  were  the  next  largest  exporters ; 
then  the  United  States  and  France.  The  exports 
from  the  United  Kingdom  during  the  same  mriod 
were— 1S5S,  i:i9,e28.»76:  18£9,  £35,688,803;  1360, 
£20,534,763;  1861,  £20,811,S4S,  The  decbired  real 
value  of  gold  and  ailver  bullion  and  specie  imported 
into  the  United  Kingdom  during  ttte  year  1871 
was— gold,  £21,613,0Wi;  sUver,  £16,627,322;  total, 
£38,140,327;  exported— gold,  £20,696,275;  silver, 
£13,062,396;  total,  £33,760,671.    The  declared  real 


was^nld,  £14,876,744;  silver,  £9,880,463;  total, 
£24,7»,207i  exported— gold.  £17,093,478;  sUver, 
£8,961,918;  toUL  £26,066,396. 

Shaping.— Q.  B.  had,  in  1861  {exclosive  of  river- 
steamers),  19fiS&  registered  ■uling-vessela,  with 
an  aggregate  burden  of  3,918,611  loos,  and  997 
steamers,  carrying  441,184  tool,  making  together 
2(^28S  vessels,  of  4,369,696  ton*  burden,  and  em- 
[dicing,    ezdniive   of    nuuteri,    17ir 


them  ateam,  of  an  Mgr^ate  banlea  ot  310,900  tc 
The  total  totmain  m  vasels  eatering  and  clearing 
British  porta  in  1861  was  26,500,611  tons,  21,924,983 
tons  lepreaenting  eargoei,  tbe  rest  being  in  ballast. 
The  coast  trade  of  O.  B,  daring  tbe  same  year 
amounted  to  17,356,230  tons,  all  bat  93,000  tons 


being  carried  by  British  diipa.  In  1871,  the 
□umber  of  registered  sailing-vessels  ravaged  in  the 
home  trade  was  11,838,  empl^ing  41,828  men,  and 
their  tonnage  was  777,185.  Tbe  nnmber  of  stoam- 
veeiels,  exdusive  of  river  steamers,  in  the  same 
trade  was  1191;  men,  12,613;  tons,  196,125L  The 
number  of  sailing-vewels  engaged  in  foreign  trade 
was,  in  the  same  year,  300,  with  6767  men,  and  an 
aggr^ate  of  157,964  tons ;  and  of  at«am.  vessels, 
1066,  with  40323  men,  and  an  aggregate  of  036,914 
tons.  It  will  be  aeen  that  the  merchant  navy  is 
availing  itself,  to  a  larce  degree,  of  steam-power. 
A  parliamentary  retnni  issued  in  1370,  shews  that 
during  the  jrear  preceding,  the  total  number  of  sea- 
nten  employed  on  board  British  ships,  registered  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  waa  202,477 :  of  these,  20,263 
were  foreigners. 

Jiailicayi.—'the  total  length  of  linea  open  for 
traffic  in  tbe  United  Kingdom  in  1860  was  10,433 
miles.  During  the  year,  163,436,678 
travelled,  of  whom  20,625,851  were  : 
49,041,814  seoond  class,  and  93,768,013  thiid  . 
The  amount  of  mouOT  derived  from  these  teavaUen 
waa-fintcbus,  £3,170,939;  ascond  class,  £3,944,713; 
third  class,  £4,162,487.  Luggage,  mails,  &o.,  brought 
up  tbe  receipts  from  paaasnger-ttaffic  to  £13,035,766. 
The  soods-tavffic  in  the  same  year  amounted  to 
£14,680,866,  making  a  total  income  of  £27,766,622. 
The  total  amount  mveated  in  railways  by  shares 
and  loana  in  18S8  waa  £325,376,307,  on  which  was 
paid  intecert  to  the  total  amount  of  £6,653,166. 
Ibe  average  rate  of  dividend  on  the  ordinary  share 
capital  over  tiie  whole  kingdom  in  1353  was  3-06 
per  cent ;  tiie  pnportioa  per  cent,  of  ezpeoditura 
'-^  total  reoeipU  m  1860  was  47.  In  1860,  the 
illing-atock  ot  the  varioos  companies  oonaisted  of 
101  locomotives,  15,076  carriage*  of  all  kinds, 
and  180,574  wa^nnt.  At  the  end  of  1371  there 
were  16,766  miles  of  railwur  open  for  tnSe— 
shewing  an  addition  since  1860  of  6323  miles, 
or  this  entire  length  11/M3  nilca  belcmged  to 
England  and  Walea;   to  Scotland,  2638;   and  to 


hyCoogle 


GHEAT  BRITAIN. 


IreUnd,  193S.  To  the  total  capital  paid  up,  Eng- 
land and  Walea  oontributed  £461,368,616 ;  Scotland, 
£64,282,911  ;  and  Ireland,  £27,028,580.  In  the 
diviuoD  of  total  traffic  nceipt*,  the  itinu,  read  in 
the  aame  order,  were  £41,383,066 ;  £5,237,329 ;  and 
^62.272,386. 

Uttnve  and  EipendUurt. — The  foUowing  table 
Bhein  the  total  amonnta  of  the  actual  revenue  and 
expenditure  for  the  sixteen  yeara  from  1SS7  to  1S72, 
along  with  the  proportioa  of  reoeiptt  and  of  ex- 
pemutara  for  each  peraon  in  the  United  Kingdom  : 


a..™™. 

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The  income  of  the  United  Einf 


lom  ii  derived  from 
tdse,  atampa,  taxes, 
propel^  Mtd  income  bo,  wMt-oflice,  ftc  The  tol- 
kiwing  are  the  •nnu  receiT^  by  the  GioheqQer  from 
then  aoaicei  during  the  financial  year  1872—1873  : 
Coatonw,  £20,300,000;  exciae,  £23,320,000 ;  (tamp*, 
£9,700,000;  anetMd  taxes,  £2,350,000;  income- 
tax,  £9;9SO,000 ;  port-office,  £4,770.000 ;  telegraphe, 
£850,000;  crown  lands,  £376,000;  misceUaDeoas, 
£3,300,000.  The  following  are  the  items  of  ex- 
pcoditare  in  the  same  year  :  Intareat  and  manage- 
ment of  debt,  £26,830,000;  Consolidated  Fnnd 
chaiM,  £1,780,000  ;  wrmy  (including  abolition  of 
poicbuB),  £1M77,000;  naTy,  £9J»e,000;  dTil 
•errice,  £10,652,000 ;  lerenue  and  poat-office, 
£5,231^000;  packet  Mrrioe,  £1,]3S,000;  telegraph 
aervica,  £500,000. 

National  DAL — At  the  cod  of  Uie  finanoiil  vaar 
1S72,  the  national  debt  of  Great  Britaia  and  Irelaod 
Mnonnted  to  £736,141,900,  of  which  £730,986,800 


was   fonded,  and  £5,153,100  was   anfunded.    See 

Dkbt,  Natiohil. 

Armu  and  Nov)/. — See  Bbitibk  Anm;  tmd 
Navt,  Bbttish. 

Form  of  QoeermattU. — The  government  ot 
O.  B.  is  of  the  kind  known  a«  a  'Constitatiimal 
Monarchy,'  in  which  the  sovereign  accepts  o£  hii 
dignity  under  an  expresa  agreement  to  abide  by 
certain  prescribed  conditions.  See  Coborattoh 
Oath,  The  sovereignty  is  hereditary  in  the  family 
of  Brunswick,  now  on  the  throne,  and  in  the 
p^Bon  of  either  a  male  or  a  female.  The  eovereign 
(king  or  queen)  is  the  directing  power  in  the  execu- 
tive of  government ;  while  the  legislative  function 
ia  exerciBed  by  psrliament.  Fuither  infonnatioa 
regardinff  the  British  Constitution  and  Laws  will 
be  foundnnder  the  beads  Pakliak enT;  Mimibtrv  ; 
CouHOK  Law,  Courts  or;  JtiDom,  &c 

Monty,  Weigftti,  aud  Maunirt*.  See  FottND ; 
Mint  ;  WKiOHra  and  MxAsnBES. 

Rtligion. — The  United  Kiogdom  ia  a  Proteetant 
state,  but  all  religions — not  offensive  to  pablic 
or  private  morals — may  be  professed,  and  their 
different  forme  of  worship  practised,  without  inter- 
ference from  any  quarter  whatever.  There  are  two 
chorohes  '  established '  by  epecial  acta  of  the  legla- 
lature.  In  England,  the  established  chnrch  is 
Episcopal  in  its  government.  In  Scotland,  on  the 
other  Hand,  the  established  i^urch  ia  Presbyterian. 
See  Scotland,  Chchch  or.  According  to  the 
census  returns  of  1851  (in  the  returns  of  1861  and 
1871)  religiouB  statistics  ware  not  included,  a*  the 

Svemment  shrank  from  reopening  a  subject  which 
d  formerly  given  rise  to  much  controveray),  the 
number  of  placea  of  worehip,  together  with  the 
sittings  provided,  in  England  and  Wales,  and  the 
eetimaled  number  of  attendants  on  a  particniar  day, 
were  as  in  the  tables  below. 

Education. — In  England,  the  ohiet  inrtitntions 
for  education  are  the  anoient  national  nniversitiet 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge ;  the  more  recent  inrti- 
tatious  of  London,  Durhun,  and  Lampeter  in  Wales ; 
the  classical  school*  of  Eton,  Westminster,  Win- 
chester, Harrow,  Charter-hoiue,  and  Ragby;  Owens 
Collie,  Manchester,  and  other  colleges  and  schools 
chie^  fix'  physioal  science ;  the  vsnoos  military 
sohools ;  the  colleges  of  the  dissenting  denomina- 
tiona;  the  middle-class  schools,  either  started  by 
indindnal  teachers,  and  hence  called  'adventure' 
Boboola,  or  by  associated  bodiea  acting  as  directors, 
to  whom  tlie  teachers  are  responsible;  sod  the 
schools  of  design. 


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7.«7 

4,«M 

14,077 

B,317,91» 

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OBEAT  BBITAIN. 


MOTUni. 

BSU 

SSXl 

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KDImTlHU, ... 

^«.          . 

W.OM 
1,0*7.717 

KS 

1,11! 

UK 

i.nt,BW 

i.m.m 

For  tmnuy  Maoatioi^  &  naty^nil  lyatoDt  hM  now 
been  «atftbliibed.  Under  tlie  Eloneneuy  Eduoation 
Act  for  Wngbnd,  1870,  »  popuUrlr  eleated  Khool- 
board  w  cmblulied  in  Miy  dwtriot  irtiere  the  eiiat- 
ing  MbooU  are  deBdeat.  ScbooU  nnder  the  act  are 
supportad  bjr  aohool-rstM  and  feei,  and  by  parlia- 
mentuT  grants,  Taiyins  aoonding  to  the  nombtr 
of  pupiJa,  aod  their  ^roSamm  aa  tealed  bydifferart 
•tandarda  ol  examiikation.  They  ara  to  be  open  at 
all  timea  to  government  impaction.  It  ia  left  to 
the  diaoretion  td  takool-bovna  to  make  edncataon 


four  miiretaitiea  for  the  higher 
eduoation — yix.,  thoae  of  Edinbiugh, 
aiaagow,  St  Andrew*,  and  Aberdeen,  beaidea  a 
variety  of  miiMic  oollc^  connected  with  the  EUa. 
oopalian,  E^ee  Church,  aod  other  non-eatabliahed 
chnrohea.  Hlb  Scotch  Edtication  Aol^  187%  ii 
nu>delled  after  the  Engliah  Ae^  but  difftra  from 
it,  hy  enactinK  that  a  aohool-boMd  ia  to  be  elected 
in  everf  pariu  and  bnt;^ ;  W  niakinff  it  illegal  for 
parents  to  omit  edacatu|;  ueu  ohildren,  betweaQ 
5  and  13,  in  reading,  wribng,  and  arithmetio  i  and 
by  a<»nprehsiidiiifr  hi^ier-clui  aoboidB.  "Dm  num- 
ber of  day-Rchoda  in  Great  Britain  iupaoted  in 

1871   was   10,700:    the  daily  averaoe   -"--' 

thronghont    the    year    was    1,434,458 

BdholaiB  were  present 

examined  ;  and  698,203  passed  the  prei 

On  the  regiateni  of  the  inspected  lUy- 

2,050,312  iMdren,  of  whom  517,344  were  under  aix 

years  of  age,  1,332,229  were  between  sis  and  twelve, 

and  205,739  were  above  twelve :  2709  night-schools 

were  inqiected,  having  an  average  attendance  of 

86,206  each  night.    In  December  1871,  there  were 

in  Great  Britun  KfiX  oertifioated  teachera,  1196 

asaistant  teachers,  and  2I,8S4  pupil-teachers. 

Sutory.—On.  the  1st  of  May  1707,  during  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne,  the  nnion  of  England  and 
Scotland  woa  formally  accomplished.  (For  the  pre- 
vious history,  see  BtiOLUfD  and  Sootiass.)  In  the 
latter  of  these  conntrie^  the  terms  at  first  excited 
the  utmost  diasatisfaotion,  and  even  indignation ; 
but  the  proneaa  of  time  has  shewn  it  to  be  one  of 
the  greatest  Dletsings  that  ather  nation  could  have 
experienced.  The  uat  years  of  Queen  Anna's  reiga 
were'  marked  by  Uie  mumpb  «F  the  Tory  party, 
headed  by  Earlqr  and  8t  John  (Oxford  and  Baling- 
broke),  who  kept  up  a  oonatant  intrigae  with  the 
Pretender^  for  the  purpose  of  proooring  hi*  reatot*- 
tdon.    Thu  traachery  was  defeated  by  the  sudden 


death  of  her  majesty  in  1713.  According  to  the  Act 
of  Settlement  Jie  was  suooecded  by  the  EHeotor  of 
E^ver,  who  took  the  title  of  Oecrge  L  The 
Whigs  then  teeained  their  ascendency,  and,  under 
the  guidanoe  m  Walpole  (q.v.),  tMW  lising  to 
nenee,  at  ones  proceeded  to  imperch  the  non 


portant  of  the  Tory  leaders.  Other  severities  drove 
tbe  more  impatient  of  that  party  to  att«npt  iMinfong 
inthePretsulerbyforoeof  arms.  In  171G,theEad 
of  Mar  in  Bootland,  and  the  Eari  of  Derwentwattf 
in  England,  raised  the  standard  of  rebellion  ;  both 
effiirts,  however,  proved  abortive^  and  were  speedily 
cmilied.  Vive  years  later;  occurred  the  fnghtfu 
oataslnmhe  known  as  the  South  Sea  Bubble,  when 
the  nation  was  saved  from  anarchy  mainly  by 
the  exertions  of  Walpola.  The  latter  now  became 
premier  and  chancellor  of  the  excJieqner,  and  under 
kirn  the  oommeroe  and  man  nfactoraa  of  England 
oantinned  steadily  to  advanoe,  thon^  little  improve- 


bdaiid.  George  L  died  in  1727,  and  was  anooeeded 
byliia*oa,Geo^IL  An  attonpt  waa  again  ntade 
by  Uie  Toiiea  to  oust  His  Whigs  frcsn  power,  bnt 

was  frustrated  by  Walpole,  who  still  condiiaed 
the  prime  mover  of  public  a&irs.  In  1739,  after 
a  peace  of  extraordinary  duration,  he  was  forced 
by  popular  clamour  into  a  war  with  Spain,  <hi 
account  of  some  efforts  made  by  that  countrv 
to  check  an  illicit  trade  carried  on  by  Brttiah 
merchants  in  its  American  coloniea.  This  war  was 
feebly  osrried  on,  and  ingloriously  teimioated ; 
but  the  attention  of  England  was  speedily  drawn 
towards  tlie  Austrian  War  of  SuMeeaion,  in  which 
it  was  involved  throuj^h  the  anxie^  of  tae  king  for 
his  Hanoverian  posae^ums,  and  the  stion^  antipathy 
of  the  people  to  tite  Fcem^  Walpole,  diaapproving 
of  the  war,  was  driven  from  office  in  1743.  George 
II.  appeared  on  the  field  of  battle  himself,  and 
at  Dettingen  proved  himself  a  man  of  courage  and 
spirit.  &t  Uia  success  of  tiie  French  at  Footenoy 
in  1746  paralysed  the  cSbrts  of  En^and  during  the 
rest  of  the  campugn  ;  and  in  1748,  after  nine  yean' 
fighting,  a  peace  was  ooncludad  at  Aix-la-Chapellc, 
by  which  it  was  agreed  that  both  nations  should 
mutually  restore  tiieir  conquests,  and  go  back  to 
exactly  the  same  condition  SB  they  were  in  before 
the  war  I  Meanwhile,  a  aecoad  attempt  had  been 
made  (1746-1746)  by  Prince  Charles  Edward 
Stoart  to  win  back  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 
This  attempt,  known  as  the  second  rebellion,  waa 
crushed  at  Collodeu  (April  16,  1746],  and  shortly 


,dt!y  Google^ 


byGoogle 


byGoogle 


byGoogle 


,,Google 


GREAT  BRITAIN. 


alter,  a  variety  of  inuMiiknt  _     ,    .  .  . 

by  tills  impenal  Hrluunent  reUting  to  Scotlsad 
geaemHf,  naA  to  the  Highlandis  in  p^ticular,  wliich 
had  tba  effect,  on  the  whole,  both  of  conciliating 
the  inhabitanti,  and  of  increaaine  their  ciTilisation. 
Now,  after  a  long  period  of  inddenco  and  poverty, 
Scotland  b^an  to  moke  advances  towarda  that 
eqoaUty  wiu  Encland,  in  respect  of  comfort  and 
proapen^,  whicl)  it  hai  rince  attained. 

In  1756  broke  out  Hie  'Seven  Years'  War,'  in 
frhitdi  Britain  took  the  side  of  Frederick  the  Great 
gainst  France  Aoattii^  RtUBia,  and  Poland.  It 
achieved  no  triomphi  in  Europe ;  on  the  contrary, 
it  auffeied  a  iignaJ  disgrace  in  the  snrrender  of  the 
Duke  of  Combeiiand,  with  40,000  men,  in  Hanover ; 
but  in  India,  Clive  d!eprived  the  French  of  moat  o< 
tiieir  poaseasiona,  while  Wolfe,  in  the  New  World, 
conquered  their  colony  of  Canada.  la  the  midst  of 
this  war,  G«orge  XL  (Ued  (1760],  and  was  suoceeded 
by  his  giaadaoD,  Geone  HI.,  whose  reign  proved 
to  be  t£e  iMiKMt  and  one  of  the  most  eventful 
in  the  annala  S  British  luatoiy.  At  this  time,  the 
principal  aecretarr  of  state  was  William  Pitt,  after- 
wards the  great  Eari  of  Chatham ;  but  the  favour 
which  Qeorge  HI.  shewed  to  the  Earl  of  Bute,  a 
feeble  and  narrow-raiaded  Tory  nobleman,  rendered 
it  aecesBBiy  for  the  former  to  retire  £rom  office. 
Spikin  now  joined  France  agunst  Britain,  ai  Pitt 
hod  forcaeen  and  foretold ;  out  fortune  showered 
her  brightest  smiUe  npon  the  arms  of  the  latter, 
and  at  toe  peace  in  1763,  she  was  allowed  to  retain 
many  of  tfie  moat  doable  colonial  poaseisions  of 
both  hw  aatagoniata.  These  wan,  however,  lately 
increased  the  national  debt 

George  HL  now  shewed  Mmsdf  anxious  to 
destrc^  tke  inflnenoe  of  the  great  Wbig  families 
who  had  bronght  in  the  dynasty  to  which  he 
belonged.  Tb^  nation  took  the  alann,  and  for  some 
time  was  tbpaghf  disaffected  towards  ita  sovereign, 
who  was  beUeved  to  be  wholly  onder  the  infiuence 
of  his  Scotch  fremier,  the  EaH  of  Bate.  Popular 
Indignation  at  last  forced  the  latter  to  resign  in 
Grenville,  inaugurated  his 


made  himself  conspiooons  by  lue  attacks  both  on 
Bate  and  his  royal  master.  The  proceedings  in  this 
case  lasted  some  yeai^  and  were  attended  with 
tmBolts  of  a  aerions  natiu^  and  a  vehemence  if  not 


tooB  m  am  discontent  miich  prevailed.    Doriug  the 
adnunistration  of  Grenville,  too,  the  flrat  attempt 


3  tax  the  American  colonies  1j 
passing  of  the  Stamp  Act  in  1766.     A^inst  this 
the  e<donieB  protaated,  and  the   sncceeding  Whig 

however,  was  of  short  duratioo,  and  waa  replaced  by 

one  formed  by  Pit4^  now  created  Earl  of  Chatham. 

The  necesaity  for  an  increase  of  the  finances  led  to 

another  attempt  at  Am^ican  taxation,  and  an  act 

for  impoaing  duties  on  the  importe  of  tea,  glass,  and 

coloon  was  passed.    This  meaaiue  ezottea  the  most 

det^tnined  opposition  among  tiie  aoloniata;    and 

finally,  in  177^  war  broke  oat  between  them  and 

the  mother-coantiy,  which  lasted  eight  yean,  and  in 

which  the  former  were  anpported  by  France,  Spain, 

and  Holland.    It  resulted  in  the  acknowledgmeat 

of  their  indepeadence,  and  in  the  formatiou  of  the 

repnblio  of  the  United  States  (1783).    During  ahnost 

I   the  whole  of  this  unhappy  contest,  the  mimatiy  of 

'   Lord  North  directed  the  policy  of  the  country  :  and 

I   it  waa  on^  the  •nooeis  ot  a  rote  for  the  aoacWoa 

I   of  the  war  that  foroed  than  to  reajgn  early  in  17S2. 

I   It  was  feUowed  by  the  second  Bookiiigham  ministry, 

and  that  aoon  after  by  the  Shelbnme  ministry,  only 

remarkable  tor  the  appeanmoe  in  it  of  the  yonnger 


Pitt.  The  lukewarm  Whiegisin  of  Lord  Shelbnme 
gave  offence  to  Fox  and  o^r  more  advanoed  poli- 
tical thinken ;  the  result  was  a  coalition  of  tha 
Foxitea  with  the  followers  of  Lord  Korth.  This 
coalition,  factions  and  unprincipled  in  the  last 
degree,  tiiumphed,  and  under  the  name  of  the  Coah* 
tion  ministry,  held  the  seals  of  office  during  tiie  year 
17S3.  Fox's  India  BiU,  the  purpose  of  iriiioh  was 
virtually  to  transfsr  the  government  and  patronage 
of  India  from  the  East  Ii^a  Company  to  ui«  House 
of  OoDunons,  was  tha  cause  of  iM  ruin,  liiis  bill 
was  oonddered  by  the  king  to  aim  at  fixing  the 
ministrr  in  power  beyond  Uio  oontrol  of  bothliiin- 
self  and  the  people,  and  having  induced  the  House 
ot  Lords  to  reject  it,  he  compelled  the  ministay 
to  resign.  Pitt  was  then  appointed  mime  minister 
and  cnancellor  ot  the  exobeqnar.  Bee  Pm.  In 
1786  commenced  the  trial  of  Wanen  Hastings, 
who  was  iEnpeaohed  by  tha  Whig  leaden,  Fox, 
Burke,  and  Sheiidan,  but  was  ultimately  aoqnitted. 
Meanwhile,  the  progress  both  of  Hi"gl«-"^  and  Soot- 
i.-j  —  nnqneiFtionable ;  mannfa(£irea  incieaaed. 


questions  ot  importance  spread  uirongfa  Ha  oom- 
monity,  as  may  be  seen  very  clearly  in  the  poetiy  of 
Robert  Boms.  TheFrench  Revolution  {1789)  atfirst 
strengthened  this  interest,  hut  the  excesses  of  the 
Reign  of  Terror  produced  a  decided  reaction  ;  and 
for  many  yean  all  classes,  at  least  all  the  ao-oalled 
'  respectable  classes,'  were  fanatically  avene  to  the 
slightest  innovation.  In  1793,  the  ministry  ot  Pitt, 
without  any  real  cause,  declared  war  againat  the 
I^nch  repablicLin  spite  of  the  opposition  o^Fox 
knd  Sheridan.  This  contest  lasted  till  tiie  peaoe 
"*  i™;""  in  1801,  and  was,  on  the  whole,  very 
a  G.  B.,  except  at  sea,  where  thevictoTiea 
of  Howe  off  Brest,  Jervis  oft  Cape  St  Vincent^ 
Duncan  off  Camperdown,  and  Nelson  in  Aboakir 
Bay,  served  to  sustain  the  spirit  of  the  nation. 
Other  features  of  the  time  were  the  threatened 
invaeioa  of  Brit«in  by  the  Freach,  which  oalled 
forth  Tolonteer  corps  in  every  part  of  the  island ; 
the  Irish  rabeilion,  which,  though  assisted  by  a 
French  force,  proved  a  fulure ;  and  the  trial  and 
condeumation  at  Edinburgh  of  the  popular  reformers. 
Mure,  Palmer,  to.  Pitt,  who  had  left  offioe  just 
before  the  peace  of  Amiens,  waa  succeeded  by 
Addirigton,  who  waa  compelln  to  renew  the  war 
with  Bonaparte  in  1S03,  on  aocoant  of  the  way  in 


France  ^d  Spaia.  But  on  land,  the  arms  of  Fni 
were  victorious ;  and  the  battle  of  AuaterUts  (ISOS) 
broke  up  most  effectoally  that  coalition  ot  con- 
tinental powers  against  France  which  G.  B.  had 
fostered  and  fomied.  The  shock  of  this  disaster 
a  death-blow   to  Pitt,  who  expired  in  the 

ning  of  1806,  and  was  followed  to  the  grave 

„ )  autumn  of  the  same  year  by  his  rival.  Fox. 

The  overthrow  of  Prussia  at  Jena  and  Anerstadt, 
and  of  Bosaia  at  Friedland,  placed  G,  B.  in  a  most 
perilous  predicament.  All  the  nations  of  Europe 
were  compelled  by  Bonaparte  to  exclude  British 
merehandiae  from  their  porta,  and  tha  island  of 
G.  B,  itself  was  declared  in  a  state  of  blockade. 
Secure,  however,  in  the  pretectitm  of  her  invincible 
navy,  she  bore  up  bravely  agunst  her  terrible 
isolation,  increaaed  her  intereourse  with  her  own 
vast  colonies,  nuned  the  commerce  of  her  enemies, 
and  never  ceased  her  efforts  to  undermine  the  influ- 

of  her  great  enemy  on  the  continent.    The  fltat 


t.Googli 


GEEiT  BHITAIN. 


people  llutt  ibewed  a  tendency  to  rarolt  ukiiut  tha 
uronnt  tyraiiB^  of  Bonap&rte  vera  the  Spuiiarda. 
G.  E  at  onoe  offerad  to  usiit  them  with  vmi  and 
moDey  ;  and  in  I80S  » fores  WM  lauded  iuPortogal, 
under  the  oonunand  of  Sir  Artbni  Wellealej,  (iter- 
warda  Duke  of  WeUiagton.  The  war  which  eiuDed 
(known  aa  the  'Penioiular  war')  lasted  till  1SI4, 
and  ended  in  the  French  being  driven  back  in 
diaonier  into  their  own  oonnti^  at  TouJooae. 
Ueanwhile,  ruin  had  oTertaken  the  French  umy 
in  BoHia ;  Aiutria,  Prunda,  and  Ruatia  had  com- 
bined with  Q.  B.  uninit  Bonaparte  ;  and  in  1814 
the  alli«a  entered  Parii,  and  Uie  French  emperor 
was  forced  to  abdicate,  and  retire  to  Elba.  Hit 
return  in  1615  onoe  mora  tJitew  Europe  into  din- 
order  and  agitation ;  but  hia  povet  woa  finally 
ahattared  at  Waterloo  by  Wellington  and  Blucber, 
and  peace  reotored  to  Europe.  The  contest  had 
coat  Britain  (which  had  to  sabiidise  moat  of  her 
allies]  an  enormoiia  expenae.  See  Dkbt,  Natiohal. 
Now  that  the  long  conflict  between  Fiaaoe  and 
Europe  wu>  over,  the  thooghta  of  the  people  wera 
again  tamed  to  the  questioi)  of  political  reform. 
^or  yean  of  extraordinary  mercantile  depresaion, 
which  followed  the  victory  at  Waterloo,  partly 
resulting  from  bad  harvests,  and  partly  from  G.  B/a 
having  ceased  to  enjoy  that  monopoly  of  com- 
merce which  she  did  during  the  war,  had  mode 
tho  peorie  discontented,  and  the  shamefol  masBacre 
of  the  Hanoheater  operatives  in  8t  Peter's  Fields 
by  the  yeomanry  in  1819— commonly  known 
the  Feterloo  Massacre — excited  strong  indignatic 
bat  a  honur  of  anythins  reTomtianary  still 
poMMsed  the  upper  and  a  large  section  of  the 
middle  classes,  wid  severe  measorea  were  passed 
with  a  view  to  the  suppression  of  discontent  among 
the  workina-^lassu.  Iji  1S20,  Geone  III.  died,  and 
was  anooeeded  by  his  eldest  ion,  Oeor^  IV.  The 
trial  of  his  consort,  Qneen  Caroline,  which  occurred 
in  the  same  year,  blattered  his  popularity,  which 
was  never  very  gnat.  The  oommennsl  reformi  of 
Huskisson,  supported  by  Canning,  which  marked  the 
next  two  years,  added  mimenaely  to  the  prosiierity 


prcijecta  for  tr^c  in  remote  countries  wera  quite 
visionary,  and  ended  disaatroualjN  involving  in 
rain  (between  October  1S2S  and  February  fsZS) 
fifty-nine  English  provincial  banks,  and  inflicting 
itm  greatest  misery  npon  the  working' classes. 
About  the  same  time,  the  Irish  Catbotice  began 
to  olamoar  for  emanoipatioD  from  their  civQ  dis- 
abiLties.  The  older  and  more  inflexible  Tories, 
who  were  still  dominant  in  parliament  opposed 
it ;  but  the  intense  determination  of  the  Irish 
people,  and  the  powerful  eloquence  of  their  cham- 
pion, Daniel  O'Connell,  at  last  pravailed,  and  in 
1829  the  ministry  of  Wellington,  yielding  to  the 
storm,  itself  proposed  and  earned  the  meaaure. 
In  18S0,  George  IV.  died,  and  was  socceeded  by 
his  brother,  William  IV.  The  outburst  of  the  July 
revolution  in  France  quickened  the  paces  cf  British 
reformers  ;  the  demand  of  the  nation  for  an  im- 
provement in  the  parliamentary  repreeentation 
became  very  strong ;  and  in  November  1S30,  after 
an  exduaion  from  office  of  nearly  half  a  centuiy, 
tiie  Whiss  once  more  ascended  into  power  '  on  the 
breath  of  popular  appose,'  and  the  ministry  of  Earl 
Grey  immortoliaed  itself  by  passing  the  'Reform 
Bill'  Another  of  its  claims  to  the  respect  and 
natitude  of  posterity  was  the  abolitioa  of  slavery  in 
the  British  coloniea  (1834).  The  reform  of  the 
English  poor-law,  and  in  the  mode  of  electing 
mnnicipal  anthoritiea  in  Scotland,  alao  deserves 
mention;  but  in  1834  the  Whig  miuistry  was  dia- 


Sir  Robert   Peel  now 


missed  by  the  sovereigs 
become  premier,  but  tat 
majority  in  the  Hoose,  and  Peel  was  compelled  to 
resign.  The  Melbourne  administration  wkich  fol- 
lowed carried  several  small  thongh  beneficial  meov 
urea  of  reform,  but  it  failed  to  secure  the  attachment 
of  the  people.  The  lower  classes  were  becoming 
Badical  and  Chartist,  while  the  middle  clasaea,  ooa- 
teoted  with  the  political  power  which  the  Beform 
Bill  had  secured  to  them,  were  growing  apathetie, 
and  in  many  coses,  from  dread  of  the  masses,  were 
leaning  towards  Toryism.  In  the  midst  of  these 
perplexities,  William  IV.  died  in  I&TT,  and  was 
succeeded  by  lus  niece,  the  Princess  Victoria,  the 
present  ruler  of  the  united  empire.  In  1S41,  the 
Whig  ministry  succumbed  to  a  vote  of  'no  confi- 
denoe,'  and  Sir  Robert  Feel  once  more  aasumed  the 
halm  of  state.  The  principles  of  free  trade  now 
began  to  be  actively  advocated ;  public  apinian  was 
leavened  by  the  platform  addresses  of  Mr  Cobden 
and  Mr  Bright,  until  the  prime  minister  himself 
was  finally  converted,  and  in  1848  carried,  what  he 
had  long  opposed,  a  measure  for  the  abolition  of  the 
Com-laiei.  Three  years  before  the  abolition  of 
the  corn-laws,  a  great  religious  schism  took,  place  in 
the  Eatablished  Church  of  Scotland,  and  ted  to  the 
formation  of  a  body  calling  itself  the  '  Free  Chorcli 
of  Scotland'  (q. v.).  Other  important  incidents  of 
this  period  were  the  Chinese  and  Afghan  wars  ;  the 
Chartiat  agitation,  which  reached  its  climax  in 
the  monster  petition  of  1S4S,  got  up  by  Feorgus 
O'Connor  and  his  friends ;  the  series  of  failures  in 
the  potato-crop  of  Ireland,  involving  that  country  in 
terrible  misery,  and  inundating  G.  B.  with  paupers. 
Sir  Robert  Peel  was  succeed^  in  the  government 
of  the  oountry  by  Lord  John  Russell,  into  did  not 
prove  as  popular  a  minister  aa  was  anticipateil, 
and  in  1852  the  old  Tory  party  returned  to  power, 
beaded  by  the  Earl  of  Derby  and  Mr  DisraeU.  It 
was,  however,  beaten  on  ita  budget,  and  forced 
t«  resi^  in  less  than  a  year,  when  its  place  waa 
taken  by  the  coalition  cabinet  of  Lord  Aberdeen. 
During  the  ministry  of  this  nobleman,  the  Crimtan 
war  began  (1351) ;  but  ai  Lord  Aberdeen  was 
considered  te  be  somewhat  pro-Russian  in  hia  likings, 
be  was  obliged  to  make  way  for  Lord  Pslmerstoa 
in  1S55.  Two  years  later  (May  1837),  the  Indian 
Mutiny  broke  out,  and  the  energies  of  the  govem- 

'  were  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  snppress  it,  but 

eventually  crowned  with  complete  sQcceaa. 
Never  did  British  eoldiera  exhibit  equal  heroism, 
botb  physical  and  moral.  From  1865  to  18G5 
(eioeptiog  for  a  brief  interval,  when  Lord  Derby 
returned  to  office),  the  government  was  in  the 
hands  of  Lord  Palmerston.  During  this  period, 
England  carried  on  a  successful  war  against  China, 
id   the   volunteer   movement   was    begun.     The 


Derby  was  at  the  head  of  affairs;  Britain  was  united 
to  America  in  that  year  by  the  submarine  telegraph, 
and  the  Feaion  insurrection  occurred.  The  year 
I86T  was  marked  by  the  passing  of  a  Conservative 
Reform  Bill,  which  added  more  than  half-a-million 
electors  to  the  constitnoDcy  of  O.  B. ;  and  by  the 
eipedition  against  Abjmsinia,  under  Sir  Robert 
Napier,  which,  in  1S8S,  resulted  in  the  destruction 
of  Magdola,  and  death  of  King  Theodore.  During 
"^  -  ^vemment  of  Mr  Disraeli,  who  sacceeded  Lord 
ly,  Scotch  and  Irish  Reform  Bills  were  passed, 
in  act  discontinuing  public  executions,  lu  1869, 
Mr  Disraeli  having  resigned,  sn  act  was  passed  by 
the  Liberal  government  under  Mr  Gladstone,  for 
disestablishing  the  Irish  Chureh.  The  yeara  1870 
and  1872  produced  the  Education  Acts  for  England 
and  Scotland.    In  1S7»-187^  the  AshanteeTl-v.) 


hyCoogle 


OBEAT  BRITAIH. 


I  War  TMM  curied  od  to  »  laccenf  ol  termination  ;  Bod 
'■  the  latter  year  witneased  the  eatnbliKhmeDt  of  b 
I  Conaerrdtire  gorernment  under  Mr  BUnwlL 
I  GREAT  BRITAiy,  RoTAL  Arms  OF.  Tbeumi 
I  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Ort&t  Britain  and  Ira. 
land  are  thiu  borne  by  ber  Majesty  Queen  Victoria 


Bi^il  Aimi  ol  Groat  Britain  i 
QurlnlT.  flnt  inS  limrtb  pi.,  lbi»  lioni  p 
pal*,  or.  lor  Eaflaod;  tceaoi,  or,  ■  lion  tmmpi 
doBbla  tnmi*  Botj  oountarflory  m.,  for  Sow 
aa.  mharpar,Mtbii«du.,fbr  InliDd;  til  iDnou 


■nd  ittmi  OT 

■IkMd,^  tb< 


)t  ptrdul  or,  ImprrLi 


wnri,  ilK 


r,  eroirnri 

.  . _.   ....".ndfiSr^ 

■nix^  Ihenlo,  pualDf  betvean  tha  fon-lvft, 

tt  mum  DnM  In  A*  Hunputmnil  below  Ibe 
;  rnJoB  rDH,  •hunrDok,  and  IhlAtla  Idgr^ned 


I  Aran  bave  been  atcribed  by  hentldi  to  the  Saion 
and  Norman  oionarclu  of  England  in  the  10th  and 
I  Ith  centniiea ;  but  aa  berudry  was,  in  point  of 
faot,  unknown  (ill  the  middle  of  the  12th  c,  they 
moat  be  dealt  vith  aa  fsbuloui.  However,  at  a 
|>eriod  abaoat  before  the  earliert  dawninp  of  here- 
ditary eoat-amonr,  the  sovereigna  of  umland,  in 
common  with  variona  other  monorchB  of  Christen- 
dom, adopted  the  Uon  m  theii  device.  Richard 
I.,  in  bia  evlieat  seal,  hae  two  lions,  which  are 
borne  connter-rampant ;  bat  in  the  latter  part 
of  bia  reign,  after  bis  return  from  the  third  crosade, 
tlie  gmt  seal  of  CcEor-de-Lion  represents  the 
three  bona  in  pole  and  passaot  gardant,  as  they 
have  been  almost  uniformly  depicted  siDce.  The 
only  mbaeqnent  instajice  c^  which  we  are  aware 
of  any  variation  in  the  number  ii  on  a  seal  of 
the  (Vmelitea  at  Oxford,  in  which  Edward  III. 
is  repreaented  in  a  anrcoat  charged  with  four 
lions  in  pale  passant  gardant,  a  proof  of  the 
latitude  which  heralds  occaaion^y  allowed  them- 
selves as  late  as  the  beginning  of  the  14tb 
eentnry.  In  1340,  Edward  III.,  in  virtue  of  the 
sapposed  right  of  his  mother,  assumed  the  title  of 
king  of  France,  and  qoartered  the  arma  of  France 
with  thoae  of  England,  giving  to  the  former  the 
preeedenoe.  The  fleurs-de-lia  were  then  generally 
borne  ttmt  notnbre ;  but  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.  they  were  reduced  to  three, 
boma  or  on  a  field  azure.  No  fiirther  change 
took  place  in  the  royal  escutcheon  until  the  time 
of  James   I.,   except   that   Mary,  on   her    second 


Great  Seal,  made  after  her  marriage  with  Philip  XL, 
impaled  the  arms  of  Bpain  and  England. 

James  VL  of  Sciiiland,  on  succeeding  to  the 
throne  of  England,  quartered  the  anna  bone  hy 
preceding  sovereigns  with  those   of   p--"     i    .    • 


ter  the  lion  rampant  of  Scotland  within  the  doable 
tressure  (see  Scotiand,  Aiuis  or),  and  the  third 
qoarter  the  harp  of  Ireland  (see  iRKLAtn,  Arub  or). 
The  royal  arms  were  similarly  borne  by  all  'an 
sovereigns  of  the  House  of  Stuart  till  the  rei^  ot 
Anne,  except  that  William  III.  bore  over  aU  the 
cost  of  Nassau  (az.  sem6  of  billets,  a  lion  rampant 
or)  OD  an  escutcheon  of  pretence.  In  the  reign  of 
Anne,  the  legislative  union  with  Scotland  brought 
about  a  materisl  change.  England  and  Scotland 
impaled  were  placed  in  the  firet  and  fourth  quarter, 
France  in  the  second,  and  Ireland  in  the  third. 
The  accetaion  of  George  I.  displaced  England  and 
France  from  the  fonrui  quarter,  to  make  way  for 
the  arma  of  bis  majesty' a  Qermon  dominions. 
These  were  gn.  two  lions  ^Mtseant  gardant  in  pole 
for  Brunswick,  impaled  with  or,  semA  of  hearts 
gu.  a  lion  rampant  ax.,  for  LUnebnrK,  having  the 
anna  of  ancient  Saxony^ — vix.,  go.  a  horse  courant 
ar.  ent£  en  base,  and  in  a  ^eld  surtout  gu.  the 
crown  of  Charlemagne  proper,  being  the  bodge  of 
the  arch- treasurer  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  A 
further  alteration  took  place  on  the  umon  witli 
Ireland,  when  George  III.  laid  aside  the  titular 
Bssumption  of  king  of  France,  and  abandoned  the 
French  ensigna  The  arms  of  England  were  now 
mode  to  occupy  the  first  and  fourth  quarter,  Scot- 
land the  second,  and  Ireland  the  third,  while  the 
Qermon  ensigns  were  relegated  to  an  escutcheon 
of  pretence.  These  last  were  finally  abandoned 
on  the  severance  of  Hanover  from  tiie  crown  of 
Great  Britain,  which  took  place  on 
of  Queen  Victerio,  and  the  royal  escutcheon 
assumed  its  present  arrangement. 

From  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  England  and 
Scotland  under  James  L,  up  to  the  union  of  the 
kingdoms  in  ITOT,  the  royal  arms  were  somewhat 
differently  morahsJled  in  Scotland,  Scotland  bdng 
allowed  m  all  Scottish  seals,  ensigns,  and  arms  to 
occupy  the  first  and  fourth  quarter,  and  England 
the  second,  while  the  whole  were  enugued  wi£  the 
crown  of  Scotland ;  but  the  Act  of  Union  of  1707 
recognises  no  royal  ensigns  but  thoae  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  which  are  to  be  'such  as  her  majes^ 
ahall  tHnk  tit ;'  and  by  39,  40  Geo.  lU.  c  G7,  on 
uiion  witii  Ireland,  it  was  enacted  that  the 
armorial  bearings  ot  the  United  Kingdom  '  shall 
'  I  snoh  as  hia  mAJesty  by  his  royal  proclamatioa 
ider  the  Great  Seal  of  the  United  Kingdom 
shall  be  pleased  to  appoint'  The  practice,  which 
pnivaila  to  a  certain  extent  in  Scouand,  of  giving 
the  precedence  to  the  Scottish  lion  in  the  royu 
shield,  is  incorrect,  thouf^  the  error  has  been 
committed  in  several  of  the  official  seals  of  the 
kinsdom. 

The  lion  passant  aa  the  end  of  England  first 
appean  on  (£e  Great  Seal  of  Edward  UL 

The  tuppoTtert  borne  in  fonner  times  by  the  kiiw* 
of  Engbind  varied  much,  particularly  duiins  the 
early  period  when  theae  appendages  of  the  2ueld 


s  mvested  with  i 


>    of    I 


heraldic  cbaracter,  and  perhaps   often  left  to  the 
fancy  of  the  engraver.    When  the  arms  of  any  of 

11..  *!..  .i:.x   ireigns  from  Richard  IL  to  Edward 

itod  with 


./Cioo'^l 


OBSA.T  CIRCLS  OR  TANGENT  SAILtNQ— GEEAT  KAKAWHA. 


IIL'a  in  ona  initanott — in  a,  MS.  in  tlie  Britiih 
Mnwom — on  botli  lidea  by  white  bous.  During 
the  TOgaa  of  Henriei  VIL  uid  THL,  Edward  YL, 
UuT,  knd  EUzabeth,  the  lion,  red  dngon,  uid 
greyhound  were  the  nipporten  moat  in  Tog;ae,  uid 
aa  the  hcmdd  or  engraver  h>d  it  not  in  hia  power 
to  raprssent  all  tltt«e  at  oooe,  he  eeem*  to  have 
been  allowed  to  select  any  two  at  pleMorB.  Jamei  I. 
for  the  first  time  clearly  defined  the  royal  anp- 
porters;  adopting  the  lion  of  fiigland  and  nnioom 
of  Scotland  as  they  hare  erer  einoe  beOL  home, 
the  nnicom  haviiiD  been,  up  to  VJVJ,  allowed  the 
precedence  in  Scot&nd. 

GREAT  CIRCLE  or  TAM-OENT  SAILIua. 
In  order  to  have  a  clear  ides  of  the  adTantagea  of 
great  cinile  sailijig,  it  ie  neceeaaiy  to  remember  that 
the  Bhortert  dirtauce  between  two  placei   —   ""' 


two  placee  ii 
parallel  of  h 


the  same  latitude  is  not  along  the 

^ -_  latitude,  but  along  an  aic  of  a  circle 

whose  plane  would  pass  tbrougtk  the  two  places  and 
the  centre  of  the  euth.  The  object,  then,  of  great 
circle  lailii^  is  to  determine  what  tiie  course  of  a 
iihip  must  be  in  order  that  it  may  coincide  with  a 
gre«t  circle  of  the  earth,  and  thus  render  the 
distance  sailed  over  the  least  posmblo.  This  problem 
majr  be  solved  in  two  ways,  either  bv  means  of 
an  instnunent  called  the  '  spherograph/ or  by  the 
computation  of  a  spbeiioal  triangle.  The  flnt  of 
tbeee  methods  will  be  explained  under  the  head  of 
Sphbeooeaph  (q.  v.).  The  method  by  computation 
will  be  nndentood  from  the  aocompanying  iSagram : 


•UMC  i«preeenta  a  meridian  which  posses  through 
the  place  p,  nxva   ano&er  meridian  through  tne 

Elaco  X,  and  paw  a  portion  of  a  great  circle ;  let  p 
e  the  place  sailed  Jtom,  and  x  the  place  sailed  to, 
then  px  it  the  great  circle  track,  and  it  is  required 
to  determine  tiie  length  of  px  (called  the  distance), 
aifd  the  angle  a^  wliich  it  makes  with  the  meridiui 
(called  the  course).  To  determine  these  two,  we 
hare  three  thinra  given  i  nz,  the  co-latitude  of  x ; 
np,  the  co-latitude  of  p ;  and  the  angle  znp,  which, 
meaanred  along  ve,  gives  the  difference  of  longitude. 
The  problem  thus  becomes  a  simple  case  of  spherical 
trigonometry,  the  way  of  solvmg  whidi  will  bo 
found  in  any  of  the  ordinary  treatises  on  the 
subject  of  Spbehcal  Trigonometry. 

Frora  the  theoiy  of  great  circle  sailing,  tiie  follow- 
ing moHt  prominent  featore*  are  at  onoe  deduced : 
A  Mp  tailing  on  a  artat  drc2«  moia  itraiiiht  for 
the  port,  and  croua  Ok  neritUaiu  ai  tm  aiub  tMch 
t*  alaani  varying,  whereas,  by  other  ssjunga,  t&< 
■tip  erona  alt  utiridiaiu  at  CM  some  angU,  or,  in 


(iftAt  mmpats,  tad  ^  never  tleertjbr  At  port  A — 
UilU  it  in  tight.  As  Mercatot'*  Chart  (q.  v.)  ia  ttto 
one  used  b^  navigator*,  and  on  it  the  oonrae  by  tiie 
ordinary  sailings  la  laid  down  as  a  straight  line,  it 
follows,  from  the  previous  observations,  that  fha 
great  circle  track  must  be  repreaented  by  a  cnrTe> 
and  a  little  consideration  will  shew  that  the  latter 
must  always  lie  in  a  higher  latitude  than  the 
fotmer.  If  the  track  is  m  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, it  lies  nearer  the  north  pole ;  it  in  the 
Bouthera  hemisphere,  it  is  nearer  the  sooth  pole. 
lids  ezplsins  how  a  curve-line  on  the  chart 
representB  a  shorter  track  between  two  places 
than  a  straight  line  doea ;  for  the  difference  at  lati- 
tude is  the  same  for  both  tiacks,  and  the  greSit 
circle  has  the  advantage  of  the  shorter  de^'Oes 
measured  on  the  higher  circles  of  latitude.  Con- 
sequenUy,  the  higher  the  latitude  is,  the  more 
do  the  tracks  differ,  especiall]' if  the  two  placca  ara 
nearly  on  the  same  parallel  The  point  ofmanaam 
teparation,  as  it  is  called,  is  tJiat  point  in  the 
great  circle  wiiich  is  furthest  from  the  rhumb-line 
on  Harcator's  chart.  Since  the  enon  tA  Dead- 
Reckoning  (q.  V.)  prevent  a  ship  from  being  kept 
for  any  lengtb  of  time  on  a  pieocribed  tracw,  and 

*i — «4^4.^  4.1.^  calculation  of  a  new  path,  in 

kt  circle 


thus  necessitate  the  calculation  of  a 


-great 


eneral,  it  is  sufficient  to  lay  down  three  points — 
tie  place  sailed  from,  the  puce  sailed  to,  and  the 
oint  of  niftT'''in'n  separation,  and  throogfa  these 
oiata  to  draw  an  aro  of  a  circle.    As  the  ihnmb- 


eross  each  other  at  the  equator,  in  this  a 


will  1 


"/ 


nd  distance  must  be  oaknilated  lot  «ach 

ude  of  the  equator  separately.  Hany  ignorantly 
object  to  great  cirole  aailing  on  the  ground  tiiat, 
on  acoonnt  of  constant  change  of  beafiugs,  a  ship 
cannot  be  navigated  on  the  correct  course ;  but, 
in  fact,  all  that  is  required  of  a  navigator  ia  to 
sail  aa  near  to  bis  great  circle  track  aa  convenient ; 
and  each  separate  course  will  be  a  tangmt  to  hia 
track,  and  the  shorter  these  tangents  are  made, 
the  mora  will  the  length  of  a  voyage  be  diminished. 
We  may  here  mention  that  a  chart  oonataoetad  on 
&e  Quonumie  Pngection  (q.  v.)  rapnaents  all  great 
circle  tracks  as  straight  linea.     See  NATiaAiiOK. 

GREAT  VISH  BIVBR  is  the  name  of  two 
streams  in  opposite  eztremitiea  of  the  British 
empire.— L  G.  F.  £.  in  Cape  C0I017  risea  in  the 
Snowy  Mountains ;  and,  iJter  a  generally  eouth- 
asstem  contae  of  230  iniles,  it  enters  the  Indian 
Ocem,  in  lat.  33"  2fi'  R  and  long.  27*  E.,  having 
at  its  mouth  a  bar,  which  renders  it  inacceasible 
to  an^  decked  veaaeL— 2.  0.  F.  B.  of  British  North 
America,  known  ciiiefly  as  the  route  of  Back  sud 
King,  in  search  of  Boas,  enters  an  inlet  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  in  lat  67'  S*  N.  and  long.  94'  40'  W., 
after  a  north-east  conne,  tiie  length  01  whidi,  how- 
ever, has  not  jiet  been  ascertairked.  Its  character 
ia  as  unfavourable  as  its  poaition  to  navigation  and 


die  stats  <d  North 
Carolina,  between  Blue  Ridge  uid  Iron  Mountain. 
It  flows  first  nortir-east  for  upwards  of  IDO  milea 


tyCUUt^le 


GREAT  MARLOW— GREBR 


at  Point  Pleuani,  kfter  ■  ooune  o!  about  400  miles. 

About  100  mileB  from  ita  moatb,  on  being  joined  by 

the  Qmiay  river,  it  t»kea  -Qie  nuns  of  tlie  G,  E. ; 

'    and  two   inileB  lower,  its  conne  ia  marked  by  a 
-  --     -    J      .   „  _    .     -v. 

QBKAT  MA'B.hOW,  a  mniiicipal  and  parlia- 
mentarT'  boron^  in  Bnoldngfaamghi  re,  finely  lita- 
ated  m  tt>e  north  bank  c?  the  Thames,  m  lat. 
51°  3*  Ji.,  and  long,  tf  46'  W.,  31  miles  north-west 
of  London,  T^  Thames  is  here  crowed  br  a 
soBpauion-bridgB  (cooitmcted  in  1836),  which  has 
a  apsn  of  225  f  eet^  The  principal  manofaotorea  are 
ailk,  Isoc^  and  paper.  Q.  M.  reComs  one  member  to 
pailiament.     Fop.  in  1871,  6627. 

QKBAT  SAIjT  t.aittii,  b  temukable  and  exten- 

rive  aliect  ot  water  in  the  north  of  TJtah  Teititofy, 

I    NorUi  Americas  kas  ^ren  name  to  the  Salt  Lake 

I    Citv  (q.  T.),  th»  Harmon  metropolis,  which  is  aita- 

ated   at   its    soath-eaBteni  extremity.     It  U«s   in 

I    one  <A  UiA  great  TsIIsys  or  baaiDs  of  the  Kocky 

Monntaina,    and  is  abont  70  miles   long  and  30 

I    miU«  bcoad,  yet  its  average  depth  is  only  seven  or 

1    ^ght  feeb,  mu  it  nowhera  exceeds  a  depth  of  S3 

.    feet.      Its  nuface  is  4200  feet  above  the  lersl  of 

I    the  sea.     In  dte  '"'^^'^l^■  of  the  lake,  several  islands 

1    lise  as  Iiigh  sa  3250   feet  above  the  '      '     •    - 


n  ia  12  miles,  and  another  15  miles  in  length. 
The  water  of  the  lakt  is  so  salt  as  to  form  one  of 
the  parest  tmd  nuwt  concentrated  brinee  known  in 
the  world.  It  contains  22  per  oent.  of  chloride  of 
I  aodinm,  aligUIy  ndzed  with  othec  salts.  This  lake, 
in  wluae  watsn  no  living  ctcatoie  is  foimd,  lecmvea 
from  the  sootii,  by  ttw  Jordan,  the  wators  of  the 
TTtalt  lake,  wUdi  are  frcah,  sad  those  of  the  Wear 
I  tiw  fnom  the  moth ;  bnt  it  has  no  otrtteb  It  baa 
been  called  the  'stall  innocent  Dead  Sea;'  and 
certainly  m  the  qnality  cd  the  water,  and  the  wild, 
weird  aspect  of  -Uie  siuToanding  scenery,  the  lakes 
peal^  Fesonble  each  other,  llie  first  mention  of 
the  a.  8.  L.  was  by  Baron  La  Hontun,  in  1689, 
who  did  not  himself  vi^t  it,  but  wto  galliered 
some  notions  of  it  from  the  Indians  west  of  the 
AGniBsippi.  It  was  first  explored  and  described  in 
1643,  Itj  Colonel  iGVsmont.  A  thorough  sarrey  was 
made  in  1849—1850  by  Capiain  Howard  Stansbnry 
of  the  United  States  army,  whose  report  waa 
printed  in  1S6Z    See  Salt  iIixb  Citt,  and  Utah. 

QRBAT  SEAL.  By  Act  of  Union  between 
England  and  Scotland  (5  Anne,  o.  8),  one  Qreat  Seal 
for  the  Dnited  Kingdom  of  Qreat  Britain  is  used  for 
aealing  writs  to  summon  the  parliament,  for  treaties 
with  foreign  states,  and  all  publio  acts  of  state 
aSeding  Great  Britmn.  The  holder  of  the  Great 
Seal  is  now  generally  called  the  Lord  Chan--"-" 
A  seal  is  also  Eq>t  in  Scotland  for  sealing  sranl 
ivrits  affecting  private  rights  there.  By  tba  1 
Englukd,  the  Lcsd  Chancellor  has  the  costody  of 
Innsties,  which  is  a  juon  jndidal  power ;  but  he  has 
no  anthority  to  act  in  this  capacity  in  Scotland, 
where  a  ■imilar  authoriW  is  vested  m  the  Court  of 
Session.  As  regards  Ireland,  the  Act  of  Union,  39 
and  40  Cbo.  in.  c.  67,  provided  that  various  acts 
sa  to  snmmoning  parliament,  Jhj.,  should  be  done 
under  tlw  Qreat  Seal  of  the  United  Kingdom ;  but 
in  other  respects,  the  Gteat  Seal  of  Irehmd  is  used 
in  tiie  same  "■f"T^°T  oa  before  the  nnion. 

QBEAT   SLATE    LAKS,    an 
iiregalar  sheet  of  water  in  British  North 

ii  ntnatal  in  lat  between  60°  40*  and  63  ,.., 

in  louA  between  109*  30'  and  117°  30'  W.  Its 
gtwtest  length  is  about  300  miles,  and  its  greatest 
onadtli   50  miles.      It  is   sorrounded,   esped^y 


on  tlie  north,  by  rugged  and  precipitona  shores ; 
it  oontains  many  "^^«|  some  ol  them  wooded, 
and  is  wholly  fioien  0v9  for  six  mooths  of  svery 
year.  On  the  norUi,  it  ieceiT«a  Qu  ntf^oe  waters 
of  lAke  Aybner  and  l4>ke  Armisi;,  and  on  the 
Bonth,  those  of  Lake  Athabaska.  Its  own  mrplns- 
age  of  water  is  oarried  off  by  the  Modtenae  BireT 
to  the  Arctic  Ooaan. 

QBEAT  8LAVB  BITER,  a  river  of  British 
North  America,  forms  the  outlet  of  Lake  Athabaska 
into  Great  Slave  Lake,  and  flows  in  a  uorth-west 
direction  from  the  fmner  to  the  latter.    It  is  abont 


QRBAT   WALL  OF   CHINA     See  CHcnsi 

GREATES  (Fr.  Oriae),  pieces  of  armour  formerly 
used  OS  a  defence  for  the  1^  (in  the  patois  of 
Burgundy,  grlve  still  signifies  '  shin  *).  They  were 
origmolly  made  of  leader,  quilted  linen,  ba.,  and 
ofterwoids  of;  steel,  hallowed  to  fit  the  front  of 
the  legs,  and  fastened  with  straps  behind.  The 
Greeks  termed  them  hOmidu  (whence  the  frequent 
expression  in  the  Iliad,  euJniinudf  Adudoi,  the 
'well-greaved  Greeks'),  and  the  Romans  Ocrca. 

QKBBE  (Podicepe),  a  genns  of  birds  of  the  family 
Colymblda,  having  the  fert  webbed  not  in  the  usnid 
manner,  bnt  by  a  separate  membrane  for  each  toe, 
Dnited  only  at  the  base.  The  tarai  (shanks)  are  so 
mnch  compressed  as  to  be  almast  like  blades.  The 
claws  are  large  and 
flat  The  bill  is  abont 


straight,  and  oonicaL 

Sewings  are  short. 
There  is  no  toil  The 
legs  are  attached  so 
for  back,  that  the 
birds  when  on  land 
assume  on  erect  posi- 
tion, like  penguins. 
They  walk  with  diffi-  ,£=»*- 
cuH^,  and  Jl  th«r  ^^><^i 
motions      im      land  -^ 

are  awkward.  They 
Bometimes  shnma 
along  on  their  bellies 
like  seals.  But  in 
water  they  are  ex- 
tremely a^B ;  they 
swim    rapidly,    dive   Head  aod  Pf 


Qrabe  (P,  Conmtui). 


with  extreme  qoick- 
ness  if  alarmed,  and 
pass  to  veiy  considerable  distances  nnder  water, 
moving  there  by  means  of  tiuar  feet  alone,  and 
threading  their  way  with  wonderful  expertness 
among  ttie  stalks  and  leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 
They  feed  on  fiahcB,  batrachiana,  crustaceans,  and 
other  aquatic  animals,  partly  also  on  vegetable  food. 
They  ore  said  sometimea  to  carry  their  young  nnder 
their  wings,  and  even  to  take  them  under  water 
with  them  in  diving  to  escape  fnmi  enemies.  The 
gsK^phical  distribution  of  the  genua  is  vary  wide, 
anasome  of  its  specfea  are  also  very  widely  dis^- 
bnt«d.  Four  nieoiM  are  British,  two  of  which  are 
ouW  winter  birds  of  passase;  but  Uie  QBXST-OKKrKu 
Q.  (P.  CTMfoftM),  and  the  LnnJt  Q.  (P.  minor),  also 
called  Dabohioc  or  Ddbchiok,  are  resident  wl  the 
year.  The  Little  O.  is  by  far  the  moct  oommon 
British  specie*.  It  does  not  exoeed  ten  inches  in 
Iraigth.  The  Ghreat-orestedG.  is  rsre,  even  in  winter, 
when  the  number  is  increased  by  visitants  from  the 
north.    It  is  sometims*  called  the  Satut  Q.,  from 


i.GoogI' 


QBEOIAlf  AfiCHITECTUItE. 


the  beautiful  Bhlning  lilvery  (e&then  of  the  lower 

I  parte  of  ita  body,  od  account  of  which  it  is  in  great 

I  requeet,  the  skis  beinj:^  lUed  to  nutlce  muSa  for  l^ee, 

i  or  cut  into  dutow  stnpe  for  trinuniug  their  dreeaea. 

I  O.'ihootiiig  ia  e  fiiToante  unuaemeat  on  the  I^e 

i  of  Geneva ;  the  G.  ia  pursued  bv  a  bo&t,  whilit  it 

I  aeeba  to  escape  b;  diving  and  ■wimmine  noder 

I  Tiiter.    The  males  of  aome  of  the  grebee  OAve  the 

I  bead  Snelv  ornamented  with  tufts.     The  pliunage 

1  of  noet  of  them  Toiies  much  at  different  age*  and 

I  GRECLAN  ARCHITECTURE.    The  origin  of 


It  ia  divided  into 


from  the  early  wooden  huta  of  the  aborii^nea  ;  thi 
lonio,  which  apranz  up  among  the  Greek  coloniata 
in  Asia  Minor,  to  Cave  been  modelled  on  the  gnce- 
fnl  proportiona  of  the  female  figure,  aa  the  Doric 
had  been  on  the  more  robust  form  of  a  man — 
the  volutes  repreaenting  the  curls  of  the  hair,  the 
Anting  the  ioJos  of  the  drapery,  &c  The  stor;  of 
tiie  otigia  of  the  Corinthian  style  is  very  pretty; 
a  norae  had  deposited  in  a  basket  on  the  grave  of 
a  departed  child  the  toys  she  had  amased  herself 
with  whioi  alive.  "The  basket  was  placed  accident- 
ally on  the  root  of  an  acanthns,  and  in  spring, 
when  the  leaves  grew,  tiley  curled  gracefully  round 
the  basket,  and  under  a  Bat  atone  which  was  laid 
on  the  top  of  it.  CaUimachua,  the  sculptor,  seeing 
it,  caught  the  idea,  and  worked  oat  at  Corinth  the 
beautiful  caiatal  since  called  after  that  city. 

Modern  discoTeries  have,  however,  shewn  that 
Greece  owed  much  to  the  earlier  civilisation  of  the 
countries  which  preceded  it  in  historv.  To  the 
architecture  of  one  or  other  of  theae,  aunoet  every 
feature  of  Greek  architecture  can  be  traced.  But 
it  is  for  the  first  idea  only  that  the  Greeks  are 
indebted  to  Egypt  and  Auyria ;  whatever  forma 
they  adopted,  they  so  modified  and  improved  aa  to 
moke  them  part  of  their  own  arcbiteciture. 

Grecian  architecture  is  divided  into  three  stylee 
— the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  (see  Colcmn, 
fist.  4,  S,  ffl.  Of  these  the  Doric  ia  the  oldest. 
The  earliest  example   which  remains  is  the  temple 


Fig.  1. 

at  Corinth,  which  was  built  about  G50  b.  c.  The 
remains  of  this  temple  shew  the  various  members 
of  the  style  fully  developed,  but  they  are  all  of  a 
massive  and  heavy  descnption,  strongly  reeembling 

in  this  respect   t^-'-  — ''^ "■-    ---'-■•■ 

of  Egypt    There 
intermed.'  ' 
look  its 


„ .  doubt,   although  the 

intermediate  step*  are  lost,  that  the  Doric  atyle 

;in  from  the  rock-cut  tombs  of  Beni- 

,  in  Egypt,  of  which  fig.  1  is  an  ezisting 

mplb    The  pilSrs  of  one  of  these  tombs  appear 


(q.  vj  in 


at  first  nght  to  be  Doric ;  it  ia  only  on  close  inspec- 
tion that  we  find  that  the  Echinus  (q.  v.)  is  wantiaa 
under  the  capital  The  echinus  wsa,  however,  oaea 
by  the  Egyptians.  We  here  find  ourselves  in  the 
cradle  of  Greek  art.  This  is  the  spot  wher«  we 
must  seek  for  the  first  origin  of  the  style,  not  in 
Greece,  where  the  earliest  eismple  is  already  com- 


the  theory,  that  the  pillars  were 
trees  nsed  as  posts.  It  aeems  more  likely  that  the 
first  pillars  were  square  piers  of  rubble  or  brick:-.- 
work,  vrith  a  flat  stone  or  tile  laid  on  the  top,  to 
form  a  good  bed  for  the  beams  to  rest  on.  These 
formed  the  architrave,  stretching  from  pier  to  pier, 
on  which  rested  the  crosa-benms  supporting  the 
rafters  of  the  roof,  the  ends  of  the  latter  suggesting 
the  dentils  and  modilhons  (mutules)  of  the  cornice, 
the  former,  the  triglypha  (lee  ENTABLi-TDBi).  Tfae 
square  form  of  the  pier  was  afterwards  modified 
tn  catting  off  the  comers,  and  again  catting  ofT 
the  remainine  comers,  until  the  ptdygon  suggested 
the  fluted  Bhaft  The  some  process  was  after- 
wards gone  through  by  the  medieval  architects  in 
developmB  the  Piers  (q.  v.)  of  Gothic  architecture. 

After  the  temple  at  Corinth,  the  next  remaining 
example  is  the  temple  at  j^Igioa  (q.  v.),  built  about 
a  century  later,  or  650  B.C.  There  may  have  been 
many  temples  of  the  same  date,  but  none  now  exist ; 
they  were  probably  destroyed  durinx  the  Persian 
war,  or  removed  to  make  way  for  hner  buildinn 
daring  the  great  bnHdiiu  epoch  of  Greece  whi^ 
BucceMed  uat  war,  and  when  she  was  at  the 
summit  of  her  power.  Of  this  epoch,  we  have  many 
remains.  The  temple  of  Theseus  and  the  Parthenon 
at  Athens  (438  B.C.},  that  ofJnpiter  at  Olympia 
(440  n.c.},  Apollo  Epicurius  at  BassiE,  Minerva  at 
Sunium,  and  all  the  best  eiamplea  of  the  Dorio 
style  of  Greece,  are  of  the  age  of  Pericles.  Besides 
the  Peloponneaua,  there  are  the  countries  colonised 
by  the  Greeks  to  which  we  can  look  for  remains 
of  Cbeek  architecture.  The  Dorian  colonists  of 
Sicily  and  Magna  Gnecia  carried  with  them  the 
architecture  of  their  native  country,  and  furaiah  ns 
with  many  line  examples.  In  Selinus  there  are  aix 
temples,  the  oldest  being  about  the  aame  age  aa 
that  at  Corinth.  At  Agrigantmn  there  are  three 
Doric  temples,  one  of  tiiam  founded  by  Theron 
(4S0  B.  c.) ;  this  is  the  largest  Grecian  temple  of  the 
period,  being  360  feet  long  by  173  feet  broad.  At 
Syracuse,  ^gesto,  and  Eteatnm  there  sliU  remain 
many  valuable  examples. 

Aa  the  Doric  art  progressed,  the  early  maanvs 
forma  gave  place  to  more  el^ant  and  slender  pro- 
portions. In  the  temple  at  Corinth  the  column  is 
only  447  diameters  m  height ;  in  the  Parthenon 
(lig.  2),  which  is  universally  recognised  as  the  fineat 


example  of  the  style,  the  colnmn  is  6-035  in  height ; 
and  m  kter  examples  it  becomes  still  taller  and 
thinner,  imtil  it  mns  into  the  opposite  extreme 
from  which  it  started,  and  becomes  so  mcagra  and 


tyCoogle 


GRECIAN  ABCHITECrU££. 


Mttentuted  aa  to  Iom  entirely  tiie  boldoen  and 
vigour  of  detrign  which  are  the  chief  chanuAeiiHtici 
of  tia  style. 

One  thins  to  be  jorticalwly  admired  in  the  Dotia 
style  i«  the  bewi^  of  the  Bcnlptare  with  which  it  ii 
anornod,  and  the  nppropriate  nuuiner  in  which  the 
Bcnlptare  in  placed  in  the  boildin^^  and  the  building 
anited  for  the  ■colpture.  It  has  been  shewn  by 
Mr  Penrose  that  eveiy  line  Wai  the  anbiect  of  the 
deepeirt  atody  on  the  part  of  the  architect,  for 
Uie  pnrpoae  of  correcting  and  allowing  for  all 
opti<^  abeitations.  The  remit  is,  that  there  ia 
hardly  a  sin^  ttraight  line  in  the  building ;  all 
the  Imes,  which  appear  to  be  perfectly  straight,  are 
drawn  with  accurate  cnrves,  M>  aa  to  produce  the 
smoothest  and  moat  pleaaing  effect  to  the  eye. 
B-veiy  harsh  angle  b  softened  and  every  diaagree- 
nble  combinatioD  of  linea  avoided.  For  example,  the 
c<d(unnB  have  an  T'i"*-""  (q.  v.)  or  slight  sw^liog 
'  ' B ;  the  architrave  of  the 


iUnaion  canaad  by  the  akipiiu  linea  of  the  pedimi 
and  the  colonma  are  doped  slightly  inwaj^  so  aa 
to  dve  neater  aiq)earance  of  solidity. 

The  tWthenoB  ia  bnCt  eotiiely  of  white  marble, 
and  the  whole  of  the  masonry  in  this,  aa  in  other 
Doric  worka  of  importance,  la  pat  togsther  with 
the  most  perfect  wonmanahip. 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  this  and  other 
Greek  temples  were  adorned  externally  wilh.  colour- 
To  what  extent  this  decotatian  was  carried,  ia  not 
cleari^  aacertainedi  but  it  ia  probable  that  the 
exterior  walla  were  covered  with  Cistoricol  pictures, 
which  were  sheltered  from  the  effecto  of  the  weather 
by  Qie  portioo  surrounding  the  temple.  The  sculp- 
ture was  probably  also  relieved  by  a  flat  colour  on 
the  background,  and  the  mouldinga  decorated  witii 
painted  or jdlded  onamenta. 

/onic.— 'nus  B^le  took  ita  rise  about  600  B.C, 
and  aa  we  have  aeen  that  the  earlier  Doric  was 
imported  from  Egypt,  so  the  Ionic  seems  to  have 
originated  from  the  inflnence  of  Assyrian  art 
The  leoent  diacoveties  of  layard  and  others  have 
BheWQ  that  many  of  the  oharaoteristic  ornaments 
of  the  B^le  vere  in  commou  use  in  Assyrian 
■rchitectnre.  The  volntes  of  the  capitals  are  par- 
ticolarly  indicative  of  an  Eastern  ongiii,  the  scroll 
being  an  ornament  of  Very  common  use  in  all 
Gastem  art. 

The  flneat  exsmpk*  of  the  Ionic  style  remaining 
in  Oreeoe  ate  the  tem^es  of  the  Wu^eaa  Victory 
{ttiU  aftertu)  vaA  the  Erechthenm  at  Athena,  buiit 
about 400 — £iO B.a  Inthelonianandothacolonies 
.  of  Asia  Hinor,  nlso,  many  fine  esamplea  of  this 
I  style  were  erecteiL  The  edebrated  temple  of  Diana 
at  £l|dieBus  was  of  the  Ionic  order.  It  was  the 
largeat  temple  we  know  of  up  to  its  time,  being 
42S  feet  long  by  220  feet  wide.    No  trace  of  it 


Fntal  carving  for  ita  effect.    This 

love  of  elaborate  oma- 

:   ment   ia   an   indication 

of  the  Eastern  inQnence 

I   under  which  the  style 

iriginated,      and      the 

noultlinga  and  many  of 

the  omamrats  are  found 

Fig,  3.  to    be    identical    with 

thoae  of  Assyriau  archi- 

teetnre^  only  refined  and  simplified  by  the  Greeks. 

The  hoaeyaiuUe  onuunent  {if.  3),  so  commool; 

used  hoOi  in  Assyrian  and  Iwuc  arohitectore,  is  a 


good  a 
Greeks 

the  Doric,  we  find 


iple  of  the  improvement  effected  by  the 
the  original  iTpe.  In  the  Ionic  as  well 
..: "-'  tie  mc 


perfect  execution 
and  workmandiip,  the  spirals,  entasis,  &a.,  being 
all    drawn   and   cut   with   the   greatest   poasiUe 


Corinl/uan. — Thia  style  was  the  latest  introduced, 
and  combines,  to  some  extent,  the  characteriatdos  of 
both  the  preceding.  It  lutites  and  blends  together 
the  Egyptiau  and  Assyriaa  elements,  the  cap  being 
probably  derived  from  the  bell-shajted  capitals  3 
the  former  countiy,  ornamented  with  the  carved 
leaves  and  spirals  of  the  East.  This  order  was 
firet  used  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
the  earliest  example  extant  being  the  Choragic 
Monument  (q.  v.)  of  Lysicrates  (33fi  B.a).  There 
are  also  the  Temple  of  the  Winds  and  that  of 
Jupiter  Olympins  at  Athens,  the  latter  being  one 
of  the  largest  and  finest  examples  of  the  style. 

The  Corinthian  ia  the  most  florid  of  the  Greek 
styles,  and  although  invented  by  the  Greeks,  it 
was  not  brought  into  use  till  after  the  power  of 
the  republics,  to  which  we  owe  the  finest  works  of 
Greek  art,  h^d  begun  to  wane.  This  style,  from 
its  richness  and  spiendoar,  became  afterwards  the 
greatest  favourite  with  the  Romans,  ia  whose 
hands  Greek  art  becanie  spread  over  the  whole 

Caryalidu. — Besides  the  above  al?l^  which 
constitato  liW  Oredi  ordert  of  clasnc  writers,  the 
Greeks  also  used  Caryaiides  (q.  v.),  or  female 
figures,  in  place  of  columns,  as  in  the  Erechtheum 
and  Tdamone4  (q.  v.),  or  giants,  ss  at  Agrigentom. 
These  were  probably  derived  from  the  figures  used 
by  the  Egj^ttians  in  their  architecture,  but  the 
latter  never  uaed  them  as  columns ;  they  always 
placed  them  as  statues  in  front  <d  the  colunms. 

Greek  temples  are  technioally  classed 
and  deognated  by  the  mode  m  which 


the     colun 


□ 


Fig.  4. 


is  a  square  chamber  contained 
four  walls ;  the  simplest  form  of  portico 
is  called  ditlyle  in  antu  (fig.  4),  the 
two  side-walls  being  continued  yiml  the 
end-wall,  and  termmated  with  anbe,  or 
pilasters,  with  two  columns  between. 

When  the  portico  has  fonr  oolnmns  between  the 
antra,  it  ia  called  tetraityle. 

The  temples  have  generally  the   same  arrange- 
ment at  both  ends. 

In  front  of  both  ends  of  the  plan 
(fig.  6),  there  is  frequently  placed  a 
range  of  six  columns,  and  from  the 
flo^  colnnms  a  row  is  continued 
along  both  sides.  Such  on  arrange- 
ment is  called  peripteral,  and  tJie 
temple  is  designated  hexostyle  and 
peripteraL 


lesignatei 
Iliis    ■ 


The  PaithenoQ  is  an  exception  to 
the  general  rule :  it  baa  a  hexaslyle 
portico  at  each  eni  of  the'  cell,  in 
front  of  which  ia  placed  an  octastyle 
portico,  and  seventeen  oolumns  at 
each  side. 

The  great  temple  at  Agrigentnm  Kg.  & 
had  seven  columns  at  each  cud,  and 
fourteen  at  each  side,  and  was  peculiar  in  having 
the  space  between  the  columns  all  round  filled  up 
with  a  walL  The  reason  probably  was,  that  the 
space  between  the  columns  was  too  great  to  be 
spanned  by  arohitravea  in  single  stones.  The  wall 
was  pierced  with  windows. 

Considcisble  doubt  baa  existed  as  to  Ote  mode 
adopted  by  the  Greeks  for  lighting  the  interior  of 


Cnt.zodhyGOOgle 


GRECIAN  ABCHITEOTUEB-ORBECE, 


their  temples;   th»t    miggeBl«d  by  Mr  Fei^iuTCii 

seemB  the  moat  probable,  u  being  liimUt'  to  the 
plan  nued  by  the  EgyptianB  md  ABsyriaiK.  The 
Ulterior  bid  generally  a  double  row  of  oolamni,  one 


Neptune  &t  Partum,  Mr  Ferguswn  mppoeei  tbat 
the  light  WW  introduced  by  coootei^ainiinB  ft  part 
of  the  roof,  bo  aa  to  sdmit  the  light  between 
the  piilara  ot  the  upper  range,  Oina  forming  ■  Mnd 
o[  clercBtory,  ne  ^ewn  on  the  annexed  lection  of 


The  theatre!  of  the  Graeka  formed  another  veiy 
important  daM  of  worki ;  they  conaiited  of  semi- 
ciroolar  row*  of  seats  cat  in  the  rock,  or  partly 
built.  RemaioB  of  these  atructurcs  are  found  in  i^ 
the  countries  inhabited  by  the  Greeka,  and  were 
frequently  of  great  size — that  at  Dramyasua  being 
443  feet  acrow.  Tbe  proscenia  were  the  parts  oi 
which  arahit«otnral  design  was  chiefly  displayed 
but  these  have  tmfortnnately  all  periahed. 

None  of  the  palaces  or  domestio  edifices  of 
the  Greeka  romain  to  na ;  we  are  thua  totally 
deprived  of  a  very  inteieatiiig  chapter  in  the  history 
of  domeetic  architecture,  for  it  15  highly  probable 
that  the  BtreelH  and  honses  of  Greece,  although  not' 
ao  splendid  and  enduring  an  the  templea,  were  more 
varied  in  atyle,  and  eihibited  many  pictureaque  and 
beautiful  forma,  which  are  now  entirely  loet 

The  attempt  ha*  been  made  in  modem  timet 
rerire  Greek  arohilectore,  and  some  ingeni 
modificationi  and  adt^itatiaDa  of  it  have  been  carried 
oat.  Bnt  it  waa  found  that  thia  style,  ao  beautiful 
and  appropriate  in  the  warm  and  genial  climate  of 
Greece,  waa  quit«  nnsoited  for  our  norihern  lati- 
tudes. The  portiooa  are  uaeleas  in  ■  climate  where 
eztenud  punting  oannot  last,  and  where  the  nin- 
abine  is  courted  rather  than  aiclnded ;  the  pitch  of 
the  roof  is  not  high  eoou^  to  throw  off  our  anows ; 
and  windowa  of  aufBcieut  size  for  our  dark,  akiea 
are  not  admissible.  Grecian  •rchitaotnra  has  there- 
fore been  abandoned  ;  and  ita  place  is  now  taken  by 
a  atyle  more  appropriate  to  our  climate,  and  mors 
aaited  to  the  feeUnga  of  the  people. 

GREEOE.  The  name  h^  which  the  andent 
Greeka  delighted  to  call  iheir  native  country  •"•- 
Bellas  (q.  v^.  The  terma  Grracia  and  Oneci 
firat  used  by  the  Romana,  being  derived  probably 
from  a  imall  tribe  in  Epmia,  near  Dodona,  called 
ffroiM^  with  whom  the  Komana  may  be  aupposed 
to  have  been,  from  proximity,  beat  acqnainted. 

Exlait,  Sc — This  oonntry,  ao  celebrated  in  the 
history  of  freedom,  of  literatore,  of  art,  ot  phil- 
osophy, and  of  dviliaation  generally,  varied  much 
in  size  at  diKrent  perioda  of  ita  hiatoiy.  Hellas 
•t  Grat  was  applied  only  to  a  small  diitriot  in 


n^^saly;  at  a  later  period,  it  denoted  not  only 
the  Morea,  and  what  i*  commonly  called  0.  Proper, 
bnt  also  Macedonia,  Epirua,  and  the  ialanda  of  tbo 

JoundaTia— (1)  An^nU—The  northern  limit  ot 
ancient  G.  may  be  fixed  about  the  40th  par^lel  of 
S.  lat,  the  BOnlh  extremity  being  in  36°  23".  The 
barrier  separating  G.  from  Illyrioum  and  Maoe- 
donia  on  the  north,  waa  tbat  range  of  mountaina 
which,  starting  from  the  Adriatic  as  the  Cerannian 
range,  meraea  into  the  Oambunian  ridge  in  the 
centre,  ana  rana  ont  into  the  sea  on  the  east  aa 
the  far-famed  Olympus.  The  .^eon  Sea  washes 
the  country  on  the  east,  the'  Mediterranean  aa 
tbe  south,  and  the  Ionian  and  Adriatic  on  the 
west.  The  greatest  length  is  about  260  English 
miles,  and  the  greatest  breadth  180 ;  the  area  (not 
including  Epims,  but  including  EnbtBa)  ia  aboat 
21,000  gqnara  miles — i  e^  about  two-thirda  the 
size  of  Sootland.  The  Cydadea  are  reckoned  by 
themselves,  and  amount  to  rather  mora  than   lOOO 

Snan  miles.  See  Idandi  at  end  of  article. 
)  Itodem.  The  extent  of  modom  G.  ia  much 
more  limit«d.  It*  north  boundarv  was  fixed  in 
1834  by  a  hne  drawn  (in  Ut  39*  S*  N.|  from  tha 
Golf  of  Arts  (Ambrocia)  in  the  west  to  the  Gnlf  of 
Volo  (Pagasffi)  in  tJie  east,  thus  excluding  tba 
greater  part  of  Tbessaly  end  much  of  Acamania, 
with  all  EpiruE.  The  greatest  leofth  of  this  terri- 
tory is  not  more  than  200  English  miles,  and  its 
Euperflcial  area,  including  Euboea,  but  not  the 
Cycladn,  about  16,000  square  mile^  or  half  the  aize 
of  Scotland. 

FhytKol  C<M/ormaii(>n.-~Q.  ia  eMentially  a  coim- 
trv  of  moontains,  hills,  and  valleys.  From  tbe  rid^ 
which  ftmns  its  northern  frontier,  there  starts  in 
a  southerly  direction  the  Piodos  chain,  the  back.- 
bone  of  G.,  dividing  Thessaly  from  Epirus,  and 
giving  origin  to  those  numerous  streams  which 
water  the  mainland.  About  lat.  39°,  it  sends 
off  two  spora  to  the  east :  Othrya  (Oura),  which 
terminates  at  the  Gnlf  of  Volo— «nd.a  litUe  further 
south,  (Eta  (Katavothra),  at  the  extremity  of  which 
is  the  famous  pass  of  Thermopyls.  Some  rid^ 
of  lees  note  run  westward.  From  thia  point,  tiio 
great  central  chain  extends  in  a  south-east  dircc- 
Qon  (though  with  many  windings),  aa  far  as  Monnt 
Oithsron,  and  even  through  Attica  as  far  aa  Cape 
Sonimn,  under  the  namee  of  Parnassus,  Helicon, 
Citlueron,  and  Eymettus ;  while  in  a  south-west 
coarse  we  find  many  ranges  crosiing  the  coantry 
towards  the  Ionian  Sea  and  the  Oidf  of  Corinth 
(Lepanto),  in  a  direction  parallel  with,  or  slightly 
inclined  t«,  that  of  the  central  chtun.  Th«  some- 
what lateral  range  of  Citluaron  and  PamM,  on  the 
borders  of  Attica,  ia  extended  through  Hegaria 
into  the  Morea  or  PeloponDesas  by  a  lower  ndge, 
which,  paaaing  across  the  isthmoa  of  Oori^i, 
stretches  oven  to  the  wait  ooasb  (M  thia  range,  the 
<;wo  moat  conapicnous  point*  sre  Uounta  ^llene 
and  Ehymanthus,  from  which  two  diaiu  nm  wnith 
'  art  of  Arcadia  lospeetively,  and 
Taygetua    (Pentedaotyloo)  and    ■ 


under  the   1       ._      ._ . j-^. 

Pamon  (MalevG),  ternunate   in  the   promontories 
of  Tenanii  and  Malea.     Besides  these,  there  ate    | 
many  shorter  chains  and  individual  peaks,  which  it    1 
would  be  tedious  and  out  of  place  to  detail     It    | 
may  be  soffioient  to  state,  that  tiiara  ia  no  oonntry 
of  Gurope,  exoept  Switzariand  and  the  west  parts 
of  Sootlatid,  whudi  can  be  omnpared  to  G,  in  the 
extent,  vanefy,  and   irregnlarify  of  ita   mountain 
system,  and  tbe  number  and  cbMaoter  of  ita  valleya. 
Of  all   tlie  divinouB  of  Q.,  Arcadia  ia  most  like 
Switzerland   in  its    rugged  nature  and  generally 
elevated  tur&oe.    Some  of  the  mountain  paaka  of 
G.  rise  to  a  great  height ;  thu%  Olyvpui  is  9700 


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1 


I    Engliah   feet,  ud  is  covered  irith  mow ;  Qniooft, 

I    raitbe  frontier,  8240  feet;  Fununia,  8001;  with^ 

I   many  otheia  of  TOOOl  WOO,  and  BOOO.    Helimn  U 

I    4003;   Cithnron,  4630;  Crllena,  7745;  vMe  the 

I    Aerocoimthoa,  at  dUdel  irf  Oemth,  is  168S  abore 

'    thia  larel  of  the  m*.    The  nunmtwH  of  Q.  are  more 

i«in»tk*ihle  for  flte  nddemteM  at  their  riie  than 

'    for  tiietr  great  deration.    8o,  too,  there  are  nuuy 

smaller  peakaasd  oonca  notaUe  lor  the  abrnptneaa 

irith  irluch  tliej  BpriiiK  from  the  plun,  such  ai  the 

I    Acrooariothna,  the  rou  of  Ithome,  and  the  Ueteora 

cliA   of  ThMBalj  near  the  Peoiiu.      ThcM   kit 

I    are  huge  wiaini   ot  rock  standing   oat  from  the 

plain  to  hoghta  var^itu;  from  100  to  300  or  400  feat, 

'    with  sides  perpcndioalar  as  a  iralL    They  aetnme 

I    the  ahapn  of  pillan,  cooes,  and  other  figures  more 

I    or  leas  menlar :  they  cover  a  ipMw  of  nearly  two 

sqoara   mUes,  the  reoeases  betwean  On  ^dbmIm 

'    being  filled  with  toeea  and  doiie  tsnahwood.    like 

nuuimta   are  oooiipied  W  monasteries,  the   only 

acceaa  to  iriiieh  la  by  baaketa,  nets,  or  laddraa 

■wimg  ia  the  ur._ 

AfitMroIa — Q.  ia  sot  rich  in  miDerala :  gold,  ailTer, 
ac^ip«r,  lead,  and  iron,  are  found,  bnt  the  wines 
hKva  nerer  been  woAed  with  leaL  lllie  moat 
f  amona  mines  in  andent  times  were  thaw  of 
Laoiiom  io  Attica.  Coal  ia  fdnnd  in  Eabtea  and 
in  8<nne  parts  <rf  the  Feilopramesns ;  salt  is  proetued 
in  many  distriets  of  Q.  utd  in  the  Ionian  iBUnda  ; 
and  marble  ot  the  pnreat  kind,  and  of  varioiu 
colonn,  may  be  had  m  endless  amonnt  in  almost 
all  p^ta  <i  CtoMCCk  The  moat  famed  qtuuriea 
wras  in  faros,  OaiTstDs  {in  Enb<«a),  Pentelicos, 
and  Hymettos.  Hwble  and  bnildiiiK'Stone  wars 
qoBRied  by  til*  old  Qreeks  to  a  Ten  large  extent. 
There  are  many  mineral  iprings,  both  cold  and 
warm,  and  many  cavtraa  rtill  emit  those  mephitio 
exhalations  which  in  bygone  daya  qnickened  the 
imagination  cd  the  poet,  and  canfirmed  the  supersti- 
tion ot  the  peasant. 

Pttdju  and  roaqWL— The  Talleya  of  Q.  are  very 
nnmerons,  bnt  owing  to  the  great  nnmber  and  irre- 
gnlar  oonrsas  of  the  mountain-ranges, — " 


heavy  laina  of  aatnmn  a 

[2i  Lahet.—lba  many  hill-enoiraled  vaUm  of  O., 
tnm  which  there  ia  no  outlet,  a&brd  toe  most 
f  avoomble  oppoctnnity  for  the  formation  of  lakes ; 
hence  the  rama  of  antoiDa  and  winter  staonato  in 
many  oassa  in  the  vall^a  of  &e  "■i"'rtaiiHi  and 
for  at  least  a  part  of  tlu  year,  form  tiny  lakes  or 
tama.  Some  of  these  are  permanent,  thonsh  with 
peat  difference  in  depth  of  water,  aocmding  to 
Qie  aeaaon  of  the  year,  while  others  dt^jmnate  in 
anmmer  into  reed-grown  marahca  and  pestilential 
fena.    See  BooTU. 

OKmaie. — The  climate  of  0.  varies  vay  con- 
sidenblv  in  different  parts  of  the  coontry.  In  the 
highlands  of  the  interior,  the  oold  in  winter  is  often 
very  severe,  anow  lying  for  sevend  months.  On 
the  plains,  and  in  the  lower  districts  near  the  coast, 
sddom  seen ;  bnt  the  north  and  north-west 


e;  and   the  siioooo  not  i 

ith  and  lower  parte.    In , 

mnoh  difference ;  thus,  while  Attioa  is  rsmsrkable 
Ixright  Ay,  Bceotia 


The  two  gieat  plains  are  those  of  Thesaaly  at 
Bceotia,  the  fcnner  beii^  the  largest  and  the  mo 
fertile  in  all  G. :  that  of  Meaenia  ia  both  extensii 
andfertae. 

OoaM-liiie. — As  Enrope  is  pre-eminent  among 
continsnta  for  the  great  extent  of  its  sea-ooast,  so  is 
Q.  for  a  rimilar  featmv  remarkable  among  the  kiiig- 
J„.  _*  T, m.-  u ^^ 


a  that  n 
part  of  the  oonnby  ia  tar  from  the  sea — a  circam- 
stance  which  gives  the  iikhabitants  great  facilities 
for  oommcToe,  and  which  leads  the  modern  Greeks, 
as  it  did  ths  sodenti,  to  oocninr  themselves  in  very 
lane  nmnben  with  maritime  aAin. 

rater-syrian— (1)  AnwrK— The  rivers  of  O.  necee- 
nrily  ft^ow  its  vsllaya  in  character.  None  ol  them 
are  navigable.  The  most  important  ttreiun  is  tiie 
Acbaloos  (Aniropatamo),  which  rises  in  Hoont 
Findns,  flows  m  a  sooth  direotioa  thronsh  B^nms, 
and  eomtiea  itself  Into  the  I<mian  Sea,  at  the  month 
of  the  Gnlt  of  Corinth,  after  a  conrae  <rf  aboirt  130 
nilsi.  The  Sperehens  rises  in  ttm  Kndns  rang^ 
and  diasmbognes  into  ths  Halio  Gnl^  sfter  traverB- 
ing  tot  more  than  60  miles  the  fertile  vale  which  is 
boonded  on  ths  north  by  Hoont  Othrys,  and  on  the 
intth  by  Monnt  (Eta.  Besidea  these,  there  an  in 
North  G.  the  Ce^iiasna,  riting  in  Doris,  near  the 
base  of  Moont  Parnassus  and  llowing  throo^  the 
fertile  Bcsotian  plain  into  ltik«  Copais  (Imo  di 
Topoglia,  or  Lake  of  Livadia} ;  and  in  the  south  part 
of  Bcratia,  the  Asoptu  (Vnriemi).  In  Peloponnesoa, 
the  principal  streams  are  the  Earotaa  (Vasilipotama) 
uct  the  AlpbeuB  (Boofla).    By  the  banks  of  this 


The  rivers  of  O.  depend  for  thmr  supplies  msinly 
on  the  atmoqihere ;  h<ase  in  aninmer  tiie  larmr 
streama  are  xreatly  reduced  in  aiic^  and  Qie 
majority  of  the  smalla:  ones  ai«  either  almost  fn 
altogethsr  dry  diannela.  Many  of  than  are  nothing 


. .  climate  and  the  fbgmness  of  its  atanos^ia^ 
The   swampy  vaUeya  of   l^ake  Copais  and  otho- 

marshy  tracts,  when  acted  on  by  the  soorching 
heat  of  a  summer's  son,  produce  those  noxioQi 
vapours  which  are  found  in  so  many  parts  of  G., 
breeding  malaria  snd  disease.  This  defect  seems 
to  have  increased  since  cluiioal  times,  either  from 
the  greater  thinness  of  the  population,  and  the 
""" ■"   ■'    *     ''  "    "'  tjUage,  or  other  causes 


itiy  whose  rock-formation  is  of  so 
soft  a  eharacter  as  that  of  Greece.  Were  its  natural 
advantages  aided  by  drainage  and  irrigation,  G. 
might  yot  become  one  of  the  healthiest  and  one  of 
"«  most  fertile  oonntriea  of  Europe. 

Prcductioiu, — The  more  common  products  of 
Greek  soil  in  andeot  times  were  wheat,  barley,  and 
other  cereals ;  flax,  wine,  and  oil,  with  fruits  of 
various  kinds,  l^e  figs  of  Attioa  were  and  still  are 
famed  for  the  excellence  of  their  flavour.  Foresta 
once  covered  many  of  the  hiUs,  and  snmiUed  timber 
for  domestio  purposes  and  for  ahip-bnilding :  they  are 
still  extenrive  in  seine  parti.  The  most  important 
productions  of  modem  Gt.  aie  those  mentioned  above, 
with  maize,  rice,  millet,  currants,  and  silk.  Honey 
is  produced  in  great  qoanttty  on  Hymettus  and  in 
parts  of  ths  Peloponnesus.  The  mulberry-tree 
gely  grown  for  ths  silkworm ;  and  on  the  north 
..__  jonm  shoras  of  theGnlf  of  Crainth,  ss  wall  as  in 
Areadia,  and  the  west  cosst  of  the  Felopozmesus,  i 


i^rards,  with  the  greatest  variety  of  grspcs,  and 
nishea  a  wine  highN-  prixed  1^  the   Iniasiana. 
The  dive  grows  in  a  ■   '  '    '  '  "  '" 


t,  whudk 


state  over  all 

,._. ,  an  excellent 

the  inhahitsnts  rickle  in  veir  larae  quantity,  as 
'aple  artide  of  food.  The  oil  of  the  olive  serves  to 
ip[jy  light,  and  is  nsed  in  cooking  end  for  food, 
I  we  employ  butter.  Cotton,  madder,  toliacoo,  and 
legnminoos  plants  grow  in  conriderable  quantity. 
Pnattreea  are  ipeeially  fertile;  jigs  and  apnoota  are 


TTGoog 


plentifa 
MmMU, 


lentifsl  and  of  eic«Ueat  qoolity ;  onmgM,  ciCroni, 


ur^j  produced,  and  of  eiceilent  qnalitf  ■ 

flora  and  Fauna.— The  flora  o£  G,  rogemlile*  that 
of  otiier  countries  of  Sonth  Europe.  Atnong  the 
tame  animals  of  ancient  Q.  irere  the  horw,  mule, 
aaa,  oz,  aheep,  goat,  Ewine,  d<^  The  swine  mip- 
plied  Uie  favourite  flesh  meat.  Of  wild  animaU, 
we  And  the  wolf,  bear,  boar,  and  even  lions  at  an 
early  period.  Sheep  aad  goata  are  still  veiy  plea, 
tifu^  and  in  fact  conatitate  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant Boorcea  of  wulth  to  tlie  Greeks.  Oxen  are 
much  used  for  ploughing,  bnt  milch  govs  are  Uttle 
prized,  and  scarce.  Xt  &e  present  day,  the  wolf. 
Dear,  lynx,  wild-cat,  boar,  stag,  roebuck,  fox,  jackal, 
badger,  marten,  and  many  other  wild  *"'"i*^*  are 
found  in  the  forests.  Earee,  snipes,  wild-ducks,  and 
other  game  are  very  abundant ;  while  eaglen,  vul- 
tures, oawks,  Owla,  &c.,  are  found  in  coosiderable 
nnmbeis.  Tba  tortoise  ia  very  common,  but  tbe 
inhabitaats  have  a  great  aversion  to  it 

AgrvxltUTe. — The  agricultural  implements  are  atUl 
•a  rude  as  in  the  daya  of  t^e  Peloponneatan  war,  or 
even  of  Hesiod ;  and  thia,  added  to  the  acannty  of 
plon^iing  oxen,  niggedness  of  the  country,  general 
thinnesa  of  soil,  and  difficulty  of  tillage  and 
lough  to  damp  the  ardour  of  even 
*^~  population.  The  houses  of  the 
oountn'-peopls  are  m  most  parta  little  better  than 
mere  hovela,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  arable 
land  is  nntilled.  The  modea  of  tillage  are  of  the 
most  primitive  kind ;  and  thus,  thou^  nearly  half 
the  male  popnlation  of  O.  is  employed  in  agiicul- 
toral  Uboiira,  they  make  but  slight  impression  da 
the  general  aspect  of  the  country,  and  inSoenca 
Uttle  the  amount  of  exports;  in  fact,  they  do  not 
produce  as  much  grva  as  supplies  the  wants  of  the 
population,  and  that,  too,  though  a  biaher  yield  is 

e*  i-en  in  many  parfs  of  Q.  tl^  in  this  country, 
uch  labour,  however,  is  beatuwed  on  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  olive,  vine,  mulberry,  and  fruit  trees.  The 
greater  part  of  the  land  belongs  to  the  state;  rent 
IS  paid  ui  kind,  and  in  a  oertain  proportion  (one- 
third)  to  the  net  produce.  The  proprietor  is  in  very 
many  cases,  obliged  to  furnish  Om  melagtr,  or  tenant, 
with  seed  to  now  the  ground,  and  with  oxen  to 
plough  and  prepare  it ;  and  aa  the  metayer  has  an 
mterest  in  the  farm  for  only  one  year,  there  is  little 
encourageaient  for  either  landlord  or  tenant  to 
expend  hugely  in  improvements— such  as  drainage, 
fences,  clearing  of  the  soil,  and  comfortable  farm- 
steadings.  Xbe  countay,  however,  is  better  suited 
for  ■  pastonl  than  an  agrioulturol  people;  Arcadia 
ia  Btill  the  luid  of  ihepherds,  as  it  was  oC  old.  The 
Bocka  are  driven  to  the  valleys  near  the  coast  in 
wiikter,  and  in  April  to  the  hilh. 

3fani(/ae<ure«.— The  mannfacturea  are  few  and 
tuumportaat.  Cotton  and  woollen  stufls,  and  some 
minor  articlei  are  made  b^  Oke  peaaanby  for 
domestic  nae.  Ship-building  is  carried  on  at  moat 
of  the  Maports;  and  nlka,  ganze-atu^  cntleiT, 
lurdware,  earthenware,  leather,  saddlery,  and  andi 
articles  are  mads  in  small  qnantitjea  in  some  of  the 
jvinoipal  towns,  and  more  Mpeoially  on  Uie  i»l»ni^« 
The  Greeks  have  great  skill  ill  embnodetins  in 
Blk  gold,  and  silver;  iJao  in  Knlpture.  and  in 
the  oatlinR  of  marble.  Caipets  are  made  in  the 
island  of  Andro,  and  atraw-hata  at  Lifanto.  The 
modem  Gieeka  are  not  behind  their  great  ancestors 
in  the  art  of  dyung  in  bright  colours. 


Commartt. — £veiy  circurostanoe  tends  to  make 
the  Greek  a  man  of  otunmerce.  He  is  of  a  quick, 
active  versatile,  and  practical  tarn  of  mind,  and 
poaseasea  all  those  quaEtiM  vbich  insun 
buainsaa.    The  bays  and  guUi  of  the  • 


shore  allure  ^■"'  to  Uie  waters,  while  tiie  strong 

currents  and  frequent  squalls  on  hi>  iron-bovmd 
coast  soon  tender  him  an  expert  and  feailesa 
seaman.  The  ishuidera  are  thrown  into  a  sea- 
faring life  even  more  than  the  people  of  the  main- 
land. Q.  occupies  a  position  in  the  Mediterranesn, 
which,  for  commercial  advantages,  cannot  be  sur- 
passed. The  exports  of  ancient  times  were  of  course 
mainly  the  produoe  of  the  soil,  the  treea,  and  the 
mines ;  and  the  same  do  they  remain  at  the  present 
day.  Raw  produce,  as  cotton,  coin,  currants,  figs, 
and  other  fruit,  tobacco,  olive-ail,  honey,  wax,  gout, 
vsloda  Wk,  silk,  and  sponge  are  the  most  common. 
From  Western  Emvpe  maQofactutEd  goods  ol  all 
kinds  and  the  produce  of  our  colomea  are  largely 
imported;  while  Turkey,  from  her  provinces  in 
Europe  and  in  Asia,  supplies  coffee,  rice,  timber, 
drugs,  and  other  articles  of  eastern  growth.  The 
Greek  mertdiftots  speculate  Urgely  in  the  grain 
trade.  TheprincipalseaporUareSynL,PirBius,Patr3^ 
and  Kauplia,  and  the  ports  nith  which  they  trade 
most  are  Constantinople,  Leghorn,  Trieste,  Palermo, 
and  Smyrna.  The  mercantile  navy  of  G.  is  vay 
large,  amounting  to  nearly  6000  vessels,  many  of  500 
or  GOO  tons,  but  the  majority  are  smoU-cnft,  Gtt«d 
for  short  voyages  from  island  to  island,  or  to  porta 
near  Greece.  It  is  aa  agents  and  carriera  that  tha 
Greek  ship-owners  are  specially  engaged.  They  are, 
in  fact,  the  great  oommission-sgenti  and  camera 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Greek  merchants  have  now 
established  themselves  in  London,  LiverpocJ,  Man- 
chester, Glasgow,  and  other  towns  of  the  Britiali 
empire,  as  well  as  in  those  of  France  and  of  Ger- 
many ;  and  aa  they  have  greater  facilities  for  culleeV 
ing  articles  of  commerce  from  the  inland  parts  ot 
their  own  and  contuuous  countries,  besides,  as 
they  despise  no  sort  of  commissjon  or  merchandise, 
however  small  or  insignifioant,  they  now  usurp 
almost  the  entire  traffic  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  at 
Persia,  and  of  other  eastern  countries. 

Inirrnai  Commerce.— But  one  great  drawback  to 
the  development  of  Grecian  resource^  and  Uia 
increase  of  a  home-commerce,  is  the  miaeraUe 
state  of  the  internal  communication.  Without  a 
navigable  river,  with  not  a  single  canal,  and  with 
lem  than  100  mile*  of  road  Gt  for  a  doukcy-cart  in 
the  whole  extent  of  its  territory,  it  is  little  wonder 
that  the  inland  inhabitauta  are  devoid  of  cncrvy 
and  enterprise,  and  that  they  consume  but  litUe 
of  tiie  imports  from  abroad.  Mules,  asses,  horiea, 
and  men  carry  on  their  backs  over  rugged  pat^ 
and  through  mountain.pasaes,  the  scanty  supplies 
of  foreign  luxuries  and  neceaaaries  for  the  Greek 
peasant  of  the  interior.  Even  from  Athena  to 
Corinth  there  is  no  carriage-rood  1 

Potiiical  DioitilM*. — In  ancient  times  O.  WM 
divided  into  a  great  number  of  petty  states,  mmIl 
consisting  of  at  least  a  city  and  some  portion  of 
sulTOiin£ng  territory.  There  wss  no  king  ruliox 
over  tbe  whole  country,  no  fedrasl  uoion  whii£ 
embraced  all  the  states,  no  common  council  or 
L    Amphictyonic  leagues  did  exist 


period,  ud  IE 


later  times  the  Achean  and  j£tolian 
formed  with  patriotic  and  national 
„  .     .  ..  V,  but  tliese  applied  only  to  a  limited 

area,andwereof  only  local  operation;  hence  quarrels 
were  of  constant  occurrence,  and  G.  wasted  on 
internal  strug^es  those  energies  and  means,  which, 
if  properly  husbanded,  united,  and  directed,  might 
have  raised  her  to  the  vary  pinnacle  of  famo 
and  of  prosperity  in  every  department  of  human 
industry  and  human  exertion.  It  was  only  when 
some  monster  danger  threatened  univeraal  destruc- 
tion that  all  united  for  the  common  good,  as  in 
the  Persian  invasions,  and  even  then  jodousiGs  and 
•elfish  interests  cana^  ti)any  to  join  with  those 


t.LiOogle 


ipeifect  idea  of   the 
ooontoy,  ringty  or  lelatiTely ;  but  ai  tHu^  have 
H>  long  known  to  the  world  nnder  oeitam  mumja,  m 
will  bo  bert  to  mention  them  u  nnudlr  given. 

■hapad     Atf".  ■eparated   fiom    BoBotia   on    tlu 


Ataoli«,!_. 

witA  H«pri«,  paitlj  <m  the 
By  tbe  MTMi^ouDta  of  180!^  modem  O.  ia  divided 
into  ten  provinoea  oi  nomarohiea,  wliich  ara  again 
aobdivided  into  fortj-aine  eparchies,  and  theae  again 
Into  demawhiM  or  oantons.  Of  these  ten,  l£eie 
are  in  HdUa,  or  Northem  G.,  Attica  and  Bceotu, 
Pkocds  and  Fhtluotis,  ^camotua  and  ^tolia :  in 
Uta  Peloponnenu,  Argolia  and  Corinthia,  Aohaia 
and  Wli*,  Arcadia^  Mevenia,  lAcooia :  in  the  inlan^^^^ 
Euboe*  and  tlte  Oyclades.  See  Attioa,  Bceotia, 
Euwxa,  Ae.;  endfarC^c]«def,BeeMction  'leUods' 
at  end  of  tliii  Hiade. 

OotwrwM«nL-*~In  andeut  G.  caoh  ttate  managed 
iti  own  afEua,  and  ipvemmenta  were  of  disroot 
fcirtjj  Trt  Hbinerio  fa™**,  m^narfVy  leemB  to  have 
prerailed  to  a  oonaiderablo  eitent,  bat  io  later 
jean  repnblicB,  aiiBtoeraoies,  and  oUgardhiea  almoat 
entiiely  Daupsd  the  mlin^  power ;  factions  were 
life,  aod  in  maiqr  cases  their  oooteati  led  to  a  total 
diin^ition  of  tme  body-politie.  The  pmsent  con- 
i^tation  of  Oraece  was  arranged  hy  an  aaemblf 
elected  in  December  1863,  and  adopted  October  29, 
1864.  The  wIudelaRulative  power  is  vested  in  the 
BonU,  fx  Honae  of  Bcfveeentatives,  the  mnnbeia  of 
wbi^  are  tleoted  by  nuwbood  enSnue  f(»  fonr 
yean.  Hie  eleotions  take  pUee  by  ballot,  and  the 
diainbcr  mnst  meet  umnally  for  &ot  lees  than 
threcv  nor  more  than  siz  months,  lliere  must  be 
an  attendance  of  at  least  one  half  of  the  members 
to  give  legality  to  tlie  pooeedingg,  and  no  bill  can 
beoome  law  witboat  ue  consent  of  an  abecJate 
majority  of  mecnbers.  like  sawmbly  has  no  nnver 
to  altn  the  oonstitation  iteeli  The  Cluutiber  of 
Depotie*  me^s,  on  oidinaiy  oocasioas,  on  tbe  lat 
November  (O.EL]  of  every  year.  The  number  of 
members  vaiiee  with  the  population,  but  in  1872 — 
1873  it  WIS  18&  The  executive  is  vested  in  the 
king  and  1^  ministen  at  the  bead  of  the  following 
deparbnents,  who  are  reqioniible  for  the  acts  of  lus 
majes^ :  Uinistiy  of  the  Interior,  Unaoo^  Justices 
£dnca£on  f-^^  Bcclesiastioal  Aflkin^  War,  MaHnc^ 
and  Foieun  Afliirg.  Th^  is  idso  a  deliberative 
oooncil  of  state,  whcee  members  are  named  1^ 
Um  crown,  and  hold  office  for  two  years.  There 
must  not  be  lees  than  IS,  or  more  than  2&. 
To  this  oomunl  most  be  Bent  all  bills  from  tixo 
chamber  of  depaties,  and  i«tumed  with  obeerva- 
tjons  or  amendments  within  ten  days;  bat  this 
tcnn  may  be  pr(d<Mised  for  15  days  more.     If  no 

report  is  then  ntsde,  uie  dep'" 

uu  Kod  it  up  to  the  Idng. 


peo|de  i 
■tate  sn 


_._  individnal 
Admiitittratioa  e^  Jutlke. — The  supreme  oottrt 
of  justice  is  called,  aa  in  Athena  of  old,  the 
Areopagna.  Besides  this,  tbeie 
ai^ieal,  3  conrta  for  oommercial  tnita,  10  courts 
tor  civil  and  criminal  counts,  and  120  joatice-of- 
faux  oonrta,  with  all  tiie  orthodox  acoomtHui- 
■nento  of  lawyera,  juries,  notariee,  kc.  There  is  a 
ccinplete  code  of  laws  to  meet  all  the  cases  which 
niay  arise  between  man  and 
U^  is  exigible  for  obtain 


e  pal:Jio  cost ;  offices  of 


Capital  puDish- 
KS,  the  gmllotjna 


of  12,000  men,  of  whom 
about  800  are  officers.  The  period  of  service  is  four 
yotts,  and  the  foiro  ia  reoruited  by  a  levy  of  2000 
men  each  year.  All  Greeks  (with  certain  exemp- 
tions) from  18  to  80  yean  iif  age  mnst  serve,  it 
celled  on,  or  [vovide  a  snbBtitute.  There  is  a  police 
foioe,  or  gtndtiTmtrie,  which  is  dispersed  over  the 
kingdom,  and  a  kind  of  trnK/uioT  troops,  or  militia, 
to  goord  'the  frontiers,  and  keep  dom  brigaods. 
These  latter  two  are  the  only  effective  foroea.    The 

navy  is   litUs  better  than  a  itame.     '"   '~'~ 

almost  entirely    '  — " ' '""  " 

oorvettea,suda 
a  defence  from  forejan  powers,  and  serves  oulyto 
rapteee  piracy,  aiid  that  m  an  ineSective  way.  The 
naval  Motion  is  Poros,  on  an  island  of  the  same 
name  at  tJie  entrance  of  the  Qulf  of  ^gin* 

M««es,  Wegltta,  taid  Meatun*. — The  nnit  of  the 
monetary  systom  is  tlie  Drachma  {q.  v.)  =  8i<j. 
"F"t[li"t' }  the  nnit  <if  weight  is  the  oke  a  about 
2  lbs.  II  OS.  avoirdupoiB ;  the  common  meaanre  of 
■earth  is  the  [uque—  27  inches.  A  Btrema  of  land 
is  about  i  of  an  ftngHT*"  acre. 

Fmmiee. — The  finj.n'-iai  aSain  of  G.  seem  to  be 
in  a  state  of  hopeless  bsnkmptcy.  The  kingdnn 
started  on  borrowed  capital,  the  three  great  powers 

a  li. __j  T, — :_  '--^TJjig  guaranteed 

MyiOOr,  partiy  to 

indemnify  Turkey  and  other  crediton  of  0.,  and 
partly  to  assist  agrioaltura  and  mannfactures  in 
their  eody  atmgglaa.  The  expenses  of  tlie  court 
and  gDVemment,  the  csrelessneas  of  officiala,  and 
""  — receipt  of  tbe  taxes,  have  added  to  the 
lament  of  the  exchequer,  so  that  at  the 
tt  time  the  Greek  treasury  owes  upwards  of 
,000,000  dr.,  a  third  of  which  is  due  to  the  thiee 
remainder  to  capitalista,  principiJ^ 

Inhaiiitatat    (An^    Gntet)^-(A    the    earliest 

inhabitants  of  oooieiit  Greece  wa  have  no  df&nite 
knowledge.  The  term  antodilhona  (sprung  from 
the  soil  Melf — eaith-boni),  whidi  the  Greeks  applied 

that  future  generations  had  not  tiie  meuis  or  the 
indinatiem  to  trace  their  origin  ain-  further  back. 
At  a  very  early  pmod  tlte  popalation  of  G.  was 
loigely,  il  not  entirely,  oomposed  of  PeloSKians 
(q.  v.).  It  is  meet  probable  tiiat  the  HellBnea 
were  only  a  brsnch  Gt  i^his  grest  Pelaspon  stock, 
but  possesting  moie  energy,  of  chsncter,  they 
gradually  spread  themselves  over  tiie  greater  part  ot 
G.,  and  supplanted  the  langus^  and  mstitntions  of 
the  Pelaagi  by  their  own.  .  Thja  thev  became  the 
ruling  race,  and  nve  tbeor  nunc  to  Uie  country. — • 
Modem  Oreece.-Jrh.e  population  of  modem  Q.  isof 
a  very  mixed  kind.  In  ^tolio,  Acomanis,  Thessaly, 
ihe  ra^atei  port  of  Peloponnesus,  and  most  of  tbe 
iwlan^ii,  the  descendants  of  the  old  Greeks  are 
still  predominant;  but  a  very  large  admixture  of 
Albanians  (see  Axbamia)  prevails  in  Attica,  B<Botia, 
PhooiB,  and  Argolis,  with  tlie  islands  of  Spezsia, 
Salamis,  Hydra,  and  Andre.  The  true  Greek  is 
easily  recognised  by  his  tall  stature,  altm  body, 
aquiline  nose,  oval  uce,  and  moustache.  Whiskers 
are  not  consideied  staid  and  respectable ;  the 
beard  is  worn  only  in  mourning.  Tii^  Greeks  are 
uncommonly  temperate  both  in  eating  and  drinking, 
and  in  the  indulgeace  of  the  passions  generally; 
fleah  is  seldom  eaten ;  the  diet  is  prindpally  vege- 
table.   The  Greeks  are  devotedly  attached  to  their 


^^ 


./Gou^fe 


ii  not  ten  strong  than 

HiltiadM  uid  ThemUtoclei.  Aristoono;  ia, 
qnence,  &t  a  diaoooiit ;  and  thoDgli  they  love  and 
•re  loyal  to  »  good  ruler,  yet  they  w«  etmj  roua«d 
into  rcButanoa  by  the  infringement  ol  their  rights. 
Commercikl  bargaina  are  the  delight  of  th«  Qtoalrai 
and  they  oft«n  nunage,  it  ia  aaid,^  part  with  tbnr 
TarM  »t  tvioe  th^  Tnlne.  Tlaa  dM«t  thn 
praotiaa  agaiut  tiie  TnAa  eepedally.  The  QivdK 
wonuunn  very  plain.  Eariy  maniagea  ■»  oornmon 
In  aiewe.  Greek  matrona  t^e  peat  pride,  bk« 
^obe  of  old,  in  »  nnmeroni  and  bauitlfDl  aApriiig. 
But  many  of  the  ebildren  are  cut  off  In  tuanoy 
by  the  feren  whiiJi  preraO  to  oonunmly.  Two 
peculiar  branohM  of  the  Qreek  raoa  are— Uie 
Mainotea  [from  a  dietrict  ealled  Mama)  at  the 
Fdot»one«afl,  and  the  Palilun  of  the  north 
highWda.  liiefonner.irlioboaat  tobathedeacend- 
aiSi  of  the  anoient  SpArtaiu,  inhabit  pnncipally 


the 


lelatioDi^  Tobbii^  TKopenntiee,  and  other  d 
tariatioi,  tiie    B^ldaiiden  of  SootUnd   ISO 


Talis.    They 
ind^)endaiice,    fendal 


with  othw  racM,  and  oonuneroe,  have  to  a  gmi 
extent  rmored  thnr  diitinotiTe  pBonliaritica.  The 
Falfkaia,  that  ii^  Braue*,  originally  belonged  to  the 
nortium  parta  <j  6.;  but  when  Hieiaaly  and 
otlur  portitHU  were  by  tt«a^  1^  in  the  hand) 
of  the  Tnrka,  these  hardy  ntonntaineera  ohoee  to 
leaTe  their  anoent  faomee  and  settle  in  the  new 
kingdom,  to  eatabliah  whioh  they  had  Ehed  thur 
blood.  The  red  cap,  the  white  ahirt,  and  the  goldrai 
Jaeket,  roark  them  ant  even  to  the  oaaoal  obserrar 
aa  a  aeparate  claes.  They  go  about  aimed,  and 
attended  by  armed  followme ;  their  hoaaee  we 
fortreaeea,  and  theil'  Bomnti  form  a  little  aimy. 
Hie  ialanderB  are  ahncat  all  ■eamen  or  'tndera.; 
they  wear  the  red  cap,  a  ahott  jadke^  and  wide 
Tnrkiah  Innwn.  The  Albaaiaitt  torn  abovt  a 
fourth  of  the  popolal^on;  they  are  a  atiMO^  hardy 
race,  and  engage  in  agiionltnnd  or  otber  aeveie 
labonr.  Hibt  are  the  hewen  of  wood  and  drvwctw 
of  water  to  the  more  wealthy  olaeeee.  Thm  apeak 
a  language  which  ia  little  allied  to  eHher  Sla^mio 
or  Gnek.  The  "WaUaolu  are  a  nomad  and  paatotal 
raoe ;  they  deep  <Ki  the  hillaideB  with  their  fiooks, 
whidl  are  goaraed  by  ferooioiii  dog*.  There  are 
large  nnmbera  of  bUteie  at  Athena,  and  the 
Pirenu  cspeoially.  These  are  few  lettleri  from 
Weatem  Bumpe.  The  BavarianB  who  awanoed  into 
O.  on  the  aooeedon  of  King  O&a  have  almoat  aU 
diaajmeared. 

Stligioa. — Bee    the    arldclea    Gkh^     Beuoion 
(Anciont],  and  Q^kkk  Chdboh. 


Greeki  waa  mora  oi  a  pbyncal  iJian  of  a  mental 
kind.  The  avnuKuhtm  waa  that  tl  the  atUete,  not 
that  of  the  OidEufailof  or  preoeptor.  Toons  children 
mn,  tin  abont  their  (iith  year,  trained  at  home 
mider  femalea,  but  ware  then  aent  to  the  didoMtaleia, 
or  achoola  nnder  the  ohatge  of  private  taton  or 
The  duty  of  the  peBdaffngoB  waa  rather 


_^  than  to  teaeh  them  the  aocompliah- 

iti  of  gtammaT  ^nolnding  reading,  writing,  and 
aiithmetiej,  maua^  and  gymnartiai,  the  tavoorite 


aiithnaetie},  maiie,  and  gymnartiai,  the  tavoorite 
•al^oeti  of  etndy  in  tikoae  oaji.  In  later  tunea,  the 
mom  InteQlgenc  ilavea  were  ipedaUy  trained  for 
de  dntiea  of  the  |i«dasogn*. — Modtm. — Edaoation 
ot  all  kiud^  from  t^e  norableat  ndwol  to  the  jxai- 
vmit7,  it  me  to  aU.    Henoe  an  nnnntal  number 


the  dwnaad  for  knowledga  There  are  abont  S70 
oommunal  or  desnentasy  aoboola,  attd  ISO  H*^tft"|^Y 
•cdioola,  in  whiob,  *"fcrti>jp  other  brandlw^  anoieot 
Greek  ia  tanghi  Beddea  tlieae,  tjioe  aw  a  niili- 
tary  aohoid ;  a  pdyteohuie,  for  tradea  and  ftoCes- 

■cduol;  wiUi  M 


I  for  ^*™*^  adncatioii;  aad 


All  theaa  ini 


wpay, 

»  well 


Limguage   {Amelaiti.—Tb£    Greek    langnaga 
a  blanch   of  that  widnpraad  family  of  tongi 

vailed  not  only  in  Oa  diScsoit  parta  of  Q.,  bi^ 
alto  ia  the  nmnerone  Qreek  oolooiea  wlnob  fringed 
Uu  ihorea  of  the  Bovine  and  tiie  Meditenanean. 
Bat  it  mn«t  not  be  aapposed  tbat  it  wai  of  tha 

^pe  at  all  periods  of  Greek hirtoryjOC  in  all 

of  G.,  eru   at  tbe  aame  time.    Iha  thrw 

of  th*  Greek  tongiu  were :   1.  Ibe 

, jt  lorn,  and  that  <iMiidi  preaenta  th« 

of  the  Indo-Gennanio  atoc^  2.  The  Doric,  a  hich- 
land  dialect,  delighting  in  broad  and  rondi  anudat 
it  waa  apokea  in  the  imrnntaint  ef  Thcaauv.  whanoa 
relied   aoiithward,  and  on  the 


great  hnai 
3Uie,the 


Hie  Dorians,  took  poaaeadon  of  the  Pel(»iannee«a. 
&  Tha  Imic,  a  soft  and  vocal  lannuwe,  deli^itiii^ 
in  vcrwel  aoundai  and  avoiding  tia&  nuoh  comlft- 
nation  of  oonaonatita;  it  waa  epoken  principally 
by  the  people  of  Attioa  and  the  looiaa  ookinies 
is  Afda  Minor.  From  it  waa  made,  by  a  aariea  of 
contractiona  and  modifications  that  moat  perfect 
form  of  the  Greek  langoage,  the  Attic,  wMoh  waa 
Dsitber  to  bar^  and  broad  as  tlis  Dorio,  nor  so  aoft 
and  vocal  bb  the  looic.  It  waa  bnni^t  to  Uie 
hewht  of  perfection  by  the  poata,  the  pluliMtqdkera, 
and  the  hjatoriana  of  O.,  wtwae  writangi  itill  tnifili 
t2ie  worid,  and  command  ita  edmiratun.     ^y  Uia 


„    - --. rigid  ■yntaz 

of  tiie  great  Athenian  wittetawat  aedeotsd,  eo  tlut, 
in  jmxMU  <A  time,  tb«ae  aroaa  a  dnaiiad  &«■ 
eif  apeeeh,  called  tba  HeUeniatic,  vaiymg  in  many 
eaaential  poiata  from  ita  gnat  parent.  In  tlua 
laab  iam^  the  booka  ot  the  New  Teataunent  were 
written.  I%e  pido««  of  deterionrtian  atill  want 
on  tiU  abont  the  middle  of  laat  oentaiy;  iriien 
at  length  the  ipirit  of  tlie  Qreek  nalioa  again 
arose,  and  amidrt  othar  eaideavooit  to  revive  tiia 
andaat  ^aty  at  their  i>ee,  an  attonpt  waa  made^ 
and  ia  nil  baing  made,  and  that  too  with  great 
ancpeaa,  to  isatore  the  jnrity  of  the  language.  jFhie 
leada  na  to  the  Lam^iagt  q/*  Madtni  Qmet. — In 
different  parte  of  Qreeee,  difiisraLt  langnagea  are 
Bpoken  according  to  the  elemont  which  piedami- 
natea  in  the  population.  Thua  'Kukiih  prevaila 
in  Boma  dialnota,  AiK.ni.T.  jn  othan,  Wauacluaa 
in  others,  ai^  Bnl^uian  in  oUiera;  but  in  tke 
greater  part  of  Ckreaoe  proper,  the  langoaga  ia 
Ranuac  OreA,  or  aa  it  ia  now  mora  uanally  and 
more  properly  called,  Neo-Belleoia  Thia  language 
k»»  .  very  nloae  reaemblanoa  to  tba  Hell^c,  or 
.  Qraek;  aad  in  fact  doca  not  diflhr  mon^ 
uoh,  bun  the  Attics  aa  Hu  AUio  differed 
from  the  Doric  Information  on  thia  aobjeot  mmt 
be  aonght  in  a  grammar  irf  the  langa^&  Great 
efforta  have  been  mada  in  recent  yeata  to  parge 
tJie  NaO'HeUeaio  of  barbariama  and  fbceiA  ten^ 
and  it  ia  now  written  with  BOoh  purity,  that 
good  adudam  in  anoient  Q«eak  will  liata  bttla 


hyGuUl^ll^ 


Triocnip'i  hittorj  at 

-Tbt  litantnn  of  Onem  ii 

.  oar  limiMd  ipMt,  l£o«> 
to  rto^  tha  nutto'  fnithar,  mnat  Ikav* 
to  B  fnU  tnatiM.  Foeti^  wndw  to  Iutb 
baBn  tha  aadHrt  form  of  oompontKHi  mwoag  tliB 
QrBBk^  ■■  indaad  it  mart  of  aaoMntj  b«  m  all 
nation^ for  boilitf  of  reoirilectioii;  liaaM Itemoiy  is 
(tailed  thaJTHiWri/ttaJriuM.    IIm  a^ievl  tpaawa 

tiw  goda;  to  these  (Dooaedad  (kmi^  [saiamg  tha 
^oHoDB  deada  of  heroea ;  but  the  gr—twt  poem 
of  ancient  timea  irhioh  has  wane  down  to  lu  it 
the  Iliad  ot  Homer,  detailing  the  eTeat*  Mnnaoted 
with  tha  ncB»  (rf  Iroy,  and  the  WHiica*  who 
in  that  *  '"■         ~      " 


XwOTphon.  ahoot  4M.  In  l£ber  timaa,  we  find  Poly- 
Um  (204—122  Bid);  Dionyiiaa  of  HaUoaniaMai, 
who  flonriihed  about  SO  B.a:  Diodoraa  Sirahu, 
a  BOctampoTaty  of  Jtdhia  and  An^nrto*  fVrrwf ; 
Pfaitaidi;  Awan  (in  time  ci  "*'*— i-  and  Anto- 
nimu  Fiiia);  Anian  (time  ot  Hadrian);  and  ^w 
'  •■  bi  gtogtafltj,  we  hsr*  Sbabo  and  Faow- 
In  tatim^  the  pMm  ia  oaniad  oft  by  Xnuiia 


took  pBti  in  that  tamoni  opeditiML  Iha  Iliad 
and  Odfnmi  hare  b«eii  too  hmg  and  too  gtnenll^ 
laMwn  andadmind  to  ne«d  a  word  aaid  in  then 
ivmx-rr- — trtataon     TKa  Hmazfcabla  popnlaiity  of  tho 


Tonred  to  linJ  the  fame  of  the 'blind  cddaan,'!^ 
nanating  in  Tnae  the  aftcr-^to  and  TimaBtadaa  of 
the  luvoM  who  took  nvt  in  tt»  war  of  Troy,  or  by 
toeatiiw«f  aobieato  dliedto  that  cf  the /luuf,  and 
Tan  of  mythokwioal  fiUefc  Hum  wen  oalled  the 
^clio  poet*)  thay  i 
Henod;  thairwmnf 


•boot  aoO  &a    The  Hanerio  pariod  w  dosed  I7 
the  nasoa  «l  Hariod.    Honcr  ia  prnpoaad  to  bun 
about  fW)  X.O.,  and  HMud  abont  800 


Thtoiroiif,  tiie  SUdd  nf  MeraJet.  and  tha  WoH» 
and  Am  an  aplcnltnml  poem.  Of  Ua  otitan^ 
only  amall  frManeat*  are  jreaerred.    XUo  poetry 

pocaiiea  it  acta.  Of  ^rie  jioeby,  than  wen  two 
achoda — tha  ,^^^1*^  in  Asa  Ibnor  and  ttljaont 
ialand^  Wfiiiall/  Leabo^  and  tha  Sons  in  F«lo- 
pMncsaa  and  &abr.  Ot  tha  McHio  aAooI,  the 
cadimt  poet  «•■  CaUioM  (700  ■.<:.){  altar  him 
oame  Anhilodina,  ao  famed  for  hia  Mnoj  aatiraa, 
writtM  in  iamUe  veiae ;  Tyitsai^  and  Hwinidaa 
of  AmonpM,  who  wnteato  with  Aidhilnrtiw  tha 
hoBOdr  ot  hcring  iniantBd  iamUe  vanci  Alcana 
and  Sappho  {dmit  <10  a.0,)  wpwimt  the  .&1U0 
•cbool  u  ita  MrfetrtiMk  Nor  nmat  we  foisat  the 
aahooUbay**  BTOwita,  AnaoaoD  (abont  BSO  Sia), 
to  •wkuD,  however,  aie  attributed  many  pieces 
whi^  an  notwaaideMdMnnfaM.  Of  the  Done  or 
ohoral  i«*k^M4,  it  mM  aiffioa  to  mentioti  Alomao, 
atMiahora,  Arion,  flimmtidi^  Baochylidei,  and 
peateat  of  aU  in  eray  known  Tsnetr  of  choral 
poetry,  Sindar  {q.  T.)  Ibe  Thaban  ffi22  K  a). 

Onek  litarataie  nanhed  ita  Uriirat  perlaoUoB  in 
the  tngedi«a of  iBwh^  (boi^Kfi; died 4Ii6 B. a) ; 
Sciphoalca  (b«n  400^  died  4M  b.  a.) ;  and  BnriiudeB 
|b(«n  4B0,  died  4W  n.  aV  He  writers  iAo,4ndm> 
TDOred  to  fidlow  in  the  tenoh  of  these  three  IT*'^ 
mmteis  were  of  far  infartor  merit,  and  with  uam 
taagei^  degaoBratsd  to  the  riEnmuMT  oE  lyrical 
BoMi  ai^  mere  ihetoiual  bombaat 


I  origin  from  tha 

„  __. )  great  namee  of 

AMo  ecsned^  aie  CrslinaB,  EbpcJii,  and 
Ariitophaaea  (bom  iSS,  died  3S0  a.  a).  In 
■uiUla  cMnady,  we  have  the  names  of  Antiphanet 
and  Alada ;  ajid  in  new  CMnedy,  Fhilemoa  and 
Ueniuder. 

ffiston  did    not    engSM  the  attention  of    the 
QnAa  till  a 
•rcrlhenami 
«(  SojTC^  HeoatBBB,  and  Charon  of  lAmpaaoni,  we 


oome  to  Hsradotoa,  tha  Father  ot  HMoty,  or, 
as  ha  has  bent  oaUed,  the  Homar  id  Hirixny,  who 
flopriahed  abont  440 ;  Ibni^didss,  abont  OO ;  and 


(467  1.CI),  I^yriM  (4S8  B.a),  Isoeiataa  (4ae  x.0.). 
.^Mkinei,  the  yreat  rinl  (rf  Dutoathms  {Ki 
B.O.},  Eyparidee;  and  laat  and  neatart  of  alL 
"-;  n.a).    On  tha  ^ikvoidMM,  see 


LUmattn  (JfoifenB).— Tha  litentns  of  modtm 
infsnoy.  No  woA  of  {mputanoa 
I  to  the  lerohitioai  bgt  smea  tb> 

—^. -the  kingdom  in  1898^  Bora  life  hM 

ban  infnssd  into  the  men  of  a  KtanoT  hani  Tk» 
namei  of  the  brotbers  Saasgiotii  and  AiwwiifT 
Sootoos  si«  well  known  to  many  in  Eiuhmd.  Iltn 
haTs  written  dmmas,  lorsHMngBi  norala,  trric^  ana 
a  poem  (by  Alsxander)  in  iba  ■t;rie  M  Bjmn's 
Ghidt  ffarold,  detailing  tha  rrandain^  ^'''*> 
and  adTsntores  of  a  Greek  in  iWioa  and  ttaly. 
In  most  of  these  there  is  mnefa  merit,  thon^  few 
ean  fnll^  appreriati  tiie  style  and  *■— ^'"g 
diamako  wiitsm,  Keronloi^  Baacaii^  ad 
VEJa  hold  a  fonmgst  plMft  Km  Stmoln  t4 
i)tfinMt  AMlw/mvh  Mmmm  Oe  0rMii  Md  SrW* 
Am  isao  to  \m,  by  Parrwros,  ia  a  waQ  writtaa 
Mok.  In  srammar  and  lesoogjtnhj,  Bamra^ 
Oaunadio^  Soariatto  ^Mntino^  and  othss  ha-ne 
dons  good  Mrvioa  to  the  eensa  (d  Isaoiing.  B«t 
of  aU  the  Keo-Halknio  woriu  yet  foUkhed,  Oa 
BiMoTf  <^  Om  Ondi  BevokMmJtj  Trieans  U  tha 
moat  TslnaUe— nlaable  not  00^  for  ita  ststemsnt 
and  facta,  bat  also  for  the  psnty  and  eleyate  «< 
ito  s^lsb  Uany  nawapwen  and  othw  penodioab, 
Neo-HaOeaio^ are  paUiahad  -^  '"■ —  " — '~ 
■     "      "  "     ■      '      I :   bnt  t , 

pS.    It  win  M 

ytotpaibf,  i£n  O.  ena  expaoE  to  aianme  uai 
poAian  m  the  world  ol  latteia  nhiA  the  {raatige 
(£  her  nana  oititlas  lur  to  anticqate. 

MncJoiq.— The  auly  hiit««y  of  Q.  is 
e  mirt  of  agsa.  Tna  lennai  of  soda 
"  DnTy  aptmmA  to 
kind  in  whidi  » 
ignorant  an  delicto.  Bnt  bmr 
,  und«>liB  the  atones  of  Oeorapa, 
Oadinn^  Danan^  Thasens,  Hwaoleik  and  many 
othra^  it  is  diffionlt  to  say;  or  to  what  eitsat  tiw 
■vents  of  the  Airoantio  expedition,  ^bejan  war, 
hnnt  of  the  Calyoooiau  boar,  and  othiir  jomt^toek 


_  msM  gneae  antil  tha  Srrt  OWmpiad, 
778  B.O.  Of  tiie  migntiMia  wfai<di  took  plaoe 
dnring  theas  eariy  dayi,  and  of  Ae  nnmnons 
colonua  1^*"^"^  by  the  uraAs,  it  ia  nnaaosmary  to 
ineak  in  Siis  brief  sketch;  nor  oan  we  do  mi»e 
than  merely  refer  to  the  wars  ot  tt»e  l^artana 
against  tha  Ttfeesealaas,  which  hagii^wjM  ni  74S 
B.a,  did  not  nhimately  terminato  nntS  Itiuma 
WM  destroyed  in  the  third  Uemeuisu  war,  4fi6  a.  a 
Meantime,  wats  of  less  magnitade  are  carried  m 
in  different  parte  of  Oreaoe;   Solon  lagiiiatoa  at 


Googk 


AUieos  {AM  B.c.f;  FiKatratoB  and  his  Bona  ciijoj 
the '^niaiu*' at  Atluni  from  S60  B.C.  to  610  kc.) 
Oneroa,  kii^  of  IqkIw,  Mid  Cyina  the  Great,  hia 
canqiieriiT,  are  biwwht  into  contaot  with  the  AiUtio 
Oraek*  (660— S«!  B.C.].  And  now,  in  499  b.  a,  the 
iMmina  <j  8«rdi«  bj  the  Atihrniiuiii  ud  looisna 

I. .3-  iX   1.1 II ^ : 1  (^  Q,  |)y  •*•'  '" — = — 


?enla.  hm  with  ni«  partaoulaia  ci  irfdoh  iJl 
)  BO  well  toofuiatoi.  nie  fint,  nnder  Mardonina, 
_._  4aZ  B.a,  &  kTcrt«l  by  the  ahl^wraok  of  the 
Invading  fleet  off  Honat  Athcw;  tiie  aeoond,  nnder 
Itatis  aod  AitspheniM.  m  400  B.Oq  ia  hnried  back 
from  Marathon;  and  um  third,  nnder  Xerxea,  4S0 
B.a,  ia  nttoriy  ahattered  at  nMnnopyiw,  Salamin, 
and  I^tnk  O.  ia  now  a  mi^ty  nuae,  but  the 
Athoviana  baocone  the  mliog  atate,  and  their 
Eupranaey  oontinnea  till  404  B.C.  Meantime,  dia- 
nnion  at  home  aoooaeda  the  ccotoata  with  torei^ 
•nemiaa.  The  great  PelopMUietiMi  war  b^ina  in 
481  B.0^  aod  wutaa  the  energiea  of  G.  for  37  years, 
until  the  aabjngation  and  partial  demolition  of 
AUiens,  in  401  B.a,  pot  an  end  for  a  time  to  the 
fntrioidal  atni^&  It  was  in  415  b.c.  the  17th  of 
ttiia  war,  that  ue  bmooa  and  anfortonate  expedi- 
tion to  Sioily  took  plaoe.  Under  Fericlee,  who  was 
the  Tttling  apirit  of  Atliena  at  the  oonunMicemant 
of  the  war,  but  who  died  of  tlie  great  plague  in 
429  ca,  the  Atheniana  reached  the  bigkeot  pitch 
of  exoellenoe  in  acolptore  and  architeotore ;  then 
wen  ntiaed  tmne  of  tiioae  woodrooa  buildinga  whoM 
remaina  atill  aicite  the  admiration  of  poat«rity  at 
»  diatanoe  of  more  than  SOOO  yeaia.  In  401  kc^ 
tiie  expedition  of  Cyraa  the  Yoonger  to  dethrone 
his  biwur  AitazeixeB,  took  placo ;  the  lattle  of 
OonKia,  in  which  cWua  waa  slam,  wm  fonght 
in  the  same  year.  Oynu  had  employed  Graak 
mtnenariea,  ud  thia  brief  wi  ia  tptaiUy  bmed 
for  the  maateriy  retreat  of  the  10,000  Gre^  nnder 
Zeoophon  Uia  Athenian  in  401—400  B.a  The 
Bszt  year  (390  s-c.],  Socratea  the  philoaopher, 
the  teacher  of  Plato  and  Xencphon,  waa  pnt  to 
death.  After  the  defeat  of  the  AUiaoiana  m  the 
Pelownmeaian  war,  the  Surtan  itata  became  the 
Inadinff  power  in  O.,  and  waa  engaged  in  four 
wars  m  aoooaamon— lat,  the  Elean  (SlC-398  B.a)  ; 
2d,  ttie  Oerinthian  (395—387  b.  a)  j  3d,  the  Olyn- 
thian  (380—379  &□.);  4th,  the  Tbohaa  (378^^^ 
Ka.).  The  great  Spartan  hero  of  theae  tronblona 
tiaea  waa  Ageailana,  whoae  panagyrio  haa  been 
writtea  Yty  Xenafboa  with  a  biendq'  pen.    Dmins 


(S7S  B.II.),  Lenctra  (871  B.C.),  Mantinea,  in  which 
the  Thebim  hero,  Epaminondaa,  waa  alain,  362  B.a 
In  369  9.  o.,  fhllip  aaoenda  the  throne  of  Mace- 
donia, and  a  few  year*  afterwards  finds  oooaaion 
to  intermeddle  in  tiie  af&in  id  Greece.  Some  of 
the  allies  ol  Athena  renouDoe  his  sapremaoy,  and 
thna  ariaaa  the  Social  war  (S6T7-366B.C.),  in  which 
Athena  loaea  many  of  her  tribntaiiea,  and  much 
irf  her  isvemMTllie  SMsnd  war  (SSS~-346  >.a.) 
inmudiately  follows,  in  iiriiioh  Philip  takes  part. 
About  thia  time  (Sfii  ■.&),  DanHatlienea  deliraed 
Uw  first  of  those  powerful  <n«tiona  aoinat  Philip^ 
called  Philip^cs.  In  the  battle  a  Oh«roneu 
(338  B.a),  the  Atheniau  and  llwbana  am  nttedy 
defeated  hy  HuHp;  and  at  the  ecmgreaa  of  Carint£, 


his  son  AlezaDder,  the  Greeks  are  compelled 
beatow  upon    the  yoathfol  hero    the    aame    h„ 
military  office  with  which  they  bad  intmated  £aa 
fsthn.    The  erenti  of  Alexander'i 


knowo.  From  this  titoe  O.  becomes  aa  t^pena^ 
of  the  Macedoni&D  kingdom,  until  Maoedon  is  m 
torn  oTcroome  by  the  Roinana.  Daring  tte 
which  ai««e  among  the  mcceaaotB  c'    " — 

G.  waaahmyi  thebone  of  aontentdoni  __. 

in  ooDBeqnence  many  hardahipa,  and  enjoyed  bat 
few  luUa  of  peace.  The  last  atinggle  tor  Gnct^ 
liber^  waa  made  1^  the  Aoluean  League  (a  ccm- 
federacy  of  cities  at  one  time  embracing  all  Polo- 
ponnesua,  which  hod  a  conmum  object,  a  oommoD 
oconcil,  and  a  common  chief  or  atratiyiu),  but  it 
too  fell  befwe  the  oonqnering  arma  of  Borne ;  and 
after  the  capture  of  Ccsin^  in  146  B.a.  hy  tba 
amsnl  Mnmmina,  the  once  mighty  Q.  bocama  a 
prorince  of  the  Boman  empire, 

HUlar)!  (Jfodern).-— The  hiatory  of  G.  fot  aoma 
oentnriea  after  the  raptors  of  Corinth  belong  to 
the  hiatorv  of  her  oonqneror.  The  Boman  wars 
with  Anbochns,  Mithridatea,  and  othen,  invcrirvd 


aOo^L 


conntleaa  hardahipa ;  and  the  fierce  stcagglea 
of  Cnsv  and  Pompey,  of  Brntns  and  Caatnna  wiA 
Antony  and  Ootavianns,  of  Antony  and  Octavianna, 
of  which  Q,  waa  often  the  theatre,  entailed  upon  h^ 
many  calamitiea.  For  neariy  two  centnriea  after 
the  Bcoeeaion  ci  An^n^taa,  O.  enjoyed  oompar»- 
tivB  tranqoilli^,  dnnng  wbi<^  Chriabani^  spread 
among  her  people,  ehurcnea  were  fonnded,  and 
devoted  Greeks  went  abroad  to  abange  lai  ~ 
perilled  theJx  Uvea  in  the  ^opagatitm  cl  the 
Bat  datk  daya  again  awaited  her,  and  sni 
inwi*/la /if  ftlM>f*nitna,  Albaniar^  ami  f4h»f iM^fjiaT^n^f 
hordes,  overran  the  oonnt^  from  the  winby  [dHn* 
of  the  north.  When  Oonstantdne  divided  his  emidr^ 
G.  was  attached  to  the  esaton  portion ;  bnt  when, 
in  1201  A.  D.,  the  Tenstisa  fleet  nnder  DaDdolo  «Tttk 
powoed  the  rii^e^  throne  of  the  Caaaan,  O.  too 
chafed  maaten.  "Oa  Oamao  Tnrka,  irtio  migratod 
to  'Sarofb  in  1366  A.D.,  and  made  theKMdT«« 
masten  of  Thraoe,  Maeedtmia,  Theosaly,  and  other 
parts,  oqitnred  Constantinople  in  14S3  A.  D. ;  and 
from  that  time  mitil  recent  yean,  G.  was  subject 
Mohammedan  d^munioo. 


idnring    Greeks,   but   *X   I 


that  ignorance  brutality,  tyraimy,  and  greed  ooold 

L U..i      ^     J,^     f  ,^^.       __    ... 1. 

.at   letuth 
oonld  no  longer  mdnie,  and  in  ls!0  broke  ont  that 


<rf  Ohriatian 

lishmentof  G.  as  an  inde. 

Two  unanccMsfol  attenqits  at  ret . 

made  in  1770  and  1790.  Capo  d'tsbiaa,  the  first 
praaident  of  liberated  O,,  was  awiawiiiali  il  in  1831 ; 
and  after  several  candidates  for  the  throoa  (rf  the 
infant  kingdom  had  been  prt^iosad  end  rejeoted. 


Fruce,  Bnasia)  which  had  assisted  Q.  in  her  noUe 
struts.  The  reian  of  Otho  waa  not  a  paacafnl 
one,  and  he  had  very  eeriooa  diflScnltiea  to 
contend  with  after  he  had  anamed  the  rwm  ot 
government  in  1S36L  Bnt  hia  mie  has  not  beui 
altogether  devoid  of  fmit ;  and  law  and  ocder, 
indvtoy  and  oommerce,  literatnie  *nd  notkma  at 
sdf-f^vemnient,  have  made  ocnaidtraUe  abridM 
within  the  Ust  thirty  yean.  On  the  baniibmant  (rf 
OHIO  in  1862,  the  crown  was  (dtored  to  Prinoe 
Alfred  of  En^and.  The  agreement  between  the 
proteoting  powers,  however,  stood  in  the  way  of  hia 
election,  and  the  preaent  king,  Georgiaa  L,  son  of 
Christian  TY.  of  Denmark,  Decame  king  of  the 
HeUenn  in  1863. 

PopuJatkm. — The  population  i^  ancient  O.  at 
any  one  time  it  ia  quite  impoaaible  to  approach ; 
oonjeotnrea  oC  the  noat  wild  and  oppoaite  kind 
have  beem  hazarded,  but  it  is  ussIgm  to  repeat  tbem. 


"^"ili'zed 


byCOOgIC 


CHDBCa 


1  1871, 

7%e  MiauU— The  uUada  of  the  Mgeta  8ai  nu^ 
uo  comprehended,  u  in  utcieDt  tintea,  nnder  two 
groap* — ^theCydadeeuidtbeSponHleB.  The  former 
-wer^  ■(>  eelled  from  the  legend  of  their  dre^m^nMind 
DelfM,  when  th&t  ialuid  wm  nodered  eUtaonary 
iot  ths  birth  of  Diana  and  Apcdk.  The  latter 
t«c«iv«  their  name  from  the  oiiennutuice  of  their 
hang  teaOtred  at  loten  ia  an  in^nUriBatuiCT  round 
the  coasts  of  tite  adjoining  conntarieK  I^  follow- 
ing lirt  oontiina  thoaa  belonging  to  O. ;  the  first 
SO  are  the  Cydades  proper,  toe  remaindw  lis  off 
Eabosa.  The  Italian  namei  are  in  panntheaes. 
The  Sporadea  will  be  gma  nuder  TcTREir.  The 
Ionian  lalanda,  fonoeriy  a  repnUican  dependenoy  of 
Qreat  Britain,  were  annexed  to  Oreeoe  in  1864. 

1.  Ddoa  with  Rhenea  (Dili);  2.  Syroa  (S vra) ; 
&  Myoonoa  (Hyoom));  4.  Tenoa  (Tino);  6.  Saxot 
(Kazu);  &  Andros  (Andro);  7.  Ceoi  {Zea)i 
8.  GythBoa  (Thennia) ;  9.  Smifbim  (Serpho); 
10.  SMmoB  (Siphanto);  11.  Chndoa  (AiseDtiera) ! 
12.  Ueloa  (Uilo);  la  Fholeandxoa  (Fofioandn>)i 
14.  Sicinoa  (Sicino) ;  16l  loe  &io> ;  16.  Then  (8an- 
torin) ;  17.  Ajiqihe  (Nanfio) ;  18.  Amorgoa  (Anurgo) ; 
la  Faroe  (Pan>) ;  20;  Oliaroa  or  Antiparoe  (Anti- 
pan>):  21.  Seyioa  (Soyro);  22.  Soiathoi  [StwUio); 
23.  Soopeloa  (Seopeki);  24.  loo*  (CliiliodKimia). 
Bendea  tliMa,  there  are  many  mailer  ialanda  and 
bamn  roc^  iriii^  bdaw  to  O.,  bat  which  tiam 
Vbtix  onimpoitaaoa  icaroe  oeaerre  mention.  Theae 
UutdapoMeae  tnai^^  the  featnrce  which  mark  the 
m»lnl«i»J .  the  dimate  ia  raiied ;  the  «oil  ia  in  ooe 
Ifiiitfiil^  Tw  MifiJli»ti*>.nm ;  tb«  ptTidnotioiia  are  much 
the  lame  aa  in  O.,  eioapt  that  in  aome  of  them,  aa 
Santorin,  Hut  Tine  growe  in  greater  vaii^r  and  liucu- 
rianoe;  the  pt^nwion  ia  more  [aimitiv^  and  leaa 
tnizedf  and  caaMqnentiy  retain  more  pertinaeiooaly 
the  coatcma  of  their  loreiEatiien.  The  ialaiMJera  era 
Mnnallr  moie  indoatriona  and  more  happy  than 
the  contanentala— the  Ma  is  their  highway,  and  the]' 

3aaity  get  a  market  for  the  fnuts  of  their 

The  ialandeia  are  excellent  eeatnen,  and 
of  the  male*  are  employed 
„...  a  now  little  more  bluui  a 

barren  rook ;  and  acarca  a  vestige  retoaiiia  oC  the 
temple  of  the  Son^god,  or  other  meoiarial  of  iti 
fanner  religjoni  and  commercial  pre-eminence. 

SyiB  (pc^nlatdon  21,000)  is  the  principal  port  of 
O.,  and  a  peat  centoe  of  trade.  The  UediterraQeaa 
ateameiB  call  at  it  Wins  ia  olmoit  the  only  pro- 
doctiim  of  the  idand. 

Thepei^  of  Tenoa  are  famed  for  tiie  manufac- 
ture of  marble  tables,  chimney-pieceH,  tx.,  which 
are  laigely  exported,  and  the  finest  MolTaaian  or 
Ualmser  wine  ia  jBodoced  in  the  iahaxd.  Of  tho 
other  iJjml",  the  moat  volcanio  ia  Them ;  it  pK>- 
dncea  in  large  quantity  the  wine  colled  Viao  SaiUo, 
la  8antoTin,  of  which  the  Rumiiuia  uro  speciaUy 
fond.  Naxoi  is  the  largest  and  moet  beautifal 
and  moat  fertile  of  the  Cycladea.  These  islands 
Mmpriw)  an  area  of  rather  more  than  1000  square 
mil^  and  a  popnlation  of  (1S71)  123,299  aonls.  Tho 
Cydades  are  generally  high  and  rocky  in  their 
oostts,  and  all  are  of  a  toj  similar  aspect  in  this 
and  other  legoids. 

OKGEK  OHDBCH,  Trk,  taken  in  ita  widest 
sense,  oomprdienda  all  thoea  Christians  foUowin;^ 
the  Cheek  or  Greco-SlaTonio  rite,  who  receiTO  tho 
fi>»l  Mven  gtoeral  connoils,  but  reject  tho  authority 
oC  the  Romui  nontiff,  and  the  later  oonncils  of  the 
Wjatem  Chnndu  The  Greek  Church  colls  itaelf 
'  the  Holy  Orthodox  Cotholio  and  Aportolio  Church,' 
Md  it  indndee  three  distinct  branches — the  church 
within  tho  Ottonian  empire,  subject  directly  to  the 
patriarch   of  Constantinople  ;   the  church  in    the 


■duabT.    Thi 
TBiy  lar^  p 


uf  tireeoe;  and  the  Buaeo-Oreak  Ckoreli 
dominioDS  of  the  oar.  The  last  shall  form 
the  subject  of  a  aepaiate  artiole,  but  it  must  also 
beallndLed  to  in  beating  of  the  BiateF-ohurohes.  The 
propar  history  c^  the  Greek  Chuioh  as  a  separate 
body  datea  from  the  oommenoament  of  tiie  Greek 
schism,  or  rather  bom  the  conmienc«m«nt  of  the 
efftnia  cm  the  part  of  tite  chuioh  of  CoDataiitiuo(de 
to  estaUisk  for  itself  a  diatinet  jorisiUction,  and 
an  independent  headahip  in  the  iiisliiiii  dinsioD  <rf 
the  empire.  13ie  erclfaiaatical  pt^-emiuenea  of  Con- 
slantiuo^  it  need  hardly  be  said,  followed  upon 


OriginaUy,  Sysantii 

but  a  sim^  episo^ial  see,  subject  to  the  metro- 
politan of  Hanclea ;  but  the  iwik  of  the  see  roee 
with  the  fortunes  of  the  city ;  and  before  the  olcaa 
of  the  4tii  c,  a  canon  of  too  first  council  of  Con- 
ataniinople,  hekl  in  381,  assures  to  it,  on  the  grmuid 
that '  Conatantinopls  ia  the  new  Bome,'  the '  preoe- 
dance  of  hODOor' next  after  thaanoUaitBama.  Ihia 
I^iril^ie,  however,  was  purely  hononry^  and  did 
not  imphr  any  ^t»«minence  of  jnriadiotun  in  tba 
•ee  of  OoMtantanople,  and  there  are  many  early 
inshanoee  in  which  quealioaa  aiisiiig  within  tibe 
disbriot  which  afterwatda  became  Hie  pafnardiate  of 
Ooutantinqple,  nay,  quMtiona  affectmg  the  bishop 
liiwimH^  uw  even  in  his  relations  to  the  othor  pafai- 
archa,  were  refmrcd  to  the  bish(ma  of  Kome.  But 
tin  transition  was  not  difGonlt,  and  was  aided  by  tiie 
eminent  qnalltiea  of  some  of  the  Inshope,  and  eape- 
dally  of  St  John  Chiysostom,  so  that  in  the  oonndl 
of  Chalcedon  (4C1),  a  decree  w«a  passed,  whidi 
eonfiimed  the  precedence  already  giren,  and  not 
mdr  asB^ned  to  Constantinoide  an  extenaiTe  range 
of  nuiadictionibut  alao  grounded  theae  ecd«aiaatiesl 
— iTil^sBiinUieaaaeof  tbenewasweUaaiiiUuit  of 
B  oloBome,  upon  Um  political  necedence  to  whidt 
th  sucoesnrely  had  risen.  The  Boman  Iwates 
protested  against  this  oanon,  and  tiie  claim  led  to  a 
ousiuuUmtandins  between  the  two  ohorehes,  which 
was  widened  and  confinned  by  the  doctrinal  differ- 
ices  whioh  pievailed  on  the  Eutyohian  question, 
which  tho  patoiaicbs  of  Constantioople  gare 
leir  sappott  to  Uia  Handuion.  a  heterodox  cr 
luivooal  tomiala  put  forth  by  the  Emperor  Zenot 
hioh  was  wannly resisted  in  ths  WeeL  The  pope^ 
.  oonsequence,  in  484,  excommunicated  the  emperor, 
tooether  with  the  patriorcha  of  OonatantinaiM  and 
Alexandria;  and  thus  the  East  and  West  wen^  de 
faeto,  separated  for  a  period  of  neariy  fwt^  yeaia. 
The  tsrma  upon  which  the  exMannnmieatioa  was 
withdrawn  by  Fope  Roimisdaa  in  G19,  involved  a 
comidete  and  e^iJicit  acknowledgment  of  the 
supremacy  of  file  Roman  pontiff ;  biu  the  rivalry  of 

Cth  c,  tho  iV^lan  Ooundl  (see  TsuLLAir  Oouircu,) 

rupture :  the 

1  1^  r 

.  .,     bated     , 

Oregon'  the  Great  (see  Gbsoosk  L)  ;  the  contesta 
about  miage-worahip,  in  which  the  patriardts,  in 
more  than  one  instimoe,  took  the  part  of  tho  icono- 
cloat  emperors ;  the  abandonment  "tij  the  emperors 
of  the  defence  of  Italy  against  tho  LcunbanlB ;  the 
gradual  growth  of  an  mdepmdent  oonfcderaticHi  of 
Italian  statea,  and  uUim^dy  tbo  foundation  of  a 
new  empire  of  the  West,  the  political  antagonism  of 
which  with  the  eastern  empire  almost  necessarily 
involved  an  antagonism  of  the  chnnhes  themsdvee. 
Hence  when,  upon  occaaiim  of  his  own  personal 
contest  with  tlio  see  of  Borne,  the  deposed  patrlardi 
Fhotius  (802),  (see  Fnoncs)  identified  his  cause 
with   that   of    the   Eastern   Church,  he   found  a 


title  of  ' 


dbyGoo^^le 


naOy  wjamtOrf  taoag 
doolnnB  of  the  tmrfold^voeNioii  i 
•nd  tho  addition  (rf'nUoqiM' to  tbs  Latin  oreed, 
the  Latin  pnuriioe  o(  darioil  aeUbM7,  and  of  denjing 
to  pneati  the  poww  d  admimrtceuiK  oon&natiofi, 
■Q^ilicd  tbe  grannda  of  quand ;  ana  althoa^  tiu 
Ftuxtiui  HJiinD  f^  with  it*  nthor,  and  tiie  oom- 
nmoion  of  the  oharches  wu  nstored,  th^  reoon- 
dliation  mi  imperfect  and  far  from  oordiaL  lite 
aame  oanMs  of  controvenj,  with  othen  of  a  dja- 
vi^inai;  natora,  were  renewed  in  Gm  llth  o. ;  and 
in  lOM  the  pope  Leo  IX.  iMoed  a  fonnal  nutwoe 
ef  ezoosummieation  against  the  p^triaroh  TbHn>i*nl 
Ocmlsrhu,  n^iidt  waa  coleinnlr  pnbUahed  in  Con- 
■tanlinople  b;^  the  papal  le^tea.  Beyond  t2ie  pranta 
of  differenoe  alleged  1^  Photina,  the  moat  important 


in^T  maintained.  Hore  than  one  attempt  waa 
nude  bf  tbe  anthoritiei  upon  either  side  to  restore 
the  foRner  relatioDs  of  the  two  chnrcheo,  bnt 
in  Tain,  nie  <M  uitipatliiee  of  Eaat  and  West 
became  more  inveterate  hj  the  eanration;  and 
the  ooonpation  of  Constantiaople  b;  Uie  I^tini 
(1201),  Uw  ootragei  and  ato>cities  by  which  it  was 
diaraaoed,  Ou  esttblishment  at  tiie  Latin  kingdom 
at  OonitantinoplcL  and  the  arbitrarj'  ihranny  by 
which  It  waa  nmitained,  widened  ilall  more  the 
ancient  estrangement.  Nra;  was  the  Weaeh  healed 
by  the  re-eataldiihment  of  the  Onek  empire  (1261). 
Tim  emperon,  from  p<^tioal  motiree,  preaaed  on  all 
rides  by  the  fean  of  foreign  inTaaioD  and  the 
embarniinmentx  ot  domntia  maoontent,  proposed,  aa 
the  ptioe  of  the  aniitance  of  tiie  West  in  their 
neeaatty,  the  nstoratian  of  the  Eaatern  (3iiirah  to 
the  obedLence  of  Borne.  Michael  Paleologna  (>ee 
MicsuL  fujEOLoava)  hj  hie  ambaaudon  abjured 
the  schiim  at  the  connml  of  Lyons  in  1274 ;  and 
endesToiued,  by  a  synod  held  sabaeqnently  at 
Cooatantiiiciple,  to  obtiun  a  ratification  of  the  nnion ; 
bot  he  (ailed  to  gain  the  usent  of  the  body  of 
Iriihops ;  and  in  Uie  sncceeding  pontificate,  the 
Ineacn  wu  «7en  more  eeriomly  renewed,  by  two 
synod*  held  at  Constantinople  in  1283  and  1S8& 
^le  ncoeentiea  id  Jctm  Faleologn*  c<HnpeUed  Um 
onoe  agfia  to  leaort  to  the  nme  enedient ;  and  Qie 
negotiationB  for  onian  were  on  this  oooarion  eoO' 
ducted withmnch more  delibention.     Del^atee  ot 


Conndl  ^14^  of  ?errara  (better  known,  &om  the 
place  of  rts  dote,  aa  that  of  FlorenceJ,  and  a  pm- 
tiacted  dlsmuioQ  took  place,  the  ohisf  points  of 
which  were  the  proceasion  ot  the  Holy  Ghost  from 
Uie  Father  and  the  Son,  the  addition  of 'Klioqae'  to 
the  creed,  the  nature  of  the  purgation  of  aonu  after 
death,  the  qm  of  anleavcnea  bread  in  the  encharist, 
and  tiie  mpremai^,  by  divine  ri^it,  of  the  Boman 
pontiff.  On  all  fiieae  pointa,  the  Oreek  delegates, 
with  the  exceptiim  of  lurk,  Bisheni  of  E^jhesna,  aub- 
•eribed  t^  decree  of  the  conncil;  but  Qua  mdon  was 
equally  ■hort-lired.  On  the  rotnm  ol  tbe  ddegatei 
to  CoBita&tinopIek  thcmr  proceeding  were  repodtated 
W  the  large  body  of  the  Oreeka ;  and  tbe  downfall 
m  the  Greek  empire  and  oaptnra  of  ConatantaBcrple 
by  13ie  Tnrka  in  1153,  oUiterated  ever^  trace  of  the 
attempted  reoonoiliBtKin.  Since  tbat  tune^  some  iso- 
lated bodies  of  Christiana  of  the  Greek  rite  have 
Joined  the  ohnrdi  of  Home  (see  Uhite>  Q&ibk 
Iuukuh)  ;  bnt  ei'ery  attempt  at  a  general  union  on 
the  part  of  the  Boman  pontifi  haa  proved  a  failure. 
It  haa  been  the  same  with  the  attempt!  which  have 
been  made  by  tbe  Proteataot  oonunnnioDS  to  estab- 
lish an  undentonding  with  the  Gret^  Church.  Very 
early  after  the  Beformation,  a  letter  waa  addressed  by 


Melaoethon  to  tbe  paMamh  Joseph  ti  Oonstentl' 
nople  through  a  deaoou,  Dtmetnoi  Mysoa,  who 
visited  Qennany  in  the  year  1SS&  AnotlMr  Lolbvan 
embassy  of  a  more  formal  oharactsr,  beaded  by  the 
well-known  TUUngon  divhMS,  AndrsM  and  " 
visited  Conatsntinonla  during  Ibe  — ■-=— 
Jaremias  (1ST6— IKl).  Bnt  both 
equally  without  leanlt  In  Ibe  fallowing  oi 
the  celebrated  C^ril  Lucaiia  (see  Lncuxn),  w 
been  adnoated  m  tbe  West,  and  hi  ' 


issued  a  decidedly  Oabiuistical  coufessioa  of  &itb 
(1S39).  But  (ar  from  canying  hia  fdlow-obuM^- 
men  with  him  in  the  nonanant,  the  bmovations 
which  he  attempted  not  oi^ted  to  hia 
■ition  and  dk^aoe^  bat  oaDed  forth  a 
declaration  ained  by  lbs  patawohs  of 

iple,  Alexandria  and  Anfioob,  and  many  mebo- 
polituu  and  biahopa,  which,  fcr  tbe  ohniTnas  and 
deciaion  of  ita  dtdnitioiiB,  draw*  til*  line  so 
mat^edly  between  the  Greeks  and  retoRMCS  aa  to 
shnt  out  all  ponUiili^  of  aooooimodatiOD  in  uisltsis 
of  doctrine^  l^ils  exposition  waa  ad<q>ted  by  aO 
the  chnrchee ;  and  in  a  synod  held  in  TmiMalisii 
1672,  it  waa  adopted  a*  tbe  oreed  d  tin  Oraak 
Church.  This  declaratiMi  having  hem  ori^iBaDy 
drawn  up  by  Magilaa,  metropolitaa  ot  Kisw,  it  waa 
publiahed  in  17&,  h?  order  ot  Peter  tbe  Omd, 
aa  an  authorised  formulary  of  tbe  Ruarian  Cbuieh, 
under  the  title  of  Tlte  Jhufim  OattMtm.  With  a 
few  excentiona,  to  be  speoified  bereaftw,  it  ooin- 
oidee  witn  the  fommlanea  of  the  Boman  Catholic 
Chnrch, 

The  GredK  Church  oompiiBed  within  ite  andeait 


destine,  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  paita  of  Maaepo- 
uid  Perria.    But  with  tha  first  triumph  ef 
the  Koran,  Vbe  dvroh  of  Omalaatinople  br  dagraaa 
lost  almost  all  bcr  territwy  in  Aaia  and  Afiic*; 
«st  of  &e  TuAa^  it  has  amik 


into  the  eondition  of  a  weak  and  gppraaaad 
nfc    By  tiie  aepantlou  of  the  Bnaaian  I 
rtiallv  in  the  17th,  and  finally 
the  iStb  0.,  and  by  that  of  tbe 
eece,  on  occasion  <tt  the  rsvcdution,  its  importanee    { 
I  been  still  more  diminished.    Each  of  dw  tbne    { 
divisions  into  which  it  haa  aepanted  posseasaa  a 
distinct  <»ganiaation ;  but  aa  tbe  faith  ^d  practice    ' 


ipecially  in  their  relations  t 

unions  of  tiie  West,  and  to  the  eontrorwMes  Iqr 
which  they  are  separated  from  each  otbn. 
''~  "un^  it  may  be  inferred  from  the  faet  that 
ek  Cmudi  reoeivea  the  first  seven  ooatMnk, 
all  the  contoovmatea  ragarding  tbe  Trini^ 
md  Incarnation  tbe  Greeks  are  agreed  with  Uie 


at   iMue   not   only  with  Cathtdtca,   bnt 

•aid  with   the  entire  body  of  Western 

mnitaiians.     While  they  reject  tbe  pmsl  daim 

„  -jwemaoT  ""'  1-..-1.  ..    _..._!._   .* 

with 


snpremaOT  and  docMial  asUiority,  tbn  Miae 
ix  Catholics  in  aeoeptiug  as  the  rule  <rf  fiith 


bo(^  (see  ^nod  of  Jerusahm  in  Hardmn's  OM. 
OondL,  zi.  ooL  268),  but  alao  tbe  tcaditilns  of 
Ibe  church,  that  is,  what  are  believed  to  bet  tbe 
unwritten  ravelationa  of  our  Lord  and  of  tiie 
Uea,  preserved  by  tbe  teatdnony  of  Uie  Fathen, 
ig  wbom  they  regard  wiUi  ^lecial  mention 


I,  Google 


the   RomHi  Chnrdi — Ji*.,  _     ___, , 

BactutriBt,  Prauknee^  ExbcBw  DnoUbn,  Htdj  Oidsn, 
■nd  Ma.tiiiii(nij ;  tat  m  Um  litei  nwd  by  ttun 
in  the  admiaMntian  of  thew  BMsnunenti  there 
Irom  the  Latin  rite. 


bcdngtui 


They  ■ihiiliiirtiii  bapum  by  «  triple 
oonfiniMrtifln   is  admiBisttfad   in  iitwn. 


amongt 
inaUtDte  has  aobaiated  in  ttw  Oradc  Ohnndt  from 
the  eaiUMt  tintea,  and  mnnnviN  ooaTenta  of  both 
•azea  are  diapened  ova  the  eait,  whioh  follow 
afanoat  exchwiTetr  the  rnle  of  9t  BaaiL  The  abbot 
la  called  Hegmnenoa,  the  abbcea,  BegnmenAi  if 
aevanl  oatenDta  be  aubjeot  to  a  tingle  abbot,  he  ii 
called  Ai«3tim«ndhte.    Both  monks  and  nana  are 


ftotaatanhi)  the  adoiMioB  ot  the  hot 

dot,  i*u™.  CWfec«w,  L  pp.  2i,  28).    Bnl 

titej  diSer  from  OatiEoKoa  in  ttie  use  of  iMTOwd 
bnad,  in  adminJateriiig  the  ecnamtuion  in  both 
kinds,  Bitd  in  admisMerinff  it  m  ttds  f  ona  even 
toefaildrGn.  Intheaaenmnrtof penance,tbe7reoog- 
niM,  lik«  Ifae  Veattm  OatholioB,  anricolar  conf  ee- 
rion,  pite>tlyri»otiition,>adpamtenttal-gorka;  and 
althM^  tlM7  diffiv  bom  the  IdAina  as  to  the  nae 
of  indugencea,  they  admit  the  principle  npon  irhich 
their  nse  ia  founded,  and  era  thdr  aj^csUIity  to 
thedead.  The  pecD&arilaea  of  ttiOT  nae  of  srtreme 
nnction  hare  been  already  d<Aailed.  See  Emxm 
TTtTCnos.  In  the  aacrament  of  holy  orden,  Ihey 
hsTenuuQ'jMeafiaTobeervaiicea.  See  OBDms,  Holt. 
■Hie  moat  striking  point  of  difCennee  regard*  derical 
edibaoy.  He  C&adi  dnooh  MOOgnisM  th«  exoal- 
lenee  (s  riri^ty,  and  the  fitauw  Ol  ito  oUnrriBoe 

prohiUt  marria^  altogether  to  habana  (who  are 
always  chosen,  u  ccnseqneiic«^  from  the  numssl ' 
and  not  the  seonlar  eltofiy) ;  to  forbid  priesta 


nnna,  like  theiT  Weatem  aiitMiB,  kpply  themad 
the  care  of  the  aiok,  and  to  the  edncation  of 
females. 

As  ngatda  Ae  M^nt*  oanaUtntioii  of  ttie  thme 
mat  seMiona  of  the  Qreek  Ohnioh,  it  win  be  Mum^ 
to  aw  Qat  the  duirA  in  the  Tnritiah  en^ira  lua 


B  after  ordiution ;  to 
Ml,  a  aecond  loamage, 
n  manriage  with  a  widow  i  and  to  reqiuFO  of 
married  pneirta  that  tb^  shtJI  lira  separate  from 
iheiE  wires  dnrins  the  tone  wbea  they  are  actually 
enpiffed  in  "*■— ^  aervicaa.  But  toey  not  only 
pormit  married  caadidataa  to  b«  advaaMd  to  deacon* 
ship  and  EritvOiaod,  but  eran  ramiire,as  a  genaral 
tote,  thiA  tluT  shall  be  aotoaujr  manied  before 
!an  be  a£aitted  to  otdeis.    While  admitting 


death,  they  do  not  admit  with  Waatera 
Catholics  a  porgatonal  fire,  bnt  they  admit  the 
princiDle  ot  the  intermediate  state  of  purgation, 
•nd  of  the  practice  of  prayer  for  the  dead.  They 
•In  admit  the  interccs^on  of  sainte,  and  the  iKwfnJ- 
neaa  of  inToking  them,  eapeoialty  the  Holy  Yir^ 
Mftry,  and  of  hononring  their  dtrines  uid  n^cs. 
They  do  not  permit  the  use  of  graven  iiaagea,  with 
the  eiceptian  of  that  of  the  cmm;  but  thejr  freely 
leceire  and  pray  before  picture,  wUch  they  hold 
in  high  honour,  and  on  irtuch  they  larish  the  most 
ctttly  omsmenba  of  eold,  iewela,  ud  other  pedona 
things.  In  that  belief  of  the  merit  ot  cood  works, 
■nd  (speoially  of  UatiBg,  they  go  eren  farther  than 
BoniMi  Caflioliaa.  B«3des  four  yeariy  fubi— the 
forty  daya  of  Lent  frton  Fentecort  to  the  Feoat 
of  Sainta  Fetv  and  Paol,  the  fifteen  days  before 
AsumptiiHi  day,  and  the  six  weeks  before  Christ- 
mas— ttiey  obserre  the  Wednesdays  and  Fridays 
throngboDt  the  year  ss  fasta.  Their  litoray  diall  be 
described  here«fteT  (see  LrrcRor)  ;  for  tte  present, 
it  will  be  enough  to  say  that,  in  Bplendoor  of 
cerwnfmtAl^  they  ore  not  inferior  to  the  Weaterus. 
Inrtniiiiental  moaic,  it  is  tme,  ia  forbidden  ir  *■*■" 
<hnrclue,  bat  aingiog  ia  Tmivaiaally  in  nae. 
pnUio  prayer,  thezneeling  postnre  ia  oaed  only  at 


raided  hie  own  flook,  a  dtil  pre-(aninaiosi 
with  the  rank  of  a  'pnaha  of  three  tails.'  But  in 
retam  for  this  ciTil  statoa,  the  Porte  olaimed  the 
right  of  appointing  and  also  of  deposing  the 
patriarch,  a  right  whidi  waa  habitually  axordsed 
as  a  matter  of  ])archaBe  and  tale,  and  whioh  led 
to  the  groaaeat  aimony,  not  only  aa  to  the  patti- 
archate,  but  in  the  entire  eccdeaiaatical  ayilCBm. 
Formaly,  the  mebopoKtan  of  Rnaria  (afterwards 
patriaren)  was  snbjeot  to  the  patriarch  of  Oon- 
stsniiaopl^  as  dso  the  bishops  ot  the  maden 
kingdom  irf  Oraeee;  bat  both  chnrdies  are  now 
independent  of  Constantinople.  The  patriarch  irf 
Oonstantinople,  iTeremiaB  IL,  in  the  year  1S89,  ccm* 
seated  to  tiie  creation  of  a  separate  bnt  dependent 
patriarch ;  and  this  dependence  continned  nntil  the 
time  of  Peter  the  Gr^  In'  whom  the  patriarch' 
ate  waa  fint  supended  and  afterwards  abolished, 
"  """"'m  ohordi  being  now  gevemsd  by  wIuU 
the  Ho^  Bynod,  an  eccleaiaBtacal  oom- 
l^oiabed  by  tiu  ciar.    The  independence 


of  ths  chnnh  d  the  H»ipl™»i  of  Qreeoe  dates  from 
the  lerolntion.  The  'organic  law  of  E^^daums,' 
of  Jannaiy  1822,  proclaimed  Uia  Oriental  Orthodox 
du^oh  as  the  cburdi  of  the  state,  and  soon  after- 
ues  were  taken  to  organiaa  this  church 

lriw{H'Mni      For  a  time,  the  patriarch 

of  Oonatantino^  ht^>ed  to  preaerre  his  ancient 
authiui^;  but  the  pteaident  of  ths  new  state, 
Capo  d'Istriaa,  firmly  reaiated,  and,  after  many  pre- 
liminaries, the  new  charoh  waa  fonnollT  orgamaed 
deeree  of  July  16  (27),  1833,  on  a  plan  in  great 

borrowed  from  the  conatitntion  oT  the  Basaan 

tOiarab,  as  settled  hy  Peter  the  Oreab  Ibagovam- 
ing  body  in  the  <Lhunih  of  the  kim[dam  of  Gresoe  i^ 
as  m  the  BoBuaii,  the  so-oslled  'KilyE^uod,' which 
ccnsjata  at  five  members,  who  are  ordmari^  arch- 
Ushopa  Ot  bishops,  but  may  alao  admit  into  their 
nambar  ona  or  nro  [irieBta  or  moaka.  Thiasynod 
ia  the  SBPTMne  eocleaiaBtioal  tribunal,  and  in  name 
at  laMt  IS  indmodent  in  apihtnals ;  but  aa  its 
mcmhera  an  sU  named  by  the  arown,  and  hold 
ofSce  bat  for  a  yeu,  it  ia  practicoUy  a  state  instru- 

risht  to  saaist,  although  without  a  Tote,  at  all  its 
duibttsticms.  The  synod  aleota  biahopa,  bnt  the 
orowa  haa  the  right  of  oonfirming  and  granting 
inra^ure.  To  it  alao  belongs  the  power  ci  r^a- 
lating  the  limits  of  dioceses,  and  all  auoh  general 
arrangements.  The  last  lemnailt  of  aubjeotion  to 
Constantinople  waa  removed  by  a  formal  reooffiiition 
of  indepeDiience  in  136S,  and  the  biahopa  no  longer 
seek  consecration  from  the  patriarch  of  that  aae. 
In  1869,  a  carren»andence  took  place  betwees  the 
archtrishop  of  (^terbury  and  the  patriarch,  wi& 


,Googl 


RGLIOIOK. 


Tiew  to  the  vaaoa  of  the 

ohttroliBB.    In  the  lams  year   _. 

£iuBi>  aboIiBhed  the  heredUarr  aliaract«r  of  the 
Biino-Gr«ek  ptierthood.  The  Biuio-Oreek  church 
ia  believed  to  niiinbeF  *bont  56,000,000.  The  churoh 
of  Greece  oomprehends  a  diitrict  of  about  S80  sq. 
DL,  and  nnmben  abovt  800,000  memben. 
Tb>  nHiTBD  Oroe  Chuboh  oompreheiidi  those 


pn>ce*nOD  of  the  Spirit  and  the  Eupremacj  of  the 
ItiHiuu  pontiff,  and  accepting  all  the  doctrinal  deci- 
■ions  soMeqaent  to  the  Greek  Bchism  which  have 
fores  ai  articlea  of  futh  in  the  Roman  Chnrch. 
The  United  Greetu  are  found  chiefly  in  Southern 
Italy,  in  the  Austrian  dominion,  in  Poland,  and 
in  the  Rnoian  empim  In  Italy,  they  are  compoted 
at  80,000 ;  in  Anitria,  at  about  4,000,000  j  and  in 
Foland,  about  260,000.  Id  RuHia,  it  ia  difficult  to 
Mcertain  their  number.  It  haa  fsjlen  off  oousider- 
ably  in  late  jeare.  In  Anitrta,  they  are  divided 
into  Botnamane  and  ButheoiatM — the  fonner  being 
—ui^  ;_  Wallachia,  Ttanivlvania,  and  Bwtem 
the  Utter,  in  Littk  Bouia,  Galicia,  and 
tern  Honraiy.  The  union  of  the  Greek 
\  of  Wallaclua  and  Transytvania  dates  from 
the  end  of  the  I2th  c ;  and  alUiongh  the  Befor- 
mation  made  lome  progreaa  among  them,  they  still 
for  ttie  ma«t  wt  remain  true  to  the  union.  The 
onion  of  the  Galiraam  Greeks  or  Rutheniana  is  of 
much  later  date,  about  the  close  of  the  17th  century. 


aettled   i 
Hungary; 

Ifcrth-eastt 


vith  the  consent  of  the  Boman  pontiSa,  the 
among  the  other  Greeka.    They  are  also  permittod 
to  administer  communion  under  both  kinds. 

GREEK-FIRE,  a  composition  supposed  to  hare 
been  of  nitre,  solphui',  and  naphtlia  as  aprincipal 
ingredient,  with  which  the  Greeks  of  the  ^zantine 


Bo  Tninglarl  with  olmous  fable,  that  it  ia  difficult 
to  arriTe  at  any  just  conduaion  as  to  its  power  ;  bat 
tbe  miztnre  wpean  to  have  been  hignlr  inflam- 
mable, and  to  hare  poasaaed  the  power  of  baming 
under  water.  It  was  projected  ather  on  blazing 
tow,  tied  to  airowa,  or  through  a  tab«^  the  pre- 
cnnor  of  cannon.  Wherever  the  combustible  fell,  it 
made  great  haTOO,  from  tlie  inezdneriiihable  nature 
of  the  fire.  The  ioTcatioa  of  this  material  has 
nsoally  been  aHciibed  to  Csllinicua  of  Hellopolis,  and 
the  jreai'  668  A.S. ;  but  there  Heema  to  be  reason  to 
believe  that  it  wu  rather  imported  from  India.  At 
Constantinoplo,  the  process  of  making  Greek-fire  was 
kept  a  profoond  secret  for  several  centuries.  The 
knowledge,  however,  of  its  compositiou  gradually 
apread ;  and  at  the  tuTie  of  the  discoveiy  of  gun- 
powder, Greek-fire  foimed  ft  recognised  defensive 
element  in  most  wars  from  Weotem  Europe  to 
Asia  Minor.  Subsisting  for  some  time  concurrently 
with  gunpowder,  it  gradually  died  out  before  the 
advanoea  of  that  eail  mare  effective  competitor, 
till  now  little  veatige  remains  of  Greek-fire  beyond 
a  Norman  corruption  of  its  name  in  our  firework 
'  cracker,*  which,  derived  from  '  Creyko '  of  the 
middle  tga,  is  bnt  a  cotmption  of  '  Grecque.'    See 

also  FlBBAMIS. 

GREEK  MUSia  The  existence  of  murac  aa  an 
art  or  science  among  the  ancient  Oreeka  has  for 
hundreds  of  years  been  a  subject  of  ioquiry  and 
discnsaion  among  the  learned.  With  the  reatorataon 
of  the  arts  and  sciencea  at  the  end  of  the  middle 
aget,  the  veneration  for  all  that  belonged  to  that 


spoke  o 


people  waa  carried  to  such  an  extent,  that  t"**^"^* 
we  had  to  thank  them  for  much,  many  wiiUaa 
thought  we  muat  be  obliged  to  them  for  ail- 
Fortunately,  we  have  handed  down  to  u>  variona 
disaertations  and  fragoients  on  mosic  by  old  writers, 
whioh,  although  tbey  do  not  unfold  to  u*  anyttung 
like  a  satLsfaotory  view  of  the  aocieDt  Greek  mano, 
yet  suffice  to  snow  us  that  among  Uie  aatacnt 
Greek*  the  art  of  music  was  in  a  very  imperiect 
and  incompleto  state,  and  that,  in  ita  dananta 
and  groundwork,  it  was  entirely  a  slave  to  posby, 
and  can  have  been  little  else  thaji  a  kind  irf  intcmod 
declamation.  We  hear  from  ancient  writoa  of  tba 
magic  influence  of  music  i  but  we  must  not  fooget 
that  they  used  the  word  music  in  a  colleotiTe  aenaa 
)  cift  of  the  muses  geoerolly;  andwhrnthtly 
M  the  elevBtiiiK  and  moru  effect*  of  iiHi«ir. 
o  be  undentixKl  that  they  meant  a  ^enecal 
bannonioua  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  aciencea. 
The  syatem  of  musie  known  to  tile  ancient  Gmka, 
and  as  piMttised  in  tiieii  temples  and  thnafaea. 
diffend  esuntially  bom  onr  modem  mane,  aa  thar 
scale,  or  sneoession  of  soonds,  was  not  baaed  ob  tha 
octave  and  its  rapetition,  but  on  a  fourth  and  it* 
repetition.  Their  scale  consisted  ol  five  tetraohords, 
each  containing  four  consecutive  Bounds ;  the  last 
aound  of  one  tetrachord  being  alwaya  the  first  of 
the  next ;  while  two  of  their  tetrachords  had  xaant 
than  one  sound  in  common.  In  modem  muaie,  th« 
ancient  Greek  scale  would  be  aa  follows :  B,  C,  D,  E  ; 
E,F,G,  A;  A,  Bb,  C,  D,  ft&  This  they  called  tiw 
diatonic  genus.  They  had  also  their  ohrranatio  gaio^ 
thus,  B,C,  Djf,  B;  ^  F,G|,  A,  Ac ;  audth«dreiiliai^ 
tnonio  genus,  the  tetrachords  of  which  MmBisted  ot 
two  quarter-tones  (which  cannot  be  expressed  in 
modem  muaic)  and  a  major  thicd.  It  is  b^ond  • 
doubt  that  the  ancient  Greeks  neither  poaseoaed  » 

— ' — of  Botation  by  which  their '-   — -■■     - '' 

Iffht  have  been  pres 
idea  ot  narmouy  in  the  mo 
Many  believe  it  imposable  that  a  people  who  have 
left  u*  specimens  of  their  poefar  and  aculptnre, 
which,  after  2000  yean,  are  still  admired  as  mastet^ 
works,  could  have  been  content  witli  snch  an  imper- 
fect end  clumsy  aj«tem  of  music.  Bed  it  been 
otherwise,  it  ia  acarcely  possible  to  inuigine  that 
the  knowledge  of  it  would  not  have  been  handed 
down  to  us.  An  ode  by  Pindar,  and  a  hynm  or  two 
set  in  modem  notation  from  an  old  Greek  MS.,  ia 
the  whole  we  possess  of  ancient  Greek  mnsic,  and 
those  are  said  by  many  to  be  spurions. 

GREEK  PHILOSOPHY.    See  Pbhosofxy. 

GREEK  RBLIGION  (AxciEirT),  the  most  {»et- 
ical  aud  most  bnmone  of  polytheisms,  prasento  itself 
in  Mstoricol  times  as  a  plastic  worship  of  nature, 
with  ita  viable  objects  and  ita  invisble  powers; 
of  abatract  notions,  sensations,  propensities,  and 
actions ;  of  tutelary  Numina,  honiehold  or  family 
gods ;  and  of  exalted  men  or  heroes.  Composed  oiE 
such  widely  discordiint  elements,  this  great  Hdlenic 
Pantheon  offers  yet  a  unity  so  harmonious  and 
consistent  in  ita  minatest  parts,  that  its  origin  is 
even  more  difficult  to  traoe  thim  that  of  Ule  people 
itself,  which,  from  a  conglomeration  of  hetm^)- 
gcneous  races  anditribes  was  fused  in  an  inraedibly 
short  apace  of  time  into  one  great  lamSy  of  equal 
propensities  and  of  equal  gifta.  This  question  of 
the  ori^  of  the  Greek  roli^on  haa  indeed  been 
a  ptnnt  at  issue  from  the  time  of  Herodotus  to 
our  own.  While  he,  together  with  many  others, 
pronounced  it  to  be  almost  completely  an  impor- 
tation from  Egypt,  a  strong  autochtlitmic  school 
held  it  to  be  nomespmng ;  and  these  two  aoto- 
goniatic  views— thtr  Boat  and  He1taB-_have,  in  a 
more  or  leas  modified  form,  found  tiieit  foremost 


h.GoogIc 


OKEBK  EELIGION. 


nprcoentatiTw  in  modem  dkyi,  in  Cmuer  on 
ths  oiM  Mo,  ud  Ot&ied  Muller  on  the  otber. 
The  n«ir  Mid  all-inipiH'tuit  leienoe  of  Com] 
tive  H]rtb«log7,  lunreTBT,  0^7  bs  Bsid  to 
Kt  thi«  ptnnt  at  nrt;  for  it  ^oves  nlmoat 
d«m<mBb>tioB,  tkat  the  fundBmental  ideu  of  1 
OtMik  nlwioD  ar*  doa  to  tho  i^poni  north-ire«t 
of  Indu,  tha  CMdla  of  tka  -  ^  -  - 
<see  AxriK  Bmje)  ;  wMe 
inteodocad  additicnikl  godj  from  HKanitu,  Egypf^ 
■ad  other  puta  of  Oai  Eut  AD  then,  irith  Ae 
host  of  penonifiad  fuKuea  and  ideali  bagotten  b; 
the  poeti  at  homa,  were  aoon  aititlgarnotad  into 


what  humoDT  and  jdaitioitv,  had 
dure  of  the  uhabitanta  of  HaUaa;  ■•  _■_•.  nuwu 
in  itoal^  hrtha  immenaa  variety  of  glociom  aoeDetv 
of  aek  and  iky,  wood  and  mom^dn,  riTei  aod 
hay,  roA  and  iiland,  contribnted  not  a  little  to 
qaiok«a  tbat  immortal  yonthfalneaa  hj  which  tb^ 
were  to  Kp^jT  and  ttriUngljr  called  ttow^umt 
the  Bast  the  p«o^  of  ¥anui  (SaiuoT.  fuDon  ^ 
Jitataat  m  ToHHff).  The  god*,  trom  the  tnomeDt 
they  toDched  theae  ahoree,  trcoa  dead  aymbola 
beoiune  living  realitiea;  vith  all  the  ^nalitiee  and 
aenaatiana,  amia  and  aotkma,  ol  a  living  indivi- 
dnahtf,  and  that  irf  the  higheat,  moat  noble,  and 
divina  frame  exiatinx — man.  Anthn^NmiOTiduam, 
indeed,  ia  the  chief  maracteiiatio  of  Qnek  rsligiDn. 
The  binta  cnatioii — which  to  the  £aat  waa  acme- 
thing  to  be  exalted,  and  to  be  adopted  aa  the  type 
of  diTini^ — fnmidiod  the  Qreeka  onlv  with  a  tffw 
attribntea  for  their  hnmanly  ahaped  goda.  But  man, 
the  id«at  of  ereation,  was  deficient  in  one  thins: 
— the  dnratiai  of  Us  life  waa  lunited — and  in  thn 
the  goda  difiered  fnxn  him:  the?  were  inunotiaL 
In  all  otter  Rspecta,  they  were  like  himaeU :  th^ 
loved  and  hated,  they  'transgraaed'  and  anffered. 
No  ideal  moral  code  exiated  with  the  Oreeka,  the 
eeaentially  ethical  people  though  th^ 
qomitly, their  — ' ^—  "■ "  --■■  - 


of  all  tike  datiea,  their  geoeiii  and  hiatory,  with 
the  myth*  and  legenda,  traditioiul  or  invented  in 


•baig&tforwaiid  n 


tionahle  practicta,  not  nureqoently  brought 
aelv«a  into  ven  niidigaified  poaitLana.  And  yet 
the  influence  01  nch  unworthy  conceptiDna  of  the 
goda  ,waa  not  u  detrimeiital  to  the  believer  aa  at 
mat  tight  might  be  mippoeed ;  for  the  Oreek  deitiea 
were  not  to  be  pattenis  for  hmnanity :  they  were, 
throo^i  their  mi^d]^  origiii,  their  almoat  onbonnded 
poweta;  ud  their  immortality,  exempt  from  the 
ordtuaiy  laws  which  mart  rule  the  dealings  inthe 
conmioDirea}t&  of  low,  weak,  dying  hmnani^.  They 
wen  a  kind  of  exalted  nriatocrsoy,  who  could  not 
be  jndged  by  a  human  atandard,  mnch  lees  be 
imitated  bv  human  b^gsi  and,  after  oU,  even  thev 
had  to  anhmit  to  a  anpreme  fate  {llcara),  which 
fonnd  oat  their  gnilt,  and  poniahed  it.  The  tDOrtal, 
however,  waa  aS^ert  to  Uiem  individnally;  and  it 
waa  Ida  epeeial  piovinee  to  fulfil  the  dntiea  of  piety 
and  mowely  towaria  them,  of  lighteonaneaa  and 
Jnatiee  towwds  hia  eqnola.  On  thia  conditiim  alone, 
the  nndiatDrbed  enjoynMnt  of  life  with  all  its  moat 
eloiiona  gifta  waa  hia.  Retribntion  for  evil  doiiiga 
fallowed,  with  raro  exoeptiona,  apeedily  and  irre- 
vocably, on  the  earth  ha  bod,  not  at  aome  future 
period  or  in  other  realma.  Tiiere  waa  a  hereafter, 
rat  it  waa  a  ahadowy  thing  irithont  life  and  Uood, 
a  miatnble  nether  world  M^ehetvleMtwili^it.  Only 
for  very  extnordinary  orimM  waa  tliere  aomething 
like  a  teal,  (aarfnl,  and  evcalaating  pnniahment 
ia  rioM  in  the  Hadaa,  or  the  itiU  mote  teniUo 


exalted  heioea  are,  after  their  death,  ,^ 

a  new  body  aod  eqjoy  the  pleaaorea  of!    . 

But  theae  an  very  exoeptional  oaaaa :  'When 

ia  dead,'  wnj*  the  ahade  of  Antiolea,  'the  fieah  and 
the  bonea  are  left  to  be  oonsumed  by  the  flamc%  but 
the  aonl  paaaea  away  like  a  dream.' 


eariy  FelaagiaDa*  invoked,  like  their 'Fertian  and 
Oeiinan  kinamen,  the  higheat  god  without  image  or 
temple,  and  the  minor  deitiea  oa  the  '  Great  (fnea,' 
the  '  Unknown  Onea,'  the  '  Meroiful  Ones,'  without 
diatinct  name  and  ahape — to  Ulb  time  when  evsry 
Bonnd  aad  erer^  ai^ht,  ewy  thought  and  mtrj 
deed,  had  •  nfaluna  Bgnifiaanoe,  eanaed  aad  inapdred 
aa  it  waa  by  a  god ;  whan  the  nodigunia  nmnber  of 
deaHy  defiiMd,  and  individually  and  mort  ai 


la  development  ( 
>wn  to  the  day 


daya  when  the  poeta  put 
pM^heoiaa  of  the  apeedy  daatJ)  of  the  goda  into  the 
montha  of  their  heroea ;  when  philoaopheia  openly 
deolared  '  theae  thinga  to  be  {anmee  and  drnm^' 
and  reUgiona  peraecutiaiu  hastened  the  downfall  tA 
a  creed  which  had  beorane  adnlterated  by  foraini 
elementa  no  longer  to  be  amalgamated — until  Chru- 
tianity  atepped  m,  and  not  i^dafied  with  depoaing 
the  goda  of  Greece,  aent  them,  branded  with  the 


outline  of  the  divine 
[Wealth,  and  the  outward  forma  of  the  reli- 
giouB  worship  of  the  Qreeka,  in  the  ao-called  daanoal 
period  Some  aocoont  of  the  principal  deitiea  will 
be  found  in  apedol  artidaa. 

Without  entering  into  the  principal  division  of 

_ie  goia  into  heavenly,  terreabial,  and  maritime^ 

we  will  briefly  mention  the  aun«nke  oonndl  of  the 

twelve  natioiul  goda,  who,  together  with  a  vaat  male 

Dale  rrtinue,  dwdt  on  the  hd^ta  of  Mount 

,       OB,  around  ita  highest  peak.    This,  reaching 

into  like  aky  (Onianoa),  waa  inhabited  by  Zeoa,  the 

son  of  Chronoa,  the  higheat,  mightieat,  and  wiaeet 

being,  king  and  father  olgodl  and  men :  who  watches 

over  all  human  doinga,  principally  over  hoapitality 

and  the  aacredneaa  of  oaths.     Second  in  power  la 

his  brother  Poaeidon,  the  ahaker  of  the  earth,  the 

ruler  of  the  aea  and  all  the  waters  of  the  earth. 

Next  stands  Apollo,  tho   son   of  Zbqb   aod   Selo 

(darkness) ;  he  is  (as  Phoibos)  the  inn,  and  darts 

his  rays  or  arrows  aa  god  of  the  chase,  aa  god  of 

destruction,  as  well  as  m  beneficence.    But  he  ia  not 

A  only  (^  the  physical,  bnt  also  of  tiie  mental 

;ht ;  hence  to  bun  belongs  the  insight  into  future 

enta.      He  is  the  god  of  ontcles,  but^  as  such, 

etjuivocal  (Zoziru)  ;  further,  god  of  poeticid  ieapira- 

tion,  aong,  and  music— leader  of  the  mnsee.    He  ia 

one  of  the  snUimest  figniea  wnong  tho  gods.    Id  his 

love  and  in  his  hatred,  he  is  always  enshrouded  in 

sacred  dignity  and  majesty,  of  which  oven  tho 

ost  ribald  fiction  stood  in  aw&    The  god  of  the 

rrestcial  fire,  which  in  hia  person  had  been  thrown 

froni  heaven  ta  earth,  is  Heptuestus.    His  woricahopa 

are  vdloanoea,  where  metala  are  forged  and  wrought 

by  him  into  artful  forma  ;    and   oa  volcanic  soil 

'     '  maturea  wine,  to  him  was  assigned  tha  office 

ipbearer  of  the  goda.    Area  preaides  over  war. 

Battloa,  alanghter,  rapine,  and  tAe  doom  ol  dtiea 


,d  by  000*^  I 


mn  his  delighb  Honui — oriffatHj,  perh^B,  the 
■Tmbol  of  KOiinftl  niMntlo&— kppeftta  h  p^ron  ' 
ths  bardo.  Ho  i*  ua  gattiaai  m  tiM  roada  and  t! 
UMMsBM  of  tiio  goda ;  Iw  ii^  morcm,  tite  invent 
of  tiM  iTte  mud  gjmiuatkA  Ba  ii  th«  pmidiiig 
nniBa  M  ooBuoenM,  mud,  u  niah,  a  kiu;TB,  n 
thiet  With  Zeui  ii  coinilBd  H«M.  hii  airtei 
irlfe— boalifiilt  majartic,  Init  gwctrng  aad  qu 
Mim&  The  forenKwl  d«iuhter  of  Zmm,  and  wbo 
■pnag  (i«m  bii  hMkl  in  fnll  Hmonrj  ii  AtiMne,  lAo 
rtaoda  in  a  twofold  rdatioa  totluli^it,^7noal«* 
mdl  aa  mentat— wImum  aha  beoomM  t£e  goddaM 
of  nndantanding  and  wiadom— and  to  tita  watac 
jTrilefMMla) ;  bsnoa  alao  hw  rivalry  wiUi  Foaaidcn. 
T%»  tw»  daBMttiB,  file  want  and  tha  nudat,  fdvinD 
riM  to  (he  fartfltty  of  tiw  earth,  aha  li  tlM  ^oddM 
ol  the  grain  and  of  Mia  oopai  aha  b  Hkemmgod- 
deal  of  war,  and  |mddaa  onr  fonale  handiwDtlL 
Aittmia,  the  twin-ilatar  of  ApoUo,  ahvaa  witii  him 
the  ohaae  and  tiu  l^it  t  her  atbibntM  are  a  torch 
and  tha  uoon.  Tlu  nianiaiaii  goddMB  Aatute 
had  riaen  from  tba  f  omdj  vama  mi  the  Qivak 
ahoTM  ai  Aphmdite,  tiia  Onek  goddeaa  ol  beavty, 
of  lore,  of  TtdnptaonaDea*.  Hs  oeVBtemit  w«e 
the  ohaata  maidai-foddeai  H«atia,  in  irtaont  waa 
penonlfled  tiie  hearth  a*  the  oentn  of  the  hooaa 
uid  fmilj.  FmD  the  trreriaaliitt  fire  on  hw  altar, 
t^  colonkta  took  the  Same  whioh  waa  to  aooom' 
panr  tiiem  to  Otdr  new  aetUauanta.  Hie  liat  ol 
the  OIjmpiaiiB  aloeai  with  Denwla'  or  Gai>>  8he 
(■  tiie  goddees  of  agikoltare,  and,  conaequ^Uy,  of 
aettled  instittTiionB  and  laira. 

An  indefinite  nvmber  of  oth«r  gode  foUowad, 
aime  of  them  little  inferior  in  power  and  dignilr 
to  tiie  twelve,  and  who  aometimea,  like  DkintaB, 
the  god  ot  goat-beida  and  winO'gTowen,  and  ouuta, 
acted  aa  Uie  apedal  deitiea  of  certain  daaaea.  We 
may  mention  here  Qtdca,  Hdloa,  Heeate,  Leto, 
Dione,  Penephone,  lliemli,  Eos ;  tha  Ohaiitea, 
the  Hnaea,  the  Moem,  Protetia,  the  Nym^^  and 
other  daimont — partly  primeval  local  deitiea,  partly 
deified  powerg  of  natirra ;  river,  mountain,  and 
forest  B;oda ;  or  petwnified  ahetract  notioni — endi 
M  TVche,  Fsydie,  Hebe,  Thanatoa,  Fhoboa,  Hypnoa, 
Kratoa,  Bia,  and  the  like  ccauciotu  or  nnoonaoioaa 


or  rather  monaten,  begotten  hf  goda-^tbe  Eartriea, 
the  Gorgona,  Pegaima,  Chinusra,  Cerberaa,  B<^dla 


»  Goigona,  _  .„ , , , 

and  Ohuybdia,  me  Oentann,  the  9pliini,  ka. 


faimdera  of  racee,  who  were  thna  considered  the 
Boni  of  gods,  or  patrona  of  apeciai  trades  and  prt>- 
feudona,  like  Biediliia,  the  hem  of  artificers  and 
othera.    The  entire  abaence  of  that  daAandtorible, 


ality  of  the  Greek 


divided ;  the  nndaimted  geni- 
latnre;   the  tendency  tomudi 


mankind ;  uid  above  all,  the  emanoipatiMi  from  ■ 
all-ndtng  hieran^  nch  as  iwayed  the  Bi 
I  Gt«^  religion  dogmatioally,  aa  wdl  i 


cally,  ooe  of  the  brightert  and  mart  joyoul,  no  leaa 
than  the  mildest  andmost  tolerant,  of  ancient  creeds. 
The  outward  as  well  as  the  inward  woralup  of  the 
gods  was  with  them  purely  a  pereonal  afiair.  No 
mediator  stood  between  the  individoal  and  the 
deity ;  every  freeborn  Tnan,  woman,  and  child  had 
the  uQiiisputed  right  to  pray  and  to  sacrifice  when 
and  where  the  heart  prompted.  The  onlj;  office  * 
the  iwiests  consiBted  u  "        "  "      •      ^  ■-   


e  can  of  certain  aaored 


raotaiaraof  certain  ^nHf*^  fonnolaa  handed  down 
in  tiio  piiartly  fanuliea,  and  the  exposadinc  of  the  j 
Divine  WiSl  esgmaaad  hv  otadea.     Ih*  Itecrificea   | 
<q.  T.),  wMoh  in  eadiar  daya  had  eonaiaiad  in  Uia  | 
votive  offering  of  *  look,  a  gariand,  *  tablat,  or  anoh  , 
rimpla  fanitB  aa  wmn  yielded  by  u>*  soil,  siadnally, 
■B  hill*  m.nA  grovsa  no  longer  aoffioad,  ana  tcanplca,   i 
stately    and    ansiptncMis,    adimed    with    gemoai 
etKtnse,  had  baan  «Moted,  paw  into  mplmdM  nast^    r 
ofwhKhAaaodawtninvMed  to  partake^  together 
with  tboaa  lAo  aaarifioad.    Of  tha  periadMal  fe^-  . 
vala  hald  in  kcnoor  «t  ^acaal  dwtia^  Aa  gaiaM  | 
and  iporta,  the  aoctua  HroeaMatataona  and  mnaical 
BBwtesti  wnmaeted  witii  tfap,  and  rf  their  p«anli» 
iafhuooa  in  nisng  the  Utvatue^  artL  and  pUl-  , 
oaopl^  of  tiw  Oneka  above  that  of  all  —-Vi-J    , 
we  uv«  qukcB  onder  FHnvAU,  and  we  aaj  ' 
forthw  refer  for  pHtiotdata  to  ««iah    artidei  as  | 

DlOimu,   PUMXHMNXU,    TSHMOFBOBU,    Sug. 

anciair  Mtb^bisb  (whata  alao  tbe  B«bjeat  U  the 
Hystariea  ia  tondiad  upon),  aa  alao  to  the  hsadiogi 
OLTitf  uir,  Fythux,  NmuK,  and  othar  Qaxh.       ! 

One  of  tiie  mart  oharacteristio  provineea  <rf  tiw 
Greek  enlt  was  that  belonging  to  the  '"»"*™  er  ' 
dtvinen.    IheQret^  loiAing  qion  tha  gods  ashii  i 
iimiiiiii  taw  1 1  fricnda,  idio  ii — ' —  ■'-  — '^-" 


of  his  own  a 
evcc  unknown  to  ^'''F^f,  must  ptodnoe  a  ocns-  i 
sponding  doiangwnent   in  nature,   could   not  but   i 

cred«»e  to  the  forebciding  ajgnifiwaiw  ■ 

JT 'anpematoial' [vodigiea  or  ngns.    The   < 

ether  or  space  between  hesnvi  and  earth,  wonld  be  i 
....    ...   ......  _..    .  1^  Hi^HB nyeiatioge .  th«  iianDi 

it,  the  Uinnder  that  railed  aiomd 
Utda  Uiat  floated  in  the  Una  algw.  wtn 
. .  many  divine  onens.    No  leaa  would  liie  cod*  i 
q)eBkin  tiMoSmngiinuiMdiatelyaddreaMdtowaii  , 
— in  the  innennost  entraili  ot  the  aacrifioial  aninul^  , 
in  Hie  flame  that  roea  bom  tbrir  altaiw-jn  dnama  d  . 
the  Didit,  and  strange  aonoids  and  portents  by  day; 
thna,  If  in  tite  midst  of  the  asaembkd  pe<#^  *<   , 
ominom  animal  apptand,  tbij  apoedily  dinetaed.  . 
Tet  the  free  and  clear  Ckeek  aund  oonld  Wdlj 
be  anspeoted  tn  have  more  than    tolerated  sni^ 
practioaa,  much  leaa  could  it  be  Bnppoeed  that  it  ' 
ever  sank  to  tbe  low  level  of  ocrrelling  imbecility.  | 
aa  vu  the  case  In  Uiia  nutter  of  augny  «i^  | 
the  Btni»cuig  (q.  v.) ;  and  Homer^thoui^  to  tlu  I 
aetoniibiaeae  ot  X«Dophan — pnm  into  t 
of  Hector  Uie  momeatoos  wroda :  'Ooe  i 
is  ngnificant — to  £^lt  iar  one's  conntry  1' 

The  ^owtli  of  mdtnre  did  indeed  eailv  : 
Greeks  from  the.vagoe  awa  of  eveiydn  pM. 
and  the  science  of  nMaticiam  fell  aoM^indy  iaw 
the  hands  <rf  the  lowwt  Joggers  and  sootAMytn, 
believed  in  ^nly  by  the  h«>d.  But  in  the  sum  ' 
deoree,  there  rose  bito  Mghist  importsnoe  ancthtr 
and  enltad  kind  of  pnpheey^-tbe  Otachs  ^  ^  , 
Id  this,  ths  god  Ji^iter— aftowards  prioop^  . 
ApoUo,  his    so^    tiis  partaksr  in  his  eoumen 

rLohimadft  first,  in  the  raatling  of  Imvbl  ui  (be  . 
gonr  ot  brass  basins,  Ister,  in  distinct  bomaii  , 
WOT&  Hechoaetheweakestvessels— wmsDttP™' 
to  whnn  the  divine  gift  was  a  burden  and  a  jn|>>-  . 
The  Dibjl  hraaelf  does  not  understand  whrt  tu 
god  says  through  her  mouth ;  she  is  BaaoBsncm'^  ' 
a  state  of  somnambnlism — of  maaiai  Alt  ^^^^ 
priests  step  in ;  they  act  a«  iottrneten,  as 
as  BvoKgMtM  (the  pngeuy  ra  kods  J 
'bringencl  good  tidings."  tlwir  inflaaoo^  •» 
and  p(ditlMl&,  inoeaaed  with  that  of  the  oi 
tiiemselvea,  e^aeiaUy  whoi  thsse  lattei^  I?  ^ 


n  oely  I 


tyCuogte" 


QfiBELBy — OSEBSTfi. 


g  cakmI  and  imfcnreweD,  becune  freqncDt 
The  liobMt  eiftt  ponrcd  in  from  tf 


•htt  oMtit  iifinli  thirt  <rf  JnfMsr  at  Dodota— we 
iB*y  inanticai,  not  of  tha  SCO  whioh  ware  MMittad 
thmaghDnt  Oteaoa,  tboae  al  Didyma,  Ddoa,  AIm, 
Klam^  lAiBMa,  Isma,  of  Tn^ihoDnu — m  a  saMa^ 

AtticM,  when  tiM  aaawen  wen  TerMled  in  ^rami. 
Bst  by  far  the  mmt  iuaavt,  aad  ^       ~ 


fix-  tiM  wtwb  naUon  m  ndi,  n 


■  that  «{  I 


w  AmpUo^fmie 
w  avwytUact  couiMatad  iritii  tha  pahlio  wenlnp 


pa^,  fn  id^dt  ha  wrote  aaan,  poctt;, 

artaclM.    Aftar  oua  or  two  otW  «m»>  at  adJka- 
ahip,  ba  ba^n  i>  1841  the  Iftw  Tor*  TrUmte,    ' 
which  ha  hai  tmr  aince  been  th*  faadiu  edil 
Aa  Ifa  O.  had  adopted,  to  aome  oxtent,  tha  aoc 


ttinNuhoaA 

tialmiitia  JtwMwia  MaalBtad;  lAeia,  in  faot,  foe  a 
vacy  lonff  time  waa  to  ha  fottnd  the  raal  oanttal 
power  arQiaaoa. — ItB  Tooe  oaaaed  in  the  daya  of 
.  Julian,  called  tlie  Apoatate. 

QBEBLKT,  EosAOi,  American  jooroalkt,  wu 
bom  at  Aiohent,  New  Hampahin,  febnaty  3, 
ISII.  ffia  htiio- waa  a  fanner  of  amaD  meana ;  and 
Horace,  aftn-  acquiring  the  radimrata  of  ednoation 
BChocI,  entered  a  printing-cffioe  as 
,  1{£6,  at  Pntner,  Vermont.  On  the 
cf  hi*  ^iprentic^hiji,  he  worked  for 
ta  a  Jonmeyman  pnntw,  and  in  ISU 
tha  JITm*  Toihet,  a  litaraiy  woakly 
aidt  ha  wrote  aaaya,  poett;,  and  other 
two  otW  eaB»>  at  adJtor- 
the  Ssai  Tot*  ^VifttMC,  ol 
«  been  ti>*  loadinri  editor. 

._ adopted,  to  acme  oxtent,  tha  Bodal 

thecnei  of  Foari«,he  waa  joined  by  tite  meat  able 
writMB  <A  that  aohool  of  Sodalimt,  and  the  pHier 
ta  pablii^ad  aa  a  joint-stock  ooamto,  being  bald 
in  aliBna  It  ita  writen  and  otb«ia  tnaagad  in 
its  pahlicatuB.  The  Tr%vm  baa  alao  been  an 
eameat  advocate  kH  tcmpeianoe,  wMnan'a  righta,  the 
abofitton  of  ilaTei^  and  eapital  ponuJuaait,  ~ 
other  lefoma,  aodwieoMiiiBedaauis  organ  of 
tttoeme  or  radical  RepnUican  party.  In  IMS,  Ur 
Q.  wsa  aketed  to  uunttiwa  from  one  of  tbe  diatiioti 
of  New  Yoik,  foE  l£e  abort  tcm,  bat  failed  in 
hia  conyaaaional  earev  by  agitating  an  imwekone 
tefonn  m  the  mileage  paytiwnta  to  munbtor  '- 
1851  ba  viAad  Europe,  ud  waa  »liairm»n  ( 
of  tb«  oommittaa  olUie  Great  «'H>>i>J*i^ 
aqnraticni  to  pcditkal  pcaMca  were  drfaated  by 
tite  mora  oanaemliTe  party  leadtn,  and  he,  in 
turn,  ia  anppeaed  to  baTe  aemired  tike  deotit 
Ur  Lincoln,  inatead  of  Mr  SeWBld,  in  1860. 

the  awTwion  of  aerenl  of  the  aonlihem  atatea 

the  Unim^  lb  G.  at  firat  adToooted  their  n«iit 
to  Mcadc^  m  •oocadanoe  with  the  prinrii^  of  the 
Declaratioii  «f  IndopetidaMe ;   boi  wfam  the  war 

an 

J«]y 81,  iSi. ' toia^lie' 

^idflt^  for  tiia  naeaidantahiiL  and  died  the  aame  year, 

GBEEIT  CIiOTH,  Boakd  o>;  a  board  oMmectad 
with  tha  n]nl  hoDaehcld,  conaiating  of  the  lord 
■tewaid  and  idIbIoe  officoa,  whieh  baa  power  to 
correet  offoiden  within  the  Teise  of  the  palace, 
lad  two  hnndied  yarda  h«yaDd  tlie  satn.  A 
warrant  mnat  be  obtained  iton  tbia  boaid  to  enable 
a  aarrant  of  tiie  palace  to  be  aireated  ies  debt 

GBBBB'  OOLOUBS.  Althongji  every  ahade  of 
p-een  ian  be  pn>dae«d  both  in  oil  and  water  colonn, 
■nd  alio  ht  dyeiog,  mort  of  them  aro  made  by 
laudng  the  varioni  yellow  and  bins        ■    -  •     - 


he  beoame  one  ol  ita  uoat  atalou  •dvoMtee^ 

1   ._   t___    ^  y^  pMtnatare 

t  A  Boll'a  Ban, 


diSisrent  proporfdana.    The  following  are  the  green 


_  Scbeele'a  green,  ia  an  araenllle 

of  copper,  made  by  dinolving  anenioui  add  in  a 
aohttum  of  potash,  and  adding  it  to  a  aotntion  of 
-"■•^te  (A  copper.    A  pracipicste  is  fonned,  which 


aiLMnte 


of  copper,  bnt  tha  kind  oonunooly  sold    . 

of  carbonate  of  copper  and  ebalk,  of  fripe-day.    One 

shade  of  Jhia  mixtnre  «  emne^ea  called  Bmrnei 

Oiavme  orsai  is  a  miitute  of  ntunan  bhie  and 
obroma  yellow. 

ten  ia  aomatiniea  a  natnral  prednet,  iMt 

leraUf  roannfactnrad ;  H  is  Ae  oiide  or 
ite  M  copper,  and  is  auiuetiuMa  called 

Smirald  prem  ia  an  araenite  of  oopptx,  prepnnd 
by  a  ahgjrtly  diAsrent  ^ooesi  U>-8<Atde»  grea^ 
PH»e  cc  FHtiland  grtm  la  made  witti  aolphata  of 


Ce^tperf^ 


Sap  ynm — the  juice  of  bnckiUiMn-bemea  fer- 
mented for  seven  or  ci^t  days,  after  whioh  a  littie 
alum  is  added;  and  when  evaporated  to  a  thick 
coDBisteno}T,  it  is  pitaaed  into  bladden,  and  hong  ap' 
nntjl  entirely  dry.  It  ia  chiefly  employed  in  water- 
colonra. 

SAtoeb^fitrA  ^mniaanollierformof  thsanenite 
of  oopmr  produced  by  dissolving  aeparatatr  '''3^ 
part*  a  acetate  tg  oormer  and  aiaenioas  add.  The 
soIotiaDa  are  tiieo  added  together  quite  hot,  and 
the  piediritate  fonned  ia  the  beantiful  bat  highly 
dangerotu  ^gmenb  Its  fntt  be«i^  baa  led  to 
Um  beqiient  cm^OTment  in  oolonring  waU-pnen, 
artifici^  flow«a,  aud  «ren  In  mom  mmb,  ft  ta 
to  be  feared,  m  cidomring  ngar-coufeetiona. 

All  of  theae  oolonn,  wiOi  the  exception  of  vp 
green,  are  dangeroDsly  poisonoiu. 

Qreen,  in  i^eing,  is  always  nndentood  to  be  a 
mixtnre  of  the  two  oolonn  bhte  and  yellow.  The 
materials  aie  generally  mixed  flrat  with  bloe,  and 
aftenrarda  with  yellow,  proporlicminB  Um  Intendty 
of  eaoh  to  the  dkade  of  ouonr  teqnired. 

He  Ohinenlutve  a  vegetable  graen  ooloor  called 
hA-lmo,  at  fffsa  indigo,  mit  it  is  azoeedin^^  ooatlf , 
and  ii  only  obtainable  in  va^  vnall  quantatiea. 

GREEN  EARTH,  a  mineral  of  a  green  coloor 
and  earthy  character,  often  fonnd  filling  the  cavfties 
of  amygdaloid,  or  iocnuttns  agates  m.  that  rock, 
BometmieB  also  nuffiive  or  £si^mnated,  chiefly  b 
trap  rocka.  It  couists  prindpaDy  of  silica,  alumina, 
and  pictojode  of  iron,  the  siScn  constitnting  about 
one  baUi  It  is  uaed  aa  a  oigment  by  pointera  In 
water-colonrs,  who  know  it  hy  the  name  of  Moun- 
tain Oreat.  For  their  use,  it  is  moetty  brought  from 
Uonte  Boldo,  near  Verona,  nod  fnmi  Cy^ns.  In 
New  Jereey,  green  earth  is  uaed  as  a  nuunre,  and  is 
said  to  be  very  benedciaL 

GBEBN  XBONT,  a  dyawood  hnported  in 
eonsidcrable  ^oantitiea  into  Britain,  from  South 
ATMpijvL  It  M  the  wood  of  the  Jaearanda  oooJi- 
^Uml  a  trte  of  tb«  natural  ocder  Signomacae.  It 
yidda  oliv*-greeo,  brown,  and  yellow  oolcurs.  It  is 
BeDSndljr  imported  in  pecea  about  three  feet  io 
bngtb ;  it  is  a  hard  wood  of  an  olive-gieen  Dolour, 
and  b  aotoetimea  used  for  puiposea  of  carp^try 
and  bf  tnmen.     The  tree  ha*  showy,  paoided 

OBEETTB,  Natrahail,  an  American  revolatioo. 


leading  preacher  among  the  Quakers,  and  edoeated 


hyClOOgl' 


OfttXNB-OBEEK-tiOUse. 


hii  toD  Teiy  tuuplf,  traiaing  him  fram  diLldbood  to 
work  on  tiis  farm,  and  at  his  anchor-forge  and  gmt- 
milL  By  his  own  persavemoc^  hoveTarJu  aoqnired 
considerable  knowledge  of  ancient  and  Knglian  hu- 
tory,  geomatiT,law,i^mot^  and  politick  icieuoe; 
he  waa  alao  toad  of  reading  bodu  npcm  war.  In 
ITTD,  he  wai  choaen  a  meml»r  of  the  Bhode  laland 
Aaimnbly,  and,  to  the  great  acandal  of  his  fellow 
Qnaken,  waa  among  the  fint  to  ensage  in  the  miU- 
tai;  exerciaea  preparatory  to  reaUbng  tiie  motlier- 
oonntoy.  In  177^  lie  enlieted  as  private,  and  in 
1776  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Bhode 
Iibuid  oontmsent  to  the  army  at  Beaton,  with  the 
rank  of  Mgadier-eenersL  He  waa  promoted  to  be 
m^or-genenl  in  1776,  and  dirtingniahed  himialf  at 
tile  engagementl  of  Trenton  and  Princeton.  At  the 
battle  oiBnuidywiiie,  he  commanded  a  diviiion,  aod 
by  hi*  akilf  ul  movements  saved  the  American  army 
Iran  litter  dealmctioa ;  and  at  Qermantown  he 
•onnuaded  the  left  wing.  In  1778,  he  accepted  the 
offioa  t{  qoarter-niMter-geiieraL  In  1780,  he  auc- 
oeeded  Oatea  [q.  v.)  in  the  oonuund  of  the  army  of 
theSoath.  Gates  had  just  been  completely  defeated 
by  Cornwallis,  and  O.  found  the  army  in  a  wretched 
state,  without  discipline,  clothing,  aims,  or  spirit. 
By  dint  of  great  activity,  he  got  his  army  into  better 
oraidition,  and  remained  on  the  defensive  for  the 
remainder  of  the  year.  In  1781,  he  had  a  ancoesiful 
■kimiiah  with  ui  English  detachment  but  drawinz 
upon  himself  tbe  w&le  army  of  Comwallia,  much 
his  siqierior  in  nnmben,  tie  made  a  masterly  and 
•noeeaafal  retresL  Wiui  5000  new  recmita,  he 
entered  npon  mon  active  operatioD^  and  finally 
defeated  tM  ^'^e^■^^'  at  Eataw  Springs,  the  hardest 
fought  fleld  of  the  tevdutioii,  wbicb  pot  an  end  to 
the  war  in  Sonth;  Carolina.  Coogress  struck,  and 
presented  to  him,  a  medal  in  hoDoni:  of  this  battle, 
and  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia  made  him  valoabJe 

rite  of  land.  When  peace  waa  restored  in  1783, 
returned  to  Bhode  Island,  where  he  reoeiveid 
nnmerous  testimonials  of  the  pnblio  admiration.  In 
1780,  he  retired  with  bis  funily  to  his  estate  in 
Geoi^^  where  he  died  of  snn-strdce  in  1786- 

O.  waa  ooa  of  the  very  best  generals  of  tlie  war 
ot  indq)endeiiae>  second,  perhaps,  only  to  Washing- 
ton, wboae  intimate  ftieod  he  was. 

QBBBNB,  BoBXKl,  an  English  poet  and  drama- 
tiat,  was  ham  at  Norwich  about  1660,  or,  aa  atated 
t^  seine  of  hia  bioonhers,  in  1660.  He  was 
[daced  at  St  John's  Collie,  Cambridge,  and  took 
out  bis  degree  of  A.B.  there  in  I67S.  He  after- 
wards trarelled  in  Spain  and  Italy.  On  his  return, 
he  re-entered  the  muvereity,  and  took  hia  degree  of 
A.M.  at  Clare  TT»11  in  1683.  He  also  appeare  to 
have  studied  at  Oxford  in  1638.  On  leavmg  Cnni- 
bridge,  he  proceeded  to  London,  where  he  enpportcd 
himMdf  by  writing  plays  and  romances.  Eo  poured 
out  plays,  ^oona,  and  novele,  ruffled  about  in  silks, 


resort  with  such  wild  and  profi 
as  Marlowe  and  Feelo.  He  died  of  the 
I  of  a  debsucli,  3d  Septombor  1692,  and 
was  bnned  next  day  in  the  New  Churchyatd,  near 
Bedlam.  After  his  death  appeared  the  mngnlar 
pamphlet  entitled  The  Btpenianet  ofSobert  Oreene, 
if  alter  of  Arti,  in  which  be  lays  bare  the  wicked- 
neaa  of  his  former  life.  It  is  perhaps  the  meat 
valuable  of  his  [voae  writinga.  Q.'s  poems  poeaees 
conndersbls  grace  and  tenderness,  but  his  plays  have 
almost  perished  from  hnman  memory.  Hie  Oroafa 
Worth  qf  WU  hought  m&  a  MWium  of  Repentanct 
wmtains  one  of  the  few  snthentio  contemporary 
allnaiona  to  Shakspeare ;  and  when  his  writings  are 
forgotten,  he  will  be  remembered  for  it,  and  lot  being 
one  of  tiie  knot  of  youns  men  who  came  up  to 


1  fierce  labour 


and  who  burned  themselvei 
and  fiercer  disaipation. 

QREBNFIBOH  {CoeeoOraiulta  eUorw),  a  tnrd 
of  the  family  FringiSida,  common  in  SMrt  pwta 
of  BritaiD,  frequenting  gardens,  orchards,  Bomb* 
'  B,  snuJl  plutations,  tall  hedges,  and  onltmted 
L  It  is  found  even  in  E^andinafi^  but  !■ 
mora  oommon  in  the  sonUi  of  Europe ;  its  nngn 
eztcmda  thnn^oat  Asia  to  the  Acifio  Orsti, 
and  westward  as  far  as  MadeiFs.  It  ia  atmuiliiiiiw 
called  Oreat  Orotbtak  and  Creen  Uotuf  (Soot.  Oram. 
lAntie].  The  bill  U  m«oh  thicker  than  that  of 
the  true  linnets,  to  wfakii,  bcmro,  it  is  asarly 
allied.  A  previiling  gtMn  tint,  MinflHng  with  p«9' 
and  brown,  charatrtensM  tiie  phmuge,  and  pro* 
the  bird  its  name.  The  whdeleogtiiiBiittla  mora 
than  Bz  inches.  The  tail  is  a  litUe  fcnked.  Tfa* 
proper  song  of  the  G.  ia  not  very  sweet,  bnt  ni 
oonfinement  it  readily  imitatee  iiie  atrng  of  (tilcr 
birda,  and  in  conseqaenca  of  this  and  of  ita  'vssy 
easy  domesticalion,  it  is  nther  a  favooiite  cag*- 


Frenoh,  generally  esteemed  as  one  of  the  fiseat 
varietiee  m  cultivation,  if  not  certainly  superior 
to  all  otlieis.  It  is  not  of  the  largest  mze,  bat  in 
delicacy  and  richness  of  flavour  it  is  nnsnipaased. 

QRBBNHKART,  or  BEBEEKU  {Nteboidm 
Rodiail,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Xouroaa^  * 
native  of  Guiana,  of  great  value  as  a  timbci-tiec, 
and  also  yielding  a  viduable  medicinal  bark.  The 
timber  ia  commonly  called  GneaHaiTt;  the  bark 
is  better  known  as  Btiieerv  (otherwise  BeAttnt, 
Bibim,  Bibiri,  ftc,  and  Sipiri  or  Sipara),  and  tbo 
alkaloid  to  which  it  chiefiy  owea  its  pn^wrtiea  ia 
called  Bebterine  (q.  v.).  The  tree  grows  chie^  in 
British  Guiana,  utd  in  the  greatest  perfecti<»i  do 
the  low  Hllii  immediately  behind  tbe  allnvial  lands ; 
it  risM  with  an  erect,  slighUy  tapering  tmnk  to  a 
height  of  40  or  SO  feot  without  a  branch,  atteining 
a  height  of  80  or  00  feet  in  all,  and  a  diameter 
of  3  or  even  4  feet  The  wood  ia  aitrcmelT  stronf 
and  bard,  and  is  imported  into  Britain,  to  De  used 
chiefly  by  turners  for  the  same  purposes  as  hgnnm 
vitie,  wmch  it  much  resembles.  It  takes  a  nigh 
polidu  It  is  BO  heavy  as  to  sink  in  water.  It  is 
remarkable  for  ila  durabihty,  and  for  bedng  almost 
exempt  frmn  the  attacks  of  uie  white  ants  on  land, 
and  ^  the  teredo  in  water.  It  is  used  In  Qniana 
for  ship-building,  and  for  all  the  most  important 
purposes  for  which  timber  is  required. — The  bark 
IS  hard,  heavy,  and  brittle,  with  a  fracture  resem- 
bling that  of  sandstone,  has  a  white  epidermia, 
and  is  of  a  brij^t  cinnamon  colour  within.  It  haa 
a  very  bitter,  somewhat  astringent  taste.  Its  tonio 
Bud  tebtifagal  properties  resemble  those  ol  dncfaons 
bark.  Instead  of  the  bark  itself,  the  anlphoto  of 
bebeerine  is  generally  nsed  in  medidno. 

Sontli  America  prodncea  a  number  of  spetses  of 
XrOandra.  y.  Pvdotry  yields  the  seeds  called 
Pii(Aurim  Baxtu,  which  are  astnngent,  are  regarded 
as  febrifugal,  and  are  prescribod  in  dyaentory, 
diarrh<ca,  %c.,  and  tbe  ml  of  which  is  lued  as  a. 
substitute  for  chocolate. 

GREEN-HOUSE,  a  building  appropriated  to  Uie 
cultivation  ol  such  exotic  plants  as  do  not  require 
much  artificial  beat,  but  cannot  endure  the  open 
ur,  at  least  in  the  colder  port  of  tiie  year.  The 
name  ia  derived  from  tho  original  use  of  such 
buildings  for  the  preservation  ci  oranges,  myrtlea, 
and  other  evergreens ;  the  cultivation  of  hoaths, 
pelatcooinms,  fuchsias,  and  the  many  other  flowers 


ClizodtyC-iOOgle 


OKEENIiAin>— OBBEN  KIVEEt. 


uy  rectnd  wu  erected  mbont  1619,  b^  Solomon  De 
Caiaa  at  Heidelberg,  to  ihelter  onnge-trees.  The 
GbineMe,  however,  m  not  imaoqiuiiited  with 
l^imii  liiiiiiim.  and  it  ia  not  known  now  long  thia 
naa  been  tiie  case.  Hie  euiier  graen-hooaea  were 
^cuaad  culy  on  the  eidee ;  glaaa  roofs  wtae  intro- 
auo«d  in  the  htginning  ol  Hna  18th  c,  and  the 
arched  or  enrrilinear  jUn  roof,  etill  men  fkronr- 
able  to  the  ivoper  ailnriawtw  of  4to  ■nn'i  ttqn,  i* 
«ii  imimnmeat  wliidi  dates  fi«oi  the  eariy  Mot 
of  the  ISOk  Heat  waa  at  fiist  n^^ilied,  when 
III  iiiaiiisij,  by  hot  embem  pat  in  a  hole  m  the  floor, 
afterwanla  by  fmnaoei  in  the  gieen-houae ;  fluee, 
steam,  end  hot-water  pipea,  &o.,  aie  ouKe  recent 
invontiiHia.  See  HtymocBXi  Aa  a  graen-Iunise  doea 
not  veqnini  artificial  heat  during  aummer,  tiie  roof 
ia  Bometimea  mads  capable  of  being  then  removed  { 
"  of  the  plantA  are  oairled  out 

'  ■    "    freely  admitted  ' 


-i.-i -     -  .      -    particnlsr 

genera  of  plants,  nnder  such  nalnea  aa  Sea&ery, 
Uatng^a-iotue,  ic  According  to  the  present  nse 
of  the  tenn,  a  green-hooae  diflera  from  a,  amxrvatory 
only  in  the  pants  being  in  pots,  which  are  Tety 
gauRtUy  placed  on  the  ibelTea  of  dago,  ha'dng  a 
dope  not  very  different  from  that  of  the  root 

GREB'ITULND,  a  legion  of  nnlmown  extent 
BorOnnrda,  AetdMa  titM  its  aonthem  extremity, 
C^ie  Tarawdl  (q.  v.),  along  the  Atlaotio  and  Arctic 
Ooeana  <n  the  Mat,  and  I^iii'  Strait,  Baffin's  Bay, 
and  Smith's  Sound  oa  the  weak  For  «U  obi 
lacent  knowledge  of  tlie  weatttn  ooaat  we  are 
inddited  chiaflf  to  the  lata  Dr  Eaue  of  the  United 


oolder  than  that  of  corresponding  latitndea 
farther  seat — so  nneh  ao,  that  in  Laplsnd,  lal 
TZ*  N.,  the  temporatore  ia  aa  hish  as  m  G.,  laL 
00*  N.  I^om  lAeerrationa  mada  by  Dr  Kane 
between  Septmnber  18S3  and  Apiil  1665,  in  lat 
78°   37'   N.,  long.  70°  W  W.,  Qie  aTerago  tem. 

..         f    .    ..  j^   -3'22-i    from 

'43* ;  from  May  to 
September  iacliuivc,  +  25-07*.  The  eTcateat  degree 
of  cold  woa  —  60°  in  February,  an4  the  groatcat 
heat  woa  -f  53'9°  in  July,  the  only  month  in  which 
the  average  temperature  wsa  above  the  freezing- 
point.  During  the  ahmt  ammnor,  which  in  few 
ilacea  exooeda  four  months  (during  two  at  whkdi, 
'one  and  Jn^,  the  son  ia  alwaya  above  the 
lorison),  vegetalaon  is  very  rapid,  the  pUnla  being 
or  the  most  part  the  same  as  thoM  indigenous  to 
he  north  of  Scotland,  but  of  a  more  dwarGsh 
character,  the  tallest  trees  not  exceeding  18  feeb 
The  indmneDcy  of  thew  regions  does  not  affect  tiie 
animal  kingdom  (man  excepted).  The  walms,  seal, 
""'"  *—-  arctic  fox,  dog,  and  reindeer  abound, 
the  inhabitants  with  almoat   all   the 

of  life.     Black  catUe  and  afaeep  hav* 

intoodnoed  by  the  nuMionaries.  Tha  aea 
.  .  ._M  with  diffgrent  qiedM  of  cataoa^  auah  at  the 
rarqaal,  myatioetua,  narwhal,  potpoiBe,  Aa,  and  ol 
fiah,  as  the  ood,  la^uon,  and  kenin^    SM-fowl 


shore,  properly  ao  called, 
temuoatea  at  Cape  Alexander,  near  lat.  'JtC  lOf  N. 
Abont  one  degree  more  to  the  ninth,  and  about  six 
decoeca  k>  the  eaat,  an  immaoie  glacier,  described 
the  world,  bured  all   further 


of  doafltttone  ofDt 
Cape  Inde^ndanea  in  kt.  61°  22'  N.  O.,  there- 
fore, m^r  iaidy  be  pmanmed,  but  has  not  been 
pomttveW  ascertained,  to  be  entirely  distinct  from 
the  land  on  the  weet  aide  d  SmilA'a  Sound.  O. 
ia  aaid  to  have  been  first  discovered  abovt  the  okse 
of  the  9th  c  by  an  Icelander  naated  GnnlnBm,  who 
named  it  Hvidaaerk  (White  Skirt),  from  ita  snowy 
*"'»^'w"'<"  It  firat  obtained  the  name  O.  fnan 
another  Icelander,  Erio  EauOi  (the  Bed),  who  led 
hither  an  expedition  in  OSS  or  9S6,  and  founded  two 
ietUementa  on  the  west  ooaat,  called  the  Oeitie  and 
Weatce  Bygd  (the  east  and  west  colotuea).  About 
bur  ceoturiea  afterwards,  the  Weatre  Bygd  waa 
destroyed  W  the  pestilence  called  Uie  'black 
death,  combmed  with  the  attacks  of  the  aborinnee : 
and  a  century  after  this,  the  Oeetra  Bygd  snared 
the  asme  fate.  6.  was  visited,  and  it*  weet  ooast 
explored,  soececaively  by  SVobisher,  Davis,  and 
B^n,  the  latt«  having  advanced  aa  tar  as  lat. 
78^  N.  (the  limit  of  the  inhabited  country).  In  our 
own  times  Dr  Kane  has  extended  bu  explora- 
tkins  aa  br  as  lat  82*  3V,  or  within  fi20  miles  of 
the  north  nde.  The  eastern  and  southerit  ooaata 
smear  to  be  so  beset  with  ioe  aa  to  be  practi- 
cally inaccessible.  Ihe  former  was  explored  by 
Dr  ScoreAy  aa  fsi  as  lab  74°  Stf  If.,  and  two 
inlets,  Scoreat^s  Ekrand  and  Davy's  Sound,  ware 
diacovmed  numing  &r  into  the  interior.  This 
cotst-land  is  callea  I^  the  inhabitanta  of  the  other 

diitiieta    Lo«t   Greenland.      Owing  '~   **■- *■ 

ntaot  of  land  towards  the  pole,  1 


. __, dwing  the  smnuMT  aeaaoD,  while 

suiUanott,  nadpipers,  j&tna,  and  (pnoae  are  alao 
lonud.  nie  onify  mineral  wfaidi  haa  been  foond  in 
sufficient  quantity  for  exportation  it  Oiyolite  (q.  v.), 
whidi  ia  fonnd  at  Aiktnt,  and  it  laig«^  elicited. 
Near  the  tame  boality  an  found  veint  of  tin 

=-*~*  with  met  at  kad,  ooopar,  lina,  inn, 

'ita,  nootr-t^par,  aroon, 
_  J  is  aaid  to  be  abnndant 
it^  Bodalita,  tonrmallutk 
along  with  pnet^  iolit«^  rock-iryBtal,  fto.,aie  ttften 
found.  O.  IS  anprjied  with  ooal  tram  Omaosk,  ime 
of  the  eokmiea  <j  Ncrth  Qraadand. 

There  are  now  13  diSareDt  Danish  oolonies  along 
.  le  west  coast  of  Oreealaod — 7  in  North  G.  (north  <^ 
lab  67°  N.),  and  6  in  Smith  O.,  with  a  populatian  o{ 
abont  10,000,  inckinve  of  from  200  to  300  Danes. 
The  first  aettlement  waa  made  in   1721   by  Hans 

ri  (q.  v.),  a  Norwegian  clergyman  at  Qodthaab, 
with  43  o^nitt^plaated  a  miaaionary  station 
in  this  bleak  region.  Tbia  miation  is  anpp^ted  by 
the  Danish  sovemmenb  It  now  poaseaaea  8  tnia- 
aicaiary  atatioM^  and  the  Hotaviana  S;  from 
Jnlianahaab  the  moat  aonthem,  to  Upemavik,  at 
the  very  verge  of  hnman  existenoe.  In  Hay  1S74, 
the  first  native  pastor  waa  ordained.  The  population 
depends  chiefiy  on  the  fisheries — the  same  which 
have  BO  long  attracted  so  many  vessels  from  Great 
fititain.  Tb  exports  are  whale  and  seal  oil,  and 
cryolite  j  the  akina  of  the  teal,  reindeer,  and  fox ; 
and  aider-down.  The  imports  are  whea^  brandy, 
Boffec^  sugar,  tobaooo,  and  firewood.  In  1869,  0U7 
tana  of  oryolite^vslaed  at  dC21,660,  were  exported 
from  O.  to  Philadelphia.  The  trade  to  G. 
has  alwaya  been  a  monopoly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Danish  govemmenb  Saoh  settlement  ia  managed 
by  a  trader  and  bia  asaistant,  who  are  paid  l)y 
govenunenb  The  whale- fiaheriea,  which  are  cairieo 
on  by  the  aettleie,  are  also  tor  the  behoof  of  tka 
Daniah  crown. 

GREEN  MOUNTAINS,  a  portion  of  the 
Appalachian  range.    See  AppALicauKB. 

GREEN  BITBB,  a  river  of  North  America,  and 
tributary  of  the  Ohio,  rises  near  the  cenbe  of  the 
atate  of  Kentucky,  and  flows  through 
a  weotward  direction  for  about  K"      ' 
the  Mammoth  cave,  then  north-w 


tyGUUl^l 


d  tit  ooniML    It  jdna  Uw  Ohio  »  nilM 

above  ErmnviUa,  in  Indiaiw,  and  >t  iti  month  ia 
dkont  aOO  EMt  in  brawlUi.  It  it  npwHdi  d  300 
mil—  in  lenglji,  uul  u  nBTigkble  fiv  null  ttanaen 
for  200  mite.  Ths  knr«r  coono  of  tlie  O.  fi. 
Bbouu^  in  coiL 
GREEIT  TITBIOIj,  a  popoUr  name  for  Bulphato 


It 

reeultins  from  a  chemical  change  in  iron  pt/ritet 
or  tolpbnrat  of  iron,  but  its  quantity  is  generally 
■maU.     It  crystallisaa  in   acute  ohuquo  rhomhio 

GBXSBOOK,  »  pvlianntaij  hargk,  nukat- 
town,  and  important:  wwort  of  SootUud,  in  the 
ooon^  et  Eenfrew,  it  utaatad  on  tiiB  aoiitlLem 
bank  of  the  Fizth  of  Clyda,  oo  a  narmw  ttnp  of 
Aon,  and  on  the  ilopea  of  the  hiU*  vhieh  fam  ita 
bMkgroond,  S3  mile*  vHt-north-weat  of  (Nawnr. 
It  axtmcb  vpvaicU  of  two  milea  along  the  laon^ 
and  at  ana  putee  it  olimlM  to  a  oonaidmble  el«f»' 
ti(»  vp  tha  fMO  <rf  fh«  una,  irluoh  bei«  itmHj 
attain  an  elevation  of  800  feet ;  whOe  towaid  tha 
w««^  and  all  over  the  frrat  «i  Om  IoOm,  saw  and 
ebgaat  villai  are  oiwIiniiaUj  Ixang  enotad.  ?ran 
tbe  liaing:  graucb  behind  the  ton,  and  from  th* 
weatecn  abora,  the  view  of  tike  oj^wdto  ooatta  of 
Aigyla  md  DnmbartonddMa,  fringed  willt  white 
jdaamiiig  villaMa,  and  of  Hu  Pirtii  ■t*<*<jJHi^  away 
mto  nanow  lodu,  and  dotted  orw,  aapeoully  in 
"  "        "    ia  nxacodingly 

loet  impmtant 

lerf  Wattby 

OhaDtray,  a mnasnm,  a  led^ -~'  "  '"" 

tha  HediMUO^  Imtitnt^    „_.      

Ck  haiva  been  oowtnietaa  npon  a  law 

Albert  in  1806;  and  frMO  it  azteida   

the  fine  FrfauMa  Fiar,  openad  in  187a  Ita  qnaja 
can  be  approaohed  I^  neaman,  and  ita  harboua 
entered  by  veaieli  at  any  state  of  tbe  tide,  llie 
oommene  of  the  torn  ia  cUef^  with  North 
Amerioa,  and  tbe  West  and  Ea«t  Indiet.  I%e 
trade  ta  mainly  in  aagar-rafiniug  for  wbioh  it  haa  10 
eataUiahment^  tnnma 
valne  at  npwarda  of  jM,I 
boilding^  abeat  twan^  iroM  veaaeb  are  toreed  off 
tbe  atoofca  annually,  Hmhb  bib,  beeidea,  ntannfae- 
tnrea  (rf  ttMm-engwea^  duin-cable%  anMota;  and 
lopa  and  aall  muin|^  O.  haa  afanoat  oonatant 
fnteioourae  widi  Qlaa^w  by  liver  or  railway,  and 
m  the  general  etarfoB-JMiiit  for  toariata  «*  roidt 
for  the  Weaten  HiAlanda  and  ialea.  It  aenda 
one  member  to  paniament.  Tbe  nnmbta'  and 
tonnage  of  vnaeU  whioh  entered  and  deared  at 
the  port  of  Greenock  tor  tbe  fdlowiiw  two  jean 
are  retnnnd  aa  foQowa :  Ja  ISTl,  3246  TsaaelB,  of 
788,231  tona,  entered  and  eleared  t^e  port ;  in  1872, 
JBM8  vceeala,  of  810,070  tone.  The  Bogar  imported 
in  1630  waa  18,357  tona;  in  18«^  2^878  tone;  in 
1800,40^818  bona;  in  1860,  74,289  tona;  in  1871,  it 
«■■  313/>90  tona;  in  1871^  S10640  tons;  and  in 
1873,  198,160  tona.  The  Globe  Socai^Itefiniitc 
Company  tona  out  720  tona  a  week,  n  a  valne  m 
eiZfiOO.    Pop.  (1871)  B7,S2L 

OriginaDy  conaiBtiiw  of  only  a  few  tintcbed 
honaee,  G,  waa  oreatea  a  bmvfa  of  barooy  ia  1635 
(having  then  a  popolatioii  ot  leas  th&ti  2000],  and 
ft  parliamantaiy  biDgfa  after  the  paaaine  ol  the 
Baorm  Act  in  1832i  The  Tooaperi^  of  the  town 
datce  from  the  Union  in  17u7,  when  free  commerce 
to  Amerioa  and  the  Weat  Indua  waa  opoied  up. 

OBEiraS,  the  Qotnmon  nama  of  all  thoae  varietiw 
of  kale  or  eabbaoe  {Bmfiiea  olaraota)  which  do  not 
bdl,  and  of  whien  uie  leavoi  are  uaed  for  the  table 


aa  boiled  vegetablea ;  aoma  of  whieh  an  alao  Mllad 
o(dewoit.  Ae.,  wbilit  otben,  pttrtimilady  thoae  with 
onriad  laavae,  aa  Oerman  peena,  have  no  otiwr 
naBB  than  greena  or  kalai  Young  oaboUed  oaJ^ 
bagaa,  and  ahoota  bota  tbe  atocka  of  cabbagi^  acs 
often  alee  oalled  ereena,  aa  well  aa  tamip-t^i^  and 
oUwr  lenvea  of  pjanta  uaad  in  the  aame 
The  laavaa  tJ  GuiuK  Gusm  are  i 
waved  or  oaiied.  I  ' 
op«»  greena.  It  ia  d 
<mt  Boon  aftarj  oi  it 
out  in  apring. 

GBBBV8AKD, tiie TU   _  .._ 

of  the  Cretaceoiu  Meaaurea  (q.  v.).  The^  are  ■» 
called  from  the  occnrreoce  in  aomeof  timr  bedaoC 
small  green  ipecka  of  aiUeato  of  iron, 
■0  abondant  aa  to  give  a  giean  eokmr 

„    ^»e  term  ia,  howevw,  far  trtm  boar 

dweripUra  of  the  variooa  inolnded  abatft; 
be  ooniddiKed  dmiAy  aa  a  name.    Ineome 

eapaeially  on  the  continent,  the  green  partidee 

entinly  abaent  frau  tbe  atnta.  On  tlua  aoooont  it 
haabecoi  propoaadQiat  the  Lower  GnmaandalKnild 
be  o^ed  Keooomian,  beoanae  atiata  of  tUa  period 
are  wdl-devd^ed  at  Keofohatel  (Neooomnm).  in 


Opper  Greenaai 
the  Iiowm',  that  it  it  acaMc^y  poadUa  to  aepanto 
than  when  the  into-    "  '        ^  '    -■^-  -' 
by  iiiair  organio  re 
BO  mocih  Mil  indeed, 

tha  ooe  aeriea  in  Ul 

tite  other  In  the  Upps.    It  dionld  ali 

that  Ilia  NiatiTe  in^crtaDce  of  Aa  t  

ia  wy  difterenti  the  Iiowsr  Gieanaand  inohidea  » 
aeriea  of  atrata  uat  are  of  a  vahie  naariy  aqaal  to 
tlie  wtiole  ITppar  Oretaoeona  gnv^  of  wbioh  tha 
ncMr  Qraauaand  ia  bnt  a  anbordinato  UMnbar. 
Tftie  Uppir  Gtrmuand  OMialata  ot  badi  of  aaud. 


Ute  cOa  <rf  tlie  Ida  «f  Wlj^  ara 
100  feet  in  ♦hinlfmn  Thia  fwmalioD  ia  annMMed 
to  have  been  a  littoral  dspodt  on  the  Aotee  at 
the  Orataoeoua  aeaa.  Wbib  tiie  chalk  waa  banc 
depoaited  out  at  aea,  Uteae  aanda  wt««  Imuk  laia 
dcnm  alcmg  the  dore,  oontemporaneona  wiA  tlw 
ididk,  althm^  they  appear  infwia  to  ik  Huu 
poaitiim  would  neceiaan^  reanlt  from  the  oeto- 
oeou  Baa  widenuig  ita  area,  and  aa  the  diore  asb- 
msned,  tiie  greouand  would  be  eoverad  with  tbe 
ab^k,  and  wunld  amear  aa  as  Mtr  and  nndcr- 
lyiiW  depoait  lie  beda  oi  thia  period  are  rich 
in  lonik,  abounding  eapadaUy  in  the  remaina  ot 
Bpongea,  moUiuca,  and  eehinodeimata, 

The  Lmotsr  Ornnttatd  CMiaiatB  of  a  large  aerie*  of 
more  or  lew  indurated  BaadetODea  uid  ^va,  widi 
oocaai<»al  oalMU«oua  bed*.  Tb.m  attain  a  IliinliiiM 
of  600  feet  13w  aanda  [ffepos^nte  in  tte 
and  Hm  cliqw  in  the  lovrar  portion  of  the  ' 
Some  beda  trf  clay  <rf  oonaidanible  <'  ~ 
timee  aa  mnoh  aa  60  feet,  an  need  l 
The  oalcareoiiB  atone  ia  a  hi^dy  foa 
ot  limoEtone,  losally  oalkd  KentiBh  iw  n 
for  building  in  Kent  and  SoBaez.  Tha  fotmation 
WBB  formerfy  known  aa  the  iron  Band,  beoanae  of  the 
Bands  being  cemented  together  by  an  abmidanoe  ot 
oxide  of  iron ;  thia  givea  them  a  nddiah  radonr. 
The  Lower  Qreenaand  oont^na  nomerooB  fconl 
molluaoa  and  oUier  marine  remaina.  It  ia  a  eeft 
deposit  retting  on  tbe  freah-wato*  Wealdot  ■bat^ 
and  shewing  that  at  thia  period  the  aea  mad* 
oonmderable  encmadmiBntB  <a  1^  dry  land. 


E,Guu>jle 


OBSBITWHHD— OBXENWIOH  HOSPITAL 


ponent  OTTStali  in  ons  tpMuoen  iNiili^  (KMuoely 
disoermble  with  m  pocket-lena,  while  m  anothsr 
tbcj  fonn  >  coana  m0[regate,  ud  Bpecimenii  exhiMt- 
ing  mil  tha  intenneduite  st^es  may  be  found, 
the  finert  tttey  are  not  bo  >m«U  and  oomp«ot  t 
'—-^\  Its  crystalline  Btmctore  Bepaiatea  green- 
eqptUj  fnan  Uie  earthy  tofls  and  the  glaMy 
toDM.  It  may  beoome  ^orphTiitia  waa  a 
portion  of  the  felnar  fonning  inw  latger  dntinot 
cryBtala.  In  irGatheling,  the  diaintegr^ing  sreoi- 
■tone  aasamea  a  dark-broim  ookmr,  and  exfuiates 
round  limitad  calt^ei^  girinA  the  rock 
aoc«  Bi  if  it  were  compoaea  of  a  nnm] 
booldeta. 
GKEE 
shmbbj 


ID  appeal^ 


■peoiea  A  OmUa.  See  Qxhisu.  and 
-DTXsa>  G.  (0.  tmetoria),  a  speciee  about 
iro  feet  hi^  wiUi  lanceolate  leavea,  and 


hi^ ,  — 

terminal  a^ked  taoemea  of  pale-TsUow  flowwt,  ll 
&eqneDi  in  woodi,  maadowi,  and  iaUy  paatnna  in 
moat  parti  <rf  EoK^  and  in  the  temperate  part*  of 

hnt  me  ii  Scotland  and  Ireland.     Ite  '- *"" 

loTM,  and  floweta — putiaularly  the  flowi 


B  brtnohea. 


formerly  in  gtft  eateem  aa  a  dya-atafT,  but  othera 
hannowalmoatMktiTdynTriMitedlt,  Theleayes 
and  Med*  mto  ako  fcnmenT  uied  in  medioina; 
tha  fonnitf  aa  a  dinretia,  tne  totter  aa  t,  mild 
pmgatin.— Haibt  O.  10.  pSoto),  a  nire  natiTe  of 
BriMB,  bnt  alnndant  in  mbm  pMti  of  Europe,  m 
eoUwaM  in  aome  plaaa%  tapeeblly  in  France, 
~  food  for  alnep,  whieh  are  to;  iotid  of  ik    It  k 


OBEETIWTCH,  a  pariismentwy  bortmgh  of 
KnglMid,  in  Uie  conn^  of  Kent,  it  aitnsted  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Thamce,  at  a  di«teii«e  of 
S  nilee  south-eaet  of  Lcmdou.  ti  stands  partly 
on  u  accliTJt?,  but  foi  the  imxt  part  on  low 
auTshj  gioira^  portions  of  which  are  raid  to 
be  below  the  level  of  the  ThomoL  Tht  oldn 
itreete  u«  in  general  oarrow  and  irr^ular,  but 
thaw  more  reoently  built  are  spaaiooa  and  hand- 
•ome;  3y  far  the  most  interesting  Institution 
in  Q.  ii  t£e  hcapitaL  See  GnzmrwiCB '  Hospital. 
Amoaa  Qie  otber  more  important  bnildiiigp  are  the 
Norioi  CoDc^e,  which  ropporli  22  poor  inmates 
*iid  a  warden,  and  of  which  the  Mercers'  Company 
m  the  tmstees;  and  tha  Boyal  Obaarratory  {see 
OmtavAjOiata],  dtiiated  in  the  midst  of  Onenwich 
Fvl,  a  fineiy-k^  extent  of  public  gronnda 
piUisg  nsBiij  !00  acres.  O.  abonndi  in  lai 
ud  ii  always  a  favourite  resort  of  Londoners,  bnt 
QMiaOj  so  in  the  'whitebait'  season— from  Ajiril 

"id  Bsveral  factories.    0.,which 

irith  London  by  railway,  ia  touched  at  by  all  the 
riwrteamers.    Pop.  (1871)  169.361. 

GREESWICH  H08PITAI.,  formerly  a  home 
In  loncnnonated  lailon,  was  a  n^al  foandation, 
ended  by  tha  rnnnifloenoe  of  William  and  Mary, 
ondettbeir  letters  patent  of  ISM.  For  many  genor^ 
ttion  a  royal  palaoe  bad  oconpied  til*  Mte,  and  had 
ilwtp  been  a  faTonrite  resort  of  the  toreretgn. 
The  Wdings  were  mfficieatly  mn^lrted  by  1706 
(>t » <Mtt  ol  ££0.000)  to  admit  100  dtaaUed  seamen. 
%  the  lit  Jnly  1708,  360  had  been  admitted: 
ml  the  income  derived  bma  bequerts,  tiw  original 
"7«1  grant,  and  from         ■—   ■■  ■       -• 




^  y?!^ 


ooertaon  by  bu1<«s,  amoDnted  to  £12,000 
half  of  vBeh  wm  enoided  i 
nftam<<n,  and  the  remaii^^  in 
building.  In  the  logn  oC  Qeoigo  U.',  tlw  *»t«'^ 
tstatCB  (rf  the  Ball  U  Denreotwntar,  nha  had 
been  attainted  of  hi^  toeMon,  wei«  gnnted  to 
the  hospital,  and  w«n  oonptted  at  £6000  a  jttt. 
Up  to  1834,  a  oompDlaOT  eontribation  of  Sd.  a 
month  was  exacted  mnn  aU  sea  row,  wluUur  tt  tha 
navy  or  mnnahant  awioe,  toward!  tha  tonda  Ot  tha 
fao^ittli  but  in  that  wr  an  annoal  j^ant  of 
£20^000  from  the  oonsdidated  fond  was  aabstitnted. 
The  inotane  from  all  aonriN*  aftetwatda  rwdied 
nearly  £160,000  a  year,  ont  of  which  Oia  follawing 
offioets  and  pntnoilers  are  maintained :  1  governor. 


mmandara,  8  lientananta,  2  mastery  2 
ohaplain^  a  oonnderable  staff  of  naval  Inedical 
□ffioera  and  nurset,  and  1600  pensionais.  The  pen- 
noDen  were  lodged,  olothei  and  fad  at  the  erpense 
of  the  ho^lal,  and  in  additicai  had  tike  following 
peconiaiT  allowance  aa  tobacoo  and  poeket-mon«y ; 
warrant-offioers,  tk  a  week ;  petty-offlcers,  4». ; 
sesnwn,  3«.  The  nurses  were  nsnallr  the  widowi 
of  (ulon  who  had  lost  their  lives  in  Uie  aervioe. 

The  question  had  been  frequently  raised  of  late 
years,  wliethar  this  superb  charity  was  not,  after 
all,  a  mistake,  and  whether  the  vast  revenoee  would 
not  be  beatowed  to  better  advant^a  in  peniionB 
to  aestoen,  who  might  still  find  empSymenl  in  aid 
of  their  sobsistetice,  and  who  wouldhave  the  happi- 
ness of  passing  tha  last  days  of  th^  lives  amoaff 
their  desoen£nts  and  relatives.  Under  the  old 
rules,  tha  hospital  wai^  so  far  aa  the  penaioneis  were 
concerned,  a  monaateiy  in  whioh  hundreds  of  men 
lived  together,  without  any  of  the  souLoostaiEung 
indnoementa  it  mouaatieiam.  Tb»  old  men  were, 
on  tha  whole,  painful  objects  to  oontemplato,  wreito 
from  ^om  no  farther  good  of  anv  deaoription  was 
to  be  expected.  Leading  Hves  usafeas  to  uemaelvea 
and  to  others,  their  best  occupation  was  to  reoonnt^ 
with  the  garrulity  of  asa  and  the  boastfulnew  at  aelf- 
absoTptJon,  the  exploisi  of  long  ago.  Many  would 
have  preferred  to  tee  them  in  hai^oountry-hmiMs, 
ke^  bj  pensions  from  absolute  want,  teadiing 
their  grandchildren  to  delight  in  the  ooimti;^ 
gloiy,  and  spreading  throu^out  the  land,  instead 
of  conoentrating  in  one  narnb,  a  knowledga  of  how 
Rogland  can  provide  in  meir  old  a^  for  those  among 
her  sons  who  serve  her  faithfully  m  their  prime. 
Tha  authorities  were  convini^d  at  last  that  this 
mi-menastic  enclosed  life  was  not  good  for  the  old 
salts,  who  much  preferred  being  with  their  ehildren 
and  bienda  in  oounbj  villages  or  at  aeaports. 
Accordingly,  in  1805,  I7  the  !%  and  89  VicL  0.  89 
the  inititntiin)  oeaeed  to  exist  as  an  asylnm  for  aged 
sailors.  The  foods  were  converted  into  ONf-pen- 
Nons,  providing  for  a  larger  nnmber  than  were 
maintained  ia  the  hoapit&l ;  the  old  men  were  rele- 
gated to  their  friends ;  and  the  truly  noble  build- 
mes,  after  lying  vacant  for  some  five  yean,  became 
a  Royal  Kaval  College  for  officers  to  acquire  naval 

Attached  to  the  hospital  is  a  school  for  the 
gratuitous  education  of  800  sons  of  seamen.  This 
establishpient  is  under  the  auperinteodeace  of  the 
same  commisaionera  as  the  hoepital,  and  with  regard 
to  funds,  is  consolidated  with  it.  Tlie  education 
en  is  such  as  to  fit  the  recipienta  for  service 
the  ro^al  or  merchant  navy:  and  the  period 
during  wmcb  boya  are  permitted  to  participate  In 
its  advaotagea  extends  to  from  three  to  four  years. 

In  addition  to  the  in-pensioncra  alluded  to  above, 
about  12,000  old  or  diaablod  seamen  are  assisted  in 
their  old  age  by  what  woa  formorly  called  the 
CrsenuiicA  otU-peiuha,  but  is  now  styled  a  Natial 


yCiOo^le 


GREENWICH  OBSBBVATORT— QRBQOIBB. 


paitiem.  It  vuiea  froin  £3  to  £ET  a  jeu.  ThcM 
men,  diitribnted  ^tronghout  the  couotiy,  receive 
their  p«osioii*  from  tha  Staff-Officera  of  Military 
PennottenL  in  their  reapective  diatriota. 

Th«  bmldiDgi  of  Q.  H.  and  acboola  oomipT 
vhoI«  tpaoe,  withtthe  Bzoeptiou  of  k  n>ad%>7, 
betwMn  Uie  Thame*  wid  Greeatrick  Park ;  apd 
taken  twether,  tbey  oonititute  a  muoifioeat  aeriea 
of  baUmosf,  thoee  compoeiDK  the  hoapital  being 
among  the  finest  in  the  whole  Kingdom. 

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY.   See  Obsbb- 

TATOBV. 

ORBOABI'NID^  Thi«  tcim  wai  ^pUed  by 
Leon  Bnionr  to  deeignato  a  ^oup  of  nucroeeopic 
orguiitini  belonging  to  the  sub-kingdom  Protoaoa, 
whii^  have  been  discovered  aa  puaaitM  in  tbo 
intestinal  canal  in  Tariona  inveitAnta  animalg, 
especially  inaecta,  aradmidanl  and  certain  chmto- 
podona  wonna.  They  aeem  to  have  been  fint 
observed  by  Cavolini  in  the  laat  centniy,  but  the 
earliest  syBtematio  notice  of  them  is  that  of  I>afour 
in  JS2S,  who  gave  them  their  mune  from  the  groups 
in  which  they  occntred. 

The  form  of  the  body  varies :  it  may  be  cylin- 
drical, ovate,  fosifonn,  or  threadlike.  It  is  often 
marked  by  indentation*  or  atrictorea  corre^mnding 
to  the  spot  where  an  internal  aeptum  divides  the 
organism  into  two  or  more  M^pnenta.  In  aome^  a 
procea*  pngects  from  one  end  o(  the  body,  or  there 
may  be  Wo  lateral  proceese*,  and  to  th««e  [itdon- 

KbOQB  minuto   hooka  are  attached  (see  d  in  fig- 
by  which  it  IB   sDppoaed  that   uiese  '"'""i* 


Hg.  1  (copied  from  Greene's  Manuai  of  Prototoa). 

a,i,c,i,  Tuiou  ipKlti  or  grtgiriu ;  i,  iw«do-ii(TlcaliB ; 

/,  jaaBftt  ttms>  ota;  t,  niioiu  fotajarmim. 

attach  thenuelvai  to  the  surfaces  ou  which  they 
are  generally  found.  Anatomically,  tiie  G.  consiBt 
of  an  extensible  transparent  membrane  enclosing 
a  granular  maas,  in  which  we  obcerve  a  nuclens 
■uiTOonded  by  a  clear  vpoce.  See  Cills.  These 
organiama  are  oolourlesa ;  their  locomotive  powers 
aeem  very  limited ;  and  they  have  neither  month 
nor  feet. 

On  oarefully  watching  tliem  under  the  micro- 
scope, we  obstoTB  two  of  them  to  oome  in  contact 
The  surfaces  in  contact  become  flattened,  and  a 
oyst  or  capsule  soon  forma  around  them  and 
encloaea  tliem  [see  /  and  a  in  fig  1).  Numerous 
globular  vesiolea  are  then  produced  in  the  interior, 
and  these  become  ultimately  metamorphosed  int« 
peculiar  bodiea,  which  are  termed  ptaulo-naviada 
(a,  «,  in  the  fig.).  The  septum  by  which  the  two 
Q.  were  at  first  divided,   finally  disappears;   the 


c^  buats,  sod  the  piendo-navie«il»  eac^ie,  and  m 
due  time  bunt  also ;  and  thu*  give*  riae  to  bodiea 
closely  resembling  anuebn  (fig  2),  minute 


i^ 


belonpng  to  the  Bhizopoda  (q.  v.),  wMch  at  l^iigth 
develop  theonaelvea  ioU>  young  grwatinidn.  Tba 
coalMoenoa  or  ooningation  of  the  O.  is  not  poaU 
lively  I II  iM  III  III  si  to  toe  formataon  of  pseodo-navicnlie, 
rinoe  th^  are  sometime*  aesn  to  occur  witiiin  the 
bodiea  of  single  animals. 

We  have  followed,  as  we  believe,  the  beat  antho- 
ritiea  in  placing  the  G.  as  adult  tanna  of  the  group 
of  the  Protaiat.  There  is,  however,  con*iderabI« 
difference  of  opinion   regarding  the  position  they 


place  them  under 

It  is  ezceedinf^y  jnobable  that  certain  minuto 
paraaitio  orfluusms,  occarrina  both  on  and  within 
the  bodies  ol  fishes,  and  to  which  the  term  fuorot' 
parmia  has  been  applied,  are  identical  with  the 
pseudo-naviculs,  which  we  have  already  described. 
The  forms  of  several  of  these  psorospermi«  are 
shewn  in  ^  in  the  figure. 

The  G.  have  be^  divided  into  (1)  the  Jfono- 
cyiltda,  when  the  «Tii'nal«  are  solitary  ;  and  (Z)  tbe 
Zygoegttida,  when  two  animals  are  conjoined. 

Nomerons  memoirs  have  lately  been  written  on 
the  Gr^jarinidie.  We  may  especially  refer  to 
Eijlliker's  memoir  in  the  Zetisdi.  /.  viiuen.  Zoologit 
(1S4S),  and  the  lieberkUbn's  memoir  on  their 
development  in  the  ifemoira  Couronnii  da  SavanU 
Etrang.,  published  by  the  Brussels  Royal  Academy 
inlSSS. 

GREGOIRE,  HmrBi,  the  moat  remarkable 
among  the  so-called  'constitutional'  bishop*  of 
France,  was  bom  of  poor  parents  at  Vebo,  near 
Lnneville,  December  4,  1760.  Having  received  hi* 
education  from  the  Jesuits  at  Nancy,  he  entered 
into  ordeiB,  and  for  some  time  held  a  pcofessarship 
at  the  Jesuit  Coll^  of  Pont-4-Monason.  A  woA 
of  hia,  publiahed  m  17T8,  on  the  Airaiioratioit  qf 
Iht  Condition  of  the  Job*,  attracted  conaiderable 
notica    It  was  teanslated  into  English,  and  crovmed 


vLiOOgIc 


OBBOOBIAH  OALENSAIU-GKBOOBIAN  CBiST. 


br  the  Soyal  8od%  of  Meti.  O.,  aooD  after  hii 
ocdinatioii,  in*  appointed  oorfi  of  Eknbenneniil, 
in  Latnine;  Mid  at  the  elaction  for  the  Statea- 
gioertX  in  IT8S,  be  wa«  choeen  one  of  the  depntiaa 
of  the  dttST-  An  ardent  demooiat  in  all  bit  viewi, 
he  atUoh^hime^  from  the  fint  to  the  Tiera-Gtat 
party,  and  acted  a  prominent  part  in  the  mhaaqDent 
drama;  ho  mM  one  of  the  chief  adviMn  of  the 
miiMiiiii.  took  tha  oath  of  the  Tennii  Conrt  wiHi 
the  leat,  and  mpported  the  Abbi  Sieye*  in  the 
[OiipoBal  for  oonititnlina  the  seoeden  into  the 
Nabimal  Aaaembly,  of  wBeh  he  became  one  of  the 
•eontarioi.  Tram  that  time  forward,  O.  punned 
hia  oomie  irithont  heaitation.  Ha  waa  one  of 
the  moat  erathnaiaBtio  on  oocanon  of  the  famom 
■eaBoa  of  tbe  night  ol  Aogiut  4,  in  the  abolition 
and  renonciatMn  i^  the  jtririlegei  of  the  noblea 
aod  dergf.  Q.  carried  into  STBr;  depaiteient  the 
•ten  democracy  to  which  he  vm  deroted,  and 
whidi  he  identified  with  the  Christian  bratikerfaood 
of  the  goapel.  Upon  the  fundamentd  doctrine  of 
the  Rerohition — the  '  rights  of  jnan ' — he  Kinght  to 
ingraft  bia  orwa  tmij  adTocao;  of  the  Jewi  and  of 
the  negroes  Carryiiig  the  aame  viewa  into  queitiaiu 
of  dinrai-poli^,  he  waa  a  lealona  supporter  of  the 
dTil  coutitation  oE  tb«  ckmyi  waa  tiis  first  of  hia 
order  to  take  the  oath*,  and  waa  elected  the  firat 
■conatitBtionalbiBhop'  of  tbe  departanent  o(Loir-ot- 
Cber.  He  waa  ehoaan  tot  two  riacea,  but  acceded 
this,  altboi^  the  old  and  Icgiliinate  Inahcra,  Moo- 
■ngneor  de  "nieminee,  waa  tSU  alive,  when  at 
the  bbwphenKiva  Feaat  ti  BMMcm,  the  mJaezaUe 
Q^bol,  ooostitatiaiial  Biihopof  Parii,  having  pnblidj 
renoooMd  dhiiatianily,  a  liniilar  rentmdatian  wai 
demaaded  froon  0. 1^  the  infuriated  riUile,  lie  flimly 
confronted  tjw  dai^er,  and  refuaed.  Tiitaaf^  the 
later  phinrti  of  the  Revolntion,  nnder  tiie  DJraotoiy, 
O.  oODttnned  to  take  a  part  in  pnbtio  aSun ;  and  to 
bia  interterenos  aie  dne  man^  of  the  meaaorea  con- 
nected with  tbe  public  oreaniutiim  ol  Uterature  and 
■denoc^  which  atill  bear  their  fmita  in  the  Frenoh 
■frtm  of  adminiabation.  After  the  18tb  Brumaire, 
he  became  a  member  of  tbe  Oorra  L^ialatif.  Hii 
•itKmo  lepnblicaiuam  waa  UgnlT  urtaateful  to 
Bonnarte,  and  it  waa  ontj  after  a  third  attempt 
that  IM  waa  appointed  member  of  the  aenate.  On 
the  conehiMMi  of  the  eoacOTdat  between  Fina 
Vn.  and  BMiaparte,  he  o«aaed  to  exerdve  eccle- 
■i»»ti.»*1  funetioni,  aa  be  could  not  be  induced  to 
giT«  the  retractatioiia  which  the  church  aathcirildeB 
required.  True  to  bis  old  principleB,  he  rodated 
every  atep  towxrda  the  eatabliahment  of  the  abao- 
Inte  aothinity  of  Napoleon ;  and,  in  1814,  he  wa«  one 
of  the  first  to  proDOnnce  againat  tbe  Empire.  On 
the  Beatoration,  he  WM  one  of  tbe  moat  eameat  in 
from  the  kiux  the  acceptance  of  the  ooa- 
'tiie  Htrndiod  DaTi,'  be  attracted 
__.....  a  the  retnin  of  tbe  king,  be  waa 

exdnded  fnxn  tbe  aeiiste,  and  ceaaed  thencefortt  to 
bold  any  pabbo  place.  Dnriw  tiiia  enftoved  retire- 
ment) and  in  the  interrala  oTleimire  in  bia  eariier 
politioal  life,  be  pnbliahed  aeveral  woriw,  literaiy, 
reli^ona, ptAtical,  biatorioal, andndemical,  the  moat 
Tolumiiioni  of  whieb  are  a  Cronigue  Sdigiaue, 
in  S  rolmiiea,  and  a  Eitloin  da  BecUt  BdiffUattt, 
klao  in  6  vohunea,  bot  incomplete.  When  upiM 
hia  death-bed,  an  effort  waa  made  by  tbe  AKh. 
biabop  cf  Paria  to  indnoe  him  to  ezprcee  bis  lefpti 
for  the  uncanoaical  and  aebiamatinal  prooeedisga 
of  hii  eaHy  oan«r;  bnt  he  peraiateotfy  declined 
to  nuke  ai^  ntnetation.  In  oonaequeuoe  of  hia 
rtfuMilithe  Bicbbithcv  ditaotedtbat  tbe  laat  ritea  of 
the  diiitdL  abould  be  withheld.  Notwithetanding 
Una  prohibition,  tbe  laat  taotMmnota  were  admin- 
■tend  to  G.  l^  tha  AblX  Gnillon,  and  be  died 
Ua;S3,lS>l. 


GBEOO'BIAK  OAI.ENDAK  jum  TXAB.  See 
Calstdas. 

OBEGORIAIT  OKAlTr  or  XOITB8,  the  name 
givoi  to  certain  choral  nelodiei  introduced  into  the 
aervice  of  the  eaily  Chriatian  chnrch  by  Pope 
Qregory  tbe  Great,  who  flonriahed  towards  Qie  rad 
of  tiie  6th  eeotnry.  Tbe  mniio  of  the  chnrch  in 
eaiber  tdmee  was  ibnnded  on  the  Greek  ayatem,  as 
far  as  it  could  be  oaed,  whicli  wm  im^i^ed  from 


Bome,  1^  <i»»n»w<ing  the  Greek  tetradiord,  or  scale, 
on  the  baais  of  a  fourth,  and  in  its  place  sobeti* 
tilting  the  scale  of  the  ootare,  which  some  writers 
say  be  named  by  the  letters  of  tbe  ^phabet,  while 
ouers  say  he  had  a  peculiar  set  of  signs  called  oola 
BoTKOUt,  coufiiting  partly  of  wOTda  with  pointa, 
strokes,  and  other  maika,  which  suffldently  aarved 
his  pucpoee.  To  tbe  authentic  modes  of  Ambrosiiis^ 
Gregory  added  the  plagal,  which  buan  with  the 
fourth  below,  and  thus  he  completed  the  octave^ 
He  retained  the  fonr  moat  uw^  modes  of  the 
AmbixieiaD  chant,  termed  the  Dorian,  Phrygfan, 
Lyditm,  and  MiaoltidiaM,  which  are  snppoaed  to 
have  been  obtained  from  the  ancient  Gneks.  At 
Grwory's  in^rovemeot  was  called  tii«  2ioman 
(,  biA  later  it  got  the  name  of  «anftin»  picauaa 


notes  all  of  the  same  TengtL  A^  a  later  period, 
~  ika  Roman,  as  well  as  of  tbe  Greek 
al^diabet,  were  used  to  express  tbe  notee  of  the 
Qt«^i>rian  chant,  bnt  witboat  any  mneral  fixed 
order  or  rule.  In  tbe  conne  of  time,  the  system  of 
notation  on  lines  and  spaoes  came  into  use ;  but  at 
first  only  four  lines  were  used,  on  which  we  find 
all  the  old  oiamplEB  of  the  Gregorian  dumt  written. 
By  the  Oregoriao  tones,  or  modes  Ibmi,  modi)  of 
Gr^ory,  mnit  be  understood  a  certain  melodions 
foimnla,  made  out  of  tbe  unicm  of  a  perfect  fifth 
and  a  perfect  fourtb,  or  their  inversian,  to  give  the 
church-song  greater  variety.  All  tbe  old  writers 
agree  aa  to  the  diatonio  game  of  the  Oregoiian 
tones,  bnt  Uiey  do  not  all  anee  aa  to  thannmber  of 
tbe  tonee  ;  soma  ooontiiig  fourteen,  othera  twelve, 
while  in  some  old  Soman  choral-books  we  find 
(mly  eleven.  The  foundatioa  of  the  system  of  the 
Gregorian  tones  may  be  explained  thus :  As  there 
ore  seven  notes  fnnn  a  io  g,  there  sbcnld  be  at 
least  seven  different  modes^  or  tone-systems,  vaiy- 
ing  fnmi  each  other  acoordias  to  the  position  of 
the  semitones ;  but  aa  the  final  or  koy-note  of 
each  mode  tni^^  be  tbe  first  note,  or  mi^t  be 
in  tbe  middle,  tbe  same  icale  could  therefore, 
as  it  were,  be  viewed  from  two  sides,  which  gave 
rise  to  the  fourteen  system  of  tones.  It  was,  how- 
ever, found  thrt  two  of  those. velv  at  variance 
with  a  fundamantsl  mis  <A  cbnpeh-son|^vit.,  that 
every  mode  or  sc^  must  poMtM  a  sccfect  fifth 
or  perfect  fowth;  and  th^  the  mooes  contain- 
ing a  f^lse  fiftii  from  b  natural  to/  natural,  or 
a  uJse  fourth  from  /to  i,  oould  not  be  used,  and 
on  aoconnt  of  the  ditscmant  character  of  thoe 
intervals,  must  be  rejected.  TiuM  reduced  tha 
nnmber  of  tbe  tonce  to  twelve.  It  was  further 
found,  that  as  four  of  tbe  twelve  were  merely  trsns- 
pcaituKia  of  some  of  the  others,  there  were  nally 
only  eight,  and  that  they  were  in  every  respeot 
sufficient  tor  all  the  purposes  of  cbDrob-son^  Ths 
fight  Gregorian  tones,  m  they  sre  handed  down 
to  ua,  were  in  tdme  fixed  by  ft  royal  mandate  of 
Chariea  the  GrMt— ocfo  toni  n#xr«  vidaiiur.  The 
following  eonm^  in  modem  notation  in  the  G 
clef  will  shew  Uia  position  ot  the  eight  Gr^orian 


hyLiOOgll 


OBBQOSIAIT  CHAXT— GIt£OOST. 


Than  oimat  be  ft  donbt  that  Pope  Or^oiy  gtemtl] 

impioTed  the  ohnrah-miuK:  at  uie  time,  aiu  thai 

"^  ~  **8'>t  tmui  hare  alwayi  beoi  aatribed  to  bim. 

kt  vuj  are  of  great  amtiqiiitj  is  certain,  for  we 


ot  tbo  Qi^OTUD 
OD  me  piaMt  ot  tbe  Monito 
•xample  an  malted  with  a 
tODia  haTo  Tarioo*  Miding*,  Mm*  >a  maDj  i 
while  Um  Moond,  fifth,  laid  HXth  toua  hai 
o*ilyoiM«iidiw    For  a  fnll  and  intareatiiw  aooonnt 
ol  Hu  Qngorun  drareh-mnBo,  aee  N.  A.  Jan—i^ 

pablidud  b7  Sohott  in  MainE,  iwe. 

aSEOOBT,  the  naiM  of  a  Sootoh  funlhr  noMA- 
aUy  dirtingnidnd,  lfh«  liiat  of  the  BcmoulUi,  in 
the  biitotT  of  adesee.  Iti  hiatot;  mm  bkok  to 
the  union  in  marriage  <d  tite  B«r.  John  OnsMy, 
tniniater  of  Dnmuwk,  Abardeenihln,  to  a^dM|Atcr 
of  a  Darid  Anderson,  lAo  ia  deeoribed  b 
teiiaPUIai^MaitaKdMaaematkatl 
'  of  Finmngh,  a  gentleman  who  pooMaeed  a  "■r**" 
tam  for  mathematioal  and  meahaniaal  knowlMge.' 
The  moat  diatiiigBiBhed  olbpting  of  thia  uarrlags 


Oolte» 

after  learfng  which,  he  betook  hitn—H  to  optical 
•doiiM,  in  which  he  made  hii  flnt  diaooTaiiea.  ." 
tto  ago  of  34,  ha  invented  the  rifleoting-teUaDci 
known  1>;  hit  name,  and  which  he  dwcribed 
a  work,  entitled  Ojitka  PramKo.  In  1664  or  IfiSS, 
be  went  to  London  with  a  Tiew  to  the  oonatnicticm 
of  hia  telcaoopa ;  bnt  *"^'"g  tile  artiata  ha  employed 
Wantins  in  the  akiU  necamarr  fts  grinding  the 
netel  m  tiw  ob{eot-q)ecnlmn,  he  paaaed  on  vi  the 
wuTeraitj  of  Padna,  wllere  he  darcted  himanlf  to 
■tody;  Mtd  in  the  jear  1667,  prodnoed  hia  F<m 
dreali  tt  HtpvMa  Qitadimtara,  followed,  in  )66S, 
by  two  other  work*^  OwMtrtci  Par*  Unit^mdU, 
and  JhwBflatonw  gewiiaHB*    XleMweAaledhiB 


httBewreapondenee  with  tho  pmkf*  mathmatiwana 
of  Oie  age— Howbm,  'O^jgum^  Waffia,  ha.  Ho 
waa  imnradiately  on  hii  retain  to  London,  alaotid 


\  lUkw  of  the  B«]>«1  Sode^,  aad  in  l«»  ha 


Andrew*,  a  «iMiriAidi  be  fiUod  (or  abovt  ais  yean 
Bere,  in  U7K,  be  prodnoed  Tt»  OnOt  owl  Km  AH 
of  WaiMiia  Fooltv,  fto.,  iriiioh  bon  to  bo  th*  woA 
of  H.  Patndc  UattM*,  Archbodd  to  the  UnivmilT 
of  8t  ABdi«wa,  tiw  otqoet  of  lAU  wa>  to  OEpaae 
'*    '  of  a  rrofaMW  Sinolair  at  (Haagow, 


pot  a  ilidit  on  one  cl  the  St  Aadrvwa 
1.  InlSf^O^whohadinthoBaeanirtulB 
married  Hary,  dan^ter  of  Hr  Qecm  Jamieaoo, 
a  diiitingniAad  painter,  waa  called  to  Bdinbtua^  to 
SO.  the  mathtnalical  chair,  whidt  he  did  far  litUe 
October  1«TS,  wh< 

•bn^  with  total  ^ 

died  at  tlia  age  of  M.    Fw  ■  . 

account  of  hia  woiki  and  diMonaiaa,  aee  Hntfaai'a 


penatratmg  genioi^  immnMiiig  an  innntiTa  mattu 
matJoal  Mk&a  of  Uta  firat  ords;  aomairiiat  itr 
table  in  Mmpar;  but  eiUbituig  one  cf  the  uoi 
of  a  tone  ptiiloao|ibn^-that  t 


By  hj*  uaniagB  with  Haiy  Jamieaon,  Ja^m  O. 

had  a  loa  (rf  the  aaraa  namt^  Jamb  O^  HJ>^  bcm 

187^  who  became  pwitawoi  <rf  madiaina  in  King'a 

Uege,  Abttdaen,  lAere  ha  fonadad  the  Bduol  of 

■moi  O.  had  two  iona,  Suam  O^ 

M.D.  (Um  aeocnd),  lAo  nooeeded  hia  father  in  t^ 

AbardMB   pnfeaaanhip  t  and  Jomr  O^  HJ>^  who 


laen  nvfeaaor 
I  pattkalar  i 
inlT24,  whoe 


—      _  bom  at  Abn- 

dean  in  172^  whoe  ha  leoetTed  hia  early  irfiMaKwi, 
afterWBida  he  atndied  medicine  at  Ed•nbarri^ 
Lojdan,  and  Paria.  AR«r  fillins  in  mooeMMn  Oe 
(Aain  of  philoaophy  and  madieina  at  AbcodoM, 
mted,  in  1768^  profemcr  cf  the  fcaitioe 
in  Edinbotgli,  whve  ho  lev  onfoyad 
ion  «•  a  teacks  and  praotiM^  ^>*>- 
Uta  gtartMi  wmal  p^alui^. 


at  pmaMl  I 
1  of  Um  me« 


high 

dan,  alw  i 

Ha  waa  die 

of  Ediobvrg^  in  ill  moat  brilliant  period.  He 
9th  Fdirnary  177S.  Among  kU  wnfca  ao— 
<aaiofamPneli»t^Fkt*,Vmi  A  Cam- 
tut  nw  (/db  £teb  trndwieMm  af  Jfon 
Utom  ^  (it  .inimal  WoiiA,  176S;  and  A 
FaAt^»lMmil»li»Dam^^am*i:g^lailba^  after hk 


ISmix  by  Ur  TyUv  Oond  ^ 
nrefaoad  tilcm  by  a  lib  of  the  ai 
him  WM  abo  written  In-  Ifr  8 
Dr  Jamh  O.  (tke  Uurdl,  ^  - 
FtafaMorotitep      '       - 


LiOOV^k 


GESaOBT-GKEaOBr  I 


known  hy  liU  workt  on  dMDuatry,  Mid  Iiii  adiUmi 
of  the  momnia  part  of  Tiuii«r'«  Sleaunli  of 
Chemi*tTf;  tne  org»aic  pui  of  which  mi  adited 
'  Liebig.  He  tim>  tnotUtod,  I80S,  Lieliig'a  Prm- 
'  ^Agriadtural  Chemittry.  Amon^  hit  ooii' 
iom  ta  cbemiatary  tnkr  be  notioed  hu  imimiTcd. 
he  prepustioit  of  hydroohlorio  Mid, 
irphim,  mod  oxide  of  mlrer,  aad  his 
I  prapaiBtioa  of  nihdinria  and,  on  the 

..., creatine,  on  the  decoBntontioa  I 

ioct*  of  Qiie  aoid,  on  the  ipontaneont  deoompoM 
of  mlkg»p,  on  the  puifieation  of  chlotofonn,  to. 

We  have  now  to  revert  to  the  origiiud  atook— the 
bmilj  of  the  Ber.  John  O.  and  Jane  Andsnm. 
Jamca  O.,  inrantor  of  the  tehacopa,  and  fonndar  of 
the  line  of  diatdngniihed  man  wnidi  we  have  Jnat 
followed,  had  an  elder  brother  oC  the  name  of 
Datid — a  tenuAable  man,  (killed  in  medicine,  phtl- 
osopb/,  and  mattienutica,  and  known  at  David  O. 
of  Kinaidie — the  fint  m«Q  in  SootUnd  who  kept 
a  banmeter,  a  droonutanee  iriiich,  aecording  to  Br 
Button,  neiiiy  lad  to  hia  beiiur  tried  \>f  prgabrtarr 
■■  s  wiard.  "Dom  David  bad  three  aoni,  named 
napeotinljiPAniVJAKB^nndCEASLBL  Thafirrt 
«f  tfaew  beonma  Sarilian  profsMor  of  HbiinomT, 
QKfocd.  Be  WM  bom  at  Aberdeen  in  1661,  and 
there  »eoeiTed  the  ewly  part  of  hia  adncrtion,  which 
WM  eoMiJeUd  nt  EduhuKh.  He  ia  aappoaed  to 
have  been  diipcyed  to  mathwriotical  (tudie^  \n 
haviB(  been  aiipantad  liteiM7ezeei)t(vrf  hia  nnele 
Imnum  Trf  tiia  tal«oepe— more  likelj'  it  ia  that  he 
waa  ao  appointad  beoeaae  ha  had  alraulT  nuuif  eeted 
an  aptitBdelor  awh  BtadiM.  ITith  lk«  euenttj, 
■t  ear  nta,  hi*  oscIb'b  'naiiUe'  deeovided.  i^pon 
him.  In  hW  2ad  jear  ha  waa  ^mc«ntad  protMaor 
of  matlMHwtici  in  the  nnireni^  at  Sdinbnrgh,  and 
\if  lua  leetntea  in  tbia  chair,  he  liad  the  himonr  of 
bai^  the  fint  to  infandooa  tha  Newtonian  philMoplir 
into  the  ff«A"ftT«  In  1691,  tiiroo^  the  Incodahip 
of  Newton  ai^  Plamatea^  he  obtained  the  nuau 
Banlian  pnfMaonhip  of  aataxmomy  at  Oxftsd,  for 


iriudi  taa  BlDrtrinia   HaUar  waa    a    o 
HaUer,  howerw,  ■eon  after  ^jtained  the 
■hip  «  monetiy  in  the  WMnniveis 
a  Beat  mend  and  fdlow-woAar  of 
David  died  at  lUdnhMd  in  ITIO, ' 


JbvrorMW  (Bdin.  11184;  Oe 
AAorin  a«maUa  {Oxfard,  IflH),  whish  oontaiaad 
the  nbataooe  ol  hl«  Edinborgh  laotniaa,  and  in 
which,  amons  odier  ingeaionB  mattera,  Dr  Button 
thtnka  tliere  a  an  aotteipation  of  DoUaad*!  Achro- 
uatio  TelMoopft  Attronomia  Pliyt^  tKi*omtMem 
mrtffftt,  Odord,  ITOS.  An  editloa  of  Baclid 
in  Oreek  and  I^tin,  irtddi  ia  hi^dr  vahwd,  1T0& 
Towaida  tbe  eod  of  hia  lite  he  woAad  with  Dr 
Bailey  on  an  edttkot  of  the  Ctmk*  of  ApoUtmUu, 
but  did  not  ttve  to  eea  it  Ibiahed.  Ha  wee  the 
fiiet  who  OMuideied  the  CatmaiT,  ob  whkh  he 
liA  a  paper  in  MB.,  baeidea  a  riiort  ireattae 
of  the  Aotew  md  ArUkmeSt  </  £»ariMmj,-  a 
keatiee  on  PraeHad  Oamtthy,  pnUiahed  in  I7tf 
br  Madaarin ;  and  man^  manotm  which  were 
mbliahed  in  the  PkH  Tnau.,  vola.  xiiii— izv.  Of 
I  four  aoni,  Uu  eldest,  David  O.,  beoame  tegtna 


D«vid  of  Einaidis  v 

ptofeaaete   of  matha 

while  two  of  tiian  Wt  aoM  who  obtained  prof  ea^ 

•orahipa.    Dr  Tfatmaa  If  "    *  "' " 


(Chalmen'a  Siogr^ihiaal  DieUonargy  {x  SS9)  that 
no  leaa  than  10  membera  of  thia  faloily  bava  held 
Bcitiih  profeaionhipa. — Mmtjon  muM  be  made,  in 
oondnaion,of  R.  F.  Qkiaanr,  late  Fellow  of  Trinitj 
Collwe,  Oambrid^  antiur  oE  £iiiimpUt  te  D\fer- 
mUai  and  Integrai  Oalailut,  and  other  valuahle 
wuk^  who  died  before  beanng  the  fall  tniita  ef 
hia  eeniDi,  and  who  ia  nndetetood  to  have  balonged 
to  the  lamilj  of  tbe  Soottiah  On^oiiea. 

OREGORT,    the    name    of    aiztaen    popea,    of 
whom  the  moat  impartant,  biatorioaUy,  are  trsated 

OSEOOBT  L,  TEi  OuAT,  a  &Uiar  and  «Unt  of 
file  Bomaa  Ca^iolia  Chorch,  waa  bom  in  Borne 
about  tiie  middle  at  the  Bth  o.  of  an  illnitrioua 
Boman  tunfly.  Hia  btiier,  Oordionna,  waa  a  aena- 
tor,  and  one  of  the  Mrlier  pontifb  i  Ftiix  IlL  had 
belonged  to  the  aama  hmily.  At  a  eonparatively 
earlv  an  O.  wm  named  by  the  Emperor  Juatin  II, 
to  ue Important  atom  of  pnetor  <d  Borne;  bnt 
he  vohmtarik  relinnniabed  thia  offioa^  and  withdrew 
■Itogethsr  nun  the  world  into  the  monaateiT 
vhi&  he  had  fonnded  in  Home,  onder  the  tiUe  of 
St  Andnw'a.  Hut  waa  bat  tme  of  many  aniih 
of  Ta%ioiia  mnnifloenoe.  'Be  fonnded  and 
ocdowad,'  aayi  Dean  Milman,  'six  monaaterie*  in 
Sicily.'  Before  entving  the  Bcinan  oonveut,  eqnally 
Fonided  by  himaelf,  lAich  he  oIuno  for  hia  own 
reteeat,   'be  laviahad  on  the  poor  aU  hia  coaUy 


to  Oxford,  ha  waa  anoeeeded,  in  IWl, 
Edinbnnb  diair,  br  hie  brother  Jawea,  whs  filled 
it  (or  ajmim,  i^w  he  retired,  and  gave  plaee, 
in  1720^  to  Uaclanrin.  Bh  brother  Ghailea, 
io  1707,  beetune  profnwor  of  mathewatiea  at  St 
Andrew^  an  office  iriiidi  he  bdd  for  SI  yeaie, 
*hea  ha  reaicned  it,  and  wie  nooeeded  by  hia  woo, 
another  Datib,  wlw  died  176)— The  ttirae  eeni  of 


!■;«  mniwntj  Wit  tughinmg  jith  »!■»  Inu»»t  

dntia^  ha  devoted  Einuelfaltuathor  to  Qod.'    Thia 

-  -I  prabaUy  about  SJH.    Ba  waa  elected  abbot  «f 

monaateiT,  and  It  waa  whila  he  waa  atill  in  tiiii 

•e  that  tiia  well-known  incident  befall  ot  hit 

iting  the  An^o-Saion  yoatha    in   the   alav* 

market,  and  on  being  atrot^  by  their  beauty,  and 

leamins  that  thn  came  from  a  pagan  land,  leeolving 

to  dsnAe  himaelf  to  the  oonveraion  of  that  land  to 


iia  loaa  led  the  pope 
■n,  and  ewtoal^  to 
enrol  him  in  "Uie  aeonl^  minlatET'  by  ordaining 
him  one  of  the  aaven  BegionarT  Daacona  of  Rome. 
BenedicVa  anooeaaor,  Pel4:iDB  U.,  aaot  Q.  aa  nnsoto 
to  Oonatantinople,  to  itMa«  the  empenr'a  aid 
uainat  the  Lombardi.  He  realded  thrae  yean  in 
^natantdnople,  dniins  which  time  he  commeaeed, 
'  pBifaMiB  completed,  bia  peat  inA,  the  £Dpo- 
.  n  of  Job,  On  hia  refcnn  to  Bone  he  reauined 
hU  idMe  aa  abbot,  and  M  tite  death  4d  Pel^iai,  ia 
a  ptMoe  iriiieh  hiid  weate  the  ei^,  O.  wia  nnaiii- 
monafy  ttallmj  by  Hm  datgv,  the  afmato,  and  the 
people  to  eneoeed  him.  Ha  naad  every  laeana,  eveo 
to  a  peUtian  t»  the  Bmpoor  Haniioe  to  withboU 
ooBaent,  to  evade  the  dignity;  bnt  Ite  wm  forced 
yidd,  and  waa  eoneecreted  Seotember  fc  SBIX 
Few  nentaSa  have  eqnallad,  haid»  one  hM  mat- 
pataed,  O.  aa  the  adminiittator  of  the  mnltipiied 
eMioeraa  of  'Ute  vaat  eharae  thna  angned  to  aim. 
'Nothum^'  nye  Dean  MilMaii,  'aeMna  too  great, 
Bothins  toe  maJgaiBeaBt  for  hti  oaneet  pacaonal 
acIicitMat  from  the  neat  numda  point  in  the 
ritoal,  or  ngnla&tu  abost  the  papal  fanaa  in 
KcQy,  he  paMaa  to  the  oonvanion  of  Biitein,  the 
umy  amou  the  clacgy  of  Qanl, 
tie  anaed  I  -   ..  v.  . 


Aa  Tev^MMeDa  of  tta  I 


,  COOQ 


GKEGOBT  n^-OBBGOBT  TIL 


ol  UiiiTcnal  Bisbop  nmrpcd  by  John  of  Cooctan- 
tioople'  {Latm  C^triManUf,  I  ti9).  Them  u  no 
deputmsnt  of  eodcdaatiau  Mlim&irtntioii  in  iriiich 
he  hu  Dot  left  tnttlu  of  hit  «avm  Mid  hia  great- 
sesi.  To  hiu  Uw  Bmnaii  Chnrch  it  indebted  foe 
the  complete  and  omuditent  MgtuuMtioii  of  her 
public  eerTtco  and  the  detoiU  of  ber  ritoal,  for 
the  regulatioii  and  ayitematiEatioii  of  her  aacrad 
chants.  The  minion  to  EngUnd,  which  he  wu  not 
permitted  to  undertake  in  perHon,  «■■  intruBted  hy 
him,  with  all  the  seal  of  a,  perKmal  oblj^tion,  to 
AogoEtinei  and,  under  bis  uupices,  Britain  va* 
brought  within  the  pale  of  Chriaban  Europe.  Undor 
him  the  Gothic  kii^dom  of  Spain,  long  Arian,  wai 
united  to  the  churdL  Nor  was  hie  leal  for  the 
refonoAtion  of  the  clergy,  and  in  pnri^mu  of  the 
morntity  of  the  chuToh,  inferior  to  hii  atdoor  for 
itti  diffunon.  Hii  letten,  which  are  nnmerou! 
ftnd  moat  interesting  are  full  of  evideooet  of  the 
nDiTereahty  of  hia  vigilance.  On  oocatiMi  of  the 
threatened  invaiioa  of  Bome  hy  the  Lombaida, 
O.  ia  declared  by  Milman  to  bave  '  exeroiBed  the 
real  power  bj  performing  the  protecting  put  of  a 
aorereign ; '  and  in  hia  general  adminietration,  to 
hava  been  '  in  act  and  in  iafloeDce,  il  not  aa  yet  in 
aTowed  authority,  a  temporal  aoTereign.'  Animt 
the  memory  of  his  adminutration  of  Bom*  a  diuge 
was  fotm^vmade,  that  in  hia  zeal  apinst  pagiiiimi 
he  deabojed  the  ancient  templeaandotherbiuldinsB 
of  the  pagan  city ;  but  Oibtion  confeaaea  that  the 
evidence  '  ii  rec«it  and  micertain  j '  and,  indeed, 
the  only  onthortty  to  which  Oibbon  liim^lf  lefen, 
PUtina,  timply  mentdona  tiie  ohaige  in  order  to 
repudiate  it.  "nie  aame,  aooording  to  Milman,  m^  be 
laid  of '  the  fable  of  hia  having  tnimed  the  Palatine 
Library  in  hia  habed  of  pa^n  literatore,  which  ia 
now  rejected.'  Aa  reganu  ui*  genu»l  gorenunont 
of  the  church,  O.  reprobatea  very  strongty  the 
aMumption  by  John,  patriarch  of  ConataiAnople, 
of  the  title  of  Eciunenical  or  TJniTeraal  Bishop ;  the 
more  especially,  as  the  object  of  John  in  aasnming 
thia  title  was  to  justify  an  ezerdae  of  juhadiction 
ootiide  of  the  limits  of  hia  own  patriarchate.  In 
""'"   — '" —    '""    the  details  of  the  whole  dog- 


acal  syaton  of   I 
y  deralopad.    Hu 


fully  deralopad.  His  woilla  till  four  folio 
His  Letttra,  and,  still  mne,  his  Diaioguet,  abound 
with  miracnlons  and  I^endaiy  narrabree,  which, 
however  uncritical  in  thdr  character,  are  most 
jotaeoting  ■•  illustrating  the  mannera  and  habila 
oE  tbo^bt  ot  that  age.  G.,  with  all  his  seal  for 
the  di^aioB  of  Christianity,  was  moat  gentle  in 
Mb  treaboent  of  heathens  and  Jswa,  and  he  used 
all  bis  effbrta  to  repress  slavtvdealing,  and  to 
mitiBBte  the  severity  of  alavery.    He  died  March 

GBEOOBT  IL,  b^  birth  a  Branan,  was  elected 
biahop  of  that  aee  in  tlB.  Hia  pcotificate  ia 
•pacially  nolaoeable  as  forming  an  epo^  in  the  pro- 
graea  of  the  territorial  pre-eminenoe  of  tiw  Bonan 
te«  in  Italy,  ^e  Eastern  emperraa  having  aliBOBt 
utterly  abaiid<Hied  the  government,  and,  •till  more, 
the  defence  of  Italy,  and  the  ^grewiona  of  the 
Lorabarda  becoming  every  year  man  formidable, 
the  imperial  authority  in  the  Wcat  annk  into  little 
more  thao  a  name  i  and  the  tyrannieal  and  barbaroas 
meaanies  by  wbiuk  the  Bmpeior  Leo,  the  laanrian, 
attempted  to  enfonte  hia  decroea  against  ims«.woi^ 
•bip,  weakened  atiU  mote  the  tie  which  boni3  Italy 
to  the  Eastern  emperors.  The  natural  result  of  the 
diminntion  of  the  imperial  authority  in  Italy  was 
the  pvwth  of  that  ot  ue  pope,  to  whcm  the  deaerted 
Italian  provinces  hx&ed,  parUy  aa  their  apiritiial 
oonnsellor  and  bead,  partly  aa  tbnr  mediator 
with  the  b«Tbsions  enemy,  partly  aa  the  oentre 
«f  the  political  fetention  fCK  ■w-defanoe  which 


their  very  iaolation  neoeMtated.  O.  eonvened  m 
conncil  in  Borne  (n  tbe  snbject  ot  tlie  hoaonr  dna 
to  iniagea,  and  addi«aHd  a  very  oaeige^  letter  to 
the  emperor,  protesting  againat  the  aacrile^Looa  oitt^ 
ragea  ot  whiim  he  had  been  guilty,  esplaming  maii. 
duending  tbs  CaUiolic  dootnoe  on  imaBe-wcnhin, 
and  warning  tbe  emperor  that  the  feebnga  of  hM 
sabjectB  were  so  oompletely  alieni^  t^hia  can- 
duct,  that  it  was  only  the  {rape's  inflnanoe  wfaidi 
m«Tented  them  from  throwing  off  all  allerianoe. 
G.  has  been  accnsad  of  himself  fomenting  tlua  di*- 
affadion.  The  contniy,  however,  ia  atteated,  not 
only  by  O.'a  own  letten,  bat  also  W  Fanl  Um 
Deacon,  In  hia  HitUrry  of  Uk  Lontbardt  (IxkA  vi. 
o.  39]  1  and  it  ia  quite  oeitain  that  the  cironmstancea 
themselves,  and  the  well-known  character  of  (ho 

old  auffic' 

1  Italy. 


OBEGOBY  III., 
Oremry  IL  in  73L  The  enctoacLments  of  tha 
Loimiuds  in  Italy  during  bis  pontiScato  becamo 
BO  formidable,  that  as  the  Eastern  emperora  stiB 
remained  powerleaa  or  indifferent  to  the  protection 
of  the  ItaUan  provinces,  the  Romans  chanced  G. 
to  aend  a  dqmtation  to  Charlee  Hartel,  B<£citing 
his  anccour  against  the  enemy,  and  propoaing,  upon 
that  condition,  to  rectwniae  him  aa  their  {Kotector, 
and  to  confer  on  him  Uie  title  of  cooanl  and  patri- 
cian of  Borne.  Thia  offsr  waa  niade  by  the  pope 
'  in  virtue  of  a  decree  of  the  Eoman  primus,'  and  ia 
ot  great  historical  importance  in  tho  con 
of  the  nature  and  origin  of  tho  P^ial 
Itafy.  Hie  embassy  tailed,  owing  to  th<  , 
ot  Us  WW  with  the  Sanwena,  to  enlist  t^e  aid  td 
Cbarlea ;  but  it  waa  a  step  towards  the  oonsom- 
mation  of  the  independence  of  the  Weat  O.  ITI. 
diedinT4L 

QBEGOBT  VIL,  pre-eminently  the  historical 
representative  ot  the  tonporal  claima  ot  the  mediB. 
val  papacy,  waa  bom,  about  1020,  at  Saona,  a  village 
in  uie  sonthem  boidGE  of  Tnaoany.  Whetlier  hia 
family  bdoiued  to  the  bnigber  or  the  noble  -'-t. 
is  diapolwd  by  bis  biogr^iher*.  His  &mily  nama, 
HildeDiand,  would  im^y  a  Tentonio  descent ;  but 
by  birth  and  education,  at  least,  he  was  Italian. 
Hia  youth  was  paaaed  at  Boioe,  in  the  monaatay 
ot  8t  Mary  on  the  Aventino,  of  which  his  nude, 
Laurenco  (afterwards  Bishop  of  Amalfi),  was  abbot. 
From  Borne,  be  passed  into  Fnnoe,  when  he  entered 
the  celebrated  monastoy  of  Cluny,  in  the  achoola 
of  which  he  ocHn^eted  his  education ;  and  from 
Hio  strict  asoetio  obaervauoea  there  pnetiaed  by 
hinij  he  aoqnired  tboae  habits  of  austerify  whicA 
distmguiabed  his  entire  life.  He  visited  the 
coort  of  Henry  HL,  and  obtained  Ire  hia  pnacbing 
the  reputation  ot  great  eloquence.  On  hia  retnm  to 
Bome,  he  became  tbe  chaplain  of  (^t^iy  TL,  but 
after  t^  death  of  that  pontiff,  be  again  withdrew 
to  his  former  totreat  at  Cluny,  from  which  he  was 
onlv  recalled  by  tbe  eamest  appeal  of  the  new 
and  zealona  pom,  Leo  DC,  whom  he  aocompanied 
to  Bome  in  lOW.  Under  this  active  and  devoted 
pontiff  Hildebrand  eierciaed  great  infioenoe.  Ho 
□ow,  for  the  fint  time,  entered  into  holy  cndcoa, 
and  waa  eventually  created  caidinal.  Beaidca 
the  important  domestia  employments  iriikih  wen 
Msigned  to  him,  he  was  sent  aa  I^e  to  ttie 
iRfmiBtit  coonoil  ot  Tonra,  in  which  Uie  canao  of 
Berengar  was  examined.  TTnder  all  the  ahoit  but 
important  pontiflcataa  ot  tbe  sooocaaora  of  Leo  IX.. 
who  an  known  in  histoiy  at  tlie  Oeiman  popM 
— Tktot    IL,   Stqihen  IS^    Bttiediot  X,    ud 


.t^.ooglc 


OBEGOBT  YXU-GBBQOBT  TTTT, 


as  feudal  p 


aama  iniBauMe,  and  hj  inqiirii^  into  their  govem- 
ment  of  tka  ehoreli  tha  |^«M  pnodpUi  to  which  his 
lifa  -WM  TOW«d,  he  pr^ared  tiie  «a;  for  Um  full 
darelotKiieDt  of  hi*  own  theoty  of  the  papmy.  He 
wa«  onaninMulT  eleoted  at  lUune,  mtlunit  avutiiig 
the  iumerial  BathoiiMtiott,  thno  dsfi  after  the 
death  M  Akzandv  U.  The  0«niiaii  bieboM,  who 
feaLTod  the  ■trong  arm  of  tlwae  lefomu  of  wtaioh  hia 
nMiM  waa  a  goaiantee,  •ndeavonied  to  prevent  the 
Emperor  Heniy  rV.  &om  aaaentiiig  to  <£e  eledioii ; 
but  EenfT  nve  his  apworal,  ai^  liie  new  pope 
WM  erowne^  July  10,  I07&  From  the  date  of  his 
dedaon,  the  pontificate  of  G.  waa  one  life-lonf 
•tran^  for  the  aaaertoon  of  the  priikcipleB  with 
whi^  he  believed  the  welfare  «f  uie  ehureh  and 
Uie  mgeneiatioD  of  aociety  itaeU  to  bo  tnM^aiably 
bound  vip,  Rfgarding  at  the  great  evil  «f  hia  time 
tli«  tbomogh^  aeoulwiaed  oooditioii  ot  tho  chnMli 
in  »  neat  part  of  £taopa,aiidMpecially  in  Oennai^ 
and  Nartbem  It^,  ha  direoted  againat  thia  idl  lua 
efforta.  The  podtiia  oompied  1^  the  his^ier  olei]nt 
-  '    '  '  tho  light  of  inrtmtnre  wftn 

oefloaa  olaimed  l^  file  orown, 
dependence  of  Oie  oleigy  vmoa 
,  and  the  temptation  to  simoiiy  (aee 
SmoNT)  which  it  involved,  were,  in  tho  mind  of  O., 
the  caoae  of  all  the  evils  under  which  Europe  was 

Eiing ;  and  of  all  these  he  regarded  inveititure 
iHVBiriTUiil^  aa  the  fountain  and  the  souroe. 
e,  therefore,  he  laboored  by  every  speoiea  of 
enactment,  by  viaitalaoni,  I7  encydioal  letters,  and 
by  peiaonal  ezbortatiQns,  precepts,  and  censuree, 
to  ^oTce  the  obaervance  at  all  the  details  of  dis- 
cipline-—celibacy,  ihe  teaidence  of  the  oUrgy,  the 
inabnctkin  of  the  penle — and  to  leprcaa  simony  and 
pluralim,  it  waa  agalnat  the  fondunental  abase  of 
inveatitiin  that  his  tn^  efiorta  were  directed.  In 
the  year  after  hia  election,  be  prdiibited  thia  prac- 
tice, under  pain  of  exconmmiucation  both  for  the 
iUTtsbM'  and  the  invested,  and  in  the  following  jem 

tnah^aandcoQticillonof  theemjare.  The  Emperor 
Henry  IV.  (see  Hbtrt  IV.),  disrwardiag  theee 
menaoea,  and  taWi'g  the  trending  biuopa  under  hia 
proteotioD,  G.  eited^Wi  to  Bome,  to  auawer  for  hit 
eondoot  Henry**  aole  reply  waa  a  hangbty  defi- 
ance; and  in  a  diet  at  Wbrms  in  1076,  he  formtUy 
declared  O.  depoaed  from  the  pontifioate.  Or.  wm 
not  alow  to  retaliate  by  a  sentence  of  exeoonnuu- 
'   '     "'     tenteoce,  unless  revoked  or 


removed  by  abadution  in  twelve  month*,  W  the 

'  -       '  "e  empire  at  the  time,  waa  invtJved  the 

of  aU  (ivil  ri^tt,  and  depoaitioa  from 


law  of  the  e 


every  civil  and  political  OToe.  Henrys  Sojon  mb- 
jeots  appealing  to  this  law  against  him,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  field,  and,  by  a  hnmiliating  penance,  to 
which  he  aabmitted  at  CaooaiU,  in  Januaiy  lOTT, 
ha  obtained  absolution  from  the  pojte  in  penon. 
Thia  Bubmianon,  however,  waa  bat  feigned ;  and  on 
hit  tobaeoiuait  triumph  over  his  rival,  Rudolf  of 
Swalaa,  Henry  resumed  hostilitiee  with  the  pop& 
and  m  1080  a^iu  declared  him  depoeed,  and  caused 
to  be  wpdnted  in  hia  place  the  antipope  Guibert, 
Arcdtbidiop  of  Bavenna,  under  the  name  of  Gement 
IIL  After  a  protracted  aic^e  ot  thtee  veais,  Henrv, 
ID  the  year  1064,  toc^  posenioa  m  Borne.  G. 
■hut  ^i^n^elf  up  in  the  caatle  of  8t  Angela  Jui^ 
however,  aa  Q.  waa  on  the  point  of  &lling  into 
hia  enemy^a  hands,  Bobeit  Guiscord,  the  Nornuui 
Duke  of  Apulia,  entered  the  citv,  set  O.  free,  ood 
compelled  Henry  to  return  to  Qennany ;  but  the 
wrefajud  conditioa  to  which  Bome  was  reduced 
obliged  G.  to  withdraw  first  to  Monte  Cassiun,  and 
ultimately  to  Salemo,  where  he  died.  May  25,  1086. 
Eia  dying  woids  are  a  deeply  offectiDg,  but  jet  a  stem 


and  unbending  profaaaioD  of  the  faith  of  bi*  whtde 
life,  and  of  the  profound  conviotiona  under  which 
even  hia  enemies  acknowledge  him  to  have  acted.  '  I 
have  loved  justice  and  hated  iniqni^jtherefore  I 
die  an  exile.'  The  <diaractei  ot  Q.  VXL,  and  the 
theory  of  church.poli^  which  he  repreaenta. 


difierently  judged  by  the  different  religious  achocJs 


but  his 


vi^ 


confessed  by  all,  even  those  who 
_  ,  _  nbate  it  as  on  excess,  to  Lave  been 
grand  in  its  omoeption,  and  unselfish  in  its  object. 
The  theory  of  Augustine's  ci^  of  Ood,'  says 
Milmau, '  no  doubt  swam  beforo  his  mind,  on  which 
a  new  Borne  waa  to  rise,  and  rule  the  world  by 
reli^on,'  In  his  conception  of  the  constitn^n  (U 
Christian  society,  the  sjuritual  power  was  the  fint 
and  highest  element.  It  was  t«  direct,  to  command 
the  temporal,  and,  in  a  certain  Hense,  to  compel  it* 
obedience  j  bnt  aa  the  theory  ia  explained  by  Fene- 
km,  by  Qoeielin,  and  other  modem  Catholict,  the 
anus  which  it  waa  authorised  to  use  for  the  purpose 
of  coercion  were  the  arms  of  the  spirit  only.  It 
coold  oompd  by  penalttea,  bnt  these  penalties  were 
(mly  Hie  ceoaorea  of  tlie  church ;  and  if,  in  certain 
drcnmatanoea,  temporal  foifeitnres  (>■  in  the  case  of 
Huiiy  IV.)  wera  annexed  to  theee  censuree,  thia, 
'"  '    argued,  was  the  result  ot  the  civil  legislation 


s  forfeited,  according 


teniy.tl 
to  the, 


irithout 


obtojniiig  absolutdon  from  the  sentence.  Moreover, 
whatever  may  be  said  of  the  power  in  itself,  or  of 
the  lengths  to  which  it  has  at  timea  extended,  the 
oocanon  and  the  object  of  its  exercise  in  the  hands 
<£  G.  were  always  such  aa  to  command  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  philosophical  student  of  the  histo^  of 
the  middle  Age.  By  hi*  firm  and  unbending  eflortt 
to  suppress  She  nnchiiatian  vices  which  Jefomied 
socie^,  and  to  restrein  the  tyranny  which  oppreesed 
the  subject  as  much  aa  it  enslaved  the  church,  he 
taught  his  age  'that  there  was  a  being  on  earth 
whose  special  duty  it  was  to  defend  the  defenceless, 
to  succour  the  succonrleas,  to  afford  a  refuge  to  the 
widow  and  orphan,  and  to  be  the  goardian  of  the 
poor.'  Dean  Milman  sums  up  bishistaty  of  G.  as 
of  one  who  is  to  be  contemplated  not  merely  wiUi 
awe,  but  in  some  reapects,  and  with  some  meat 
drawbacks,  as  a  bene&ctor  of  mankind. — See  Mil- 
man's  LaUn  GhTUtianitj/,  voL  iiL  ;  Bowden's  L^e 
^  Ortgoq/  VII.  (1840) ;  Voigt's  HU^brandt  aU 
Papd  Qi^or  VII.  utuf  son  ZeUcOter. 

ORBOOBT  XIII.,  Hdqh  BcoNOOHFAaHO,  was 
bom  at  Bologna,  January  7, 1602.  He  was  educated 
in  his  native  city,  whero  he  held  the  professorship 
of  law  for  sevraal  years.  Having  settled  at  Rome 
in  1G39,  he  was  diatingaished  by  aereral  important 
employmenbi,  and  was  one  of  the  theologians  of  the 
oDuncQ  of  Trent^  on  his  return  whence,  he  was 
created  cardinal  in  1S64,  and  sent  aa  legate  to  Spain. 
On  the  death  of  Pius  V.,  G.  was  elected  pope  in 
1C72.  Hot  one  among  the  post-reformation  pontiffs 
haa  iiijnairil  G.  in  trad  for  the  promotion  and  im- 
provement of  education ;  a  large  proportion  of  the 
coUefies  in  Bome  were  wholly  or  in  port  endowed 
by  hun;  and  his  expenditure  for  edacational  puipoaea 
ia  aaid  to  have  exoeeded  2,000,000  Boman  crowns. 
The  most  interesting  event  of  hit  pontificate,  in  a 
scientifie  point  of  view,  is  the  coirection  of  the 
calendar  fsee  Cai.ziaiAK),  which  waa  the  result  of 
long  consideration,  and  was  final^  made  public  in 
\6lffL  A  grievous  imputation  rests  on  the  memory 
of  Q.  from  the  fact  of  nis  having  ordered  a  Te  Daan 
in  Bome  on  occasion  of  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholo- 
mew {see  St  Baktsolohew)  ;  bnt  in  justice  it  must 
be  said,  that  tbia  waa  done  on  the  report  of  tlu 


t.Guu^lc- 


oRsoosT  vAXLixax-OKaaOKT  or  htbsa. 


Fraieh  unbawador,  wUdi  nprtMutsd  tiurt  bkwdy 
Bvent,  not  m  ft  dalibermta  tggrc— ion  on  the  part  M 
the  CkthoUn,  but  lim^y  u  the  wapprtmioa  of  a 
bftSed  Hdgnetiot  conspinoj.  O.  pabEihed  a  vahi- 
able  edition  of  the  VecrOum  ffnUwDM  vHb  iMmed 
note&  Ha  died  in  IBM,  in  the  SSd  yMr  of  hi*  i^ 
GBEOORT  NAZIANZIEIT'-from  Ua  eradittOD 
in  ucred  litentnre  alto  called  tha  Tbioumiuk— wm 
bora  abont  329  at  Arianmni.aTilkge  near  Watiangni, 
in  Cappadofita,  not  far  from  C«vea.  Hia  faOMr, 
irboae  DomaaWwaa  Gregory,  and  who  had  originallj 
beloDsed  to  the  beatiiea  »ect  of  HyniEtatice,  L  e^ 
Worshirpers  of  the  Mott  High,  bnt  iJao  of  the  fire, 
like  the  Feniana,  and  keeper)  of  the  Jewiah  Sabbath 
and  the  law  of  the  jioritj'  of  meat^  had,  chiefly  at 
the  initigation  of  bu  pioua  wife  NoniUL  beeoiae  a 
convert  to  Chriatianity  about  the  tims  of  the  great 
Nicsaa  Conncil  (32B1,  and  foul  yean  later  was 
railed  to  the  dignity  of  Biahop  of  ITananxo*.  Formed 
to  [riety  by  domemo  aianipla,  O.  waa  at  an  early 
■ge  aenti  for  the  pnrpoae  of  finijhing  hia  edneatian, 


then  flouriahed.  He  then  viaited 
Alexandria,  and  mbaequently  of  Athena,  where  he 
net  BaaEI  the  Oceat,  then  alao  a  young  atudmit, 
and  beoune  hia  mwrt  in&nate  tnend.  At  the 
same  time,  there  ahulied  at  Athena,  Jnlian,  later 
emperor  aiid  apostate,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  three  often  met  and  had  friendly  djacnamona 

nn  UiA  Hiil^iM^tfl   nf  thfli^  nmninnn  rtn^liiH  -   aJtlirmtrh 


tna  *>*»■"■  and  Ai 


n  the  aubjecta  of  their  o 


D  atndiea ;  althongh 


and  arrogial 

mind.'  G.  having  made  brilliaat  progreM  in  elo- 
quenoe,  philoaophy,  and  aaorad  literature,  returned 
to  Nazianiua,  and  here  flnt  reoeired  tnptiam  at 
the  handa  of  hia  own  father,  oonaeciating  to  Ood, 
at  the  lame  time,  all  '  hia  sooda,  his  glory,  hia 
health,  hia  tongue,  and  hia  taknto  ;*  and,  in  order 
to  be  ttill  more  able  to  pnraue  a  life  irf  anatare 
devotion,  he  retired  into  aolitude,  and  took  np 
hi*  ftbode  with  BaaQ  in  the  deaert  near  the  rivm 
Iria,  in  Pontna.  Recalled  by  hia  father,  O.  waa 
ordained  prieat,  and  afterwaida  fled;  and  being 
rec&Ued  a  aecond  time,  he  returned  to  Kazianzua, 
aiaiated  hi*  father  in  tiie  mioiatry,  and  preached  to 
the  people.  In  371  or  372,  St  Baadl,  who  in  the 
meantioie  bad  become  Biahop  of  CtBBorea.  prevailed 
upon  him  to  accept  the  aee  of  Saaime,  a  amall  town 
in  Oapndocia.  But  he  had  icaroely  taken  pouea- 
don  of  hii  new  dignity,  whon,  overcome  again  by 
'  ■    '  lanc*  to  public  life,  he  ralirBd,  a 

biahopric,  to  Naiiftiinu,  where  he 


aver,  after  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Vaiena  (878), 
he  waa  induced  to  leave,  in  otier  to  tmdertako  tM 
charoe  of  a  amall  Nicaian  oongnpMtm  in  Conatan- 
tinople,  where,  until  then,  Ariuiam  had  hild  osdit- 
pat«d  away.  G.  waa  after  a  ahi^t  time^  when  hia 
erudition  and  eloquence  became  oonipicnoBa,  elected 
archbiahop,  upon  which  the  Aiiana  became  ao  ezaape- 
rated  that  hia  verv  life  wm  in  danger.  G.,  although 
~d  by  the  Pope  Damaaoa  Mid  the  Emperor 
loaina,  preferred  resigning  hia  aee  vduntaril^, 


upheld  by  tiie 

nieodoaiua,  preferred  resignins  hia  see  vduntarilv, 

'in    order  M  lay  the  atorm,  like    another  Jonan, 


ftlQLau^  he  had  not  aadtwl  iL'  He  went  tm^  to 
Tfmiiuizut,  and  took  np  hia  aditaiy  abode  near 
Arianiua,  whei«,  aftar  aome  y««n  of  a  mott  aacetie 
Ufa,  he  died  in  3B9.  Wm  aahee  wen  conveyed  to 
Conatantinople,  and  thenoe,  dnrbg  tiie  Cmaadea,  to 
Roma.  Hia  day  ia,  with  the  Latina,  the  0th  <rf  May. 
Hia  ebsraeter  and  temper,  ardent  and  mthnaiaatie, 
but  at  th«  Hune  time  dreamy  and  melancholy,  hard, 
bnt  alao  tnidar,  ambitioua  and  ytt  bumble,  all  hia 
iiwtaUlity  and  vacillation  between  a  life  of  contem- 
ftatkn  aad  c(  autiM^  ««  vividly  depicted  in  hia 


flight!  M  poetical  ganina,  and  withal  of 
eliuanea  and  reflnemen^  they  at  other  tin 

'    '   padantjo,  and  heavy  with   ku^ieHumi 

otwitiiataBding  all  thia,  O.  may  fairiy  b* 

pTOnontwed  ana  of  the  fliat  or«ton,and  BKiat  aooon- 
pliahed  and  thong^tfnl  wttten  of  aU  timea.  Hia 
mrviving  worka  oonaiBt  chiefly  of  about  03  oiatioB^ 
3(3  letter*^  and  166  poema~meditatkaa,dewsripliaM^ 
•eroaiua,  epixmna,  Ac— to  wHA  ToUina  (Ofa«At, 
1806}  haa  added  SO  more,  wfaid  he  oallwl  Oarmbia 
C^tpMo.  HuntoripiibliBhed<Padna,1700)S!8<itker 
unedited  ajrigrama.  TbeflntedittoBof  bitoomideta 
wotka  uipeared  at  Baael  in  lUO,  folia  AnoUtv 
edition  appeared  in  Fatia  I60»— ISll  (9  vola.  foK<4, 
by  Hmel,  which  waa  reprinted  in  Faria  in  1630; 
Lapaio  {or  rather  Colcmel,  169(^  and  VtoiMj,  17A3  j 
bnt  none  of  theae  ia  anfficimitfy  aconiata.  The  laat 
edition,  bat  little  improved,  nnder  tin  an»pioM  << 
the  Beuedietinea,  appealed  in  2  vola.  (Paria,  1760— 
1840}.  Hia  tepsrate  woika  have  frequently  beta 
edited,  and  partly  translated  into  different  tongnea. 
QHEOOBT  OF  ARMEliriA,  commonly  called 
Tna  iLLOwnAToa,  waa  the  ^xietla  of  Chrutiani^ 

bithopa  of  the  primitive  dmnih,  little  ia  known  o£ 
hit  eariy  hlaton.    Be  ia  aaid  to  have  I 
at  C«aai«a,  in  Oappadoda,  wheni  at  t 
ha  waa  inatmctea  in  the  Chriaidan 


a  lelivm.    B» 
«  of  Tiridate^ 


worahm  idol  .  % 

nwceeoed,  bamg  looked  upon  aa  a  proof  <j  divina 
wrath,  the  ki^i  immediately  put  bimaelt  and  Ua 
■nbjeota  nndtr  Q.'a  iaatruiifaana.  13ie  p«o^  weM 
canv«rted  in  gnat  nnmben,  and  dumhea  unmedl- 
ate^  erected  throoghont  the  ooonttj;  andQ.,Bft«r 
lecetving  otdiiwtion  at  Cawaraa,  returned  aa  mebii- 
polhan  of  Annania,  and  baptMed  hia  oonverta. 
Iliii  took  idaoe  about  the  beginning  of  the  4th 


pr^eaaadlybl'  Q- 
la    The  mamoi?  c^  G.  ia  held  in  graw 
in  tlie  Gieek,  Coptic,  Abyatinian,  and 


QREOO'BT  OF  NTSSA,  Bmn,  n  Greek 
Ckorch-father,  and  the  younger  brother  of  BaaQ  the 
Great,  born  about  332  at  Sebaate,  devoted  himaelf  at 
an  eariv  age  to  the  atud^  of  sciencea  and  philoaopbT, 
and  anbeeqnently  married  a  pioua  and  bonounble 
lady.  In  conaequence  of  a  dream,  however,  he 
aeparated  from  hw,  and  abjuring  the  world,  entered 
upon  the  dntiea  of  an  ecclen^c  After  a  abort 
relapae  into  hia  old  profane  atudiea,  he  renounced  thia 
'apoatacy'  fw  ever,  and  in  372  waa  made  Biahop 
of  SywuL,  a  ct^  in  Cappadoda,  in  Leaaer  Annenia, 
much  to  thediamayoftlie  Ariau^whoknew  him  to 
be  a  lealona  defender  of  the  ITioea*  creed.  n>«y 
at  once  commenced  an  opposition  to  him.  O.  waa 
deposed  by  the  emptor,  and  compelled  to  flee.  Ha 
lived  for  tome  yean  in  seclnaion,  until,  at  the  det& 
of  Talent  (378),  Oratianua  restored  him  to  hia  see. 
In  379,  be  waa  charged  by  the  council  of  Antioch, 
to  viiit  the  cbnrchea  in  Arabia  and  Palestine,  in 
order  to  reatore  them  to  their  pristine  (Hthodoz)* 
and  peace,  the  many  years  of  hereay  and  diasennon 
that  had  preceded  having  created  a  sad  oonfuairai 
among  the  flock  of  the  fiuthfnL     ^  381  ha  waa 


„Coogle 


aBBOOKT  09  TOmtS-CffiBGOBT  THAUMATUBGOS. 


i.fc,au  ait^tw  dartfaodo^  for  fail  and  oUnr  oongn- 
«t  the  oooBdila  hMd  in  tlwt 


dl7in8Kudaa^aad 


>  pMomMiit  *  part,  in  Iwtii.  that  dMrt^ 
!■  Uie  luBonnble  title  of  MMrapolitaii  vat 
iilf  confMTcd  upon  lun.  Hie  la«t  tame 
to  haye  ^tpeand  pnUic^,  vaa  at  the 
conncil  at  Cooataotiikapla  in  m:  and  h«  aecma  to 
h*vm  died  altortly  afterwaida.  "nt  noond  mewan 
cooiLCil  cmfeirea  upon  h^rn  the  pre-eminetit  title  of 
■  Pater  Patnun.' 


not  liBD^t  Willi  the  glowmg 
trstiiu    aeuman    of    a    Qregoij 
Banl,  ihej  exhibit  a  greater  depdi  of  poetical  feel- 
ing and  [duloaDphical  thoDfiht,  while,  at  'Uie 

time,  Oi^  aboimd  f -' — '  ' '■^ — ' 

onuwela  for  ereiy  at 


Oi^  aboimd  in  pracbcal 
ell  for  ereiy  atus  of  lif» 

and  ooneeita  which  oocnr  no  len 


13»    The  fanmfiil,  diten 


^nantly,  an  nthor  to  be  put  to  the  accoont  of 
the  timeB  in  wUoh  Q.  liTed,  when  BTmboliim  and 
allegosj  nigned  niprame.  On  the  other  hand,  O. 
cannot  be  praiaed  too  highly  for  haTing  been  one  of 
Uie  flrft  inn  nanfnlly  ibiod  oot  for  the  ancient 
Greek — albeit  heathmi—jdiiloaaphy.  Hia  wtittnn 
are  indeed  (qIIt  inbned  with  Flatoninn  and  Ane- 
toteKaniwn,  and  he  went  as  far  a*  to  botrow  tile 
technical  termi  of  th«M  maatsre  for  hi*  tbedMjiaal 
inTeetigatJoua.  'Ai  the  Ltntelitw  borrowed  from 
the  Egyptiana,'  he  laid,  'ioOhrittfaBi^Bnwt  cany 
along  with  it  all  that  ia  eoatly  ovt  of  flu  pagan 
catnp;'  a  eajing  lAioh,  howaW.haa  been  attrl- 
bnted  to  aome  othn  FathMi  of  um  eailj  dinrah. 
Hia  oftJiodoxy  haa  been  qoeatloiiad  In  late  tunM ; 
«liiefly  on  aocoont  of  hia  atioiigljr  oondtoniiig  aa 
beatheniah,  the  view  that  rebgun  waa  mntly 
dependent  on  the  dogma ;  aeoording  to  him,  leliorai 
waa  mora  a  matter  ot  the  heart  and  of  *»«i'"g  Xle 
oonnoil  of  Epheana  aolemnly  and  moat  meigetieally 
deoland  (or  the  aonndncn  of  hia  teaohiiM,  i^ting 
the  beretio*  out  of  hia  own  writin^L  Of  U«  Chnat- 
td^y— in  the  maia  that  of  Origen--TiB.,  tliat  the 
LoMa  had  penebated  all  parta  oftbehnnisn  natnie, 
and  thu  euvaled  it  to  liimMJf,  wo  will  treat  nnder 
thia  latter.  The  Lotina  oelebiate  tbe  day  of  G. 
on  the  10th  of  Jam         ■■     ^     ■  ■•    —     ■ 

Hatdk    Eianwat  oe 


beatiae;  a  diakgoe  irf  Uw  Sold  and  B«aumotioi], 
called  Maerimia,  after  hia  mater  (lappoeed  to  have 
bean  held  at  her  death-bed);  a  treatua  on  (b  Bofy 
TrMtf  and  ti»  .Dnty  ttf  Ae  Soip  Qhod,  beaidae 
a  nnnibei  of  homilia&    Tlu  flrat  OMOfdete  Latin 


bioeraphiea,   lettera, 
16S7  (toUo),  and  wa 


New  Tntamenl,  dogmatical  and  oon- 
BcrmonB,  panegyiice, 

—-'   --  Col- —  ^- 


(folio),  and  waa  fallowed  by  othen  at  Baael 
(156S  and  1571),  and  Faria  (1673  and  1603).  The 
firat  Greek  and  I^tin  editioiu  by  the  Jaauit  Qretiu* 
appeared  in  Faria  (1615—1616),  in  2  toIb.,  foL,  and 
waa  reprinted  there  in  1638.  Separate  worka  of 
0.  baTB  been  edited  repeatedly,  but  next  tc  none 

QRBOOBT    OF  TOtTBS,   originally  oalled 


veuin*  ^agasM,  um  mtrm  m  iiyon ;  on  ue 
taatenud,  mm  8t  Gregory,  Biihop  of  Lai^w.  St' 
QaUna,  Kahop  of  Clninont,  G.'a  vodet  OBdertodc 
Ua  earty  ediwation,  aad,  aftw  hU  dMth,  G.  c<u- 
tiuud  Mi  atodiai  nadar  St  ATitu^  tbe  nowMor 
at  Gallna  in  the  Iniboprio.  Ordained  dMMcn,  G. 
Ut  Anrergiu,  aad  wait  to  (be  oonrt  of  KegU>t| 


Still  T^yc 


elected 


of  great  perpleuty,  owing 
la  M  tbe  firtt  MerovingiaB 


^.     courage  and  firmiinw.  bcwerer,  weie 

eqoal  to  an^  of  tne  aarare  teata  to  which  tliOT 


by  openly  reaiating  e 


u  to  any  of  Q 

.  e  fspcaed,  and  _,   _^ , „  .   ._     ^  . 

avUkMi^  on  a«na  oocaaiona,  be  drew  upon  bun- 
ielf  the  hBtt«d  U  ^oecn  Frcdegnndi^  and  tbe  ite 
of  her  hnaband,  Kuu;  CltQperuli,  wbo  aecma  to 
have  been  a  mare  iod  in  her  band*.  G.  wm 
acouMd  of  seditioaa  and  other  treaaonaUe  actiona, 
and  aamiuoned  before  a  oonncil  of  biahopi  in  SSOl 
Here,  bowarer,  ha  defended  hinuelf  with  locb  clear- 
neaa  and  Tigour,  that  Cliilparich  Tiimmlf^  i^ange 
to  Bay,  from  that  momsnt  ceaaed  to  be  hia  foe, 
and  becoming  even  hia  warm  admirer  and  friend, 
charged  him  afterwarda  with  many  important  poli- 
J.-..T  _.--_-. j^  Thia  royal  partiality,  hioweTer,  doea 
0  have  jverented  Q.  fnim  occaaionally 
calling  the  king  a  Herod  and  a  Nero.  No  le« 
faToored  by  t&  king*!  inceeaaora,  Oontram  and 
Childebert  ]X,a.  didnotfailtonaealllui  infln- 
ence  with  the  court  for  the  amelioration  of  the 
poution  of  the  church,  and  tbe  general  condition 
of  bia  flock.  Eii  travel*  bad,  apart  from  their 
poUtJoal  purpoaaa,  at  the  aame  time  tbe  objeot  of 
erenrwbefe  reat^ning  ^eace  and  piety,  eo  Lmaali 
needed  in  thcaa  daya  in  couventa  and  ehorcliM, 
■moog  the  cleroy  and  the  laity.  Of  bia  Jonruey 
to  Bmne  in  Sw,  tbe  dreiuartaneea  ot  wbtoh  are 
related  with  a  minnteneai  d  itaelf  rar^riaina ;  ft 
fope't  wonder  at  finding  in  G.,  inate^  of 
impoaiiig  man  he  had  exj)ected  to  bebdd,  a 
tmoia,  or  manikio,  and  of  hii  anawer,  that  'we 
ire  aa  God  bad  made  ni^'  we  can  only  ibt, 
that  according  to  the  Indd  mveetdgationa  of  Ht 
KriM  (Zte  Ong.  Tar.  Vila  tl  Ser^itit,  p.  16),  it  never 
have  taken  place.  Hia  last  jonmey  aeema  to 
I  been  to  Orleana,  whither  he  aocompanied  the 
kins  in  GS3.  He  died  abortly  after,  in  694  or  t»5. 
at  Tonra,  where  he  had  been  a  biabop  for  twen^- 
three  yean.  Hia  worka  oom^priM)  in  tne  firtt  plaM^ 
hia  ten  bodu  d  E'rankiah  hiatoiy,  Oetta,  CluvnieoH 
Fntteonan—OM  firat  attempt  at  Vtmab  hiatoii- 
a    earned  bit  G.  the  name  of 

b  Hktoiy,' altboogh  ita  omdity 

of  a^k,  and  indiacritninate  '"'""g  np  of  every. 
thing  important  and  otherwiae,  make  it  partake 
much  more  of  the  nature  of  a  cbrooicle  than 
of  a  hiitory  properly  to  called.  Q.'a  other  worka 
are  :  A  Booh  oft/ie  Olory  of  f^  Mari^t ,-  Of  Urn- 
Mirada  of  SI  Juiian  (304) ;  Of  the  Olory  or  Mlradu 
of  the  Confaion:  Of  tile  Mirac2a  qfSl  ItarUn;  and 
book  d  the  uvea  of  tbe  Fathera,  conaiating  of 

otlier  minor  writing      Uuch  more,   however,  u 

rally  attribnted  to  G.  than  ia  in  reality  bia. 

first  critical  edition  of  bia  worka,  by  Sninard, 
appeared  in  Farit  1699,  fol. ;  the  lat^  by  Ooadet 
ajiA  Tarannc,  Fana,  1S36  and  1S37,  with  a  French 
tranalation.  Of  monographiea  tm  Q.,  we  may  men- 
tion Be  Ot^.  Tmr.  Bpuc  Vita  et  SeriptU,  ^G.Q. 
Kriaa  and  Ubell ;  Ortgar  von  Tevrt  und  lekt  Ztit 
(Leip.  1836,  8vo]. 

GBBOOBY  IHAUMATTrBOOB  (Wonda^ 
wnkar),  originally  called  Tbwdoxub,  SAinT,  bom 
at  Neoe«aaiea,  in  PontaB,  between  210  and  216. 
Sprang  from  aa  iUuBtriou  and  wealthy  heathen 
family,  he  waa  adnoated  for  a  rbetmioian  or  advo- 
cate ;  bnt  an  aoqnaintanoe  which  he  formed  witk 
Oiigen  at  Qeaarea,  in  Palestine,  aUorad  him  to  the 
field  of  aacred  acienoB.  G.  forgot  Botnan  law,  apply- 
ing bimaelf  inataad,  under  hia  new  uarter,  <riUi  imI 


iGoogl 


Hid  of  profiuia  philooopli^.  SevenI  yun  had 
thnM  pawed,  when  Maxumn'i  peivwnttioiu  forced 
"  *     a  to  leave  CiBBarea.    G.  then  irent  to  Alex- 


Ot^en  b 


returned  to  CieBarea,  and  Q.  went  to  join  hiin  there, 
and  to  renew  tiijs  former  studies  under  him.  Most 
probably  it  wu  at  that  period  also  tiist  he  was 
IiaptiBed,  and  changed  his  heathan  name  of  Theo- 
d<wm.  Becalled  to  bis  family,  G.,  instead  of  striving 
for  those  posta  of  honour  for  which  he  had  been 
destined,  retired  into  solitndfi ;  but  was  so  often 
besoodit  to  return  and  labour  for  the  church,  that 
he  amnrad  himsaU  to  be  consecrated  about  240. 
Tnrtallpd  aa  l»sluip  at  Neocaiarea,  a  wealthy  and 


populoua. 


If  to  hifi  half  work  with  the  Dtmoirt 
wrought,  according  to  ancient  teatimony,  many 
mirades,  such  aa  recalling  devils,  whom  he  bad 
frigbtenad  out  of  a  heathen  temple,  at  hiB  will,  and 
thereby  eonvarting  its  chief  functionary  to  Chri»- 
tdonity ;  tnoving  a  stone,  staying  a  river,  kJUins  a 
Jew  by  hia  mere  wish,  ph.nging  a  Uke — a  matter 
of  contest  between  two  bro^ei« — into  solid  e&rtli, 
and  tltns  oontrived  to  change  the  onbelieving  popu- 
UtioQ  of  his  see  into  devout  Christiana. 

Doiiiw  the  persecution  of  Dedus,  which  broke 
out  in  360,  G.  fled  with  a  great  part  of  his  flock, 
whom  he  would  not  see  exposed  to  the  dan^  of 
hanug  either  to  change  their  faith,  or  to  die  the 
death  of  martyia,  and  during  this  flight,  he,  once 


he  had  converted  by  recalling  the  devHa — into 
In  251,  the  Emperor  Decius  died,  and  O.  returned 
to  Neocrasarea.  He  now  instituted  a  general  festival 
for  those  Chrislnans  who  had  fallen  during  the 
persecatian,  and  permitted  the  faitMul  to  celebrate 
ft  with  banqaete  and  spoita  like  those  which  accom- 
panied heathen  festivals — a  procecdiog  by  which  he 
intended  to  draw  over  the  pagan  multitude  to 
Christianity,  but  which  has  been  severely  blamed, 
and  wMcb,  indeed,  was  fraught  with  great  mischief 
for  the  church  in  later  times. 

In  SS4,  we  flnd  him,  together  with  his  brother 
Anthenodoros,  at  the  Council  of  Antioch,  which 
bad  been  convoked  for  the  purpose  of  condemning 
the  heredea  of  Paul,  Bishop  of  Samosata,  their 
nniatnrea  occurring  first  in  the  Acta  of  the  CoundL 
Whether  or  not  o!  alio  took  part  in  the  second 
council  (269),  necenitated  by  Paul's  refuaal  to  abdi- 
cate, is  very  uncertain.  Of  hia  own  extraordinary 
piety,  devotion,  truthfolnesa,  and  modeaty,  of  hm 
'jirophetic  and  apostolic  temper,'  the  best  testimony 
lieem  tile  focttbat  St  Basil,  StMajdmus,  and  other 
great  Inminarita  of  the  church,  call  him  a  second 
Moaea  or  PauL 

^Die  only  gennine  works  of  O.  are  a  puieomcal 
disooDiae  on  Origoi,  which  he  delivoed  in  pnblic 
before  bis  return  to  his  native  plaoe;  the  above- 
I  Metapbrams         ••    ■    ■    . 


setting  forth  the  punishments  and  penances  to  be 
undergone  by  such  Chriatians  as  had  bought  booty 
from  pagan  aoldie™,  a  practice  very  common  in 
thoae  times  of  conaUnt  iovaidous  «  Ootha  and 
Scythiana  in  Asia,  principally  in  Fontua.  All  other 
wntiiigB  shown  tindec  hiB  name  are  Bpurioos.  The 
firat  collected  edition  of  hia  works  was  published 
bv  Qa.  Voaaiiis  at  Mayence  in  1604 ;  a  more  oom- 
pleta  edition  appeared  in  Paria,  1622,  in  fobo. 
OKBITBHBBBQ,  a  small  manufacturing  town 


PoiL 


and  fa  famous  for  ita  linoi 
(1871)  B61S. 

GBBITBHHAGEIT,  a  town  of  Prasaia,  in  the 
province  of  Pomerania,  is  situated  on  the  rixbt  bank 
of  the  BegUtz,  13  miles  south-soath-weat  of  Stettin. 
It  is  pattully  walled,  has  two  cburekea,  and  is  the 
seat  of  oonaiderAble  industry.    Fopt  (1871)  WIL 

OBEITSWAIjD,  a  town  of  Pmaaia,  in  the  pto- 
vince  of  Pomerania,  is  situated  on  the  Rick,  sbont 
3  milea  from  ita  mouth,  and  20  milea  aonth-ealt  of 
Stralaund.  It  is  r^ularly  bnitt,  and  la  aarrounded 
by  promeDadea,  into  which  the  former  ramparta 
have  been  oonverted.  Amon^  its  housea  are  several 
curious  brick  struotorea,  dating  from,  the  14th  and 
leth  centuriea.  O.  contains,  besidea  other  pubhe 
institutions,  a  gymnoaium  and  a  nniveraity  (founded 
in  1456),  attended  by  sbont  350  atadenta.  The 
nniveraity  library  contains  about  100,000  volomea 
Weaving,  machme-making,  salt-worko,  and  manu- 
factures of  paper,  tobacco,  soap,  leather,  and  oQ  an 
carried  on,  as  well  aa  commerce.  O.  feoaanaacd,  in 
1872,  55  ships  of  16,630  tons.    Fop.  (1871)  17,238L 

G.  was  founded  in  the  131b  &,  before  the  close  of 
which.it  made  one  in  a  union  of  Wendiah  Hauae- 
towna,  c<mipriaing  Stralaund,Bostoc^  Wumar,  and 
Lnbeok.  At  the  peaoe  of  Westphalia  (164S),  tiu 
town  came  into  the  poaaeaaion  of  Sweden ;  but, 
togeUier  wiOk  the  whole  of  Swedaah  Fomeraaii, 
it  was  conceded  to  Prussia  in  181S. 

QRBIZ,  a  town  of  Central  Germany,  cental  of 
the  principality  of  Reuas-Utere-Linie,  and  seat  of  (be 
sovereign  prince,  ia  charmingly  aitnated  on  the  ri^t 
bank  of  tba  White  Elater,  4B  miln  aouth-south-wtat 
of  Leipaic.  It  ia  well-boilt,  ia  aortDunded  by  walJ^ 
and  contains  three  castlea,  (nw  for  winter,  another 
for  summer  oooopation,  with  beautifal  gaidena  and 
park ;  the  third,  which  ia  built  on  an  iauatad  rock, 
u  used  tea  public  offioea.  The  town-hooaa,  a  hand- 
some  specimen  of  Gotbio,waa  built  in  1S4L  Nearly 
3000  hand-looms  are  here  employed  in  the  manofac- 
tui«  of  woollen  and  half -woollen  goods  ;  one  factor; 
containa  500  looms.     Pop.  (1871)  11,S33. 

OREKA'DA,  an  island  of  volcanio  origin  in  Om 
Britiah  West  Indies,  is  said  to  be  tba  moat  beantifnl 
of  the  Caribbeea.  With  an  area  of  133  aqiiar« 
milea^  it  contained,  in  1871,  37,6S4  inhabitwita. 
mostly  of  African  descent.  Of  these  only  400  i^ 
600  are  whitei^  the  rest  are  people  of  colour.  Vecy 
considerable  importations  of  coolies  have  taken 
place.  On  Oie  coast  are  aeveral  mjod  harboon; 
while  a  central  ridge  of  mount^na  nere  and  there 
presenting  an  elevation  of  3000  feet  V""*^ 
varioua  extinct  cratera,  some  of  them  tiensfonn^ 
into  conaiderabie  lakes.  The  chief  towns  are  St 
George,  St  Mark,  St  Patrick,  St  Andrew,  and  Char- 
lotte-Town. The  firat  of  those,  which  is  tba  seat 
of  government,  stand*  in  lafc  IST  2"  N.,  and  in  long. 
61°  48'  W.  In  1868  there  were  27  Bchools,  consist- 
ing of  the  normal  and  nammar  sobool,  tiie  «eB' 
trS  BcbooU,  and  paridi  aclioola,  wiHi  an  '^^^^f^ 
of  1418.  The  public  revenue  amounted  in  1871  » 
£22,88a  The  importa  and  erporta  were  re^ 
tively  repreaented  by  £13^467  and  £163,921 ;  *" 
ootreaponding  wanlta  in  1833,  vittoally  the  laat  year 
of  unmitigated  slavery,  having  been  £73,8*6  m" 

£288,683.      Among  the  ezprnta  ^" 

and  cocoa;  the  last  of  which leei 

the  ataple. — The  island  was  diaoo 

on  hia  third  voyage  in  1498,  at  whioll  *>'»•''?!' 

inhabited  by  Carib,  who  were  snbaequent^  M*^ 

minated  by  the  fVanch,  into  whcae  bands  G.  cm"* 

about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.    Itnnauy 

fell  into  the  poaaeaaion  of  the  Britiah  in  VJSS. 

GRKNA'DK,  a  small  abell,  about  three  ia^ 
fa  diameter,  of 


-_f,  oettepD, 

IB  likely  to  beoMaa 


an  ebeU,  about  tk»«  i"^ 
I  annexed  glM,  flUad  wiU 


GBBNADtES— OfiBaHAH. 


n  from  the  huuL    Hurled  among 
iDope,  as  thoee  auonbled  in  the 


ditch  of  a,  foitrcai  dnring  an  aannlt,  gienadea  are 
urtacnlarlj  embairarains,  the  iplinten  inflicting 
deep    -wonnd*  and  evatmg  great  confoiian.     The 


Grenade. 

Qrenade*  are  oeeamonally  rolled  orer  the  parapet, 
thnmf^  wooden  trooghs,  into  the  trenoh  belov : 
there  ia  alao  a  nieciea  of  band-gun  find  ftom  a 
reat,  eallad  *miiaEeton,'  from  vhich  ^«nadea  mt" 
be  [nviected  to  a  ihOTt  distance.  Hieae  miaail 
•n  akid  to  have  been  first  used  in  the  year  1094 

GRENADIER  originaDj  a  soldier  who  wm 
etaplojed  in  throwing  Imod-grenades,  bnt  in  modem 
pamnoe  a  member  of  the  fint  company  of  every 
battalion  of  toot,  in  which  the  tallest  and  finest 
men  of  Uie  re^ment  are  placed.  This  oompan]-  ' 
to  be  distin^ished  from  the  reat  by  tall  bei 

can ;  it  bwU  tlw  place  of  hotunir,  via.,  the  ,_„ . 

when  in  line,  and  the  front  when  in  odnnm  of 
attack. 

OBEirADIEIt  GUARDS,  the  first  regiment 
of  Foot  Gnards  in  the  British  Honsehold  Brigade  of 
Qnatds,  and  generally  considered  the  finest  coipe  in 
the  anuy.      It  comprises  2540  officers  and  - 

divided  mto  three  battalioiks.    The  officer*  o_  

fsshkmable  corpa  sze  asnally  from  the  familiee  of  the 
noUlity  ct  more  distinenished  landed  gentry.  The 
Rr>t  Foot  Gnards,  un<br  wbidi  name  the  regiment 
was  ori^nally  known,  was  first  raised  in  1060; 
since  tbon  it  nas  ever  bonie  an  hononrable  positioa 
in  all  the  wars  of  the  comttiy,  and  especially  in  the 
Peninmls,  at  Waterloo,  and  m  the  Cnmea, 

GRENABITCES,  a  chain  of  islets  in  the  West 
Indies,  extending  between  Grenada,  on  which  they 
are  chiefly  dependent,  and  St  Vincent,  from  lai 
12*  30"  to  ir  N.  They  vary  in  size  from  about 
70OO  acres  downwards.  The  largest  is  Carriacon. 
Much  inconvenience  is  caused  by  their  deSeieoey 
in  streams  and  splings,  an  enl  which,  of  la^ 
yem,  has  been  increasingly  felt,  from  the  inju- 
diciona  destruction  of  the  tmibei. 

GEtENELLE,  a  snbnrb  of  Pari*  (q.T.). 

GRENOBLE  (a  oormption  of  the  Lat.  Oraliana- 
polit,  or  City  of  Oratiao},  an  important  town, and 
stroDs  fortress  of  Fnnoe,  with  double  eDdoenros, 
ca[Ht2  of  tha  department  of  Is^  i*  pleuanUy 
(■mated  on  both  banks  o(  the  rirer  of  that  name,  in 
a  beantiful  and  fertile  district,  onrronnded  by  high 
nmmtains,  and  aboat  58  mile*  south-east  of  L^on. 
It  is_  dJTided  by  the  Is^  which  is  here  con&ed 
within  handaome  quays,  into  two  unequal  portions  ; 
the  one,  narrow  and  contnurted,  and  oonsisting  of 
oil;  two  streets,  aitnated  on  the  right  bank  id  the 
river  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  is  called  8aint  Laurent ; 
the  oilier,  a  moch  more  important  onartcr,  ooa- 
t'tiainff  aU  the  poblic  bnildinn,  uid  consisting  of 
ifatm  and  wdl-lighted  sbeeti^  on  the  left  bank. 


is  called  Bonn*.  Among  the  public  buildings  are 
the  Falsi*  de  Joitioe,  wita  a  Gothic  oriel,  originally 
the  palace  of  the  Danjdiin,  and  the  most  interesting 
old  building  in  the  town ;  the  Aoaddmie  Vniver- 
sitaire  ;  the  town-hall ;  the  pobho  library,  contain. 
ing  80,000  Ttanmes  and  1200  H3&;  and  the  pictnre- 
gaUery.  G.  ha*  gained  a  reputation  for  its  mann- 
lacturee  of  gloves  (in  makinc  which  from  14,000  to 
15,000  peraons  are  employed),  liqueurs,  perfumes,  and 
silk  goods.  Pop.  (1872)  26,663.  In  the  vioiDity  lies 
thevilhweof  Chartieuse.  from  which  the  Carthusian 
monks  deriTe  their  name,  and  whero  they  origin- 
ated.— See  ChampoUion  Figeac,  AntiqaiUt  de  O. 
(Oren.  1807),  and  Pilot,  HUoWe  de  O.  ti  d«  tt* 
Bnviroiu  (Gren.  1829). 

GRENYILLB,  Gbobob,  an  Enslish  statesman 
and  reputed  author  of  the  Stamp  Act,  which  first 
drove  the  American  colonies  into  resistance,  was 
bom  in  October  I71Z  He  was  brother  to  Richard 
Grenville.  Lord  Temple,  and  brother-in.Iaw  of  the 
Earl  of  Chatham.  He  entered  parliament  in  1741, 
and  from  1744  to  1762  filled  several  minor  govern- 
ment offices.  In  1767  he  introduced  a  bill  lor  the 
regulation  of  the  payment  of  the  navy.  In  1 762  be 
bMame  Secretary  oC  State,  and  Uien  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Bate  as  Prime  Minister,  uniting  in 
himself  the  offices  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
and  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  He  resigned  the 
preniiership  in  1765,  and  died  in  1770.  G.  was 
distinguished  for  elc^uenoe,  public  spirit,  business 
qualities,  and  extensive  kuowledge ;  but  his  impe- 
noua  nature  made  him  an  unpopular  minister,  alDca 
with  the  king,  the  parliament^  and  the  people. 

GBENVILLB,  WnjJin  Wyhotam,  Loan,  third 
•on  of  the  preceding,  was  bom  in  October  1759. 
After  studying  at  Eton  and  Oxford  with  brilliant 
success,  he  became  a  member  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1782,  and  attended  his  eldest  brother.  Lord 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  in  the  character  of  secretary. 
Soon  after  he  became  Paymasteiscenetal  of  the 
Army,  and  in  1789  waa  chosen  ^leaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  1790  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department,  and 
waa  raised  to  the  peerage  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Grenville.  He  became  Foreign  Secretary  in  tha 
ensuiog  year.  He  reaigoed  office,  along  with  Pitt, 
in  ISOT,  on  the  refusu  of  George  III.  to  give  his 
aasent  to  tha  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill.  He  waa 
Premier  in  1806— 1S07.  In  1809  he  was  chosen 
chancellor  of  the  nniveraity  of  Oxford.  From  1809 
to  I81S  he  acted  along  with  Earl  Grey,  and  ha 
generally  supported  Mr  Canning.  Lord  G.  was  an 
able  Bp»iker,  with  much  influence  among  the  Peer*, 
and  an  excellent  scholar.    He  died  in  1S34 

GRE8HAM,  Sir  Thomas,  founder  of  the  London 
Rojral  Exchange,  descended  from  an  ancient  Norfolk 
family,  was  the  eecond  son  of  Sir  Richard  Greshan), 
an  opulent  merchant,  elected  in  1537  Lord  Mayor 
of  London.  Bom  in  1619,  he  was  firat  apprenticed 
to  bia  uncle,  Sir  John  Greaham,  a  wealthy  London 
mercer,  and  then  sent  to  study  at  Gonville  Hall, 
now  Cains  College,  Cambridge.  In  1543,  he  was 
admitted  a  member  of  the  Mercers'  Company.  His 
father,  who  died  in  February  154S>  had  been  one 
of  Henry  VIIL's  domestic  fiTi»Tii-i«l  agents;  and 
in  1652,  G.  was  sent  to  Antwerp,  as  king's  factor 
there,  in  oonaequence  of  the  mismanagement  of  the 
peraon  previously  in  charge.  In  two  year*,  he  paid 
ofl'  a  h^vy  loan,  entire^  reatored  the  kiug^  credit, 
and  introduced  a  new  system  of  finance.  The 
joincipal  duty  of  the  royal  agent  was  the  n^o- 
tiation  (d  foreign  loans ;  and  daring  the  long  penod 
be  held  the  c&co,  be  was  suoceAsfully  employed 
in   many    mart    inqiortant    and   diffioult    taaiuy 


..Goo'^l 


&BBTNA  OBXKtT-OBSy. 


a  Pratwtaiit,  Qneeo  Mbtj, 


tnfiMotioUt   Jkji  b*  V 


Muting  k  BMOMtuJ  of  ki«  pMt  Mrviots,  he  wu  loaii 
niniMed.  Bj  Qnem  EliMlwth,  he  wu,  in  1609, 
kniabtod,  *nd  •ppointad,  for  »  ibort  tima,  Kngliih 
MttPMiiaor  ■*  uw  ooart  of  tha  king  of  Bpain'i 
Ngtot  at  Brawlt.  The  tnvblN  in  the  SeOur- 
landi  oompeUed  faim,  in  ISM,  to  withdnw  finaU^ 
from  Antwarp,  to  vhioh  oi^  ho  had  made  uon 
than  forhr  ^oDinejra  on  the  aHricocf  Qlo  itate.  In 
<nu  <rf  whuh,  in  ice(^  ho  mi  thmwn  from  bii 
hoTM^  and  nodotod  Ismo  for  fifs.  In  1669,  hj 
bii  advioe,  the  plan  of  bcorowing  mMWf  from  the 
LoEidon  moohanta,  initead  of  bw  foiaignen,  was 
adopted,  to  tlie  f|reat  adTaatage  of  the  neroantile 
body.  Having,  in  1064,  loet  hu  only  aon,  Biohard, 
ha  reaolved  upon  devotitig  a  poiiion  of  hii  great 
wealth  to  the  erection  of  a  botme  or  erchaiigei,  in 
imltatioii  of  tbe  one  at  Antwerp,  tor  the  Loadon 
mercbaata,  who  were  wont  to  meet  In  the  open  air 
— a  im>ject  which  had  origiiiated  with  his  father. 
It  waa  formal^  opened,  in  ISTO,  by  Queen  '*""' 
both  in  MMOi^  0Bvhi(9t  oeeationihe  4hux 
the  foDiMar,  an" 


dined  with 
the  f  ODiMar,  uid  named  It  Vb»  Boyal  Exchange. 
Bcnowned  for  hit  hoapttali^  and  liberali^,  ne 
frequent^  entertuoed  foreign  paeonagei  of  dit- 
tlnetioD,  and  erected  a  mt^nuicent  tnaniion  at 
Oaterly  Park,  near  Brentford,  where  he  waa  vitited 
by  Qaeen  Elizabeth.  For  the  endowment  of  a 
college  in  London,  he  directed  by  hia  will  that  hie 
town-maniion  in  Biahopagate  Sbeet  ihoold  be 
conTerted  into  a  reodenoe  and  lectore-roomi  for 
■even  profcMon,  to  be  nlariad  oat  of  the  Boyal 
Eichmga  rermne*.  Oraaham  Collen  wai  taken 
down  in  1768,  and  tlie  groond  on  which  it  itood — 
now  ooei^ied  by  the  Bkoiaa  Offloe — waa  taanafscred 
to  gOYOtunent.  The  leotnrea  an  now  d^Tarad  in 
a  leetnre-hidl  bnilt  at  the  oomor  <f  P—jr^'"  and 
Oreaham  Sbseta  oat  tA  tLe  aocnmulated  fond. 
The  anbisda  of  leotora  are  dirini^,  phyaic,  aatrvn- 
omy,  aeometrr,  law,  rhatoric,  and  mnaitL     O.  alio 

CTi£d  for  tae  u«ction  and  aapport  of  msht  alma- 
aei,  and  made  many  other  charitable  cieiiaeata. 
He  died  niddanly,  Naramber  21,  1079L 


field,  in  the  pariah  of  Qiaitney,  inUamfiieeBhire, 
SooUand,  bnt  frequently  applied  to  the  village  of 
Springfield  itself,  which  ia  eituated  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  nortii  of  the  north-eastern  extremity 
of  the  Solway  Firth.  The  Tillage  waa  long  the 
centre  of  extmuiTa  imnggling  operatioiK,  and  more 
recently  it  baoame  famous  (or  infamous]  for  ita 
inegolar  nxarriageo.    Sae  next  atticle. 

ORETHA  ORBBIT  MABBUOBS,  tha  name 
given  to  marriagai  of  T!iigli<)i  pettoni  contracted 
at  Gretna  Ckeen.  Una  ipot  beiog  tlie  flrrt  oon- 
Tenient  halting-plaoa  for  nmaway  coaplw  from 
fii^and,  gave  tha  name  to  thia  kud  of  marriage, 
originally  an  ea^  mode  of  evading  the  E^ 
liaS  Haiiiace  Act,  which  retjtdred  the  OMaent  of 
paimta  and  gnardiana,  pnblicatirai  of  banna,  and 
uie  raeaeaoe  of  a  prieet— all  of  whidi  inToIved 
oonauknrable  publicity  and  an  iaooaYetiient  delay, 
hot  lAich  w««  got  lid  of  by  the  partiea  paaaing 
the  Eiudiah  bordar  into  Soottiah  ground.  'Oie  rule 
being,  toat  a  marriaga  it  valid  if  oonbacted  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  the  ^ace  where  the  partiea 
enter  into  the  oontiaat,  it  wat  eaiy  (or  Englith 
coi^ilea  ta  avail  themaelvea  of  tha  mode  of  con- 
tracting  maniaga  ailcwad  by  the  law  of  Scotland, 
whiob  required  nothing  but  a  mutual  declaration  of 
marriage  to  be  aiclianged  in  laeaaoDe  of  witoeaiea 
—a  aeremony  which  coold  be  p«riomied  inataetly 
— ai^  it  wia  immaterial  whatotr  tlM  paitiaa  ware 


minote  or  not  Thia  deelaiafion  genenl^  totdt 
place  in  pwaenoe  of  a  blaokamith,  who  in  reality 
wat  no  more  Baoaaaary  than  any  oUiar  wituaa,  hoi 
who  stadnaUy  Btrwntrfl  an  aathority  whuA  impoaad 
on  ue  aradnlily  of  tha  TEwaiiA  atrangac^  and 
thercbv  pn^tedoy  the  liberalSr  aroallynitpwrawl 
on  mch  anapioioaa  ooeaaiona  for  nit  triSmg  ttrvicea. 
The  deelarataon  of  marriage  bei^  ezchtagad,  Um 
partiea  oonld  retom  at  once  to  &gla^  ud  tluir 
marriage  waa  held  em  after  to  be  valid  th««  and 
all  the  wtrid  over. 

nieae  maniagea  have  received  much  ditconraea- 
nurat  of  late.  Not  only  hat  the  ifariotneaa  <tf  Uw 
T'^gli'T'  law  of  marriage  been  ditpenaed  with,  by 
allowing  mairiaget  to  be  contracted  in  Engaod 
in  oomparatiTe  aecre^  before  the  luperinteDdent 
registrar,  without  going  before  a  prieat,  bat  the 
Sootiih  law  has  alto  bemi  altered,  with  a  view  of 
.•hni-Ving  Uug  avatlcn  Of  ^^^"gl^^  law.  Bv  19  and 
20  Tict.  o.  96,  no  inwolar  marriage  of  that  kind 
in  Scotland  it  now  vdid  onlaa*  one  at  the  partiea 
had  at  the  data  theraof  hia  or  her  naaal  pUce  U 
raaidaice  thoe,  or  bad  lived  in  Scotland  for  SI 
da^  next  praocding  anoh  marriage.  Ha  affaet  «C 
thiB  ttatote  ii,  ttmefore,  an  obaiaola  to  ronaw^ 
marriagea  Item  Xkuland  ao  far,  that  noa  d  the 
partiea  moat  at  lean  have  reaided  in  Sootland  SI 
daya.  In  leali^,  tlMC«loi%  tbt  Grata*  Otetn  mar- 
riagea may  yet  M  raaortad  to  bf  "^g'"''  ^partae^ 
provided  the  intended  hatband  ocanp^  vttli  Ham 
requiaite,  which  may  eaulv  be  dime;  and  it  t»  need- 
loa  to  obaerrc^  that  if  either  par^  hat  been  living 
in  Scotland,  he  or  tlu  will  atill  have  no  difficult 
in  elopins  with  tha  other  party,  Ita  tha  reoeot 
itatute  wm  be  no  obstacle  in  •nob  caaeo. 

ORBY,   OBAua,   Eau,  £.0.,   bead   M    th* 


The  Qreyi  are  a  Vwthambatknd  family  of  great 
antiqoity,  celebrated  tor  militai;  achievcuienta,  aikd 
fint  eonobled  in  the  time  of  Edward  IV.  Tbt  fiitt 
earl  waa  Sir  0.  Orn,  K.B.,  a  dlatinffiiiahed  mwiVb^ 
of  the  military  profeaaion,  who  held  oommandi  in 

Fiench  rajniblio.  He  ai^rted  in  the  r^notien  of 
the  Wett  India  T.lfn.1.,  tad.  waa  aide-de-oamp  to 
Prince  Ferdinand  at  the  batiJa  of  Mlnilm,  wWe 
ba  wat  woonded.  WiUuat  the  knowledge  and 
against  tha  with  <rf  hit  mora  odebratad  ton,  ha 
accepted  a  peerage  from  Lord  Addingtoit'a  govern- 
ment. Hit  ton  waa  tent  to  Etcm,  and  thanot  to 
Cambridge.  He  then  visited  the  oontinant;  and 
in  hit  Sa  year  entered  tha  Honae  of  Conunona 
as  U.F.  for  hia  native  county.  He  baoama  a 
follower  of  Mr  Fox,  and  hit  maiden  speech  waa 
in  opposition  to  tha  address  of  thankt  to  the  king 
for  n^otiatina  the  oommercial  treaty  with  France. 
He  soon  obtained  a  leading  imaition  in  the  House 
of  Commont,  and  wat  one  of  the  nouageta  id  Um 
impeachment  of  Warren  Eavldnga,  He  aaeitted 
Mr  Fox  in  onaning  the  charfje  leapectiog  Cheyte 
Sing,  and  took  an  aotiTe  part  m  all  tha  tobaequent 
procaedinga.  He  waa  alto  ooa  of  the  founden  of 
tha  fiooie^  of  Friends  of  the  Peopla^  the  ob)eot  of 
which  waa  to  obtain  a  refonn  of  the  npreaentatioa. 
Id  1793,  ha  wat  lelected  to  prpfat  a  petition  from 
this  society,  in  which  the  dcioota  and  abuaea  of  Uia 
repreaentaiive  tystem  were  foniUy  exposed  Ha 
inpported  the  tirayer  of  tha  petiticncn  in  an  able 
speech,  in  which  he  demanded  a  ratom  to  tha  old 
constitutional  tyatam  of  'representation'  at  diitin- 
Duiahad  from  the  modem  abuse  of  'n(Hnlnalion.' 
Ha  was  outvoted  on  this  occaoon,  and  again  ia 
1797-  In  1790,  he  oppoaed  the  proposal  lor  tha 
Irish  imion,  but  reoonunanded  the  abolition  of  forty 
Iralaod  aa  a  nuana  of  aaoBiiiig 


,db,(j00gle 


Wliig  adMinirtntioB  of  Load  GMDnlh  eame 
offioa  in  1806,  d^  amr  Lad  HMriok,  b«oMM  Pint 
Lord  ot  tLa  AdminHr.  Mr  Pm  diad  i«  SanteaW, 
Md  -WBM  aooBaadad  hy  O.  la  SwntMT  of  Suta  for 
Por^gD  Afbiiik  Hd  leadar  of  iha  H«iiM«f  CoamoiK 
Th*  (MlNBtt  «M  bMkM  up  Ik  1807,  bok  not  brfon 
it  liad  Mniad  tlM*bofitica«f  thealM«lnide,Md 
tlM«nlktaMatalMldMnfgrklimit*dp«ciodiiMt«  ' 
oftorlife.  ItwMaafortuaHl«tl>n*0.aadi 
Wlkiga,  tkat  be  wa^  k^  tba  dtOMM  ti  Ua  fatlur 
1807,  ratnorad  fMa  tha  Hooae  of  ComobMa,  wlu 
1m  might  hara  lad  tha  oppoaitian,  to  the  Uppar 
Honaa,  irtiera  hia  ardroaacTot  maamraaof  prngnm 
and  UHMbnoat  IobimI  litUo  napoMe.  Q.  and 
Lord  OiwiTilUt  M  tiia  laadan  of  tha  Wltig  oppo- 
Blioii,  wKB  BM«  thaa  oaaa  daaiMd  hy  tha  Pnnoa 
of  Walaa,  aftv  ha  bagaoM  Bagant,  to  ooakaea  with 
Uia  Ton  Baaiatty,  bmk  thiaa  mwrtnna  wen  femlf 
njaotad.     G.   aobrefy  oppoaad  tha  bill  of  Faini 

long  period  ia  which  he  ranained  in  oK>aattioii, 
faont  1807  to  M30,  be  ^Te  a  (taanumi  nippoTi 
to  Che  BboSHaii  U  Telieiona  Uitia,  tlie  remonl  of 
Ttomaa  CathoUo  ^sabiUtiei,  and  Um  amaUaratioD 
of  the  ermdnal  ooda.  The  jMr  1830  wi*  a  period 
of  gr«a(  politieal  diwidw  aod  diaomtent.  "Hie 
Frandi  nVolntioii  bad  familiariMd  tha  boldw  aod 
mora  ardeot  qirita  niQt  the  idea  of  i«ai«tanoe  to 
the  gmnanaak  tOgbHf  ooaflagiatioiii  In  the 
agrionltDial  dirtnota  alannod  tha  timid.  Wh«n 
pariiament  met  in  Norambar,  Q.  gars  waraing  of 


reform,  and  azpnMcd  hia  admiratioii  of  the  """t^j 
Bantam  of  rafaaantatian.  Tbia  waa  tbe  death-blow 
to  tiie  Dnka**  BorenunflDt.  Being  outvoted  m  a 
motion  of  Sir  fi.  PanelTa  on  tha  Cinl  List,  the 
caiifaiot  rwnie^  and  William  IV.  aant  for  G.,  who 
famed  a  Wnig  njwUMatv  of  which  he  was  of 


_  ..    .  _^  aofwUUBtt  o. 

*  ra«iii*r.    THia  WUgl  aat  to  work  in  a 

•t  to  dear  awaf  tha  g ' '  — 


oom^ti«o  lAioh  iMd  aoenmulated  dnriog  nearly 
•ennty  yean  U  Tonian;  above  iJl,  a  Kt**%  oom- 
— ~^  — —  —  '  aeaituuikff  maamre  of  parUamentaiy 

d  by  a  aub-oommittee  of  the 

Lord  J.  SnmaU,  Lord  Gotham, 
nd  8iz  J.  Qraham     The  bill 
bnmgbt  into  the  Honaa  of  Commoni,  Haioh 
1,  1881,  It  Iioid  J.  BiUHll,  and  electrified  tbe 


noa  adviaad  tlw  king  to  diaadre  parliMttent.  'The 
bOl,  the  whole  bill,  uid  nothing  but  the  HIl,'  waa 
**  ~   w^idiwoad  at  Oa  abctiona ;  and  wbau  tha 


nr  partiamait  n 
e  Lows  Honaa 


icadiiK  waa  mov*d  W  O.  in  the  Hooae  at  Loida, 
October  S,  18S1.  Aftw  fira  ni^iti,  the  InU  waa 
thrown  ont  bv  199  votea  ^ainat  ISS.  The  reply  of 
the  Honaa  df  OranmoDa  waa  an  immediata  vote  of 
Gonadenoa  in  the  miniiten.  Tha  king  prongned 
pariiaaient,!*  ofdar  that,  aftar  tba  ahortwt  pcaai^ ' 

mterrai,  the  bill  midt  "- ~  ~—- ' — -"      "■ 

teak  plaosat  Hotturii 
»=—--•—  100,000  m 


Letdi, „ 

mntilate  it  m  ownmittae.  Lotd  I^ndhmt  morad 
tba  natpiMMmant  of  tha  diafranriiialng  clanaea,  and 
Aa m^iMw baatHi, a. raNrtad to  Oa  axtnua 


tamedy  of  demanding  frimi  the  kiiu  a  new  and 
laraa  onation  of  paaa.  The  king  lefnaed  hia  con- 
nm,  and  O.  rttignail  The  popnlar  ezoitenient 
intnaaad.  The  ^'^  aant  tar  tha  ^uke  of  Welling 
ton,  bat  Sir  Bobst  Pael  nfoaing  to  j<un  the  Pn£a 
in  Iha  sttanpt  to  form  a  govannneat^  O.  i^in 
latomed  to  offioa,  araed  with  tha  powec  <^  oreMng 
M  many  peecB  aa  midit  be  neoeaiaiy  to  aeenre  tha 
aaiety  of^tha  bin.  On  the  4th  of  Jnna  1S32,  tha 
T>.> —  Qjjj  pamd  t)M  Honaa  of  Lorda,  and  O.'a 
etowdad  tonnd  him  to   ooogratolate   him 


on  having  erowned  hia  long,  hononrable,  and  ocm- 
satant  pablio  caracc  by  a  meaanra  of  anch  ''"n'f"Tt 
advantage  and  in^ortaiHa.  O.  took  offioe  on  the 
^inaylaa  of  paao^  retaannliiBw^  and  rafonp.  Hii 
ooTenmen^  bowaver,  ket  a  good  deal  (d  ita  popu- 
urityin  P>^f  *"*<  by  hia  dafnenoe  to  iha  boati^^  of 
tita  Locda,  and  hit  attempt  to  *'-*■''"**  hit  omo- 
ntaita  bv  a  dividon  of  pMBOU^a.  In  Ireland,  Mr 
Stanln^  quandt  witil  Mr  {yConnell  and  the  Irith 
Heptalen  alio  tended  to  weaken  the  govRmnent 
Muy  important  matt  mat  ware,  however,  paaaed-^ 
tha  meaaora  for  National  Ednoation  in  Ireland,  tha 
Iriib  Cborch  Temponlitiea  Bill,  and  tlie  bill  for 
abcdiahing  alavery  m  the  Weat  Indiea.  In  DcMin- 
ber  1 831,  the  Gray  mindatlv  fell  to  pieoet  on  the  IrUh 
Coercion  Act  Cl.  retired  from  the  poat  of  Finrt 
Lord  (rf  the  TreMOiy  with  the  reapeot  and  eeteem  of 
the  entim  nation.  A  more  hononrable  man  never 
eritted.  A  moral  dignity  atamped  hii  oveiy  action, 
and  over  hit  trnthfolneaa  no  eland  aver  paeatd.  He 
patwd  tba  latt  tm  veaia  ^  lua  life  in  OMngiativa 
retirement  anddiaaat  hit  6unlfynianaioa,Howick 
Honae;  Jolr  IT,  IS4B.  Hia  peraonal  appeaianoe  waa 
atataly  and  dignified,  hia  geaturee  were  «nim.fa»T, 
and  hit  tonea  lofty  and  tononma.  He  left  nslit 
aona  and  four  danfjitera  to  lament  the  loaa  in  a 
moat  revered  parmi 
GBSY,  Last  Sum,  an  Wnglit''    Udy  ^   royal 


don.  I^y  Praooea  waa  the  danghter  of  Charka 
Brandon,  Dnke  of  Soffolk,  and  of  Haiy,  aitt«r 
of  Heniy  YUL,  who  had  been  married  t«  Loma 
-=.,,      ,  ™_.         ,...  ..,^ ..  .        Lady 


XIL  of  Aance,  bnt  had  become  a  widow. 
Jane  O.  waa  bom  at  Broadgat^  Ldoeatenm 
1537.   Having  ditoovend,  at  an  early  ag^  am; 
talanta,  ahe  waa  fnnuthed  with  an  exceUent 

hia  eaie,  made  ertaaordinary  progrcea  in  arte  and 
acienoea,  andparticnlariy  in  lansoagea,  being  able  to 
ipeak  and  write  Latin  uid  Greek,  aa  well  aa  fVenck 
aod  Italian.  We  have  the  t^timony  of  Roger 
Aacbam,  that  ha  found  her  reading  the  Phadon  of 
Flato  in  Greek,  while  the  leat  of  the  family  were 
ensaged  in  hunting.  She  alio  Mng  and  played 
wul,  and  waa  vened  in  other  feminine  accomplub- 

In  1S63,  after  the  faU  ot  Somenwt,  the  DukM 
of  Snffolk  and  Northnmberland,  now  mling  in  the 
name  of  the  youthful  £ing  Edward  VL,  and  fore- 
aeeing  hia  qieedy  daath,  drieimined  to  change  the 
iacoeanon  to  the  orown,  and  aeenre  it  to  their  own 
tfiMlilift.  I«dy  JaneO.,now  16  yean  idd,waathBra> 
fore  matried  to  Lord  Guilford  DudW,  fourth  ion  of 
Uie  Dnka  of  Northumberland,  in  Maj  I5G3.  Hie 
king,  failing  in  body,  and  weak  in  mmd,  and  tor- 
rounded  by  selfiih  or  fanatical  adviaera,  was  p«r- 
Boaded  to  make  a  deed  of  aettlement,  lelting  adds 
the  ri^t  of  aucoaaaionof  hit  aiitttaHioyandEIixa- 
beth,  and  Uary  Queen  of  Soota,  leaving  the  orown 
to  lady  Jane,  lAo  waa  innocent  of  the  contmraey. 
Aftar  the  kii^a  death,  hnr  amHtioai  ralativMltaJled 
aa  'qneen.'  Ladv  Jaaa  at  flnt  ihnnk  from 
mr  M  teeadwwwaly  won,  but  nttjaiatdy  yielded 


yGoc^! 


OBXT— GABTHOTniD. 


to  the  force  of  tkoir  entrsatiea  ftnd  oommuidi, 
and  allowed  heraelf  to  be  proclaimed.  The  people 
of  England  resented  the  luuonipQloui  conduot  of 
Soffolk  and  NoTthumberluid,  and  learned,  brilliant, 
and  amiable  ai  Lady  Jane  ffw,  tbey  rallied,  with 
the  true  Eogliah  insttnat  of  loyally,  roond  Mary. 
Nori^hnmberUad  was  defeated,  aent  to  the  Tower, 
and  beheaded  23d  Aurfut  IfiGS;  and  in  the  Iidlaw- 
ing  Kovember,  Lady  Jane  and  her  hniband  were 
aliio  condemned.  For  a  while,  Mary  heeitated  to 
prononnce  sentence  of  death  against  the  young 
couple,  bat  at  length  she  iuued  the  fatal  warrant 
on  the  8th  of  February,  and,  fonr  day*  after, 
both  were  ezecnted.  Lady  Jooe  reigned  only  (en 
days.  She  met  her  fata  with  remarkkble  firmneaa, 
making  a  brief  addrees,  in  which  she  confened  the 
jxutice  of  her  oenteoce  ;  but  said  :  '  I  only  consented 
to  the  thing  I  was  forced  into.'  Sereral  epistles  and 
other  writinga  attributed  to  hee  are  extant. 

QREY,  Sib  Geobqb,  K.C.B.,  goTemor  and 
commander-in-chief  of  New  Zealand,  was  bom  at 
Lisbum,  Ireland,  in  1812.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Boyal  Military  College  at  Sandhurst,  and  on  attain- 
ing his  captaincy,  offered  to  explore  the  interior  of 
Australia  then  "bat  little  kaowii,  and  on  receinng 
Hie  requisite  permiesion  Eroia  the  Colonial  Office, 
started  on  his  arduous  mission  in  1837.  In  Sep- 
tember 1838  he  or^nised  another  expedition  to 
explore  the  Swan  River  district.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1840,  and  began  his  JtmmaU  of 
Tv>o  &^>edUioiu  of  I>i»aiaery  in  JfortA-iMtlem  and 
Wedem  Autb-^ia  during  1837-8-9.  His  enterprise 
and  ability  obtained  for  >iim,  nnashed,  in  1841,  from 
Lord  J.  Bussell,  then  Colonial  Secretary,  the  post 
of  goremor  of  South  Australia.  In  1846,  he  was 
made  governor  of  New  Zealand.  Both  here  and  in 
Austruia,  his  first  task  was  to  acquire  the  lan- 
guage of  the  natives,  with  whom  he  became  more 
popular  than  an;  preceding  f^vemor.  His  govern- 
ment appeared  to  the  authorities  at  home  to  be  so 
wise  and  conciliatory,  that  in  1848  he  was  made 
K.C.B.  (civil),  and  in  1854  was  appointed  governor 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope. 
The  task  of  allaying  the  asperities  and  irritation  left 
by  the  Kaffir  war  dcroandcd  high  powers  oE  states- 
manship ;  O.  was,  however,  equal  to  the  occasion. 
Industry  revived,  and  brighter  days  began  to  dawn 
opon  the  coIodt.  In  IsSs,  however,  the  Colonial 
Office  interfered  with  measures  wbioh  he  considered 
necessary,  and  he  threw  up  his  post,  and  came  to 
England.  Public  oinnion  at  Uie  Cape  was  so 
Btroogly  manifested  in  his  favour,  that  he  was 
reijtieated  by  the  government  to  reiame  his  govemor- 
■bip.   On.  the  breaking  out  of  the  Indian  mutiny,  O. 


of  the  Indian  government,  and  received  the  acknow- 
ledgments of  the  British  goverament  and  parlia- 
ment for  his  promptitude  and  energy.  In  1861  he 
was  sgain  appointed  governor  of  New  Zealand,  in 
the  hope  that  he  woaTd  bring  the  war  then  ra^og 
there  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion.  The  catives 
received  him  with  joy  and  veneration,  and  he  suc- 
ceeiled  in  briaging  about  pacific  relations  with  the 
Maories.  He  resigned  his  office  and  returned  to 
England  in  1867,  but  afterwards  went  to  reside  in 
New  Zealand,  where  he  has  token  a  prominent  part 
in  resisting  the  absorption  of  the  provincial  powers 
by  the  central  colouiaJ  goveromeab  G.  is  the  author 
01  JouraaU  of  Ditcovery  in  Aualralia  {ISil) ;  Poly- 
netian  Mylhalogy  (1855)  ;  and  Proverbial  Saymgt  of 
the  Aneestora  qflhe  i'ew  Zealand  Race  (1858), 

GREY  FBIABS.    See  Prub. 

QRETHOUND,  a  kind  of  dog  distineuiahed  by 
neat  slendernesB  of  form,  length  of  limbs,  elonga- 
Goa  of  muole,  Bwiftneas,  and  power  of  mdnranoe  in 


running.    Tlumw.-  . 

important  ehanuitns,  bat  then  are  oommon  to  alL 
They  have  also  prominent  eyes  snd  veiy  keen  aieht, 
but  their  soent  is  not  acute,  kod  thiiy  panne  t£eir    I 
prey  not  by  the  scant,  like  tiis  Hounds  (q.  r.)  pro- 
pedy  so  oslled,  but  l^  keeping  it  in  view.     Some    I 
VMMtics^  howevsr,  as  the  Stol&A  Grt^unmd,  prob- 
ably  btna  bsing  croiMd  with  Qm  sts^uniul   or    i 
■osne  othar  of  the  boimds,  combine  supeiur  ptnreza    ' 
of  soent  with  tiw  otdinaiy  quslitiea  of  the  grciy-    , 
hound.    QnyhovadM  hare  the  parietal  bonea    con- 
vergent, not  parallel  as  in  the  hounds.     The  tmoa 
exhibits  an  almot  straight  line  from  between  tbs    | 
ears  to  the  nose.   The  ears  are  smsll  and  sharp,  half 
pendolOBB  in  the  varietiea  best  known  in  Britain,    I 
but  quite  erect  in  some  of  those  of  other  oountriea. 
The  oheat  is  deep  ;  the  belly  much  contracted  ;  the 
pawn  are  small ;  the  hair  is  long  and  rough  in  wnae    I 
varieties,  short  and  smooth  in  others ;  the  tail  is    . 
long-and  slender,  curved  up  at  the  tip,  and  ia  tho    { 


Onyhonuds. 

common  smooth-haired  greyhomids  of  Britain  and 
the  west  of  Europe,  is  covered  witli  hair  similar  to 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  body  ;  but  there  sre  other 
varietiea  with  a  bushy  tuL  It  is  probable  that  the 
G.  originally  belonged  to  some  of  the  wide  plains 
of  Central  Asia,  or  to  the  north  of  Africa ;  it  has 
been  very  long  employed  by  man  as  a  hunting-dc^  ; 
it  is  figured  m  the  monuments  of  ancient  ^ypt, 
and  has  been  common  from  the  earlieet  historic 
times  in  India.  Persia,  and  other  conntries  of  Asia, 
as  it  hss  been  also  in  Greece,  and  geuerally  through- 
out Europe.  To  the  western  parts  of  Europe, 
however,  there  is  every  probabifity  of  its  bavmg 
been  brought  from  the  Eut ;  and  old  reoords  shew 
that  a  very  h!^  value  woa  set  upon  it.  <  It  was 
long  employed  chiefly  in  the  chase  of  deer;  and  on 
one  oeoaaion  Queen  Elisabeth  was  entertained  with 
the  plfSMant  spectaole  of  'sixtean  bucks,  sll  having 
fayre  lawe,  pulled  down  with  gre^onnds,'  vriiich 
she  viewed  from  a  turret  at  Cowdri^  Fade,  in 
Sussex,  the  seat  of  Lord  Montacute.  The  right  to 
possess  greyhounds  was  a  proof  of  gentitity ;  snd 
the  effigy  of  this  dog  often  ^ipeon  at  the  feet  of 
monntueDtal  figures  of  knights  in  onuour.  The 
killuiR  of  a  G.,  m  the  good  oM  times,  was  a  fdony, 
punished  as  severely  ss  murder. 


tyCUOl^lt' 


ORETWAOKA— OKIFFIN. 


hy   fortber   impoitationa  Scorn  Qneet,  It>^,  the 
Dortb  of  Aftiok,  Biid  India.  Hw  TMutiM  pnriiNuI j 


IHtk  a.,  DOW  afanMt  if  Bot 

Iinm  and  poworfoL  M  Out  whilst 
_iJ1j  ;*  ;L..  ■■    '  *^ !.__*  t.- 


The  IlaMa»  47.  ia  a  verr  amall  ai 

of  gentia  maima^  vail  kmnni  i „ 

pet.  GreThoQnda  do  noti  howeTsr,  generalljr  ahaw 
Ukfl  sfavng  attachment  to  parlicnlar  penona  eo  oom- 
mon  in  other  d<^ ;  and  altbonzh  ao  long  Tednoed 
to  the  aerrice  fr —  ~* ^ """ 


a  man,  an  infenor  to  manj  oUier 
dogs  in  the  d^ne  o!  tbair  domeatioation.  Yet 
the  Gi«cian  and  Tniliih  ^rayhonnd*  hare  bem 
teained  to  atop  if  a  atiek  u  thiDWtt  anong  them 


of  srefhoimda  in  linoohuhira  nmning  afto'  a  hare 
a  diatanoe  of  npwaida  of  four  ndlea  in  twelve 
ininiiteB--tIie  inereaao  of  diatanoe  by  tuma  not  being 
reckoned — iriien  the  hare  dropped  dead. 

Tarioiu  atjmokyea  of  the  name  O.  have  been 
propoeed,  than  which  none  is  more  probable  than 
that  which  refera  it  to  the  prevalence  of  a  grey 
colonr  in  the.breeda  once  meet  oommon.  Another 
d^vation  ia  from  (Tronic  Grecian. — The  gaxehmatd, 
mentioned  b^  old  writer^  ii  anppoaed  to  be  the  G., 
the  name  beuur  pnbablT  pven  when  a  pure  breed, 
hunting  by  ngnt  alone,  D^an  to  be  introduoed. 

GKSYWACSii  (Oer.  Orainixuix),  a  partially 
tranaUted  German  wta^  naed  as  the  name  of  an 
indurated  irgillaMOUi  rock,  common  in,  though  not 
confined  to,  SUnrisJi  and  Cambrian  strata.  The 
great  bnlk  of  the  SUnriaa  strata  of  the  soattt  of 
Scotland  is  eompoaed  ol  this  rock. 

GBICES,  in  Heraldry,  are  young  wild  boan. 

6BIESBACH,  JOHunr  Jakob,  author  of  the 
fint  critical  edition  of  the  New  Testunent^  was  born 
at  fiotzbwJi,  in  Eease -Ciirmatadt,  Jannary  ^  ITM. 
While  0.  was  stiB  a  child,  hi*  father  w**  called 
to  St  Peter's  Cborcb,  in  FT*iikfurt-<ai-thfr-Uuiie, 
where  he  was  also  made  eonsiBtotial  counaellor. 
6.  Bccordingl?  received  hi*  fiiat  ednoattoo  at  the 
gTmnadum  of  that  city,  and  afterwards  studied 
theology  at  Tubingen,  where  the  old  dogmatia  was 
still  laedoniinant ;  ii,  TTalln,  where  Semler  influ- 
enced his  whole  after-Hfe ;  and  at  Leipsic,  where  he 
became  acquainted  with  EmestL  Having  resolved 
to  devote  nimaelf  i^iedaUv  to  the  critioBn  of  the 
Kew  Tertament  text,  which  had  become  a  favourite 
stod^  amimg  theolcij^aiia,  Q.  undertook  a  journey  to 


,  . .  „  nng  M  jPrtwM* 

Hklle.  bk  1773;  be  was  made  vatiatXai»rj 
PTDfcaaor;  but  in  1776  was  eaUtd  a«  oidinaiy  pro- 
haaat  to  Jena,  whoe  ha  Mntiuoed  to  teach  with 
gtest  ancceaa,  ud  in  the  enj^ment  of  many  hononrs, 
tU  his  death  on  34th  Mar<di  1812.  Tbe^twork 
witii  which  his  name  is  associated  is  his  critical 
rsrinon  of  the  New  Testament  text.  Beaideapomting 
'      "      ■"  '  ■'     original 


isriiw  down  num  eertain  l«w>  of  oitMiam  (i9|mi- 
Mk  OtMob  ad  Auwlmcfau  <f  Oorrigmda»  Voriat 
jr.  7m(.,  2  Tob.,  17SS-~17W).  O. 


aed  to  jmn*  the  Hwr  Testament  tert,  as 

been  enaUed  to  deterufaie  it  by  Uc  eritioal 
The  fiivt  apNimea  of  the  MTviMd  taxb  that 


he  published  waa  the  Syop^  Svtmidionim  (2tc^ 
1774-1775;  2d  ed.  1809).  This  waa  followed,  in 
1775-1777,  by  an  edition  of  the  whole  New  Testa- 
ment, which  was  published  again  in  1796—1806, 
and  of  which  a  ra-isane  was  bwiin  by  D.  Schulx  in 
1627,  but  haa  nevec  been  oom^eted.  ^nie  second 
edition  haa  been  twice  reprinted  in  Ixmdon,  finrt 
in  160(^  and  a^in  in  1818;  an  Amerioan  edition 
wia  pnbliahed  at  Boston  in  I80S.  Beaidea  amallsr 
editioni^  a  splendid  one  in  4to  wo*  pnbliahed  by 
OJatdien at Leipaic in  1803—1807.  O.'sotherworiu, 
PopulOrt  Doffmalitimd  i  4th  ed.,  178S),  Conunot. 
iariut  Oritieiu  m  Textian  If.  TaL  (2  vols.,  17BS 
1611),  and  the  Oputeuia  Academica  (2  vols.,  1824 
182S,  edited  by  Oabler),  are  now  leas  known. 
A  Tety  competent  authority,  via,  the  eminent  Dr 
Marsh,  has  pronounced  Q.  to  be  '  the  moat  conaum' 
mate  critic  that  ever  imdertook  an  edition  of  the 
New  Testament.'  Hw  grand  featnre  of  G.'s  critical 
system  is  his  threefold  divisiut  or  classification  of 
tha  New  Testament  MSS.  Th<»e  divisions  he  called 
codicea.'  TLey  conajstedof^l.  The 
2.  The  Latin  or  Western 
.  _  lyzantine  at  Eastern  recensioD, 

endeavours  to  uiew  that  the  early  Father*^ 
according  to  their  locality,  made  use  of  a  paiti- 
oular  set  ot  MSS.,  exhibiting  certain  peculiarities 
such  as  justify  the  above  division.  G.  expressed  his 
decided  preferoice  for  the  Alexandrine  recension, 
'  "  in  r^;ard  to  antiquity  and  pnrit?  ;  the  Byxan- 
he  conaideied  the  least  trostworthy.  Among 
the  moet  memorable  of  G.'s  triumphs  as  a  critic  ia 
his  exposure  of  the  interpolation  of  the  well-known 
pasaago  in  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
1  John  V.  7-  Hi*  life  has  been  written  by  Kdthe 
(Jena,  1812),  Angnsti  [BerL  1812),  and  by  KichstKdt 
(Jena,  1819). 
GBI'FFIN  (Ft.  Cfr^hn,  Lat  and  Or.  Oryju), 
chimerical  creature,  which  tha  fancy  of  the 
modem  bos  adopted  from  that  of  tha  ancient  world. 
The  G.  is  first  mentioned  by  Ariiteaa,  perhaps 
about  660  B.C.  (see  Liddel  and  Scott's  Or.  Die), 
lugh  the  accounts  of  Aristeaa  seem  to  be  about 
fabulous  aa  those  of  the  Griffin.  See  Smith's 
Or,  and  Rom.  Biog.  The  origin  of  those 
us  conceptioiis  in  general,  of  which  the  O. 
10,  haa  already  been  cooiddered  under  Dragon 
, ,  ,).  The  G.  is  variously  described  and  repie- 
■ented,  but  the  shape  in  which  it  moat  frequently 
appears  is  that  of  an  animal  generated  between  a 
hon  and  an  eagle,  having  the  body  and  legs  vi  the 
former,  with  the  beak  and  wings  of  the  latter.  In 
this  form  it  appear*  on  antique  coins,  and  a*  an 
:nt  in  cla«aical  architecture.  Like  alt  other 
moDEters,  griffins  aboond  in  the  legendajy  tales  til 
the  Tentonic  nationa,  and  the  name  m  various  forms, 
other  (Oer.  (7r«j/;  Dan. 

-    ,,--„_  -. _.  most  Tentonic  malecta. 

Whether  in  the  two  cases  both  the  name  and 
might  not  be  traceable  to  a  common 
wluther  it  was  through  barbarian  or 
dasaical  chaimels  that  they  found  thmr  way  into 
the  nomenclature  and  the  practice  of  heralds,  are 
subjecta  on  which  we  do  not  venture  an  opinion. 
Certain  it  ia,  however,  that  there  are  few  fabulous 
oonoeptions  with  which  the  science  of  heraldry  is 
iiii»e  conveiBBnt  &»n  the  griffin.  Nor  were  uiey 
regarded  by  the  patriarchs  of  that  icience  alwaya 
~  ~  mere  oeatniea  of  the  imagination,  for  inorediUe 
it  may  siiiiiii.  we  find  Gerard  Leigh,  a  herald  of 
great  reputation  in  the  time  of  Xiiiabeth,  talking 


of  thai 


with  entire 


-.Cooi^li 


ORHIfASZiaU- QBIHU. 


th«  oIbti  of  Hi*  eagle  u«  imully  iDlNtHated  (or 
tlie  fors-pawi  of  the  lion,  the  (m»tun  hebg  n^m- 
■ented  u  in  the  aeaompuiTiiiff  wood* 
cat  QwOIini  bluooa  «  O.  in  thi« 
attittide  'TampaDti'aUt^a  that  an^ 
fleroe  aniinal  nur  be  lO  blaioned  aa 
veil  u  a  lion.  But  the  more  appro- 
iriate  and  nioal  term  is  '  Segrsant,' 
.a  repretentiiiK  tbe  O.,  the  can 
oiuht  not  to  be  oaitttii,  u  ther 
OHSn.  in£cate  the  attribute  of  watdifiU- 
nen,  vhich,' along  with  itmngth  and 
awifhiea,  went  to  make  up  the  olauieal  coneeption 
of  hii  character.    See  Wywut. 

The  name  Gbitfiii,  in  Natnial  Biitoiy,  ti  .  . 
timea  appropriated,  ai  by  CuTier,  to  the  pauM 
Oypaitot,  of  which  the  UmnROBiIB  (q.  t.)  u  the 
bert  knowit  ipeciea;  whilst  in  Fraooe  It  U  mie- 
rally  beatowe^  under  the  slightly  modified  lorm 
Origim,  on  the  Tiwirr  Vpltum  ( Vnitur  or  Oypt 
lUnu),  ako  oaDed  the  G.  Ynltnre  or  Oriffm 
Vulture,  a  bird  which  inhabits  most  of  the  hi^ 
mountamoos  reoons  of  Europe,  aa  well  aa  thoae  of 
Northern  and  Oenbal  Ana  and  of  the  north  of 
Africa.  A  specimen  wu  eansht  in  the  ionth  of 
Ireland  in  1843,  the  only  one  that  ia  known  to  hare 
erer  found  its  own  way  to  the  Britiah  Idanda.  The 
O.  Vulture  ii  more  than  four  feet  in  lengA;  it  iaot 
lowiih-brown  odour,  with  darker  quilla  and 
the  head  uid  upper  part  of  the  naek  oorered 


a  yellov 
tall;  tb 


OBILLPABZEB,  Fuxz, 
poet,  waa  bcvn  at  Vienna,  ISth  Janoii^  1790,  and 
fint  attnoted  ^  notice  of  the  pnbUo  m  1816  1:7  a 
tnsedy,  entitled  X)i»  Afe^fnat  (The  Onndmother). 
InlSlS  appeared  Ba^^io,  and  in  1S23  Da*  OiAdaie 
Vliai  (Tne  Oolden  Flaeoe),  which,  althon^  they 
had  not  much  sucoen  on  the  •tWEe,  we  higjily 
admired  aa  literary  productions.  l%e  most  import- 
ant of  his  subaequant  works  are  iCAiur  OOMor'* 
OlHei  und  Ihide  [King  Ottokar's  Fortune  and 
End,  182S),  a  tragedy  regarded  bf 
many  nxmciji  his  moot  masterly  pie 
(Vienna,  1S33) ;  Da  Mtera  und  &r 
(The  Waves  of  Love  and  of  the  Sea,  1840),  founded 
on  the  (tory  of  Hero  and  Leander,  and  remarkable 
not  <ui1t  for  its  partloiilar  beauties,  but  alao  for  the 
nnosual  delicacy  and  aimiAicitf  of  spirit  chancter- 
isingit  as  a  whole;  and£itr  ^Toum  irnLAat  [The 
Dream  of  life,  18M),  a  tieUy  podaoal  drama.  G, 
also  wrote  lome  comadiee,  and  several  very  beantifnl 


GB1L8B.    SeeSALNOB. 

QRIMH,  Ja£OB  Luswio,  Qennatt  philolegiit  Mid 

antiquary,  was  bom  January  4,  V19&,  at  " '~ 

Heeae  CaaaeL  He  was  educated  in  oli 
legal  etadiea  at  IfarlnTg,  and  afterward  Tintad 
Paris,  where  he  pnreued  a  variety  tA  atndiei^  and 
aaaiduously  ouUirated  bis  taata  for  medieval  litat*- 
tare.  On  bis  return  to  Q«imany,  he  waa  appoiatad 
■ecretary  to  the  miniatn  of  war  at  HsMa  Ouasl, 
and  became  iiwceaiiTdy  librarian  of  Wilhilnuhdli^ 
and  auditor  to  tiie  oonnoil  of  state.  In  1814,  ha 
atnbaaaador  of  tiia  Beotor 


of  He«H,  whom  he  atteoded  at  Paria,  asd  at  tha 
OongreN  «t  Vienna.  In  18lf!t  ha  waa  imaintad  a 
OMuniaaioBW  by  tbe  Prusiian  goncnmsai  to  daim 
the  reatoration  of  ralnaUs  mannanripti,  lAieh  had 
bMnrMBDVed  to  Parii  by  the  annisi  of  N^o- 
In  1830  he  rneelved  the  appoiutaent  A 
and  Iftrariaa    of 


In  tills  poaitian  be 
stody  of  the  laogsage^ 
anoisnt  law^  history,  and  litetatura  of  GernMO^. 
He  was  ona  o(  aaven  profeaoia  who  protsated  m 
1897  a^inat  tha  abolitioti  of  tha  oonslitntion  by 
the  king  of  Hanofer,  for  irtiioh  aet  he  waa  aaXr 
lawed,  and  obliged  to  retb*  to  OasasL  Id  1841  ha 
waa  invited  to  Bailiii,  when^  aa  member  of  Uia 
Aoaden^.hewaaeatitledtttgivelestarca.  Heaataa  j 
a  membw  of  tiu  AMSBtb^  ot  Ftaakfdrt  ia  1S48. 
Thoogh  holding  at  TariMM  tinua  importHit  poblic 
olBoea,  hi*  life  waa  devoted  to  philologteal  and  anti-  ( 
qtumaa  itndiea.amd  to  wotka  which  m  ninea  of 
emditiDm,  and  the  naalta  of  a  wondsital  indnaby 
ooabined  wilb  aa  txeaasira  anthuiiaBii  for  enary-  | 
thing  Qennan.  ffia  OcntBD  (frnamar,  in  foor  I 
vdomea,  tha  fint  volnme  of  which  waa  pnbliahad 
in  1819,  and  tiiB  last  in  1837,  ia  pnlu^  tha 
gre^eet  philological  work  of  the  ace ;  it  may  be 
asid  to  have  laid  the  foundation  cd  uio 
inveatigatfoB  (rf  lauoage.  It  traoea  the 
language  ttra^i  all  its  dials 
its  thwonghnaw  may  be  got 
tbe  Towab  and  ocosonaats  alona  ooonpy  OOO  pwea. 
Hi«i>ei(l*dt«  Asrikf-jIftatUssM'  (Antiquities  c)  Oar- 
man  Lnr,  pvhlUied  IBU),  and  ^MtKJh)  JfytMiMie 
(Oemiaa  itytiidogy,  ISSt),  are  exfaaaatare  wotka 
uiMii  tha  ioeiaty  of  tha  middle  ^ea  m  omttal 
Sin^a,  and  tha  id^jiooa  traditions  and  snpaiati- 
tiona  turn  the  eariiaat  tItBM.  Hia  (JesoUBUs  dar 
DmdtAfn  BproAt  (Bjsbay  of  tha  Gsman  I«n- 
'  XJAar  dm  TJnpraa  4tr  AinMAe  (On 
(  T*ngnsge),  are  alao  wen*  of  graat 
In  ocsnpanj  with  his  bvaihar  Wil&atan, 


a  ids*    of 


character,  t^  b«at  known  cd  whioh  is  KimUr  and 
SaumiOrdua  (Nuneir  and  Fireaide  Sfanica).  Tha 
greatest  joint  nndntaxing  of  the  two  bcotben  (now 
oar^d  on  by  other  sohours)  is  the  Denit^u  WOr- 
t«r6(iiA,  begun  in  1802,  and  yet  far  from  ctonpletion. 
Jakob  Q.  <£ed  September  1883. 

OBIHH,  Wuhxim  Kam,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  bam  at  Hanaa,  February  34,  iTSS. 
Hs  was  the  companion  of  hie  elder  brother  at  tha 
Lyceum  of  Csssel,  and  die  nniveraity  of  Uarburg. 
In  1814,  he  was  secretaiy  of  tile  Hbnrian  u 
Cssaat,  and  on  removing  £0  Ottttingen,  in  183(^ 
was  iq>point«d  under-Iibisrian  and  sapamumeraiy 
profesor  of  philosophy.  He  joined  hv  brotiisr  in 
the  protest  against  the  king  of  Hanover,  shared  hia 
exile,  and  tiaa  his  call  to  Berlin,  They  laboured 
toaetiier,  and  were  commonly  known  aa  the  Brothen 
Orunm.  WiL  Q.  died  December  ISfift  Among  tiia 
work*  of  the  vouoger  Orimn  are — TrtotdatioM  q^ 
Aneimt  DaniA  Htroie  Poeint  <if  (Ae  8iM  CaOurf; 
Oervum   Suitie    Ohta-aelert;    Saute   Ltgaid*   0/ 


OKUUl,  EkiDBHH  UuiOHim,  Baxox,  aa 
aj^^^  cvitio  ni  laal  flihiry,  who,  duriiw  hia 
Icog  naidflBoe  in  ^114  wia  on  tvma  trf  iatimaay 
w^  tiu  maat  celateBtad  psnonaeea  of  the  day, 
waa  bdtn  aft  BaMulMrb  2IHh  Deoembw  1723. 
Having  onmplatadTui  atadiaa,  1m  "■"■f"'H  the 
youB^  Oovnt  de  BABnberg  to  Ilia  nBlvarnty  at 
Lcinaut and  aftsrwafda  to  nria.  Harohabecama 
reanar  to  the  crowB-ncinea  of  8axo>Qotha,  bat  tha 
'     proved  moie^moamr  " 


- , Tfaelattw 

intodoeed  him  to  Diderot,  Baron  Holbaah.  Madame 
d'Bpiaay.  aad  <Am  peteoaa  dittogniehed  by  birth 
and  talMta,  asd  ho  aooa  baoaais  a  ganeial  favonrite. 
Hii  oonDoctioDwilh  thebieyEl^«di*U(q.v.),  and 
hia  mnltibnoas  aeqairasaanti  aad  vstntili^  of 
mind,  atm  c^Miad  te  Um  a  brilliant  Mnw,    He 


hyCiOOgle 


mam  a  —anTVmTm, 


,  to  Um  Duke  of  Orleuu,  and  now 
b^au  to  mite  hi«  Utenry  biilktiu  for  flerend 
German  princes,  oootwning  the  ablnt  ftnaJyiU  of 
all  the  mort  anportant  Xntidii  wwkt.  In  th* 
compodtion  at  tluee  notioBi,  he  is  belicTed  to  hare 
been  united  hy  the  Abb6  Bwnjd  ud  Diderot. 
ta  177S  be  MtM  taued  bf  the  Duke  of  Ootha  to 
tbe  Tank  of  baron,  **"^  appointed  ministi^pbmi- 
potantUij  at  the  nouih  oaait  On  tba  h^kinc 
out  of  tlM  Berolntion,  be  vithdrav  to  Qetha,  and 
ia  179ff  the  aajmn  of  Bna^  ^(pointed  bim  ber 
inuuala~iileBipat«ntian  at  Bambo^  a  port  whioh 
he  retained  tw  iU-beafth  obliged  huu  to  rdinqniih 
it.  He  ntaiaed  to  Ootha,  whero  he  died  iMi 
Deoenber  1807.  Hi*  OorrttpimtUmet  LitUrairt, 
Pluloaofltipu  tt  OrOma,  was  publuhad  after  hie 
deaUi,  in  IS  Tola.  A  taptlaaaA  to  thia  ia  the 
Cbmipoadnue  iaAU*  d«  CMmm  4t  Didwol  (Faria, 
1839),  It  oontaina  a  ooimilete  hiatoiy  of  Frendi 
litairataT*  (nm  17B3  to  1790^  and  ta  ntnatkaUe  for 
ite  brilliant  aod  piquant' edtaduB. 

aSltSMA,  a  amaU  town  «<  Saxony,  in  the 
rin^  of  Leipeie,  and  IS  milee  aontb-eaat  of  the 
town  of  ttiai  na&H^  ii  atbactirelr  ntnated  in  a 
hollow  DO  the  left  bank  of  the  Mnlde.  In  the 
tniddle  agia,  ita  importanoa  aa  a  -bading  town  was 
mneh  greater  than  at  preeent,  and  the  floniiahing 
w-^tf't"'"  in  doth,  flannda,  hooeiy,  cnttona, 
and  linoM,  for  which  at  an  early  period  of  its 
hiatorr  thw  town  waa  noted,  hare  now  almort 
eotinly  iliMi'iwaiwI  Aww^g  ^b^  poblio  bvildi&gi 
are  tbe  rojat  eaetle,  now  naed  ea  a  oonrt-hona^ 
and  the  anoant  town '   "      "      ...... 


Awin^g  tikepoUio  bvildi&gi 

--, )6BS6,who 

•nppoft  tfaemedraa  by  mannfutiTO  and  agrieultiu*. 


n-haU.     Pop.  {1871)  61 


OBIMBTS  IaAW,  the  name— derived  from  the 
dlaeaTcnr,  J.  Oiimin  (q.  v.) — riren  to  the  prin- 
ciple wbiui  i^nlatea  the  inteiSiange  of  the  mute 
oonaoDanta  in  the  comeponding  words  of  the 
difierent  Aryan  Jaagnoges.  A  bistorioal  siiTVej  of 
this  flun^T  o(  tongoea  ehewi  the  OMisenante  to 

_    *!. L ._     ..    -V ,    JQ^      , ,_.. 

form  of  a  wotd,  or,  at  laaat, 
knowii,  ia  found  at  a  later  ati_ 
/  wUmi  next  pasaaa  into  b  ;  wad  Una  again  tends 
to  baemne  p,  and  m  throng  the  <^^  anew.  Tbe 
''" — ' —  '~"-  nuibit*  the  tranritirai  that  mani- 
in  regard  to  the  Greek,  OotJiia,  and 


Onck  (I««B,  anuv)^ 


9      b   r      t   d    ih      k    ■   ah 
I      p   b     lb  t    d  i   * 

bWf   p      d    ■    t         c    ehE 


bank  of  the  Hmnbo',  40  mllea  aintb-eart  of  the 
town  of  Lincoln.  It  oooBsta  of  two  porlioni — the 
older,  oompriaiiu  a  nanibar  of  abaeM  irregularly 
laid  out,  ia  at  the  head  of  the  hariwar;  rad  the 
newer  pert,  called  the  '  Uanh,'  artanda  alcog  tba 
eart  side  of  the  barboor,  and  it  nynlar  aod  q  ---  -- 
Tbe  parish  ehnnilt,  a  good  spMimen  of  the 
plated  st;^  is  an  elegant  oraciform  sfa 
with  a  fanrar  eontaining  eight  bells  rising  from 
the  oantr^  Among  its  mstuotions  Q^  has  a  free 
gnumnM-sdwol,  a  national 
-' — " — '  wtablfahmentii  a 
towB-halL    I1i«n 


n«ra  ara  of  oonw  mttiy  exoaptiiMS, 
the  inflnencoof  adjoining  letters  and  other, 
aansea.     Ibe  frilowing  are  (iramplra  of  " 


It  is  in  the  Hi^  G^mui  dialecta  that  the  action 
t&  this  priseipla  is  mort  marked  In  the  Tentomo 
toDgnea  of  the  'low'  type,  of  whidi  Eodlsh  ia 
one,  the  oonaonanta  have  remained  at  tu  laiae 
ttwB  of  d«Tdopnent  thtr  bad  attained  in  the 
OotUe  fa.  fr  IS«.  >bAep,  fiiot,  tear,  Arse) ;  the 
<Hd  ffi0>  Oermaa  eshiUta  a  tUrd  rtage ;  Mtd  in 
aiodtm  Bf^  Oerman  the  prii>ai[de  as  ami  still  at 


OTstaUising  effect  of 
ORTKSBT,  amUT,  a  ' 


■  language. 


of  England, 
n  tbe  ri^ 


docks,  opened  in 
Harob  1802,  and  spsdons  enou^  to  reoeiTe  the 
larcieat  ahipa  of  war;  aereral  sh^building  yard*, 
mills,  and  a  tanyaid  sad  bfewtty.  O.,  howerer,  is 
now  chiefly  famovs  for  ita  Jmm*™  fishing  liaaa. 
In  1ST2, 1627  vesaeh,  of  398,889  tMH.  esiteied.  and 
1S6S,  (rf  470,089  tons,  olesied  the  port.  Tbe  oom- 
meroe  of  O.  is  benoAted  by  its  be&g  the  terminos 
of  the  Great  Northeim  and  <rf  tha  Hanchester, 
fiheffleld,  and  Linodnsbire  Bailwaya.  It  aenda 
the  Houae    of   Commoaa.      Fop. 


O.  was  formal^  a  port  of  each  importanee  thai, 
tbe  reign  of  Edwara.  TTT.,  it  sent  eloTen  diips  to 

1  ii_. u  _■_  1... '-'-■„  uainst  Calais. 

harbour  t 


aid  that  monarob 

But  Uia  padnal  ailtiBg  op  of  the 

it  to  oonparatiTa  ''""g™*""—     Ita  prtsmt  ; 

pnity  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  Mginning  oi 

tbia  e«ot(U7,  when  meeaursa  w«m  fiiat  taken  to 

inqmre  the  haiboux, 

OKI'NDSLWAUD,  one  of  ilie  most  beaotifiil  at 
the  high  Alpiike  valleys,  at  a  distanoe  of  35  milsa 
from  ua  oity  of  Ban,  is  about  13  milsa  long 
and  4  milea  broad  O.  owea  it»  oelebrity  as  a 
resert  for  trsTdlcrs  to  two  gnat  glaeieifl,  bianohai 
or  anus,  aa  it  wer&  of  tha  immanae  ooean  of  ice 
which  ooren  the  Bemeaa  Obariand.  The  village 
of  G.,  eonaiating  of  a  nambor  of  widely  scattered 

;es,  with    about    SQOO  iuhabitanta,  is  about 

[eet  above  sea  lerd. 
ORINDINO,  the  operation  of  sh^sn^  any  hard 
inbstanoe  1^  ndibaig  away  its  surface  witb  a  nndt 
atone  ca  witii  a  cnUing  powder.    It  ia  nmilar  to 


but  after  this,  it  tortiMr  abrasian  la  required,  they 
moat  be  sronnd.  Disss  liiiism  and  mrtsl  spaoula 
are  fpnmd  to  shape  with  emeiy-powdsr  laid  upon 
a  metal  tooL  Ornamental  glass  ia  ground'  mtc 
facets  or  otherwise  by  means  of  stones  and  lap- 
wheds.  Dismonds  and  other  gems  sro  ground  or  oat 
Willi  diamond-dDet  imbedded  in  soft  uon.  When 
large  flat  surfaces  aie  nquimd,  they  are  obtained 
by  flrrt  woAing  two  piecea  of  the  subetanoe 
nearly  flat,  and  theo  laving  one  upon  the  otiier, 
and  griwlinff  thcsr  rarnoea  together  with  sand, 
onery,  at  cwuc  suitable  enttbtg  powds.  Plata- 
glass  it  flattened  in  tUa  nuumn;  alto  stnfacsa  of 
oast  iron  where  aoenrate  fitting  ia  required,  'da 
"-^  ~-~' —  bdng  ehhw  piepaied  wiUi  a  planing, 
by  tinning  in  a  lathe  with  a  slida- 


real    Bo^ett  and  other  bearing*  wUeh  reonire  to 
1..  ^^.1  _^jj  p^^  aceuracy  are  utoally  finished 


it  cutting  aetion  upon 


pnrpoaet,  aa  emery  is  liable 
metal,  and  ^tb  it  a 

DrfgrindlKff  ia  the  ttim  ap^ied  to  the  grinfing 


Tjtioagfe 


asnmBrosEB^-fijaaovB. 


of  Bteel  irith  dry  grindstono.  Its  firiiuipal  i^Ii- 
ofttioiu  we  in  the  ETinding  of  the  pointi  of  neeiDei 
ftnd  iojia,  the  mtlacei  of  gon-barrals,  uid  in  Soisli- 
ing  itieel-pena.  Thli  kind  of  work  pn>duc«a  putaful 
imtatioQ  in  th«  throat  uid  DOBtrili  of  the  men  and 
women  who  follow  it ;  and  although  the  diitresung 
effects  haT*  been  very  mnch  dinuiuihed  of  late  by 
the  introddietion  ol  murenti  of  air  to  carry  away  the 
particla  of  iteel,  and  mouth-pieca  of  damp  cloth, 
the  eril  ii  not  entirely  obviated ;  in  «ome  braoche*, 
nich  H  gnn-barral  grinding,  it  ii  still  very  great- 
evil,  the  Etoues  used  for  gnn-barrel 


a  gnn. 


into  «  fine  powder.  Thii  ii  effected  ^passing  the 
■ubatance  between  ron^  itonea,  M  la  &e  oommoa 
flonr-mill,  or  between  rollen,  either  Bmooth  or 
toothed,  according  to  the  decree  of  finanen  required, 
or  by  a  heavy  atone  or  iron  cylinder  revolving 
npon  a  imooth  plate.  Colonn  are  npond  in  mnaU 
guantitiea  with  a  muller  and  ^uIl  The  mailer  in  & 
oeavT  piece  of  atone  of.  someirtutt  conical  Bhape,  and 
wbiw  rati  on  ita  baae  npon  tlie  alab  of  (tone,  and 
it  giMp«d  by  the  handa,  and  the  eolour  ia  mixed  to 
a  piaty  oonaiataMe  with  the  required  medinm  of 
nl  or  water,  and  rdbbed  between  the  two  mirfaoea 
until  imooth  and  impalpable.  On  a  larger  acale, 
iivYTi  A>  k»A«,^  cylinders  revolve  ""  *  *ToK  ,«  -x^k  * 
;  1 

■coop  toDows  one  cylinder  uid  pivoedes  t^ 
other,  scooping  the  pvate  into  the  pontion  roquiied 
to  come  fairly  under  the  0}^inder  which  follows 
it.  Chocolate,  spioee,  plumbago  for  emdhles,  and 
a  variety  of  otlier  sobstaneea,  are  ground  in  Uus 
manner, 

GBIKDSTOITXS.  Flat  drculu  atones  made  to 
revolve  upon  an  axis,  and  used  for  grinding  tteel, 
glass,  other  stones,  ia  They  are  made  of  sand- 
stone, or  aandstone  grit,  of  various  degrees  of 
coaneness,  acoording  to  the  pnrpoee  for  which 
they  are  to  be  nsed. 

ORIPINO,  or  QRIFES,  a  popalsr  name  for  aU 
painful  affections  of  the  bpwda,  whether  attouled 
with  Conatipation  (q.  v.)  or  Diarrhcea  [q.  v.).  When 
pains  of  this  kind  are  spasmodic,  tiiey  are  teimed 
CoUo  (q-T-).  The  action  of  purgative  medicine  is 
often  attended  by  nore  or  Ibm  of  griping  pain, 
which  may  be  averted  in  certain  cases  by  ths 
earefnl  <dtoice  of  the  medicine,  or  by  combination  of 
it  with  Carminatives  (q.  v.),  or  with  a  little  opium. 

GRIPPE,  B  EVench  name  for  Influenm  (q.  T.]. 

OBTQUAI^AJTD  a  tract  of  country  in  South 
Africa,  to  the  north-east  of  Cape  Colony,  lying 
about  the  jnnction  of  the  Orange  and  Va^  Riven 
to  Uia  weit  of  the  Onmge  River  Free  8tat&  It 
derivca  itii  name  from  ite  inhabitants,  the  Oriquaa 
or  Baataaids,  a  race  nrnng  from  the  mtorcotme  of 
Dutch  setUen  with  Hottentot  and  Bush  women. 
The  ans  and  popnlation  aro  anoeitain.  Some  of 
the  inhabitants  are  ■noceMfnl  farmeiB,  and  there  is 
a  thiiring  settlement,  Oriqua  Town,  under  the  care 
□f  the  LoodoB  Missionaiy  Sode^. — Qriqualaiui 
Wett  hai  of  l«to  yean  b«c<Hna  famoui  &am  Uie  dia- 
.  oovery  of  the  Cape  diamond-field%  whicii  are 
I  ntnatod  within  its  bonndi;  The  first  diamond  wm 
fonud  in  16S7,  and  ainoe  1670  a  strong  tide  of 
inunigratioo  has  flowed  onceaaingly.  Varioua  settle- 
menta  were  fimned ;  Higging  was  vigoraoaly  pro- 
■eouted ;  and  >U  nationalibos  ware  reprseeotod. 
The  territory  in  which  the  diMnond-flelcLi  lie  had 


British  govenunent ;    but  both  tho  Orange  Bivcr 

free  State,  and  the  Transvaal  Rapnblio  contested 
hia  boundaries,  and  the  result  wras  constant  dis- 
tarbanoea  at  the,  digginga.    At  length,  in  October 


interegts j. ^ 

menis  are  Du  Xoit's  Fan  and  Da  Beer.  P<^  (1873) 
29,477 :  area  about  1T,S00  sq.  m.—Origvabuid  £iut 
was  also  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  in  187^ 

GRISEXDA,  or  GHISELDIS,  is  the  heroine  ti 
a  celebrated  medieval  bile,  which  probably  had  iti 
rise  in  Italy.  A  poor  girl,  who  waa  *  oharoad- 
burner,  waa  raiaed  to  be  the  wife  of  the  Maiqiis 
of  Salnno,  who  put  her  humility  and  obedisnes  to 
the  seTereist  tests.  She,  however,  passed  thnnigb 
them  all  trimnphantly,  and  a  reooociliatiwi  tc^ 
place.  In  this  legend,  ihe  endnrance  and  lelf- 
rennnciation  of  the  loving  woman  are  repceeented 
as  carried  to  the  highest  pitch.  We  And  the 
tradition  first  worked  up  into  a  tale,  raid  to  b« 
founded  on  fact,  in  Boccaccio's  Deoamtnm;  Petiardi 
translated  it  into  Latin  in  1373,  under  the  title 
De  ObtdiaOia,  et  Fide  Uxoria ;  and  in  the  I4th  c 
the  stoiy  was  well  known  thrcuc^out  Gennany. 
In  the  year  1393,  it  was  worked  up  into  a  'mystoy' 
play  in  Paris  ;  in  England,  the  drama  of  Tie  PatiaU  I 
Qnttd  appeared  in  1S99,  and  one  on  the  sauM  . 
subject  by  Hans  Sachs  in  Germany  in  1546.  \ 
Versions  of  the  stoty  are  also  found  in  the  lilera- 
turn  of  Holland,  Bohemia,  Sweden,  Iceland,  fto. 
The  old  German  people's  book,  entitled  ilmigrqf 
WdUiw,  has  lately  heen  reproduced  with  mora  oi 
less  fldelity  in  Schwab's  Bvehdtr  Sdi/Huten  Otf 
cAtcUen  vnd  Sas»,  Marbacb'g  roltibOiAtr,  asd 
Simrock's  Detda^e*  VoOcABdier. 

QRI'SI,  Gktlu,  a  celebrated  vocalist,  was  bcni 
at   Milan  in   ISIO.      From  a  very  early  period, 
she  evinced  the  meet  remarkable  mnsical  genis^  | 
accompanied   by  a  vuce  «f   the    isreat  ptomiw.  i 
At  the  age  of  16,  she  first  appeared  in  t£e  oeers  , 
of  Zdmira,  at  Bologna,  and  gaUiered  her  e 
lanieU  by  the   inimit^le  qnalitj,  melodim 
and   fidelity   of   her   voice,   a*    well   as   by  faer  , 
pathetio  and  lifelike   impenonation   of   the  rN&  . 
Two  years  later,  she  appeared  at  Florence,  and  to  I 
no  utist  was  pre-eminence  ever  more  unaiuzaoiiily  | 
accorded.      Ear   greatest  triumph,   howerer,  «■* 
obtuned   at  La   Scala,  Hilan,   where   she  plaved  ' 
the  part  of  Norma  in   the  tragic  open  m  tbst  I 
name.      So   thoroughly  did    she    identify  beiself  ] 
with  this  character,  ^t  hardly  any  subse^aent 
singer   has    ventured   on   an    original    and  mde' 
pendent  personation.    O.'s  dSbat  at  Paris  in  IS32 
was   equally   sueuusJul,    and   orercame  the  po- 
vert»al  OTnioal  wathy  of   the  bsqnentcM  ol  tbs 
Thetoe  Italian.     London,  howBTMr,  waa  the  seeM 


Mario,  the  eminent  tenor.     She  diisd . 

GRIB-NEZ,  or  ORDTEZ,  Capx,  a  headland  d 
France,  in  the  department  of  Pas-de-Cilais,  opp^ 
sito  Dover,  is  the  point  <^  lai^  nearest  to  w* 
En^ish  shores  tiie  di^ince  being  barely  SI  n"'*' 
Cape  a.  is  abont  MuaUy  dii^  bom  Ctlsu  «« 
the  north-CMt  and  Bonliwne  on  Hn  south.  It » 
snrmouQted  with  a  UAt-bmaa,  the  laL  of  wia»  n 
50*  BZ  N.,  and  the  long.  1°  Sff  B. 

ORI'SONS  (Qer.  CrauMtadM),  tba  largert  u^ 
the  most  thin^  peopled  o(  all  the  <aDtoM  <■ 
Switmland.  iTlwnaded  cm  tha  N.  br  Bt  &*^ 


hy  Google' 


GHIT—GBOrNED  VAULTINO. 


St  G^  tu)d  the  Tonrlberg ;  on  the  K  by  the 
Tpol ;  on  the  S.  by  Lombudy ;  and  on  the  W. 
by  Uii  and  llciiia  lis  area  ii  2673  square  milea ; 
its  popnlatioD  (1S70],  91,782,  at  whom  39,843  are 
CatboIicB.     The  canton  diiide*  itaelf  oatnnUy  into 


Hliiiie,  and  stretehet  iiorthward, 
the  'whole  ti  the  weBtem  portioa  of  &e  canton ; 
and  the  second,  forming  the  Bngadine  (q-T.). 
extendi  north-eaat  along  the  cooise  of  the  Inn. 
Tha  third  Talley-disbrid  comprieea  several  amaller 
Tolleyi  whose  itreuns  run  southward,  belonging  to 
-Qie  basini  of  the  Tidno  and  the  AddOi  The  whole 
canton  ia  an  aMsmhlage  of  monntaina  inteiaeoted  by 
narrow  *alleya.  He  clitoata  it  very  varied,  in  soma 
districta  winter  rcigna  for  neuly  eight  ntonthi, 
while  Kinw  of  the  Mathem  valleys  reeembU  Italy. 
In  the  colder  distrida,  acuity  crops  of  barley  and 
lye  are  raised  with  diffianlty ;  while  in  the  southem 
valleys,  wheat,  maixe.  and  also  the  vine^  Gg,  and 
'         '         ncMBsfnlly  cultivated.     Faitares  and 


foreata  occult  a  huse  portion  of  the  canton ;  and 
cattle,  timber,  and  cheeae  are  the  nindpal  exports. ' 
The  rivera  abound  in  salmon  and  trout,  and  the 


monntaini  are  still  the  haont  of  the  bear, 
lynx,  and  wild-cat 

The  coontry  waa  anciently  inhabited  by  the 
lUuetii,  who  are  by  soma  connected  with  the 
Btmacana  (sea  Bmimu.).  It  was  oonqoered  by  the 
Rmnan  mnperor  Conatantiua  in  the  4th  c,  and 
his  camp  [Curia,  Chur,  or  Coirt,  the  name  of  the 
meaent  capital)  waa  jdanted  on  the  Bhine.  Char 
haabeen  a  bishooria  ainoe  tfOA.ix  In  the  10th  c 
Uia  coonby  of  Um  G.  waa  added  to  the  Germaa 
empire,  and  T«nudiied  tiU  1268  «abject  to  the 
Swabiu  dnkea.  With  the  daeay  of  the  impenal 
authority  it  came  to  be  oppreesed  by  a  nomeroiu 
nobility,  the  ruins  of  whose  caatlea  still  crown  the 
heights.  Afainat  them  the  people  began,  in  tiie 
eml  of  the  llth  c,  to  form  leagues  in  ue  different 
valleys.  One  of  these  Isagues,  formed  in  1424,  was 
called  the  gray  league  (Qer.  da-  graue  band;  in  the 
native  language,  tia  Orudia),  from  the  gray  home- 
span  warn  by  the  tmiimiBts,  and  hence  Oie  Geiman 
uul  Fleoch  Bames  of  the  canton^QraabUudten  aiid 
Orisoua.  In  1472,  theee  separate  unions  entered 
into  a  general  federation,  which  then  foimed  an 
alliance  with  the  Swiss  cantons.  It  was  not  till 
1803  that  a.  was  admitted  into  the  Swiss  confeder- 
ation aa  the  ISth  canton.  The  constitution  of  G.  is 
very  complicated,  and  snArs  from  tiie  want  of  cen- 
tmuation  incident  to  its  origin.  Of  the  inhabitants, 
ooe-third  speak  German,  and  the  others  dialects 
derived  from  Latin.  The  dialects  of  the  southem 
valleys  are  a  kind  of  Italian ;  ihe  Latin  of  the 
Eagadine  (q.  v.)  and  tlie  Komaneae  differ  greatly 
&oni  It^ian,  but  ue  far  from  being  T^vt'""r 

ORIT  ia  a  coarse-grained  sandstone,  the  partiolei 
of  which  are  more  or  leaa  ■ngnlar,  aud  comraoted 
togeUier  by  a  hard  uliceoiu  cement  See  Mill- 
non  Gut. 

OBOAT  (Dutch,  gtvol,  Qer,  gronAm,  Fr.  grot, 
ItaL  grotto,  Low  Lat  grottut,  from  the  same  root  aa 
""--  -  uid  meaning  liiet),  a  name  given  in  the 

'  all  l/ikk  coins,  as  distinguished  from 
i'  (Lat  brad&i,  a  tlun  plate  or  leaf), 
or  thin  coina  of  silver  or  gold-leaf  stamped  so  aa 
to  be  hollow  OB  one  side  and  laised  on  the  other. 
Oroata  differed  greatly  in  value  at  different  times 
ud  in  diffennt  ooonttiea.  The  silver  groat  once 
etinent  in  fh^land  (introdooed  by  Benrr  UL)  was 
•qui  to  four  penoe.  Hie  ooin--thOD^  not  the 
_ —    !.._  iigg,^  revived  in  the  modem  foimpenny- 


of  Qeimany.  The  silver  groaohen,  «■  nengroechea 
of  Frassia  and  the  Zollvarein,  ia  ^th  of  a  Uialer, 
and  worth  IJd. ;  the  gate  grosohui  of  Hanover  o 
Vith  thaler  >.  l^d. 

GROATS  (also  locally  gritt,  from  the  same  root 
as  to  graU,  to  rob  to  powder ;  alhed  to  Eng.  teratA, 
and  Lat  rado,  to  scrape),  the  grain  of  oata  deprived 
of  the  int^oments.  Groata  are  much  used  for 
preparing  pnid  for  invalids,  and  were  formerly  also 
often  used  in  broths  and  soupa  like  pot-barley. — 
Bnihdm  Oroait  are  groate  broken  into  small  pieces 
by  crushing. — Concerning  the  natritive  and  other 
qualities  of  groats,  sed  Mku.  imd  OA'ra. 

GRCDNO,    a  government   of    Russia,   in   the 

Eavince  of  West  Rusaia,  and  formerly  a  portion  of 
thuania,  ia  bonuded  on  the  N.  by  the  government 
of  Vilna,  on  the  E.  by  that  of  Minsk,  on  the  S.  by 
Volhynia,  and  on  the  W.  by  Poland  and  the  pro- 
vince of  Bialystok.  It  has  an  area  of  14,6.32  square 
milea,  and  a  pop.  of  (IS6T)  S58,S52.  The  land  is, 
in  general,  flat,  and  belongi  in  the  south-weet  to  the 
basin  of  the  Vistula,  in  the  north  to  that  of  the 
Niemen,andinUiesouUi-eaBt  to  thatof  the  Dnieper. 
In  the  south,  extensive  morasses  occur,  although 
much  maiBhy  land  has  been  already  converted  into 
paatute^ground  by  draining ;  and  in  the  north  are 
extensive  foneta,  cliiefly  of  pine.  Tlie  soil  is  light 
and  aandy  [except  that  of  the  river-vslleyB,  wliich 
ia  clayey),  and  la  in  general  fruitfuL  Rye  is  the 
piincitiai  agricnltucal  product,  the  average  annua) 
yield  being  estimated  at  2,346,000  English  quarteia. 


I  found  in  the  foreBta.    Cattle,  i 


the  manufactores  of   cloth,   hata,  paper, 
leather,  and  the  principal  exports  are  com,  cattle, 
wpol,  leather,  hope,  honey,  and  wax. 

GRODNO,  a  town  of  Bnsua,  capital  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  mi 
^avatioD  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Niemen,  160  milea 
north-east  of  Warsaw.  It  has  twelve  chorches  and 
oonvents,  several  aynagtwuea  and  caatlea,  aome  roin- 


familiea;  agy 


irly  to  oil 

ipons ;  and  a  flourishing  trade,  which  is 

almoet  whol^  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  who  form 
aboot  three-fourtha  of  the  population.  The  modem 
palace,  erected  here  by  Augostas  IIL,  is  an  exten- 
sive and  haodaome  edifice.  The  other  principal 
buildings  are  the  market-place,  the  eqneatnan  semi- 
nary, ue  high  school,  the  academy  for  medical 
science,  connected  with  wliich  are  a  library,  ciJleo- 
tion  in  natai«l  history,  and  a  botanic  garden.  Hert^ 
in  IS86,  Stephan  Bathori  died  in  his  own  caatle; 
and  here,  2Sth  Novmbet  172G,  Stanislas  Aagnstu* 
abdicated  the  Polish  cnwa.    Pop.  (1867)  24,789. 

GROG,  the  name  applied  in  the  navy  to  the 
mixtare  of  rum  and  water  served  out  aa  a  bevenwe 
to  file  men.  Under  recent  regalationa,  men  who 
prefer  abstsining  from  grog  are  allowed  to  receive 
money  or  tea  in  lieu  thereof.  Forced  potations  of 
SKB-uoier  grog,  oonaiating  of  one  part  rum  to  six 
parts  of  sea-water,  are  a£niniatered  oocasionally,  by 
way  of  puniaiimant  for  dirldnesa  and  aome  other 
offences.  The  qoaiot  name  of  grog  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  a  nickname  of  Admiral  Vemon,  who 
introduced  it  into  the  service.  In  bad  weather,  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  walking  the  deck  in  a  rough 
grogram  cloak ;  the  sailois  thence  called  him  Old 
Orog,  and  then  transferred  tJle  name  to  the  drink. 

OBOINED  VAULTING  is  that  kind  of  vault- 
img  in  which  the  vault  ia  not  a  plain  barrel-vault 
from  end  to  end,  but  where  one  vault  cuts  into 
another.    The  angle  formed  by  the 


iiizcdhfGoo'^le 


OBOMWHLL-GEOaBE&E. 


OBOHWELL  (LtCAoqwrmttm),  ■ 


*ad  achenia  ot  (tony  hkrdnsH.  Probiblf ,  on  uoouat 
«f  the  laat-meDUoned  durtcter,  eztnordinuy 
Tirtues  wera  fonnerly  ascribed  to  them,  nrticnl&rly 
to  the  CoMuoN  Q.  {L.  offieinaie),  in  the  aiu«  of 

stone  in  the  bUdder,  vhioh,  hawevet,  were  vboUy 
imaginary.  The  Oonunon  G'  i»  «  native  of  dry 
Knvelly  pUou  in  Europe.  Asia,  uid  North  America. 
It  haa  an  ereot,  mncb-branclied  item,  broadly  Unc«- 

olate  leaTes,  and  small  greanish-y^oir  flowen 

Corn  O.  {L.  ortienw)  wiui  Hmall  white  Qowsrs,  is 
more  plentiful  in  Britain,  and  is  of  equally  wide 


yield   ft  dye-stuff   dmilar  to  alkanet,  and  whioh 

GBO'iriNQBN  (anc  CVuonvi^),  the  most  north- 
eastern pnnrince  of  the  Netherlands,  is  bounded 
OD  the  N.  by  the  North  Se^  on  the  £.  by  Han- 
over, on  the  3,  by  the  prorince  of  Drenthe,  and 
on  the  W.  by  that  ot  Friealand.  It  has  an  area 
of  896  square  miles,  and  in  1872  its  popnUtion 
amounted  to  22S,S83.  It  is  watered  by  the  Honse, 
which  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  from  the  town 
of  Orooingen  to  its  mouth  in  the  Ijauwer  Sea,  by 
other  smul  streams,  and  by  lakes  and  numerous 
canals.  Its  surface  is  flat,  and  is  proteoted  against 
the  sea  on  the  north  by  dykes.  The  soil,  which 
is  prindpaUy  alluvium,  forms  eioelleDt  arable  land. 
The  north  of  the  province  contains  tha  beat  soil, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  densely  peopled  distriota  of 
the  kingdom.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  land 
(towaida  the  south-eaat]  is  maruiy,  and  liea  in  paa- 
tarage,  which  aapporta  a  fine  bnied  of  cattle,  and 


people ;  fishing,  Dommeroe,  and  trade  are  also  oulied 

on,  as  well  aa  manufactures  to  some 

baildine  is  extensively  carried  oo,  and  tonah  butter 

export^    The  peofJe  are  almost  entirely  of  the 

Frisian  race,  and  belong  chiefly  to  the  Reformed 

Church. 

GRONINOEN,  an  important  fortifled  town 
of  the  Netherlands,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  is  situated  ou  tlie  Eulise,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  ibe  Aa  with  that  stream,  22  miles  west 
of  Dollart  Bay.  It  is  neady  circular  in  form,  is 
lurroonded  by  walla  and  a  foase,  and  is  traversed 
by  canals  crossed  by  18  bridges.  31le  Hunse 
i*  here  converted  into  a  oaual,  and  is  navigable 
far  large  vessels,  about  BOO  of  which  visit  the 
town  annually.  The  graat  market-plaoe,  aaid  to 
be  the  largest  in  Holland,  is  662  feet  Ions  and 
389  feet  broad,  and  coatains  the  beantifol  Gothio 
ohnrch  of  8t  Martin's,  with  a  ooble  tower  MS 
feet  high,  the  highest  in  Holland.  The  nniverai^, 
founded  in  ISlI,  possesses  a  library,  a  botanu 
garden,  and  a  cabinet  of  natntal  history.  The  port 
of  Q.  is  good  :  it  communicates  by  means  of  eaiiala 
with  DoOart  Bay  on  the  eut,  with  the  Lanwer  8n 
on  the  aorth-west,  and  with  the  entnnce  to  the 
Znider  Zee  at  Harlingen  on  the  west.  Thme  am 
shin-building  yarda  and   paper-millB.    Pop.  {18S9) 

OBOO'T^  ETXAKDT  (Endiah,  Great  Uland) 
liea  off  the  westsra  ooaat  of  ue  Qulf  of  Can)entaria, 
in  North  Australia,  and  is  the  largest  island  in  that 
vast  inlet,  in  lat  14°  3.,  and  long.  136*  49  E.  Its 
extreme  length  and  breadth   are   abont  40  milsa 


eaoL     The  centre  is 
are  dry  sod  barren. 

OBOB,  ARTODra  Juir,  Basoit,  •  Trench  Ustori-   I 
cal  painter,  was  bom  at  Paris  on  ]6tb  Uarch  1771, 
studied  in  the  school  of  David,  Mid  first  aoqiiEred 
celebrity  by  his  picture  of  Bonaparte  as  the  victor  of 
Areola.    The  latter  was  so  much  pleased  with  the 
work,  thtt  hs  appointed  Q.  a  member  ot  the  com- 
mission charged  with  collecting  the  objects  of  art 
whioh  had  been  ceded  io  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Tolenttna    His  flrst  great  achievement,  however, 
was  the  '  Peetiferis  de  Jaffa '  (The  Plague-smitten   ; 
at  Jafla),  which  was  executed  at  VersaiUes  in  1S04.   ; 
It  excited  prodigious  enthusiasm,  the  author  being   ' 
carried  in  tritmiph  to  the  saloon  of  the  Lonrre, 
where  the  picture  was   crowned  in  his  presence.   , 
Other  important  works  executed  by  G.  during  the 
Consnlate   and  the  Empire   are;   'Booaparte   aox 
Pyramides,'  'Le  Combat  d'Aboukir,'  'h»  Bataille 
de  Wa^mn,'  '  Charles-Quint  refu  i  Saint- Denis  pai 
Fnofo^s  Icr.'    After  the  return  of  the  Boorbons,  O. 
painted,  among  other  pictures, '  Le  Depart  Noctunw   I 
de  Louis  XVIIL  an  20  Hars  I81S,'  'La  Ducheoa   I 
d' AngoulSme  s'embarquaot  i  Pauillac,'  and  '  Chaiies 
X  au  Camp  de  Keims.'     Besides  these,  he  finished,    j 
in  1824,  an  immense  work  for  the  cupola  of  the 
church  of  Saint- Qenevi^e  in  Paris,  begun  in  ISII, 
to  which,  say  his  conntrymen,  'there  is  notfaing   j 
comparable.'     It  is  not   a  freeoo,  but  a  painting   | 
executed  in  oil  npoa  a  peculiar  kind  of  faster, 
representing  the  nitur  great   dynasties   of   Fr&coe   ' 
doing  homage  to  the  tntehuy  genius  of  the  nation.    ' 
Chariea  X.  was  lo  charmed  with  the  work,  that  be   i 
raised  Q.  to  the  dignity  of  a  baron,  and  doubled   { 
the  anm  which  the  painter  had  originally  itipnlsted   i 
tor.     The  rise  of  the  romantio  school  bore  aiiray   ' 
from  him  the  tide  of  popularity,  and  0.  felt   the 
ebbing  of  his  fame  so  acutely,  that  it  is  suspected   i 
he  committed  suicide  in  a  fit  of  profound  ohsnin. 
At  all  events,  his  body  was  drawn  out  of  the  mum 
near  Meudon,  2(tth  June  1835.    Q.'s  paintings  «n   I 
all   marked   by  strraigth   of   effect,  and  dramatio 
movement  in  uie  scene  ;  Mhej  ore,  however,  deficient   . 
in   delicacy   and   seatiment,   and   exhiUt   a  T«ry 
ordinary  power  of  imagination.  ' 

GRO;SBEAK  (CoccolAnitulo),  agenns  of  birds  of 
the  family  FringUUdit,  distinguished  chiefly  by  tlie 
great  thickness  of  the  bill,  which  has  also  a  pro- 
portionate strength,  and  notwithstanding  the  small 


Orosbeak  (X«Kia  coMpMnnutH}. 

rin  of  the  hirda,  is  used  for  breaking  the  stonM 
'    '  olives,  lus.    The  Hawflnoh  [q.  v.)  and 

a.  V.)  are  the  British  spades,  nor  are 
tbsnin  Europe;  but  some  orafonadin 


"ijtioogle 


O.  {iC  vaptrtiita)  uid  the  Boeft-BftKUTSD  Q.  {F. 
XiUdoadana)  in  Nortli  America. 

OBO'SSBNHAnr,  or  HABT,  formerlT  alao  oallad 
M»ricgi«feii)uuii,  U  >  mutll  maDufmctunna  town  ot 
a«xoq7,  ntuted  on  the  left  bank  of  tha  llOder,  20 
milea  Doith-weet  <^  Dnaden.  It  is  famoiu  (or  iti 
woollen  and  ccTtton  mamifactanB.  Pop.(lSTl)  10,438. 


KKZ,  a  oelebnted  English 
prelata  of  the  middle  uee,  wae  bom  at  Strad- 
brook,  io  Suffolk,  in  the  btter  part  of  the  12th  o. 
Sa  studied  at  Oxford,  and  mbaeqiieDUy  at  Parif. 
On  his  return  to  Ei^land,  he  obtained  a  gnat 
repntatitKi  aa  a  divine,  and  wss  tlie  fint  Wtnrsr  in 
the  Franciuan  achool  at  Oxford.  In  123fi,  be  waa 
•lected  Bishop  of  Jinodn,  and  at  mu*  oommmoed 
in  the  moat  Ti^orooi  fashioii  the  rcformatiim  of 
Abnaee  in  hi*  diooetet  The  moat  ooflspienooi  and 
oflensiTe  ecoleeJMtieal  tin  b  O.'a  days,  tras  the 
CMidnct  ti  the  pi^  (Innooent  IV.)  in  tne  matter 
of  chared  appoiatanenta.  It  waa  common  for  His 
HolinMB  to  make  gruita  ot  raoant  beneficea  in 
KigUnd  to  Italisna,  and  other  foreignen,  many  of 
whom,  it  would  appear,  never  shewed  faoe  in  this 
conntry  at  all,  but  contented  themaelvea  with 
diBwins  the  rarennes  of  tii«ir  office.  This  was 
intoleru>Ie  to  a  man  like  O.,  aiul  he  set  himinlf 
(tanner  against  it,  iacvrriiui,  hj  hit  boldiMM, 
tempomuy  cnqieiwoa from  tMer  '  ~  *■-'-' 
oopal  functiom  and  a  "!"*■""*' 
mnnimtion.  Oiw  of  thsM  to 
12S3  haabeen  Um  rabjeot  of 
ia  aUeoed  hyui       --.... 

O^  omering  hie  nepnew,  an  iiauan  yonin,  lo  oe 
promoted  to  the  first  oanoniy  that  should  be 
vacant  in  the  oaUiedral  of  Lincoln,  aocompanyins 
hie  injonotioaa  with  tbreata.  The  bti^p  was  oiled 
with  indignation,  and  at  onoe  oddreeeed  a  letter 
either  to  the  pope  or  his  agents,  in  which  he 
declare^  that '  u  an  aagal  from  heaven  commanded 


•  epw- 


.  . .  >bej  a  manflsttt  so  absurd  and  sinful,  he 
would  not  do  it,'  and  oomparea  the  nepotism  of 
th«  papa  to  the  ain  tl  Lnoifn  and  Anti-Christ. 
was  violently 


O.  quietly  appealed  to  the  tribunal 

of   Chiiet,  and   tnrahling  hinueU   no   more  about 

obeyinghimaaif  noUungbadhwjpened;  and  at  hi* 
de^  October  9,  1253,  Arohbislwp  Boniface  oon- 
ducted  the  funeral  serriceo.  But  Dr  lingard  (ii. 
p.  603)  ha*  shewn  that  the  mandate  came  not 
mimwapope,  bat  from  the  noncio;  that  Innocent, 
on  reoeirins  Q.'i  reply,  not  only  reaoinded  tke 
order,  but  aooptod  measnTSs  tta  the  nform  of  tluae 


ily  ngarded  as  one  of  the  'reformen  Utoe 
tM  Bafarmation.'  It  is  Msomed  that  beaaota  ha 
qoarretled  with  the  head  of  the  church  on  a  mottw 
of  discipline  he  most  have  been  a  'Protestant.' 
Bat  nouiing  oonkl  be  farther  from  the  faot  than 
suck  an  assnnptiim.  He  belonged  to  that  olass 
of  minds  who  look  at  truth  not  fnmi  the  nde  of 
dactrme,  but  of  pradiet.  He  would  have  aooepted, 
with  aoquieeoMlotL  any  new  doctrine  from  the 
Vatican,  bnt  *  knaviah  brick  was  not  to  be 
endured,  even  ai  the  hands  of  an  angel  from 
heaven  I  It  is  in  tiie  last  de^ee  fntile,  ^erefore, 
to  olain  him  aa  a  pceanrsw  of  man  lika  Lotkar, 


or  Ctlnn,  ar  Knox.  In  politica,  he  was  a  con- 
atitationaliBt,  and  a  friend  of  Simon  de  Mont- 
tort,  heartily  intarasted  in  the  preaervation  and 
eztenaicm  of  soch  liberty  aa  England  then  enjoyed. 
Hia  laaming  was  produious,  almost  insjnrinc  awe 
among  his  contMnftorarua.  I^tin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Frenui,  mathematioa,  medicine,  and  muaia  were 
among  hi*  attainmenta.  His  knowledge  of  the 
SoripSma  is  also  puiionlarly  Uuded.  O,  was  one 
of  toe  most  volnminoDs  author*  that  EngUnd  ever 
mtiduaed.  The  list  of  hi*  works,  *•  given  by  Dr 
Fegge,  of  which  only  »  few  have  been  publi^ed, 
oocupiea  25  oloeely-printed  page*  in  quarto.  For 
an  intelligent  eatmute  of  his  life  ai^  character, 
see  Mr  hewer's  Honnmenla  /Vancffcoiwi,  and  the 
collection  of  his  letters  edited  by  Mr  Loard,  and 
publiahed  (1S62)  under  the  title,  RobarH  OrouelaU 
IfpiKofn  quoBdatn  Liaoitmenhi  Eputola. 

OBOSSnLARIA'OE^,  a  natural  order  o( 
ezogeuon*  [danta,  containing  about  100  known 
speotes,  ijl  ahmbo,  natives  <»  temperate  dimatea, 
and  chiefly  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  They  have 
alternate  lobed  leavea.  The  calyx  is  4— 6-al^  the 
tube  entirely  or  in  part  adherent  to  die  ovary  ;  the 
petals  sre  very  auall,  alternate  with  die  segments 
of  tiw  calyx ;  tha  •tautens  are  *Jteniat«  with  the 
petala,  and  iaaartad  into  the  throat  of  the  calyx  { 
the  ovary  ii  ctte-ealled,  with  two  oppoaite  parietal 
.  tke  ftoit  i*  *  berry  cnmied  with  the 


irar,  kaviiu 
Isntpaodea 


by  long  threada ;  the 
y  gelatinooj,  adhering  fitmly  to  the 
aoni)  wuuutHiL  The  meat  important  *paciea  of  the 
order  an  the  Oooseberry  (q.  v.J  and  Oumuibi  (q.  v.). 

GROBSWATIDEIN  (Magyar,  IfagyVarad),  a 
town  of  Upper  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  South 
Bihar,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain,  on  the  Sabes 
KQrOs  (*  the  rapid  KOrile'),  38  mile*  soath-sonth-east 
of  Debreczin.  It  i*  the  seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic, 
and  of  a  non-united  Qreek  bishop,  and  conxists  of 
the  town  of  a.  proper,  and  eigbt  suburbs.  The 
town  ia  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  wa*  formerly  a 
fortreaa.  The  principal  buildings  ore  the  eburehes, 
(j  which  there  ore  22,  indudmg  tbe  cathedral,  a 
magnificent  edifice.  A  great  trade  is  carried  on 
beta,  especially  in  pottery,  in  cattle-rearing,  and  in 
the  calmotioii  of  the  vine.  The  town  i*  connected 
by  railway  with  Vieaoa.  The  entire  population  of 
tbi*  town  in  1869  was  28,698.  O.  was  taken  and 
pillagBd  by  the  Turks  in  1660^  and  by  the  Anatrians 
ml692. 

GROTB,  OaoROX,  poliWcian,  hiriorian,  and  phil- 
OBopher,  was  bom  1794  at  Clay  Hill,  Beckenham, 
Kent.  Hi*  arandfather,  Andrew  Oroto,  a  native  of 
Bremen,  settied  in  London  in  tbe  beginning  of  the 
loat  centnry,  and,  in  conjanction  with  Mr  O. 
Pretoott,  founded  the  London  banking-house  tiiat 
still  bean  thwr  joint  names.  Hi*  mother,  Selina 
Mm7  Feckwell,  waa  the  daughter  of  the  Hev.  Dr 
Peokwall,  ehajJain  to  the  Couotees  of  Huntingdon, 
who  married  an  Irish  lady,  dasoanded  from  an  old 
Frenok  family  in  Tonrune,  one  of  whom,  being  a 
Protaatant,  settled  in  this  country  after  the  revo- 
o^on  of  tiie  edict  of  Nantes.  O.  was  educated  at 
Ckartat  Honaa,  and  at  sixteen  entered  his  father's 
banking-hoitta,en)ployingaU  hisleiaure  hour*  in  study. 
In  I82C  ^  1>«S*A  to  *"">"  materials  for  a  history 
of  Greece.  Previoo*  to  1832,  he  wrote  on  parlia^ 
mentary  cefoniLBDd  threw  himaelf  i^to  the  agitation 
for  tke  fieform  BUI.  After  the  pandng  of  the  bill, 
he  was  elected,  at  the  top  of  the  poU,  a  representa- 
tive of  the  dty  of  London  in  pariianient^  and  con- 
tinued  a  member  of  tbe  House  of  Commons  till 
1841.  His  parliamentary  career  was  ohiefiy  dio- 
tuignkhed  by  hia  annual  motion  foi  the  ballot  but 


tGooi^li 


OEOTBBQUE-OROrrca. 


liorooko  with  great  effect  on  many  other  ^ „ 

In  1843,  he  retired  from  the  banking-house,  and 
devoted  himielt  excloaively  to  bis  biatocj  ;  the  fint 

.. , .  ,..  1348^  and  ^,6  laat  (twelve 

He  forthwith  commenoed 


■tadiouB  life  wai  devoted  to  Aristotle,  but  he  did 
Dot  execute  mora  than  a  part  of  what  he  intended. 
He  died  in  1871.    After  his  death,  appeared  what 


WoriA  His  Life,  entitled  The  Pertowd  Life  ^ 
Otorge  Qrole,  was  written  by  Mrs  Grote.  ae 
spent  roueh  of  his  tuoe,   in  later   years, 


educational 
University  College,  and  the  University 
of  London— being,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  president 
of  the  one,  and  vice-chancellor  of  the  other.  Hia 
whole  career  wu  marked  by  attachment  to  libenl 
opinlonB.  He  -was  not  merely  a  miin  of  erudite 
research;  he  devoted  himself  also  to  mental  phil- 
osophy and  logic,  by  which  he  became  aa  much 
distinguiabed  in  his  capacity  of  historian  of  phil- 
OBophy  as  he  was  in  political  history. 
GBOTE'SQUB,  a  style  of    '      " 


Titne  <uid  other  ancient  Bomu  bnildings,  the 
Italian  word  groUo  applying  to  a^y  subtenanean 
chamber.  This  light,  lantastio  style  was  much  in 
favour  during  the  Eenaisaance.  It  abounds  in 
all  kinds  of  transformatioiiB,  from  the  animal  to 
the  v^^etable,  and  mingles  all  the  natural  kingdoms 
in  the  most  fanciful  and  picturesque  conmsion. 
The  name  grotaqut  thus  came  by  degrees  to  mean 


a  fanciful  combination  of  natural  ideas  a 


ap^ed 


Some  of  these  are  very  beantifnl,  and 
others  very  picturesque,  and,  generilly,  an  idea  of 
some  value,  such  as  boldness,  fierceness,  dignity, 
&C.,  is  expressed.  In  this  mode  of  application,  the 
grotesque  is  a  valuable  --'-•—  --  — '  --  --  — '- 
when  it  becomes 
of  the  Benaisaanoe,  that  its  value 

GHO'TIUB,  HiTOO,  or  Da  Gsoot,  was  bom  at 
Pelft,  10th  AprU  1583.  His  father,  Jan  de  Qroot, 
was  bmgomaster  of  the  town,  and  also  curator  of 
the  university  of  Leyden.  In  his  11th  year  he 
entered  the  university  of  Leyden,  where  he  enjoyed 
the  advantage  of  studying  under  Josefdi  Scaliger. 
In  his  IGtb  year  he  took  his  degree,  in  the 
following  year  he  aocompanied  Olden  Barnevetdt, 
the    grand-pensionary,  on    his   embassy  to  France, 

talents  and  conduct  gained  him  tiie  favour  of 
Henry  IV.  On  his  return,  he  began  to  practjle  as 
a  lawyer  ;  and  in  1607  waa  appointed  Sstvl-general, 
and  in  1613  cauncil-pensioDary  at  Botterdam.  But 
the  disputes  between  the  Semonstranta  and  their 
opponsnta  were  now  at  their  height  in  Holland  ; 
Olden  Bameveldt  had  the  misfortune  to  be  the 
protector  of  the  farmer,  and  O.  also  supported 
them  by  his  writinm  and  favour.  IHiese  reli- 
giouB,  or  rather   the^ogical  etrifes   hod,   however. 


a  poJituMZ  significance  also ;  and  the  oonseqai 
was,  that  both  Olden  Barneveldt  and  G. 
arrested,  tried,  and  condemned  by  the  dot 
party  under  Prinoe  Maurice  (see  BAXNXTXLi)>r). 
Olden  Bameveldt  was  beheaded  in  1619,  and  G. 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life  in  the  oastle  of 
Lovenstein.  He  eacaped,  however,  by  the  oontriv- 
ance  of  his  wife,  who  maiiaged  to  have  him  carried 
out  of  the  castle  in  a  cheat  used  for  the  oonveyanea 
of  books  and  linen,  while  she  remained  in  prwon 
in  hia  stead.  Her  devotion  waa  applauded  even  by 
hia  stem  maaters,  and  she  was  set  at  liber^. 
For  some  time,  0.  wandered  ahont  in  the  Cathidla 

C"on  of  the  Netherlands,  and  finally  eacaped  b> 
ce,  where  Louis  XIIL  bestowed  upon  niin  a 
pension  of  3000  livre* ;  but  not  paying  snflGcieat 
oourt  to  Bichelieu,  he  lost  the  king^s  uvonr,  and 
in  1631  his  peotion  was  withdrawn.  A  friendly 
letter  from  Prinoe  Frederick  of  Orange  induced 
htm  to  return  to  his  native  country ;  bnt  by  the 
intrigues  of  his  eneibiea,  sentence  of  perpetual  exile 


the  \xaffi  of  HeanaA,  Poland,  and  Spun  , 
but  the  protection  promised  him  by  Uie  CbancsUor 
Oxenstiem,  and  Qneen  Christina's  taste  for  litera- 
ture, induced  him  to  enter  the  Swediah  service 
in  1634.  A«  ambassador  at  the  French  court  (1635 
— 16tiS},  he  nined  universal  respect.  On  hia  return 
to  Sweden,  ne  passed  through  his  native  country, 
and  was  received  in  Amsterdam  with  the  moat 
distinguished  honour.  Equally  flattering  wta  his 
reception  by  the  Swediah  queen ;  but  the  literalT 
dilettantism  of  Christina's  court  did  not  suit  bo 
serious  and  solid  a  si^iolar,  whose  thou^ta  irers 
always  of  the  broadest  and  moat  fraeoasting  natare. 
Beaides,  the  climate  of  Sweden  did  not  agree  with 
him,  and  he  wm  probably  Mudons  to  nmid  the 
evening  of  his  life  in  his  native  land.  In  coDse- 
quence,  he  sent  in  his  resignation  of  ofGoe  to  tlu 
queen,  who,  when  she  found  that  nothing  coold 
induce  him  to  stay,  presented  Tiim  with  a  sum  of 
10,000  crowns  and  some  costly  plate,  heoAea 
placing  at  bis  disposal  a  vessel  to  conduct  him 
down  the  Baltic  to  LUbeck.  A  sbmn  oompdied 
him  to  land  on  the  coast  of  Pomenmia.  While 
proceeding  towards  Lubeck,  he  was  seized  witli  a 
fatal  illness,  and  died  at  Kostock,  28th  August 
164S.  To  the  talents  of  a  most  able  statesman,  G. 
united   deep  and  extenmve   learning.     He  was   a 

C Found  and  enlightened  theol<Mian — periiaps  the 
t  eiegete  of  his  day,  a  distmguished  schcJar, 
sn  acute  philosopher,  a  judidoushistorian,  and  ti 
splendid  jurist.  Altogether,  he  waa  what  Mtnaga 
i^ed  hirn, '  a  monster  of  erudition.'  His  metrical 
translations  from  the  Greek  authors  also  display 
superior  poetical  powers ;  he  waa  one  of  the  best 
modem  wiiters  of  Latin  verse,  and  likewise  com- 
posed poems  in  tiie  Dutch  language.  In  spite  of 
his  broken,  wandering,  and  checkered  care^,  G. 
found  time  to  write  a  great  variety  of  worka.  Tha 
first  was  the  Mare  Lihrnint,  in  which  he  defended 
the  freedom  of  the  I>utch  Bast  India  trade.  Hia 
chief  work,  however,  is  that  entitled  De  Jure  B«U» 
tt  Paeia,  which  has  been  bonslated  into  all  Oia 
languages  of  Europe.  It  may  be  considered  as 
the  basis  of  internationBl  law,  and  has  long  been 
used  OS  a  text-book  on  the  subject  in  many  univer- 
sities. Among  bis  other  works  we  may  mention 
Ataiala  tt  HiMorm  de  Rebut  Betgiae  (Amsterdam, 
1667),  written  in  a  style  that  equals  Tacitus  for 
concise  and  pointed  power ;  AnnotatioMa  in  Vetai 
TeatamentKvt  (Paris,  1641) ;  Amwlationte  in  IfovHm 
TetlamaUum{P»nB,lMi)iDeSat^/a£iimieCliruli; 
and  D«  VaUate  Seligion,U  Ohntlicaia  (Leyden, 
1627],     bansUted     even     into     serenl    Oiuntal 


t.Google 


GROTTA  DEL  OANB-GBOTJND  BENT. 


Tigoiona  lo^c,  and  slcniunit  rt^la  It  is  reckoned 
Uke  best  *  ikpology'  fM  Chiistiuutf  in  modenL  tiniea. 
— Compm  Batiar,  Zife  of  Qrotiut  (Landcm,  1^6) ; 
De  Vnea,  Hvig  de  Onol  at  Maria  von  S^ger^er- 
g«»  (Anurb  1^7) ;  Crenzer,  LutAer  tind  Hugo 
amUv  [Haidelb.  1S«B). 

OECyTTA  DEL  CAITB,  or  OKOTTO  OF  THE 
DOG,  ii  s  noted  care  near  Naplea,  in  llie  vicinit]' 
of  Iiike  Afnano  and  of  FaEzaalL  It  ii  aboiit  10 
feet  deep,  4  feet  widcs  and  9  high,  and 
of  caibcmia  acid  gaa,  eapecially  near  tlie  ,  .  .  . 
little  »nim«l«  introduced  into  it  aoon  die,  and 
tapan  placed  near  the  ptmnd  are  ertingoiahed. 
This  cave  was  known  to  tiie  andents,  and  is 
described  b^  Pliny.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
practice  of  mtrodoeiiut  snull  dogs,  which  an  eoon 
almost  deptired  of  lue  by  the  gM,  bat  reoover  if 
quickly  plauged  into  wmter. 

GROTTA'GLIS,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Italy, 
in  the  prorinae  of  Lecce,  12  miles  north-eatrt  of 
Taianto.  Popi  7S58.  It  dates  its  origin  from  the 
loth  a,  when  the  inhabitants  of  Beveral  enrrounding 
Tillsges,  that  had  been  laid  in  ruins  by  the  Losgo- 
""'"'"  I,  aonght  refuge  bare,  and  gave 

their  new  dwellings,  from  the 
groae  or  caves  wmch  intersect  the  hiU  at  tiie  foot 
of  whicdi  the  town  stands. 
GBOU3S 


D  ofQ.  I 


of  the  grooad,  as  tending  in  no  small  d^i 
a&ot  ths  tmrhnii-J  qnalitj  of  the  work.  In  Winning 
an  opinion  <hi  paintings  by  old  msstoa,  the  kindtS 
poimd  used  is  always  taken  into  oouaidention,  for 
in  diffie(«nt  ^JmIm  sud  sohools,  partdoalsr  gronnds 
were  Died.  Die  works  of  the  Italian  school  pre- 
ceding and  during  the  time  of  £a{diael  were  all 
painted  on  white  grounds,  and  almost  always  on 
panels  even  when  the  works  were  large,  and  many 
'    '    '      be  joined.      The   preparation 


....  Italian  and  Spanish  schooja 
weie  generally  painted  on  an  oil  ground  of  a 
dnll  red  coloor ;  and  when  this  was  not  covered 
by  the  artist  with  a  Uiick  impculo  or  body  of 
punt,  ths  piotore  was  apt  to  beoome  blsck  snd 
neavy,  a  fablt  very  marked  in  the  works  of  the 
school  of  the  Canacci  and  the  Neapolitan  and 
later  Soman  schools.  Ths  works  of  the  Dntch 
and  flemish  masters,  which  are  distinguished  for 
tnUian<7  snd  tranqiarency,  were  painted  on  light 
groands,  varying  from  white  to  gray,  and  their 
practioe  is  generslly  followed  in  thia  country  and 
m  the  modern  sdiools  abroad.  The  tena  ffitniad  ia 
also  qipUed  to  different  psrts  of  a  pictore,  as  the 
Jbregrmad,  or  portiiHi  of  the  pictore  on  which  are 
placed  the  flgorea  ov  objects  roprosontod  as  nearest 
the  spectator ;  iaekgrotmd,  the  part,  particularly  in 
portnita,  behind  ot  on  which  it  is  intended  to  set 
off  or  relieve  the  bead,  Sgtue,  or  gronp  depicted. 
The  portion  oC  a  model  or  carving  Irom  which  the 
Ggniea  are  projected,  is  styled  the  ground. 

OBOVND-AKiriTAIi,  in  the  Law  of  Sootland, 
is  an  annnal  rent  or  annnity  paid  by  the  owner  of 
hod  to  a  creditor  or  to  ths  vmidor  ot  the  Isnd,  snd 
b  most  respects  oonespimds  to  Gnnmd-i«at  (q.  v.) 


It  also  resambfes  a  reat-charM  (see  Bzirt) 

with  a  like4istioi;tion.    ^us,  when  a 

I   his  land,   and  instead  of   takii^  a 

for  the  price,  prefers  a  sum  hy  way  of  a  | 


perpetoal  annuity  or  rent,  he  conveys  the  land  in 
to  the  disponee  or  porchaser,  sabject  to  this  grou 
jnnnal^  which  is  a  burden  on  the  lands  br  ( 

after.    The  vendor  or  credittn'  is  then  called 

ground-annualer,  and  if  the  ground-simual  is  not 
paid,  he  is  entitled  oa  a  remedy  to  poind  " 
ground,  Le.,  seize  all  the  goods,  whether  of 
owner  or  his  tenants,  which  are  foond  on  the  lands, 
and  pay  himsHlf,  or  be  may  me  the  debtor.  But 
he  cannot,  as  a  ground-landlord  can  do  in  England, 
poind  the  goods  of  t}ie  debtor's  teoanta  to  a  greater 
extent  than  the  cnrrent  term's  rent  or  arrears  due 
by  them. 

GROUND  DOVE  add  GBOTIND  PIGEON  are 
names  given  to  those  birds  of  the  family  Coiumiida 
which  m  characters  and  habits  approach  moat  to 
the  ordinary  gallinaoeous  type.  They  have  short 
and  rounded  wings,  with  much  iofenor  power  of 
fli^t  to  pigeons  m  general ;  their  Imfs  are  longer, 
and  their  f^t  rather  adapted  for  wauing  than  for 
grasping.  They  are  little  arboreal  ia  their  habits, 
but  live  mostly  on  the  gtound.  Haay  of  them 
run  very  quickly.  They  have  not  in  general  much 
brilliancv  of  pfnmsge,  bot  among  t£em  are  the 
beautiful  Bronze-wings  (q.  v.)  of  Australia. 

GBOUND-ITY  (Olechdma  liederaoa*,  noited 
with  the  genus  Jftpiia  by  some  botanists  as  JIT. 
OleelioTtui),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  JioHatai,  a 
common  native  of  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
growing  in  Waste  places,  plantations,  hedges^  &C.,  in 
■  dry  soiL  It  has  a  creeping  stem,  kidlMy-shsped 
cr^iate  leaves,  and  axillary  blue  flowen  growing  in 


leaves,  and  axillary  Uue  flowen  growing  ii 
wu^«»  The  flowas  have  four  asoending  itimftit 
two  long  and  two  short,  a  Ifi-nwed  ff-tootbed  and 
equal  c^yx,  the  anthan  before  bursting  spprMching 
in  pain  and  forming  a  cross.  A  tea  pi«iared  from 
the  leaves  is  in  giest  i«pute  among  the  poor  in 
many  places,  and  the  |lant  is  stdmulsnt,  aromatic, 
and  oi  use  in  pectoral  complaints.  The  leaves  were 
formerly  used  in  England  lor  clarifying  and  flavour- 
ing ale,  irtlich  was  Uien  caUed  Gul-ale  or  GeU-ale, 
from  Ciill  or  QeU,  an  old  name  of  this  plant ;  but 
this  use  has  been  discontinued  since  the  introduction 

GBOUND-NUT,  a  term  variously  employed, 
to  denote  the  seed  of  the  Aradiii  hypogaa  (see 
Abachis),  and  the  tubers  of  certun  umbeUiferous 
pUoto,  alio  called  Eaxth-hdib  (q.  v.). 

GKOUND-BBNT,  in  the  Iaw  of  England,  is  the 
rent  which  a  person,  who  intends  to  build  upon  a 
piece  of  ground,  pays  to  the  landlord  for  the  ose  of 
the  ground  for  a  certain  specified  term,  usually  99 
years.  The  usual  arrangement  between  the  owner 
of  the  freehold  of  land  snd  a  speculating  builder,  is 
of  this  kind.  The  builder  pays  a  oertaiu  annual 
Eom  by  -way  of  rent  to  the  owner,  who  is  tbereijter 
called  the  groond-laodlord,  and  then  commences  to 
build  upon  the  land.  The  builder  then  lets  tlie 
houses,  and  in  doing  so  he  of  course  includes  in  the 


to  pay  to  the  ground-landlord,  so  that  practically 
ths  tenant  psys  both  the  rent  and  the  ground-reat, 
the  latter  bemg  so  called  because  it  issues  out  of 
id,  independently  of  what  is  built  upon 
id-teats  often  form  a  safe  investment  for 


, rent  is  in  sneor,  to  distrain  all 

and  chattels  he  finds  on  the  premises, 
oever   thev   may   belong;    and    as   the 

nonnd-nmt  is  generslly  a  smaU  sum,  compared  with 
the  furniture  of  the  tenant,  he  is  always  sure  to 
fall  amoont    Tiaa  pnver  of  distress 
lar  the  tenant  has  paid  bis  rent  to  his 


hyCoogle 


OBOXTHD  BQUISBBL— OBOnaC 


nwD  landlord  or  not ;  Imt  if  at  titj  tim»  tha  traant 
hM  bean  obliged  to  pay  the  groiuid-luullord  the 

C nod-rant,  vhioh  it  U  tlia  duty  of  his  own  land> 
1  in  general  to  pay,  he  may  deduct  lucli  nun 
from  the  next  rent  he  pays,  or,  u  it  ia  called; 
may  aet  off  the  one  against  tiie  other  to  far  aa  it 
will  go.  Strictly  ipeaking,  there  are  tiiiu  two 
landlord*.  The  ground- landlord  is  the  over-laad- 
lord,  and  baa  the  paramount  security ;  the  other 
landlord  is  landlord  to  tiie  tenant  who  actually 
occupies,  but  is  himaalf  t«muit  to  the  ground-land- 
lord, for  he  merely  holds  a  lease.  He  is  what  : 
.called  a  mesne  lancUord.  At  the  end  of  the  99  years, 
or  whatever  other  t«rm  is  fixed  upon,  the  whole  of 
the  building  beoomea  the  property  of  the  ground- 
landlord,  for  the  interest  of  the  builder  cc  his 
amigneea  then  expires  by  effluxion  of  time;  and 
aa  the  building  is  a  fixture,  and  cannot  be 
carried  away,  it  tiiui  falla  in  to  the  landlord, 
and  often  thereby  areatea  a  great  aooeasic 
wealth. 

Ground-rent  corresponds  to  fiu  in  Bootland,  witli 
this  difference  that  the  feo-ient  in  the  latter  oaae 
last*  for  ever,  there  being  no  definite  term  fixed  for 
iti  ceasing. 

OBOUND  SQFIBBEL  (7'atn^),  a  genus  of 
rodent  qusdrupeda  of  the  Squirrel  family,  differing 
from  the  true  squirrels  in  the  possession  of  oheak- 

Euohes,  in  having  a  more  slender  body  and  shorter 
ja,  and  in  other  leea  important  particulsn ;  but 
moat  of  all  in  their  habits,  residing  ohiefly  on  " 
ground,  and  seldom  ascending  tiees  to  sny  Co 
derable  heisht.      They  are^  small  sise,  are 
longitudinally  striped  on  the  back  and  sides, 
axtzemely  aotive  and  restless,  and  emit  a  pecs 


Ground  SqnirreL 

'chipping  clucking  sound,  very  widdy  differing 
from  the  quacking,  chattermg  cry  of  the  squin^lt/ 
A  well-known  species  is  t^  Eaceu  or  CsiF- 
FiNO  Squtrrbl  (V.  Lytterl)  of  North  America,  of 
a  brownish-cray  colour,  striped  with  black  and 
yellowiah  white,  the  belly  white.  It  is  much  per- 
secuted by  boys,  with  whom  the  hontinK  of  it  is 
a  favourite  snort  The  fur  li  nsed  for  muA, 
tippeta,  Ac  Other  enecies  of  O.  S.  aie  foond  in 
AJnerica,  Asia,  and  Amo. 

OROnNBLmo  {BaOa  Innta),  a  null  fish  of 
the  family  Cyprinidm,  fonnd  in  some  of  tiia  iiTeia  tA 
England.  It  is  never  more  than  three  or  four  inches 
long.  It  retieives  its  name  from  habitually  keeping 
oloee  to  the  bottom.  It  is  probably  often  mistaken 
for  the  Loach  (q.  v.),  which  it  much  reaembles  {  hut, 
besides  its  smaller  sise,  it  is  of  a  much  more  com- 
pressed form,  and  is  particularly  distinguished  by  a 
forked  spine  beneath  each  eye.     Thsae  have  been 


QROU'NDaSL,   the    common   name   of   those 
spedes  of  Sattdo  (q.  v.)  which  have  small  hsada  of 
fiowen  either  destitute  of  ray  or  with  the  ray  rolled 
back.  The  CoioiOH  O.  (8.  pulgarit),  one  of  tne  meet 
plentiful  of  weeds  in  wsatfl  and  cultiTal«d  groonda 
m  Britaia  and  most  i^arts  of  Butope,  if  nsosUy 
destitote  of  ray.      It  i*  a  ooarse-lookioK  «.»mn»l|    | 
of  npid  growth,  about  a  toot  high,  brandied,  iritli 
pinni^d  leaves,  and  small  yellow  heada  of  flowers; 
flowering  at  aU  seaaons,  even  in  winter,  whem  the    I 
weather  is  mild ;  and  its  seeds,  like  tboao  of  other 
CompotUa,  are  widely  ■^■''"t™'  by  means  ol  their    ] 
hairy  pappus,  bsing  wafted  aboat  bj  the  wind.     It 
has  a  rather  disagreeable  smell ;  bnt  birds  are  t^TT    , 
fond  of  the  young  buda  and  lesTea,  and  osge-birds    ' 
are  fed  on  them.    It  has  a  saltiah  taster  wb«io«  its 
name.    Its  leaves,  beaten  into  a  ooaias  pulp^  and 
externally  amilied  to  the  stomacb,  eanse  Tamiting    ' 
some  hoon  after  their  application ;   it  also  niaJcea 
a  good  poultice  for  boil*  and  sptuns.— The  ot^her    i 
Bntiah  species  are  weeds  of  very  similar  appearoace,    | 
but  are  stroager,  have  a  more  disagreeable  odour,    : 
and  are  viacid  to  the  toudh. — Like  other  «-"""°'    I 
weeds,  the  groundsels  are  to  be  hoed  down  or  pulled 
as  they  appear,  when  the  ground  is  in  crop.  l 

GROUP,  the  combining  of  sevsnl  bodies  so  as    { 
to  form  an  agreeable  whole.    In  drawing  (m«  or    i 
more  groups   compose  the  picture.     A  bunch   of 
grapes,  a  oone,  or  a  pyramid  have  been  taken   bj 
different  artists  aa  the  model  form  of  a  gronp. 

GROUSE  {Tetrao),  a  genus  of  gallinaoeoas  binja,    | 
which,  as  defined  by  Limueus,  induded  partridges^    I 
quails,  and  all  the  birds  now  forming  the  family    i 
Tetnumida,  and  divided  into  many  genenk     The 
Tttraonidtt  have  a  very  short  bill,  rather  thick, 
sharp,  and  a  little  cutred,   and  very  genmdly'  a 


I  patcl 


r  behind  the  eye; 


<  hind  toe. 


have  three  toes  before,  and  generally  oi 

placed  high  on  the  tarsus,  but  the  hind 

very  short,  and  sometimee  wantiiig.  Those  to  ndiich 
the'  name  G.  i*  popularly  given  have  the  l^a 
feathered  to  the  feet,  but  in  the  genus  Tttrao,  as 
now  reetrioted  by  ornithologists,  Uie  toes  aro  not 
feathered;  in  moorfowl  and  ptaimigan,  they  are  com- 
pletely so,  and  these  have  therefore  been  •epatated 
into  a  distinct  genus,  Lagopa*.  Partridges,  quaila, 
ftc.,  which  have  not  the  tarsi  feathered,  are  reraoded 
as  connecting  the  fsmilies  TetnonidiM  and  I'hati- 
aaidct,  and  are  sometimea  referred  to  the  latter, 
although  their  intimate  oonneotion  widi  the  formra- 
is  genwally  recognised.  Some  of  the  TetraotAim 
—  polytramoua,  and  this  is  the  caoe  with  all,  or 
— Ml  ul,  the  speoiea  of  the  genus  TO/rao,  whilst 
those  of  Lampua,  so  nearly  alhed  to  them,  pair. — 
The  genus  Tetrao  contains  the  largest  birds  of  the 
family,  exceeded  in  this  respect  by  almost  no  otW 
galliiuceous  birds.  Tfaey  have  a  full  figure  with 
much  muscular  power,  the  tdl  is  longer  ^an  in 
moat  of  the  family,  is  oompoaed  of  broad  feathers, 
and  generally  rounded.  The  females  differ  TCEiy 
considerably  in  ptnnuws  from  the  males^  which  are 
often  mplendeot  in  black,  brown,  green,  and  blue. 
The  species  are  natires  of  the  northern  and  tem- 
perate parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  the 
~^''™  in  wliieb  ths  iWoonldis  in  general  are  moat 
st^  ahhon^  aoma  of  tiie  fknuly  are  found  ta 
and  more  southern  countries. — The  largest 
species  of  TWno  is  the  CaperoaiUe  (q.r.),  \^od 
O.,  or  Cock  of  _the  Woods  {T.  imvottM) ;  and  next 


,  —  ^ , —  ■peoies,  n 

cook  (q^.v.),  {T.  MrtK),  the  only  other  Enrapeaa 
speoiea  indeod,  if  the  aunewhat  rare  T.  iyMim  of 
contjnsntal  Etnope,  the  JbioUeAoAn  of  the  BmdM 


I,  Google 


anovES-GBiroBir. 


(aa«  BuuBKOCOt),  be  ngmrded  m  th«  K«att  of  & 
men  aoddAiital  intemizbm  of  titeae  two. — TlLe 
PiwiiAXKD  O..  or  Ptuna*  Bxa  [T.  cmido)  of  North 
^Tiv*rii*ft^  11  rfttlur  nuDcr  tiuu  tb^  Slftokoook ;  tho 
gmenl  ookmr  of  tii«idnmw*MTdlowiih-red,wiUi 
bmt%  Mid  eKmaaet  of  bUcE;  the  tail  it  very  tliort 
and  muoh  rounded.  The  nule  hM  neck-infti  of 
narrow  tektben,  the  I»rgeet  of  which  are  live  bchea 
long,  and  ia  itill  more  ramBrktbl;  idoroed  with  two 
looae  peodoloiu  wrinkled  skins,  eitenduiE  along  the 
aidee  of  the  oeck  for  two-thirds  of  its  leogth,  oapable 
of  ioSstioii  with  sir,  uid  when  inflated,  reeembling 
in  bulk,  colour,  and  mrtaoe,  middle- Died  oranges. 
Thii  Bp«ciea  of  O.  ohisfly  iababits  drr  open  dis- 
tricts,  studded  with  trees  or  patohea  ol  bnuhwood. 
It  wii  at  one  tuns  afflunon  in  New  Jersey  and 
Pensnlranit^  •■  wdl  u  in  the  w««tem  iiTaiiieB,  but 
hM  alwm  beooBM  tare  •■  a  diatiiot  naa  become 
coUiTatca  and  popolona,  notwithrtandina  laws  in 
■omeeaMatDaetedforitspreHrTatioa.  Itnaaalntoet 
dia^tpeand  fram  the  state  of  EcotaoW,  ■when  it 
was  at  one  ^Jw*  an  extiwuely  ahnndanti  that  ohildjen 


dationa  in  the  cnltaTBted  fields,  and  maUttndee 
were  shot  and  bapped  merely  to  be  thiown  aws^ . 
In  the  north-eaitani  paite  oi  the  United  States  it 
exists,  but  is  not  abundant.  It  oon0«gatas  in 
docks  in  winter,  which  bieak  np  into  imuler  parties 
in  Bptio^  The  males  have  many  emnbata  at  tbe 
^[Hwh  (rf  the  breeding  Mason.  Xheir  Toioe  is 
t^aoibed  ■•  a  low  looting  er  tooflwv;  Tb^  strain 
aftor  the  manner  of  tatmn-^odk*,  with  wing*  let 
down  to  tiu  groond,  ana  neok-leathen  eneted. 
Certain  apaita,  known  in  the  wertem  paiti  irf 
America  a*  Vuiz  imKMmffiatM,  seem  to  be 
spadally  amiropriated  for  their  displays  and 
oonbati^  ana  there  c(RMid«>able  nembers  often  meet 
•boot  daybreak,  diipeninff  agsin  alter  the  son  is 
Dp.  Uany  are  shot  on  aacn  oceasions.  The  food  of 
the  Pinnatad  O.  consista  of  aeeds,  berries,  the  bud* 
of  bees  and  buhea,  insoots,  Ac.  It  is  highly  prized 
f<v  the  table  in  those  parta  of  America  where  it  i> 
rare,  "nie  fleah  reaambUa  that  of  the  blackcock. — 
The  Spotted  Q.,  or  CAMAi>Lur  O.  {T.  Canadauu), 
ii  ■""Hiw  than  tiie  Pinnated  O.,  about  eqosl  to  the 
Scottish  moorfowL    It  Inhabits  ^  norttiem  parta 


mooh  in  winter  on  tilie  leaves  and  branbhlsts  in 
these  trees,  aa  wdl  as  on  their  seeds,  whence  it  is 
often  called  tbe  Spruce  Partridge.  From  this  food 
the  flsah  acquirea  a  strous  and  peooliar  flavour  in 
winter.  Ilie  plumage  of  Uie  upper  parts  is  mostly 
brownish-black,  transvenely  barred  with  brownish- 
mji  in' seme  parta  vsryiBg  to  a  nuty  orange.  The 
luT M  lonnded.— The  DraKT  O.  (T,  oWrus)  is  a 
■peoie*  almost  aa  large  as  the  caperoailiie,  a  native 
M  the  shady  forests  of  the  Kooky  Mountains  and 
the  banks  A  the  Columbia.  The  raieral  ooloor  is 
Uackish-brown,  the  winp  li^iter.  The  tail  is  large 
and  rounded— The  MoOKTOWt,  (q.  v.),  or  Rid  Qt.  of 
Britain,  is  allied  to  the  ptannlnas  rather  than  to 
tbsae  q>eaieB,  and  is  eaDed  Red  Ptarmigan  by 
sen*  ^ystematie  writers,  althongh  it  la  the  speoiea 
to  wluob,  in  popular  lan^age,  the  name  O.  is 
alnMst  exelusiTely  ^mopnated  In  Britain.  Other 
spedes,  often  popnlany  called  Qt.,  are  netioed  in 
tbe  artaelaa  BoHiau,  Cook  at  tex  Pusm,  Oaksa, 
BisRHam^Ae. 

OBOTXB  hav^  stnong  almost  sll  nations,  been 
aaaodated  with  religiooi  rite*,  b«^  choaen  as 
Buitabts  plaoaa  for  tlwm,  «r  even  planted  in  ordv 
to  thia  nae.  THna  pleasantneaa  of  grovea  may  have 
had  something  to  do  with  this,  but  probably  Ux  leas 
^*n  the  senomenta  of  awe  and  solemnitj  natnp- 
ally  eseited  by  liie  ^oran  of  deep  fonsti.    Chore* 


became  so  intimataly  associated  with  the  idea  of 
aacrifloe  and  other  relifriou*  rite*,  that  the  planting 
of  a  jgTove  becMne  it*eU  an  act  (^  religion,  like  the 
erection  of  an  altar  or  tbe  biDldinK  of  a  temple. 
Tboa, '  Abtakam  planted  a  tp^ore  in  Beenfaeba,  and 
called  tho*  on  the  name  of  uie  Lord,  the  everlasting 
Qod'  (Cen.  zn.  33).  Afterwards,  however,  the  Jews 
were  fMbidden  to  plant  groves  near  the  altar  of  the 
Lord  (Deut.  xvi.  21,  22),  oecanse  of  their  association 
with  idolatry,  and  witii  the  cruel  and  abominable 
rites  of  the  nations  of  Canaan,  and  of  the  neighbonie 
of  the  Jews. 

GROWING  CORN  on  a  farm,  or  on  land  let 
to  a  tenant,  may  be  distrained  in  Gngland  by  the 
landlord  for  rent  which  is  already  due  and  in  sirear) 
that  is,  the  landlord  may  taiM  and  sell  the  com  to 
pay  his  rent.  In  Sootland,  growing  com  may  also  be 
sequestratsd  by  the  landlord  (whi<m  means  Uie  same 
thing) ;.  but  this  oan  be  done  only  bsr  the  rent  which 
ia  current,  and  which  will  beoome  due  for  the  same 
year  to  whioh  Uie  crop  belongs.  In  England,  the 
landlord  can  distrain  fv  several  years'  rent  at  one 

QROWLBB  (Or^ttt  tdlmoidf),  a  flsh  of  the 
Perch  &unily,  abunduit  in  many  of  the  rivers  of 
North  America,  as  in  the  neighbonrhood  of  New 
York.  It  attaina  a  langtli  of  two  feeb  It  ia  of  an 
olive  odour,  diA.  on  the  upper  parts,  and  beooming 
erayiah-white  beneath.  Tbe  O.  is  mnoh  esteemed 
for  the  table.  It  affords  good  sport  to  anglera. 
It  receivea  its  nsme  from  a  sonnd  which  it  emits. 
The  genus  Grystes  has  smatt  scales  and  only  fine 
card&e  teeth.  Another  speoiea  is  found  la  the 
Macqoaria  River,  in  New  HoUarid. 

GRUB,  tlie  name  commonly  given  to  the  larvn 
'erous  insects.  8ee  ColxoftKHa.  Some 
too  well  known  to  farmers  and  gardeners 
for  the  injury  they  do  to  the  roote  of  plants,  and 
thus  we  hear  of  crops  suflering  from  Iht  grub,  but 
different  spedes  are  destructive  U>  diETereot  kinds 
of  plants.  Tbe  most  important  are  noticed  under 
their  proper  names,  and  reference  is  made  from  the 
more  important  cultivated  plants  to  those  gruba 
most  hnnftti  to  them. 

GRUBBBR,  an  agricultural  implement  which 
has  recently  oome  into  very  general  use,  and  of 
which  there  are  many  forms  or  varieties,  all,  how- 
ever, esseeti^y  the  same  in  their  principle  as  well 
as  in  their  osee.  Some  of  the  forms  ore  called  by 
their  Inventors  Cultinalort  and  8oaT\fier».  "" 
grubber  consists  of  a  fr&mework  of  cast  or  wi 
iron,  in  which  are  fixed  fines  or  teeth,  somewl 
like  those  of  a  barrow,  bnt  curved,  and  so  placed 
as  to  enter  the  ground  somewhat  obliquely  when 

"" "  '"iplement  moves  forward;  tbe  —'•-'- =-- 

-■-   ■---'-^-h  the  danth  tow! 

regulated;  it   is  provided  with 


rougbt 
lewhat 


on  wheels,  by  which  the  depth  to  which  the  teeth 
may  penetrate  is  regulated;  it  is  provided  with 
vanous  mechanJeal  ao^itations,  enabling  the  work- 
man somewhat  to  rary  the  depth,  or  to  lift  the 
teeth  out  of  the  ground  partially  or  altiwetber,  when 
it  may  be  necessary  to  clear  them  of  obstructive 
.  ,    ■?    ,_^- , 1_  ..  • —  ^t  tjj,  hj^ 


grubber  i*  sometimes  used  for  tearing  up  clovei^ 
fields  and  atoUtles  before  the  plough  is  used,  but 
HUM  MnendJy  in  land  already  ploughed,  to  stir 
it  afrewi,  to  elear  it  of  weeds,  to  bring  oiods  to  the 
suriaco,  that  they  may  be  broken,  &a  A  grubber 
witji  five  teeth  give*  work  for  two  strong  hi^eik 

GRTTORU,  the  grab  or  larva  of  Calatidra 
paimanm  (also  otSied  Jlkyneo^/AorvM  palmarvrii,  and 
OOrdyHa  palmamm),  an  insect  of  the  weevil  family 
{MhyHtephn^,  inhabiting  Goiana  and  other  tropical 
part*  of  Amoioa.  The  perfect  inaeot  is  an  inch 
and  a  halt  lon^     The  grnb  i*  an  agly  iuactiTO 


TTtkTDgte 


OBt^KBERO-CDABALAJAAA. 


orutnre  of  a  -whituh  creun  colour,  aa  long  and  u 
thick  as  a  man's  thumb,  aad  lives  in  the  loft  and 
spoag7  ceatral  part  of  the  Cabbage  Palm  {Euterpe 
oUraeea),  on  which  it  feeda.  It  ia  extremely  &t 
and  oily,  and  ia  esteemed  a  great  delicai^,  not  only 
by  ihe  Indiuia,  but  by  many  of  the  European 
colonista  and  their  descendants,  particnlarly  the 
Dutch.  It  ia  cooked  by  roaating,  and  eaten  Trith 
bread  and  butter,  after  being  aprinkled  with  cayenne 

Cpper.  The  fragnnce  of  roasted  gmgru  is  aaid  to 
moat  tempting  to  epicurea.  A  cabbage  palm 
which  has  been  cut  down  often  beoomes  in  a  abort 
time  almost  filled  with  grugma  {  but  they  are 
usually  obtained  from  the  tipper  part  of  the  atem 
of  growing  palma  near  the  crown.  A  negro  is  often 
gent  up  with  a  cntlasa,  to  cat  them  out  ot  the  wood. 
GKTJ'NBHKO,  a  town  of  Prnaaia,  in  the  province 
of  Sileaia,  ia  prettily  dtuatad  near  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  the  province,  on  the  Golden  Lunse,  59  mites 
north'Dorth-weit  of  the  town  of  Li^itz.  It  oon- 
wata  of  the  town  proper,  aurronnded  by  a  wall, 
pierced  by  three  ntea,  and  of  four  important  anb- 
tirh«>  and  ia  aeatM  aroid  vins-olad  mountaina.  O. 
U  chiefly  known  for  ^  fine  iitajkling  wine  wbich 
is  extensively  produced  in  the  vidnity.  The  700th 
year  of  ita  inide  in  this  ezoellent  commodity  ^ 
celebrated  here  Id  October  1860.  G.  baa  aUo 
active  trade  in  the  manufacture  <tf  woollen  cloths 
and  tobacoo,  and  in  nlk-spinmng  and  dyMng.  Pop 
(1871}  11,736. 

GBCS  XND  OSUID.^  Bee  ClliNZ. 
GBUYfiKBS,  a  small  decayed  town  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  canton  of  Freibura,  and  16  miles  soutli- 
Bonth-weat  of  the  town  of  that  name,  ia  situated 
about  a  mile  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Saane  or 
Sarine.  The  town  is  known  chiefly  from  its  giving 
name  to  the  famoua  Gruybrea  ohee««,  which  is  made 
in  great  quantities  in  the  surrounding  diatncL 
Pops  including  adjacent  hamlets,  97% 

GBYXLU8,  a  Linniean  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  OrOioptera,  anawering  to  the  tection  Saltatima 
(Lat  leapera)  oE  later  eotomologiata,  and  containing 
crickete,  graaahoppera,  tocosta,  &C.  The  genus  has 
been  sntxCvided  mto  many  genera,  which  have  been 
grouped  into  famihea  ;  but  greaf  confusion  exists  in 
the  nomenclature,  the  crickets  and  their  allies  being 
the  genua  0ryUu«,  and  family  Oryiiidix  of  some 
authors,  AcAelaand  AekelidaoloibeTt;  grasshoppers 
being  OryUliB  and  QryUida  al  aome,  Loaitla  and 
Loeiftidix  of  others  ;  and  locuats,  in  like  manner, 
h^g  Locasla  and.  LociiMda,  or  Acrydium  and^CT^- 
didiB.  SeeCBiCKET,GKAS3HorFEK,BndIiOCUST.  The 
three  groups  are  veiy  closely  allied.  They  are  all 
choisctcrised  by  the  large  thighs  of  the  last  pair  ot 
legs,  and  great  power  oi  leaping.  The  stridoloaa 
aounda  which  they  emit  are  produced  in  some — 
crickets  and  graaahoppera — by  rubbing  together  the 
bases  of  the  dytm  ;  m  othera — locuats — by  rubbing 
the  thighs  agomst  the  elytrs.  The  females  generally 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground. 

GRY8-BO0    {AntUope   mttanoHi   or  Catolrai 
melanofu),   an    animal   of   the    antelope  family, 
native  of  South  Africa,  and  common  in  moat  parts  of 
Cape  Colony.    It  is  about  three  feet  in  length,  and 
about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  height  at  the  shoal^~~ 
The  grysiboc  lives  in  pain  on  l£e  plaina.    It  is 
lift,  is  eaaily  captured,  and  ita  Seoh  ia  much 


bin,  and  being  trngivorona.  The  food  of  Qia  G. 
coudsts  of  hard  and  dn  fruits.  It  is  abont  tbg  , 
site  of  a  common  fowl ;  uie  plumage  brownish  gray.  { 
with  small  black  streaks  and  dots.  The  G.  ii  a 
a  circumatance  very  singular  unoog 


GUA'CHABO  (SCcotomtt  Caripaui»),  a  remark- 
able SouUi  American  bird,  of  the  order  Intettortt, 
and  tribe  Fatirodra,  generally  referred  to  the 
family  Caprimvlgida,  but  widely  diflMng  from  the 

C'  mckeis  and  moat  of  that  family,  and  indeed 
the  IntettOTU  generally,  in  having  a  strong 


tmgivo 
du^  c 


Guachnro  (SteatomU  Caripemii\  ' 

ivorons  birds.    It  apenda  the  day  in  deep  and 

:  caverns,  where  gr^  numbers  congregate  aod 

moke  their  ncote.  Humboldt  gives  a  moat  mteitat-  I 
ing  account,  in  his  Personal  Narrative,  of  a  visit  to  . 
the  ^eat  Ouocharo  cavern  in  the  valley  of  Cinpe, 
nearCumana.  This  cavern  ia  visited  onae  a  year  fiir 
the  Bake  of  the  fat  of  the  young  birds,  wluch  an  I 
slaughtered  in  great  numbers,  arid  their  fat  melted 
and  atered  for  uae  as  butter  or  oil.  The  clari^i^ 
fat  is  half  liquid,  transparent,  inodorous,  and  will 
keep  for  a  year  without  becoming  randd. 

GUACHINA'NGO,  a  small  town  of  Ueiico,  is 
the  north  of  the  stete  of  Pnebla,  and  103  miles 
north-east  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  has  a  popolstjon  of 
6000,  and  ii  noted  tor  the  great  quantity  of  excel- 
lent vanilla  raised  in  the  vicinity. 

GUA'CHOS,  the  name  given  to  tho  country- 

Kple  who  inhabit  the  Pampaa  id  the  states  of  V» 
ta,  and  are  engaged  in  rearing  cattle.  Although 
they  pride  themselves  on  being  whites,  they  belong 
chieQv  to  the  Mestizo  class,  and  by  their  inlercouiM 
with  Indian  women,  contribute  to  approximate  the 
population  ot  the  inland  provinces  to  the  typs 
of  the  aboriginal  inhabitanta,  whom  they  likewise 
greatly  resemble  both  in  their  inanoen  and  tun 

OUADALAJA'RA,  or  GUADALAXARA,  one 

oE  tiie  handaomeet  towns  in  Mexico,  is  the  capital 
of  the  state  of  Xalisco,  in  the  Mexican  Confeoer** 
tion.  It  stands  ou  the  Rio  Grande  de  Santiago, 
which,  after  passbiK  through  Lake  Chapala,  enters 
the  Pacific  at  Son  Bias.  The  population  hsa  bean 
estimated  at  90,000.  Aa  the  honsea  are  mostly 
of  one  story,  the  plaoe  covers  a  wide  extant  of 
surface.  It  oontains  the  buildings  for  the  govern- 
ment, a  cathedral,  a  mint,  an  episcopal  paUos,  ■» 
opera,  large  barracks,  a  college,  and  many  inferior 
seminaries.  It  haa  well-sa[^jied  markets,  and 
Bxtenaive  manufacture*  oE  cotton  and  eartben-waie. 
QDADALAJAEA  (ana  Arriata),  a  decoyed 
town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  ia  titaated  on  the  left  hank  of  the  Henans, 
36  miles  north-east  of  Madrid.  It  is  a  large  bul 
ill-built  town,  and  contains  many  buildi^  ™ 
iatexeat,  which,  however,  are  for  the  most  part 
falling  to  ruin  from  nu^ect  The  chief  of  these 
are  Ha  palace  of  the  Mendosas,  tiie  feudal  lords 
of  a.;  the  Fofrieon,  in  which  they  ai«  buried;  *i» 


It.zodhyt^iOOgTe' 


GUADALAJABA-GTTAIACOM. 


Uke  oIini'chM  of  8ui  Fnnoeeco  ftad  San  EitebuL 
G.  ia  the  cliieE  town  of  the  fine  pastoral  and 
wheat  dirtrict  of  the  AlcurU.    Pop.  665U. 

GTTADALAJABA,  »  proTince  of  Spain,  the 
moat  north-eutern  ol  the  five  modem  provincaa 
into  -which  New  Caitile  hu  been  divid^  Pop. 
(1870)  308,638.     See  Casthjl 

OTTADALATIAlt,  or  TURIA,  a  river  of  Spam, 
lias  Ha  loarce  near  that  of  the  Tagus,  in  the  eonth- 
^reat  of  Aisgon,  and  after  ' 


the  beautiful 
purpose*  of 
canoJo.    Ita  mouth  u  mnoh 


The  G.,  is  paaaing  throi^> 
gardees  ot  Vftlencia,   is   divided,  loi 
urigatioii,  ii '      '  " ' 
nlted  up. 

GUADALQITITrB  (Anb.  Wad-alEOnr,  the 
great  riTer ;  anc  Biutit),  the  moBt  important  river 
ot  Spain,  lot  the  man  of  waten  which  it  conveyt 
to  tbe  ocean,  and  for  the  extent  of  its  natural  navi- 
gatum ;  has  ila  raigin  in  the  Sierra  de  Cazarlo,  near 
Qia  eaaton  hoid<r  of  tbe  prorinoe  of  Jaen ;  Sowi  in 
a  general  aonth-weat  direction  throu^  the  provinces 
of  Jaen,CradoTa,8eTi]la;  and  forming  the  boundary 
for  about  ten  miki  between  the  provinces  of  Huelva 
and  Cadii,  bUa  into  the  Atlsntic  at  San  Lucar 
de  Bamuneda,  after  a  coarse  of  about  S60  miles. 
TJm  pincqial  town*  upon  its  bantu  are  Montoro, 
COTdora,  tmd  Sevilla,  to  the  last  of  which,  about  SO 
miles  above  its  moath,  the  river  is  navigable.  Below 
Sevilla  it  twice  dividea  itself  into  two  branches, 
forming  two  islands — the  Ida  Menor  and  the  Isla 
Mayor.  Ita  chief  affluents  are  the  Oadajos  and 
the  Jenil  on  the  left,  and  the  Qnadalimar  and  the 
Gnadiato  on  the  right.  The  lower  course  of  the  G. 
is  alng^iah  and  dreary  in  the  highest  degree ;  the 
atream  itaelf  is  turbid  and  madd;^ ,  and  eats  its  wn 
thzoogh  an  allorial  level  given  up  to  herds  of  cattfe 
and  to  aqnatio  fowla.  There  are  no  village*  in  this 
diabiet,  which,  thonoh  favourable  to  anioud  and 
vegetaUe  life,  ia  fatal  to  man,  from  the  ague  and 
fever  caoted  by  the  nnntennis  swamps.  The^  is  no 
gnat  bade  op  the  G.;  teieign  vessels  at«  generally 
uoorcd  at  the  Ida  Manor,  and  their  cargoes  sent 
op  to  Sevilla  by  means  of  barges, 

GUADALTT'Pti,  a  river  of  NorUi  America,  rises 
in  the  southern  sectian  of  the  state  of  Texas,  and 
flows  in  a  Bouth-easteiu  direction,  emptying  its 
waters  into  Espintu  Santo  B^,  after  a  coime  esti- 
mated at  about  260  miles.  ThB  goography  of  Ibis 
stream  and  its  capabilities  are  cot  yet  well  Known. 
.  OUADALTTPB-T-OALTO,  a  town  of  Meiico, 
in  tbe  state  of  Chihuahua,  and  170  miles  south- 
aoatb-weat  of  the  town  of  that  name,  is  situated 
in  a  monntainoos  dtttrict,  in  close  vicinity  to  several 
important  silver  mines.    Foji.  lO.OOa 

GUABBLOtT'PE,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  in 
tile  West  Indies,  snd  the  moat  important  of  those 
whidi  belwy  to  France,  lies  in  lat  16°  N.  and 
loafr  61°  46'W.,  and  contains  534  sq.  m.,  with  a 
pop,  (incliiding  dependencies)  in  1870  of  167,705,  of 
whom  {Uia  are  oolonred.  It  is  divided  into  Grande 
T«m  on  the  east,  and  Basse  Terre  or  Guadelonpe 


irii^^ 


the  name  of  Salt  BJver,  ia 
navigaou  lor  vcssnis  of  fifty  tons.  The  nomen- 
clature of  the  aepatate  islands  is  apparently  out 
<rf  place,  for  ot  the  twi^  Basse  Terre  is  the  loftier, 
sod  Qiande  Terre  la  the  smaller.  Qtaade  Terre, 
generally  low,  is  <i  coral  formation ;  Basse  Terre, 
on  the  contrary,  is  trsversed  by  volcanic  moun- 
tains, which  cnlnunate  in  La  Soufri^re  (the  '  Sulphur 
Mine'}  to  the  height  ot  5108  feet.  Though  this 
Moge  shew*  no  regular  crater,  yet  it  emits,  by 


several  orifices,  colnmn*  of  smoke,  and  even  aparks 
of  flr&  In  sdditioii  to  these  symptoms  of  auth 
terraneous  action,  niay  be  mentiimed  a  boiling 
sprinf  and  frequent  eerthqnakea.  Basse  Tetre, 
on  the  island  of  its  own  name,  is  tbe  chief  town, 
having  an  indifferent  harbour.  Connected  with 
O.,  as  dependenciea,  are  the  neighbouring  islets  of 
Besirade,  Marie  Galante,  Les  Sainbes,  and  the 
north  part  oE  St  Martin.  In  1867,  the  exports  and 
the  imports  reapeotively  amounted  to  £746,625  and 
to  ;eG63,167.  In  184S,  slavei;  was  abolished  by  a 
decree  of  the  French  repub&c.  The  island  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  m  1493 ;  but  it  was  not 
before  1635  that  it  was  colonised  by  the  French; 
and  after  repeatedly  falling  into  the  hands  of 
England,  during  her  van  with  France,  it  was  at 
lenlth  permanently  ceded  to  the  latter  power  in 


1816. 


c  Aitiu],  MM  of  tbe  longest  bi 


9  the 


volume  of  the  five  great  Spanish  riven,  nsea  on  &« 
weateni  bonndaiy  of  Mnrda,  aboot  8  milca  north- 
west of  the  town  of  AleanuL  From  its  sonroe  it 
flom  north-wert  tor  about  80  miles,  aftw  whicjt 
it  disappears  among  swampe ;  fiows  underj^onnd  in 
a  westward  direction  for  nearly  30  milesi  and  rise* 
again  at  Daymiel,  after  throwmg  up  in  its  lobtw- 
raneou*  courae  nunkerous  lakes  called  Lot  <ga*  (Uke 
eyes)  dt  la  Chiadiana.  Prom  Daymiel  it  pursue* 
a  westward  oonne  throng  La  Mancha  and  the 
province  of  Eetremadura,  until,  passiog  the  town 
□f  Bsdajoi;  it  t>ends  southward,  and  flows  in  that 
direction,  forming,  for  about  36  mites,  the  boundary 
(between  Spain  snd  Portugal  Near  the  town  ot 
Monsanu  It  enters  the  Portuguese  territory,  and 
ftowB  tlirongh  the  eastern  district  of  the  province  ot 
Alemtejo.  Finally,  tumiuE  eastward,  and  again 
forming  the  inteniational  boundary  for  about  30 
iniles,  it  enters  tbe  Atlantic  below  the  town  ot 
Ayamonte.  It  is  about  420  miles  in  length,  and  ia 
navigable  only  for  about  35  miles.  Its  chief  siBuenta 
ace  the  Oigu^  on  the  right,  and  tbe  Javalon  and 
ArdiU  on  the  left. 

GUADUAS,  a  city  of  the  United  States  ot  Col. 
ombia,  ia  situated  in  that  portion  of  the  republio 
which  belong  to  South  America.  It  stands  near 
the'  east  or  right  bank  of  (he  Magdalena.  high  among 
the  Andes,  and  ia  one  of  the  most  elevated  towns 
on  the  globe,  being  8700  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.    It  contains  about  4000  inhabitants,   v 

GTJAIA'CUM,  a  genu*  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  ZygophyliaceOt  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
America,  baviog  abruptly  pinnate  leaves,  and  axil- 
lary flowera  on  one-flowered  stalks,  often  in  small 
clusters.  The  iowaiti  have  a  5-partiite  calyx,  five 
pstals,  ten  stamens,  and  a  tapering  style  ;  the  fruit 
IS  a  capanle,  6-angled  and  6-celled,  or  the  cells  by 
abortion  fewer,  one  seed  in  each  celL  The  tress  of 
this  genus  are  remarkable  for  the  hardness  and 
heaviness  of  their  wood,  generally  known  as  Ligmim 
Vita,  but  scnnetimai  ss  Ouaiacam  Wood,  and  some- 
tdmee  as  Braxii  Wood;  as  weU  as  for  thmr  peculiar 
resinous  product,  Ouaiaeum,  often  but  inconectly 
called  (Tum  (hiaiacum.  The  species  to  which  the 
commercial  Idgnum  Vitn  and  Gnaiacum  are  eom- 
monly  referred- is  6.  qgidnak,  a  native  of  some  of 
the  West  India  islands,  and  of  some  cf  the  oonti- 
■fi  parts  <d  Amwica ;  a  tree  sometimes  3D  or  40 

high,  with  two  (»  three  pairs  of  ovale,  obtusq, 

and  p^eoUy  smooth  leaflets,  pale  blue  flowen,  a 
fuzTOTved  bark,  and  genially  a  orooked  stem  and 
knot^  branchsa  It  seems  ^bable,  however,  that 
other  species,  ss  well  a*  this,  supply  part  i^  the 
G.  wood  and  resin  of  oommsrce.    At  j ^  '■'^ — 


yCOOgl' 


OUAN— onANAPABO. 


DomlngOL    He  -wood  it  Impo 


is  billelB  about 

diameter,   of    a 

Qi«  oolonr  of  the 


rreeniilL-broini  oolonr. 

beutwood,  the  Mp-wood  is  p»I«  fellow.  G. 
it  romBrksUe  for  tha  direction  of  it*  fibres,  each 
l»7er  ol  whieh  cmMw  the  preoeding  diagouallT; 
■tuiiul  ringB  are  •oaraely  to  be  obaerred,  and  the 
pith  i«  eztremeij  (malL  It  linka  in  WBt«r.  It  ii 
mnch  Tolned,  and  u«ed  for  many  pnrpoeaa,  chiefly 
hj  tumen ;  ahipa'  blocki,  mien,  pestles,  and  bowU 
(see  Bowia)  are  among  the  srticlee  raost  com- 
monly msde  of  it.  When  mbbed  or  heated,  it  emita 
a  faint  disameable  aromatio  nnell ;  its  tMte  is  olw 
pungent  and  aromatic.  Shavings  and  nupingn  of 
Uia  wood  are  bought  by  apothecaries  for  mediciuJ 


medidne  o 


Tlltues  of  both  wood  and  bark  depend  chiefly  on 
the  Teidn  which  they  oontwn,  and  which  ii  itself 
lued  in  powdar,  joll,  and  tinotore.  It  is  an  aciid 
BtiniDlant,  and  luw  been  employed  with  advanta^ 
in  ohrmia  iheomatiam,  in  chrouio  skin  diseases,  it> 


Ouao  [Fatdopt  eriltats). 
ji  tha  poultry-yards  of  Eorope.    Itc  fleab 


Gmdatnun  Offloinole. 

certain  cases  of  scanty  and  painfnl  menstruation 
(and  henoe  it  is  occasionally  an  effectual  reme<^ 
in  cases  of  sterility],  and  m  chronic  catarrh,  ft 
has  also  been  highly  praised  as  a  preveatiTe  of 
gaut.  The  resin  is  on  ingredient  of  the  well- 
known  Plummtr't  Piik  In  the  16th  and  17th 
centnriee,  G.  was  the  remedy  most  in  rapute  iot 
syphilis.  The  resin  sometimes  flows  Bpontaneoiisly 
bum  the  stem  of  Uie  Q.-tree;  it  is  tometimee 
obtuned  ortiflcially.  It  is  of  a  greenish-brown 
oolonr,  and  has  a  brilliant  nsinoos  fracture.  It 
luts  searoaly  any  taste,  but  leaves  a  bunting 
sensation  in  the  month.  One  of  its  most  strik- 
ing chai«ctari(1dc*  is,  that  it  i*  coloured  blue  by 
its  ozidisiDB  agents.  It  oontains  gitaiade  add 
(H0,0,  ,fl,U,),  which  oloMly  rsMmblee  benzoic 
add,  uid  yi^ds,  (m  distillation,  OMlain  definite 
compounds  known  ai  gvaiacine,  pgroguaiaeine,  and 
JtydrU»  <tf  gvaiaegL 

OTTAIT,  OF  TACOTT  (Patdope),  a  geiius  of  large 
nllinaoeaus  birds  of  tiie  family  Cradda,  They 
have  a  naked  skin  on  the  throat  capable  of  being 
iiuBated  or  swollen,  and  a  naked  space  around 
each  eye.  The  name  O.  more  porticptai'lv  belongs 
to  PenAypt  eritUOa,  a  species  of  which  the  entire 
length  is  about  thirty  inches.  It  is  a  native  of 
tiie  foresti  of  Brazil  and  Oniono,  and  has  been  long 
domeatioated  in  South  Amerioo.    It  has  been  found 


OUAITABACO'A.    See  IUv*mma. 

QUANAHA'NI,  or  CAT  ISLAND,  one  of  the 
Bahamas,  is  genenUIy  regarded  as  Colamhns's  first 
diseovarr  in  the  New  World,  b^ng  presumed  to  be 
identical  with  the  Son  Salvador  of  the  iUnstaiooa 
navigator.  Be^t  criticism,  however,  appears  t« 
have  (zonsfnTed  this  honour  to  Watling  Ishuid  {q.  v.), 
which  Is  about  SO  miles  to  the  east-soatb-eoat. 

OUA2IAJUA'T0,orGnANAXDAT0,aninUiid 
tUte  of  Mexico,  in  lal  between  20°  and  22*  N.,  and 
long,  between  99*  40*  and  lOtT  «r  W.,  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  states  of  San  Lou  Fotoai,  on  the  K 
by  Qneretaro,  on  the  S.  by  Michwowa,  and  on  tha 
W.  by  Xalisco.  It  has  an  ans  of  12,619  sqiura 
milea,  and  a  population  in  1S6S  of  874,013.  Tfaa 
sorfaoe,  a  portion  of  the  lofty  platean  of  Anahnac, 
has  an  eievatioB  of  6000  feet  above  sea-lavel,  and  ii 
tmvened  by  ohains  of  moontaitis,  among  which 
thoee  of  Santa  Kosa  are  porplmitia,  and  prcaont 
elevations  of  11,400  feet  in  heigbL  The  state  is 
water«d  by  no  river  of  oonsequenoe.  The  soil  is 
fertile ;  maize,  wheat,  and  frijoles  (beans)  are  the 
chief  groin  crop*  raised ;  the  vine,  tlie  duii  eoio 
Ttulo,  or  red  pepper,  and  the  olive,  are  also  largely 
cultivated.  Anions  the  valuable  mineral  products 
of  the  state  are  silver,  iron,  lead,  and  copper,  the 
£rst  in  the  greatest  abundance.  The  manufactarea 
are  woollens,  cottom,  leather,  earthen-ware,  and 
refined  angsr.  The  climate  is  mild  and  pur&  The 
population  of  the  state  divides  itself  into  thraa 
races — 25  per  cent,  of  the  whole  being  whiter  39 
per  cent.  Indian,  and  38  per  cent  miied. 

GUANAJUATO,  or  SANTA  Ffi  DE  GUANA- 
JDATO,  a  ci^  of  Mexico,  oapital  of  the  state  of  the 
some  name,  is  irregularly  built  on  an  extremely 
uneven  district  of  hUl  and  vaUey,  in  hit  21°  N..  and 
long.  100"  SO*  W.  The  streets  are  steep  and  tortuous. 
but  the  houses  are  generally  well  built,  and  have 
gaily  painted  ontsidea,  green  bains  the  favourite 
colour.  It  contains  many  fine  pnbhc  buildings,  the 
chief  of  irtiiah  ore  the  cathedra),  the  monasteries 
(eight  in  number),  the  college,  tha  gymnasinm,  the 
theatre,  and  the  minb  G.  stands  in  a  district  in 
which,  witliin  a  circuit  of  five  league*,  there  are 
upward*  of  100  minM.    Pop.  fie,00a 

GUAN'APA'RO,  a  river  of  Venezuela,  in  South 
America,  rises  in  the  department  of  Caraocas,  and, 
after  an  easterly  course  of  230  miles,  joins  the 
PortuEueaa,  which  again,  through  the  Apnr«^  sands 
it*  tribute  to  the  Orinoco. 


t.Google 


QTJASASA-aVAJXO. 


OTJASAfKA,  tt  rirw  of  YantineU,  la  Sontik 
America,  ia  an  •fflnotrt  of  tb*  PortxgiMtiL  Soe 
OcuTATABO.  On  iti  banki  an  two  town*,  boUi  of 
'w'liich  dniva  tbor  naiiua  fiam  it;  Otuuwiito,  ao 
Inoonridanble  plaoa;  and  Onanam,  a  dty  of  12,000 
utlutbitaata. 

GUAlTOABBLrOA.    See  Svmo^'m.wiA. 

GUA'SINE  ia  a  ysllowiili-wliite,  amorplioai 
wabatacce,  whidi  derirea  ita  name  from  ita  Deing 
»  oooatitiient  of  goKoa  i  i'^  hovsTer,  also  fonna  the 
eUet  eonatitnent  of  tike  excrement  of  apidan,  haa 
l>««k  foond  attached  to  the  acalea  of  nihea — the 
Ueak,  for  ezami^e— and  aeenia  to  be  a  noimal 
oonatitnant  of  the  mfnnT^f^^ian  Hver  and  pancreaai 

~  belonn  to  diat  claas  of  bodiea  which  were  for- 
Y  call^  baaea,  but  which,  from  their  comUning 


eqnahj  with  acida,  baaea,  or  lalta,  a 
termed  ai 


■midea  or  ainide-like  componnda. 
oiiilation  with  permanjanate  of  potaah,  it  ia 
craiTerted  into  ntea,  oxalic  a^d,  and  oxyguanine,  a 
•nbatance  not  yet  anfSciently  atudied. 

With  repird  to  its  ocourrence  in  gnano,  aa  it 
haa  not  beca  toimd  in  the  recant  excrement  of  aea- 
Urda,  then  ia  oveiy  reason  to  believe  that  it  ia 
tbrnud  br  alow  oxidation  (from  •tanoc^uno  action) 
ol  the  nno  add,  mnoh  ai  orio  add  oan  be  mad*  to 
yield  nrea  and  oxalio  aoid.  And  in  the  putoreaa 
and  liver  it  [sobably  rapreaanta  one  ti  thoae  tran- 
titorT  atages  of  diaintegrated  mtrOMUOaa  tiaaoe 
wlium  are  finally  excreted  by  Uu  kunefa  in  the 
more  high!;  oxidiaed  form  of  ure^ 

on  Alto  (dsriTed  from  the  PemTian  word  ftumo, 
depoeit  of  certain 


UU    !■!■«■  !■   HIHHV    hUB   UUUUftLS  !■  WJ    HUU  UVO 

in.  AlthoDgh  the  naa  of  gnaoo  aa  a  raanni* 
ia  compatativa^  Faoent  in  this  conntry  and  in 
Enrope,  ita  raloe  ia  affrienltaTe  waa  well  Known  to 
the  FeraTiaos  long  hntm  Huij  were  Tinted  bj  the 
Spaniards;  We  l«am  from  the  itemoriakt  BeaUM 
of  Oaroilaao  de  la  Vc^  poblifihed  in  1609;  that  in 
tht  timea  <^  the  IncM  no  one  waa  allowed,  under 

til  mill  in  aeaeon,  or,  under  any  circnmitancea,  to 
kin  the  iHTda  which  yield  this  aobatanoa ;  and  that 
OTaraaera  ware  appointed  by  the  government  to  take 

^^"T^T  Ton  Hnmboldt  firat  brought  apedmana  of 
gnano  to  Enrope  ia  1904,  and  aant  them  1»  Fonrcroy, 
Vauqoelin,  and  Slaproth,  the  beat  analytical  chemista 
of  tbedj^. 

Ur  Neatdt,  in  a  oBetul  little  pamphlet  entitled 
The  SUortt  and  PTOpaUm  t^  Aa  Dmnmt  Fariefta* 
of  Ifahtral  OvaMO,  remarka  that  the  qnality  and 
nine  of  theaa  mamma,  oommercially,  depend  almoat 
wholly  npoD  the  amonnt  of  deoompoaituin  to  which 
they  baTe  been  anbjectad  by  the  action  of  the 
atmoqAan.  1^  fscal  matter  of  the  fiah-eatiDg 
binla,  which,  1^  ita  bog  accumulation,  forma  the 
gnano  depodta,  oontiata  aaseatiaUy  of  nitoogsnooa 
and  phoaphatic  oompoimda,  the  former  being  chiefly 
ammonia  aalta  derived  from  the  decompoaition  of 


axorementi  of  theaa  birda.  The  ammoniacal  portion 
d  thaae  depoaita,  and  aoma  irf  tiie  jdmndiBtsa,  are 
tolanblj  ■olnbla  in  water,  and  are  readily  waahed 
awaybynin.  1^  late  PrtieeaoF  Johnston  remarked, 
tiiat  'a  aingla  day  of  Kngljab  Tain  would  dimolve 
ont  and  cwiy  into  the  aea  a  oonaiderable  portion 
of  one  of  the  largest  accomnlationa,  and  that  a 
single  year  of  T^g'"*'  weather  would  cause  many 
of  them  entirelr  to  disuiMar.'  In  dry  "'""fW, 
where  very  little  rain  faib,  aa  in  aome  part*  of 
BtJivia  and  Pern,  on  the  western  ooast  of  SonUi 
Amerioa,  the  dang  depoaited  waSerm  very  little  inyra 
the  action  of  the  atmoaphere,  and  retains  nearly 
the  whole  of  its  aolnble  mtragenona  and  phoapbatio 
componnda.  Ghianoa,  on  the  other  hand,  found  in 
regiouB  where  rain  falls  freely,  lose  a  great  part 
of  their  solaUe  eonstitaents,  bat  rMoam  rich  in 
their  kse  aoltiUe  oonititiients— tin  duiBpIiatea  of 
lime  and  *"*;"—'*  Hr  Naabit  dividea  nanoe 
acoording  to  their  eompMltion,  into  three  minare : 
1.  Iboae  which  have  aufiered  litUe  br  atmoa- 
pherio  action,  and  which  retain  neaiiy  uie  irtiole 
of  their  oiiginal  oonatitnenta,  snah  ae  we  Angamim 
and  Pemvian  gnanoa.  S.  lluaa  whkh  hare  lest 
a  oonaidnable  portion  of  their  aolnble  eonstitaentB, 
■noh  aa  the  lenaboe,  Bolivian,  and  Chilian  gnanoa. 
3.  Thoee  whidi  have  lost  neu4y  all  their  ammonia, 
and  contain  but  little  mora  than  the  earthy  phos- 
phates of  the  animsl  dejxmt.  Many  of  theae  ai* 
largetr  oootaminated  with  aand.  In  this  class 
we  plaoe  the  Tariooa  AMoan  goanos   (e 


Sombrero  gnano,  PatagoniaD  gnano,  Bhatk's  Bay 
gnano  (from  Anatralia),  fto. 

Host  of  the  Bft-called  Pemvian  gnuo  has  been 
obtvned  from  the  Chincha  lalanda,  which  are  three 
in  numlMr,  and  aie  aitnated  abont  Ifi  miles  off  the 
ooaat  of  Pern,  between  13  and  14  degrees  S.  let 
Each  ol  theae  iaiand*  is  from  6  to  6  miles  in  oii^ 
onmferenoe,  and  oonatata  of  granite  covered  with 
gnano.  Id  aome  [dacea  to  a  height  of  200  feet,  in 
snceeesive  hoRzontal  abvto,  vaning  in  thickaeas 
from  three  indias  to  a  footC  and  in  colour  from  a 
light  to  a  dark  bi«wn.  Bometiniea,  however,  is 
found  a  vertical  surface  of  upwards  of  100  feet  of 
a  pofaotlf  nnifonn  npearanoe.  If  Humboldt's 
atatamant  ia  ocneot,  toat  'during  900  yean  the 
ooaat-Uids  have  deposited  gnano  only  a  few  Unes 
in  thieknaaa,'  the  aztrene  age  U  the  Iowmt  strata 
beoomsa  at  onoe  obriona. 

The  following  taUs  repreamtta  the  mean  d  78 
samples  of  Pemvian  guanos,  analysed  by  Mr  Way : 


The  following,  from  Hnspratfs  Cn«mi«(rv,  gives 
the  mean  of  several  analyaes  of  the  inferior  klnaa  of 
gnano,  the  first  tour  belonging  to  Nesbit's  seoond 
class,  and  the  remaining  three  to  his  third  daaa : 


.,C.ooi;l( 


itnwen  in  theae  aiuJyw*  U  Mlcnlated  _ 
lis  Ait  the  pnrpoM  of  aomp*R*oit.  In  reility, 
It  eziita  in  variooi  fiMiaa  of  oombination — viz.,  ta 
uric  acid,  urea  oocadioiwUy,  umte,  oxaLite,  hydio- 
chlonte,  pboaplisM,  Ac,  of  ammonia,  other  nratea, 
goanine  (<j.  v.),  and  midefined  nitrogenoni  oom- 
ponada.     Hence,  aa  may  be  inferred,  a  oemplete 


uLderable 


•v 

J  aidnble  and  uuoluble 
phoaph^MB,  and  alkaline  Mlti,  vbioli  it  containa, 
■noli  analyaea  aa  tltoie  ire  hare  given  aie  anfficient 
for  piactdoal  purpcaai,  and  thsv  an  CMilr  made. 

Aa  good  Pemvian  eoano  told  loog  at  [ran  £11  to 
£13,  and  latterly  at  abont  £14  per  iEod,  there  waa  a 
atnms  indooement  to  adultaraCe  iL  Umbtf,  pow- 
dered atonc^  Tariona  earthy  partiall/  deoompoaed 
Mwdmt,  and  other  anbrtance^  wei  *  ' 

pmpoM,  and  nieoinieni  have  been _    .   _^ 

meie  tnwee  of  the  genuine  artiele.  Henoe  it  la 
expedient  that  large  purebaaen  ahonld  either  tend 
a  aample  to  ■  good  ciiemiat  for  analyaii,  or  afaoold 
cork  np  and  retain  a  imall  qnantitr  in  a  bottle  tor 
analyau,  provided  the  cropa  to  which  ha  baa  applied 
hia  guano  do  not  Muwer  rewooable  expectation.  A 
chemift  ia  attached  to  moat  agricoltui*!  locieties 
and  elabf,  who  perfonna  nieh  amdnM  tor  a  moder- 


„  the  Bale  of  adulterated  gnano  in  Soot- 

land.  Sti^  the  adnltention  of  maanrei  hu  ior 
some  tdme  been  rather  more  common  in  Scotland 
than  in  England.  True,  guano  ii  not  lo  often  odol. 
tented  ai  same  oUier  fertiliaera ;  but  in  England, 
the  ligoroDi  measuie*  adopted  by  Dr  Voelckar  and 
the  B<^al  Apioa]t«u«l  Society  to  ezpooe  dealera  in 


have  been  formed  ti^ooffhout  the  coonby.  With 
all  thia  machinery  in  fall  play,  the  frandnJent 
dealer  will  fortanately  find  Ua  arocation  aa  ■!" 
work  in  Scotland  aa  be  has  latterly  diaooveied  it 

Ensland. 

Such  facilitiea  for  analvma  will  to  a  convdenl 
extent  aupen^  the  following  anment  yet  aimpli 


opeiiority 


or  otherwise  of   the  aamplea  of  guano 

1.  Tut  bg  Drymg. — If  the  guano,  aa  ia  ganemlly 
the  etta  with  the  Peruvian  and  Chili  variBtiee,  is  a 
uniform  powder,  weigh  out  two  ounoea,  ipread  it 
on  paper,  uid  let  it  lie  for  two  days  in  a  dry  and 
moderately  warm  room.  What  it  may  then  have 
Icet  in  weight  muat  be  eeteemed  aupcranooi  water. 
Many  aorta  of  guano  ore  ao  moiit  oa  to  loae  SO  or 
20  per  cent  of  their  weight  by  thia  gentle  drying. 
If  we  wiah  to  determine  the  water  with  greater 
accuracy,  a  imaller  quantity  of  guana  ahould  be 
placed  m  a  ahallaw  platinum  c&paate,  and  moistened 
with  a  few  drom  of  hydrochlono  acid.  A  heat  of 
212*  may  then  be  apphed  without  loia  of  ammonia. 

2.  Tat  by  Cinn&iuMon.~FonF  half  an  onnce  of  the 
gnano  into  an  iron  ladle,  snch  aa  ia  uaed  for  catting 
buUeta,  and  place  it  iip<Hi  red-hot  coala,  until  nothing 
bat  %  white  or  grayiah  aah  ia  left,  whieh  mnat  be 
weii^bed  after  ocoling.  Tba  beat  aorta  of  Fwnvian 
goaoo  do  not  yield  mora  thas90  or  33  nr  cent.  «f 
aah,  while  inbrior  varietaea,  aooh  aa  Fatuonian, 
Chui,  and  African  guano,  leave  a  reaidus  ra^SO,  or 
even  80  per  cent  j  and  thoae  which  are  inten- 
tionally adulterated,  may  leave  a  atdll  larger  residue. 
Gennine  guano   of   all  kinda  yields   a  white   or 


I   ia   baaed   upon    the    faci^   that  tiie 


diflerenee  of  odour  of  the  vapoora  evolved  ic   . 
prooea*,  according  aa  we  are   working  with  fint 


t  also  be   noticed.    The 


while  those  rising  from  inferior  varietiea  smell  like  ' 

singed  hom-ahavmgs  or  hair.  I 

3.  The  Lime  tat  affords  a  readjr  meana  of  tou^j  i 
determining  the  relative  qnontitiee  of  jTrnnnnu  ii 

different  apedmena  of  guano.    Put  a  teaspooafiil  | 


three  teaapooaful  of  wata^and  mix  the  Enbatsnea  ' 
with  a  ^an  rod.  lime  being  a  atrouger 
"- '-    liberates  the  Utter  from  oa  ] 

"   "  and  tit 


better  the  guano  ia,  the  stronger  vrJQ  be  the  [ 

ammoniacu  odoor  which  eacqws  from  the  n 

The  slaked  lime  sbould  be  preserred  in  a  diyaod  , 
weU-corked  bottI«^  so  as  to  odude  the  air. 

4.  The  ffot-tealer  teal  affords  a  aiinple  meana  of  | 
_]termining  thegoodneaa  of  goanoa     wemayeither 
boil  half  an  oonce  of  driea  gnoao  in  five  or  ni   , 
oca  of  water,  and  filter  the  aolution  while  hot,  or  i 
may  plooe  the  guano  on  a  filter,  and  continue  to  i 
pour  l>oilinc  water   over  it,  until   the  dropa  thit  ^ 
come  through  the  filter  oease  to  yield  any  reaidiia  | 
when  heated  to  diyneaa  on  a  gloas  elip  held  over  tbe  | 
apitit-lamp.     A  a  a   general   rule,   the    larger  tba 
nuantity  of  guano  that  ia  diaaolved  in  hot  water,  I 
_he  more  anunonia  aalta  doea  it  oontain,  and  tlie 
better  it  is.    In  the  beet  or  Feravian  goano,  tbe 
insolul^e  retdduB  ranges  from  SO  to  60  per  oeat,  . 
while  in  the  inferior  varietiea  it  may  amount  to  SO 

00  per  cent. 

6.  Tlie  Aad  tat  serves  to  detect  tl^  chalk  which 

[mrs  in  the  Eooria  Mooria  guano,  and  is  used  M  so  | 
adulteration  for  other  varietsea.    Mix  the  powdered 
gusno  vrith  a  little  water,  and  add  «  little  hydro- 
chloric acid  or  atrong  vinegar.    If  chalk  ia  prEseot, 
effervescence  from  Ue  limration  of  carbonic  add 

&  The  Weight  affords  the  eoaieBt  teat  tor  tba 
purity  of  goano.  Acoording  to  Professor  Andanou, 
a  bushel  of  pure  Peruvian  guano  should  not  wei^ 
more  than  from  66  to  60  lbs.;  but  acoording  to  most 
authorities  it  should  wei^  almost  exactly  70  Iba 
If  heavier  than  73  lbs.,  it  is  adtdtenAed  with  day, 

value  of  a  manure  be  calculated,  aa  ii  done 
dngault  and  other  chemists,  according  to  the 
if  nitrogen  which  it  contains,  one  ton  of  gm 
I  guano  is  eoual  to  33^  tons  of  farmfard 

,  a>  tons  of  hone-dung,  381  tens  of  co«- 

dung,  22}  tona  of  pig-dung,  or  14^  tons  of  human 
excrement. 

When  we  conaider  what  gnono  ia — via.,  that 
being  the  more  or  leas  decomposed  exerement  m 
fish-eatiDK  birds,  it  oonsisti  essentially  of  the  a^ 
"  nta  of  the  fleah  of  fiah,  together  «i«> 
eolta— we  need  not  wotider  that  ita  i4#- 
>  tba  land  aa  «  manore  ahonld  aa  l^T 
ue iti  produdavenen,  'for guano,'  atya  Ii»igi 
•ins  not  only  the  mineral  eleioenta  which  a 
nnat  poracas  to  produoa  com,  bnt  also  in  vw 

a  to  quicken  their  addon,  and  to  sborteD  the 
_ —  required  for  their  usimilntiim  On  maxf  | 
fields,  the  ammonia  in  the  goano  may,  if  the  wettliK 


js^er 


^ 


te- 


OtTAPBy-GtrA&AKTY; 


"ItlB  the  onliiiaiy  quantity  of  these  minenl  „„. 
■tiluent*,  and  thni  render  the  amomt  ot  ptodoee 
yielded  in  one  year  eqnal  to  irttat  ivoold  have  haax 
otharwise  obtwned  in  two  yean  by  liieM  minei*! 


The  intradoetion  of  suano  into  thi«  coimtij  at  t, 
nuare  ia  oompuatiTft^  reoent  In  1840,  only  20 
^dca  <a  it  van  imported.  In  IMl,  tbe  Earl  of 
Xterby— then  Lead  StauW— ipoke  Btrongly  in  its 
^commendatioti  at  tiie  Liverpool  nweting  of  tlio 
£qj»l  Ajrienltaral  Society  of  Sn^^d;  and  from 
tliat  time  it  haa  eome  rapidly  into  uae,  aa  may  be 
•een  by  the  f  olloirin^  table  of  imports : 


prevent  the  foimatioa  ot 
phoiphi   ' 


Ab  the  chemical  compotition  of  catorkl  goai 
boowD,  an  artiticial  ^nano  may  be  readuy  i 
pounded  by  the  adnuxture,  in  due  proporbanH,  of 
ita   oonatitnEiita.    The   following  nurture,   rec — 
meided  by  the  late  Profeaoor  Johnston,  forroa 
of  the  but  imitatiomi  of  goano,  132^  Ilia,  of  it  being 
eqoal  in  power  to  1  cwt.  of  good  ^rn-rian  guano  ; 
Mix  78(  Iba.  ot  boae-duat,  2S  Ibe.  of  mlpEate  of 
anunonia,  l^lb.  (rf  pearl-ash,  25  Ibl.  of  common  salt, 
and  2^  Ibo.  ot  dry  snlphate  of  Kids.     All  these 
materiala,  exo^Fting  the  Done'tuh,  may  be  procured 
from  any  dm^eist. 

Goano  waaUigely  used  tor  all  ths  tmltirated 
vope  OD  the  fann,  and  ia  yet,  as  far  u  it  can  be 
proeniod.  Being  a  high-priced,  but  cooaeatrated 
and  powerful  fertiliseT,  m  ordinary  farm-management 
it  is  applied  with  more  economical  resolte  to 
cn>pa  than  to  others.  On  grasses  proper,  it  is 
brattdoaat  in  the  early  part  of  g ' 


,  ,  if  spring,  1 
oa  bKina  to  start.  At  this  time  Oie 
^  and  prevcmt  it  from  being  washed  i 


lat^eit 


dorer,  on  the  oilier  hand,  being  a  deep-rooted 
|duit,  il  suppcaed  by  some  to  be  bcM  dressed  with 
.1  ; 1 u —  Tegetation  is  stopped  for  the 


the  n 


Then 


lieforUie  n 


Tworons 

to  Uiree  owta.  of  gnano  per  acre  is  the  common 
rahce  for  grasses  intended  to  be  cnt  for  hay, 

bet  the  Italian  variety  of  ryegrass  will  sometimes 
bear  a  large  quantity  with  ben&cial  results.  Guano 
ia  rather  too  soluble  to  be  applied  to  early  autumn 
sown  wheat.  It  both  stiinulatea  the  plant  too  macb 
before  winter,  and  is  apt  to  be  partiaJly  washed  out 
of  the  soil  with  the  wmtor  rains.  In  moist  qtiin  ~ 
when  there  are  abundance  of  rains  to  wash  it 
gnono  forms  an  admirable  top-drGssing  for  winter 
wheat.  For  spring  sown  wheat,  and  other  cereals,  no 
mannre  haa  a  more  powerfnl  influence.  The  closer 
that  it  is  put  to  seed,  tjie  better.  The  common  dresa- 
mg  ia&rantliree  to  fooTCwtL  to  tiie  acre  for  cereals. 
It  shonld  be  kept  in  mind,  in  rwnlating  the  qnan- 
tity,  that  the  (troDger  the  Imid  u,  tbe  larger  the 
qoanti^  that  can  be  applied  with  a  prospect  ot 
yielding  a  proSb  The  same  principle  shonld  be 
observed  in  its  use  for  the  turnip  crop.  As  much 
as  from  four  to  aix  cwts.  may  sometimee  be  beno- 
Sdally  applied  to  early  sown  turnips  on  deep  and 
able  soils,  while  two  to  three  cwtg.,  when  farmyard 
mannre  is  given,  will  in  general  prove  the  most 
economical  quantity.  Qoono  is  apt  to  produce  too 
much  heat  vrhen  it  is  applied  in  urge  qoantitiea  to 


late  sown  tomips,  and 

bulbs.    In  such  cironn , 

will  often  yield  better  crops  at 

Sano  is  applied  to  beans  or  potatoes  Qmj  should 
also  dressed  with  tarmytud  manure.  Gnano 
does  not  posseas  the  power  of  sustaining  the  healthy 
powtb  vt  these  plonta  on  most  soils  withont  some- 
Uiiiig  else  in  addition. 

Mixed  with  roueh  bone^  guano  is  Totaablr, 
applied  abore  dnng  for  turnips,  and  a  great  deal  of 
it  has  been  so  used  Its  value  as  a  fertiliser  was  so 
highly  appteoatod,  and  its  use  so  extensive,  that 
farmers  pA  not  »  little  alarmed  and  disappointed 
at  the  diminution  of  the  geniiine  Fenivian  guano 
supplies.  Agricolturists  tn  necessity  betook  them- 
selves  of  late  to  variona  artificial  substitutes  for 
Peruvian  gnono,  but  the  resnlts  are  not  generally 
so  satisfactory.  Farmers  learned,  in  the  spring  of 
1874,  with  satisfaction,  of  the  discovery  of  new 
gnano  deposits  on  the  coast  of  Peru.    For  the  Pem- 


at  7,S0d,000  tout.     Of  m 


elloo  de  Pico, 
the  principal.    Analyses 


made  of  the 

equal' 
of  the  Chincha  Tn]^nd». 

QUAPEY',  a  river  of  South  America,  rises  in 
Bolivia,  and  joins  the  Mamore  on  its  way  to  the 
Aniozon,  after  a  winding  course  of  SSO  miles. 

GVAFO'RA,  a  river  of  South  America,  risu  in 
Brazil,  and,  after  a  course  of  400  miles,  nnitu  with 
the  Mamore  to  form  the  Madera,  an  affluent  of  -Uie 


GUARA'NA  BREAD  is  a  kind  of  food  preps 

by  the  savages  of  Bradl  from  the  seeds  of  a  pi 

supposed  to  belong  ta  the  genus  PaulUma  (natural 
order  Sapindacea),  and  which  has  been  called  P. 
lorbiiU,  It  is  in  round  or  oblong  cakes,  which  oie 
regarded  in  all  parte  of  Bratil  aa  very  efficacions 
in  the  cure  of  many  disorders,  and  which  contain, 
besides  other  substances,  some  of  them  nutritious, 
B  considerable  qnontity  of  a  substance  enclosed  to 
be  identical  with  theioe  or  caffeine.  The  Braiiliana 
pound  the  Ouatona  Brra^  in  water,  sweeten  it, 
and  use  it  as  a  stomachic  and  febrifuge.  It  is  also 
reputed  i^ihrodiaiao. — The  genus  Po^nta  conlaios 
several  species  remarkabte  for  tlieir  extreioely 
poisonous  properties. 

GUAItANTT,  or  GUARANTEE,  is  a  contract 
by  which  one  penon  binds  himself  to  pay.  a  debt  or 
do  some  act  in  cose  of  the  failure  ot  soma  other 
person,  whose  debt  or  duty  it  is'to  da  the  thing 
guaranteed.  The  peraon  so  binding  himself  is 
generally  called  the  surety  in  England,  while  the 
person  who  is  primarily  liable  is  ulled  the  prind- 
paL  Thns,  where  A  borrows  money,  and  B  joins  as 
a  party  in  a  bill  of  exchange  or  a  bond  to  secure  the 
loan,  B  is  a  surety.  WhereBguoiuntees  that  certain 
goods  which  ore  supplied  to  A  shall  be  p^  for.  he 
u  more  usually  styled  a  guarantor  than  a  aurety, 
but  the  liaUlity  is  the  some. 

Sneh  *  oontract  must  be  in  writing,  for  the  Statute 
□f  Fnuida  (29  Oiarles  IL  &  3)  required  that  no 
action  shonld  be  brought  whereby  to  charge  the 
defendant  npon  any  special  premise  to  answer  for 
the  debt,  default,  or  miscarriage  of  another  penon, 
unless  the  agreement  or  some  menunandam  or 
note  thereof  sEooId  be  in  writing  and  signed  by  the 
'  to  be  charged  therewith,  or  some  other  person 
m  lawfully  authorised.  So  that  a  surety  can 
only  be  bound  by  some  writing  signed  by  himseU  or 
his  agent.  And  Lord  Tenterden'a  Act  (9  Geo.  IV. 
-    '",  %  0)  enacted  the  some  thing  s«  to  persona 


..Google 


aiTABDArUI-OUABIHl 


"'^"g  repreaentationj  aa  to  Mm  ahlxmatez,  abili^, 
or  deaJuip  of  uiothar,  witb  intent  that  the  Litter 
may  obtam  credit  In  order  to  bind  the  aoret;, 
there  most  aloo  be  no  deoeit  or  miarepreaentalion 
used  ai  to  the  nature  of  the  risk  or  aa  to  the  itate  of 
the  aooounta.     If  a  guarantj  ii  given  to  a  firm,  it  ia 

partiei  expreaaly  rtipulate  to  the  costraiy.  If  the 
oreditor  duchaive  ue  principal,  or  even  give  time, 
by  Tay  of  indulgence  to  him,  the  auratj  ii  released, 
for  he  ia  thereby  put  to  a  diaadyantage.  In  general, 
the  creditor  can  sue  either  the  prindpal  or  the  mrety 
for  the  debt  at  hii  option.  If  the  eurety  is  obliged 
to  pay  the  debt  of  hia  principal,  he  can  me  the  pnn- 
dpkl  for  the  money  ao  paid,  and  ia  entitled  to  nave 
all  the  wcnritieH  a«igaed  to  him,  ao  aa  to  enable 
him  (o  do  BO  more  effectually. 

In  Scotland,  the  Uw  ia  tubatantiallv  t^  aame  aa 
recnrda  ^nincipal  and  aorety,  or.  aa  tbey  are  there 
caJied,  prinidpal  and  cautioner ;  bat  there  are  aoma 
minor  diffarenoM,  tbonsb  many  of  the  differencea 
which  fonaerly  eiiated  between  the  kwa  oE  the  two 
conntriea  were  awnit  away  by  the  statat«e  IQ  and 
20  Vict.  0.  97,  and  19  and  20  Vict  c  60.  The  chief 
diETeconoea  now  are,  that  in  Scotland  it  ia  not  necea- 
lary  to  prove  any  consideration  for  the  contract, 
though  uie  cqntnot  ia  not  by  deed ;  that  liability 
of  the  aorety  continnea  aeven  years,  wheteaa  in 
England  it  continnea  generally  only  aix  yeaia-~and 
that  the  diacharge  of  &e  surety  can  be  proved  only 
by  the  writ  or  oath  of  the  creditor,  vhereaa  in 
£ngland  it  can  be  proved  by  oral  evidenc«t  See 
Pateraon'a  Oomp.  of  B.  and  S.  Latn. 

OUARDAJUI',  C*P«  (ano.  Jrttmo(um  PrtrnvM- 
torium),  tJie  most  eastern  point  of  the  African  conti- 
nent, and  the  extremity  of  an  inunenae  promontory 
stretching  seaward  in  an  east-norUi-eaat  direction, 
and  waahed  on  the  north-weat  by  the  Gulf  of  Aden 
and  on  the  aouth-eaat  by  the  Indian  Ocean.  The 
cape  is  in  lat.  ir  SC  N.,  long.  61'  ST  E. 

OTTAItDIA-OREil^  a  small  and  unimportant 
town  of  S.  Italy,  in  the  provinoe  of  Chieti,  12  m. 
sonth-Bouth-eaat  of  the  town  of  ChietL    Pop.  7970. 

OtTAKDIAir,  in  Engliah  Iaw,  ta  the  legal 
npreamtatlTe  and  cuatodier  of  infanta,  L  e.,  pcEiaona 
nnder  the  age  of  S],  and  varioua  specie*  are  diatin- 

Sished.  Qnatdian  by  nature  ia  rather  a  popular 
ui  a  leg^  term,  eapedally  when  used  in  refer- 
ence to  a  father  or  mother,  who  are  often  caUed 
goardiauB  by  nature^  In  its  technical  aenie,  it  ia 
— i!__j  . ancestor  who  il  aaid  Xa  be  guardian 


of  children  until  the  age  of  14,  Ovardicm  hi  loeagt 
ia  the  term  anciently  given  to  the  next  of  blood 
who  had  the  legal  custody  of  the  person  as  well  aa 
eatat«  of  the  heir  to  lands  which  descend  in  socsge 
or  freehold,  until  the  heir  attaina  the  age  of  14.  A 
fother  may,  by  deed  or  will,  appoint  a  guardian  to 
hia  child.  If  he  do  not;  Qie  lord  chuioallor  will 
do  to  ;  but  practically,  thia  ia  only  done  when  the 
child  ia  entitled  to  lo^perty.  When  a  ouardian 
it  iwpointed  by  the  Court  of  Chanoeiy,  the  infant 
it  called  a  ward  of  court,  and  requires  the  ttoctinn 
of  the  guardian  for  mott  purposes,  and  require*  t 
ptnuiaaion  of  the  Court  of  Chancery  to  marry, 


nay  be  punished.    A  jmmJtma  ad  Ulan  n 


J  M  an  infant.     In  general,  the  power  of  .. 

guardian  extends  to  the  penon   aa   well  aa   the 
property  of  the  infant ;  but  in  the  cai~  ~'  ^ — '' — 


referenoe  to  hlnatica,  bat 
seldom  apphed,  except  in  a  popul&r  snua,  to  those 
who  have  tha  onatody  and  care  of  ohiktren.  Id 
Dorretpondins  cues  in  Scotland,  tha  ouatody  of  a  | 
child  nnder  12,  if  fonale,  or  14,  if  mAta,  baluigi  to 
her  or  hia  Tutor  (q.  v.)  (  and  trata  thoM  uia  to 
31,  the  child  has  no  k^  ga»i^an,  being  mujiau, 
but  the  care  of  the  child^  proparty  balongt  to  a  ' 
Curator  (q.  v.). 

QaardiaM  cif  Oie  poor,  ia  in  yng^'*^  parochial  law 
on  important  fnnotionary,  being  a  peraon  elected  by 
-,  parish  or  nni '  — ■-'■—  •■ *^-  -*■-=- 


the  aSain  of  tlie  pc 
seen ;  but  by  atatutw,  moat  ol  wtucb  are  recent,  it  , 
haa  been  thonsht  better  to  have  a  larger  body  ol 
penona  elected  by  the  ratepayos  of  the  parish  to 
disohaige  moat  of  these  dutua.  Hence,  many  lA  tie 
larger  parishea  are,  either  by  a  tpeoiBl  statute  or  by  j 
<yrSa  of  the  Poor-law  Board,  put  under  a  board  of 

guardians  also.    The  ratepayers,  in  voting,  have  one 
vote  for  each  £50  of  rent  Uiey  pay,  but  in  no  case   ' 
are  allowed  more  than  aix  votea.     The  guardiui   ' 
have  the  management  of  the  workhouse,  and  th< 
maintenance,  clothing,  and  relief  of  the  poor,  and  in 
the  regulationa  must  comply  with  the  ordera  of  the  j 
Local  Government  Board,   whose   president   ia  a  | 
member  of  the  government,  acting  bj  these  orden 


the  election. 

In  Scotland,  the   corresponding   dntiea  are  dia-  j 
chained  by  the  Parochial  Board  (q.  v.),  which  ia 
subject  to  the  general  Board  of  Supervision.    Set 
olao  PooB. 

GUARDS  an  in  aU  anniea  tha  flit*  <rf  the 
troops,  and  naoally  tboae  mo«l  bekrQv  amed.  In 
the  Kitith  aervic^  the  Ouardi  oon*trtat^  in  tun* 


Uoyal  Hone  Qoardsman  (1742]. 

of  peace,  the  garrison  of  London,  and  the  guard  ol 
the  aovereign  at  Windsor.  The  Gowda  compo" 
what  ia  c^JIad  the  Household  Brigade,  and  mcluds 
in  cavalry  the  1st  and  2d  Life  Guardf,  *>»  "* 


b,  Google" 


<\UA  ynHTTTP— nn  ATTOLr  AT^* , 


Bor»l  Hon*  OaMtb  (Bhw);  and  In  iiif*Dtr7,  tli« 

the  Scrta  Piuili<T   Ouirda.      Theae  dutuisaiahed 
cottM  oompriM  1302  cavalrr  in  three  mgitr—'- 

•ad  6910  io£knti7  in  seven  battolioni.    Bdnr. 

Abolition  cd  pmchBse,  the  offieen  of  the  regimenla 
of  Foot  Qnutia  held  higher  MII17  nuik  than  that 
tluT  bora  nffawnWly;  that  ia,  enaigni  ranked 
^u  liantenanti  <rf  other  teglmenta,  lientenanta  witii 
cagitaina,  Ckptaina  with  lientananVoolonel* ;  and  1 
•xdiangin^  mto  the  linei  tliey  wera  thua  enabled 
ezahanp  mto  Ui«  hu^  podtitOM^  »  dronmaton 
irhieh  often  [daced  offieera  ot  compantively  short 
■mioe  over  vetenma  of  the  line,  ud  caused,  per- 
faapa,  mom  heart-bnming  than  anj  other  aaomaly 
unoDg  onr  regulationa.    Wben  pnichaae  wu  tiie 
rale,  evay  officer  in  the  Guards  waa  quite  ready  to 
accede  to  it ;  when  it  waa  aboliihed  in  1871,  this 
eiceptioaa]  rank  waa  also  abolished  in  regard  to  all 
officer*  newly  entering  the  Onarda. 

OUABDSHIP,  the  diipMil-war  in  oharga  of 
port.  She  generally  acta  dao  aa  a  dCpAt  for  imiqc 
raised  there  nntil  appropriated  to  other  Teaaela,  an 
her  captain  ia  nspoiHihle  for  the  aafe^  and  propi 
piwcrvation  d  the  men-of-war  which  may  L_ 
laid  np— oat  ot  oommioioD  in  the  harbonr.  The 
mperinteodeat  ot  a  dock-yard,  if  a  flag-ofBcer, 
cairiee  hia  flag  at  the  mait-head  of  the  Kuardslmi; 
if  he  be  only  a  captain,  the  guardabip  la  nmaUy 
under  hia  nominal  comoiand,  although  the  actuu 
dntisa  are  canied  on  by  the  oommanda  or 
■ei^or  officer* 

QCARRA,  a  genna  of  bvpical  Amoican  treea  of 
the  natnnl  order  MtUaoaa,  ot  aan»  of  which  the 
baA  is   nasd  aa  an   ematia  and   purgatar^ 

fraadifoiia  is  oallad  MmK-woon  in  some  ol 

lalanda  of  the  Weat  Indiea;  the  bark  amalliug  so 
•trongly  of  muk,  th«t  it  may  be  oaed  aa  a  peffume. 

GTJARI'NI,  Qtoviinn  Sathbta,  a  popular  and 
«Ieguit  poet,  waa  bom  at  Ferrara  ia  IS3T.  At  the 
teiWiation  of  bia  studiea  in  the  voivenitieB  of 
Pisa,  Fadna,  and  Ferraia,  he  wu  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  litentnre  in  the  latter,  and  soon  after, 
the  publication  of  some  souneta  obtained  for  him 
great  popolarily  aa  a  poet  At  the  age  of  30, 
he  accepted  aervice  at  the  conrt  of  Ferrara,  uid 
was  intniated  by  Duke  Alfonso  XL  with  Tarions 
diplomatic  miadona  of  deUcacy  and  importance. 
Difference*  between  him  and  the  doke  induced  Kirn 
to  withdraw  from  Ihe  court  of  Ferrant  about  the 
year  1087-  Having  resided  socceasively  in  Saroy, 
Mantua,  noicnce,  and  tJrbino,  he  returned  to  hie 
natiTe  Fenara,  ind  discharged  cue  final  public 
miadon,  that  of  congratnlating  Pope  Paul  V.  on 
hia  election  to  tlie  tiara.  He  died  in  1613  at 
TeiDoe,  whithor  ha  had  been  anmmoned  to  attend 


To  theae  defecta,  in  i»rt,  may  be  attributed  the 
freqnent  mortifloatiana  whioh  tracked  him  tjireugb 
lil&  Aa  a  poet,  ha  ia  remarkable  for  refined  grace 
of  langnaga  and  sweetaesa  of  aentimfflit,  while  hia 
defsA  are  ooeadonal  artificialily,  a  too  oonatant 
itithetioal  imageiT,  and  an  affected 
chief  and  moat  popnlar 

. ,_JB   Faithfol  Swain],  ia 

.  in  Italy  aa  a  (tandard  of  elegant  paatonl 
ion,  and  obtained  a  high  meaau«  ot  pcjiu- 
I  its  appearance.  The  writer  deaignea  it 
d;  its  lint  dramatio  repre- 
_  of  the  Duptiala  of  the  Ihike 
of  Savoy  and  Catherine  of  Auatria,  1686.  It  subse- 
qnmtly  ran  throngh  forty  editions  during  Q.'t  life, 


and  waa  tranilated  into  almcat  all  the  modem 
languages.  Tasao  and  Q.  have  been  baqneotly 
compared ;  the  two  poeti  were  hteraiy  frienda  and 
reciprocal  >dmirsi&  alliiaagh  rivali  in  love.  O.'a 
varied  writings,  indading  sonneta,  comedies,  tatirea, 
and  political  treatisea,  were  publiiAed  at  Ferrara 
In  1737,  4  vola.  4to.— See  Stona  dtSa  LdttratuTti 
ItaUana  dd  TiirabotchL 

QUABl'NO  (Lat  Vanmi),  a  learned  Italian, 
hara  at  Verona  in  1370,  went  to  Constantinople  in 
1388  to  learn  Graek  under  ChiTBoloraa.  Aftn  his 
return,  he  tan^t  in  Yerona,  Fadoo,  and  BoloEua, 
waa  tutor  to  Prince  Lionella  of  Ferrara,  acted  as 
interpreter  at  the  oooncil  of  Ferrara,  azid  died  in 
1460.  He  performed  great  services  for  the  revival 
of  clasaical  studies ;  translated  the  fint  ten  booka  of 
Strabo,  and  a  portioD  of  Plutarch ;  commented  on 
Cicero,  PersiuB,  Juvenal,  Martial,  and  Ariatotle;  and 
Wrote  a  Oompendiwn  OrammaHoai  Qntea,  which 
wu  printed  at  Ferrara  in  1600. — Compare  Koaminl, 
Vita  t  I>iteipUna  di  Ouarino  {3  yije.  Brescia,  1806— 
1806). 

GUATRMAliA,  the  name  of  two  dtiee  in 
Central  America — 1.  Guatemala  (Old)  stands  at  the 
foot  of  Volcan  d'Agua,  in  lat  14°  30*  N.,  and  lonK 
90°  45'  W.  Once  the  capital  of  the  couab^,  it  waa 
twice  deatroyed,  first  in  1641,  by  an  erupldon,  and 
1773,  by  on  earthquake.  Thon^  after 
i  diaastar,  it  was  supplanted  by  its  motv 
modem  namesake,  yet  it  was,  to  a  certain  extent, 
rebuilt.  It  unmbBTS  about  20,000  inhabitants; 
and  many  o(  ita  ancient  bnildingi,  more  eapecially 
a  cathedial  and  a  palact^  remaiD  entire.— 9.  Guate- 
— ''  (New),  capital  of  the  repnblio  of  the  some 
,  is  situated  in  a  rich  and  apaciona  table-land, 
.  ._j  elevation  of  4961  feet  above  the  sea,  in 
Ut  14°  37'  N.,  and  long.  90°  30'  W.  It  is  24  miles 
the  east-uorth-eaat  ^  the  original  capital  Pop- 
ulation estimated  at  46,000.  The  people  manufac- 
ture muslin^  cotton-yam,  plate,  arUncial  flowers, 
and  beantifnl  embroidery,  earning  on  at  the  aame 
time  a  proaperons  trade  in  uie  agricultural  pro- 
ductions  of  the  nNghboorhood.  T&  place  is  weU 
supplied  with  water  by  an  aquednct. 

GUATEUAIiA,  nominally  a  republic,  but  really 
an  oligarchic  state  of  Central  America,  terminates 
this  (uvimon  of  the  new  coptdnent  towards  Uie 
north-west,  being  wuhed  at  once  by  the  Carib- 
bean 3ea  and  uie  Pooifia  Ocean.  It  stretchaa 
in  N.  lat.  from  about  14°  to  ir,  and  in  W.  lon^ 
from  89*  to  9i°,  containing  43,380  square  miles, 
and  1,160,000  inhabitants.  The  surface  preaents 
great  variety,  mountuns  and  valleya,  plaina  and 
table-londa.  The  different  levels,  ran^^nff  from  the 
sea-shore  to  an  elevation  of  6000  feet,  aave  aaoh 
its  own  climate  and  tempemture.  The  country  is 
subjeot  to  aarthquakea,  and  abounds  in  active 
volcoooefc  Being  nearly  as  popnlons  as  all  the  other 
-*-*ea  <d  Cottnu  Am«nca  put  togethw,  G.  popularly 
1  name,  in  the  eatlr  days  ol  independence,  to 
confederation  whica  they  temporsiily  foimed; 
and,  from  the  same  pm-eminence,  it  had  niven 
aame,  under  the  Spoiiiab   domination. 


Cbuncil  of  State  and  a  House  of  Repreaentatii 
Formerly,  the  jvesident  waa  elected  tw  life,  and 
nndsr  Bafael  Camm  (1864—1866)  the  govenunent 
was  oairiad  on  in  the  interest  of  a  diwolate  aris- 
toont^  and  a  debased  priesthood.  The  baaiahed 
Jesaita  wsra  reo^ed,  tiu  conventa  ra-astaUiahed, 
&0.  Now  a  difiTerent  order  of  thinga  prevails.  A 
new  code  of  laws  has  been  drawn  np  ;  the  monastia 
order  has  been  wholly  suppressed ;  and,  though  the 
Boman  Catholic  is  the  eatabliahed  religion,  tLera  ia 


dbyGoOgl 


GtTATA— GDBBIO. 


oomplete  rdigiaiu  toleratioa.  In  1868,  Om  importi 
and  the  export*  respectively  unoonted,  in  dollara,  to 
936,109  «nd  956,085— the  trade  with  Oreai  Britun, 
partly  direct  sod  partly  throngh  Belize,  oompriMng 
two-thirds  of  the  former,  aad  nearly  ttree-Ionrtha 
□f  the  Latter ;  while,  taken  in  order  of  Talae,  the 
articles  impOTted  were  cottoiu,  (ilka,  vooUecia, 
hardware,  ironmonger;,  linena,  aiid  jewelleiy ;  and 
the  artiolea  exported  were  oocjiineal,  indigo,  angar, 
hidea,  oon&try  manafaetnrea,  aaraapaiilla,  and  ma- 
hojnny.  The  exportation  of  cochineal  alone  waa 
2,012,429  lb*,  in  ouantitr,  while  in  ertiniated  worth 
it  far  more  than  donbled  all  the  other  prodnatLona, 
OTTATA  (Piidium),  a  genua  of  trees  and  shruba 
oE  the  natmil  order  Myriaxea,  moBtly  natives  of 
tropical  America,  and  »ome  of  them  yielding  fine  and 
much  valued  fruits.  They  Lave  oppoeite  entire,  or 
almost  entire  leave*,  ■  3— 5-lobed  calyx,  4 — S  petal*, 
and  a  I — G-oelled  benr  with  many-seeded  cella.— 
The  CoMMOK  G.  or  Whitb  O.  [P.  yjn/erum)  is  a 


Ooava  {PiSdium,  pjfrifemin) : 


low  tree  of  7 — 20  feet,  with  numeroos  branches, 
obtuse  smooth  leaves  2 — 3  inches  long,  and  fragrant 
wbite  floweri  on  solitary  axillary  tta&s.  It  ia  said 
to  be  a  natiTe  both  of  the  East  and  West  Indiea, 
and  is  now  mnch  cultivated  in  both.  It  is  not 
imprebable,  however,  that  it  waa  introduced  into 
the  East  Indies  from  America,  but  it  has  now 
become  fully  naturalised.  Sir  James  E.  Tennent 
says,  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  junele  around  every 
cottage  in  Ceylon.     It  bas  long  been  occaaioQally 

E«wn  as  a  atove-plant  in  Britain.  The  frtiit  is 
ivcr  than  a  hen's  egg,  rooudiah  or  oblong,  smooth, 
yellow;  the  rind  thin  and  brittle ;  the  pulp  firm, 
full  of  bony  seeds,  flesh- colonred,  aromabc,  and 
Bweet.  The  jelly  or  preserve  made  from  it  is  highly 
esteemed,  uid  is  now  regularly  imported  mto 
Britain  from  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 
The  rind  is  stewed  with  milk,  and  ia  alao  made  into 
marmalade.  This  fruit  is  rather  aatrinsent  than 
laxative.  G.  bods,  boiled  with  barley  analiquorice, 
make  a  useful  astringent  drink  in  diairhcea. — The 
BSD  G.  {P.  poDtt/erum),  also  now  oon 

East  as  well  aa  in  the  Wert  Indies,  , ___   _ 

beautiful  fruit,  with  red  fleah,  but  not  nearly  ao 
wreeable  aa  the  white  guara.  It  ia  very  aad. — 
nie  Ceua-  G.  (i>.  CaUf^iuim),  a  native  of  China, 
prodncea  fruit  readily  in  vineries  in  Britain.    "  ' 


i  walnut,  of  a  fine  claret 


colour,  growing  in  the  axils  of  tlie  leaves;  the  polp 
purplish  red  next  the  skin,  becondog  paler  toraib 
tbe  centre,  and  tliere  white,  soft,  subacid,  and  (^ 
a  very  agreeable  flavonr.  It  niakea  an  excdkst 
preserve;  It  •ooceedt  in  the  open  air  in  the  sciith 
of  France. — On  some  of  the  mountains  of  Bniil 
grows  a  dwarf  spades  of  G.,  called  Marangibi 
JP.  pygmaam],  a  shrub  1 — 2  feet  high,  with  ftnit 
about  the  siie  of  a  gooaebetry,  much  son^t  aft«r 
on  aooDunt  pf  its  dehcioos  flavour,  reaembUng  that 
of  the  atrawberry.— The  Bastard  O.  of  the  Wat 
Indiea  is  a  species  of  Bugaua  {q,  v.). 

aUAXA'CO.    See  OwiCO. 

GUATAQUIX,  a  term  of  various  applicaticoi  in 
Ecuador,  South  America,  indicates  at  once  a  river, 
a  bay,  a  department,  and  a  city.- — 1.  The  river  i>  the 
only  stream  on  the  weetem  coast  of  South  America 
which  can,  without  qualification,  be  said  to  U 
navirable  for  aea-going  vessels.  It  is  navigable 
for  about  110  tnilee  to  Caracol,  and  is  known  in 
its  upper  course  successively  as  the  Caracol  and 
Babsioyo. — 2.  The  bay  which  receiTea  the  river, 
stretches  in  3.  lat  between  2"  and  4°,  and  in  ff.  lone 
between  30°  and  81°.  It  receives  also  the  Danle 
and  the  Tumbez.~3.  The  department  extends  from 
the  Pacific  on  the  west  to  the  de}>artiiienta  of  Quito 
and  Assuay  on  the  east,  comprising  a  much  wider 
belt  of  low  and  luvel  land  than  is  generally  foiud 
further  to  the  south,  between  the  Andes  and  the 
sea.— 4.  The  city,  the  capita]  of  tlie  department 
stands  on  the  right  hank  of  the  river,  at  the  distance 
of  40  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  divided  into  tw« 
parta,  the  old  and  the  new.  The  honaes  are  mostly 
of  wood ;  the  principal  are  the  cathedral,  Uie  ^ 
hoapitala,  and  the  two  coll^^  the  last  of  whid 
have  facoltiea  of  theology,  pluloaophy,  and  law. 
G.  po«se«BeH  the  best,  perhaps  the  only  really  good 
IiBrI>ouT  on  the  Pacific  shores  of  South  America,  the 
naturally  deep  channel  being  aided  by  a  tide  which 
aometiines  riaes  and  falls  24  feet.  Occapyina  sDch 
a  position,  and  being  in  lat.  2*  11'  S.,  the  pUce  u 
necessarily  unhealthy.  Still  it  has  a  popoIatioD  of 
26,000,  and  carriea  on  an  extensive  trade.  In  1873 
[beaidea  the  steam -packets),  12S  vessels,  of  IIS.OH 
tana,  entered,  and  116,  of  110,662  tons,  cleared  the 

Kct  In  1870  tJie  imports  amounted  to  £760,500, 
a  exports  to  £783,000.  In  1869,  the  imporU 
were  £405,200 ;  the  exports,  £594,500.  In  order  of 
worth,  they  were — cottons  (more  than  a  quu^r 
of  the  whole),  woollens,  wines,  spirits,  grocery, 
soap,  &c,  metals,  flour  and  linens ;  and  the  u- 
parts,  acoording  to  a  similar  arrangement,  were 
cocoa,  itraw-hata,  timber,  bark,  hides,  orchilU, 
tobacco,  sarsaparilla,  canes,  india-rubber,  and  coffw. 
GT7A  Y'RA,  Li,  the  principalsea-port  of  Venesnelji, 
in  Santh  America,  stands  ou  an  open  roadstead  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  in  lat  10°  36'  N.,  and  long.  67' 
W.  It  has  a  pop.  (1873)  of  6523,  and  oarries  on 
an  extensive  trade.  In  1872—1873,  177  vemals,  of 
93,424  tons,  entered,  and  16S,  of  131,110  tons,  cleared 
the  port  The  imports  in  1872  were  £846,000;  the 
joint  exports  of  G.  and  Fnerto  Cabello  amannted, 
1873—1873,  to  £2.200^000,  about  halt  belonging  to 
each.  The  chief  exports  of  G.  were  coffee,  cotton, 
coooa,  and  hides.  The  principal  imports  were,  in 
the  same  year,  woollens,  calicoes,  guns,  cutle^snd 
china-ware  from  Great  Britain ;  win«  from  France 
and  Germany;  flour,  wheat,  petroleum,  machinery, 
and  cotton  goods  from  the  U.  S.  of  America. 

GITBBIO  (sue  Jguvium),  the  chief  town  of  > 
diskict  of  the  same  name  in  Central  Itat^,  i>  ^"ft^ 
fully  situated  on  the  south-western  decbrity  o'~' 
Apennines,  in  the  district  <^  Urbino,  and  i^^ 
27  milea  south  of  the  city  of  that  name,  rop- 
800a      It  containt  aevanal  fln«  public  edifice*  « 


.COo^le" 


OUBEH— OTTELDEB  BOSK 


On  tlie  nmt  olevated  point  of  tlie 
day,  •wharv  the  anoient  lortreu  wiood,  i*  the 
doci]  palaoe,  so  (ailed  from  haTing  been  ereotfld 
and  mhabited  by  the  Dnkei  of  Urbino,  who 
■bo  iroverued  Oobbio.  The  maniciul  paUoe  ia 
a  noolB  old  [nle  ol  buildiiig,  eract^  in  1332  by 
Mattao  di  Giannella,  a  native  aichiteot.  In  the 
1  Beoi  aie  valiuble  ^otmee, 
and  other  antiqnitaH.      O. 


■IB   HU9  nun*   UK    B    UBHUVf  Bupjpjwu   HI   UaTB    UWU 

deotntyed  by  tiw  Longobaida,  a  temple  of  Man,  and 
an  Etonaoan  w^mkim  of  Kraat  antiqiii^.  At  a 
■hort  dManoe  oom  O.  are  uu  nun*  m  the  famona 
tem^e  of  Jupiter  Apennintu ;  and  here,  ii 
wa«  diaooTend  the  bKoooa  E  "  "  " 
QU3BN,  a  m 


uing  town  and  rivei-nirt  of 
the  province  of  Brandenborg,  ia  chann- 
in^y  litDated  on  the  Neiiae — the  baikka  of  whioh 
are  hera  p'"'t*i1  wHh  vinee — at  ita  oonflnence  with 
the  lAba^  28  mile*  Knith-Kmtti-«a«t  of  Prankfnrt. 
Except  ita  gvmnaainm,  it  has  no  notable  bmldinga. 
The  ^indwl  mannfactiine  »r«  wocjlen  goods  and 
tobaooo.  lite  ihipping-bade  of  the  Neiise  is  of 
■oms  in^iortaiiee ;  ahip-bnilding  ia  also  canied  on. 
On  the  B^shbonnng  heiohte,  fiDit-ttoes  and  vine* 
«ra  caltJTUed.  Tha  no.  wine  produced  heie  is 
ccteened  one  of  the  finest  grown  in  the  eastern 
pwtun  of  the  hingdinn.    Pop.  (IS7t)  Sl.lSa 

OtTDOEOIir  (OoUo),  a  oeaiii  of  fishw  of  the 
fai^^  Oj^riHidit,  having  a  short  donal  fln,  a  short 
anal  Sn,  and  no  atroiu  serrated  lay  in  either,  tils 
body  oovend  with  TatEer  laige  scalee,  and  barboles 
at  Uie  SB^  of  the  month.  The  Cohnon  Q.  [(?. 
HuaatSii)  ja  abnndaiit  in  many  ol  the  liven  ol 
Kigland,  particaUrly  in  inch  aa  have  gravelly 
bottoms,  sod  ccoMJonal  pools  and  r^nds.  It  seldom 
eiaesds  osht  incites  in  lengtii;  tiie  depth  is  not 
one-fifth  of  the  lengUt  llie  tail  is  forked.  The 
eya  is  placed  hi^  pontile  side  tt  the  head,  llie 
■pper  pacts  are  obre  brown,  spotted  with  black ; 
the  wMO'  parte  wlitt&  Gndgeons  swim  in  shoals. 
Titj  feed  on  worms,  m^nsos,  and  other  small 
aoimsli,  and  mm  eitrnie^  resdy  to  Ijite  at  a  bait, 
whiclt  is  ocoiuncaily  a  ibmI  pieee  of  a  i«d  worm. 
Oreet  Dnmbors  ire  often  taksQ  even  by  young 
Mglen,  and  tile  readinoH  with  which  the  C).  ishirtd 
has  beoone  provwbisL  Hie  Q.  is  mnoh  esteemed 
{orthetabkb  Ifany  are  taken  with  CHtJiw-nets  in 
■fasDow  water,  and  kept  ia  weH-boats  till  wanted. 
RdunongB*  also  keep  tbcoi  in'  tanks,  eonstauUy 
nqiplied  with  fredi  oM  water.  Ihey  thrive  w^ 
in  poods  supplied  with  fneh  water  by  bnwkt. 

ue  0.  M  nSDsUy  one  of  the  first  objects  of 
the  jimnOe  siuler's  ambition ;  and  with  a  c»»ked 
va  and  threap  with  a  tngment  ot  »  worm  for 
•wt,  the  angler  oftoi  imbibe*  hii  first  ]i>y«  of^  the 
while  ofttohiDg  his  fint  gudgeon.     The 


•Twy  taifiing  matter  brought  down  by  t^  stream. 
A  man  red  wonn  ii  by  far  the  best  bait  for  the  G. : 
nut  to  it,  pshus,  a  maggot  or  gentle.  A  snuOl 
hook  and  a  fi^t  Boat  an  required.  A  fn^ment  el 
ma  ii  fixed  on  tii«  hook,  neatnesa  in  baiting  not 
Ixing  a  desidantnm,  for  the  ssme  bait,  wiUunt 
Bnco  sUaratiMi,  will  oftev  tab  ten  or  a  dozen 
F«8MU  in  tiifinrsiinn  Hie  bait  ahoold  drag  or 
^  along  the  botton  i  and  if  there  be  gndgeont 
•bMt,  it  win  hardly  faU  to  atbact  them.  Oronwl- 
wt  H  not  nqniraa  for  a. ;  bat  if  tiw  sn(^  wHl, 
*>th  a  iHge  taiu  or  any  other  heavy  matter,  dii- 
Wi  tile  gravel,  and  rake  a  dear  bii^t  spot,  a 


yard  in  width,  and  two  or  Qiree  in  IragQn,  tJie 
gudgeons,  attracted  by  the  dislodged  pu^as,  will 
■warm  up  to  the  spot  in  great  oomliers  in  seunh 
of  food;  and  thus  it  is  no  nnconunon  thing  to  take, 
by  one  or  two  Takings,  from  five  or  six  to  tem  or 
twelve  dozen  of  gudgeons  in  one  spot.  There  ia  no 
art  required  in  the  angling,  as  they  bite  very  baldly, 
and  the  angler  can  hanlly  miss  catohing  them. 

QUDIH,  JuH-AKTOiKB-TaioDDs^  Prauoh  land- 
scape and  marine  painter,  was  bora  at  Paiis,  15th 
Augost  1802,  and  studied  for  some  time  under 
Qirodet-TrioBon,  but  soon  abandoned  the  style  of 
this  srtist,  and  tanked  himself  witii  the  Soman- 
tioist^,  on  the  side  of  Oerioault  and  Delacroix.  He 
fint  attawted  notice  1;^  his  piotnre,  'Briok  en 
DMrassf^'  exhibited  in  1822.  Moat  of  his  marine 
mctnres  aweared  at  the  Paris  ExhibitioD  of  1866. 
Between  1S38  and  1S48,  O.  painted  more  than 
e^ly  of  snch  pieces  for  the  Mnsemn  ot  YenaiUea. 
8moe  1865  he  bat  exhHnted  many  new  paintings. 
QtnrBKES,  OHEBRBB,  GABRBS,  QHATBBS 
(Turk.  (Miaur^tMaur),  the  followera  of  Uie  anoient 
Feitian  idigion  aa  reformed  and  oonsolidated  by 
Zerdnsht  (Zaroaster).  Thia  name,  Gnebies,  which  u 
commonly,  btit  asamst  aU  liiuuistio  laws,  derived 
from  the  Arabic  Xiaflr  (a  word  applied  to  all  non- 
MohsnuDedans,  and  luppoeed  to  nave  been  first 
beatowed  npon  this  sect  by  thmr  Arabio  conquerors 
--  the  Tth  c],  is  evidently  nothing  but  an  ancieikt 

oper  name  taken  fnnn  eome  pi»-eminent  tribe  or 

iaUty,«incatheTabnnd(Jebam.d3b.,Oitt.l7a.ta) 
already  knows  them  only  by  tUs  name  ((%eber) ; 
and  Oiigen  iConlra  Cdi.  vL  291)  speak*  of  Kabirs 
or  Peraiani,  asserting  that  Chrtstijuiity  has  adopted 
nothing  from  them.  They  are  also  called  AUA 
Ptrat,  or  fire-worshippers ;  Pariea,  or  people  of  Para 
or  Fata — i  e.,  Persia;  Mai^oot,  fzom  their  priests 
the  Magi;  and  bjr  themselves  Sth-IHn,  'Those  of 
the  exoeUant  belief';  or  Mazdaatnan,  worshiraiM* 
Ormusd.    For  the  ori^i,  nature,  and  eariy  hia- 

y  ot  this  religion,  see  ZoROAsnot,  Zbks-atbta, 
p.    Whi      ■•     "     ■  ■      ■ 


were  held  up  to   general  detestation 
-n  by  the  poaitioD  assigned  them   in 


the  ancient  religion,  fied  into  the  wilderness  of 
Khorassan,  or  the  island  of  Hormtu;  but  even 
this  remnant  woe  for  manv  oentnries  the  viotim 
of  constant  oppresgion.  Mahmond  the  Ohumevide, 
Shah  Abbas,  and  othen,  are  conspicnoue  by  their 
untiring  penecutioa  of  tbem;  and  t' 

is  best  shewn     _,        .   ^     .    .  . 

most  popular  Mohammedan  tales   ..  .  ._  ... 

criminals.  At  this  present  mooient,  tbere  ar^ 
according  to  the  very  latest  native  information, 
about  8000  Guebre*  scattered  over  the  vast 
daminioDs  ot  their  anceaton,  chiefly  in  Teid  and 
twenW-foui  surroDoding  Tillies.  There  are  a  few 
at  T^eran,  a  few  at  Ispahan,  at  Shira^  and  some 
at  Baku,  near  the  great  naphtlia  monntsin,  but  all 

eunged  in  t^e  de^hs  of  ignorance,  and,  witii  rerr 
w  exceptions,  <u  poverty.  They  lucve  a  him 
reputation  for  honour,  prolnty,  obedience  to  um 
law,  chastity,  and  endmanoe.  Another  portion, 
after  various  miirstions — vriiich  are  told  at  length 
in  the  KuKth-t-Sai^an,  written  by  Behram  (1N9 
±.T>.) — reached  India,  iriiera  they  sre  now  settled 
under  the  name  of  Farsees,  chiefly  in  Btni^y, 
where  they  are  very  nnmeron*,  forming  a  popula- 
tion of  above  60,000,  or  about  8  per  oent.  of  tlie 
whole  population.    See  Faksebs. 

GUELDBR  B09E,  or  GUEWRES  HOSE  * 
iltivated  variety  of  the  Water-Etdec  {.rihiniBnii 
Opubu    *ea  ViBDKiruH),  in  which  the  flowers  are 


,,GuuiSle 


n-TTPiT  iwitT.  k  Km — anwnrmm 


all  banvB,  Mtd  inrtwd  of  fatminf  tticjntM,  m 
Um  irfld  pUat,  tOm  mnoh  la^er  gMwM  wnyw 
It  ii  •omatiiMi  oJled  tite  Skow-uu  TuE   Wl 
aboDnding  in'&iww^  ft  !■  >  tnt  omirawitaj  ilmib, 
and  U  thtt«foM  Tcrjr  <rftaB  plaatad. 

CtVmJDEBIiAin).    Sea  GsLmaiiuro. 

OTJXliPHIO  OBPEB,  aa  order  of  kiu^tkood 
for  Hanorer,  imtdtated  hy  Georae  IT.,  wh«n  Prince 
Bcgent,  on  tbe  12tlk  Anfnit  181&  II  is  both  &  mfli- 
bOT  and  olvil  Older,  nnBmited  in  nttmber,  and  oon- 
Bated  originally  of  three  clawM — Enightt  Qiaod 
Ctoh,  Commanden,  tuA  Enighti — to  which  the 
leriied  itatatM  of  1S41  hare  added  another  cUm  <4 
dmple  membmi.  The  Grand  Maitenhip  ia  veated 
in  toe  orown  of  Hanover,  nie  badfe  of  the  order  ia 
a  Biild  otou,  cnnnonnted  bv  the  ^uioreriai 
— ^)etween  ea^  dirinon  of  me  oroM  li  a  Uoa  _ 
Midaut.  In  tiie  centre  ia  the  hone  ooonuit  of 
Hanorer,  mironnded  by  ■  bine  oirole,  and  the  mottOi 
Jf»e  altera  lartnt. 

QVMiPBB  Jjnt  OHIBELLnTEB,  the  nanM 
ef  two  gnat  partiee,  Uke  oonfliot  of  vhidh  maj 
almori  be  n^  to  make  up  the  histtuy  of  Italy  an(_ 
Oetmanr  btan  the  Uth  bll  the  Hth  oentorr.  Tha 
IKi^tim  these  namea  waa  fonneriy  the  eobjeot  of 
mooh  ^peonlation ;  bnt  antaqnanaoi  are  norr  ^ead 
in  tiacng  them  reapeotiTa^  to  tha  two  fsjmliei^ 
Waibllnser  and  "WOS,  whiidii,  in  the  12th  c,  ware 
at  the  head  of  two  riral  partiea  in  tha  Oeiman 
WDiuTe,  and  whoae  fevda  came  to  be  identified 
hiatorically  wjUi  the  raspeotiTe  priadplea  for  which 
tfuaa  pattiea  contended.  The  actaal  ori^  of  the 
aHugpiian  of  thie  namea  ii  commooly  fixed  at  tha 
great  battle  ot  Weinabers,  in  Buabia,  1140  a.xi.,  in 
irilieh  tha  twa  rival  uaimant*  for  the  empire 
Ootmd  of  HiduawtanfeOi  Doka  of  Franconia,  and 
Heaiy  the  lion,  of  the  Honw  ofWelf,  Poke  of 
Biaaaj,  rallied  their  fbDoweta  by  the  reapectiTe 
war-nuB,  'BJo  Waibliagenl'  'Hie  WeUl'  but  It 
ii  oarUin  Qtat  Uie  namea  were  in  lua  from  an  earlier 
d>t%  althon^  probably,  rather  aa  repreeentinx  the 
fauuT  fai^  Ukan  the  nuiticid  prinoipleB  whica  the 
two  lamiliaa  aftanraidi  aeventUy  lapported.  Aa 
tke  ohiaf  thaatee  of  the  oonfliot  of  these  partiea  waa 
Italy,  tha  anginal  names  took  the  Italian  form  of 
ffA&IM  and  ChlM.    The  former  may,  in  general, 

aa  the  ■apporters    of   the    unperial 

in  Italy,  tha  I»ter,  aa  the  opponents  of 
tha  emwoon  1  and  aa  the  oppoutian  tio  imperial 
antlunuy  in  Italy  aioae  from  two  distinct  parties, 
whicli,  for  tha  raoat  part^  made  common  caose  with 
each  others—from  we  chnrch,  which  anerted  it* 
own  apiiboal  independeno^  and  from  the  minor 


ri^ta  vid  _  libertiea— t 
,  is  mTolTed  in  mnch  c< 
turnip  aad  is  vanooaly  related,  and  ite  merits 
Tarional;^  ai^iradated,  aooording  to  the  point  of  view 
bon  wuch  it  ia  regaidsd.  To  the  ehnrohman,  it  is 
the  abiiffila  of  tha  dinrch  agaisst  Hie  state;  to 
the  ftianou!  popdlai  prindplea^  it  is  tha  conflict  of 
lihar^  ualnst  abaoluGim  and  eentnliaation.  ^te 
aame  in^Tidnal — aa,  fee  ncanql^  the  poet  Dante 
—ja  found  to  ehanga  lidea  in  the  stniggle.  For 
■"  * "     ~' — "■  of  the  chnioh 


Fnteataikta  aa  ezoa»iTe  ia  degree, 
fgaaad  to  haT«Ulmi&with  the  elaima  of  politioal 
and  penmial  freedom.  Fire  great  criaea  in  the 
fkrite  of  tha  Qnelph  and  Ghibelline  P«rtiea  are 
oommonly  noted  by  histoaiana:  nnder  Henry  IV., 
in  lOBSi  nndar  Himrythe  ProodL  in  1127:  ondm' 
Henry  the  I/ion,  In  lliO;  under  Frederick  Barbara 
oaa,  In  1109;  and  in  the  pontificate  of  tha  great 
diunpion  i£  chtirchmanshjp,  bmooent  ttt,     t^ 


ff^t  Italian  funillea,  in  like  matuur,  took  <^^aaite  | 

udeai  bat  the  polity  of  each  fuuly  freqneDtly  ; 
varied  from  Ma  genentian  to  IBoUmil     iBgaaval, 

it  m^  he  aald  tiiat  the  noUea  of  tba  ir "'■ —  ' 


irtiila  thoea  of  t&e  oantnl  and  loiitliacn 
ware  Onshih.    By  dagwaa,  bowaiTart  aapae 
tlie  downfall  of  tha  propOoderaBM  of  th 
anpanna  in  Italj,  the  ocntast  ommoA  to  U.  •  *>«.  | 
of  prinoiplea,  and  degenerated  into  »  maroatau^  | 
ef  rival  fiwtJQM,  avaiung  tlienaalTaa  Pt  tiio  pieaEge  | 
of  anciant  namea  and  tnditioiMl   ov   Iwradilanr  | 
pejodioea.    Even  in  127%  (hegory  X.  coold  witn 
troth  reproaeh  tiie  Italiana  wwi  tiheir  aangninafy   ' 
animositiea  for  the  sake  of  what  wore  but  names,    ' 
the  meaning  ot  which  few  of  them  ooold  undentuul 
or  explain :  aiul,  in  tha  foUowlns  oeotmy,  in  13H 
Benedict  JtlL  praotioally  diaallowv  attwrtlia'  the 
reality    of  iLhe  gioands  of  divisioB    betiraai  tha 
partiea,  by  nreambioA  under  ptun  id  OiM  eantOKS 
of  tlie  ohvch,  the  farther  nae  of  thoae  anoe-stirniif 
names,  which  had  long  bean  tha  mlMng  '"'"^  ™ 
a  sangninaiy  warfare.    Vrtaa  tha  IMh  o.  we  read 
little  noi«  of  Onelpha  or  CHubelllnea,  aa  aotnallv 
uristjng  parties  i  bat  In  the  sanae  already  aplaisei^ 
the  oonffiot  of  prindplea  whiA  tbey  represent  ii 
foond  in  eveiy  period  of  poMcal  history. 

OTTEBAltA,  or  GEBBABA,  a  town  of  Alpria, 
in  the  district  of  the  Beni-M'sab,  stands  on  the  left 
bank  of  a  river  called  the  Zigrhir  or  Zegerin,  in  lit 
32*  4tr  N.,  long.  IT  E,,  and  about  40  milea  nortb-eut 
of  Ghordaifc  It  is  a  walled  town,  ha*  three  mtei, 
and  is  a  favoiirite  oommaroial  randesToas  for  Ml  the 
saigbbonriog  tribea,  who  frequent  this  ^aoe  for  tha 
poTohsse  or  disposal  of  borie^  strrtw  ahem,  irayi 
cold-dnst  oatrioh  feathen,  ooHon,  silk,  oauar^  iio. 
The  market  of  6.  la  in^Usd  ohiefy  from  Imu' 
and  Algiers.    The  pop,  is  abont  l^OOa 

aUEBOUrO,  ■tiie  iqnint<<yed,'  properiy  (hu- 
Frukimoii  Bamibm,  a  celebrated  master  d  the 
Bolmneaa  achool  of  painting,  was  bean  in  1690 
at  Cento,  a  pretty  town  not  far  frmn  Bologna 
G.  gave  eariy  prool  of  his  intnitiv*  lore  of  ut, 
by  akatdiing  with  the  rong^eet  -i^t-rir'*  ea  tte 
hoas»doar  a  Virgin  so  foil  M  utistio  pMmise,  that 
his  btbar,  in  spite  <d  the  sttaitened  anmaslaiiMS 
-'  "--  '--%■,  took  immediate  BMworea  for  tnimig 


11  qnarton.     Frvn  1019  t* 

it  oUiea  ef  Itair,  partioDliriy 

Rome  and  Venia«t  to  improve  himaell  by  the  itody 

of  tha  works  of  oOiar  eminent  paintarh    In  Iw 

he  went  to  live  at  Bolt^na,  whec«  1m  died  in  IW 

a  of  the  eariy  painfann  of  G.  bear  pensptible 

as  of  hia  admiration  of  Caravagpo''  *^l*i  *™^ 

leir  powaifnl  aAota  of  deep  oohmring  and  *fa«if 

ity  ie  natui^  while  tiin  mm^  waxwm  4Ma* 

<tf  the  great  Nallst  in  dignity  and  tenement  o<  toot 

They  are  defiolan^  bowercr,  in  aeomwy  ef  deaigB- 

Hii  wmdci,  which  are  too  nvmaaona  foe  notiM,  ■"■ 

to  be  fmmd  in  the  pUeriea  of  Bom<^  Btdcgu  Bv**** 

Hodwa,  Pwagia,  and  Paris.    Hia  maater'pMM*  aie 

•d  to  bethafreawcf 'AniQia,' l^akdlea^ 

ceiling  of  one  of  tlw  oaainoa  of  the  BwM 

villa  Lndoviri;  the  famona  'Peinan  Sbrl.'  •■° 

'Saiat  Peboailla,'  both  in  the  OuitcJioe  GaUiiT 

at  Home.    At  Oento,  tha  artisVs  hoosa,  OoM  « 

Oxenteo,  Is  carsfalfy  pieaunuil,  with  ita  fine  m"*' 

ingi  and  fnseo  dsoonrfm^aadia  tha  «hkf  MJa« 

dbyCuU^IC 


GDSBIOKX-aUiaOIJN. 


of  intsNl  to  tb(M*'wbi»iJBtlhepUa&  Hm  Anoh 
of  Oanta  aba  ooubiim  wrsml  &U  worts  of  thta 
mittar,  who  h«d  •«  intcBia  ion  for  bU  Urtb-plM. 
aUBBIOKB,  Ono  tov,  *  odebntad  pl^rioU^ 
WM  bovft  at  Hagdabm^  in  Pnurian  Stxaaj,  MHli 
Ifonmbw  ^602.  BSs  panowJ  Uita*7  amtaii 
Bothins  at  !iitai«Bi  Aa  a  natnnl  philMoplMr,  lie  _ 
obieflTkiiowii  t^hta  diaoorerie*  ngndingtha  natnM 
■itd^Botaof  air.  Hu  experinwati  of  GalDao  and 
Paaeal  on  the  wed^t  of  air  led  O.  to  attempt  tlie 
cnation  (rf  a  Tacnmn.  Wm  fint  experiment  waa 
made  bj  filling  a  etont  barrel  with  water,  and  thsa 
pnmping  out  the  water;  but  it  waa  found  thai  no 
aoMBT  wac  a  -nauaa  [Bodiued  in  the  barrBl  than 
iti  war  thtoo^  He  now  took  a 
',  with  aa  menma  at  tlie ' 


globe  <tf  o^par, 
whioh  a  pomp  waa 
cook,  and  to  hn  aab 


_  ,,    .       h  aa  «oening  at « 

whioh  a  pomp  waa  fitted,  prorided  with 
imabment  fonnd  C 
iweDaatha 


thepnmp 

tw;  Omb, 

the  oddc,  tliB  air  waa  heaid  roahing  in 

[■tling  Doiaa.     ^Diia,  the  fiiwt  MX-pumik 

bedAMnt    16Sa     Q'     ' 

became  fesuraa,  ■"^  in  1654  bo 


..  ._  in.  of 

I  Satiiban,  at  iriueh  time  he  made  tike 
fainniB  expariment  oonunooly  known  as  the  Mag- 
debtiTg  Hemiiphena  (q,  tX  He  died  at  HambnrK 
11th  Ha;  ie8& 

auianx,  Snau  Sambo,  Biaoir,  one  of  the 
moet  «unent  hivtorical  painten  of  the  French 
daMio  Bchool,  WM  bom  ri  Parii,  ISth  May  1774. 
and  fliat  attracted  notioe  bj  hia '  C<Hpa  de  Bmtoa 
ni^Knti  k  B(»ne*  (1790)>  S<aoa  of  hta  peoee  an 
resided  aa  maater-pieMa  of  the  French  olawe  adiaoL 
Tm  few  porbaita  exeented  l^  O.  an  adndrable. 

_ .    . icqaeliji  at 

In  1829  he  waa  ntieed  tL , 

died  at  Boom,  16th  Jnl^  183a  Purity  of  dcdgiL 
digni^  of  fMt,  taste  in  gronpin^  and  hamumj  li 
coknir  will  be  genenUr  ocoiMded  to  O^  bnt  the 
coldnwa  which  marks  the  Hawin  iohool  (a  painters 
is  aa  Tisible  in  him  as  in  others, 

aUXBITE,  a  mall  loopholed  tonet  in  the  wall 
ti  a  tatb*m,  from  which  a  sentry  may  """'""■^  a 
vimr  and  fire  over  the  ditoL 

GUVUHBET,  the  aioond  in  aiae  of  the  Channel 
Islands  ta.  T.),  la  aitnated  in  lat.  between  4S°  Bl'  and 
48°  30*  HT,  and  in  long,  between  S' SS*  and  Sr  41' W. ; 
is  distant  69  milaa  lovth-east  from  Sfcut  Poin^  in 
tho  MNtth  of  Daronahire— the  nearest  point  of  the 
En^iah  eoast;  a^  is  about  46  miles  sonth-wect 
tram  Oherboqr^  ut  Vitaot,  Its  length  is  Q  nules, 
ita  greatest  breadth  about  fly  and  its  dramnlHenoa 
31  mika.  In  1S71  it  had  a  popolationof  mfi93. 
The  ooast  is  of  difBoolt  aforoach,  «wing  to  the 
nnTnbff  of  lobks  *"^  the  ruioity  of  oon^nla  aroand 
^H  "1***^  The  northern  part  of'  the  JtlyHJ  is 
fla^  ttw  aoolhem  mine  dcTaaid,  bat  intenaoted  bj 
deep  TaQaTi  and  glena,  andwiUi  a  lofty  and  abvmit 
ooaaL  StPeter'a,  on  the  aonth-east.ooast  U  the 
Uaad,  is  tiu  only  town.  For  partionlani  abont  the 
iliimla.  soil,  pt«diietions,  trade,  tA,  lee  JxBaxr. 

F.  D.,  a  patriotio  Italian  statae- 


putation  unong  bis  coontrymen  by  hie 
ii(aie,  which  are  said  to  have' exerdsed 
I   inflnenoe    oa   contemporvy  Italian 
.lielr  exalted  strain  of  patriotio  enthii- 
i  sbhcaMnoe  of  despotino.    < 
are,  'as  wrote  a  book  when    '~   "'' 
battle.'    On  the  ere  of  Hie  d 
tha  people  and  the  Qraod  Dnko  of  Tvscany,  in  It 
G.  WM  Indnoed  to  aoeept  office  in  tiie  miniai 


I  ct  npobUoanism  i._  ^,__  , 

aerred  the  striot  antonomy  li  TnB«my  nntil^a 
ntnm  at  tiia  &and  ]>neal  udt,  when  he  wm  imme- 
diattly  eased  and  fanprisoned  on  the  grounds  of 
having  nef^eoted  doe  maasoKS  of  rKneeaion  whMi 
the  nrdhtUon  firat  gatiuMd  streagth  during  his 
ministry.  Hia  detenoc^  entitled  ApAigia  <Ula  tita 
PoUSm  diF.D,  QverroMt,  or  <  Joetiaostion  of  the 
Politieal  Oanv  of  F.  D.  Goutami,'  is  a  lOMtar- 
pieoo.  After  an  irD{naonment  of  tbree  years,  he 
WM  cmdenmed  for  Ufe  to  the  aallcTa,  but  wm  bi^ 
leanently  permitted  to  seleet  Uoraioa  m  the  refuge 
of  his  perpetnal  banishment  Baatored  to  liberty 
and  actum  t^  later  events  0.  sat  in  tJie  parliament 
c<  Turin  in  1802  and  I86IL   He  died  in  S^  lS7a 

Wa  chief  weeks  of  fiction  are  VAmeHo  HFirmmt 
(the  Sisga  ti  Blorenoe),  a  magnifioent  historioal 
nonl,  ttt«tinK  of  the  downfall  of  the  npublio  of 
Fhvenoe;  LaBaaa^in&Bei>eomfei,vsa»A»!fAAbii 
exqnicite  aspreeeion  and  bMutifal  poetio  imagery: 
BtoMa  Omd;  ItdbtOa  OrtM;  VAilmo;  mi 
nriona  other  writinge,  wtddi  hare  nn  through 
innumerable  editiona  and  truudations. 

GUBBBI'LLAS  (diminntivn  of  Sp.  duAto,  '  war,' 


On  the  flight  of  the  Grand  Doka,  he  WM  prndaimad 
mcnber  ol  the  prorisioasl  gorcnmant,  and  anbaa. 
gnwrtly  dietator.    Dnring  t^  erisu  of  the  state  ha 


d  ehndierds^  n 
r  anil  wan,  <•_, 
owBaooaanfc  From 


woaaioo  of  foreign  ioTssiai 

a  icraffular  waiun  on  tlieii'  < 
1806  to  1814  they  were  regnhyrlr  organised 

the  Freseh,  and  being  fsTonred  by  the  oh ___ 

of  the  oooiitn,  were  eiiimiaefiil  (hi  many  ocoaslona, 
lly  at  tha  oommeneamuit  of  the  war,  onder 
iniado,  the  Paator  Merino,  Mina,  and  other 

The    oomtry    itself    suffered    fftan    the 

KUttrillaB,  who  meuAad  politaioal  toeachsry,  or  avan 
the  bare  so^pinim  u  it  by  fearful  darastataon^ 
Masf  (tf  thom,  partioalariy  Hina'a  hand,  Jtanad 
WelEnf^ton,  and  after  haying  undergone  a  eoniw 
•'  ''^diML  rendered  aigoM  strrioa  aa  regnlM 

.  .  In  dl  tha  loeent  eivil  ware  of  Spain,  ^ 
gnenillas^  espedally  thoM  of  the  Baaqne  pnTincea^ 
acted  a  pconiment  part  on  tha  Carlist  sida. 

OVESOIiIN,  Bkbtsand  dit,  Count  cd  Longo*. 
viUe,  Constable  of  Fiance,  the  rnost  ennneBt  n«ieh 
genmal  of  the  IMh  a,  wm  bom  tA  an  anoieat  fami^ 
m  the  district  cd  ^*""— ,  sometime  between  1314 
and  ISKL  Aa  a  taw,  he  wm  remarkahly  dull,  ud 
oeold  narer  b«  bm^^t  either  to  read  or  write,  hot 
exhibited  a  paanon  for  military  excwisaa.  Li  bis 
ITth  year  he  boie  away  the  pnsa  at  a  tournament 
at  BsMMS,  and  bom  thia  tame  wm  alwi^  sno> 
oessfnl  in  sooh  snoounteis.  In  the  eonteete  between 
ChariM  da  Blois  and  Jaan  da  Hontfdrt  for  tlie 
dukedom  of  Brittany,  he  took  part  wit^  Uie  fonnar. 
After  King  John  had  bem  taken  nisoner  by 
the  Black  Prince  at  the  battle  of  Potbeis,  ia  \W6, 
Q.  rendered  important  Berricea  to  the  bwit^iin, 
afterwards  Charfee  Y.    He  took  Melon  and  seraral 


otbor  fivtifled  towns,  freed  liie  Seine  from  th< 
and  on  Oharlee'e  aceeeaion  to  tha  throne,  in 
a  created  gorenioT  of  Pontonon.  In  May 
une  year  ha  gained  the  battle  of  Cooherel, 
nwarded  by  the  title  of  Connt  of  Longne- 
TiUa  and  Marshal  of  Normandy.  On  the  SHh 
September  he  wm  dsfMted  and  taken  priaoner 
\fy  tha  Bb>fl^">*^  under  ffir  John  CSuuido^  at  the 
~t  JUir^,  bnt  libaiated  mt  payment  cf  a 
Of  lOOJMW  UTna,  p^  by  the  Idn^  tbe 
pcrpe^  and  sanral  otiicr  prinoea.  He  now  etmpatted 
Hniry,  Oount  of  Irastaman^  sgaiatt  Pedn  tita 


dbyLjOOgI 


OUOUBLMI— GUIANA. 


Oroel,  king  of  Caitile,  bat  vm  dafoted  «iid  token 
piuonei  ay  tlie  BUck  Piince.    Being  u 

■omed  on  p&yment  of  ft  large  tarn,  to  wt 

the  eoemv  contributed  from  feelnigl  of  reapect,  Q. 
renswed  uu  contest,  and  in  1369  defeated  and  alew 
Pedro,  and  pj^ced  the  crown  of  Cutile  on  tile  head 
of  Heniy  of  Tnetamue.  Aa  an  acknowledgment  of 
hil  •erricel,  Hemy  created  O.  Count  of  Bur — 
Dnka  of  Mdina,  and  Constable  of  Coetile.  He 
llowsTar,  looii  recalled  b  j  ChariM  V.  of  France,  at 
that  tdme  hard  pressed  by  tile  English,  and  raited  by 
that  monarch  to  the  dignity  of  Couitable  of  Fnooe. 
In  the  year  I3T0,  Q.  opened  bie  campaionn  against 
the  TliiiglijTi,  and  in  a  iibort  time  the  whole  of  their 
poauBBoni  were  in  the  bands  of  the  French,  wiUi 
Uia  exception  of  a  few  fortified  towot.  While 
ta^Kting  bis  fdend  Sancem  in  the  mege  of  Chbtean- 
neuf  de  Bandon,  in  Langnedoc,  O.  wa*  taken  ill, 
and  died  July  3,  13S0.  Charles  V.  caused  him  t« 
ba  interred  witb  great  pomp  beside  hi*  own  bnrial- 
Tanlt  at  St  Denya.— Compare  Guyard  ds  Berrill^ 
Biiloin  de  Beritand  du  Qvadm  (2  Tola^  Pmu, 
1767). 

OUOLIEIiMI,  Phtro,  a  calebrat«d  muucian 
and  eompoaer,  wis  bom  at  Maaaa  di  Cairara  in 
1727.  From  hii  father,  who  iru  MaetlTO  di  Oaw^la 
in  the  ducal  chapel  of  Uodena,  he  acquired  the 
dementi  of  music  ffi«  first  opera,  composed  at  the 
■ge  of  28,  was  performed  at  Turin,  and '"' 


inths 


Prerions  te  setting  out  01 


tinental  tonr  he  visited  Uie  chief  oitiM  of  Italy,  and 
was  ererywherv  sttoeessfuL  After  a  randenoe  of 
some  monllls  at  Dreaden,  Vieima,  and  Tarioos  other 
towns,  G.  psMedorar  to  London,  where  ho  rammined 
Ato  years,  sasidnonsly  engaged  m  compoation.  At 
the  age  irf  CO  he  tetomu  to  Naples  with  the 
donUe  prestiga  of  great  fame  sod  wealQL  In  1793, 
Pope  Pivs  yx.  appointed  him  llaahv  di  OapptOa 
at  St  Peter's,  and  from  that  time  his  ofBdal  duties 
seem  oomptetely  to  hare  engroaied  him  He  died 
at  Borne  m  1801.  The  characteristics  of  his  style 
are  pre-eminentiy  simplicity,  purity,  and  precision, 
and  these  qualities  he  inexorably  demanded  from 
the  exponents  of  his  inspiration — '  Sing  my  muaio 
and  not  yourtP  His  Ixiet  known  operas  are— Xa 
CUmaaa  di  TUo;  Arbuene;  La  Didone;  JEnaa  a 
LtBibtia;  La  2forla  di  Otqftme;  Debora  t  Suem; 
and  tile  comic  operas  La  Virtuota  di  Mtrg^itui;  I 
due  Oandie;  La  Strva  Imiamorala;  La  FaiioreUa 
Nobiit;  La  Bdia  PeMaOrict. 

GTJIA'NA,  Bamss  (Fr.  Ouuaae,  Sp.  Onayatta, 
Pott.  Ouianna),  a  section  of  tbe  extensive  tnct 
forming  the  north-eastern  portion  of  South  America, 
lying  between  8'  W  N.  and  3°  Sff  a,  and  between 
tiie  meridians  of  60°  and  68°  W.  The  ffreatest 
length  of  tliis  tract,  from  Cape  North  to  ue  con- 
fluenoe  of  the  riTcr  Xie  with  the  river  Negro, 
is  calculated  at  1090  miles ;  its  meatest  breadth, 
between  Pnnta  Barima,  at  the  embouchure  of  the 
rirer  Orinoco,  and  the  confluence  of  the  river 
Negro  with  the  nver  Amazon,  at  710  miles.  It 
is  at  present  politically  divided  into  Venezuelan, 
British,  Dutch,  French,  and  Brazilian  Guiana.  The 
name  G.  is  usually  supposed  to  luve  betn  applied 
by  the  Dutch  te  the  whole  oonntiy  from  the  name 
1^  a  small  river  Wu-ini,  a  faibutary  of  tbe  Orinoco, 
on  which   stands  a  small  town,   called   Goayana 

The  limits  of  tha  British  posstasions  have  narar 
yet  been  socnrateW  determined.  If  wa  adopt  the 
idn  of  Sir  Bobert  Schombnrgk,  the  latest  autiunity 
ngoa  the  subject,  and  assume  the  natural  indication 
to  be  the  proper  niide  to  tha  geographical  bonnd- 
Hiea,  we  shaU  include  all  tlie  ragiona  drained  by 
tha  waters  falling  into  the  river  Esseqnibo;  and 


taking  the  river  Conotyn  is  tha  Meknowledged  line 
of  demarcation  between  British  and  Dabdi  O.,  ws 
arrive  at  an  area  of  76,000  sqnare  milea,  a  tanitcty 
much  larger  than  X^laod  and  Wales.  If,  on  the 
otiier  liand,  the  claims  of  the  Venazodan  aiid  Bn- 
zilian  governments  respeetively  are  to  be  admitted, 
the  British  portion  wiU  be  redaoed  to  aomrtbing  I 
above  12,000  miles,  and  become  the  amalleat  of  the 
Gntopean  coloniea  in  this  t^on. 

The  CMst-line  of  tije  British  territory  oonnsts  ol 
an  alluvial  flat^  composed  of  a  blue  clav  impr^nsted 
witb  marine  salts,  and  mixed  with  decayed  v^et- 
able  matter,  whieh,  in  its  decranpoaed  atate,  ftrma  a 
rich  and  hiitlify  ptodnctive  khL  The  inland  depth 
of  this  fertile  coMt  variea  from  ten  to  tarty  nalm, 
when  it  is  bounded  Inr  a  range  of  Band-hilla,  varying 
bi  height  from  30  to  120  feet.  In  the  fifth  panUd 
N.  lat.  oocnrs  a  chain  of  mountaina  oompoasd  of 
granite,  gneiss,  andtrappean  rocks,  vrith  their  variooa 
modification^  and  it  has  been  conjectnred  that  it 
was  the  ancient  boundary  of  the  Atlantic  Ocsau. 
A  peculiar  feature  of  the  interior  is  the  savannis 
extending  between  the  rivers  Demerajm  snd  Ca- 
entyn,  and  at  the  river  Berbica  closely  approadi- 
ing  the  sea-shore.    There  is  another  Beriea  of  toefa 


id  lake,  which,  hy  seme  gnat 

it  its  bsrrierSj  mm  traced  for  tti 
waters  a  paaisge  to  the  Atlantic  Hus  cnrooaitiin 
may  throw  light  upon  the  origin  of  tbe  traditiaa  of 
the  White  Sea  and  the  city  of  the  gold-besprinkled 
Manoa,  which  inflamed  the  ardour  of  the  cIuTalno 
Baleigh,  and  led  him  to  the  pwoit  of  thoae  dii- 
covencs  by  wMch  bis  name  has  been  immortalised. 

The  fluvial  system  of  British  O.  consists  mainlv 
of  four  ereat  and  seven  smaller  streanu,  the  wfaou 
of  the  first  named  and  six  of  the  latter  pouring 
their  waters  direcUy  into  the  Atlantic  The  fniir 
great  rirere  are  the  Esseqnibo  (q.  v.),  the  Dcmenia 
|q.  r),  the  BerUce  (q.  v.),  and  Uie  Curautyii  (q.  v.). 
T\iB  smaller  streams  are  the  Pomaroon,  the  Moroca, 
and  the  Wai-ini,  between  the  Orinoco  and  the 
Fssequibo ;  the  MihaiiTS,  the  Mahaicony,  and  tha 
Abanv,  between  the  Demeraia  and  the  Bexiax; 
and  uie  Canie,  which  joins  the  latter  immediately 
before  it  falls  into  the  ocean.  In  addition  to  tiu 
foregoing,  there  are  nnlnerous  oreeks  of  considenbls 
die,  formed  by  the  surplus  waters  of  the  savanna) 
behind  the  sea-coast. 

All  these  stresms  are  oontinnslly  bringing  down 
quantities  of  detritus ;  the  coast  outline  is  coue- 
quentij^  undarEoing  perpetual  ch^iges :  in  one  plaoh 
Uie  drainage  of  the  estate*  is  >''~'SiH  i^  by  Maks 
of  drift  mnd;  in  another,  iiii  inssiil  eiatioii  n 
required  to  imd  the  eaoroMhrnaats  of  the  se*. 

Climaie.—'xiM  climate  of  G.  is  genial  and  eqii*Ue> 
and  for  a  tropical  coonbr  oomparatiTely  healthy. 
The  thermometer  laoges  from  90*  to  7F  ^i  "!• 
mean  temnentnre  beuiK  81*-22e.  Tha  baroatitt' 
pressure— hi^ieat,  M<lfi  inohM  ;  loweat,  39^^  > 
mesn,  29-916. 

History.— Whether  Christopher  Columbus  biaa^ 
era  actually  landed  on  the  shores  of  Q.  scemi  nM 
to  be  positively  ascertained.  It  is,  however,  c^^^ 
that  tiis  Spaniards  most  have  settied  m  tbe  nc^' 
bonriiu  countries  early  in  the  ISth  c,  as  in  19a0> 
when  the  Dutch  b^an  to  establish  themseln*  <» 
the  banks  of  the  Pomeroon  and  other  livei^  tb^ 
were  speedily  driven  out  by  the  Spaniarch  bv 
was  it  until  1602  that  tW  suooeeded  in  obtsDung 
a  footing  on  the  river  EHequibo.  Dnrini  >«* 
17th  and  the  early  part  of  the  ISth  centoriM.  ths 
Dutch  were  frequentiy  haraaaed  bj  incortuol  « 
the  French  and  by  internal  insurrection!!  thrw 
distinct  colonies  were  constituted,  until,  in  ''^ 


jbjGuuylf" 


Iban  of  EBMqnibo  mnd  Danem*  wars  united. 
Barbioa  ranumad  ft  ■qmts  ookmy  until  1831, 
■wbm  the  UiTes  irara  eonrtitated  into  tho  colony  of 
firitiili  O.,  oomiiting  of  the  *  " 

EHeqmbo,  and  fioboa. 

Tomrda  tho  clow  of  tha  latk  o.,  the 
tlte  inhaliitanta  bad  b«oone  itrtt   '   '  " 

dan»  to^aeethenMelnaiiBdar ,^_,, 

and  in  1796  (dfoot  waa  prat  to  that  daain  % 
the  o«adon  c^  tbe  ooImum  to  aa  <speditioii  under 
Sfajor^genenl  Whjte.  At  tha  paaoa  (rf  *■""■"'.  tn 
191X1,  dwew,  thia  aoloDiea  trm  leatored  to  tbe 
thBD'SatananrnniUic'  to  be  a^kin  Pimadned  to 
Great  Britain  in  1SD3;  whioli  wm  finally  confinned 
at  tha  peaoa  of  1811. 

Govimmmt. — Tb«  politioal  coiutitation  of  the 
colony  ha*  nndeigone  bat  little  modiScation  aince 
ila  aiUn  were  adnuniatend  by  tlie  Dntch.  It 
rvtaim  peonliaritiM  which  diatingiuab  it  from  that 
of  an^  other  otdcoial  dependency;  the  principal 
variatiDna  inboduoed  hare  beea  the  divuion  of 
the  colony  into  electoral  diatriota ;  a  new  deflai- 
tion  of  the  qnalification  for  holdiDg  the  electoral 
fcaochia^  and  open  inatead  of  aecret  TotitiK.  Tba 
eleotora  Tetnni  members  of  two  diatinct  bodie* ; 
one  ii  termed  the  'college  of  eleotoia,'  aeven  in 
number,  who  hold  office  for  life,  nnleaa  i3iey  quit 
the  colony;  the  apecial  function  of  this  boijy  will 
''  '  -     >  hereafter.    The  other  elected  body  is 

'  oolite  of  finaTim»l  repreaentatiTes,' 
3t  aix  memben.  The  legiilatiTe  body 
a  membsTB,  five  of  whom,  inolnding 
tha  goremor,  who  penonally  preddea  over  ite 
deliboationi,  «M  nominated  b^  the  crown,  wnd 
hold  ofEoe  onder  it,  the  nmudmnff  fire  are  choaen 
aa  Tacandea  oeonr  by  the  exiitang  memben  «l 
the  court  from  a  doable  nominatiMi  auit  np  by 
the  oollege  (rf  elector*  above  deacrtbed.  Once  in 
each  year,  what  ia  called  the  'oombiaed  court' 
holds  a  BiMJcii  lor  the  porpoae  of  agreeing  upon 
the  annual  expenditure,  and  aetenaining  the  nature 
and  amoont  «  the  taziw  to  be  levied.  This  conrt, 
wbich  i«  also  prended  over  by  the  governor  in 
peram,  conlist*  of  the  conrt  of^ policy  'combined' 
with  the  college  of  financial  repreeentativea,  and 
ita  le^llatire  randiona  are  confined  to  pauing  the 
HHP">t  tax  ordinance.  Practically,  in  the  legislative 
body,  or  conrt  of  policy,  the  governor  is  able  to 
carry  any  measnre  he  desires,  possessing,  as  he  con' 
atitotianally  doea,  a  double  vote ;  but  it  is  hardly 
neoeasary  to  add  that  this  power  has  been  very 
sparinglj  reaorted  to,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
the  power  of  vetoing  any  proposition  tivagbt  for- 
mird  either  in  that  or  iae  combined  ooott,  sbonld 
he  deem  it  ohjectionaU«i  nie  direct  leni^Mibilit^ 
of  the  goremot  to  the  crown  for  aoy  and  all  of  his 
acta,  haa  beat  foond  in  mctice  «a  ample  safe- 
guard against  any  abase  M  these  large  pren^tive 
powen.  Another  pririlage  reaerved  to  the  governor 
IS  that  of  tciginaang  all  money  votes ;  and  while 
the  majority  m  the  combined  court  may  reduce, 
•■'—  __•  — kikM^  from  increaaing  the  amonnt  of 
public  expenditure  aa  annually 

Hm  judicial  sjatem  of  the  0Dl<my  oonlinued  until 
a  oomiiaratively  recent  period,  to  be  as  it  was  estab- 
Kabsd  try  the  Dutch ;  and  the  Boman  code  is  alill 
the  ba^  of  Um  administntion  of  justiea  in  dvil 
matter*.  Trial  by  jury  in  such  cues,  at  the  option 
of  either  puty>  '*"'  mtrodooed  in  1841 ;  and  in 
criminal  cnaos,  trial  by  jnry  wa*  eatabUsbed  l^law 
in  ISU,  and  liie  £Wi«h  csiminal  code  w»*  adopted 
aa  the  law  of  the  oolony. 

Besides  the  sapieme  and  inferior  oonrts,  i^eaided 
r  by  judges,  there  are  police  and  stipendiary 


•  prohibited  from 
m  ol  the  public 


ordinaty  poWBta  of  summary  juriadiction ;  a  jail  in 
each  county,  and  a  penal  settlement  for  tiie  more 

of  the  river  Maasaruni,  about  TO  mOce  bom  George- 
town. Hie  sttptodiary  police  consists  of  about 
300  men,  and  there  is  a  strong  body  of  rural 
Mmatablea  thnnghout  the  oolony,  consisting  usually 
of  the  meat  trsatworthy  men  on  the  estatea,  and. 
in  the  TiUagea,  wiUMut  distinetion  of  raoes. 

Tbcea  are  bat  two  town*,  properly  so  called,  in 
the  eolcDT — George  Town  (q.  v.]  and  New  Amster- 
dam (q.  v.). 

The  cnltiTated  portion  of  tbe  colony  i*  confined 
to  tiie  seanxiast,  anil  to  a  short  distance  i^  each  of 
tiie  rivers  Barbica  and  Demerara.  The  estates  were 
laid  ont  by  the  Dutch  in  the  shape  of  a  parallelo- 
gram aa  nearly  as  circumstances  would  peimit,  and 
Qie  staples  were  sogar,  and  its  contingent  prodoct* 
rum  and  molaaaea,  cotton  and  coffee.  In  1747,  two 
Bchoonera  snfGced  to  cany  to  Enrope  the  crop  of 
069  half -bogshesda  of  sugar ;  in  1752,  the  cnltare  of 
cotton  and  coffee  commenced.  Inunediately  sfter 
the  conquest  by  the  British  in  1790,  a  graat  impetus 
appears  to  have  been  given  to  agiicmtnral  opera- 
tuma  i  since  that  period  the  flnctuationa,  arising  no 
doubt  fnjm  various  causes  at  difierent  timea,  have 
been  considerable,  of  which  some  idea  m»  be  per- 
haps szrived  st  by  glsndng  at  the  gradual  deoreaas 
of  the  numbers  <n  estatee  m  cultivatdon.  In  1831, 
there  were  altogether  822 ;  thirty  years  later  there 
were  not  more  than  160.  Cotton  and  coffee  have 
entirely  ceased  to  be  exported ;  tiie  former  ia  not 
cultivated  at  all,  the  latter  to  a  very  trilling  extent. 
All  aviJlaUe  resonrcea  have  been  concentrated  upon 
the  ^eduction  of  sugar  and  rum;  molasses  have 
nmoh  diminished  in  quantity,  owing  to  the  improve- 
ment in  tlte  manu&otnre  of  sugar.  By  the  intro- 
duction of  improved  maohinery,  and  an  aeoeasion  of 
labour  by  means  of  immigratioa,  the  jooduce  of 
many  estates  hsa  been  incrraaed  from  60  to  100  per 
oent  The  timber-trade  ha*  alao  aatmned  a  vastness 
of  proportion  never  dreamed  of  in  years  gone  by, 
and  for  this  the  colony  is  nuunly  indebted  to  ue 
interest  excited  in  its  natural  resources  by  tbe  Great 
Exhibitions  at  London  in  1861.  and  Paris  in  1S66,  at 
which  mnch  Guiana  produce  was  ethibited. 

It  hM  been  ascertained  that  the  population  of 
the  oolony  in  the  year  1871  amounted  to  193,191, 
inclusive  of  tha  aboiiginea  and  the  troops  in 
garrison.  Aa  the  increase  of  nearly  70,000  since 
1861  is  more  tliaD  accounted  for  b^  the  net  reaulta 
of  immigration  daring  that  period,  it  seems  to  tbllo* 
that  the  native  or  Creole  populstiou  ba*  ntiier 
reosded  than  sdvancad — a  orcumstsnos  which, 
specially  aa  it  is  believed  to  be  borne  out  by  tho 
experience  of  some  of  the  smaller  West  India  insular 
eoumies  where  immiziation  baa  had  little  or  no 
influence,  is  matter  of  serioua  concern.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  remembered,  that  in  the  interval  the 
colony  has  been  visited  by  epidemic  cholera  and 
•mall-pox,  both  extensiTely  fatel,  especially  to  the 
aged  and  the  young.  .,,_,.       .-   ■ 

The  populatian  is  of  a  smgularly  diverainea 
character ;  the  aboriginal  Indiana,  many  of  whose 
tribes  HO  lapid^  bewming  extinct,  are  supposed  to 
number  from  7000  to  10,000,  within  the  limita  <^  the 
British  claimed  territory;  the  native  African,  the 
mixed  race;  tiu  inunifsanta  from  Madeira,  from 
tbe  East  Indiea,  andlram  China,  crowned  by  a 
sprinkling  of  Enropeani^  chiefly  British,  French, 
and  Dutch.  Hie  total  number  ot  immigrants  of  all 
races  introduced  from  1836  to  1860  incloaive,  was 
89,468.  On  the  30tb  June  180S  there  were  32,121 
under  indenture  on  the  several  estatea.  ,.  .,   , 

For  ecclesiastical  purposes,  the  colony  is  dmded 
into  17  psrishes,  of  whiim  seven  belong  exclusively 


dbyGoo^^le 


to  tha  (Enroll  of  SootlMkI,  and  cogM  azdnnrdv 
to  the  OhaMh  of  Euglaod,  whilo  the  two  in  irtuoL 
tha  towni  ns  ntokted  h>Te  ■  oiiiutM  of  «aoh 
ohuToh  ftppointsd  to  Uiem,  Th«  tniniitov  of  both 
ohmohM,  -with  thoM  of  tha  Bonun  CathoHo  Chnroh 
and  the  Weil«7aii  Chiucb,  ara  maintainad  by 
nUriaa  fratn  the  pnblio  che^  aeoaied  bv  law  for 
k  tana  01  yaan.  There  are  alao  independent 
nianonariM  aoattered  throaghont  the  oolony,  -who 
U«  avworted  axalnaively  by  the  voliutary  oontri- 
botloiM  of  their  flooka.  In  1866^  there  wete  116 
pnhlio  aohooli,  witii  an  avmage  attendance  of  66tS 
poplltl  and,  aoomding  to  the  goTenoi'a  report,  thia 
dtewad  7H  inipili  mora  Quia  tWe  were  in  IMS. 

TtM  aetoal  poaitioD  of  Uua  important  dependenoy, 
aaeoptwwted  with  what  it  waatwenty-fiveyeaw  ago; 
may  be  deaoribed  aa  one  of  advancing  pnN;)erity ; 
but  imtil  a  ttall  mora  ample  aappljr  of  BTailable 
labour  indncea  a  greater  inflnx  of  captiJ,  it  oaonot 
be  awerted  tliat  ita  condition  la  podtiTely  lafe 
a&d  aatiafactoiT.  Like  the  other  Biiffar-prodnciiig 
cokmiea  <d  Great  Britain,  it  baa  had  to  abnig^Ie 
against  great  diflieDlUea— partly,  at  leaat,  ariunK 
from  Imperial  legitlation ;  it  hai  still  to  oontena 
with  SbmI  btudena  in  the  shape  of  a  Male  of  datiea 
ineteaalntf  in  amonnt  in  proportion  to  tha  aiqtericT 
qnalitr  m  the  BTtiala  mannfaotored,  thna  opmting 
aa  a  ducoorananeiit  to  iti  loodnatioi^  and  with  aa 
expenaive  qratem  of  reomitiiig  tlie  de&cieDt  labour- 
market  from  diitaut  region*. 

The  reapeotiTe  atatiatiaa  of  &6  year*  1861  and 
Itni  ahew  the  steady  progreia  of  Uie  colony.  In 
1861,  the  terenne  was  £ni,7Sl ;  the  expenditnre 
while  in  1871,  the  rerenoe  was  £379,647; 
The  pnblio  debt 
\  from  £076,499 
H>  *oix,imo.  n  luun  loe  aama  period  the  importa 
hare  risen  in  talne  from  £1,339,713  to  £1,897,184 ; 
the  exports  bom  £1^649  to  £i748,72a  In  the 
trade   with  Great  Britain,  the  importa   in   1871 


2,303,239  Iba.  were  lent  out  of  the  coontry 
Itolaaaes,  rice,  mm,  and  raw  sugar  are  the  other 
principal  exports ;  while  the  imports  consist  mtusly 
•f  floor,  dried  fiah,  rice,  malt  liquor,  brandy,  aanm«, 
machinery,  oils,  opiom,  lomber,  and  pork.  The 
of  1871  exceeded  that  of  1S61  by  100,000 


GUIAlfA,  DirroH,  or  StJBINAIf,  oaanmas  a 
*M>ttal  position  between  British  and  Fiwich  C}ui>Ql^ 
fMn  the  former  of  which  it  is  separated  by  Ma 
rim  Ootentyn,  which  forms  ita  wsatam  bonndarv, 
idkile  the  river  Uarony  aepatates  it  from  Uie  tam- 
tanss  of  the  latter,  and  conatitutea  its  eastern 
bouudaiT,  To  Uie  K.  it  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantio, 
and  to  tha  S.  by  tha  monntain-raoge  of  the  Aoaiai, 
■wideh  diTidea  it  fnwa  the  empire  of  BrasiL  It 
eilands  from  2*  to  6°  N.  lat^  and  from  about  B3° 
to  abont  S7°  W.  long.)  and  has  an  area  of  45,000 
"la.  Pop.  (1873)  62,208,  of  whom  726  were 
and  823  CamMss. 

I  tile  physical  tJuraeter,   climate  *>nl 

modootions  ua  van  nearly  tha  same  aa  tiioaa  of 
British  Oviaaa  (q.  r.l  tha  natnral  advantagea  of  tha 
Mdony  are  not  ao  fnllf  developed,  and  in  the  hilly 
diatncts  in  tiie  iDtenot  and  south,  which  are  held 
by  Uie  MaKwns,  er  runaway  slaves,  the  lands  are 
inioUy  niwaltlTBted.  The  riven  all  fall  into  tha 
Atlantic  and  tha  most  oansidaBble  is  tiia  Snrinam, 
which  has  a  eomae  of  neariy  300  milea,  bat  ia  net 
navigable  fOr  large  ahipa  many  miles  above  Panun- 
aribo  (q.  T.},  the  ewmtal,  which  ia  built  about  10 
milea  man  its  month.  Dntoh  laws  are  io  fotoe, 
and  the  coinage,  wei^its,  and  measnres  of  the 
mother^onntry  are  geneiBlly  naed.     The  colony  is 


divided  into  n 


by  a  govenun^genaiml 
kmg  01  the  Nethoriaada 


Bated  by  the  kmg  oTthe  Nethoriaada)  and  a  gnsial 
aanndl  of  native  freeholdoK  All  nligiaoa  are 
tolerated,  and  tha  Jewa  have  synwognea  in  difierent 
parts  of  the  odony.  Hie  HoravUa  K^rtbsn  have 
31  miarinnaritsi,  and  23,703  psfsona  «nn>lled. 

Tha  nindpal  exports  ara  angkr,   oofiEb^  caoac^ 
ram,  molaSMS,  many  sorts  of  valoAble  woo4  gmas, 

balaanis,  and  drags.    In  1871,  the  siwds  ' '* 

wera  oanied  by  26  netherlaods  vesaw^  26  J 
and  IS2  baloaging  to  other  nations  t  ttw  valnea 
being  Netharianda,  £lS6,12«j  AmccioBi^  £92,303; 
and  otiier  lands,  £114,728.  Oleared  Inward,  S04 
vessels ;  outward,' 203^  Hie  following  flgtina  reme- 
•snt  the  valna  of  the  trade:  Importa— <I8S9J 
£199,704;  (1870)  £396,843;  (1871)  £&3,1«9.  Bi- 
porta-(1869)  £233,371;  (1870)  £238,100;  (1371) 
£241,838. 

There  were  (IS71)  ?78  plantationa,  the  ehirf  pro- 
duct b^ff  ■ngar;  then,  in  rader,  oaoMv  ocAmi, 
oofFea.  The  live-stook  were  3711  ckttle,  SW  hoisa^ 
98  moles,  203  asses,  2033  aheep,  891  goata,  and  ISST 
swine.  llMrevenna(lS71)  waa£7a9%  menditaie 
£04,047,  requiring  a  enbaidy  of  £23,1 1&  rnielettsii 
by  mail  wera  35,884 ;  newnwer^  41,88S;  p 
.  clear  ^oflt  ct  £921.  A  bill  f(v  the  emar 
f  the  slaves  was  raasad  Sth  Anguat  1( 
ame  Into  force  lat  Jnly  1863.  The 
ivenwsa£2S  for  each  slava.  I^emmieipat 
0  be  under  government  anrvtiHanoe  during  1 
The  Dntdi,  who  wera  the  first  European 
the  1 


.  uuo,»[  1680,  Som'ritieh  period  till  1790, 
Demerara  and  Eueqnibo  fell  into  tiie  haadi 
c(  the  Ti"g]i*''i  they  retained  poMcasion  of  moat  of 
Oniana.  The  present  limits  of  Dntoh  Q.  wen 
settled  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 

OUIANA,  Frxvoh,  inolndea  the  districts  lying 
between  2°  and  6°  N.  lU,  and  Gil*  and  S4^°  W.  Ioda, 
and  ia  boonded  on  the  N.  by  tiia  'Atlantie ;  on  tb 
W.  bv  the  Marony  Biver,  which  separates  it  from 
Dntoh  Oniana,  and  by  tlie  little-known  diitzi«to 
bOTond  the  Bdo-Branoo ;  and  on  the  6.  and 
,'  -Uie  river  Oy^ook  and  tha  range  of^tba 
Tamuonmaqne  Uonntaioa,  which  aeparato  it  &<mb 
the  empire  of  Braiil,  The  area,  aooording  to  the 
beat  French  anthorities  (Block,  Aa),  is  18.000  sqosn 
leagnaa,  bnt  the  bonndaiy-line  ct  Aendh  O.  is  not 
ir^  daflned.  and  haa  lo^  been  a  aabject  ^  diseas- 
aion  wiUi  tha  Btaailian  and  Dnteh  govenmsnta 
Pop.  (1868)  26,161.  In  addititm  to  the  oootiaeDtel 
districts,  French  Or.  compriaea  aevoral  islands  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  ooaat,  the  primapal  of 
which  are  Cayenne,  in  which  is  aitaated  the  o^™ 
of  the  aame  name,  Le  Grand  Oonndtahlsk  and  M 
Petit  Conndtable.  The  ooantry  is  dirided  w^ 
high-lands  and  low-landa,  the  ftemsr  of  «hu« 
oommenoe  at  the  fint  cataraota  of  the  rim^  •<» 
gradaally  increase  in  hai^^  towards  the  m?*™ 
district^  which  they  traverse  In  *  ep*'>i^'''°?rjS| 
rang^  which  imwhere  exceeds  aa  elavatim  of  UW 
feet.  The  low  aUnvial  lands,  whkh  extnd  b<n 
the  cataracts  to  the  Atlantic^  an  at  piesM*  ■«>■>? 
eoverid  with  vaat  ianttta,  but  tha  ■"*1"_™ 
adapted  to  the  cnltivatioB  botli  of  grain  «  ^*T 
kind,  and  all  the  {mtdoelB  of  tn^&lvegeWi^ 
Among  iLe  20  navigable  streams  or  rivtf%  ^ 
principal  are  tha  Marony,  lying  to  th»  was^  ■»  *~T 
Oyapooktotheeast  of  Cwonne,  the  navi^tw" 
which  is  rendered  difSenlt  bom  the  anmcoou  c*^ 
acts  and  ra^ds  by  which  they  an  ofaatraetsd.  J** 
overflowiw  of  the  rivma  givea  rias  at  variowP^ 
in  lowra  Aench  G.  to  swamM  or  marshy  ■•"■"jj 
which  are  covered  with  (brerta  itf  mango-M«s  w" 
palin%  while  in  other  parts  lakes  an  fcrmsd,  *■■ 


QTJIAHA  BARK-amDO  AHBTINO. 


Bort  aztecaiTB  of  vrtiU  an  Umm  oI  Mmtoaea, 
Franoh  Q.  bw  »  anitf  mmou,  wtiiah  Uiti  wltk 


t  iskeraJM 


I  frtn  NoTombw  to  Jmu  i  msd 


th*  htkl  u  Imh  ujijjuwiu  Uun  in  mart  |daMi  in 
tha  W«at  IndiM)  a.  ooanqniMO  ol  tha  inflnBioa 
<rf  th*  tnda-wiuli,  trlic^  bilag  inQi  tium  -Um 
toapmle  maittoM  of  tha  AtiaiAieb  Hha  tin 
■Mtaraaldcatt  liiM  abore  W  or  faUa  bdow  70". 

Um  ohiif  wodaota  and  e^orta  an  duiva  woodt 
for  wnaaMutal  pMpwM,  lioa,  mal 
nnr,  ootton,  initaiM(g  dona,  and 

byFtanoe , . 

•on^niaed  imdat  the  two  daDtona  ._ .. 

C^en&o  and  SinttuiiavTi  a&d  plaood  n&dat  the  oom* 
mudof  aooraiBoraNwtadtn'apriTT-onuioiL  33ia 
riMKih  iMdnt  bw  1859  Btood  diargad  «ltii  tha  anm 
at  UUSO  Dann  for  ordinaiT  axponaaa  of  gnrem- 
nwnt  in  Omaoa,  aad  ZJKXVNW  frtuwa  forthepanal 
aattUaaaiita  at  Omana.  lAa  adminiatntioo  ol 
Jnal^  Ji  oMtarad  u  tiio  tribnnal  or  Impatial  Conrt 
at  Oqrana^  tlta  dilef  town  tl  tha  itOTinaa,and  ia 
K&dar  tiia  inriadiolicai  (^  a  naaidaDi,  aaastfld  hy 
™"^-1'',  andttm  and  nolariea,  Ihsa  an  9  fraa 
alatnutHT  aohoou  in  tiw  ooliHiT,  ginng  ' 
to  1100  ofaOdm,  vliiali  ai*  wkUt  tha  «i 

anea  and  iriana^WBant  otlha  nhrOTot  t   

Chwdi,  of  iduh  the  luqoiify  M  tha  vofaMixM 
are  maatMnk  alUuxuh  Tariona  fonna  oTfiuth  an 
toUtated,  and  wawmeA  at  tiu  iIwito  (rf  tixe  atata. 

In  aocoidanoa  vith  an  impanal  dectm  of  135^ 
Ouiana  hai  been  made  tha  piincipal  aeat  of  the 
panal  aettkmieDtB  of  the  mother-ooontry,  whiab 
ue  nuintuned  at  Cayenne  at  tha  natiouu  duu:ge. 
All  paiaons  aentenoed  to  8  jatai  hard  labonr,  are 
ooa&nmed,  on  the  arpiration  of  their  Mutence,  to 
retide  for  the  remainder  of  their  Uvea  In  the  colony, 
nnleaa  iriun  fpedaUf  paidoned  hj  the  emperor, 
in  which  caae  \h«r  are  acfldom  allowed  to  retnm 
to  France.  Cbut*  of  landa,  •wiQi  the  netttotion  of 
dvil  riglita,  mt^lM  aeooided  ^the  loosl  anthoritlM 
aBai«ooaip«EiMeforgoodO(»dii(it;  bnt  the  discipline 
ia  in  all  caaea  aereie,  and  the  labonr  heavy  and 
continnonB.  The  mortalitjr  among  the  priaonen  i* 
believed  to  1w  Ten  great,  bnt  tha  French  goreni- 
ment  doea  not  indnda  the  death-rate  of  G.  in  ita 
otherwite  -my  fnll  tablea  of  mortal]^. 

aUIAlTA  BABK,  FumiB,  the  bark  of  Part- 
kmdta  kexoHdra,  alao  called  OoxUeria  jpeelMo,  a 
tree  of  the  natmal  order  Otn^onaeea,  with  o^io- 
■ite  onta  leaver  and  GOTTmlw  of  Tei7  large  pmple 
flowsn,  a  naCivB  of  Qniana.    The  bark  ' 


I  mediciiMt   called    Warimr^t  Fseer 
Drop*,  ia  belieTed  to  depend  rnainlr  upon  it. 

OirtOCIAKDtlTI,  FuHonco,  an  Italian  itatM- 
man  and  hiitorion,  waa  bom  of  noble  parantufe  nt 
Flcrenea  in  1482.  The  combined  itadiea  of  law 
•od  liteiBtnre  engicBied  his  earliest  attention,  aod 
wen  ooltiTated  with  such  ngnol  ancceta,  that  before 
he  reached  the  ue  of  23,  ha  v/aa  elected  profeaaot 
of  law  l;^  tha  Sigaoria  o!  Florence,  and  acquired, 
at  the  same  time,  a  repntation  of  o«at  skill  as  a 
legal  piaotitioner.  His  knowledge  at  intematicniJ 
law,  and    tact  in   the  conduct  of    public  sffsii^ 


canaed  him  to  be  aelected  in  1G12,  W  the  Si^ocia. 

of  Feniinand,  kmg  cc 

An^ton.     Vcrina  a  period  of  two  fears,  he  ois- 


i  Feidinand, 
Durina  a  period  of  two  j 
1  his    dipbjmatvi  dntiee  with 
On  hla  trtnni  to  FIonDoe,  he 


, -/thenpnhHotoreoaTeat  Cortona 

Pope  Lao  X.    lliia  8hKi>4lflhted  pontiff  at  once 
— —  ■  ".---.  'n  ■■'^  •  to  him  the 


dignities  oa  Ok,  and  wpointed  him,  with  tmiiTniti^ 
powan,  gnremor  of  toe  Bomagna,  and  finally  of 
Bcdcgna.    Ob  the  aeoeanot  of  fanl  lIL,  Q.  rsai^ied 


IjQtt  been  thnst  on  the  mtiaana  aa  their  iOTanign 

SChariea  V.  On  tha  aasssrination  of  Alesaader, 
pnnncited  mateiially  the  etentiaa  of  Ooamo  de* 
Medid:  bnt  meeting  wiib  no  apeeial  faronr  from 
that  pnnoe,  he  withdrew  bom  Florenoe  to  his  rilla 
at  Aroebi,  where  he  commenoed  his  famooi  wcric. 
La  SloHa  SllaUa.  He  died  in  \m,  before  its 
oompletlon.  In  lUl,  21  veart  after  hla  death, 
tha  first  rixteen  books  of  hla  Uatotr  wan  pnb- 
liahed,  and  three  yean  later,  fonr  admtioaal  book! 
upesred.  Hie  work  is  oonaldered  a  standwd 
<u  classicld  hlatorioal  writing,  Indepetidsiit  of  ft! 
'nlos  aa  a  minnta  and  faithfiu  raeord  <^  the  period 
it  embraotL  from  liBO  to  U34.  A  magnificent 
Italian  edition  was  pabBahad  at  Aeybmg  177A— 

1776,  four  rda.  4to,  atiictly  in  aor— ' '"'^  "■  - 

manoaoripta  depoaited  in  the  Mi 

at  Ilorenc&  and  anoUier  at  Fisa, , 

8ro,  edited  WBodnt  Becently  (1S07— 1SG8),  than 
hae  ^peered  at  Flcienoa  Opo^  iierlile  di  Fnmeaeo 
Oukaar^i^  oommimng  a  aeriea  of  apboiiams  and 
disoonnwa  cmtlu  Florentina  Institntioni,  in  tiiafoim 
of  dialogue,  '  '         "  


OUIDBS,  in  milttaiy  atUn,  are  ncoally  paraaia 
drawn  from  tiu  conntiv  in  wbioh  ui  aimf  is 
encamped.  A  saffidoat  oody  of  intelligent  nun  is 
collected  at  head^iuartere,  to  enable  one  or  more  tO 
be  sent  with  erety  detaahmait  (tf  troops  «luah 
leavea  the  camp-  A  guide  alioold  be  qniok  of  <7e, 
ecperieueed  in  tiia  topognphy  of  the  oountry,  an^ 
above  an,  faithful  Aa,  however,  ^dea  mnat  on 
■t  oocaiions  be  drawn  from  the  midst  of  a  hostile 


watclied  with  the  utmost  jealonsy,  ^ 

awarded  as  the  punishment  for  the  least  departnn 


from  trustworthmosB.    Any ^ 

on  the  part  of  a  guide  mi^t  involve  the  most 
disaetrouB  coosequencea  to  a  whole  eipeditlcn.  In 
the  French  army,  a  considerable  corps  of  cavalry 
and  infantry  bear  Qia  name^  but  the  name  ouly, 
'•  'gnidsa.'  They  were  first  tomud  in  1711,  aa 
..  n^ll  company  of  msssuigen  oa  active  servioa. 
The  number  waa  gradually  increaaed  nutH  the  time 
of  Napoleon  L,  wlio  formed  them  into  a  gnaid 
10.000  atong, 

OUIDO,  ALnsutSKO,  an  It^ian  poet,  waa  bom 
at  Favia  in  1650.  Literatnre  and  poetry  engrcssed 
his  earheet  attention,  aitd  to  the  taste  and  ability  cf 
Ms  first  piecM,  he  owed  the  notice  of  the  Dnke  of 
Favia,  wCoee  favour  he  fDrthec  aecnred  hy  the  talent 
he  evinced  in  setting  his  verses  to  fine  spirited  ain 
of  his  own  composition.  In  168S,  with  uie  sanction 
of  the  duke,  he  set  out  to  Bomi^  lAera  his  kind 
patron  asl^iad  him  aparfanents  in  the  Fameea 
palace.  He  was  fcrtanate  enoodi  to  obtun  the 
friendship  of  Christina,  qneeti  irf  Sweden,  and  com- 
posed, at  ner  deaire,  the  pastonl  drama  of  Bndimione, 
me  princeas  ocndeacmdi]  '  '  ■ '  '  "  -  '  ' 
inthewotk.  Hediedatl 
of  Q.  fail  in  sweatMBS  a  .._.    . 

eating  and  d«ratad  in  sentimenti  Aa  a  lyrical  poet, 
",  rwcka  reiy  high. 

oniDO  ABirrino,  *»  mIM  tntm  hia  Uith- 

plaee,  Arraao,  was  a  monk  of  tiie  Bepediotine  mder, 
and  flonrished  about  Qia  ywr  lOM^  but  ndtlM*  tha 
date  of  his  birth  nor  dceAt  la  known.    Ha  haa  t&a 


y,CuU^[l 


OUIDO  nUST— QTTTT.nTT A  T.T., 


TBintttion  ot  being  the  inTenbn'  of  miuiul  notation, 
kod  th«  Mgotraator  ot.  miuic.  Tlie  ciroamttanow 
whioh  led  to  O.'a  inTsirtioii  mn  dUtacai&f  rt»ted ; 
but  the  moat  rdimUa  aooonnt  Beem*  t«  be,  uat  on  otM 
^tftflfciiftn  wbilo  i^hanting  witli  the  mouMtoy  ohoir 
k  hymn  m  bononr  of  St  John,  he  yne  itntoK  with 
the  ({ndnal  wd  legnlarij  aeocndiag  tmiee  of  the 

t^MUftTcnai: 

Dl  qouut  lull 

5i>^Ts  pidlall 

Witli  the  intoitiTe  faraaiBht  of  geniiu,  hs  ioatuitly, 
we  ue  told,  eomprahended  the  fitnen  al  the«e  (onndt 
to  fotm  a  new  uid  perfect  ejitem  of  lolfeg^,  and 
forthwith  [itDoeeded  to  matsra  and  ^etemataie  tiiii 
ideki  On  uibvdncing  hie  new  theoiy  into  {oaotioe 
among  the  yonthfol  <moiisten  of  the  monaBteiy,  the 
emmwent  raored  eotiTely  mooenfnL  The  fMie  ot 
a.  a  mueioal  invention  drcnr  upon  him  the  attention 
of  tiie  pope  (John  XX.I,  who  inTitod  hiu  to  Boma. 
G.  repaued  Uiither,  and  obtained  a  very  gratifying 
receptian.  The  pope  Himaelf  found  pleasure  in 
beooming  a  stodent  of  the  new  Bjitem,  under  the 
guidance  of  ita  foonder  and  teacher.  Ill  health, 
howeTBT,  compaUed  O.  to  return  to  the  pnra  and 
bracing  ohmata  of  hii  birthplace,  and,  te-entering 
Uie  monaatery  of  Fompoea,  he  there  tranqtiilly 
ended  hia  dayi.  G.  hH  left  wine  interesting 
■ — ''- — ' — torv  of  hia  mncical  dootrinea,  Tii, 

jfmi  OantuM 


OMralt  thi  Biau,  3We^  Magol*,  et  outrtM  Tartartt 
oeeidtntane,  wxuU  tl  deptii*  J,  O.  Jtitqifd  nrawal 
jPuii,  17S(I — 17S6),  ij  a  ran  yeomen  of  luuian 
ludnabrand  t«MaMli,aad  of  which  hie  conntnucn 


Inatrrand  t«MaMh,aad  , 

i  jniuf  prood.  De  O.  iIm  omtnbitted  a  htitKT 
_  Tartarr  to  tiia  aew  editicm  of  the  BMolUm 
Oritutalt  of  D'EeriMdot  <1T77— 1779}.— Hii  bob 
OBKtnxH-IjOuaJo&^m,  bm  at  Paria,  Angoat  K, 
17S%  waa  alao  a  vtty  diatancniihed  mritoita]  •ehelar, 
and  pnbhahed  a  Chineaa  KdaonaiT  (Pari*,  1813), 
by  tSe  orden  of  Napoleon  L  He  died  at  Puii, 
March  9,1815. 

OniJA'B,  or  GUIXAB,  a  lake  of  Oeotnl 
ain«nV.j  in  tiie  north-we*t  of  ib»  atate  of  But 
SalTadoT,  ii  60  mile*  in  oircomfsrenae,  and  encloee* 
a  large  iiland,  whioh  aboonda  in  gtnan,  and.  oootuM 
tiie  mina  of  what  mnat  f onnerlyhave 


GtriDO  BBKIiaoelefaratedpaintatoftheBolog- 
neae  achool,  waa  bom  at  Bologna  in  lS7f>.  and  at 
firit  aimed  at  the  aombre  ooarae  atrauth  of  Caia- 
TBggio'*  creatiatu,  bat  tabaeqnentk  allowed  the 
more  refined  and  ideal  tohool  of  the  Cntaed/pre^oua 
to  finally  atriking  out  a  alyle  for  hlmaell  EGaworha 
are  exbeme^  nnmerooa,  and  the  majority  reflect  a 
amtiiDent  of  fervent  ndritDaliam,  more  oharacter- 
ialdc  of  the  deTOtioa  (f  the  early  Bologneae  aohool, 
than  of  the  later  ^irit  inf  uaed  by  the  OaMOcd, 
the  fonndeM  ot  the  modem  atandard  of  Bologneae 
art  G.  waa  nohappily  an  infatuated  gambler,  and 
with  the  view  of  rqilania'  ■      •  -      '-  -      ■ 

financea,  produced  with 

inferior  works  ondeeerving  hia  name.    He  died  in 
lU^      Amongit  hia   beat  pniduotiona   art^ 

Cmmflzion  of  St  Feter,'  a  mafnificent  work  . 

VatJcan  Unaenm ;  the  '  CmcS^on,'  in  the  church 
d  8t  Lorenzo,  in  Lncina,  Some ;  and  the  lamotu 
'Portnut  of  Beatrice  Pencil'  one  of  the  moat  io' 
eating  paintinga  in  Home.  The  ■  Annira'  of  G.. 
the  nof  of  one  of  the  halla  of  the  Botfriglioai 
Palao&  ia  a  freaco  d  world-wide  fame,  utd  u  — 
■kUced  the  greatest  of  hia  worka. 

OnLDOK— The  standard  borne  by  regiments  of 
light  cavalry ;  it  ia  broad  at  one  end,  near]" 
pointed  at  tho  ctiier,  and  otnally  ot  ailk. 

GniEITNE,  the  name  of  one  of  the  32  provind. 
into  which  France,  .previona  to  the  Bevolntion.  waa 
divided.  It  comjoeliendad  the  temtory  now  formed 
hy  Ot»  departanenta  of  Gironde,  Lot,  Dordogne, 
Aveyron  and  portiona  of  Tani.et-Oaronne,  and 
Lot-et-Garonne,  and  fcnned  with  Gaaoony  (q. 

Triiatl ~^— 11-.^v . .    ....:^.-:- 

ia  described  under  Aqnitania 

GUIGKBB,  Joseph  si,  born  at  Pontoiae,  I9th 
Octobcc  1721,  acquired  a  great  radiation  aa 


>  when  the  aoqnintian  of  Eastern 
langnagea  was  a  matter  of  no  amall  diffioolty. 
Chiefly  on  aocoont  of  hia  thorough  kiuwledge  of 
Chineaa,  ha  waa  anointed  intopnter  for  oriental 


GUILAKDIITA,  a  genu  of 

dar  Ltgumiitoia,  si£-arder   . 

pinnate  leavea,  and  remarkable  for 


ebeen  a  huge 
of  ahniba  ot  thenatonl 


ordar  Ltgumiitoia,  si£-arder  (JaanbiMea^  havias 
markable  for  uie  stMV  haro- 
their  aeed^  the  •"t^t^^  of  whien 


eiliciouB  that  they  are  said  evtti  to  strike  fire  with 
flint.  The  seeds  are  used  for  beada  and  for  ehiUreo'i 
marbles.  O.  Bondue  is  the  best  kitown  epecdca,  and 
y  wide  geogr^ihio  diatiibation,  aHhonri^ 
like  tiie  rest  of  flie  spedea,  growing  only  in  the 
parts  of  the  worid.  It  is  oalled  the  Aea^K, 
and  the  NiAer  Tree,  and  its  aeedi  whi^  are  vRai 
thrown  ashore  on  the  ooaata  ot  Soouand  and  beland, 
are  called  Motveea  Saau.  The  cotyledona  ate  to? 
Indi*  forthocnnot 
intermittent  tevera. 


GTjrLDEOED,  a , , . 

■ry  and  municipal  borongh  of  England,  Clfatal  d 

the  county  of  Surr^,  it  situated  in  a  depresaion  in 
the  Korth  Downs,  on  the  oavigaMe  river  Wey.  30 
"  I  aooth-west  of  London.  Here  the  Beidiig 
Reinte  Branch  of  the  Sonth-Eaitem  Bailny 
es  Bie  Direct  Portamouth  line.  The  torn 
consists  mainly  of  one  street,  running  along  the 
steep  east  aide  of  t^  Wey,  croaaed  nera  %  *<■ 
old  bridee  of  four  arches,  and  i«  diatin{;niahM  hj 
a.  .remarkable  air  of  order  and  olaanbnesa.  U* 
streets  are  rich  in  quaint  old  gable^  overhantfoE 
panelled  fronts,  and  long  latticed  windows.  Tne 
cbief  boildings  are  the  castle,  a  fine  nun,  in  tl^ 
early  Norman  style ;  Archbiahop  Abbof  a  hospital, 
in  which  t«aide  a  master,  12  brotiiera,aiid8*iMtfij 
the   church   of   the   Holy   Trinity,   with    ■evoral 


dIv   Trinity, 
St  Maiy^B,  ) 


specimen  of  the  Transition  style,  and  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  remarkable  churches  in  the  oountT ; 
the  Grammar  School  founded  by  Edward  VL ;  tu 
town  hall ;  and  the  corn-market.  A  count;  i^ 
and  aaaize  court  waa  erected  in  1362,  and  a  csonn^ 
hospital  in  1863—1866.  Q.  is  now  chiefly  (amoai 
for  ita  grain-market,  the  'Surrey  wheats'  betog 
celebrated.  It  has  paper,  powder,  and  oom  millii 
breweries,  brick-fields,  coach-works,  and  two  iwe- 
fouodriea.  G.  now  returns  one  member  to  parlia. 
ment,  instead  of  two,  as  fomeriy.    Pop.  (1371)  ^•■ 

This  ancient  town  is  first  mentioned  by  nai»*  J" 
the  wiU  of  Alfred  the  Great,  who  bequeaths  it  to 
Ethelwald  his  nephew.  In  the  time  of  the  Con*"^ 
the  town  and  manor  were  included  among  »■ 
demesnes  of  the  kinga  of  TjrjglanH.  Heniy  H,  John, 
and  Henry  HL  frequently  redded  here. 

GtTILDHALL,  an  important  pnUie  boiUiag  ia 
London,  whioh  may  be  reorded  as  the  town-halli 
and  ia  the  iJaoe  oE  aasembly  of  aaveral  con'^K " 
the  Court  of  Common  Council,  the  Court  of  Ai<lf 
mcD,  the  Chamberlain'a  Cmri^  Ac,  and  a  pol*^ 


„Guo>^nr 


QtiLra-omiii-ftioT. 


eoait  pcMded  otct  by  one  of  the  mldermen.  The 
OnildhAll  of  London  wm  foimarly  ntnatod  in 
Aldcnuuwbmy.  Tbib  orifftul  building  wu  et«at«d 
in  1411,  bot  mw  alnoct  whdlv  dralnned  hv  the 
Qmit  Fire  of  1666.  In  1789  the  OmUhall  wh 
lebuilt  in  iti  pKMiit  torn.  The  hmU  pnnier  i*  1S3 
feet  in1engtb,48in  t»>idth,mnd6Sinhm(dtt.  It 
hM  been  Uxaoat  for  coituTia  for  the  nu^niSoenoe 
ot  iti  diio  lewta.  Die  fint  time  it  m*  wed  tor 
thii  piinoM  VM  in  IfiOO  a.j>.,  irhen  Sir  Jolm 
8hKW,  xudcnilli,  who  had  been  tnigh^i^rl  on  tiie 
fidd  at  Bovworth,  nwe  here  the  fint  l(nd-m»oi'* 
feMt  Hum  feMib  h*d  Ibimeriv  been  held  at 
Ewaea'aHaO. 


n  interest  of  the 
fratemi^.  TEej  am  md  to  be  <d  SaxMi  origin,  but 
unqneflbanaUjr  aimilar  inatitntiona  exiated  a£a  rer; 
early  period  anow;  the  aovthem  natiana  of  Zurope, 
■mban  they  wen  Known  by  the  name  of  Confrater- 
nitiea.  In  TBngTawtj  gnilda  were  in  oae  during  Hit 
Sagoo rola, anc[ aertwJ lecotda ar»un»nnedrf  the 
jjuipvaua  of  thcM  inatitntiont.  The  Saztm  gnilda 
a^Iiear  to  have  neeinbled  our  nfodem  friendly 
aodetiea.    On  condition  of  a  oeitain  payment^  " 


ida,  reiiaioaa 
agenenlrnlE 


a  of  two  -         = 

Both  olaaaea  retained,  aa  a  genenJrnle,  the  prinoirie 
of  mntoal  relief  to  Uie  memben  in  ndLncaa;  bnt  the 
tanaet  weio  ettabliahed  for  the  perfonnance  of 
worka  of  charity,  and  for  the  r^ular  obaerranca  of 
certain  idi^oa  aervioes ;  while  the  main  object  of 
the  latter  waa  the  adTancement  of  the  commeroial 
intereati  U  tlie  frateniity.  In  order  to  the  estab- 
liehmeat  of  a  guild,  relisioos  aa  well  u  aecidar,  it 
WM  neoeMaiy  that  it  should  receiie  the  eanction 
ot  the  Borereign ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Heniy  IL 
■eTeral  gnilda  ware  subjected  to  heavy  fiuea,  m 
having  been  (staUiahed  without  that  anUioiity.  In 
IiOndoD,  there  were  a  large  number  of  rengiana 
gnilda.  In  the  idgn  ot  BiSiard  IL,  agnild  to  the 
bonoor  of  St  Qeorge  the  martyr,  conauting  of  an 
alderman,  maater,  brothera,  and  aiiten,  waa  catab- 
lilhed  in  Norwich ;  and  here,  it  may  be  obeerred  in 
paanug,  that  the  term  alderman  was  a  name  for  a 
'  Q  a  guild,  wheuce  it  waa 


having  been,  an 
onUcl^  virtnoua  lociety  for  the  apaoe  of  ^irty  yean 
from  ito  erection.  King  Henry  v.  confirmed  it  by 
letten-patait  under  the  Great  Seal,  nude  it  per- 
pebuJ,  and  granted  it  certain  privil^es  and  immu- 
nitie*  {Hadoz,  lirma  Burgii.  Li  like  manner,  nildi 
were  formed  in  Briatc^  Exeter,  and  other  large 
tohw.  Theee  gnilda,  through  uie  mnnifloence  of 
individittle,  by  twyeee  amassed  considemble  wealth. 
By  Henry  vui.  uie  property  and  revennea  ot  these 
religiona  gnilda  were  ieiaed  and  peipetnally  verted 

1^  meet  important  braDcb  of  this  subject  is 
that  of  the  secular  guilds,  or,  aa  they  were  styled 
in  the  souUi  ot  ^irope,  confraternities.  These 
institutiona  were  the  germ  of  the  modem  burghs  or 
municipal  coipontiow  Xbey  consisted  originally 
of  Ou  members  of  tome  particulju  tnde,  united 
for  the  pnrpoaee  of  mntnal  asiistenee  in  aicknew, 
■nd  tor  maintaining  tlie  intcmeta  ot  the  toada. 
Thna  we  have  the  gold  cf  Koldrautha,  of 
cmdwaineia,  of  patUn-masera,  of  speotai 
Ac,  the  namea  ot  which  are  praaerved  to  the  praeent 
day.  Every  trade  had  ita  separate  guild,  of  vniich  it 
waa  necessary  that  a  man  should  be  a  member  before 
he  waa  allomd  to  practise  the  partionlat  crafb  As 
trade  boreaeed  in  importance,  Uia  inflneuoe  and 


power  of  the  guilds  iueTMMediniB«n»tion,  untfl  at 
Migth  tiie  towns  or  united  guilds  daimed  from  tike 
sovereign  special  rights  and  priTilegee— oHaif  iabamt 
gUdam  mavatoriam.  The  town  of  Southampton 
received  a  charter  confirming  their  libertiee  aa  eariy 
«■  Henry  n.  Liverpool  was  made  a  ^ildii  mcrco' 
loria  by  Henry  HL  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VL,  the 
title  need  was  amuRHiriajwrpdiia  or  DOfTKirate,  which 
phnie  haa  continued  to  be  used  in  the  modem  cor- 
porationa.  This  title  c£  conttMmia  appears  to  have 
bent  bomwed  from  the  oontinent,  where,  under  the 
title  of  oommunltiea,  the  towns  at  a  ve 
period  obtained  charters  decUiing  their  ii 
ence,  and  beetowing  on  them  extensive  privi] 
—See  itobertson's  Cfloriw  V.,  and  Madox,  Finaa 

The  exclusive  privileges  of  Bnclish  and  Scottish 
guilds  or  corpontioQS  are  now  aboliahed,  as  being 
contrary  to  public  policy ;  and  these  aesociatdaDS 
exist  only  for  mutual  benefidary  purposes.  Thu^ 
m  Tarioua  boron^ia  in  Eudand,  a  custom  had  long 
prevailed,  and  by-lawa  had  been  made,  to  the 
effect  that  no  person,  not  being  b-ee  of  the  borough 
or  of  certain  of  these  guilds,  should  keep  a  shop 
for  merchandise,  or  exerciae  certain  trades  within 
the  borou^;  but  aince  1839,  when  the  Municipal 
Corporation  Reform  Act  (S  and  6  Will.  TV.  a.  76, 
a.  14)  passed,  every  lawful  oecopation  is  free,  not- 
witiistanding  any  such  custom  or  by-laws.  Tlie 
exclusive  pnvi]^  of  trading  in  Sa^tch  bu»h>  was 
abolished  by  the  statute  9  and  10  Vict.  IT.  For 
the  functions  of  the  Dean  of  Guild  in  Scotch 
burghs,  see  Duir  ov  Qvnji. 

Om'LLEHOT  ( Uria)^  a  genua  of  web-footed 
birds,  of  the  flroop  JBroAvpterce  (q.v.)  or  Divers, 
and  included  by  Linnjsns  m  the  gent  "  ' 
'"   ~     '  bat  now  more  generally  rai 

(see  Aos]  than  among  the   _       _ 

1  bill  is  moderktelv  Itm^  strai^t,  and 
1  Colyjpiut,  but  calW  more  cos^reesed, 
with  feathars  a«  far  aa  thenoetnlsi  th» 


(see  Divxb),  bat  now  more  generally  ranked 
the  Akada  (see  Aos]  than  among  the  CU\ 

(q.v.).     The  bill  is  —-'—'-■-  ' -----^ 

pointed,  as  '    "  '     ' 

and  ooverai       .    _     .  _ ,  .    . 

feet,  aa  in  the  otber  Alcada,  am  thme-toed,  having 
no  hind-toe,  and  entirely  webbed.     The  legs  are 


placed  very  far  back,  a: 


e  very  short,  the  tibia 


Inrd  on  land  is  erect,  even  when  hatching  its 
egn.  The  tail  is  very  short.  The  wings  are  ^or^ 
a^  are  moved  witii  great  frequency  in  m^t,  which, 
however,  the  guillemots  are  able  to  sostam  remark- 
ably weU,  in  consequence  of  the  abundant  provisioa 
made  for  aHration  of  the  blood  by  their  very  large 
air-cavitiea.  On  the  same  account,  t^ey  usually 
float  very  hifdi  in  the  water,  thonidk,  wh^  danger 
approMhes,  tney  can  sink  their  bocues  under  water, 
nil  t^  head,  neck,  and  up^  part  of  the  ba^  am 
alone  vimUa.    They  exoel  m  diving  and  nse  their 


They  are  aeUom  seen  in  the  sl 

wnnn  latitudes,  but  are  exbemely  abundant  in  those 
of  the  ardic  regions  and  the  oolder  parts  of  the 
template  lone,  partdcularly  in  the  neudibouibood 
of  tocky  ooasts.  The  Cohnoh  Ot.,  or  Fooloe  a. 
( U.  troM),  is  abundant  on  many  parts  of  the  British 
coasts,  breeding  even  on  those  ot  the  south  of  Eng- 
land, althoudi  large  flacks  also  arrive  in  winter 
from  t^  nortii.  It  abounds  in  all  the  HOtio  regioDi. 
Its  winter  migrations  extend .  aa  far  south  aa  the 
America  to  New  Yoric    It 


breeds,  and  where  prodigious  numben 
may  be  seen  stationed  dose  together  on  the  ledges 
of  rock.  The  parent  birds  are  said  to  cany  thmt 
yonng  on  their  back*  ftcon  the  high  ledges  to  Um 


,d  by  Google 


OtmxOOHS-OmUAAXBS. 


mter.    Tha  mtiM 


of  die  Common  ( .  _ 

_. jimon  O.  UjB  only  oa» 

^g,  iridcli  hu  k  rtrf  thick  ihall,  ii  pearihftpad, 


Oommon  OniUstnoi  (PHo  tnilt). 

and  remirkaUy  Iwga,  bamg  more  tiuo  tiir«a  incliM 

long.     II   the    e^    U  deatrored  or  taken  Mrmj, 

another  ia  kid  in  ite  atoad,    Ilie  ^  is  Mteemed  a 

delieai^,  but  tiia  Beth  o{  the  birdia  ooana,    Ths 

akin  -with  the  faathen  it  nied  for  clothing  in  aoma 

norUiBm  n^ons.    Tonng  birdi  and  ega  an  amoni 

the  object*  m  pnnuit  ot  -whi^  tha  rock-fawlna  <d 

the   northern   ooaats   aoale  or   diacend  ths  moat 

tiMDBndoiia  pwcipioea.    Great  namberB  of  the  egga 

•re  exported  from  Ibe  cotuti  of  Newfonndtand  and 

Labrador— The  BlA«  Q.  {CT.  gryHe)  ia  a  nualler 

ipeciea,  abont  14  inches  long ;  Om  plmcage  entitelj 

black  In  anmmer,  except  a  large  white  patch  on 

each  wing ;   bat  In  winter,  the  under  parte  are 

white :  the  yoimg  are  mottled  or  apotted.    It  il  not 

cominoa  on  the    aonthem  coaata   of  Britain,  bnt 

breeds  on  many  of  -Uie  Scottdah  ialanda.   It  la  [dcoti- 

fnl  in  the  aictio  regiona,   and  ia  aa  common   in 

America  aa  in  the  Ou  World    It  haa  been  called 

tha  Greenland  Dove.    It  laya  three  eega,  often  ou 

the  bare  rockj  bnt  if  the  aitnation  ia  damp,  it  pilea 

np  for  them  a  corunu  nest 

of  pebblea. — Other  apeciea  are 

ennmerated    among    Britiah 

birda,  but  are  rare.     Several 

apeoiea    are   peculiar   to    the 

northern  parts  of  tha  Padfio 

t  OtJU'I'OCHE,  an  archi- 
ll tactoral  ornament  of  Qreek 
H  origin.  It  conmit*  of  two 
I  or  more  banda  or  ribbcna, 
croaaing  and  recroaaing  one 
Quiltochs.  another  in  a  rranlarly  repeat- 

ing pattern.     £ime  of  ueae 
are  aimple  (aee  Bg,},  anaaoma  very  complicated. 

OTJI'LLOTim:,  the  Instramant  of  d««»pltatioB 
Inttodwail  daring  th«  Prendi  Berolntion  oj  tha 
Ocanntloa,  and  named  aftw  its  lui^oaad  isTcntOT, 
JoMpha  biuoe  Onillotin,  a  pfayiiciaa  (bom  173S 
— diad  H^r  30,  18U),  who,  howarar,  U  ia  aBoar> 
fatlned,  ma  on^  the  panoB  «4h>  fliat  jaapottA  itm 
•doption.  It  ia  con^oaed  of  two  niaight  poata, 
floond  M  the  inaid*,  Mkd  ooiaeated  M  tha  top 
or  a  aoM  beam.  In  theM  noorea,  a  aharp  iron 
HBd^  ^aeed  cbUqaaly,  daaeeida  In  ita  own  weight 
CD  Om  neok  <d  tlia  Tictia,  who  ia  Donnd  to  a  board 
laid  below.  Th»  ipaad  and  cwtainty  with  which 
Uill  "'*"»■<"'>  Mpantaa  the  head  fiCTi  the  tmnk. 


gtvea  it   ■  grit  npatiati^   orer   the   t 


dawth  bra 
MattnaU. 


aJIcTibfld  to  the  Faniani 

'la  nlvllege 

Eoachine  of  *^i*  kind,  irtdch  wm  **w" 
Conradin  of  Swabia  waa  BEeootad  by 

iInaatNaideB,lnI9B&  An  tnatnaavt 
...  .  -„  the  niUotina  waa  likawiaa  mploytd 
in  Gamanr  dnnng  the  middle  agia.  Dorlag  llw 
16th,  and  till  late  In  tJte  17th  c,  a  mmiihi*  callad 
the  Jf  oidM,  irtiiah  difibed  bttt  lUditly  tna  tha 
gnUlotin^  waa  ttnployed  in  SeotiaiM  tar  tha  poiw 
poae  of  daoantation.    That  moh  aa  upMatai  wm 


prored  by  the  esecntiott  c<  the  Dnc 
enoy,  who  ia  deacribed  aa  having  been  execotid 
by  a  falliu  axe  at  Tonlonae,  in  1SS2.  The  Datah, 
too,  in  the  iSth  a,  employed  a  dsoapitating  "■">■''" 
in  exMniting  ilam  in  their  colouiae. 

GUILTT  ia  the  form  of  Verdict  glvai  by  a  Jury 
in  criminal  eaaoa  when  the  crime  charged  ua  baea 
foond  proved.  In  TingUnil^  there  are  only  two 
verdlcta  Which  can  be  given  in  aniji  eaaea — vIc, 
gnilty  or  not  gnilty ;  bnt  in  Scotland  thtfe  laan 
intermediate  verdict,  called  'not  proven,'  irtiieh, 
tiiongh  in  reality  a  vordict  of  'not  gnilty'  (and  it  ia 
•o  entered  in  England),  yet  la  aIlow«d  to  ba  givan  by 


oonaidar  there  was  aome  foundation  for  the  chaige^ 
or  at  leaat  aome  gronnd  for  toipicion.  It  baa  beea 
objected  to  Uiia  verdict  that  it  leaves  a  ttigma  on 
the  party;  neverthelesa,('it  ia  firmly  adc^ted  in 
the  law  and  practice  of  Scotland, 

QtnUAJLASB,  on*  of  the  moat  andant,  ptotar- 
eaqne^  memoiablei  and  beantiftdly  aitnated  town* 
of  Pcrtn^  in  the  pnviooa  of  &t»  Doaia  e  Minbc^ 
staada  withiB  an  an^Uthealie  of  hilli  oovwed  with 
tha  moat  Inznilant  foliue,  between  tha  D'Avn 
and  the  Azaailla,  IS  mi&a  aonth  aaat  ci  Kagk 
Its  narrow  atraeta,  ita  broad  nd  balooniM  and 
verandaa,  its  walla,  part  ot  lAidi  am  now  In  the 
oanbe  of  the  town,  ud  are  annnownted  by  poiatad 
^  its  nmaina  of  anciant  arAfteitBn 


dbyGooglc 


GmKBA-QUIKKA  FOWL. 


here  Mid  then,  raidw  the  kppMnuioe  o 


Pdrtngi 


jly  rtrik^ig.  O. 
monaroliy,  the 
the  bitthplwe, 


,_._. liplaM,  in  1109, 

Heoriqaee,  Ui  too,  aaA  uie  Bait  kuu  ot  PortugaL 
^^ifiyfcg  the  meet  interesting  hnilHing*  %n  the 
a>the£*l,  (cnnded  in  1380 ;  the  CMtle,  sllMnbojsnt 


.    .__  CkldM  ^  i^mg*}  dM  Tajpu, 

uid  the  CtJdM  de  San  Hignel,  both  fineW  ntiuted, 
•od  weU  AppMnted.  Thne  (^ingi,  wUdi  irera 
well  blown  to  the  Bonuuu,  an  tued  chiefly  for 
bathinff  purposee.  Thsy  nnge  in  tempeiatare  from 
91*  to  12Cr,  ate  ■nlphnreooi,  and  are  aaii  to  be  mT- 
eSectire  in  cane  of  ^at  and  cntaneona  dJMMO. 
O.  is  cekbnted  for  iti  onrriflriM  and  its  paper 
mannfactDTe ;  it  bIbo  ezporta  gnat  qnanldtiea  of 
dried  plums  and  figs  to  Bogland.    Fop.  6000. 

GUIIIEA,  the  name  ol  a  marititae  Motion  of 
Weatem  African  It  extendi  tram  the  neighbonrhood 
of  the  Sen^al  t«  tlie  vicinitf  of  Cape  Negro,  the 
abeam  being  in  lat  16°  N.  and  long.  16*  33'  W., 
and  the  headland  in  lat.  1G°  41'  9.  and  abont  long. 
ll'lffK;  and  by  the  eqnator,  wbioh  Uini  intaraetm 
i^  it  k  divided  iato  Upper  or  Northern,  and  Lower 
or  Soathem  Gninea.  Tliia  vast  region  forms  the 
ooaata  of  the  MandiDgoea,  Aihanti,  Dahonwy,  Benin, 
Biafra,  Loango,  Congo,  Angola,  and  Beoenda,  oon- 
imctiiig  with  the  Auantio  eren  more  diitant  tori- 
toriea  d;  means  of  iti  riven,  more  eapeciaQ;  by  the 
Senega),  the  Gambia,  the  Niger,  the  Old  CaUbar, 
the  Zaire  or  Congo,  and  the  Coauta.  G.  waa  flnt 
Tinted  in  1364  by  some  French  nerehant  adven- 
tnrera  of  Eooen  and  Dieppe,  and  Gnt  coloniaad  by 
the  Fortogneee  in  1481,  who  have  retained  nomiiuu 
poweision  o(  the  whole  of  Lower  G.,  the  chief  rtatea 
ef  trhieh  are  Loango  (q.v.),  Congo  (q.T.),  Angola 
and  Bengaeb  (q.r.).  The  Datoh,  Fi^eh, 
"  ''  "le  Cfennani,  abo  cttab-. 

,   T  raUier  factories,  par- 

tionlarly  in  IJpper  G.,  the  coast  of  which  is  now 
divided  into  Gmin  Coart,  Irory  Coast,  Gold  Coast, 
■od  Slave  Coaat  Beddei  the  articlea  thna  dedg- 
nated,  the  soil  yields  indigo,  pepper,  cotton,  saear, 
and  pdm-oil.  The  factories  were  chiefly  establianed 
to  secine  the  slave-tead^  and  after  its  mppreesion 
their  conunerdal  impcirtance  ceased.  Great  Bribun 
b  the  only  Eniopean  pow«r  that  tried  to  make  a 
humane  or  Christian  nae  of  its  acqnimtiona.  While 
keeping  a  naval  squadron  off  Ue  Wtst  African 
shoiea  to  intercept  the  slaver*,  it  was  naedfol  to 
provide  for  the  libeiated  cargow  of  black  men  and 
women.  The  Sierra  Leone  (aee  Fbbb  Town  and 
SiKKKA  Lrcirs}  and  Gambia  lettlemeiitB  were 
created  tor  this  pnrpoie,  and  here  the  Wealejann 
have  many  chapels  and  schools  for  the  nabves. 
For  the  American  settlement,  see  Liberu.  and 
iiomanx.  In  IS7Si,theI>utcli  gave  np  to  England 
all  their  pceseniona  on  the  Gold  Coast.  In  return 
for  this  cession,  "^gi"^  conaented  to  aunol  the 
treaties  prohibitins  l>Dtch  oonqnesta  in  Somatm 
on  the  Straits  of  "i''"*^  But  tiie  Ung  of  Asbaoti 
{a.  V.)  immediately  laid  olaim  to  Ebnioik  the  ca*-"-' 

M  Hat  former  Dutch  possessions,  and  after  a  s 

ot  intrigues  and  dlptomatio  complieations,  Invaded 
(April  1873)  the  territory  now  under  the  English 
notectorate.  He  was  at  first  aueoesifnl ;  bnt 
the  arrival  of  Sir  Garnet  Woladey  (October 
1878),  followad  by  some  British  r^menls,  soon 
chained  the  aspect  of  afiun,  and  the  Aahantd 
king  was  foroea  to  retire  into  his  own  oonnt^, 
and  after  nomennu  defeata,  had  to  (offer  the 
hnnuliation  of  seeing  his  capital,  Coomaala  (q. 


Agiij\  I 


ndnoed  to  ashes,  6th  f  ebraary  1S7^  B^  the 
treaty  which  followed  his  snlnuission,  the  king  of 
Aahanti  renounoed  all  claim  either  of  tribute  or 
homage  £rom  any  at  Uw  tribe*  within  the  limits  of 
the  Gold  Coast, 


It  maybe  regarded 

in  lat  4°  22' N.,  and    _.. 

abont  lat  r  S.,  and  in  li^  8°  35'  E.    At  ita  urnr 

east  eitrejnity  is  the  dalfa*  of  the  Niger,  betwc_, 

the   Bight  pf   Benin  on  the  north-wlet,  and  the 


Fernando  Fo,  Ainof,  and  Bt  Thomas. 

GniNBA,a  gold  ooin  formerly  onmnt  in  Britain, 
dttived  its  name  from  the  &ct  that  Um  gold  from 
wliich  the  flrst  spedmena  were  coined  wia  bionght 
from  the  Guinea  coast  in  West  AMoa,  and,  for  ue 
same  reason,  it  original^  bore  the  impression  of 

of  Charles   IL,  in   l6tH,  and  oontinned  in  com- 
mon nse  tin  1817,  when  it  was  saparBedsd  by  ths 


Guinea  of  (3iatl«a  IL 

Sovmigit  (q.  v.).  Its  value  varisd  oouidarably  at 
^^Sannt  pniods,  hut  waa  latterly  fixed  at  twentiv- 
a  Aillmjpi  It  i«  itiil  onstomary  in  Great  Biitsin 
astimato  profeMional  fees,  hononria  of  all  kinds, 
__mplimantarynibsciiptions,  prioea  of  idotQres,&4X 
in  goineas ;  to  gpva  a  physician  tiiree  a 
and  three   shilling*,  raOiar  than  three  • 


alons^  or  even  three  sovereigmi  and  five  shilling 
'    supposed  to  make  the  transaddon  dUbr  from  a 


times  dvm  t 
(  oereil  grasi 


GUINEA  CORN;  a  r 

PtnieiUaria  tpietUa  ot  Ptm^Mtum  typhi^dmim^Terj 
axt«cinvely  cultivated  in  Central  Africa,  and  to 
some  extent  also  in  India,  iriiere  it  it  called  Bajrte. 
It  is  of  the  tribe  Paniua,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
one  of  ilta  millet*.  It  ia  a  gnu*  with  a  sioke-like 
cylindrical  paniclOi 
GUINBA  FOWL,  or  PINTAIK)  (JTuoiida},  a 

Sons  of  gallinaoeous  birda  of  the  family  Phuiamaa, 
vine  a  diort,  strong  Ull,  the  i^psr  mandible 
vantted,  a  WMty  membrane  at  the  base  of  the  bilL 
and  a  wattle  hanging  down  on  each  aide^  the  head 
and  apper  part  of  ua  neck  generally  naked,  the 
forebMKl  sumumnted  dtlier  with  a  caUinis  o*  <^ 

faatiuaransti  the 

tiietaUahort.    Th 

and  Madsgasfiar     

G.  r.,ar  i^ntado  {N.  MtUaarit),  with  naked  head, 
bard  callon*  oaaqn^  and  ilate-aoloared  plumage, 
evetywheie  spMUed  with  round  white  *pots  of 
winna  ainL  It  i*  eonuMn  IB  Guinea,  and 
W  all  Uie  rapims  thenoe  to  the 
the  Osjift  oTQood  Hope  [  it  is 
fOimdabo  in  mora  nortiunt  part*  et  Aaiea,  and 

^ iCOQI^k 


GCraEA.  aitASS~{)UINEA.-WOBU. 


uilsd  ildeagru  ud  OfUUna  JVumbJim.  Itl  fleah 
Tu  highly  prized  by  them.  In  ft  wild  lUto,  t' 
O.  F.  i>  generaUy  leen  Id  Urge  flocks.  It  U  not  . . 
polygunoLU  u  many  of  the  ^aUinMeaii*  birds,  and 
even  in  a  Bbkte  of  domeatiaalion,  exhibita  the  inclin- 
ation to  pair.  It  a  nov  common  in  the  poultir- 
jrardg  of  mort  parte  of  Europe,  although  it  u>  mora 


Ouium  Favl  [yumida  MeUaffrii), 

adapted  to  wum  Oian  to  cold  olimatea,  and 
Jamaica,  haa  been  completely  natnnlieed,  eo  as 
be  deebiictive  to  crope,  and  to  be  shot  like  other 
game.     In  Britain^  the  young  an  rather  trouble- 
■ome  to  rear,  but  the  high  price  borne  in  the  market 
both  by  the  biida   aiM   their   eggs,  compeaaaf 
those  who  keep  guinea  fowls  for  profit.    The  eggs 
are  tmall,  and  ^ve  p  thick  strong  shell,  but  ~~~ 
particularl;  eateented.     Guinea  fomi,  liOTever, 
troublesome  in  a  poultry-yard,  from  the  disposition 
of  the  males  to  attack  and  tyrannise  over  other 
poultry.      The  Q.  F.  baa  a    peculiar  harsh    and 
gnenilous  ciy,  which  it  emits  with  great  frequency. 
There  is  a  wmte  Tariety  of  Quinea  fowL 

GUINEA  OBASS  {Patacum  nuLamvm),  a  gnus 
of  the  same  Kcnoa  with  Millkt  (q.  t.),  a  native 
ot  the  weat  of  Africa,  bat  now  natur^ised,  and 
extemdvely  cultivated  in  the  West  Indiea  and 
•onUiera  (tates  of  America.  It  does  not  perish  even 
in  Uie  winters  of  Britain,  but  is  not  luxuriant  and 
prodnctiTe,  aa  in  warmer  climates.  Its  height,  in 
favourable  moist  aitustioiia,  is  from  6  to  10  feet ;  in 
dry  grounds,  it  is  smaller  ;  it  has  a  much-brandied 
and  apreadtDg  panicle,  long  flat  leaves,  and  a  eome- 
what  creeping  root  In  countries  favourable  to 
its  growth,  it  i*  vei?  valuable  aa  food  for  eattle. 
— Other  fpedea  of  the  same  genos  are  among  the 
neat  oaeful  pMtnn  and  forage  graaaea  of  tropical 
oonottie*. 

QVrSlSA.  FEPFEB,  a  name  which  has  been 
varionily  applied  to  the  seeds  or  dried  fruit  of 
several  very  difleient  plants,  agreeing  in  their 
peppen  character,  and  in  being  the  produoe  of  the 
west  of  Africa.  The  name  HiiMtmeni  (Malagbeta, 
Ueleguetta,&c)  Peppxb  is  generally  to  be  i^arded 
as  equivalent  with  Guinea  Pepper,  and  ia  at  present 
a  frequent  demgnation  of  Oriunt  of  PamdiK  (q.  v.); 
but  the  capsules  or  dry  berries  of  Gapncum  fivUt- 

MO*  (see  CAPmcuif)  are  commonly  sold  by  ' '' 

under  the  name  Guinea  Fmp^;  whilst 
nuoM  Guinea  Pepper  and  Malagneta  P^TP™  '"'* 
been  ap^ed  to  the  dried  fruit  bf  OuMa  Chum  (see 
CDBsna),  and  to  the  seeds  of  Eaia^'a  (or  Xylopia) 
^thiopica,  a  shmb  of  the  natural  order  Anonacta, 
Thia  last  was  at  one  time  a  considerable  article  of 
export  from  Guinea,  and  was  sometimes  called 
EmiopiAH  PtfFEB.  It  is  now  seldom  even  heard 
ot    It  is  an  aromatic  and  not  extremely  pungent 

condiment.— There  is  great  difficulty  in  ■'"' -— "-- 

which  of  these  kinds  is  meant  in  tnany 

which  t^  tern  Guinea  Pepper  or  Mtdsgueta  Pepper 


is  employed  by  the  -  older  writers  ;  yet,  from  the 
importance  of  the  trade  in  this  artiole,  the  nama 
OtoIm  Coatt  was  given  to  a  great  tract  of  hod  in 
the  Bight  of  Benin,  and  to  it  the  estabUahnuat  ot 
the  se&ements  of  Grand  Bassa  and  Ca^  Palmat  ii 
doe.  Up  to  the  close  of  the  18th  o.,  GninoB  Venm 
contanned  in  request,  when  the  peppers  of  the  uat 
drove  it  from  the  market. 

GUINEA-FIG.    SeeCAvr. 

GUINBA-WOBH,  known  alao  m  FOaria 
Medinauit,  or  F.  DnKuilei^iu,  is  »  parasitio  animal 
that  seems  to  have  been  known  from  the  earliest 
times.  Plutarch,  in  his  Si/mpotiaeon  (Table-talk), 
quotes  a  passage  frem 
Uie  geographer  and  phil-_ 
OBopher  Agatharcfaides  of' 
Cnidua,  wbo  lived  in  the 
second  century  before  our 
era,  which  seema  clearly 
to  refer  to  thia  worm; 
and  it  haa  been  u^ed 
with  great  plausibility 
that  the  '  fleiy  serpenta  ' 
which  attacked  the  Israel- 
~n  the  desert  were  in 
reality  Guinea  or  Medina 


Toung  Filoria  Hediueniii : 


M-MiaIMm' 


the  former  word 
rectly  tranalated  'ser- 
pemta ; '  while  terajJiim, 
derived  from  the  word 
tarajA,  can  aignify  nothing 
more  than  m  inii  e^m- 
Imrit ;  and  it  is  mear  Uiat 
a  speoies  of  ""'""I  is  referred  to  which  i»  distill- 
guished  by  the  inflammability  of  iti  bite,  or  gener- 
-'ly  by  the  hflammation  which  its  presence  causea 
That  in  andoit  times  the  Filaria  [or  Guinea-won^ 
was  reckoned  amoiwat  tbe  serpents  on  aeoonnt  s 
its  snske-like  form,  is  proved  at  once  by  the  Greek 
name  drakantion  (Lat  dracmculvt],  a  speaei  of 
jDoke  which  had  something  fabulous  and  m^iphc- 
able  about  it.  The  inflammatoiy  pain  and  sweUiiif 
which  occurred  with  tbe  breaking  out  of  the  voim 
are  certainly  very  well  expressed  by  teraphi'*! 
while  the  mortality  amongst  the  Israelitea  i*  "^ 
explained  by  their  ignorance  of  tbe  treatment,  and 
the  dangerous  sym[Aoma  occurring  in  conMqieiKe 
of  the  breaking  of  the  worm,  which,  accordiiy  *^ 
aoma  autiiots,  may  be  immediat^y  fatal  Oi>lT  i" 
the  last  porUon  of  Qte  way  throiuh  the  desert  « 
Ziu  towards  Mount  Hor,  but  especially  on  the  way 
from  Hor  towards  Oboth,  for  which  journey  tiny 
required  several  months,  did  tbe  laraditea  corns  into 
the  true  district  of  the  Medina-worm — namel/itiM 
centoal  and  eastern  portion  of  Arabia  FeMBs.  ^^ 
entire  march  they  would  undoubtedly  have  p>M» 
over  within  the  period  of  incubation  of  this  wota 
(two  months  to  one  year).  Hera  the  liUai'  l<* 
Goinea-wonns)  first  broke  up,  with  vident  infl^- 
matory  pains.  Thus,  then,  tbe  IsneUtea  contracted 
these  wonoa,  which  are  still  indigei 
Petrsa;  and  this  worm-proviooe  — 


idigenous  ID  Aj*I»* 
«  may  consequent!  J 

ivCoog-tr"""^ 


ODINBOAXB-aUISOABD. 


ba  of  io^orbuiM  aod  „    „   . 

detmnioktion  of  theooimeDf  -b&Tel  in  the  fortietii 
TCM-  of  'Qm  Imelitea'  wanderingB,'     (On  Para^l**, 


^  L  pp.  392-393.) 

Oni  knowledge  of  ths  mtmal  hiatoiy  of  thia 


oa\y  «j«qTi«i»iijirl   with   tlie  female.     The   body 
thia  ftnutul  ia  slender,  cylindrical,  and  eomeirhat 
I  miijii  iiMiiil.  and  i>  of  tiie  tlii'i-Vni»«»  of  paok-thread, 
eicapt  at  the  posterior  eztrmnity,  where  it  ii  oome- 
vhat  attennated.      It  ii  opaque,  of  a  milk-white 

and  when  examined  by  the  microscope,  it  is ^ 

be  marked  with  nnmeroua  *~ ""   ~'^~ 


and  beset  with  fi 


■pinea  are  pointa  on  whioh  belmiuUlologistB  differ). 
iSe  length  lA  the  wcom  Tariee  fram  leas  than  half 
a  foot  to  three  yarda.  On  examining  an  adult 
apecimeQ,  extracted  by  Malgaisne  in  Paris  in  1854^ 
Bobin  found  no  trace  of  iatenine,  or  of  any  organ 
except  a  Ten  thin  sheath  (a  utenu  or  oriduot], 
which  was  £&ed  with  yoniiK  animala  rolled  up  in 
radla,  with  the  tail  ooc«aon*ully  projectiiig  outwaida 
'— -  A  in  the  figure).  In  these  young  anitui'-  — 
trace  the  conrae  of  the  iutaatinal  eaual. 


Thi»  worm  i«  indigenous  only  in  certain  hot 
eountriei^  and  it*  gei^raphtoal  distribution  ia  regu- 
lated by  law*  mta  which  we  have  no  insist. 
EUchenmeiater  mentioaa  the  following  places  as 
eq>edall]r  notoriona  for  ita  occurrence :  Senegal, 
Qaboon,  the  banka  of  the  Gan^a,  Bombay,  ihe 
paiiin«nla  (^  India,  Peraia,  Aialua  Fetraa,  the  south 
ooait  of  aia  Bed  Sea,  the  r^on  round  the  Casiuan 


:  oocamoned  by  t^ae  worms  frequently 
„„_„  _  sjademio  in  years  of  heavy  ram,  and 
espedally  in  marshy  districts.     It  appears  also  to 


lundar  in 

The  mode  of  production 
hnman  body  is  not  known  with  certainty.  The 
probabilitry  is,  that  Uie  young  animals,  while  still 
very  minute,  penetrate  the  skui,  although  by  what 
mechaniim  they  cou  effect  their  lodgment,  we  do 
not  know.  Carter  relates  a  case  which  strongly 
BDpparts  this  view.  Fifty  children  in  a  school  at 
Biuuhay  went  to  bathe  in  a  pood,  and  21  of 
tiiem  weie  attacked  by  the  Quinea-worm ;  soma  of 
them  having  four  or  five  worms.  Uoroover,  it 
ia  well  known  that  negroes,  who  are  in  the  habit 
of  entering  the  water  more  frequently  than  the 
whites,  and  generally  have  their  feet  naked,  are  far 
mote  liable  to  be  attacked  than  Europeans.  The 
part  of  the  body  in  which  the  worm  usually  mani- 
leata  itself  also  accorda  with  this  view.  h^kHregor 
Mitft  that,  in  172  cases,  it  occorred  121  times  in 
th«  feet,  33  times  in  the  le^  It  timea  in  the  thighs, 
twice  in  the  handa,  and  twice  elsewhere. 

Having  gained  an  entrance  into  the  body,  the 
Guinea-worm  takee  a  considerable  Idme  to  be 
developed.  This  period  varies  from  two  months 
to  a  year  or  even  two  years.  The  presence  of  the 
worm  often  produces  no  annoyance  for  a  consider- 
able time  after  it  has  been  detected ;  at  other  times, 
it  gives  rise  to  emaciation,  and  possibly  even  death 
from  exhaustion.  A*  a  general  rule,  the  vesicles 
oansed  try  the  inflamnatioii  excited  by  Uie  presence 


of  tiis  wonn  (^«d  spontaneously  in  a  few  day% 
•nd  two  or  three  inohea  of  the  anterior  end  of  die 
animal  come  forth.  This  end  ie  gently  pulled,  and 
coiled  round  a  little  roll  of  linen  or  a  small  stick, 
and  this  is  fastened  over  the  wound  with  sticking- 
plaster  and  a  oompresa.  The  extraction  is  npeatM. 
twice  a  day  by  rotating  tiie  subetADce  nnmd 
which  the  worm  is  twistra,  and  the  operation  ia 
often  not  completed  in  less  than  two,  three,  or 
more  montiia.  From  the  most  ancient  time*,  the 
tearing  of  the  worm  has  been  regarded  u  a  very 
dangerous  accident.  It  undoubtedly  gives  rise  to 
violent  swelling,  fever,  and  sleeplessness  ;  and  if  we 
are  to  tmst  ue  statements  lA  some  of  the  older 
obaerveiB,  shortening  and  deformities  of  the  legs, 
lingering  'fistula,  mortification,  and  death  (some- 
limes  even  sodden  death)  must  be  reckoned  amongst 
the  mobablo  oonseqiuiioea  of  breakii^  the  worm. 

Although  the  ordinal^  seat  of  this  worm  is  the 
aubovtHiMna  eellulai  tusue,  it  has  been  found  in 
the  tongne^  in  the  layers  of  the  mesentery  behind 
the  liver,  and  onder  the  conjunctiva  of  the  eye. 
Small  fdariiB  of  a  different  ipecieB  have  occasion- 
ally been  found  in  the  lens  of  Uie  human  eye. 

GUINBOATB,  Battlb  or,  or,  more  familiarly, 
the  jSotiJe  of  At  Spar*,  was  fou^t  at  Guinagate, 
not  far  from  Touniai,  in  the  province  of  Hainaul^ 
Be]j(inm,  ISth  Angost  1513,  between  the  TinglUhj 
uniur  Henry  VIlL,  assisted  by  a  considerable 
body  of  troops  headed  by  the  Emperor  Maxiailian, 
and  the  fVenoh,  under  the  Duo  de  Longueville. 
The  latter  were  defeated.    The  battle  received  it* 

French  kni^ts  having  made  better  use  of  theii 
(pun  than  uieir  iviardi. 

GUINOAMP,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  CAtes-du-ITord,  is  situated  in  an  extensive 
plain,  on  the  Trienx,  in  the  midst  of  pleasing  scenery, 
20  miles  west-north-west  of  St  Brieuc  It  was  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  PenthiSvre,  and 
was  surrounded  by  walla,  part  of  which  atill  remain. 
The  aite  of  the  castle  of  the  dnkee  of  FenthiBvre 
is  now  planted  with  trees,  and  serves  as  a  pro- 
menade. O.  has  a  college,  a  thread-factory,  and 
several  tanneries.    Fop.  (1872)  6&4C 

GUIFU'SGO A,  the  smaUest,  butUia moat  densely 
peopled  of  the  Basque  Provinces  (q.  v,). 

GUISOABD,  BoBEKT,  Buke  of  Apulia  and  CmIa- 
bris,  the  sixth  in  order  of  seniDrity  of  the  twelve 
sons  of  Tancred  de  Hautevilic,  was  bom   in  the 
year  1010.    Toncrcd's  estates  in  Lower  Normandy 
aa    insufficient    to    support    such    a    numeront 
li^  his  three   eldest  sons,  William,  Dagobert, 
L  Humphrey,  determined  to  seek  their  fortunes 
the  wars  of  Italy.    By  good-fortune,  coura^ 
and  wiles,  William  gained  possession  of  Apuha; 
and  Bobert,  desirous  of  shanng  his  brothers'  for- 
tunes, followed  them  to  Italy  with  a  small  band 
of  odventorcrB.     Here  he  distinguished  himself  so 
■-  ■  Wy  in  Toriona  battles,  that,  after  the  death  of 
uliom  and  Humphrey,  be  was  prochumed  Count  of 
Apnlia.    O.  neit  canqnerod  Cal*bria,  in  the  poeaea- 
sioa  of  which  he  was  confinned  by  Pope  Nicholaa 
IL,  who,  bat  a  abort  time  befars,  hod  eiconmroni- 
oated  him  on  account  of  his  many  acta  of  ^olence. 
from  motives  of  gratitude,  bound  himself  to  pay 
annual  tribute  to  the  Roman  aee.    The  feudu 
superiority  still   claimed   by  the  papal  see   over 
Na^ea  dates  from  thia  period-    O.  now  despatched 
his  youngest  brother  Boger,  at  the  head  of  300 
warriors,  to  conquer  Sicily,  the  poesessiiHi,  of  which 
had  been  promised  to  him  I^  the  pope.    Boger,  in 
1061^  took  MesBina,  and  in  the  fdiowing  yew  the 
two  btothen  defeated  tike  Saracens  at  Bona.    'Roger 
iventnally  oonqosied  the  whole  island,  and  beouna 


dbyLjOOglt 


OTJISOABO— OUI8B. 


&nt  Coimt  of  Bidly.  HawTliiUk  Bobert  gradnillT 
piaai.  powiMiioB  it  ttw  towu  vuit  itQl  iwiwiiuia 
in  the  handi  of  Um  8M»o«a>i,  Moons  otlwn,  SaImbo 
mnl  Bwi,  ud  Onu  Mtablitlwd  wlutt  ma  tiU  lUO 
tbe  IdDgdom  of  NkplM.  Ha  mrald  hkve  stomd  hii 
TiotnioDi  itkndud  in  other  dfeecttona,  Iwd  ha  not 
bam  eiMnunnnieated  l^  OMgoiy  TIL,  on.  aoaonBt 
of  hla  inroad  into  Benaventvn.  Having  baeooia 
iuTolTed  in  the  aflUra  of  OTeeoe  hj  the  maiiiaga 
of  bia  dan^tei  Helena  -wiai  Constantine  Dnoai) 
•on  and  heii  cj  H'i'h"'  Vil.,  be  deapatobed  hia  ion 
Bohanond  to  nndJertake  the  oonqucat  ot  Corfu, 
while  be  binueU  battened  to  Dnramo,  and  itkae 
the  mill  of  that  citr  sained  a  brilliant  ▼ktoiy 
the  Greek  empeivr,  Alezhii  Conuwnna.  He 
f^1fcttf^^ftl^  thioQgh  Eplras  to  Thnwalonifia,  a&d  had 
DueI;  reaobed  Conatantdnople,  when  ha  raoeiTed 
infonnatJan  that  the  Emperor  Hauy  IV.  had  made 
■a  iivoad  Into  Italj.  He  immediatdr  haateoed 
back,  after  intnutiag  the  ahiat  oommand  to  Bohe- 
mond,  compaUed  Henrr  to  retreat,  and  liberated  the 
pope,  vba  waa  beaiesBd  in  the  caiUa  of  St  Angela 
He  vua  returned  va  Epinu,  defeated  the  Oroeka 
in  aererd  enmgenenta,  took  popaaamon  of  aome 
iiland*  in  iiu  ArohipeUgo,  and  ma  on  the  point  of 
■dTaneina  a  leoooa  time  to  ConifcantinoiJe,  when 
ha  died  i£Oepha]onla,I7thJtiI]r  1066.  Euremaina 
wen  bwied  at  Yeniua;  hit  wna  Bohemond  and 
B^er  inherited  U*  poaaeedona :  the  former  leoeired 
l^armtnm ;  the  latter,  Apulia.  O.  wai  not  on^  • 
horo  and  a  conqueror,  bat  a  patron  of  the  tirtt 
and  adenoee. — Compare  Qoaltier  d'Ans,  HUoirt  d»» 
Oonquita  da  Normandt  mt  lUdit,  at  Si^i»,  it  <k 
Oria  (Pario,  1830). 

GUISE,  the  name  of  a  branch  of  the  dneal  imafy 
tA  Lorraine,  distinguiBhed  in  the  hiftoiy  of  France 
and  Enrope  daring  two  oantnrica.  It  derivsa  Ha 
name  from  the  litua  town  of  Guiae,  in  the  depart* 
ment  ot  Aieae  (sitiUted  oa  the  Oik).  Ibe  following 
are  ita  meet  remarkable  tnembera ; 

Ouimx  OF  LoKRAun^  flirt  Dnke  of  Oidaa,  Peer 
of  I^anoe,  Grand  Httntemui,  Ooont  d'Anmale,  Mar- 
qnia  of  Mqrenne  and  Elbenf,  Baron  of  JoinTille, 
ia.,  waa  the  fifth  aon  of  Bent  IL,  Doke  of  Lorraine, 
and  wai  bom  at  the  ohfttoMi  of  Condl^  Ootober  SO, 
1496.    Ha  left  Loratina  on  aooonnt  of  a  qnarrel 
with  bii  elder  biotJicr,  accompanied  ftanda  L  to 
Italr,  and  raoeiTed  twan^-two  wocmla  at  tiie  bi 
of  Marignan,  151&    Eight  yearq  later,  he  droTo 
Gennana  fcwn  Champagne.    In  IS12  he  foo^ 
Ilandcn  nnder  the  Dnke   of    Orleana.      He 


BonrbOT,  by  whom  he- 
had  twelve  children,  of  whom  eight  were  bo" 
Hia  daughter  Mary  waa  the  wife  of  Jamea  T. 
SooQaod,  and  moUur  A  tixrj,  Qoeen  of  Scoto.    He 
ia  reported  to  have  died  of  pwaou,  April  15S0. 

FBixeoiB  at  LoB&im,  aeoond  Duke  of  O.. 
too,  of  tne  pieoediug^  waa  bom  Febnuuy  17, 1S19. 
At  a  genoal,  ha  aoqnired  European  renown.  He 
diatingoiahed  hinuell  at  Umtme^  (1642),  Land- 
iwiea  (164^,  St  Piaer  (1544),  Bodcoie  (1646),  m  ' 
attoaotad  the  attention  ti  Siiiuna  hftaa  defence 
Uet^  bcaieged  for  two  montba  bj  Charlea  Y.,  who, 
aftarfliingll,OOOballi,«nd  loaing  30/)00  m 

"■      He  added 

,  -     ..  1666  took 

mand  of  the  expedition  agajnat  Haplea.  ITbia  ezpa- 
ditklB  failed  tbron^  treaoheiy;  but  the  duka, 
haTiBg  been  made  lieutenant-gmaral  of  Prance, 
ratoiend  Ua  rcfiotatdon  b7  taking  Calais  Oninea, 
and  Ham,  irtnoh  were  in  paaauaion  of  the  Tfti^mi^ 
and  ware  eonaidered  impregnable,  Hii  militanr 
aDooanea  were  ended  bj  the  peace  of  1009.  Hw 
nieM^  Maty  Stnait,  baing  the  wife  of  franoii  IL,  he 
beoame  tiia  highert  power  in  the  state,  and  the  head 


of  the  Catholio  par^.    The  death  of  the  kin^  nad 

-  atrong  party  againat  him,  drtm  hia  fr«<n  tha 
art,  bat  ha  waa  aoon  neallad,  to  take  th*  oob^ 
and  againit  the  HocuenotB,  lAo  bad  taken  avrienl 

in^oitaot  towna,  and  were  oonmitting  peat  xwrtt- 

—  He  retook  Bonen,  and  ooaqnwad  at  Di«ax 
J).    The  Maifcfaal  Bt  Andm  waa  kilM.   th* 

Frinoa  of  Condtuid  the  Oonatable  takni  ptiaoQea& 
0_  the  greateat  at  hia  nanM^  waa  aaiiaaBiiil  ail  befiB* 
Oilaana,  Fahniary  24,  16S&  He  had  a  taat*  for 
Uteratnn^  and  lua  memoiia,  written  bj  hJffaHf, 
have  modi  hiatoria  interaat. 

Hknu  L  or  hovMAxn,  tiiird  Dnke  of  0.,  wna 
born  Decttnbar  81,  lesa    Hie  death  of  hia  faAber 

A  him  at  the  head  of  tiie  Oatbdio  pnc^. 

itioQ  and  Tenoeance  both  atimolated  hum  to 
actiML  At  Oe  age  of  16,  ha  diatmgmabed  hfana^ 
in  flgfating  apdnat  the  l^oika  in  B^ngaiy.  Thraa 
yean  later,  ha  fbu^t  with  the  Hogneoote  at  Jacnno 
jHareh  1669)  and  Honeontonr  (October  1069),  and 
m  the  aama  year  forced  ColignTta  raiae  the  R^kb 
of  Foitlan.  He  aapired  to  the  hand  of  Haigaectte 
of  Valois,  but,  to  appeaae  the  anger  of  the  kinA 
married  Catharine  of  Cltvee,  1670.  Diagorted  wiiK 
the  favoun  granted  to  Prote^anti  at  the  aaiii% 
ha  retired,  but  returned,  and  waa  engaged  in  tiie 
muiaore  <rf  St  Bartholomew,  Angiut  34,  16T3;  in 
which  he  aaw  the  dead  body  of  OoUgqr  tiuowa 
bom  a  window  into  the  ootu^wrd  at  hu  feel  In 
1076,  flghHng  with  the  Hugoenota,  ha  waa  woanded 
in  uie  face,  niience  ha  raoeiTed  the  nanM  of 
BaU^frt  (aoaire^,  a  J— !gn-*i'—  bonie  alao  \j  hia 
tkVbJir  tnm  a  aunilar  droamataBoe.  He  fomad 
the  famooa  Lewoe— eeteoaibl^  for  tba  defence  of 
the  ohurob,  really  to  raiae  binualf  to  Uta  tkmne 
of  Ohariemagna.  The  king  coqoetted  with  both 
partiea,  G.  oonqneied  Henri  of  NaTun^  bat 
the  king  refoaad  him  enb«noe  to  Parii.  The 
people  tcee  in  hia '  favonr,  and  he  mi^t  hava 
beoi  king,  bat  he  negotiated.  He  waa  pnwniind 
all  the  powecB  which  he  demanded,  bnt  the  king 
caujMd  him  to  be  maaaaored  in  the  palaoe,  and  u 
■aid  to  have  kicked  hia  lifelan  body.  Hia  brother 
the  cardinal  waa  alao  killed.  Thedr  bodiw  wnra 
barasd,  and    the  aahea    acattei«d    to    the  winda. 


Hie  death  tA  hia  ^der  brother  he  , 

calli^  he  deteetcd,  and  luooeeded  to  the  dnkadotn. 
Handeome,  cbiTalric,  braTc,  he  waa  a  true  epectmen 
of    the    amaeot   paladin,  and    celebrated   for   hia 

numeroua  nllaatnca.    Loved  by  Anne  d~  " 

princeea    ^   Mantua,    he    capricioaaly 
ner,  joined  the  par^  of  the  Comte  de 

and  married  the  widow  of  the  Onnts  da 

Having  joined  the  league  againgt  Biohdien,  be  waa 
condemned  by  the  pariiament  of  Paria  to  capital 
pnniahm^^  bat  took  refuge  in  Germany.  On  the 
death  of  Lonia  XHC,  he  returned  lEo  Fnnoe, 
diagnated  with  hii  wue,  whose  fortune  he  had 
■pent,  and  propoied  to  many  Madetnoitella  de 
Pons,  one  of  the  queen's  maids  of  honottr.  He 
fongbt  in  the  campaigns  of  1644  and  1646  as  a 
volunteer,  and  then  repaired  to  Bttne  to  set  a 
divorce,  bat  failed.  Hearins  of  the  renlt  of 
Naplea  uailist  Spun,  under  Haasaniello,  be  set 
off  tor  tliat  dty,  in  t^  trae  spirit  of  kni^t- 
arrantry,  to  conquer  a  kingdom  with  his  sinad 
for  the  bride  he  still  hoped  to  gain,  nvvng  in 
a  felucca  through  tlie  ^anish  ^ee^  Q.  entend 
Naplea  in  December  1647!  and  was  reodred  with 
the  ubnoat  enthiuiatm ;  but  hii  gallantrieiv  '^ 
envy  of  the  nobles,  and  Jealmuy  of  FMaoe,  oansed 


d  by  Google 


GDITAIUOTTIZOT. 


Um  to  b«  batnjrad,  in  AprQ  164S,  to  iba  Spaawda, 
■sd  ha  ma  oanud  *  piMnv  to  Spain.  Demandad 
bf  OofNU,  ke  ma  Mt  at  libcrta  in  I05>,  and  jofaadj 
with  Ooidl,  tbe  •"■—"'—  of  th«  ocnirt  ud  ti 
Mmilii  at  BotdMMX.  Two  montiw  Mmt,  lie  had 
betnyed  Ua  aDiM,  and  wm  at  Pari*  with  i"^  '^'- 
bnt  miatdrtnnB  ttul  followad  Un,  and  1 

tliali  lii iitiiiii,  fni  whrmi  Tin  hid  fmdiirtd 

wai  falaa,  and  that  with  hia  cnm  mqum.  Vindins 
himaalf  an  obJBct  of  lidiaal*  at  Pari*,  ha  attanptM 
to  Tstem  to  NaplM,  bnt  tailsd  j  iwtnnad  to  Paii^ 
waa  "ift^ft  grand  chanibariain,  Hwra  di?Mted  tiia 
naanifioant  tttaa  ol  "     ' 

what  like  the  lute,  partdonliirlj  well  adapted  for 


I  Lonit  XIV.,  and  died  without 


and  the  Hnmd  1«  pndneed  by  the  flngen  of  the 
lij^t  liand  twitohing  the  itri^,  while  the  flngen 
of  tile  left  hand  nuCke  tlxe  notea  of  the  mncio  on 
Uie  flD^tc-board,  which  hat  freta  aorou  it  like 
tibs  Ijn.     The  Hiree  higbeat  sbingi  of  the  Buitar 


•re  always  of  gat,  aod  the  three  loweet  are  of  lilk 
i^nn  orerwith  lilrined  wire.  The  ffraateatvirtaod 
on  the  gnitar  were  Qoiliani,  5or,  Zoecbi,  Stoll,  and 
HoratwEr. 

OT7I20T,  F&urtoiB  PixaBi  GuiUAUia,  aFrench 
rtniitman  and  hiiboiiaii,  wai  bom  at  Nlmea,  October 
4,  I7S7.  Hii  paraita  were  ihoteatants ;  hi*  faUier, 
mo  waa  an  advocate,  pariihed  on  the  wBaBdd, 
Aprils,  179^  audhii  moQieFaoon  afterwarde  went^ 
with  bm  two  aona,  to  QeneTa,  where  G.  received  hia 
edncafao.  In  ISOfi,  he  went  to  Parie,  and  devoted 
hiniaelf  to  liteiatar»  Bie  flnt  work,  the  Ifouvtaa' 
DidiiMKain  Umtnel  da  Byaompnu  de  la  Xiimaue 
FnmfiiM  (2  vda.;  4tb  ed.  Aria  lUS],  t^peared  in 
ISOO;  the  introdnotian  reveala  a  vsiy  metiiodioil 
mind.  The  next  soven  yean  were  apent  in  laboriooi 
UtBaiy  activity.  After  the  aecond  Bcitorstian, 
ha  beoaau  gnural  leaietary  to  the  Minietiy  of 
the  Interior,  aftvwardi  to  the  Miniitcy  of  Justice. 
Oa.  the  Tvtirement  of  Barbt-MarboiH,  O.  tendered 
hia  rcaignatian,  and  waa  fint  appointed  molfre  det 
ntptHa,  aftawarde  connciUor  of  Itate.  Q.  oontri- 
bnted  to  the  diiaolulion  of  the  ChatabrtlntromabU, 
bj  writing  a  T"'™'""^^  which  ww  plaoed  in  the 


handi  of  Lanli  XVlll.  bv  Deoaiea.   ^e  latter  ot..^- 

mitted  to  him  the  genanu  direotion  of  the  adminia. 

tntion  of  the  wammnet  and  d^taiemnU  [1S19]. 

-    wtWnga  from  1820  to  18!^  are  entitled  D* 


ikMAmuUla 


*  R^frtimlalif,  omitaining  hii  leotnrea 
at  the  Soifaenne  (where  be  held  the  poaition  of 
lectnrar  on  hiittar)  of  183fr_lS22  (new  ed.  1853). 
Oovenunent  fortwde  hii   leotnrea   in   182^  and 


notum  with  Mveral  other  moi  of  lettett,  he 
ibliahed  the  important  OcUeelitM  dti  Mtaokrtt 
ioMi  d  fBilmr*  dt  Frmea,  dtfuiii  la  Fonda- 
tim  dt  la  Monarebit  ituqu'au  19"  Siieh  (31  vok. 
Pari!  1823-1838)  I  ^  the  CoUecStm  da  ML 
vtoira  Selati/i  d  fButoirt  d»  la  Jllvoluiion  d'An. 
gUbrr*  (26  toIb.,  Faiia  1623).  Ha  likewiM  edited 
•areral  wwke  of  ether  anUuin,  with  inttodnction^ 
aniwtitionw,  and  addition!,  niich  ••  Letonrnenr'i 
tranalatinn  of  Sbakapeare  (12  vol).,  Parii  1821), 
Hallaro'a  Siiory  •/  St^/lamd,  and  Mably*!  Ob»er- 
BoMoM  mtr  tSutom  d»  .n«no«,  followed  by  the 
Bmou  Kir  tBitUAr*  dt  Franet.  In  addildou  to  all 
theie,  h«  publithed  bii  Sittoirt  de  la  Sivaiution 


^im  pwmmioQ 
mhiftory.    Thei 


Thete  wen  attmded 


by  a  ]»rgt  and  enthnmailio  andienoe,  and  nve 
to  MTenl  biitoriaal  work*  of  great  ^'"Sl  ^ 
liihed  under  the  ooUectiTe  title  ol  Court  tfSiioirt 


upnl^ 


JlfecfanM  (1828— 1830)  J  among  oUun,  the  Bittair* 
dt  la  QMUtaUiM  m  Frtmct  tUptut  la  Chvit  de 
rXnwin  Bomaitt  hamCd  ia  AAioIutea  Frtmfoim 
(S  vd*.,  Pwie,  lera— lesOi  Sth  ed.  ISIS),  and  the 
BiMrt  OtiUrait  dt  la  CitiiUtaiion  at  Ewopt,  Ao., 
which  aervee  aa  an  inbvdnotioa  to  the  former  work. 
On  the  lit  March  1829  he  agaia  took  hia  place 
in  the  ooondl  of  etat^  and  in  Jannaiy  1830  wat 
deoted  liy  the  town  of  Liaienx,  which  he  eontinued 

JdIv  revolution,  O.  became  tnocaadvely 


ireprewntii: 
After  the  Jitlv  revc 
Miniiter  of  Paolio  Inatmotion  and  Mlniatet  o 


Interior,  an  t^oe  whioh  he  held,  with  twti  inter- 
niption^  till  1836.  In  tbie  oapacity  ha  did  mniih 
for  the  improvement  at  educational  inatitntion^ 
parUcnlarly  the  primary  aoboolB.  On  the  breakins 
ont  of  the  Eeatem  disturbancea  in  the  beginning  id 
the  year  1S40,  under  Soult'i  admliuKtration,  Q.  waa 
"it  aaamhaaiador  to  London.  Aitcz  Soult'i  r«tire- 
nt,  in  September  ISIT,  he  became  the  official  leader 
the  oabinet,  which  maintained  iti  ground,  aa  tiie 
organ  of  Louia  Philippe*!  poliey,  till  the  febniary 
leTolntion  of  1846,  and  by  tti  condnot  both  in  home 
and  foreign  affiuri,  did  much  to  bring  ouiatitatioual 
goremment  bto  diarepntt^  and  to  hasten  the  ovn. 
uitow  of  the  Orleana  moiuuohT.  Aa  a  itateanun, 
Q.  in  eaiTjring  out  hia  lyatematio  and  rapnetive 
line  of  policy,  proved  hiniaelf  stiff,  one-nded,  and 
latteriv  obdnrate ;  from  these  auatrtiee,  aa  well  m 
from  hie  cold  and  disagreeable  manner,  he  waa 
always  unpopular  to  the  last  degree  with  the 
natum.  At  a  man  of  rectitude  and  anstere  monds, 
he  never  enriched  >iTn»flf  at  the  public  cost ;  bat 
nevartheleM,    from  politiaBl    motiTes,  he    allowed 

mott  flagrant  manner.  After  having  effected  hit 
escape  f^n  Paris,  he  retired  to  London,  where  be 
was  received  with  great  respect.  In  April  1849, 
be  published  a  ciiciuar  Giaxot  d  la  Amit,  in  which 
he  oSared  his  serviee!  to  the  electoia  of  France, 


t.Googlc 


amZOTU.— OULF  STKEAJI  ABD  OOEAN-OnBEGNTS. 


SD^Uui ,, ---   --- 

M  the  nuun  pTomota  of   tha  liuiao,  and  inota 
likewin    in   th«  Ai*enibUe  IfatvmaU,     The  eoup 


liwtiOL  .  .  . 

liii  owD  writingH  tuid  lectures,  be  did  macli  to  extend 
a  taste  for  hutoriool  studies  in  Fianoe.  In  IS37,  he 
was  intnuted  by  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  with  the  task  ofwritiug  a  hiitory  of  Waah- 
ington.  His  work,  published  nnder  the  title  Vie, 
Comtpondana,  tb  Eeritt  de  Wai/uTiglon  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1839—1840},  pcocnred  him  the  honour  of 
liaviii(;  his  portrait  placed  in  the  Chamber  of  Repre- 
sentatives at  Waabington.  After  the  Fahnury 
ItevolntioD,  0.  published  several  political  treati~" 
more  or  less  important,  some  of  wliioh  at  least 

TeiT  interesting  to  Englishmen,  suoh  as  Rtvahii 

d'Angitierre,  and  MmJc,  Chute  d«  la  BeptMiqM. 
He  likewise  wrote  MidHationt  tt  mitdt*  Xaraia  sw 
{aA«J>j7ion,IaPAUo*t>pAM!,fta(18S2);  CWruUlscisoK 
Temp*  [1B62) ;  Shalapfoxt  etton  Ttmpt  (181^. 
1858,  •pp«a(«d  hii  Mimoira  pour  aarir  d  r£u 
dt  mon  Tempt.  His  pnUiati<»i,  in  1861,  defending 
tiw  tamponJ  power  of  the  pope,  wat  a  strange  mw 
tat  a  ntiteslAnt.    Among  the  nuat  importMit  of  hU 


tonqtut  (1869),  Ac      u.    wh  uitids  marriBa  ; 

first  two  wives  were  aocomdiahed  women,  and 

unknown  in  Uteratnre.  He  died  Sept.  12,  1871 
At  the  time  of  his  death,  he  wm  enga^d  in  writing 
a  histoiy  of  France. — His  mm,  Mlctbicb  GuniiimtK, 
has  shewn  by  hia  JUtnandre,  EUide  Hittorique  tar 
la  ConUdie  et  la  SoeUit  Grecgwa  (1865),  that  he  is 
not  destttnte  of  his  fathei's  genios, 

GUIZOTIA.    See  RiM-m. 

OnJEBAT,  or  OUZERAT,  a  waUed  town  of  the 
Punjab,  in  lat  32*  3ff  N.  and  long.  74*  E.,  stands 
OD  the  right  side  of  the  Chenab,  about  8  miles 
from  the  stream.  It  is  a  place  of  some  militBi; 
and  political  importance,  bemg  on  the  gr«at  rente. 
between  Attock  and  Inhere.  Here,  on  Slat 
Febmaiy  1849,  a  Sikh  aimj  of  60,000  men  was 
utterly  defeated  by  a  British  tone,  decidedly 
inferior  in  point  of  nnmben. 

OTTLDEIT.    See  ViOBin, 

OTJLES  (Fr.  gvaJet,  the  mouth  and  throat,  hence 
red.  Other  origias  are  given,  such  as  the  Persian 
ghiU,  a  niee  or  rose  colour,  which  seems  more  prob- 
able than  the  Hebrew  jTuZiufe,  a  piece  of  red  cloth, 
from  which  Mackenzie  derives  it ;  it  being  •caroelj 


from  the  top 

Hkraldst.  It  is  supposed  to  ;n^t«»tt  valour, 
maananimity,  and  the  uke,  and  ii  regarded  as  the 
most  honourable  heraldic  oolour. 

GULF  STREAM  «n>  OOEAN-OUKEENTa 
"nie  most  important  and  be«t  known  of  the  great 
oceanM^nrrents  derives  its  name  from  the  Gulf  of 
Uexico,  out  of  which  it  flows,  between  the  coast  of 
Florida  on  tlie  one  side,  and  Cuba  aod  the  Bahuna 
Islands  and  fh'^t^M  on  the  other.  Witli  a  breadth  of 
about  00  mile*  in  il«  narrowMt  portioii,  it  hu  a  velo- 
d^  at  time*  of  five  mSea  an  hour,  pooling  along  like 


padually  widening  its  . ..    .  ^  _ 

Tclod^,  nnt)]  it  reaches  the  island  and  Banks  of, 
Newfoondlsud,  when  it  sweepa  leiaH  the  Atlantio, 


and  divides  into  two 

eastward  iowsid  the ,  , 

iriiile  the  other  lares  tlie  sh<nea  of  the  BritiA 
Islands  and  Norway,  and  oan  be  parodved  on  the 
sonthsm  bordera  of  lodand  and  Spitibetgen,  nearif 
a*  Imx  east  aa  Nova  ZamUa. 

The  waters  of  the  Qnlf  Stream  are  of  a  deep 
indifo  bine,  with  boimdarias  sharply  ddned  agaiosk 
the  Jught  green  of  the  seas  through  iritioll  it  pSMCa 
in  its  eariy  oouise.  It  abounds  with  mMMS  irf 
sea-weed,  torn'  from  the  ooral  rooks  of  the  attait 
throuf^  which  it  paases  when  it  hai  its  greateat 

ewer  and  velocity ;  while  in  its  wano  ennent  maw 
seen  myriads  of  fish  and  of  animalenhe.  As  thi* 
great  sbfam  pours  out  of  the  Gulf  of  Hadaow  it 
DM  a  warmth  of  84*  in  nimnier,  being  4*  hi^er 
than  that  of  the  ooean  at  the  equator.  In  nud- 
Atlantio,  oppouta  Ifova  Scotia,  it  liM  fallen  at  aQ 
seasons  only  about  14* ;  while  tibe  British  ^I'limlt 
and  north-western  ooatts  of  EoMp^  at  a  distance 
of  4000  milea  from  the  Oulf,  are  bathed  with 
waters  heated  under  a  tropical  sun,  and  hava  thtdr 
tempetatnree  ntsed  in  winter  about  30*  above  tliB 
DOrrnsl  temperature  of  the  latitudea.  In  mid-winter, 
off  the  inclement  coaata  ot  America,  between  C^ft 
Hattraas  and  Newfonndluid,  ship*  beaten  back 
from  thcdr  harbonn  by  fieroe  north-weatenL  nstJI 
loaded  down  with  ioe  and  in  danger  of  foondtria^ 
ir  pittwB  to  the  easlt  mi  seA  relief  atd 
b  tiie  Oulf  Stream.  A  bank  of  fw  rising 
rail,  caused  fay  the  oondeoiation  d  warn 
meeting  a  colder  atmomhere,  marks  the  edge 
of  the  alKMn.  31ie  water  aiiadaily  dungea  tma 
gretin  to  bine,  the  dimate  from  wintnta  summer; 
and  this  change  is  so  sudden,  that  when  a  ditp  ia 
crcaung  the  line,  a  diffwence  of  30*  of  tenpoacnn 
has  bemi  marked  between  the  bow  and  the  item. 

The  great  difierences  ot  temperatnn  between  the 
western  ihon»  of  Europe  and  the  eastern  dwres  of 
America  have  been  attnbatad,  too  laigdy,  perinea, 
to  the  influence  U  th«  Oulf  Sfaeam.  Tbm  i*  no 
doubt  that  such  an  immensa  body  d  hai^  water 
in  the  Noftii-eastem  Atlantic  mnit  raise  the  teaa> 
peratnre  of  the  atmoeiJiere,  and  that  to  Una  inpoita- 
tion  of  the  efiM*  ol  nopioal  Baoahine  br  sea  u  due, 
to  a  certain  extent,  Ireland's  perpeinal  green,  Ot» 
soft  moiit  climate  m  AuUnd  and  Sootiand,  and  tin 
fact  that  the  hsriMon  of  the  western  and  northern 
coasts  of  Norway,  as  far  eaat  as  Varaaser  Fjud, 
tin  open,  when  the  Baltic,  much  fnrtW  aMttL 
sheet  ot  ice.  Bngland,  clothed  in  pemnnial 
verdure  and  Scotland,  where  the  grasa  grows 
during  eleven  montha  of  the  year,  are  in  the 
same  latitude  as  the  frosen  and  norriUe  coast  of 
Labrador.  Norway  is  opposite  Oreenland ;  and 
Lisbon,  where  frost  is  scHoely  known,  ia  in  the 
same  latitude  as  Washington,  iriiere  the  Potomao 
river,  a  mile  in  bread^  iontetimea  beecea  over  In  a 
sinele  niriit.  Hiii  ^ffetenoe  is  to  be  ascribed,  not 
to  toe  Oolf  Stream  ahma,  but  totiiat  fncoi^unction 
with  the  pmvailinsaonth-weateily  winds.  TheHedi- 
An,  exposed  to  no  cold  oonents  frcsn  the 
re^ons,  bearing  her^  and  fidds  of  loei  ia 
tant  reodver  and  distributer  of  heat,  and 
les  the  temperature  of  adjacent  regiona. 
North  America,  on  the  contrary,  is  tjapuaed  along 
its  eastern  shore  to  a  great  current  from  ti» 
Polar  Seaa,  running  inside  and  oounter  to  the 
QuU  Stream,  and  ooming  loaded  wit^  ioe  fron 
the  northam  regJous ;  and  while  the  cootiBent 
natTows  toward  the  tn^ios,  it  grows  hmad  in  the 
polar  r^ana,  from  whidi  come  the  cold  notk- 
' —    the  prerdling  winds  during  the  wint^ 


rulf  Strean  upon  tem 
re  strikingly  ohanvad 

dbyLjOOgle 


OULV  SISEAU  AND  OQBAlf-CmiBENTg. 


hi^  northern  lAtitadso.  Where  the  mrta  itream 
bom  the  aonth-weat  meeti  the  Arctic  corrent  in  the 
Ikt.  of  loehmd,  n  difference  ol  IT  hu  been  obaeired. 
In  tiekting  of  the  cause  or  cMuea  of  the  OoU 
Stiouo,  «•  Mart  take  »  geneial  view  of  ocean- 
canenta.  Taken  altogether,  they  fonn  a  connected 
■fitem  irhieh  baa  been  aptl;'  compared  to  the 
ciTcuIation  of  the  blood.  The  tvo  prime  moreni 
ara  diflerencea  of  temperatoie  and  prevalent  winds. 
Seft-water  of  average  aaltDeaB  doei  not  freeze  until 
it  u  coded  down  to  aboat  2S° ;  and,  unlike  freah 
water,  it  otHitiiines  to  graw  heaTier  down  to  that 
point  The  eSeot  of  the  intense  cold  ol  the  polar 
r^iona  ii  thus  to  caoae  a  conctant  ainking  down  of 
the  (nrfaoe-water,  and  to  eatabliih  a  onrrent  ol 
Joe-cold  water  aJons  the  bottom  towarda  the  equa- 
tor ;  while  to  topp^  the  place  of  what  ainka  down, 
an  indraught  or  northward  flow  takea  place  on 
the  mrface,  which  bringt  tHe  warm  water  of  the 
temperate  and  liopicsl  r^ons  toward  the  poles. 
This  ii  the  general  theory  of  the  vertiaU  drcu- 
lation  o(  the  ocean — a  circniation  which  might 
almost  be  aasamed  from  Oie  well-known  laws  of 
the  Sow  of  liquids,  and  which  recent  observations 
have  estahliBbed  as  a  fact.  The  general  preralence 
of  cold  currents  along  the  bed  of  the  ocean  from 
the  pides  to  the  equator  ia  now  beyond  diqiote. 
The  MnuidiiigB  taken  reoentiy  by  H.M.8  ChaOatffer 
abew  the  temperature  of  the  bottom  water  between 
Sombrero  in  the  West  Indies  and  TWneriffe  to  vary 
from  3i'A  to  3G*'S ;  while  at  tiie  equator  it  ia  in 
some  places  still  lower,  being  only  32°4.  lliis  is 
held  to  prove  that  the  Antarctic  bottom  current 
extends  to  the  equator  and  twrond  it.  Motion 
once  thus  benin,  however,  is  difienbtly  tnodiSed 
in  each  locuity  by  the  shuie  of  uie  coasts, 
by  prevalent  windL  and  ol^er  cironmstanoes. 
Kit  one  cause  which  modifisi  all  currents  that 
tend  ntber  north  or  bouUi,  is  the  daily  rol 
of  the  earth.  In  the  very  same  way  that  the 
tiOD  of  the  eartbmves  the  trade- vrinds  their  pecnliai 
directions  (see  mtros),  it  causes  the  oold  currents 
ooming  fiKni  the  polea  to  turn  towards  tiie  sooth. 
west,  aod  the  Burfaae-ourrentB  from  the  south  to 
take  a  uodh-eaHt  direction.  At  the  eqoator,  any 
■pot  on  the  surface  ia  moving  eaatwatd  at  the  rate  of 
1000  T"i'—  an  hmir ;  at  60°  north  latitad^  the  velo- 
ci^  is  only  one  haU.  l^ns,  the  water  of  a  eortent 
starting  from  the  equator  northward,  is  eonstutty 
aaoing  to  plaoea  when  Ou>  bottom  under  it  has  less 
and  IcM  eastward  relodty.  But,  by  the  law  of 
inertia,  the  water  tmda  to  mtun  the  samo  ydoci^ 
eaatwaid  with  which  it  started,  and  thus  it  moves 


^ ooaat  of  Portugal  and  Morooois  the 

other  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  along  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  as  far  as  the  Qulf  of  Oninea. 
When  the  eijaatorial  current  readies  the  coast  of 
Braial,  it  divides  into  two  branches.  One  proceeds 
southwards,  taming  gradually  eastwarda  across 
the  Atlantic  until  it  falls  in  with  the  northem 
in-draughC  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The 
other  branch  ia  deflected  northwards  into  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  water  thus 
driven  into  this  pent-up  sea  now  ruahea  with 
accumulated  momentum  through  &a  strait  or  gulf 
between  ^orida  and  the  Bahamas,  and  forma  the 
famous  Onlf  Sl^eam. 
It  has  usually  been  held  that  the  Onlf  Stream 
isuds  aeroBB  the  Atlantic  to  the  shores  of  Northern 
Europe,  and  is  the  cause  of  the  mild  and  moist 
climate  enji^ed  by  the  western  parts  of  that  conti- 
nent. The  opinion,  however,  is  b^inning  to  pre- 
vail that,  as  a  distinct  current,  the  OuU  Stream 
ceas«e  in  the  middle  of  &e  North  Atlantic,  its 
waters  bdng  by  this  time  thinned  out  to  a  mere 
film,  and  its  initial  Telocitr  and  distinctive  heat 
having  been  dia^bated.     lliat  warm  waters  from 


tin  east  of  iKvtli — shooting  ahead,  as  it  were,  of 

isfwwinbas  "  ~'~  "" 

pace,    l^e  c 
poM  to  a  sbesBu  flowing  from  north  to  south.  _    Jn 
this  oase,  the  eastwud  motion  or  motal  inertia  of 


wboNhorse  al 


.  _  rider  does 
contrary  hap- 
bo  south.     In 


tropical  seas  a 


Dugiit  to  the  coasts  of  Britain, 


tlM  bottom  over  which  it  is  flowing  i 

'iMM  his  pace,    ^e 

flowing  from  north 

_  „itwaTd  motion  or  m 

too  slow  for  the  parts  of  the  bottom  to 

which  it  soGoeanTelT  oomes ;  the  bottom  slips  in  a 
manner  from  und^t,  and  it  falla  to  west  of  south. 
This^  in  comlnuatioa  with  the  action  of  opposing 
coasts,  accounts  for  the  circular  sweep  which  many  of 
the  cortents  make,  retatning  partly  into  themselyes. 
Diflerent  in  origin  buai  thia  Tsrtical  circulation, 
though  partly  mixed  up  with  it  ia  ths  korbatUU 
circnLtiim  caused  by  prevalent  winds.  The  best 
example  of  this  is  the  Equatorial  Corrent,  whioh 
acts  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa  to  the  east  coast 
of  Braal,  and  whiti  is  owing  to  the  action  of  tiie 
trado-winda.  Correnla  caused  by  winds  are  called 
'  drift-currents,'  in  opposition  to  the  deeper  seated 
'sttcam-cnrrenta.'  In  order  to  feed  this  westerly 
equatorial  current,  there  spring  up  two  in-drangU 
carrents,  which  also  follow  the  prevailing  winds  of 
their  reapcotiTe  regions — the  one  from  the  north 
ZIS 


being  frequently  cast  ashore  on  the  Hebrides,  the 
nortE  of  Norway,  and  Spitsbergen.  But  this  is 
accounted  for  by  the  general  flow  of  the  surface- 
water  tovrards  the  poles,  forming  part  of  the  vertical 
oceanic  circulation  ;  a  flow  which  receives  an  east- 
ward deflection  aa  it  proceeds  noitliwards,  in  tiie 
way  above  eipl^ned.  This  general  set  of  the  sur- 
face-water is  further  promoted  by  the  prevalence 
ol  south-westerly  winds,  which  nuuntain  a  pretty 
constant  north-east  drift  over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  north-eaatem  portion  of  the  Atlantic.  In 
this  way,  although  the  Qulf  Stream  may  have  lost 
its  original  impetus,  a  large  portion  of  the  super- 
heated water  which  it  brings  into  the  centre  of  the 
Atiuitic  is  carried  to  the  sEoies  of  Europe  and  into 
the  Arctic  Sea. 

The  Pacifio  Ocean  has  also  its  great  eqnatonJ 
or  trade-wind  current,  but  there  is  no  great  basin 
like  the  Gulf  of  Meiico  to  gather  the  waters  of 
another  Qulf  Stream.  A  portion  of  the  equatorial 
current  passea  northward  along  the  ihorA  of  China 
and  Japan:  a  portion  passes  through  tile  narrow 
ofaaun^  of  the  Indian  seas,  and  another  portion 
turns  aonthward  toward  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land, affecting,  doubtless,  the  isothermal  Hues  in 

., i_i..^_a_.   — a  — 1 ; —  :.  connter-onrrents 

'  i  into  the 


those  latitudes,  and  retorning  in  count* 
to  Cape  Hom,aad  even  pasamg  around 


Atlantic  While  thus  a  poAon  of  the  great 
oonnter  or  Polar  current  of  the  South  Pacific  iweej— 
around  Cape  Horn,  another  portion  passes  up  tl 
western  coast  of  Sonth  Amenca  across  the  equator 
to  5°  N.  lai  ;  and  its  coolness  is  sensiblv  felt,  and 
was  carefully  observed  by  Baron  HumboUt  on  the 
coast  of  Peru.  The  currents  in  the  waters  between 
the  Paoifio  and  Indian  Oceans  are  also  vsrioualy 
affected  by  the  monsoons,  and  in  some  places  run 
six  monUis  in  one  direction,  and  six  montiis  in  tiie 
opposite,  clearly  proving  that  they  are  mainly 
dependent  upon  Me  direction  and  foroe  of  XM 
winds.  A  chart  of  ocean  currents  was  published 
by  the  Admiralty  in  1872,  which  proves  beyond  a 
doubt  that  it  is  almost  wholly  to  the  prevailii^ 
winds  we  must  look  for  an  explanation 
currents. 

At  first  sight,  it  appears  incredible  that  a 
current  of  water  rfiould  force  its  way  through 
the  ocean  with  sharply  defined  bonndaries,  and  a 
peculiar  colour,  temperabire,  and  inhabitants,  like 
a  great  river  flowing  between  its  banks,  for  thou* 


"ijGoogte 


GUUrWEBD— GULL. 


aanda  of  nule^,  And  ftgajiut 
cwrenti,  whioh  ev«n  croa  iU  conraa,  puaing  under 
1>j  their  luperior  deaut^,  until  it  locea  itn  momaD- 
tum  on  the  shorts  of  distant  continenta,  or  sprewb 
ODt  ita  warm  flood  on  the  bosom  of  Dortbem  sou. 
Bnt  a  cloeer  obaarration  will  satiBfy  as  that  all  this 
is  in  accordanoe  with  the  lavs  of  hydrodynamics. 
At  the  confloenoe  of  the  clear  waters  of  the 
Uiwissippi  with  the  turbid  current  of  the  Miasoari, 
the  two  riren  do  not  at  oac«  nnite,  but  ran  side 
tur  tide  with  a  sharply  defined  booiidBry  between 

them  for  many  a  league.    So  great  — *-- 

into  the  ocean,  are  rivers  sbll,  fi 
The  current  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  which  drains 
the  aoutham  portion  of  South  America,  can  be 
paraeJTad  200  miles  from  land ;  and  the  Amazon 
■weeps  far  into  the  Atlantio,  though  gradually  bent 
northwardly  by  Qia  great  trade-wind  cuireut,  and 
then  oarried  along  toe  coast,  to  help,  with  the 
Otinooo,  to  swell  tM  waters  of  the  Gall  of  Mexico ; 
so  that  tlia  waten  of  tlie  Amazon,  the  Orinoco,  the 
Eio  Otaade,  and  the  MJWMripm,  all  join  to  swell 
tlie  Gulf  Stream. 

The  channel  of  the  GuU  Strean 
portioa  is  of  great  depth.  From  obeervatiana  made 
by  Hts  OheSlaiger  m  1873,  in  that  part  of  the 
itream  between  Bermuda  and  Ifew  York,  it  is  seen 
ttw  .Qulf  Steoun  is  there  about  100  fathoms  dee^ 
and  80  miles  in  wid£h.  The  probabili^  of  ita 
having  hollowed  out  for  itself  a  well.defined  channel 
likette'    '    " 


«bedofari 


a  sudden  in 


have  been  made ;  but  so  little  oan  be  known  of  .  . 
effect  of  ourrenta  np<n  a  line  of  20,000  feet  in 
length,  and  which  requina  jeveral  honn  to  nm  off 
the  reel,  that  we  cannot  place  im^idt  reliance  on 
luoh  obaairationB. 

More  important  obaerratioQa  on  the  oonnea  and 
infiuenoe  (d  these  correnta  b 
taken  by  dropping   bottles   containing 

latitude,  and  longitude,  in  all  parts  of  

Thew  bottUa,  when  found  upon  a  ooast  thousands 
of  miles  distant,  give  some  indication  of  the 
direotdon  and  velocity  of  the  ourrenta  that  have 
brought  tham  ;  but  such  testimony  is  not  infallible. 
The  bottle  may  be  impeded  by  contrary  winds, 
blown  into  oounter-cnrrents,  or  whirled  uout  for 
months  in-eddiea.  A  bottle  thrown  overboard  in 
the  Indian  Ocean  might  reach  tlie  ialand  of  Spitz- 
bergeo,  eid  the  Oulf  of  Meiioo ;  but  there  are  many 
diBooea  that  it  wonld  be  thrown  out  of  the  rerular 
curren^  and  be  picked  up  oo  the  shores  of  New 
Zealand  or  the  coast  of  Peru.  See  I>r  Franklin's 
Mariame  Obtervaiioiu,  PownaQ's  BydranBe  and 
NavOcal  Obtrvattoru,  Homboldt^s  AlUu  Oto- 
frrapUm*  ct  PAwt^u^  Johnston's  Pk^dad  AUat, 
Maury's  PhyucaiOtography  qf  the  Seat,  and  Wind 
isnd  CvtrtKt  CharU,  and  Adnuralty  wind  and  cnr- 
toit  diarta  for  Pacific,  Atlantic,  aiid  Indian  Oceana. 


Atlantio,  Pacific,  aiid  Indian  Oceana.  They  .__ 
bojncal  plants,  althou^  sometimed  carried  by  winds 
and  cntrenta  to  the  British  coaats.  The  mind  is 
vary  long,  and  i*  famished  with  distinct,  stalked, 
nerved  kaves,  and  simple  axillary  stalked  air- 
veaadi.  The  receptacles  are  linear,  in  small  axillary 
dnitan  or  lacemca.  The  trivial  name  hae^tntm 
applied  to  one  of  tiie  n>eoiea,  ii  derired  fnnn  Uie 
b«rry-Uke  appearance  of  the  air-veasela.  The  G. 
haa  only  been  found  fioating,  bnt  there  is  reaeon  to 
tikink  that  it  is  at  fint  attached  to  the  bottom  of 
comparativdy  ahaUov  parta  of  the  ■«&  It  floats 
in  la^se  flelds,  or  mora  &«quentlj  in  long  yellow 


—  ._  the  wind.  IneroMinK  the 
Atlanlic,  its  presence  it  regarded  aa  a  aara  indica- 
tion of  the  Gulf  Stream,  ^  whioh  it  ia  wafted 
northward  and  eaatward.  Where  the  Onlf  Stream 
is  deflected  from  the  banks  of  Newfoonilland  east- 
ward, and  sends  off  its  more  aoathem  branch 
towards  the  Aiores,  is  situated  the  Sarga—o  Bta, 
'that  great  bank  of  weeds,  which  ao  vividly 
occupied  the  imsoination  of  Christopher  Colnmbm, 
and  which  Ovirao  calls  the  sea-'wead  meadcwi' 
iMtanboldt).  The  i^nantdty  of  floating  s^weed  ll 
often  such  as  to  impede  the  pragt«Mi  of  ships. 
Multitudes  of  mnall  marine  imim*Jj|  aooompany  it, 
with  fishee  ready  to  prey  ud  them. — The  G.  u  eaten 
in  China;  and  in  other  parts  of  the  ^aat  also,  it  is 
used  in  salads  and  as  a  pickle. 

GtJLIirLHA,  a  genua  of  South  Americao  ptltot,  ' 
with  pinnate  leaves  (entire  in  young  plaiite),  natives  { 
of  the  lower  mountain- ranges  of  Pem  and  New  j 
Granada.    One  spedM,  0.  tptciota,  is  much  planted 


is  often  CO  feet  high,  having  an  erect  slender  steoi, 
encircled  witli  many  rings  of  needle-like  spinca, 
and  numerous  drooping  leave*  [orminx  a  nearly 
spherical  crown.  It  is  varionaly  called  PnpaaAa, 
Paripoa,  Ac,  and  lometimea  Peach  PoIth. 

ODLL  {Lotm),  a  genua  of  web-footed  birds,  o( 

the  family  Larida  ' •-■-'- -  — 

ooaata  of  all  parta 

of  the  head   and  bill  of  aevBral 


■pedea  is  given 


and  a  small  hind-toe  n 

luting.    The ' 

. ra  great  poww  of  wiw^ix' 

fly  apparmtly  with  ease  aninat  a  wtona,  aaiing 

'*"   — " "(  whioh  they  generally  fly  lo*i 

or  land,  bnt  in.  fine  wMthsr  soar 
in  whioh  tbcv  aesm  to  dalig^  ^ 


tyGOOgllT 


GULLET— aUM, 


dejitfa ;  bnt  they  an  not  good  diren,  kod  tha  fiahw 
which  they  c»tich  an  ohiefly  thoM  whioh,  like  tlw 


Head*  ot  Tarioiu  Spedes  of  Oitlli : 

I,  QlHt  DIuk-liKkBd  (jDiinf  1  ;  3,  Btuk-llKldei]  |    3,  KltU- 
mlif ;  4,  LcMcr  Bhet-bHkFd ;  s,  HvrlDg  ObIL 

hening  sod  otben  of  the  sama  family,  awim  near 
Hie  BiiHace.  They  are  Tery  Toncioni.  Thai)'  food 
oooniflCa  of  aJmoat  aDything  ■nimal  Many  of  them 
are  wholly  or  partiBlly  migratory,  breeditiB  in  eolder 
regions  Uian  those  which  they  inhabit  u  winter. 
In  eenera],  they  lay  only  two  or  three  e^ga,  wMah 
aie  lai^  for  the  aize  of  toe  bird. 

Many  of  the  j^alls  are  (reqnent  riaiton  of  inland 
diatricta,  aaoending  rirart,  And  hovering  orar  them 
in  qneat  of  prer  as  over  the  «ea.  Some  of  tham  are 
alio  often  to  be  Been  ta  meadowa  and  plon^i^ 
fieldi,  aecking  for  womia  and  sther  auoh  food.  It 
ia  a  common  notion  in  Britain  that  the  appaaianca 
of  Knlli  in  inland  diatricta  hetokena  atonny  weather. 
But  in  America,  the  migratiana  of  >ome  of  the 
Bpeciea  between  the  nortlieiTt  aeaa  and  the  Qulf  of 
Mexico  are  performed,  not  only  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  bnt  by  the  (^reftt  lakee  and  the  valleya  of  the 
Ohio  and  the  Miaaiaaippi,  and  a  few  oocaaionally 
remain  and  breed  near  theae  inland  waters.  Iates 
floolu  of  a  apecies  of  gall  {L.  taranut)  frequent  the 
lakea  of  the  nigh  table-landa  of  Peru. 

8ome  at  leaat  of  the  larger  gulls  break  the 
■liffllg  of  molloBca  by  '-'^ —  ^^ —  - —  **  -  — *— — ■*■ 
height  in  the  air,  t 
Thia  intereatinK  tie 
Amwrican  oroiUioIofpat^  aa  having  come  under  hia 
own  ohaetralion,  tod  he  meniiona  an  '""■^■"'•a  in 
whioh  ft  gull,  finding  the  ahdl  not  broken  by  tLe 
fall,  oamed  it  np  a  aeoond  and  a  third  time,  and 

The  fleah  of  gulla  is  rather  eoaraes  bnt  that  <d  the 
yonng  ia  in  reqneat  on  many  northern  coaata  aa  an 
aitic^  of  food,  and  ia  aalted  for  winter  naa.  The 
uvB  of  oertain  apeeiea,  anch  aa  the  Black-headed 
qSU,  are  aaid  to  be  Tory  palatable,  and  are  oolleoted 
in  great  qnantitiea  in  some  placea  where  thaae  bird* 
breed  in  large  nnmbera. 

The  plumage  of  golla  is  generally  in  great  part 
white,  Tariomly  mu»d  with  gray,  ■late-odour, 
brown,  amd  black.  ^Hu  wbit<^  in  tome  apeeiea, 
■wiiiiiiia  k  Toay  tist  in  the  breediBg  aeaapB;  ^d 


th«  head  of  aome  baoomM  black.  The  diffamoea 
of  plumage,  according  to  age  and  MMOn  and  aez, 
are  reiy  conaiderable,  and  have  led  to  many  arrort 

One  of  the  most  oommon  British  apeoiea  is  the 
BiiACK-HKASKD  OiTLL  (£.  ridibundtu),  the  whole 
length  of  which  ta  about  16  inches;  anoUier  ia  the 
CoMKOH  Quu,  or  SiA-vxw  (£.  eanui),  mcatly  of 
u  gray  oolour  above,  and  white  below,  fuUy  13 
inohee  long ;  tile  ElKBllfa  Guu,  {L.  taytnUUut),  a 
still  larger  ipeciea,  is  common  on  rocky  coast* ; 
the  KlTTlWAKl  (A  tridact]/lui  or  L.  Tina),  rather 
smaller  than  the  firat-namcd  >peciea,  gray  and 
white,  deBtitat«  of  hind-toe,  ii  plentifni  whate  the 
coaat  is  girt  with  rocky  jasoipioe*,  on  the  narrow 
ledgea  of  which  it  makes  tta  neat;  ita  yonng  and 
egm  are  among  the  chief  objecta  of  pursuit  of  tha 
rook-fowlera ;  Om  Lvmt  BLiTK-ucxm  Oou. 
{L.fiueus),  abont  23  inohea  long,  ia  pretty  common, 
at  leaat  in  the  north ;  the  Gsxi.!  Bi.ack-backzd 
Guu.  or  Wagel  (L.  morinut),  nearly  30  inohn 
long,  is  not  rare;  and  the  Glidooos  Gull  or 
Bukoomavixb  {L.  jfjoueuj],  scarcely  inferior  to  it 
in  sise,  thoogh  by  aoms  supposed  to  he  identical 
with  the  Great  Black-booked  spaoiM,  of  a  pale 
bluish-gra^  oolonr  above,   and  white  below,  is  a 

—'~' ^-itant  from  the  arctic  regions.   This  apsdes 

have  acquired  it«  name  of  Burgonuuter 

from  the  snperiority  which,  in  virtue  of  ita  size  and 
strength,  it  sasarts  over  most  of  the  smaller  birds 
^t  i  11.  ipelling  them  to  relinquish 

ime  of  the  Biitith  apeoies 
m  in  North  America,  aa 
the  Herring  Gull,  the  Great  Bloek-baoked  Gall, 
and  the  Kittiwoke;  bat  the  CoMHOir  Aukiosji 
Gull  (X-  soaorAyKAw)  >•  not  found  on  the  eastern 
shore*  of  the  Atlantic 

GTTLLET.    See  (Esofbaoiis. 

QUH,  a  general  tenn  applied  to  oertain  exa- 
datkme  from  tteea  and  plants,  which  are  rai^ 
different  in  their  diemical  ohuacters  and  tbear 
general  properties.  In  its  strictest  sense,  gum  is  a 
sabatonCB  which  dissolTes  in  watv,  fanning  a  trana- 
patvut  mooilsge ;  it  is  inaolnble  in  ether,  alcohol. 
Odd  oils,  sither  fixed  or  volatile,  and  is  convertible 
into  oxalic  acid  by  the  aotion  of  sulphuric  acid. 

1.  Ovm  Arable,  which  is  gathered  from  the  etema 
of  .^cdoia  An^Ma  and  Acafxx  mto,  two  legumiooua 
trees  found  in  Northern  Africa,  and  in  aome  part* 
of  Aaia.  It  varies  in  colour  from  a  light  straw  to 
a  eamet  red,  and  ia  more  or  leas  tnuuporent :  the 
li^test  is  always  the  best.  It  is  imported  from 
Barbery  and  Turkey. 

2.  Barlxuy  Cum,  a  daik-oolonred  variety,  also 
ipoiied  from  the  Uaroooo  coest     It  ho*  some 

qualidfis  whioh  rcmdcr  it  particnlarlj  valuable  to 
confeotioucn,  in  the  manntoctnre  of  loiengea,  fto. 
It  is  the  produce  of  aaotJier  apeeiee  of  aoooia,  A. 
gmran^fera. 

3.  Ovm  Qedda,  an  inferior  quality  of  Barbaij  gum. 

4.  Ovm  Senegal  is  in  fine  luve,  round  tears, 
generally  larger  than  tha  finest  Gum  Arabic  ;  it 
IS,  however,  urker  in  colour,  being  a  sherry  brown, 
with  aometinue  a  slight  pinkiah  tint  perceptible 
on  the  surface  of  the  drops  or  tears.  It  is  found 
generally  in  the  tropical  porta  of  the  waeteni  coast 
of  Africa,  and  is  yielded  by  two  apeeiea  of  ooaci^ 
viz.,  A.  Smeg^  and  A.  Baj/oL  It  ia  mnoh  valued 
for  dieting  various  textile  fabrics,  such  as  muslins 
and  silks,  and  is  slso  used  by  oonfeotioiiet*  for  the 
flneat  kinds  of  loaengie,  k«.  The  Aeada  Arabiea 
ia  also  found  in  the  Eoat  Indin,  and  ia  su^Niaed 
to  yield,  wiUi  other  tpeeia^  tha  following  guiqs 


hyCoogle 


OUUBtNHHtr— OUU-BOIL. 


5.  Oitnt  OatUe,  whioli  U  imported  very  lai^ 
and  ia  prodnoed  in  the  Deccao,  Coucan,  ani 
Gajsrat. 

6.  Oum  Babool,  an  inferior  gnm,  imported  from 

7.  Eait  Indiaa  Ovm,  a  tolerably  good  variety, 
imported  from  Bombay. 

8.  Quia  Oomraimida,  an  inferior  variety,  from 
theprovince  of  OomraTuttee. 

'niese  East  Indian  guma  are  all  dark  ooloured, 
and  are  much  inferior  to  those  produced  in  Africa ; 
they  are,  however,  eiteiuivelT  impari»d  into  the 
porta  of  London  and  Liverpool ;  over  200  toiu  are 
annually  received  into  those  ports. 

The  gimu  above  described  principally  conaiBt  of 
a  material  which  chemists  have  called  AraJm,  from 
its  being  tlie  chief  constituent  of  Oum  Arabic  We 
now  come  to  another  class  of  gums,  in  which  another 
material,  called  Bauorin,  from  its  being  first  noticed 
in  an  aoalyBis  of  Oum  Baiiora,  is  more  or  lesa 
present.    Iliese  are : 

J.  G^im  Tn^acanih,  or  Dragon,  yielded  by  the 
leguminous  shrub  Aitraaaliii  tragacantha ;  it  vnt 
known  to  tiie  ancient  Greeks  under  the  name  of 
tTag<'hatt(ha.  The  finest  pieces  are  in  flakes,  from  an 
inch  to  on  inch  and  a  half  in  leneth,  and  from  balf 
ou  inch  to  an  inch  in  width.  This  gum  is  mora  or 
less  white,  and  nearly  opaque,  that  which  is  whitest 
and  most  opaqae  being  the  best  It  is  only  partly 
soluble  in  water,  forming  a  white  paste,  instead  of  a 
transparent  solntiou ;  with  vinegar  or  dilute  acfitio 
acid,  it  also  fonus  a  similar  poote,  and  ia  a  valnable 
cement,  holding  light  materials  with  great  tenacity. 
It  is  used  OS  a  etifiening  material  for  various  textile 
fabrics,  and  il  much  vuued  for  this  purpose,  where 
give  gloas  to  the  material     We 

It  is  mostly  produced 

2.  Qvm  Kvleera,  yielded  by  SlereuUa 

the  Coromandd  coast    It  is  now  only  an  <  . . 

import,  though  formerly  a  considerable   quantity 
was  brooght  to  this  country. 

3.  Chim  Bn**>ro.— This  is  imported  from  Bas- 
sora ;  hence  its  name ;  but  althougb  long  known 
in  commerce,  it  has  not  been  aati^aotoriiy  deter- 
mined wliat  plant  produces  it.  Only  a  very  small 
quantity  reaches  this  oountty  from  brae  to  tmie. 

4.  African  or  Sierra  Leone  TVofweanA— This  is 
occasionally  imported  in  tmall  quantitiea  from 
Western  Africa,  and  is  produced  by  StereuUa 
tTogtKantha. 

Besides  the  true  gwna^  there  are  the 

Omi-sxBiNa,  whi^  are  much  more  mixed  in  their 
ohenucal  constituent! ;  in  general  terms,  however, 
they  may  be  said  to  consist  of  certain  rodns  soluble 
in  alcohol,  and  of  the  true  gum,  so  that  it  requires 
both  water  and  alcohol  to  dissolve  them  entarely. 
They  are  chiefly  used  in  medidne  and  perfmnery, 
and  may  be  said  to  form  a  connecting-link  between 
the  true  gums  and  the  true  reains,  commercially 
speaking.    The  prindpal  are  < 

1.  Own  Atafadida.  See  ARAr<Krn>a.  2.  Qum 
Semoin  or  Benjanm.  See  Behioih.  3.  Oum  Btifrax 
or  Slorax  is  another  sweetraoented  gom-resin,  pro- 
duced by  Stgrax  ofitiiMJi*  in  Turkey  in  Asia.  It 
is  osnally  liquid,  of  tJie  conaistence  of  tretcle,  and  a 
blackish  or  dark-gray  colour.  It  is  also  lued  in 
p«rinmery.  4.  Oum  Sagapenitm,  another  medidnal 
gam  with  unpleasant  garhc-like  odour,  dark-brown 
colour,  and  a  soft  consistanoy.  It  is  not  known 
iriiat  plant  produces  it,  but  it  is  generally  suppoaed 
to  be  obtained  from  a  Fenda.  6.  Oum  Oaloaiutm. 
See  Oalbuivil  0.  Ovm  Opopiaua  is  yielded  by 
Che  roots  of  another  umbelliferous  plants  Opopanaa 
from  the  Lsvant  in  reddiah- 


Amrnaniaeum.    See  AMHonJODM.     8.  Gum  Mfrrh   | 
ia  a  very  sweet-angling  gum  iwin,  which  eindca   | 
from  the  stems  of  aa  Abyasinion  shrnb,  idie  Baltaa-   i 
odendnit  myrrha.    Two  distinct  kinds  are  known 
in  conunetce,  Uu  TuAish  and  the  Bast  Indian ;  the   | 
former  is  the  better.    They  ue  boUt  in  ir 
shaped  small  lum^  rarely  exceeding  tha  si 
walnut,  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  rather  li^um  m 
the  Turkish  sort     Considerable  qnontitiea  are  nied    \ 
ia  medicine,  and  in  pofumety  for  dentifrieea,  washes   | 
for  the  teeth,  ftc,  in  consequence  of  its  beitig  sup- 
posed to  poBWBB  oonsiderable  antiseptic  properties,    I 
and    for    the    anveable    odour   it    imports   to   the    | 
bieaUL    From  IS  to  20  tons  are  imported  annually.   | 
9.  Cum  iScommonir. — This  is  obtoinod  from  incitioiii   i 
made  purposely  in  the  cMwn  of  the  great  tap-root 
of  the  OmiBoivaba  Kammonia,  whioh  ia  bored  for 
the  purpose.   It  is  of  a  da^  sap-sreen  colour,  inclin- 
ing to  greenish-gray,  in  large  andamall  cakes,  and  ia 
irr^ulor  fragments.    Ita  use  is  extensive  as  a  mild 
and  safe  purgative  for  children,  but  acaroely  uy 
drug  has  been  so  uncertain  in  its  oparation,  owing 
to  the  excessive  adulteration  pracbsed  upon  it  by 
the  Turks  previous  to  its  shipment.     Thia  has  now 
been   obviated  by  importing  the  root  itael^  and 
extracting  the  gum  in  this  counby. 

There  are  many  other  gums  known,  bat  Ukw 
are  the  ones  to  be  had  m  ahopa,  and  for  which 
uses  ore  found  in  the  arte,  manuEacturei^  and  in 
medicine.  Many  alao  of  the  true  renns,  aa  oi^ial 
■^"i'"',  tc,  are  called  gums,  but  they  ore  strictly 

Gum-nintUutet  are  monnfaatared  from  wheat, 
starch,  farina  or  pototo-storch,  sago-flour,  and  other 
feoulas,  by  baking  or  toasting,  so  as  to  convert  the 
starch  into  Dez&ine  (q.  v.).  This  ia  now  an  im- 
portuit  manufacture,  in  which  a  la^e  amount  of 
capita  is  engaged.  They  are  made  on  a  very  exten- 
sive scale  by  Uie  Meesra  Laing  of  Manchester  and 
otheifl,  and  are  largely  employed  in  dressing  calicoes 
and  other  fabrics,  also  as  a  substitute  for  the  men 

uoetage  and  receipt  stamps,  whl^  are  mode  adhesive 
by  dextrine.  Vai  this  and  some  other  purposes,  the 
jrun  substitutes  are  superior  to  the  raal  gums,  ts 
Uiey  are  easily  dissolved,  and  can  be  spr^  more 
eijnally  over  a  smooth  surface.  Very  large  qusn- 
titiee  of  the  staroh  of  potatoes,  oaUed  urina  or 
potato-flour,  are  mode  in  this  counby,  and  are  sin 
miported  from  the  continent  to  be  need  in  this 
iDBaufactar& 

GUMBI'MHBN,  a  thriving  town  of  Prassia,  in 
the  province  of  Prussia,  is  situated  on  both  banks 
of  tlie  Pissa,  one  of  the  affluents  of  the  Pr^ 
i  miles  east- south-east  of  Kilnigsberg.  It  wss  nnt 
tgolarly  laid  out  in  17S4,  and  owes  its  rise  and 
Iirosperity  in  great  measure  to  the  settlemoit  here 
of  man^  Protestants,  chiefly  from  Salzburg,  who 
were  driven  from  their  homes  by  religious  perse- 
cutioil.  Among  other  institutions,  the  town  has 
a  gymnasium,  a  public  library,  three  Protestsnt 
churches,  and  two  hospitals.  Woollen-cloth  wesT- 
ing,  brewing,  and  dislJllin^  ore  the  branches  of 
manufacture.     Pop.  (1871)  8085. 

GUM-BOIIi.an  Abaccas  (q.  v.)  neat  the  root  of  a 
tooth,  and  r^^^u»^l»^giT^g  itaell  towards  the   mneoui 

'-- of  the  nun;  usoally  superficial,  but sonts- 

e  daej^  seated  in  oonneetion  f"^^ 

causing  considerable  defotmiiy,  with  risk 

of  Caries  (q.  v.)  or  Necroms  (q.  t.).  Oum-W  iboold 
be  treated,  in  the  first  instance^  by  simple""'"*^™* 


bone,  and  < 


cold  and  external  injnryi  bnt  as  soon  as  the 
-  of  mattv  can  be  asotrtained,  it  is  nsosllf 


hyLiOOgle^ 


ODM  TREE-OUN-BOAT. 


fpMd  practice  to  give  reat  to  it  by  a  prett;  free 
uunmoD. 

GDH  TREE.    See  £uoALTfTD3  and  Tufzu>. 

GU'MMEL,  t,  town  of  Africa,  in  the  state  of 
Borno,  in  lat  12*  38*  N.,  and  long.  9°  21'  E.  In 
1S61,  on  the  occasion  of  Dr  Baith's  Srst  visit  to  G., 
he  fbiuul  it  a  flomiahin^  town,  the  great  entrepAt 
for  the  natron-taade,  with  a  week&  market,  at 
which  were  300  atalli,  offerine  for  safe  all  soits  of 
clothing,  tools,  pottery,  victuus,  cattle,  horses,  Ac, 
and  with  a  pop.  of  10,000  ;  bnt  in  1854,  on  viuting 
it  on  his  retum-jonniejr,  he  found  that,  daring  the 
interval,  it  had  mffered  severely  from  civil  wars, 
aikd  was  then  in  a,  state  of  at  least  temporary  decay. 

GUMMIlf  O,  a  disease  analogous  to  Canker  (q.  v.), 
and  like  it,  very  dcatnictiTe  to  fruit-trees,  hat  con- 
fined to  those  the  sap  of  which  readily  produces 
much  gnm ;  as  the  cherry,  plum,  peach,  apncot,  and 
almond.  It  is  suppoBod  sometimes  to  originate 
in  wonnda,  in  which  a  morbid  exudation  of  gum 
takes  place ;  hut  it  appears  to  be  more  frequeotly 
occasioned  by  severe  &osts,  and  to  be  very  much 
dependent  upon  causes  which  induce  a  general 
nimeilthineai.  It  very  geoendly  terminat«e  in  the 
destruction,  not  merely  of  the  branch  in  which  it 
originated,  bat  of  the  whole  tree,  although  trees  in 
which  it  is  in  sure  progress  sometimes  live  for 
yean,  and  msuwhile  prodoca  large  crops  of  fruitL 
A  small  fangoB  (Sfiematpora  erocai),  which  has 
been  sappoaed  to  be  the  came  of  gumming,  more 
probably  appears  in  consequence  of  it 

GITHRI,  an  old  town  of  Russian  Armenia,  on 
tlie  site  of  which  the  important  dty  and  fortress  of 
AlexandrapcJ— pop.  (1867)  17,273— have  been  built 
The  site  is  on  the  hioh-road  to  Erivao,  and  is  60 
miles  north-west  of  that  town.  Alciandrapol  is 
built  at  an  elevation  of  5860  feet  above  sea-leval, 
and  here  the  cold  is  so  intense  that  men  are  often 
frozen  to  death  in  the  fields. 

OU'MTI,  a  river  of  India,  rema^able,  a*  ita 
name  is  meant  to  express,  for  its  windings,  rises  in 
a  amall  lake  in  lat  28°  35'  N.,  and  long.  80'  10'  E., 
and  after  a  south-esstem  conne  of  482  miles,  enters 
the  Ganges  from  the  left  in  lat.  25*  20*  N.,  and 
long.  83°  15'  E  It  is  navigable  for  inland  craft  as 
far  up  as  Lucknow,  which  is  fully  more  than  300 
miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Ganges.  At 
Jannpore,  about  66  miles  from  tlie  Ganges,  it  if 
■panned  hy  a  bridge  of  16  arche*. 

OUN,  a  term  applied  in  its  moat  general  appli- 
cation to  Greaims  of  any  descriplJoii,  but  in  the  mort 
restricted  and  technical  sense  to  Cannon  (q.v.).  A 
gun  is  a  fnurtum  of  a  right  cone,  with  a  cylindei 
excavated  round  the  axis,  to  serve  as  a  bore.  Close 
borne  to  the  end  of  this  cylinder,  the  powder  ii 
driven,  and  outside  it  is  the  ball  to  be  eipelleiL 
The  several  parte  are  [diewn  in  the  figure  below. 


ntion  that  the  breech-end  of  the  gon  outweighs 
nnola.  Their  azia  is  generally  about  half  their 
leter  below  the  axis  oi  the  piaoa.    This  locality 

liness  in  the  recoil,  it  has  been  shewn  that  the 
of  the  tnmnifMis  uid  of  the  gun  should  exactly 
intersect.  The  use  of  the  trunmons  is  to  suspend 
the  cannon  on  its  carriage  in  sach  a  manner  tlut  it 
may  be  readily  d^iressed  or  elevated,  but  so  that 
it  shall  have  no  horizontal  motion  which  is  not 
shared  by  the  whole  carriage. 

The  vent  or  (ouch-hole,  the  channel  tOirough 
which  the  charge  is  fired,  is  a  small  cylindrical 
orifice  leading  at  an  angle  from  the  breech  of  the 
bore  towards  the  base  nog.  The  explosion  within 
react*  with  great  force  on  Ute  lower  portion  of  the 
vent,  and  in  esse  ot  rapid  or  loog-oontinued  firing. 
Boon honeyoomba  the  iron  or  brass,  ofttc  "-'-■'- — 
considerable  frasmente.  This,  besides  . 
the  r^ularity  of  the  action  of  the  powder  i 
projectile,  would  involve  danger  of  bunting  if  per- 
mitted to  any  great  extent.  The  gon  K>  affected 
is  therefore  boatJial,  that  is,  has  a  new  vent  con- 
structed. The  process  consists  of  diilling  a  female 
screw,  of  larger  than  the  required  diameter,  in  the 
metal  of  the  gun.  Into  this  matrix,  a  bar  of  pure 
copper  is  screwed  (copper  being  the  metal  least  liable 
to  hue  under  the  intoose  heat  of  ignited  gunpowder), 
and  the  vent  is  then  drilled  through  the  copper. 
Sir  A.  Dickson  devised  the  foUowioK  simple  mmle : 
hs  rammed  a  cartridge  of  sand  firmly  into  the 
breech,  then  filled  the  vent  and  all  the  interatiees 
with  molten  copper,  and  had  only  to  bore  a  hole 
Uirough  lie  latter  to  complete  the  operataon.  In 
cases  of  great  urgency,  even  this  simue  procedure 
may  be  uiortened  hy  the  insertion  of  the  stem  of 
a  tobacco-pipe  during  the  filling ;  the  pipe,  when 
removed,  leaves  a  perfect  vent 

With  reference  to  Rified  Cannon,  some  particulars 
have  already  been  given  under  Av-JOTftosa  Gtsu, 
and  fuller  details  will  be  giveo  under  Biflxd  Fire- 
ABim.     See  also  Was-Sb&viok  in  Barr.,  ToL  X. 

GUN-BOAT,  a  smsll  boat  or  vessel  armed  with 
one  or  more  guns  of  heavy  calibre.  From  its  small 
dimensions,  it  is  capable  ol  runniug  close  inshore  or 
up  rivers,  and  from  the  same  cause  it  has  litUe 
chance  of  being  hit  by  a  larger  veesel  at  the  long 
range  which  the  canymg  power  of  ita  guns  euable* 


32-poiinder  Gun  : 

4B.  imeth  of  piB ;  AC  am  relnfora;  CD,  »eoond  r«mfon 

DB,  eint;  KB,  muiile;  FO.  Imc;  OH,  uii;  cm,  D«ck;  i 


Hie  trnnnions  are  cast  in  one  mass  with  the 
pieoe,  aud  are  placed  in  the  second  reinforce  in  such 


W^      tlOO* lOtTOJ,     ■»      fcilC      XUIUBU    UMTJ      T.«D      IT-- ""-- 

a  single  gun-boa^  a  large  squadron  of  tliem  waa 
hMtily  oon*tructed  in  1856  and  1856,  bat  too  lato 

BigilizedbyCoOgd 


GUN-OABBIAQE— OUN-OOITON. 


tot  that  special  war.  From  the  baste  witli  which 
Ute;  were  pat  together,  most  of  thoM  Tessela 
proved  defeotiye.  HowsTer,  by  ud  of  rep«ir»  and 
new  coDstmction,  Qrcat  Britaia  hai  at  thU  time 
about  TO  iteaiD  gtu-veuela  in  a  very  efildent 
conditioiL  Their  tonnage  is  small ;  their  hone- 
power  rangee  from  20  to  60  hones,  Mid  their  Teiy 
heavy  arraament  niually  coniista  of  one  8-inch  gnn, 
and  one  IDO-pounder  Armstrong  gun,  A  gan-boat 
is  attached  m  moat  cases  to  some  larger  veeel, 
■od  conatitutes  a  lieutenaafi  eommaniL  In  tha 
last  two  wars  with  China,  gnn-boats  performed 
excellent  serviee,  having  penetrated  neuljr  to 
Peking,  and  far  np  the  Yang-tze-kiang. 

OUN-OAKRIAQE  is  a  very  important  element 
in  the  equipment  of  eaoh  piece  of  ordaance.  It 
reqnina  to  m  of  great  stHOigtb,  and  at  th* 


I  time  of  considerable  weight,  in  otdor  that  the  whole 


carriageB  have,  beaidea, 
in  pasiing  at  a  rapid  pace  over  broken,  uneven,  or 
rocky  ground.  To  ptimde  for  this  aarere  wear  and 
tear,  every  part  is  nttod  with  the  tttanoet  precision, 
made  of  wall'Seasoned  material.  Mid  on  strict 
mechanical  principles.  A  largs  department  fitted 
with  splendid  machin^y,  in  the  Aoyal  Aisenal  at 
Woolwich,  called  the  Koyal  Caniage  Department, 
is  charged  with  this  branch  of  manofacton  for  the 
British  Barvioa.  Caniages  are  of  varions  kinds, 
according  to  4iM  larvioe  for  whidi  they  may  be 
required;  bat  iiu  leading  kinds — viz.,  Ukoae  for 
fleld-servioe,  and  those  for  nnison  or  ahgi  dnty 
the  loUowiiif    flgure^   t> 


Held  Qim  and  ll4  Carriage  : 

umJoD  pLmta ;  /,  poiLflr*  ollppir ;  ,    ' 
K,  slvTttlBff  Hrflw ;  i»,huullaof< 


I   gr  upuun 
pir  i  f,  IfuklD(  t 


, ,  P,  wbMl:  a,  fcUjj  B,  •pol"': 

j:  bt  ouqun:  &  ulfr-tr«  budft;    i,  hrui  o 
;  A,  tnUTpUM;  i,  Iwkliif  Bbila;  *,  e-illbuMUt 


which  the  narosa  of  tba  prinotpal  parta  are  alao 
given.  Whea  the  fiald-gnn  it  to  be  moved,  the 
trail-plate  is  hooked  to  the  Lwbxb  (t(.  v.),  which 
ooDTerts  Uie  goa-carriage  and  limber  into  a  fonr- 


wheeled  vehiole^  oapable  of  oonveying  the  gun,  its 
tools  and  amigunition,  and  several  M  its  gunners. 
Information  idative  to  certain  species  of  gun- 
oarriagea  will  likewise  be  found  under  TRAvntBlKa 
PLiTVORit  Among  modern  inventions  of  war  is  ttie 
MoncrieQ'  or  elevating  gun-cArriage,  in  which  the 
gnn  is  poised  at  the  end  of  a  lever  pivoted  ou  the 
carriage,  and  balanced  by  a  heavy  ooanter-wetsht. 
Before  nrio^  the  gnn  is  nused  by  mechanism ;  when 
fired,  it*  own  recod  drives  it  down  upon  the  oarriage. 
This  artangement  enables  gun  and  gunners  Va  lie 


_    ,    _     ~— _    subrtanoe 

vented  by  SchJtnbein  in  1846,  and  obtained  in 

following  manner.    One  part  of  finely  carded  cotton 

it  immersed  in   15  parta  of   a  mixture  of  equal 

measorea  of  strong  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1'5)  and  lul- 

phnrio  add  («p.  gr.  1'64C).    The  cotton   must  be 

oompletely  immened  in  the  mixture,  otberwiae  it  1  facility  with  which  it 


becomes  ao  hot  as  to  nndereo  immediate  deoompcsi' 
tion.  After  a  few  minutes^  immersion,  it  must  be 
plunged  into  a  large  vdame  of  cold  water,  and 
then  wathed  till  the  moist  msss  ceaaea  to  sbewaa^ 
acid  reaction  when  placed  on  litmna  paper.  It  h 
then  to  be  carefully  dried  at  a  tempenton  not 
Bzceeding  ITC. 

Any  substanoa  containing  oellnloae,'  each  as  tow, 
linen,  saw-dust,  paper,  Ieo,  may  be  employed  instead 
of  cotton,  and  tiie  chanw  that  take*  place  in  ths 
formation  of  the  mdostve  oixnpoiuid  feenv^  fn»i 
the  reaeorohea  of  Hadow,  to  M  at  M\tm:  >hs 
oompoaitian  of  oellulosa  ia  represented  t^  the  for- 
mula C((H,,0,^.    In  the  formation  of  gon-opttOB 
or  pyro»ritN  (derived  from  pgr,  fire,  and  sMim,  wood), 
nine  aqmvalento  of  the  hydrogen  aia  repuced  by  sn 
equal  number  of  equivalents  of  peroxide  ef  nitiog^ 
(NOJ,  so  that  tiie  formula  for  tiie  new  oompoond  i" 
C,,H,,9N0„0,',.     The  fibre,  in  undergoing  thw 
chuigE^  inoreoaea  about  70  per   cent  in  ^^'E^ 
snd  acquirea  perfectly  new  propertiea.    Althou^ 
soarcety  differing  in  appearance   from   uncbaDged 
cotton,  it  may  be  distinguished  from  it  by  its  bsrsh-   , 
neas,  by  the  crepitatiiig  sonnd  which  it  yields  vhoi  i 
pressed  by  the  hand,  by  its  having  lost  tJw  property  , 
of  depotuisation  which  ordinary  cottmi  ponews,   : 
and  by  its  electric  condition.    Iodine  dissdveduii  ^ 
solution  of  iodide  of  potassium  affords  a  oertam  • 
meuis   of   f1i««ni^gHi«hing   explosive  from  ordiosry 
cotton.     U.  the  former  is  moistened  with  this  iodiM    ! 
eolutton.  and  a  httle  dilnt«  eulpharic  acid  ii  ■nbse-   I 
qnently  added  (one  part  of  the  add  to  four  of  wtfh 
a  yellow  colour  is  evolved ;  while  ordinsry  cotton 
wool,  when  similarly  treated,  assumes  a  blue  colour. 


property  is,    howsTer,  the 
tokat  fire,  ODd  iU  nfid  ■^ 


ODH  PAOTOBIBS-OUKDULIiaOB. 


gnn-oottoD,  irhioli,  howeTer,  did  not  InA  t 


deteminiiui  mmw  Mcontaly  thejaopartiM  of  gnu- 
oottoD,  Abal's  prooBBB  oikwMb  in  Btapin^  Dottcm* 
vasta  in  itroiig  nifario  and  mlphurio  kcida  at  » 
tow  fantpentnr^  and  aftenrarda  wathing  it  thor- 
ooghly.  U  ia  next  i«dtuwd  to  a  pulp  m  a  com- 
mon ng^apat  (/tat  pAmt).  and  uen  in  ths  pulpj 
oraidition  it  ia  inahed  tgloii  in  a  laigo  (quantity  of 
water  to  ranoTO  «vnj  toa«e  of  frae  acuL  After 
that,  it  it  n«aMd  at  a  low  poww,  and  labaeqnantly 
ia  a  powerful  hydtanlio  prtw,  oat  of  whidt  it  cotoea 
in  10  wot  a  tteto  aa  to  be  ondnflanunable.  Oun- 
cotton  can  thai  be  oompreHad  into  Tnimiia  of  any 
ihape,  aa  cylinden  or  cubes,  and  of  any  lequirad 
density  or  haidneaa.  It  can  also  be  oonverted  into 
the  form  of  paper,  or  into  gtm-cottoD  gnuut  for 
■portJng  pu'pMa. 

Gun-cotton  can  now  be  manufaotiiTed  ao  ai  to 
keep,  tiiere  ia  ereiy  leaaon  to  believe^  with  perfect 

'  '  in  a  wet  itate,  and  be  a>  good  a«  ever  when 
aguD.  The  ncolt*  of  some  eKperiments 
JMT  or  two  ago  bv  a  govenunent 
_.  Chatham  ahewed  that  when  gun- 
cotton  it  finnly  confined,  it  exsrta  a  desbnottve 
<fiect  eqnal  to  aboat  five  tdmee  that  of  gunpowder. 

Profeaaor  Abel  ha*  proved  that  the  mora 
tharooKhly  gim-cottoD  i«  compr^iaed,  the  more 
pedecuj  can  it»  addon  be  controlled,  aud  it  ia 
BOW  generally  lued  in  compact  disca  for  mining 
■  J  iiiat  it  ia  aympathetic,  ao  that,  if  gently 
1^  a  apark,  in  the  form  of  yam,  it  amouldera 


aafe^  ii 


and  i  ficed  in  the  eompreaaed  atate  by  a  detonating 
foae,  it  explodea  with  great  violence,  even  when 
tinminflnart,  Xhe  nioat  recent  and  atriking  dis- 
covery regarding  it,  however  ia,  that  although,  aa 
a  mle,  noD-ioflunDiable  and  ntm-explodve  m  the 
wet  atatc^  yet,  when  fired  in  this  ooacution  with  the 
detonating  rabatuioa  fulminate  of  mercory,  and  a 
littla  dry  pm-ootton  or  gunpowder,  it  explodea  with 
aa  madk  violence  aa  when  it  ia  dry. 

While  gnnpowder  does  not  explode  at  a  lower 
tenqientiiTe  than  600*  F.,  son-cotton  baa  been 
known  to  do  «o  at  277*  F.,  and  cannot  be  heated  to 
4O0*  F.  wtldioat  explonon.  Oan*cott0D  prodncea 
BetUMr  amoke  itor  fooling  when  fired,  and  doea  not 
heat  the  aim  ao  much  aa  gnnpowder,  thongb,  by  tbe 
i:^di^  A  ito  expbwion,  it  atnuiw  the  bairal  more. 

OUH  FACTOBIES,  Botal,  are  government 
eatabliahmenta  at  Woolwich  for  the  conitniction  of 
great  guna  for  the  oae  of  tbe  BritiEb  army  and 
navy.  For  a  veiy  long  period  there  had  been  at 
Woolwich  a  amoU  factory  for  the  manufacture  of 
br«M  cannon,  but  gons  of  cart  iron  were  obtained 
from  private  JouudrieB  by  contract.  At  last  it  waa 
determined  tbst  government  should  become  in  part 
its  own  gun-founder,  aud  extensive  workshops  were 
erected  m  1S55— 1856.  Tbe  adoption  of  the  Arm- 
atrong  wrondit-iron  gun  into  general  nae  in  the  ser- 
vice, in  1S99,  arrMt^  the  farther  making  of  cast- 
iron  gnna,  and  occasioned  again  a  great  expenditure 
in  the  erection  of  shops  and  costly  machinery,  which 
have  aince  been  adapted  to  the  other  systems  of 
wrongbt-iron  ordnanoe  adopted  into  the  service 
under  the  name  of  '  Woolwicb.'  At  this  time 
(1S74),  the  factories  may  be  counted  as  among  the 
most  remarkable  sights  ia  the  kingdom.  In  each 
department  whatover  the  process,  it  is  repeated 


over  and  over  again,  till  long  pMiJlel  line*  oltbnilar 
n^Ila  are  seen,  each  busily  bahioning  a  separate  gun. 
Iron  at  red-heat  ia  fint  wonnd  rrand  a  solid  core 
(representing  tha  bore  of  the  fntnre  jgnn),  as  tape 
might  be  romid  a  pencil ;  and  then  iy  the  action 
of  suwesiive  blows  from  a  rtear--'™~"  in.—  :- 
one  of  IW  tm*),  the  atripa  ate  ' 
pact  eylindor  td  wrought  iron 
This  (^lindsr,  after  oacmgoiog  i 
ponndmp  with  the  ateam-1  — 
with  wraught-iron  riuga  of  i  . 

are  shrunk  coi,  and  than  toansmitted  to  the  borin^- 
wiil  Here  the  proper  calibre  is  imparted  to  it ;  in 
another  deparlxMat,  tbe  bore  ia  rifled ;  in  anouer, 
the  onteidB  of  the  caniaoanfnDy  torned;  and  in 
yet  another,  the  whde  ia  polished  and  broined.  A 
gun  is  ssvraal  weeks  in  ita  pange  throngb  theae 
many  procesMS.  By  tha  ingennity  of  Sir  William 
Annstoong,  the  sapsrintenden^  and  Dr  John 
Anderson,  his  able  asejataut,  erery  part  of  Uie 
difGcnlt  mannfaoture  has  been  reduced  to  a  qoestion 
of  machinery.  Many  thonsaad  gnna  have  to  this 
time  been  tiu'iied  out  oompletfs  (d  which  upwards 
of  7000  are  now  available  for  military  or  naval  naa. 
The  coat  of  the  guns  a*  now  (1S74)  made  is,  on  an 
average,  aa  follows :  12-ponnder.  £S2 ;  20-poQader, 
£124;  40'pounder,  £206;  TO-poonder,  £376;  Sfi- 
too  gun,  £216&  The  royal  gun-factory  at  Woolwich 
-was  estimated  t«  coat  for  1874—1875  the   sum  of 


£22,917  for  buildingi  and  maohiony ;  and  £V7,42S 
for  stores  to  be  oonsomed  in  the  mannfaotnta  of  gans. 

Much  of  the  machinerv  now  used  in  the  mannfao- 
tore  of  frnns  wss  originuy  developed  at  the  enginesr- 
ing  atS  founding  tatablishment  of  Sir  William 
Armstrong  and  Co.,  at  Elswick,  wbidi  w»*  for  some 
time  nsed  as  an  aoziliary  and  supplement  to  the  gnn- 
factory  in  Woolwich  arsenal,  tiie  guns  being  tmiied 
out  at  a  contract  prio^jpayable  after  tbey  had  passed 
a  rigid  inspection.  Tim  connection  between  tha 
government  and  the  Elswick  firm  ceaaed  in  1863. 

GVin^AMTrK,  a  villaga  of  Afghanistan,  elalma 
notice  merely  in  connection  with  the  fatal  retreat 
from  Cabul  in  1S4Z  It  was  here  that  the  last 
remnant  of  the  British  force,  when  within  28  miles 
of  the  shelter  of  JeOalabad,  waa  massacred,  to  the 
number  of  100  soldian  and  300  camp-followers,  only 
one  man  effecting  his  escape. 

OUNDU'K,  a  livMT  of  India,  joins  the  Oangea 
from  the  left  or  nc«tth  nda,  oppoBte  to  FwiOK 
after  a  south-east  course  of  about  400  milaa.  It 
is  supposed  to  rise  beyond  tha  Himalaya,  in  lat 
29*  4ff  N.,  and  long.  83*  14'  E..  while  its  n 
source  within  that  range  is  said  to  be  at  the  lum 
of  Dhwalagiri.  After  a  coarse  of  200  milaa,  it 
becomes  practicable  for  boats  of  considerable  burden. 
Near  this  point,  the  river  touches  tbe  ^tish  terri- 
tory, dividing  it  for  IS  miles  from  KepacL 

GUNDULITSOH,  Iwah,  the  most  cdebrated 
Serbian  poet  of  earlier  times,  was  the  son  of  I^nnciB 
Gundulitscb  the  historian,  and  was  bom  Sth  Angust 
1S88,  in  the  town  of  BagBsa.  After  he  had  com- 
pleted his  primary  education  and  philosophic  studies 
under  the  Jeauita,  he  betook  himself,  at  the  age  of 
31,  to  the  science  of  jarispradeiica,inwhichhemade 
BQch  rapid  advwoei,  that  in  mite  of  his  youth,  he 
was  intrusted  with  tiie  first  omoea  of  the  Bagusan 
republic.  He  died  in  163&  Ob  the  90th  December 
I83S,  the  bicentenary  .siiniTenary  of  his  dsath,  a 
grand  requiem  was  song  in  memory  of  the  poet, 
in  the  Aoadetnio  Chorob  of  Agram.— 0.%  poetical 
works,  lyrical,  dramatio,  and  errical,  are  a  fatthful 
mirror  ol  the  stlrriiig  time  in  which  they  wne  com- 
posed.   He  was  tile  earbcet  dmmatie  writer  d  the 


Google 


OUNMAKDTO,  GDK-TBADE-OTOmER. 


SUno  nee,  ttai  tiis  thealre  of  lUgnia,  oo  wliich  his 
inec«a  wew  performed,  was  the  fitrt  Slavic  theatre. 
Hil  greaUot  and  most  celebrated  work  a  an  epic, 
The  Otmanli,  in  20  cantoa,  in  wliich  he  nngs  the 
deed*  of  OemaD  IL,  and  the  fame  ol  the  Poles  and 
their  king,  Wladielaw  IV.,  in  the  campaign  of  1621. 
Thia  voik.  was  first  pabliahed  at  Baguwt  in  1626 ; 
the  latcM  edition  ia  tiiat  of  Gaj  (Agram,  1844).  Of 
hia  dramaa,  maj  be  mentioDed  Anadite,  T\a  Save 
of  Proterpma,  Oalalea,  Diana,  Armida,  The  Saaifia 
of  Lwe,  Oera,  Cleopatra,  Adonii,  and  The  Corai; 
it  hia  other  poema,  Hymn  on  Oie  Qreaineu  of  Ood, 
and  The  Teari  of  Ae  Afflicted  Son.  O.  also  made 
teveral  tranaUtioni  from  the  Italian  poets. 

OUHHAKINO,  QUN.TRADH.  Athough  the 
terma  gunnery  and  gun  relate  chtedj  to  great  gum 
or  canDDD,  the  word  gunmakiog  ig  alwayi  applied 
to  the  manufacture  of  Bmall-Bmu,  compriaiDg  miu- 
kets,  riflea,  piatola,  and  oarbinea.  In  island,  the 
great  seat  of  this  tnde  was  formarfv  London,  whose 
workmen  stood  nurivalled  throQ|^ont  Europe  for 
the  excellence  of  their  prodaotioD ;  but  of  late 
yeara  ike  sonmaker*  of  BirminghMTi  h»e  Bocoeeded, 
from  loc^  sdvaotageB,  in  taming  out  ban^  of 
proved  power,  at  ■noh  a  price  as  to  defy  competi- 
tion, ^ce  then,  the  Locuioii  makers  hare  oonnned 
t^etneelvee  to  '  finiahing,'  or  pnttdng  together,  aa 
art  tequim^  the  utmost  nicety ;  and  even  in  tbii^ 
the  skilled  labour  of  Dublin  and  Edinburgh  ha* 
now  nearly  equalled  them.  There  aie,  therefore, 
aereral  centres  now  in  the  Umtad  Kingdom  whence 
first-rate  arms  are  to  be  obtained.  America  and 
the  leading  cootiaental  nations  are  great  manu- 
facturen  ^o,  and  each  haa  its  particular  eicel- 
'encea.  The  chief  oontinental  auQ-factoriea  are  at 
jt  Etienne,  Liege,  Vienna,  and  SuhL 

Machinery  has  been  comparatively  slow  in  being 
applied  to  the  manufacture  of  small-arms,  but 
daring  the  last  few  years  it  haa  made  giant 
strides;  and  now  the  government  manufactory  at 
Enfield,  in  which  numerous  ingenious  machines 
have  been  introduced  from  the  United  States,  is 
fitted  with  ereiy  mechanioal  appliance,  and  can 
turn  out  many  thousand  arms  per  annum,  each 
of  which  so  exactly  correaponda  to  pattern,  that 
all  the  constdtuent  pieces  are  interchangeable. 
Barrels,  instead  of  being  foreed  by  the  hand- 
hammer,  are  rolled  at  once  wiui  a  nniform  pres- 
sure, and  then  welded  at  one  heat  In  the  United 
Statee,  batrels  are  at  prMent  made  of  cast  steel, 
"  ~t  formed  in  the  Kdid,  and  then  bored  by  a 
ocasion  of  borax  of  increasing  diameter.  Theae 
caat-atael  barrels  an  laiddly  nperseding  all  others 
— at  least  for  sporting  purpoaea — in  Onvtt  Britain, 
France,  and  America.  Another  favourite  modem 
material  for  barrels  is  '  laminated  steeL'  See 
Babrcl.  Barrels  well  constructed  of  laminated 
■teel,  tesiBt  a  banting  preeaure  of  82,000  lbs.  on 
the  square  inch  one-eighui  of  an  inch  thick,  whereat 
common  'twist'  barrels  will  only  withatand  about 
34,000  lbs. 

Whan  the  barrel  is  finished,  however  made,  it  is 
proofed,  under  vely  heavy  charges  of  powder.  All 
non-eovemment  barrels  made  m  En^uid  must  be 
prooted  at  the  proofing -houaea  of  I^ndon  or  Bir- 
mingham ;  government  arms  are  tested  at  Enfield. 

The  ptntions  of  the  lock  (q.  v.)  are  made  some 
of  iron  and  some  of  steel,  either  forged  by  hand, 
or,  as  in  the  great  manufactories,  stamiMd  out 
by  a  powerful  machine.  The  stock  is  turned  by 
machinery  from  strong  light  wood.  On  all  accounts 
taken  together,  it  ia  found  that  no  wood  is  so  well 
adapted  as  Italian  walnut.  The  tiniahing  or  putting 
together  of  guna  is  an  art  in  itaelf ;  the  iitmo«t 
attention  having  to  be  devoted  to  eveiTthiug  that 
will  secure  sdicUty,  lighbieas,  and  tlu.iBOitminuto 


accuiaey  of  fitting.  Skilled  artificer*  in  the  gnn- 
trade  command  excellent  wages ;  rarely  leas  duo 
40<,,  and  oft«n  as  much  aa  £4a  week. 


ii'^i'>S  1^  good  and  near  second.  For  barrels, 
Birmingham,  St  Etienne,  and  LiSge  hava  the  moat 
lepote.  In  all  Ten)eota,  Toledo,  once  famed  for  its 
blades,  holds  a  high  oboraotei'  in  r^^onl  to  its 
guns,  both  for  (porting  and  militan'  pnrpoaea.  Is 
the  United  SUtea,  Wuubor  and  Hartford  ore  the 
leading  manufactoriea,  with  Earper'a  Perry  for 
govemmant  arms ;  but  the  qnality  of  American 
workmanahlp  i«  too  often  sa^ifioed  to  cheapneai 
in  the  article  turned  out.  The  British  export  trade 
in  Bmall-orms  is  vary  great,  the  retorn  tar  the 
year  1872  shewing  an  exportation  of  386,944  stand 
of  aU  kinds,  of  the  value  of  £478,577. 

GUNNEL  {Qunndiiu,  or  iftmmoidet),  a  genus 
of  fishes  of  tbe  Blenny  {q.  v.)  family,  of  more  elon- 
gated form  than  the  tme  Dlenniea.    Tbe  species  are 


Gunnel  or  Cattcr&3h  [GvnntUut  vulgaru). 

pAtty  numerous,  but  only  one  ii  British,  tbe  Cou- 
MOK  or  Spottko  G.  crBuTTKiirHH  (O.  viUgarie), 
often  to  be  found  in  tide-pools  on  the  sea-shore ; 
seldom  more  than  six  or  seven  inches  long ;  of  a 
deep  olive  colour,  with  a  row  of  dark  spots  on  the 
back,  remarkable  for  the  quantity  and  thickness  of 
the  mucous  secretion  with  which  it  is  covered.  K 
ia  seldom  uaed  in  Britain  except  for  bait. 

GUNNEE,  in  the  British  army,  ia  the  private 
soldier  of  the  corps  of  artillery ;  he  receives  pajr  at 
the  rato  ol  1(.  2)d.  per  diem  :  his  onifonn  consisU 
of  blue  with  ted  facings,  and  red  etnpes  on  the 
trousers ;  and  his  arms  conmst  of  a  carbine  nd 
sword-bayonet. 

At  the  preeant  time,  when  artillery  is  oaed  with 
the  utmost  akill  and  science,  the  training  a  gunner 
must  unde^o,  to  become  thoroughly  efficient,  m  Icng 
and  arduous.  Hia  eye  must  Be  sufficiently  acute 
to  estimate  dist^ncea  instantly  and  proximately, 
and  withal,  be  molt  possess  physical  AetagOi  cap- 
able of  sustaining  the  exertions  neoesMiy  for  the 
service  of  heavy  guns  and  the  removal  of  shot  and 
ponderous  artilleiy  stores. 

Maila--gunneri  are  pensioned  seigeaiita  o£  artilleiyj 
who  are  placed  in  charge  of  Uie  stona  in  mail 
towers  or  forts ;  they  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
of  which  those  in  the  first  clsaa  receive  S«^  in  the 
second,  3j.  6<i.,  and  in  the  third,  3*.  a  day.  Haster- 
gunnera  are  now  home  in  the  Coast  Brusde  of 
Koyal  Artillery,  but  the  ofGce  bus  much  aegeof- 
ated  in  importonco  rioce  it  was  first  created,  at 
least  as  early  aa  the  time  of  Henry  VIIL 

In  the  navy,  the  junner  ranks  first  among  th* 
warrant-officers,  and  next  in  order  to  the  navigat- 
ing sub-lieutenant  in  regard  to  taking 


jbjGoogIc 


QTJinraB— otrasBET. 


•nd  offieer'i  ootd.  A.  ^oimer  liM*  from  before  the 
nutt  by  tteadinea,  •obncty,  ud  intelligence.  On 
tqipmntineitt,  ha  mart  utii^  exuninen  appointed 


Jy  important .  .    ^ . 

of  all  powder  uuT  artillery  stores  on  boaid,  and 
H  bemud  to  we  that  the  guns  lue  alwan  Mly 
•qoipped  Ita  action.  In  exerdiing  with  the  gnoi, 
tbe  gtmner  ii  instaictor  of  the  uuIoib,  aod,  under 
the  c^ytaJD,  is  responiiUe  for  their  efficiency.  IThe 
fpttmer't'maie  ia  Mnintnnt  to  the  gunner,  and  atttodi 
Moond  among  the  pet^-offioen.  To  be  aonHniied 
ta  Ilia  lankfhe  mmtpaeB  an  examination  in  gnuiety 
on  board  K.1LS.  SaodtaO,  at  FortamonlS.  Hu 
nay  Tariea iron  £39, 10*.  10tl.»]reario£3t,  ig&Td. 
•»  ue  ocmtiiiaoaa-iarTioa  ii^lon,  who 


n  to  perform  the  heavy  part  of  workinK  it 
A  Maauut'Kanner,  if  in  the  lit  daaa,  receivee  id.  i 
day  beyond,  hii  pay  aa  aeaman,  and  Sd  a  day  if  ii 
the  2d  dan. 

OUNNEBT.  Ifpu>TaiK«  of  the  lawa  of  gravity 
and  of  othor  phyaical  dmmwtanDaa  affeotans  tlie 
flight  of  foojedalea,  jvevmted  any  coireot  t&eoiy 
of  jRinnsiy  betnf  anived  at  in  the  earliest  ^ea  d 
artillery.  The  &«t  author  prcdeaaedJiy  traatins  on 
the  flight  (rf  camioD-iIiot  was  Kicolaa  Taitagha,  a 
diatingiiiahed  Italiaii  tBa&ematioiao,  who,  in  1^7, 
pobliated  hia  wotk,  Im  Nuova  SdaOia.  He  had 
no  practical  acqaaiutaiiM  with  his  anfaject,  hot  his 
gueasaa  wm«  ihrewd  and  <tften  muralloiiBly  near  the 

portion  of  the  track  dea^ffied  by  a  ball  ia  a  light  line, 
and  aa  a  practical  aid  to  artiQBiistB,  he  denaed  the 
gnnuer'a  QuadraiU  (q.v.).  After  I^rtaglia,  man; 
philow^iheia,  espedaUy  of  Italy,  theoriaed  cm  the 
quettioii,  and  vaiioiia  tables  of  ranges,  eleratiooi, 

-'■ ,&c,  had  been  publiahed,-" ' —  '-' 

wh^  a  nearer  approach  tc 

lea's  JDialoqua  on  Matio:  ,  ^    .... 

"Rie  officers  who  had  ch&rge  of  artillery 

tue  were  too  little  gifted  viQi  scientific  education  to 
dednoe  theory  from  practice ;  and  np  to  the  time  of 
Bobins,  who  wrwte  in  1742,  but  four  wtaiing-gnnners 
— CoUado,  Browne,  Eldred,  and  Alderson,  rf  whom 
the  tlu«e  laat  were  Ro^ishmen — have  left  treatiiea 
of  any  value  on  the  use  of  their  weapona 

Oaliko,  in  his  contributionB  to  physics,  had  shewn 
that  aannon-shot,  or  any  other  projectiies,  being 
aflbcted  by  the  downwaid.  force  of  gravity,  waold 
ttavel  in  the  corrs  of  a  parabola,  onleis  affected  by 
ttw  nnatance  of  the  air.  The  philosopher  pointed 
«<tt  mode*  by  which  the  disturbances  caused  by 

cabMqnent  writers,  with  ua  exertion  of  Newton 
and  BanoDilli,  till  the  time  of  Sobins,  choae  to 
sssnme  that  the  atmospherical  reostance  was  bot 
nominal,  and  boldly  asserted  that  all  shot  deaoribed 
parabolas  in  their  coarse.  In  1742,  Mr  Benjamin 
Bobina,  who  most  be  considered  the  real  founder 
of  the  science,  pnbliahed  hia  Jtfeio  iVindpJei  qf 
OiauKTy,  a  wori  the  resnlt  of  long  and  almort 
axhanstive  experimeuta.  He  treated  of  the  atmos- 
pheiic  resistance,  of  the  forae  of  gunpowder,  of 
tbe  effects  of  vaiylng  length  and  weight  in  gnna, 
and  oi  almost  evnTthing  which  in  any  way  routed 
to  the  motdob  of  projectiles,  aarryiog  the  theoiy 
of  gunnel^  nearly  to  perfection.  As  one  result  ol 
his  expenments,  Bobina  established  the  law  that 
common  shot  encoontered  a  resistanee  from  the 
air  during  their  paaiage,  which  increaaed  as  the 
square  oi  the  vetocih,  or  very  nearly  so;  and 
that  their  eonnes  differed  widely  from  parabolas. 
By  meatis  of  the  Ballistic  Pendulum  (q.  v.),  he 
Mieaaored  tite  speed  of  balls  at  the  very  cannon's 


mouth.  Euler,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ISQi  e., 
added  mnch  to  the  knowledge  of  the  subject  by 
his  oommentariea  on  the  wo^  o£  Bobins ;  as  did 
alsa  the  mathematician  Hutton. 

'nie  theory  of  gunnery,  so  ^  as  it  can  be  deduced 
trunt  the  muvenal  laws  of  motion,  without  regard  to 
the  resistance  of  the  air,  falls  under  the  more  general 
head  of  Projectiles  (q.  v.).  Bnt  except  in  Sring 
bombs,  which  from  their  low  velocity  are  not  so 
much  affected  bv  the  rtnEtanoe  of  tt^  air,  the  mere 
mathematical  tbeory  is  of  little  aerrice.  All  the 
real  practical  rales  have  been  deduced  from  experi- 
ment Thefdlowingaieafewof  themravinqtortaiit 
naolts  ibn*  arrived  at. 

For  a  given  cbarge  and  woriit  of  iHx>jectiIe,  time 
a  ceruin  length  of  bore  l£at  gives  the  greatest 
velodtyi  the  cause  being,  thatwithaleM  length  some 
of  the  powder  is  discharged  undecomposed,  and  with 
a  greater,  the  combustion  is  finished  before  the  >-»H 
leaves  the  muzzle,  so  that  it  has  to  contend  with 
the  fnctioa  of  the  gun  without  veceiving  additional 
impolaea.  Inorcaae  of  length,  aocompuiied  by  nt^Mr- 
ticuate  inoNsae  of  oluige,  gives  iucnased  vdomty ; 
but  the  greater  velooi^  is  only  in  pn^rtion  to  Um 
cube  root  of  the  inetesssd  length. 

The  resistance  of  the  air  dae«  not  arise  merely 
from  the  jnojeotile  having  to  displace  its  own  Inilk 
of  it  sa  it  advances ;  for  in  the  case  of  a  body  moving 
with  great  veloci^,  the  air  baoomeB  condoued  in 
front  of  it,  while  that  behind  it  highly  rarified. 
The  displaced  air  behind  does  not  letum  freely 
£11  up  the  vacuum,  unlal  the  speed  of  the  baU 
redaeed  to  1400  feet  per  seoond ;  the  maximum 
profitable  velocity  is  calculated  to  be  1600  fee^  and 


The  resittanoe  offered  to  bodice  by  the  air  ia  aa 
their  •nrfsce^  L  e.,  in  the  case  of  nnind  or  ^lindrioal 
shot,  as  the  squares  of  the  diameters;  whilst  the 
power  of  the  bodies  themsetves  to  overcome  resist- 
ance is  as  their  weights,  or  aa  the  cubes  of  their 
diameters.  Of  courae  balls  of  like  size  but  differant 
density  will  produce  widely  different  results.  Hence 
the  greater  range  of  solid  aa  compared  to  hollow 
shot.  Solid  shot  fired  with  equsl  velocities  and 
elevatdooB,  range  as  their  weight,  the  heavier 
overcomiDE  atmospheric  resistance  better  than  the 
lighter.  Shot  of  equal  weight  and  dis>meter  will 
range  according  to  their   velocitiea ;    but  not  in 

direct  proporti        

as  the  square 

of  equal  diameter  are  as 

"^  ''  '  ''  >n  in  speed  caused  by  atmospheric 
,  be  judged  of  from  the  foUowing 
table  of  the  speed  of  a  32-pounder  at  different 
parts  of  its  ooona ;  it  being  prenused  that  a  body 
m  vacuo,  once  started,  ahoiud  move  ad  infinitum, 
without  decrease  of  velocity  ; 


iMltj, 


Action  and  reaction  beina  always  equal  and  in 
opposite  directiona,  the  explosion  of  the  sunpowder 
scb  with  equal  force  upon  the  ball  and  upon  the 
isannon  from  which  it  iq  discharged,  the  former 
lemonatrati^  this  in  its  range,  and  the  latter  t^ 
its  tecoiL  This  recoil  has  to  be  guarded  against 
u  much  as  possible,  either  by  the  weight  of  the  gun 
itself,  or  by  its  secure  attachment  to  a  ponderous 
carriage.  The  momentum  of  the  reooil,  oeing  the 
product  of  the  shot's  weight  and  the  velocity,  ia 
readily   calculated.      Hie   commoD   charge   ot    a 


;?e 


TXTO 


OUHKT  BAOS-OtTNPOWCXIL 


poimdw  ram,  Iwing  (me-Qurd  ths  wai^t  of 
1^  or  edgu  pound*,  tlte  momaotam  of  both  i 
I  son.  will  be  1600   (the  iaitial  Tclooitj)  n 


1600  jth< 
dividsd   1 


wdght  of  the  canii^  niut  be  added 
vo  that  of  the  gun  for  a  divisor. 

Tbre  ftdlowiiig  table  ezhibita  the  affeoti  of  Tailing 
ohana  md  aleTatioii  on  different  kindi  of  biuib.  It 
irill  n  leaid)^  nndentood  bj  refareiioa  to  the  aooom- 
panjing  ditu^unt.  "tht  line  of  sisht  of  a  giui  ii  ■ 
imaginwy  fine  drawn  through  the  bach-nght  e 
the  breech  and  the  fore-tiglit,  a  notch  in  tlie  mnn 


that  the  aotoh  ahall  be  at  a  n«ater  or  leas  height 
above  tile  axia  of  the  |rnn.  When  the  line  ABO  ia 
parallel  to  tlie  azia  and  hmsontal,  Uie  diadiar^  ii 
■point-Uank;'  but  irtien  tbe  back-^ght  ia  raiaed, 
ib«  diraotim  of  the  axis  of  tlie  gun  wiUbe  to  a  point 
more  elarated  than  that  to  which  the  line  of  liriit 
ia  direotod,  aa  in  fig.  %  whve  the  origtnal  impnJae 


received  by  the  iliot  i«  towards  D,  Ccoueqaently, 
by  railing  the  back-eight,  a  greater  elevation,  and, 
ordinarily,  a  greater  range,  ut  given  to  the  piece. 
In  ragard  to  point-blank  diacharge,  Tartaglia  eatab- 
luhedthe  fnndaioeDtal  pro^odtioa  that  the  time 
occupied  by  the  ball  in  descnbing  the  whole  trajec- 
tory or  patn  ia  the  aame  aa  it  would  reqaire  to  fall 
by  gravity  from  tbe  mnole  to  the  gronuo. 


M-psnnda  AnaatroDf ,  . 
n-poundn  Inn  (tui, 


Aa  regardi  panobation,  it  waa  found  by  sxpwi* 
menta  againat  a  martella  tower  at  SwtbonnMV  I 
with  a  range  of  IS32  yarda,  that  aclid  *hot  font 
the  40-pounder  Annatoong  p«(Mb«ted  into  good 
maaoniy  from  47  to  6S  iucua,  and  from  *oi  80- 
ponndeT  Aiuftroog  51  to  M  inobea.    For  other 


induatry  of  all  the  pcoulona 
wer  Bengal    It  petvadea  kll 


and  chiefly  in  Bengal,  from  wliich  Uiey 
exported  to  other  pu-ta  of  the  world,  xao  uns 
of  which  the  oloth  ia  made  ia  chiefly  that  of  th« 
aame  epeciea  of  CorrJionu,  which  yield  the  jnte 
(q.  V.)  of  commerce.  The  cotton  <d  Amoio  ia 
moat^  packed  in  gunny  baga,ot  vhich  the  nomber 
exported  to  America  from  Bengal  haa  indeaaed 
frmn  thoaaand*  in  the  year  1796  to  miUiona  in  1874. 
Great  quantitiea  are  alio  exported  to  China,  Anatralia, 
and  other  eonntriea.  They  are  partlr  mado  np 
into  baga  in  Bengal,  partly  eniorted  aa  Onni^  cA>l4 
or  cfaitatM,  pieoca  of  aize  soitaUe  for  being  imme- 
diately made  into  baga.    TiM  mannfaotora  erf  tbeaa 

ia  the  great  domeatic  indu' *    "  " *  — 

eaatem  diattiots  of  Lower 
clwiiwr,  and  gi^ea  ooonpation  to  men, 
ohildren.  Boatmen  emplov  themadrea  in  it  In 
their  Bpare  momenta,  hoibandmen,  palanqmn-eairier^ 
and  dmneatio  aarvanta,  being  Riti^w^  for  Moha^^ 
medana  apin  cotton  only.  It  'fbrma  the  never- 
filing  r«Bouroe  of  that  moat  bimibl^  patient,  and 
despiaed  of  created  beinn,  the  Sindn  wi^v,  aaved 
by  law  from  the  pil^  but  eondemned  tgr  opinim 
andcnatom  £w  the  reanaisder  ot  hw  d^B,Iit<caI^ 
to  aackdoth  and  aihea^  and  Qu  lowan  domaatM 
dmdgery  in  the  very  household  wh«e  onoa,  poritapa, 
heri^WMUw.'  (Bo^e'aJVmnti Plana i^^/tHlfa.) 
Henoe  the  very  low  pnoei  at  which  gnnny  Mga  are 
aold.  There  are  few  artidee  of  commerce  ao  widely 
diStised  over  the  globe  aa  the  Indian  giuinf  bag. 
OUKPOWDBB,a  well-known  explodve  m 

oompoaad  of  mlptnr,  nitre,  and  c*- '     ' 

'  I  several  tndea,  iti  prindpal  «o    ' 


disobarge,  for  w 


.  of  prbieotilea  from  S»- 


already  gives  under  Fmuuit  (q.  v.],  and  it  iriO 
therefore  be  only  naoeasary  now  to  ooutdn  Um 
chemioal  action  which  takea  plaae  when  powder  ia 
ignited,  and  then  to  proceed  to  a  dhort  ^msnptJaa 
of  the  manufacture. 

Extreme  cars  ia  nqnisite  in  aeoaring  the  pmi^ 
of  the  ingredienta  entering  into  the  oo7"~-=*—  -* 
gunpowder.      The  prind^  impnri^ 
laltpetm  ia  chloride  of  aodium,  or 
which,  in  oouseqnence  of  ita  tende  . 
moietore  from  t^e  atmoephere,  would 

injoiioiia  action  on  gnnpowder  by  w  

power.  The  detaili  of  the  prooen  of  nuifioatioa 
of  the  nitre  would  be  out  of  plaoe  in  uiia  artiolcb 
The  lulphor  may  be  puriSed  either  by  fumon  (when 
the  heavier  impuntdea  sink,  and  the  lifter  onea 
may  be  removed  by  akimmiog)  or  by  diatillBtton. 
The  preparation  of  the  charooal  ii  a  moat  import- 
ant point.  It  should  be  light  and  potou^  i^ionld 
vield  a  very  amall  amount  d  ash,  eapet^ally  of  car- 
bonate of  potaah  and  oUier  deliqneacent  nlta,  and 
ahould  omiain  little  mcdatnre.  The  woodi  yidding 
the  beat  ohaivoal  for  sunpowder  ai«  black  aldn, 
poplar,  spindle-tree,  wiUow,  and  dogwood,  tlia  laat 
named  giving  off  the  laiveat  volnme  of  saa  whw 
ignitwd  with  a  given  weight  of  nitae,  and  onng  oa 
that  aooount  eepeoially  naed  for  rifle  powder. 


^dhyCOO^IC 


amTTOWDXB. 


A  YtMt  nomber  of  exMrimsnti  h»ve  been  made 
at  different  timea,  and  by  diffei«iit  natiait  , 
diacover  tlia  pioportioTii  of  nitre,  sulphur,  Knd  char- 
coal beat  adapted  for  the  production  of  different 
kinds  irf  gituipowder  ;  and  upon  the  whole  there  baa 
been  great  uniformit;  in  the  teaulta,  a*  may  ba 
seen  Uam  the  foUowing  table  of  the  peroentage 
oompontion  of  the  powder  of  different  nationa  i 


Autrliin  war  powder, 
BBfUabiWitUmmAklMT)   1 

RnMvi  nf  povdv, 
llAll&a  Bportln^  powder. 


TS-S  LIncli. 

»1  Un. 

JOS  Utftr. 

T3i  FrechU. 

aifl  PrwhU. 


Wba  tho  powder  la  ignitad,  tiw  ozTgen  of  the 
niti*  oombioea  with  the  aharooal  or  ewbon  to  form 
eaibonio  acid,  tha  potavinni  combinea  with  the 
~  *  '       to  tern  au^hida  (or  lulphnret)  of  potaa- 


3CO,+N+K8.    P(  „  . 

lent  each  at  nitre  and  anl^nr,  and  three  eqninlenta 
of  carbon,  would  oontaui  74'8  per  cent  of  nitre,  11-0 
pc  ccBt.  of  lulptiDr,  and  13'3  per  oeofc  of  oaibon 
or  oharaoal,  which  apnuximatea  very  doael^r  to  the 
Anatrian  powder  in  the  above  table.  It  la  eaailr 
ahewn  that  ona  volume  of  muib.  powder  would  yield 
206  volnmaa  of  mixed  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen 
gaaea,  after  the  ordinary  reduction  for  tempantura 
and  paowwi'tt,  ahhon^  from  the  intcuae  heat  devel- 
oped at  tita  moDient  of  az^cnon  the  actual  diJa- 
tatim  "»«""1t  to  at  leaat  lOOO  timea  tbe  volume 
of  the  powdar  emplc^ed.  The  ealy  aolid  reaidn^ 
aoppoaing  the  above  equation  to  repreaent  the  tme 
roactum,  ia  anlphide  of  potaMiom  ]K3),  and  ^art 
1^  thii  w  Tolatiliaed  bv  the  heat  oi  the  flKplonoD, 
causing  a  whitiah  amoke  by  ita  oomboition,  while 
the  nuit  that  ia  not  bnmed  give*  the  peculiar  odour 
to  the  waahinp  of  the  gnn-baneL 

If  a  larger  pn^ortion  of  charcoal  ia  added,  more  or 
lets  carbcmio  ozue  oaa  ia  generated  aa  a  piodact  of 
combnalian.  Blaatmg  poiraer  ia  ao  oompoaed  that, 
tikeoretioalfy,  it  ahonld  yield  on  explonon  a  mixture 
of  carbonic  oiida  and  OMbonio  add  gaae*,  and  leave  a 
leaiduaof  hianlghideofpotasainm;  uie  reaction  being 
ezpreased  by  the  equatiou  KO.NO,  -)-  23  -I-  4C  « 
SCO  +  2C0,  +  N  +  K8,.  A  powder  composed 
according  to  this  fonnnla  wouM  oootain  644  per 
oeafc  of  nib«,  20*4  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  and  16i^ 
per  omL  of  carbon ;  and  the  proportions  actaalij 
employed  are  OS,  20,  and  l^req>eatively. 

fPoggendorff'a  ^Unobn,  Bd.  102,  p.  321)  ahew  that 
m  reali^  the  diemical  leactiona  are  very  far  from 
bring  aa  aimple  aa  thoae  given  in  the  preceding 
paragrapba )  the  solid  reaidue  conaiiting  of  variona 


UM  KitMvea,  it  ^ 

lAioB,  by  vary  iqdd  ignition,  c 

sadden  ezpaoaion,  and  which,  by  conttnned  c 

bastion,  ittnintaini   an   '  '        ** 

of  t  "  ' 


eateat  quantity),  with  portions  of  nitre  a 

The  i|piition  of  gunpowder  must  be  distin- 
ffokbed  from  ita  combustion.  The  powder  is 
Ignited  when  a  portion  of  it  begins  to  develop 
light  and  heat  j  this  in  granulated  gunpowder 
'  atea  from  grain  to  grain  wiui  the 
ipidiQr;  bnt  still,  it  is  important  to 
■'-•'  ^"  Bucceaaive  ignitdona.  Comboation 
.   .   .  and   total  &compaaition  of  each 

grain  separately,  and  the  complete  liberation  of  its 
component  gases.  In  gimpowder  these  phenomena 
follow  each  other  so  rapidty,  that,  unless  the  mass 
is  smead  over  a  conjbderable  space,  they  appear 
nmmtaneous.  The  beat  spread  around  by  each 
fftia  during  iti  combustioa  snffioea  to  ignite  all 


instantaneons  communication  ot  the  flame  throndi. 
out  the  whole  quantity  e:^>Dsed.  The  eranolatiOD 
of  gunpowder  has  a  great  mflnence  on  Uie  rapidity 
cf  its  ignition ;  the  larger  tiia  grain,  the  toon 
rapid  ia  the  ignition,  bit  ths  uower  the  oom- 
bnstkm.  On  the  other  hand,  amall-giaiaed  powder 
iputea  more  alowly,  and  burns  with  greatar  speed. 
Wbeu  mealed  or  finely  powdered  gunpowder 
is  employed,  it  readily  inflamea,  from  the  preaeitca 
of  the  ordinary  innediouta ;  but  there  being  no 
interaticea,  the  ooolagrBtion  Sfo^ads  but  alowlv, 
and  therefore  the  decomposition  is  proportionately 
retarded.  It  thus  happois  that  meiJed  powder 
exhibtta  leaa  ezploaive  power  and  leaa  rapidi^  of 
the  cloaer  it  ia  proaaod  together,  a  oii^ 
taken  into  acooimt  in  tbe  maoafaotare 
of  fireworks. 

In  rified  guns  and  motets,  wtme  it  is  deaired 

'  '^3  projectile  ahonld  expand  to  the  ahi        ' 

>rea,  it  is  obviooal^  best  to  have  a  pi 

by  vary  rqdd  ignition,  creataa  Uie  u 

an  in<Teasiiu  degree  at  heoA, 
I  augment  the  explomve  lone 


B  weapoiL   With  this  object,  large-grained 

cleany  the  moat  anitable,  althocgh  a  oi 

>w  baa  been  long  aooepted ;  and  tlut  to  so  great 

extent,  that  some  among  the  recent  iaventon 

of  lified  arma  have  had  to  complain  that  the  only 

gunpowder  titey  oonld  obtain  has  been  far  (do  good 

tor  th^  punoaea. 

Proeat  of  MaauJbxbiTt. — The  three  ingredimto 
being  taken  to  Bqiarate  mills,  are  redoced  by 
SDoceaaive  grinding  to  impalpable  powder.  The 
aeveral  matoriaU  are  then  taken  to  tbe  inicdt^ 
hoaae,  where  they  are  weighed  oat  into  tfaeir 
respecttve  proportions.  The  charcoal  is  spread  in 
a  trougb,  and  the  sulphur  and  nitre  being  aifted 
upon  i^  the  whole  are  incorporated,  though  imper* 
fectly,  by  tbe  hands.  The  next  proceaa  ia  in  the 
poadtr-TniU,  where  the  mixture  is  ground  between 
millatones,  and  thorou^y  incorporated  in  a  wet 
state.  So  dangeroos  is  this  part  of  the  manu- 
facture, that  m^eni  are  forbidden  to  grind  more 
thAu  42  Iba.  in  the  same  house  at  one  time :  all  the 
bearioca  of  the  machinety  are  of  copper,  lest  beat 
ahouldbu  generated  by  the  friction.  According  to 
Uie  quality  intended  is  the  time  during  which  thia 
tiituration  is  continued,  from  one  hour  to  six  beine 
that  osnally  employed,  and  three  ixiaxt  the  period 
in  Oie  government  tactoiy.  The  powder,  oompl**"'" 
pulvenaed  and   caked   tiy  tha  ■""■'-»"—    -" 


and  the 


copper-platea  in  layers  about  3  inches  thick,  and 
is  subjected  to  on  immense  pressure  either  by  a 
screw-capstan  or  by  a  hydraulic  en^ne. 

The  next  operation  is  graining,  a  prcceu  to  which, 
as  already  explained,  gunpowtfer  owes  its  rapidity, 
of  ignition,  and  ita  consequent  explosive  power. 
This  is  performed  by  forcing  the  mill'cie  tbroueh 
minute  hdea  in  a  olrcolar  parchment  sieve,  xba 
sieve  being  kept  by  mecbaiUEm  in  rapid  revo- 
lution. The  grtunl  thus  formed  are,  however,  of 
very  variona  sizes  ;  and  that  the  gunpowder  should 
be  homogeneous,  it  is  necessary  that  they  should 
into  the  several  sizes.  This  is  done  by 
ention  of  a  series  of  sieves  ot  diffeient 
dwrees  of  fineness. 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  Immense  modem 
cannon,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  make  pow* 
der  with  very  large  grain,  even  larger  than  haid 


ttCoo^^Ic 


.  otnrpowDEit— otTKPoWDEa  plot. 


cata,  this  U  cBlled  pelbk  poteder,  and  U  now  ia 

g«iier»l  nge. 

The  iMt  prooeawi  are  dryiog.  glazing,  and  fteeing 
from  dust.  The  flnt  ie  effected  by  heatine  the 
powder  to  a  pomt  inScient  b>  drive  off  moinnre  ; 
the  second,  by  the  friotioa  of  the  gr»iii»  together  in 
a  revolving  cylinder ;  tha  third,  by  the  centrifugal 
action  caiued  by  the  powder  being  twisted  round 
at  grant  speed  m  a  gsiize  cylinder,  when  tie  durt 
(formed  in  the  potisluDg)  flies  off  iliroueh  the  giraxe, 
and  the  blight  grains  renutia  as  finiihea  gunpowder. 

Thit  is  uifl  modem  lyBtem — a  ayEtem  involving 
coniidflrBble  perBonil  risk  at  every  itage ;  for  the 
flue  dojst  becomes  aa  diffmed  through  the  atmos- 
phere in  the  mills,  that  the  slightest  sporlc  woold 
bhiw  the  whole  into  the  air  io  a  moment.  The 
early  process  of  manufactnre  was,  however,  even 
mors  dangerous.  Wlut  with  the  stirring,  and 
pounding,  and  spirit  (which  our  forefathers  nsed 
mstead  of  water,  in  the  idea  that  a  strong  flnid 
would  impart  strength  to  the  mixture],  it  waa 
probably  to  the  impurity  alone  of  the  materials  that 
the  operators  were  indebted  for  not  being  blown  to 

The  foUowing  ace  tiie  chief  propertiea  of  guu- 
powder.  (kiod  powder  should  be  perfectly  nnifonn 
in  tertore,  and  should  not  present  any  light  specks 
or  ^tterii^  points.  The  grains  should  be  suffi- 
ciently bard  Dot  to  be  easily  crushed  I^  tia  fingers, 
or  to  soil  them,  or  a  piece  dl  paper,  by  mere  contact. 
If  inflamed  on  white  paper,  it  should  blacken  it  but 
•lightly,  should  on  no  account  set  fire  to  i^  and 
shonld  leave  only  a  very  slight  residne.  Hie  tem- 
peratnre  at  whioh  it  ezplodcs  has  been  carefully 
stadied  by  Violette,  who  obtained  the  fallowing 


The  most  combustible  of  these  powders  was  the 
one  containing  the  largest  amouat  of  sulphur,  which 
is  the  ingredient  most  ready  to  enter  into  ignitian. 
When  gonpowder  is  eipoaed  to  a  heat  of  600°,  the 
whole  of  its  moistore  is  expelled,  and  the  nitre  and 
•ulphor  are  reduced  to  the  fluid  form.  On  cooling, 
•nch  powder  is  found  to  be  intensely  black,  and 
the  grain  has  become  indurated,  and  is  no  longer 
able  to  imbibe  moisture.  Powder  is  inOamed  by  any 
burning  substance,  by  red-hot  metal,  by  the  electric 
spark,  or  by  the  violent  oonousdon  even  of  com- 
paratively soft  bodies,  if  it  be  sufficiently  powerful 
For  example,  powder  placed  upon  lead,  or  even  on 
wood,  may  be  ignited  by  the  shock  of  a  leaden 
bullet  fired  at  it    Its  speciSc  gravity  is  about  I'S. 

The  nature  of  the  readue  which  is  left  after  the 
inition  of  the  powder  has  bean  already  explained. 
Ibe  /oultng  eaosed  by  this  residue  is  avoided  to 
■ome  extent  by  tbe  Inbrication  of  the  barrel  with  a 
little  latty  matter. 

Ttu)  monnfikctnre  of  gunpowder  i*  carried  on  to  a 
great  extent  in  Great  Britain;  the  exports  in  1872 
were  1^889.628  lbs.,  shipped  principally  to  the 
colonico,  ana  to  Western  Africa  and  South  America. 

GUNPOWDEB,  Laws  Keutuio  to.  In  order 
to  gnord  acunat  the  fri^tful  consequenoM  to  the 
public  lik^  to  arise  frmn  carelessness  in  the  pre- 


pBiation,  preservation,  or  conveyance  of  tiuM  most 
dangerous  artiole,  the  l^islature  in  16TG  made  strin- 
gent ruka  upon  tiiesnblect  By  38  and  39  Vict.  0.  17 


which  applies  atto.to  Scotland  and  Ireland- 
it  is  provided  that  no  gunpowder  shall  be  manufac- 
tured except  at  a  factory  lawfully  existing  or  licensed 
nnder  the  act,  and  it  shall  not  he  kept  except  in  the 
faotory  whrae  it  ii  oud^  or  in  a  magaiine  or  store 


C nations  against  tire  or  explosion  is 
vy  penalties.    The  looal  authorities 


and  approved  by  the  Home  Secretary.  General 
role*  are  imposed  for  r^nlating  faotoriea  and  rnoga- 
sines.  There  must  be  a  lightning-condactor.  No 
charcoal  or  oiled  rags  must  be  taken  into  the  build- 
ing except  for  immediate  use.  No  amoking  ii 
allowed.  Tools  are  to  be  made  of  wood  or  soft 
materioL  Working-men's  clothes  arg  to  be  without 
pockets.  Carriages  and  boat*  for  oouveying  gim- 
powder  must  have  in  their  interior  no  iroa  or  steel 
exposed.  Each  building  is  to  have  affixed,  so  at  to 
be  easily  read,  the  quantity  of  gunpo'wder  allowed 
in  each,  Retail  dealen  most  be  registered,  and 
must  keep  tJieir  powder  in  a  sepaiate  hooae  or  in  a 
fire.Tiroof  safe,  not  exceeding  200  lbs. ;  bnt  if  kept 
inside  the  dwelling-house  M)  lbs.,  or  if  in  a  cafe 
inride,  100  Iba.  The  building  or  safe  is  to  have  no 
exposed  iron  or  steel  in  the  tnterioi*.  A  breach  of 
visited  with 

demand  a  oopj  thereat  B^ail  dealera,  if  oaing 
than  S  lb*,  for  cartridges  at  a  time,  mre  exempted 
from  taking  ont  a  factory  lioanse.  No  powder  ' 
be  sold  to  a  child  under  13.  All  powii«r  ezcei 
1  lb.  weizht  must  be  sold  in  a  canister  or  case 
securely  fitted,  and  with  the  word  'gunpowdw' 
visible.  Also,  powder  must  be  closely  and  secniely 
packed  and  labelled  for  conveyance,  if  exceeding  t> 
lbs.,  and  the  amonnt  carried  is  not  to  exceed  100 
lbs.  All  railway  and  oanal  companies  are  to  make 
rales  and  have  special  times  and  places  for  loading 
and  unloading  powder.  Firework  uctoriea,  if  making 
and  keeping  less  than  fiOO  lbs.  of  firew<n'k%  need 
only  a  license  from  the  local  antfaori^ ;  but  exceeding 
that  quantity,  one  from  the  Home  Seoretary.  To 
let  OS  a  firework  in  a  street  or  highway  subjects  the 
offender  to  £6  penalty.  A  govemmeiit  inspector 
may  at  any  hour  of  day  or  night  enter  and  inspect 
any  factory,  magazine,  or  registered  premises,  and 
may  reqnire  the  occupier,  under  a  heavy  penalty, 
to  make  alterations,  or  take  oertain  precantiaD). 
Search-warrants  are  also  readily  granted,  and  in 
urgent  cases  are  dispensed  with. 

GUNPOWDER  FAOTOBT,  Eotal,  at  Wal- 
tham  Abbey,  an  establishment  in  which  much  of 
the  gunpowder  tsqdred  for  the  British  army  and 
navy  is  made.  It  is  buift  on  all  the  newest  and 
most  approved  principles  to  insnre  safety,  eeononVt 
aod  efficiency  ;  but  even  here  ocoidenta  occasional^ 
this  dangerous  manufaoture,  and  roan 
)e  Bo  as  to  aSee  bat  hitle 
resistance,  are  scattered  to  the  winda.  Between 
tbe  difierent  millB  mud-banks  ore  raised,  and  graves 
of  trees  thickly  planted,  to  lessen  the  ooncussioit, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  limit  the  catastrophe  iriien 
one  house  is  unfortunately  exploded.  A  series  at 
raised  canals,  at  the  sams  time,  is  ready  to  floifd  the 
whole  plaoe,  or  to  afford  a  precarious  shelter  to  the 
men  emfdoysd,  if  tame  b«  available  to  make  use  d 
it.  The  chJtrge  for  tiut  factory  for  1S74— 1876  ^** 
£61,790,  of  which  £21,371  were  for  management  uid 
wages,  £5221  for  buildings,  and  £35,198  for  raw 
material  There  are  about  200  workmen.  Wbea  ttie 
gunpowder  is  mode,  it  is  sent  down  the  Lea  naviga- 
tion, to  the  magazines  at  Woolwich  and  Furfleet 

GUNPOWDEB   PLOT,  Tmt,  was  a  fotiatieil 

S reject  on  t^e  port  of  a  few  Roman  Catholics  ta 
eatroy  the  King,  Lords,  and  Commons  on  the 
meeting  of  porlianient  on  the  6th  November  I6C5. 
James  L  hod  succeeded  Elizabeth  two  yean  befinsi 
and  hi*  govemment  had  exercised  great  seveiitic* 
—  -__.  1?.  Honum  Catholiea,  not  merely  denjii^ 
ions   toleration,  bat   confiscating  utar 


tyLiOogle" 


GUHBOOM-OUNSHOT  WOnNbS. 


.  tvw  ndiied  and  exaapanted 
together  to  orerthrow  the  goverm 
Tb»  ohniiator  of  ths  ptot  WW  Bobert  Catcsby,  ■ 
mam  of  ioriane,  which  he  had  impkired  by  ^xrath- 
fol  extravagaDce,  uid  who  commnnioated  hu  idea 
to  lliDmaa  Winter,  who  ww  horrified  at  flrat, 
but  after  a  time  b^aa  to  appiore  and  farther 
it.  For  this  end  he  enlisted  mto  the  oonapiracy 
Got  Fawkca,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  of  ooniiderabfe 
militaiy  ezperiaoce,  and  tibe  moet  determined  and 
fearleai  character.  Cateeby  enlisted  other  two, 
bv  name  Wright  and  Percy — the  latter  a  relation 
of  the  Earl  of  Northumwrland.  They  hired  a 
house  and  garden  coatignoas  to  the  parUament 
house,  and  oommenoed  their  mine,  part  working 


by  a  noise  after  they  had  with  mnch  labour 
pierced  the  will  three  yardi  thick.  Fawkes  learned 
that  this  noiae  ptt>(»eded  from  a  cellar  nnder 
the  House  of  Iiorda,  which  woold  aoon  be ' 
He  hired  it,  and  barrels  of  guimowder  wers 
in  it,  and  stones  and  billets  of  wood  [Jacec 
them,  for  the  double  purpose  of  concealment  and 
to  act  as  destmctive  miseileB  when  the  f^nnpowder 
was  fired.  In  the  interval,  a  Wother  of  Wright 
and  a  brother  of  Winter  had  been  added  to  the 
conspiraton,  so  they  were  now  seven.  But  they 
wanted  money;  and  to  supply  it,  two  others 
were  indnced  to  enter  tliis  faautical  copaitnery, 
and  these  were  Sir  Breraid  BIgby  of  (Mtehuist, 
in  Bockinghamshire,  a  yoong  gentleman  of  luge 
estates;  and  nancis  Tieaham,  a  follower  of  Essex, 
like  C^teaby  and  Percy,  but,  nnlike  them,  a  selfish 
uDoithuaiastia  man — not  a  man  at  all  suitable 
for  conipiracy,  except  that  he  had  two  thousand 
ponnds  to  oontribute.  Their  plan  was  finally  arranged 
for  the  reaaKmUing  of  parliameut,  which  was  to 
take  place  on  the  6th  NoTember.  Quy  Fawkee 
was  to  fin  the  mine  (if  the  gunpowder  in  the  cellar 
may  be  ao  called),  and  then  flee  to  Flanders  by  a 
ahip  provided  with  Ticaham's  money,  and  waitu^ 
ready  on  the  Thames.  All  the  Boman  Catbolio 
peers  and  others  whom  it  waa  ezpe^ent  to  preserve, 
were  to  be  prevented  from  going  to  the  parliament 
house  by  some  pretended  meesage  or  other,  on  the 
morning  of  the  day.  After  aU  was  ready.  Lord 
Monntea^^e  was  at  enpper  at  his  country-hoose  at 
Hoxton,  where  he  very  seldom  was.  Aa  he  sat,  a 
page  lumded  him  a  letter  received  from  a  stranger, 
advising  >!'">  'to  devise  some  excuae  to  shift  off 
your  attendance  at  this  parliament,  for  God  and 
man  hath  concurred  to  ponish  the  wiokedneaa  of 
this  time.'  That  thii  leUer  was  written  by  or  for 
Tresham,  who  waa  Lord  Monntea^e'a  brother-in- 
Uw,  there  ean  be  Uttls  doubt  That  he  deaired 
to  save  him  waa  certainly  one  reason  for  writing 
it ;  that  he  daired  to  aavs  the  coosiurators,  or  at 
leaat  to  allow  them  to  escape,  is  'ferj  probable ; 
and  that  they  midit  have  seoaped,  but  for  the 
fiuiatical  hopes  of  Catesby,  ia  all  but  certain.  It  is 
alao  probahte  that  Lord  Monnteuda  had  been  folly 
informed  of  the  whole  matter  by  Treaham,  and  that 
the  sapper  in  the  oonntiy  and  the  letter  were 
mere  devices  to  eonoeal  Tradiam'a  beaolui;.  Whea 
the  letter  waa  formiJIy  ccmmnnioated  to  the  king, 
he  ftt  once  dedared  Hta  meaning,  and  tJie  moat 
simple  way  of  aoconnting  for  his  power  of  divination 
ia  to  sappoee  that,  like  Lord  Monnteagle,  he  had 
been  tdd  beforehand.  On  the  very  evening  of  the 
4th,  the  Lord  Chamberlain  and  Lord  Hoontea^e 
viaHed  the  parliament  houae,  and  entering  the 
cdlar  in  a  casual  way,  told  Gtay  Fawkea,  whom 
they  fonnd  there,  and  who  paaed  as  Percy's 
•orant,  that  hia  master  had  Said  in  plenty  of 
fuaL    Only  fanatioinn  gone  the  length  of  fatmty 


conld  have  made  him  penevere  after  thii,     Bnt 


was  arrested  ooming  out  of  the  cellar,  dreaaed  aa  fw 
a  ioMnuy.  Three  matches  were  found  on  li'i), 
a  dark-Iantem  bomiog  in  a  comer  within,  and  a 
hogahead  and  thirty-six  barrsla  of  gunpowder.  He 
was  examined  and  tortured.  He  OMifeseed  hia  own 
guilt,  but  would  not  diacover  hia  asMciatea.  How- 
ever, he  and  the  chief  of  them  were  eiUier  kiUed 
on  being  oaptoreiL  or  died  on  the  scaffold ;  except 
Treaham,  who  at  first  walked  about  openly,  but  at 
last  was  apprehended,  and  died  of  a  natural  diinasfi 
iu  the  Tower.  The  memory  of  this  plot,  invested 
by  much  fiction,  haa  sarvivad  in  England;  and  it 
was  not  more  diabolical  than  hopeless  and  mad. 

■"' in  itaelf  mysterions,  and  for  potpoaes  of 

'"-  and  Proteetaut  seal,  a  further  mystery 

over  it.    No  name  in  "t'ingi"*'  luatoiy 

detested  than  that  of  Unj  Fawkes 


ta  poUcy  ai 
s  thrown  c 


<q.v.). 

OUNROOH,  In  British  line-of- battle  ahifa,  ia 
the  common  oabin  of  officsrs  below  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  (with  tJie  exception  of  the  aaaistant- 
surgeon,  who  sita  in  the  waidroom).  In  frigatsa  and 
smaller  veaaela,  the  gunroom  is  the  common  cabin 
of  the  lientenanta,  master,  surge<m,  aaaistant-surgeon, 
marine  officers,  <di^>lain,  and  chief 
le  jnnior  offioeis  being  in  thoae  caaea 
the  cockpit 

GUNS  (Magyar,  KOizegh),  a  small  tovn  of  Hun- 
gary, situated  ou  a  river  <^  the  same  name,  about  S7 
~iiles  south-south-east  of  Yienua,    It  is  inhalnted 


largely  coltivated.  Pop.  (1869)  691fi.  G.  made  itself 
for  ever  famous  by  its  noble  defence  for  28  days 
uainat  the  Turkish  army  under  Solyman  in  ISiz 
This  defence  not  only  forced  the  Turks  to  retire, 
but  afforded  time  for  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  to 
assemble  a  force  strung  enough  to  oppose  Uiem. 

GUNBHOT  WOUNDS  may  vary  ia  severity 
from  a  simple  bmise  to  the  tearing  away  of  a 
whole  limb.  Single  balls  produce  a  oat  bruised  or 
lacerated  wound,  according  to  the  amount  of  thrar 
velocity  when  they  strike  the  body.  The  effect*  of 
smsll-snot  vary  with  the  distance  and  power  <rf  the 
gnn ;  when  dose,  the  diarge  entaia  wiui  tJia  pelleti 
so  close  together  as  to  make  one  vround  liks  a  single 
ball.  Some  years  ago,  it  was  oommonly  believed 
that  the  'wind  of  a  large  shot'  oould  pnxinoa  seriona 
injuries ;  thia  belief  may  have  arisen  from  the  cir- 
cumatance  that  when  a  heavy  ball,  which  haa  lost 
some  of  its  force,  strikes  the  body  at  a  particular 
angle,  the  skin  does  not  always  give  way,  bnt  the 


deeper  structures,   such   as  t 


■  lai:p 


ir,  may  be  completely  cruahed  If 
it  comd  kill  a  man,  it  is  not  likely 
that  soldiers  should  have  had  ears,  noaea,  and  lips 
ahot  0^  and  yet  have  experienced  <mlj  the  symptoma 
produced  by  those  slight  injuries. 

Wlien  a  bullet  passes  out  of  the  body,  tliere  are 
two  Dpenioga— that  of  '  entrance,'  whicii  is  gener- 
ally de^reaud,  round,  regular,  and  smaller  thui  tiiat 
of  '  exit'  The  modem  conical  ball  makes  a  well- 
defined  oblong  wound,  bnt  it  may  shift  its  direction, 
BO  as  to  strike  longitudinally,  and  cause  a  more 
extensive  injury  to  the  skin.  When  a  bullet  strikes 
the  shaft  of  a  bone,  it  cracks  or  splinters  it  and 
either  remaina  or  paasea  through  the  cancellated 
ends.  In  its  course,  the  ball  may  carry  before  it 
pieces  of  cloth,  coins,  or  otiier  foreign  bodies,  which 
moreaae  the  danger  of  the  wound    Many  peioona 


t.Googlc 


GUHTER-OUKirASD. 


1 


«bo  bvre  been  ihot  during  the  ezoitament  of 
battle,  dMotibe  the  muation  u  nmnbling  the 
gtuup  etroks  of  b  c&ne;  bat  in  moEt  inatuioeB  the 
wounded  man  looii  befpiu  to  tramble,  m  if  in  mn 
ague-fit,  oompluii*  of  ^d,  hii  face  beomnea  pale, 
hiB  polte  ican:^  peiceptible,  and  he  appear*  aa  if 
about  to  die.  Ttia  i>  the  oonditian  termed  th/>et ; 
and  though  death  aometimea  doea  enaoa  during  thii 
■tate  of  proatratian,  it  ii  not  ao  aerioua  at  it  appean, 
and  the  patient  tnll  probably  paia  out  of  it  in  a 
few  houiB  with  the  help  of  atimulanta  and  reat. 
Although  exceenTe  bleediDK  i»  aot  ■□  oonunon  after 
guiuihot  aa  other  kind*  of  wouoda,  it  Duy  oocuf 
immediatalT  to  a  fatal  extent,  if  ueUtanoe  be  not 
afforded,  Thia  aaaiitanoe  any  one  oan  give:  it  con- 
aiite  simply  in  placing  the  flngen  in  the  woimd,  and 
if  the  veaseL  can  be  reached,  prening  them  upon  it, 
directed  to  the  proper  point  Dy  the  warm  guih  of 
blood.  Should  Uie  wound  ba  too  amall  to  admit  the 
finger,  a  handkerahief  may  be  tied  ronnd  the  limb 
above  the  wound,  and  twiated  tightly  with  a 
ttick.  It  ia  well  to  examine  the  woond,  to  aaoertain 
the  extent  of  the  iojuiy  don«,  and  whether  there 
are  aplintera  of  bone  or  portioas  of  dreea  lying  in 
it,  wluoh  ahoold  be  removed.  Bnt  neither  the 
examination  nor  the  remoral  ahoold  be  attended 
if  th^  Mem  likely  to  aggiBTata  the  injury.  The 
treatment  ii  nnilwr  to  that  of  otliar  woonda,  and 
eonaista  in  pioteotiag  the  part  during  the  healing 
•tagea,  moderating  inflaTttiiiation  ^  oold-watei 
dreea^iga  or  aoothing  ponlticee,  and  haatening  the 
last  Kt^ea  of  cure  by  itimnlatmg  lotiona.  Doling 
hi*  illneas,  the  genenl  treatment  of  the  wounded 
man  must  depend  apan  bo  many  different  circum- 
atancea,  that  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  enter  upon 
them  here. 

OUITTBB,  BouiniD,  an  Engliah  mathematioiaa, 
waa  btnu  in  Hertford^iire,  in  the  end  of  1680  or 
the  beginning  of  168L  He  wa«  educated  at  Weat- 
luinatar  Sobool,  and  afterwaida  at  Christohurch 
College,  Oxford.  VHiile  at  Oxford,  he  cava  hia 
attention  principally  to  the  atudy  of  mathamatica, 
and  in  1606  invented  the  aeotor,  with  the  lines 
known  aa  Ouoter'a  Scale.     Subaequently,  he  took 


wiiera,  became  a  praacher,  and  took  the  degree 
of  B.D.  But  the  bent  of  hii  mind  being  strongly 
towards  mathematical  studiea,  he  obtain^  the  pro- 


raincipal  works  of  G.  are  the  two  following :  Canon 
TrianguUirv.'m  (Lond.  1620),  a  table  of  logarithmic 
■inea,  Ac,  to  aeven  places  of  decimals,  being  the 
first  table  published  in  accordance  with  Bngga's 
mtem ;  in  thia  work,  we  find  for  the  first  bme 
ue  wcntla  'eoaine,'  'cotangent,'  &c.i  Q/'CAc  Seetor, 
Cntm-daff,  <md  oUur  ImtrumenU  (16ZJ}.  We  alao 
owe  to  U.  the  invention  of  the  Burve^ing-oluuii 
(•ee  next  article),  and  the  first  obaervatum  of  the 
variation  of  the  compass. 

GUNTEE'8  CHAIN,  QUNTER'B  SCALE. 
ffunla'i  e/udn,  ao  named  after  its  inventor,  is  Hiat 
commonly  used  by  gurveyora  in  measuring  land.  It 
is  66  feet  lone,  and  its  couTenience  in  practioe  tnma 
on  the  fact,  tiiat  ten  sqnare  chaina  nuke  one  acre. 
The  chain  ia  divided  into  100  linka,  and  thus  100,000 
•qoare  links  make  an  acre. 

The  name  of  Ovnler't  Scak,  or  OwOer'M  LitUM,  is 
lunally  pven  to  three  linea  to  be  seen  on  abnoat 
any  sector,  and  marked  N,  S,  T,  meaning  the  line* 
of  logarithmic  tucmberi,  of  logarithmic  Att,  and  ot 
loguithmic  langaOt.    To  understand  their  oonstonc- 


logarithma  of  thoa*  number*— .viz.,  0,  -301,  '477,  Ac 
—taken  from  a  BcaJa  of  eqnal  parta.  Tho  other  lines 
are  eonatrooted  on  an  analogooa  plan.  CaUinK  t« 
mind  that  mnltitJioation  of  nmnbera  i*  eSeoted  Iry 
the  addition  of  the  kgaiiUimi,  diriMMi  by  thai 
■obfaaotiini,  involntien  py  their  mvlti{JioatioB,  and 
evolotion  by  IheiF  division,  w«  are  abla  to  perceive 
wiOi  what  eaaa  many  tvvjfA  problems  in  areaa, 
heis^ta,  enbic  oontenta,  and  othsi  mattsra  may  be 
penormed  tfaroogb  the  ttgancj  of  Onntar'a  Seals. 


Krishna,  and  aboot  30  to  the  west  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  in  lat.  16*  20*  N.,  and  long.  80*  30"  K.  It 
contains  about  30,000  inhabitant ;  and  thon^ 
badlv  built  and  much  ovemrowded,  it  ia  yet  under- 
stood to  be  a  healthy  place.  The  district  of  G.  is 
now  merged  in  theoolleotorataof  Kistoaor  Kriahna. 

OUirWALE,  »  term  used  on  shipboard,  rsther 
vaguely,  to  dengnate  the  upper  portion  of  the  side 
of  a  ship  or  boat. 

aUBGAO'N.  a  district  of  the  Ponjab,  in  tb« 
eomnussionenhip  ot  Delhi,  stretches  in  N.  lat. 
from  2r  ur  to  28*  3ff,  and  in  £  long,  from  7fr 
21'  to  7r  38',  containing  1981  sq.  m.,  ud  (18^ 
69(^295  inhabitants.  Its  chief  town,  which  beni* 
the  same  name,  stands  at  the  hei^t  . 
ofSlTfeetabovethesea.  Its  monthly 
temperatore  ranges  between  66'  F., 
the  average  of  December,  and  104*, 
tile  average  of  May. 

OUBGES,  or  GOBQES,  a  charge 
in  Heraldry,  meant  to  represent  a 
whirlpooL  It  takea  up  uie  whole 
field,  and  whoi  boma  pn>per,  is  azure  and  argent 

OUItGI'NA  BALSAM,  a  name  of  the  bnl- 
samic  liquid,  also  called  Wood  On,  obtained  from 
the  Gur7un  Tree  {DipUnnarptu  IutMkAu).  S«a 
D1PXWU.0KA  and  Wood  Oii- 

OXJBHWA'L,   a    district    in    the   North-weat    I 
FrovinceB,  lies  between  the  Dehra-Doon  and  Sontli- 
nest  Tibet,  extending  in  N.  lat.  from  30°  Z  to  31*    ' 
20',   and  in  R  long,  from  77°  S5'  to   79*  W.     It 
contains  Q500  sq.  m.,  and  (1371)  310,283  inhabi-    I 
tantSi     Being  on  Uie  southern  slope  of  the  Hinub- 
laya,  O.  is  little  more  than  a  mass  of  stnpendoaa 
mountains,  whose  eleration  above  the  sea  sonketiniee 
reochoB   23,000  feet     It  may  be  r^aided  aa  the    I 
cradle  of  both  the  Jumna  and  the  Qaoges,  atbact- 
iDg,  in  spite  of  the  length  and  nigge£ie«s  of  tho 
way,  crowds  of  pilgrims  to  the  pecnliariy  sacnxl 
localities  of  Jumnotri,  Devaprajaga,  and  OangotrL       I 

GU'BNABD  (7'rigiia),ageiiasof  aoantht^teroiM 
marine  fishes  ot  the  family  Sderogeuda,  oontain- 
ing   a  oonsideTable  nnmb«r   of   speoies,    some   ct    I 
which  are  oomnon  on  the  Britiui  ooaota.      The    I 
head  in  the  gurnards  is  angular,  and  wlully  oorend 
with  bony  plates ;   the  body  is  elongated,  neuty    I 
ronnd,  and  teperina ;  there  are  two  doml  fina ;  tbe 
peotontl  fins  are  Wge;  " 


obtained  for  one  at  two 

rdea  the  local  name  of  P^nr.  A  recmt  obeerver, 
Dufosaft  BBoribea  the  soond  to  the  vibnitioii  of 
moaclsa  oonneet«d  with  tiu  air-bladder,  and  has 
Issigned  to  the  notsa  prodnoed  by  different  spedes 
of  Rumards  their  partmnlor  plao^a  in  the  musical 
aoM.  Host  of  the  gnniards  uve  genenlly  near  the 
bottom,  and  are  ca(W>t  either  by  the  tiairi' 
bybookaad  •'--    ^^  ■        ■         - 


hyCoogle 


OTTRNBY— GUSTAVnS  L 


a  Tuy  ciptintiiia  Iwit  Althoo^  not  Rmong  the 
fliust  of  fiaho,  tEay  an  ^ood  tor  the  table.  One 
of  Hm  moat  common  Biituh  speoiM  ii  the  Bid  Q. 
(7*.  CHCuIux  or  T,  piiti)  ;  eddom  more  tluui  IS  or  16 
inches  long ;  of  a  roee-Nd  oolonr,  the  body  muked 


OnniMd  {Trigla  pini). 


on  the  umier  pert  with  fine  _    , 

another,  larger  and  mare  valaable,  heiiu  eametimea 
two  fert  lonA  U  the  SAFFHism  Q.  {T.  Hirundo), 
mnaikable  for  the  large  aiie  of  it*  peetonli 
and  the  bine  of  th«r  inner  sm^aoe ;  and  pechape 
the  moal  eomaioa  of  all  i*  the  Qut  Q.  (T.  jrur- 
nardui),  geoeiallr  of  a  gray  coloor,  more  or  leea 
olooded  or  ipotted  with  brown,  black,  and  yeUowisb- 
white.  Tbart  are  eevenl  other  Britiali  apedee; 
thoM  of  the  Hedltercanean  are  more  niuaetQac 
QomardB  are  foond  alio  in  the  seaa  of  the  wathem 


OITBHET,  JoiXPH  JoEV,  a  philanthrotno  Quaker, 
bom  at  Earlham  Hall,  near  Norwich,  Aogost  2, 
17SS,  wai  educated  privately  at  Oxford,  and  in  1818 
became  a  minister  of  the  ^odety  of  Friende.  Eia 
life  waa  deroted  to  the  proaecntion  oE  benevolent 
enterpriMS.  He  died  January  4,  1847-  O.  wrote 
a  gnat  number  of  works ;  among  othen — Nota 
tm  Priton  Dudpline  (Loud.  1819) ;  Obttmatitni  on 
Ae  Retigimit  Peailiaritia  of  the  Sotifly  of  Friendt 
(1824);  A  Winta-  in  Hu!  Wat  India  dexribed  in 
Funuliar  LfOert  to  Hatry  Clay  of  Ketituckfj  (1840). 

GUSSET,  a  piece  at  Ont  of  chain,  and  after- 
warda  of  plate  armour,  intended  aa  a  protectioo  to 
the  vulnerable  point  where  the  defence*  of  the  aim 


abatenaenta  or  morka  of 

diagraee  lot  nnknightiy  oonduct.      It  ia  represented 

by  a  atrai^t  line  extending  diagonally  from  the 

dextar  or  amiater  chief  point  one-third   acroe*  the 

ahield,  and  then  descending  perpen- 

Ij  dicnlarly  to  the  base.  HHalda  tell 
fl  na  that  a  gusset  dexter  iodicated 
■  adultery;  a  guaaet  sinieter,ilrunken- 
I  neaa ;  and  when  both  ware  borne 
■  (aa  in  the  annexed  example),  it  woe 
I  became  Uie  bearer  was  fMltf  in 
P  both  leipecta.  Cowardice  wa*  mdi- 
■~  cated  by  an  abatement  called  the 

fliiM*!  0Qra  ainister  (see  Oosi),  which, 
though  aomewhat  similar,  we  are 
told  earefnlly  to  ■i'T*'"g""''  from  the  gvisaet,  and 
which  coiuim*  of  two  arched  linea  drawn,  one  from 
the  sinister  chie^  the  other  from  the  middle  base 
iA  the  eaoatcheon,  meeting  in  the  fees  point.  A 
gore  like  a  goaeet  representa  a  detachoi  part  of 
a  garment ;  am!  according  to  Goillim,  gores  and 
guaaeta  'are  thtnga  in  use  am^ng  women,  esp^ially 
aamatera,  and  therefore  are  Ct  notes  of  cowards  and 
womanish  dispoaitiona.^ 

GUBTATIA,  tha  chief  town  ol  the  maU  Swedish 
Uand  tA   SI  BartbolMMnr,   in  tha  Waal   Indiea, 


stands  on  its  aouth-wcat  ooast,  hat  a  good  haibonr, 
and  haa  a  population  of  about  lOOO. 

OUSTAVUB  I.,  king  of  Sweden— known  in 
history  as  GuaTAvm  Yaba,  bat  deautkated  before 
his  accoaiou  to  power,  bv  himaell  and  other*, 
QcsTAVCS  EucssoH — was  bom  at  lindholm,  in 
Sweden,  on  the  12tb  of  May  1496,  and  died  in 
1660.  Aa  the  descendant  of  an  ancient  Swedish 
family,  which  had  Kiven  members  to  the  national 
diet  for  nearly  two  hundred  years,  and  whieh  had 
been  distinguished  for  hatred  oF,  and  opposition  to 
Danish  aupremacy,  G.  was  involved  at  an  early  age 
in  the  unfortunate  qjuttrels  and  domestic  wars 
which  distracted  Sweden  at  that  po-iod,  and  the 
first  achievement  of  the  fature  king  was  to  take  an 
active  port  in  the  defence  made  against  Ghnatian  XL 
of  Denmark,  who,  in  1517,  in  person  oommanded  an 
assaolt  upon  Stoekhohn,  the  objeot  of  whieh  waa 
to  compel  the  Swedish  adminiatrator,  Srante  Sture, 
and  hia  senate  to  aoknowledn  him  aa  king  of 
Sweden.  When  &mine  oompellad  Ohriatian  to  relin- 
qniah  Hie  aiege,  he  had  reoonrse  to  fraud ;  and  haying 
enticed  a  deputation  from  the  senate,  among  whtm 
was  O.,  on  board  his  ship,  he  set  sail,  and  treacher- 
ously carried  his  captives  to  Denmark,  where  G. 
spent  a  year  in  confinement  in  tiie  enatody  of  hda 
maternal  relative,  Ekich  Baner,  Lord  of  Kallo^  in 
Jntland.  Whils  nnder  confinement,  G.  heard  auch 
alarming  mmonrs  of  the  expedition  whidh  the  king 
was  preparing  against  Swedrai,  that,  irritated  beyoikd 
endurance,  ha  boke  hla  parole,  and  eeo^ted  in  the 
disgniae  of  a  ralgiim,  or,  according  to  othera,  a* 
a  drover,  and  after  enoonntenng  nnmeroQi  daiigers, 
reached  Lnbeck  (September  1019),  from  which  he 
was  with  difflcnl^  conveyed  to  Sweden,  where  he 
landed,  in  May  1620,  near  Calmar,  the  only  place 
of  note,  except  StcKikholm,  that  still  hdd  out 
againat  the  Danes.  O.  with  difficulty  made  his 
way  into  the  caatle  of  Calmar,  whieh  was  defended 
by  foreign  mercenaries ;  but  aa  hia  admonitiona 
to  the  garriaon  to  ahew  more  leal  in  their  defence 
were  m«t:  by  threats  of  deUvering  him  to  the 
Danea,  he  left  Calmar,  arid  took  reftge  among  his 
father's  peasuitry  in  Smaaland.  The  "imnlnndrm 
had,  however,  alraady  taken  Uie  oatha  of  allegianoe  to 
the  envoys  who  had  been  sent  through  the  ommtry 
by  Chriniau  U.  to  ascartun  the  sentiinent*  of  the 
TCople,  and  O.  was  soon  compelled  to  retreat  to 
Dalaeartia.  where  he  wandered  for  aaroral  months, 
1  hia 


head,  and  ,  

naked,  to  the  house  of  his  broUier-in-law,  Joachim 
Brahe,  just  aa  the  latter  was  preparing  to  obey  the 
summons  of  Christian  II.  to  attend  hia  ooronaldon. 
Having  failed  to  dissuade  Brabe  from  attending  this 
ceremony,  vrhich  took  place  in  November  lfi20,  O. 
retired  to  his  father's  pnnerty  of  Blfanila,  whne 
he  remained  till  he  heanl  lU  the  rmaiaere  known  aa 
the  Blood-bath,  which  foUovred  three  days  after  the 
coronation,  and  in  which,  on  the  plea  of  their  being 
the  enemies  of  the  true  ohnn^  the  greater  nnmbet 
of  tha  noblea  and  leaden  of  SwMen,  inolnding 
Brahe  himarif  and  O.'a  father,  Eric  Johansson,  were 
alanditered  in  oold  blood.  O.  next  retreated  to  the 
less  bequeated  pwts  of  Daleoariia,  where  for  a  t^ae 
he  earned  his  uvins  aa  a  lield-labonrer,  and  more 
than  once  owed  his  Ufe  and  aaMy  to  thamuierusitt 
of  the  peassnt.women  ef  the  dirtrict,  Iti*  period 
of  his  ufe  has  been  so  tmg  made  the  subjeot  of 
traditiouary  lore  and  romanoe,  that  it  is  difficult 
now  to  s^Mrato  the  true  from  ^  false ;  but  the 
(ame  of  hu  supposed  adventnre*  still  lives  in  Uie 
mind*  of  the  people  of  Sweden,  who  cherish  as 
SBoted  every  *^>t  aasooiatad  with  hia  wandstings 
and  dangers.  His  appeals  to  the  Daleoarliaoa  met 
with  BO  ■nneass,  imtil  his  aoooont  tA  the  ^t»aay 


t.LiOogle 


QTTSTAVtrS  L— OUOTAVUS  H 


ti  the  Dues  wM  ooTTobontted  by  the  teatiinoiir  of 
unrenl  fogitivea  from  Stookholm,  when  a  reaction 
followed,  uie  national  enthuAasm  wm  roused,  and 
the  men  of  Dalacarlia,  haying    called   together  a 

diet  at  Mora,  proolaimcd  him  head  of  their 

and  other  communes  of  Sweden. 

Thia  waa  the  tnniing-point  in  hie  life,  for  the 
peaaantrj  now  flocked  around  him  from  erery  aide  ; 
and  befine  another  year  had  paeied,  many  of  the 
■trongest  pcata  of  the  enemy  had  fallen  into  his 
handa,  and  he  Waa  aUe  to  enter  npon  the  eiege  of 
Stockholm,  whidi  terminated  in  1523,  when  (Siria- 
tian  IL  waa  compelled  by  hia  enraged  sabjedB  to 
rtmnxi  the  orown,  and  retdre  from  Denmark.  Hia 
fon9U«  abdicatacoi  bron^t  the  Scandinavian  union 
to  a  mdden  clow,  »fter  it  had  eziated  for  a  period 
of  126  yean;  for  when  Frederick  L,  the  KQcceHsor 
of  ChristiBa,  demanded  fail  recognition  in  Sweden, 
oonformably  to  the  Union  of  Cahnar,  the  Swedes 
dedared  at  the  diet  of  Streagnaes  that  they  would 
hare  no  other  king  but  Guatavue  Ericsson.  Bat 
although  G.  waa  at  once  recwniaed  as  king,  he 
was  not  crowned  till  two  yean  later,  in  consequence 
of  hia  UDwiUingDCSB  to  reoeire  the  crown  from  the 
hands  of  the  liomish  bishops.  The  king  '  early 
tbewed  hia  determination  to  favour  the  Lutheran 


^,  on  whom  h 


e  proportion  of  the 


althoujfh  hia  opinions 
time  not  favonnhly   received  by   the   peopk.     _ 
finally  Bocceeded  ia  eatabliehing  the  fieformatioii 
in  Sweden. 

The  disaffection  ot  the , , ,     .  .   

to  destroy  the  nobility,  and  the  imprudence  ._  ._. 
Lutheran  clergy,  who  tried  to  force  the  people  to 
adopt  the  refoimed  doctrines,  combined  to  tiwart 
toany  of  O.'g  achemes  for  the  improvement  of  the 
country,  while  his  latter  years  were  disturbed  and 
imbittered  by  the  jealousy  and  dissensions  of  his 
sons,  Eiio  and  John.  Yet,  notwithstanding  these 
sources  of  disquietude,  G.  effected  more  than  any 
other  Swediah  monaioh  has  ever  doae  for  the 
welfare  of  the  people.  He  had  found  Sweden  a 
wildemsB^  devoid  of  all  cultivation,  and  a  prey  to 
the  torbnlsnce  of  the  people  and  the  rapacity  of 
the  noblea ;  and  after  forty  years'  rule,  he  left  it  a 
peaoefol  and  civiliaed  realm,  with  a  full  ezohequer, 
and  a  well-ononised  army  of  16,000  men,  and  a 
good  fleet,  which  were  both  his  creations.  He 
promoted  bade  at  home  and  abroad.    Every  prof( 


uid  trade  reoeived  his  attention  and  lo 
leges  ow 
after  the  decay  of  the  older  Roman  Catholic 


caxe,  and  schools  and  oolleges  owed  their 


iosteriiu; 


made  commercial  treatiea  with 
foreign  nations,  and  eatabliahed  fMTS  for  foreign 
traden.  In  his  reign,  roada  and  bridoM  wete 
made  in  every  part  of  the  conntiy,  and  canals 
begun,  one  of  which  has  only  recently  been  brought 
to  completion.  In  his  relations  wiui  his  snbfecte, 
O.  was  firm,  and  sometiniea  severe,  bat  teldom 
unjust,  except  in  his  de^ingi  towards  the  Romish 
clwgy,  whom  he  despoiled  with  something  like 
nqpaoi^  of  all  their  lands  and  fnnda.  He  did 
much,  however,  to  promote  the  ouse  of  Lntheranism, 
klthongh  he  took  care  that  the  reformed  ctersy 
shotdd  be  dapendent  on  the  crown,  and  enjoy  od^ 
wj  moderMB  emoltuneuti.  To  him  the  vanoos 
tribea  of  Ii^pp*  were  indebted  for  tika  diffusion 
«f  Chriatiaiiitr  among  thsm  by  Lnthetau  mission- 
BiMB ;  vhila  UM  Finnt  o«rad  to  him  the  first  woAa 
at  inctrae&ot,  BiUea  and  hymn-books  printed  in 
their  own  language.  O.  was  methodical,  just,  moral, 
and  abstttnioua  in  his  mode  of  life ;  ta  able  admin- 
iatrator ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  a  tendency  to 
•TBiio^  pOHeasd  fow  qoahtiea  that  are  unworthy  of 


esteem.  He  was  three  tdmes  nurried,  and  had  tM 
children.  The  name  of  Vasa,  vrtiich  has  baen  sap- 
posed  to  be  an  ancient  patronymic  in  hia  family,  bat 


the  Swedish  nobilUy  until  a  later  d&ta,  w 

by  him  aubaequentl^  lo  his  aocenion,  and  is  e^ec- 

tured  by  the  historian  Qejer  (q.  v.)    aod  otheia  U 


,  but  changed  hj 

G.  to  yellow,  from  whence  it  oame  to  be  nu«t«keo 
for  a  sheaf.  By  an  act  ot  the  diet  ot  1E44,  at 
Westenas,  the  crown  was  dedarod  hereditaiy  in 
the  male  deecendauts  of  G.;  in  conformity  witb 
which,  hia  eldest  son  Erio  (q.  v  '  •   ,  . .  .i . 

throne  on  his  death  in  1660. 

GUSTAVTTS  II.  (ADOLPHtTS)  was  born  st 
Stockhohu,  December  9,  ISM,  and  died  in  1632  on 
the  field  of  battle  at  LUtzen.  He  was  the  grsndsm 
of  Gustavus  Vasa,  Iw  his  yonngeat  aon,  Charles  I£,, 
at  whose  death,  in  1611,  lie  suweeded  to  the  throne 
of  Sweden.  G.  had  been  etrictiy  brm^it  iq>  in  the 
Lutheran  faith,  and  oarefolly  trained  in  uMta  of  busi- 
neas,  and  was  one  ol  ttie  mo«t  aooom^idied  princes 
of  his  age.  Ha  was  acquainted  with  ei^t  language*, 
five  of  which  he  spoke  and  wrote  flnantlf,  was  wall 
read  in  the  classics  and  andent  hiatorr,  *  proficient 
in  mosie,  and  excelled  in  all  warlike  and  muly  exsr 
cieee.  At  hit  accessinit  to  power,  he  found  the  oomttiy 
involved  in  wars  abroad,  and  disordeis  at  home, 
erisiiig  from 'the  disputed  succession  of  his  fatbn-, 
who  had  been  elected  king  ou  the  exclusion  of  hii 


Roman  Catholio  religit 
the  Swediah  people,  and 
virtually  annulled  his  claims  to  the  crown.  The 
first  aot  of  G.  was  to  secure  the  hearty  co-opera- 
tion of  the  nobles,  whoso  privileges  he  oonOnned. 
and  niiide  dependent  npou  the  performance  cI 
military  service  to  the  crotrn,  andT  thus  laid  the 
foundation  of  an  essentially  fendal  or  mihtoiy  form 
of  government,  in  which  the  nobles  held  their  landi 
directly,  and  the  peasantry  indiootly,  under  the 
crown.  In  addition  to  these  two  bodies,  which  hid 
formerly  conatitated  tiie  national  diet,  G.  for  the 
first  time  admitted  special  delegates  of  the  ann; 
into  the  BSaembly  as  assessors  t«  the  noUet.  Eaviiig 
tbos  or^aziised  the  internal  government,  and  suc- 
ceeded m  leryiriH  heavy  imports  and  rMsinx  aom 
companiea  of  efficient  troops,  he  inaugnraud  hia 
military  career  by  a  war  with  Denmaik,  wbidi  st 
that  time  occupied  the  BaltbdistriotBof  the  SwsdiA 
territories,  and  thus  oompletely  cut  off  Ot*  Swede* 


from  direct  « 


di 


Eastern  Emope.  The  war  oontinued  for  a  year,  a 
tenuiuated  in  a  peace  between  the  two  coootnc^  i 
by  which  G.  renounced  his  claims  on  the  ^Vf^  ' 
districts  and  other  disputed  territory,  and  Tecanred  | 
possession,  imder  certain  condititMis,  of  Cabnsr,  ' 
Oeland,  Elfsborg,  and  the  province  of  Qottanbors,  ; 
Having  thus  ^ined  an  outlet  on  the  Bslnc,  i 
secured  a  peacefS  ally  in  the  king  of  Denm^ 
and  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  Netherlaads,  , 
I-,  turned  his  attention  to  the  Rossian  w^i 
'hich,  after  fluctuating  sneeess,  waa  couchided  iB  [ 
S17,  by  the  treaty  of  Stolbova,  by  which  8w*d^  , 
btained  enpreme  dominion  over  I^nBanlandasd  \ 
Karelia,  and  part  ot  Lifland,  while  lussia  teoo*<*!'^  : 
Novogorod  and  all  other  oonqnesta  made  bj  ™*  I 
Swedes.  The  boundary  of  the  Swedish  terrrto^.  i 
which  then  inclnded  the  site  of  the  tiitnre  St  "^/  { 
burg,  waa  marked,  after  the  P«»ce,  by  a  stone  wkwli  , 
bore  the  three  crowns  ot  Sweden  above  a  I*™  I 
inscription,  recording  that  it  marked  the  Him»  "  i 
thedominionsofG.A.,kingofSweden.  Tbedi«f«™ 
with  Poland  still,  however,  i        '     '  -^-~^-*-  ' 


ha  hunts  M  1 
nndeoded; 


TTtkrogte 


GUSTATUS  IL-QDSTATrcrB  m. 


mad  in  1621,  war  was  openly  declared  between  the 
tvD  countries,  wid  ww  contiiiiMd,  -with  ocowional 
interminitms,  till  1629,  whan  it  tatmiiiAted  in  »  aii 
yean'  tmce,  which  waa  tettled  by  a  treatry  that 
secored  reciprocity  of  trade  uid  freedom  of  rehgian 
to  the  natives  of  both  coimtdei,  and  left  U.  inaster 
of  ESbing,  Braunaben,  PiUan,  and  UemeL 

This  peace  enabled  the  king  to  mature  the  plana 
he  had  long   cheriahed   in   lefjard  to   Oennany ; 


B  adm; 


itrative  reforn 


iTaGed  himself  of  the  short  interval  of  peace 
to  promote  the  material  prosperity  of  the  country, 
he  remitted  the  charge  of  the  Eovenunent  and 
the  cars  of  hia  infant  dau^ter  Christina  to  his 
chaneellar  Oxenstiera,  and  eet  sail,  in  the  summer 
of  1630,  with  an  army  of  abont  15,000  men,  to 
aid  tiie  Fiotestenta  ■»  Qermany  in  their  hard 
struggle  againist  the  Catholic  League,  which  was 
backed  by  the  power  of  the  empire. 

EveryOung  tavonred  the  eucceHg  of  the  Swedes, 
who  drove  tba  imperialists  from  Pomerania.  and  took 
Stflttin.  The  childlets  Duke  of  Pomerania  eogaged, 
in  letum  for  Swedish  aid,  that  the  dukedom 
ahoold,  after  his  death,  be  given  Dp  to  Sweden 
nntQ  the  expenses  of  the  war  were  folly  repaid ; 
whilst  France,  throogh  hatred  of  the  empire,  agreed 
to  fnmish  Q.  with  a  aabsidy  of  400,000  rii-dollars 
as  long  as  he  maintained  an  anny  of  36,000  men. 
Wallenstein  had  also  retired  from  the  service  of  the 
emperor.  Bnt  while  the  Swedes  were  besieging 
Spuidan  and  KUatrin,  the  dty  of  Uagdeboig,  which 
had  applied  to  O.  for  assistance,  was  teken  in 
1631  by  the  imperial  general,  lllly,  whose  troops 
pentetrated  the  most  torrihle  atrocities  against  the 
tm&rtunate  inhabitaDta  Although  G.  could  not 
save  Magdeburg,  he  soon  after  its  fall  inflicted  a 
defeat  on  the  imperialieta  at  Breitenfeld,  which 
excited  the  respect  aod  fear  of  the  Catholics,  who 
thenceforward  ceased  to  despise  tho  '  stow-klng  and 
his  body-guard,'  as  they  designated  O.  and  his  small 
army.  Tha  king  now  advanced  into  Franconia,  and 
after  blowing  ma  army  to  recruit  their  streogth 
in  the  rich  biahoprica  of  WUrzburg  and  Bamberg, 
took  the  Palatinate  and  Mains,  where  he  held  a 
aplendid  court,  anrroiinded  by  numerous  princes  and 
ambassadoni  In  the  spring  of  1632,  the  Swedes,  in 
the  face  of  Tilly's  army,  crossed  the  Danube,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory  at  IngoUtadt,  where  Tilly 
was  mortally  wounded.  From  thence  the  march  to 
Munich  was  one  continued  trinmpli,  and  wherever 
O.  appeared  ho  was  received  by  the  populace  ~ 
their  guardian  angeL  The  road  to  Vienna  was  n 
open  to  hin,  and  the  fate  of  the  emperor  wonld  have 
been  sealod,  had  the  latter  not  recalled  1 
Wallensteiti,  who,  having  acoepted  iMe» 
terms,  ^rfOiered  toatiux  a  large  army,  witli  which 
he  advanoed  on  !?"—•-  '  ■-  "  -  -■---'■-- 
de^wtate  assault  o 

rialista  at  the  time  he  intended,  bat  on  Novemi 
6,  1632,  the  two  armies  eame  finally  face  to  face 
at  Latzem.  As  nsual,  the  Swedes  b^an  by  singing 
Lotiim'B  hymn,  Sine/aie  Burg  itt  anier  Ootl,  and  a 
hymn  cranposed  by  the  king.  Q.  now  made  an 
addrea  to  the  army,  and  swinging  his  sword  above 
his  head,  he  gave  the  word  of  command,  and  with 
the  cry  of 'Onwards  I'  he  nuhed  forward,  followed 
by  the  eaoer  ttoopa,  who  were  commanded  oon- 
ioiiitly  t^mmseU  and  Bemhard  of  Saxe-Weimar. 
victory  waa  already  on  the  side  of  the  Swede^ 
wluu  a  strong  reinfc^cement  of  imperialists  ^ipBarea 
ander  the  command  of  PappejJieim.    "  .™— .~  i>.«t 


wavered  under  tlds  fresh  attack,  rode 
hastily  fcoward,  when,  having  come  too  near  a 
squadron  of  Croats,  he  received  a  shot  in  his  arm, 


and,  M  he  waa  tnmijig  aside,  another  in  the  bac^ 
which  canaed  him  to  fall  from  his  hone.  The  sight 
of  the  liderleas  animal  spread  dismay  and  fniy 
among  the  Swedes ;  but  before  they  could  advance 
to  his  leacne,  a  party  of  Croats  had  thrown  them- 
aelvea  between  the  king  and  his  army ;  and  it  was 
not  till  after  many  hours'  hard  fighting,  and  when 
the  field  waa  atrown  with  10,000  dead  a^  wounded, 
that  they  recovered  the  body  of  the  king,  which 
had  been  plondered,  uteipped,  and  covered  with 
woonds.  The  artillery  of  the  enemy  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Swedes,  who  remained  masten  of  the 
field,  after  having  fooght  with  an  impetnosity  that 
notiung  coold  resisl  A  rumour  long  prevailed  that 
the  shot  in  the  back  which  caused  tbo  king  to  fall 
waa  from  the  hand  of  Albert  Duke  of  Saxe-Lanen- 
bnrg,  hat  it  appean  that  there  was  no  just  ground 
for  the  suipicion. 

Although  G.  was  eminent^  a  warlike  kin^  he 

istration  of  his  country,  and  devoted  his  short 
intervals  of  peace  to  the  promotion  of  oommeroe 
and  manufactoreo.  He  was  pre-eminently  teli- 
gioua,  and  his  anccess  in  battle  is  perhaps  to  be 
ascribed  not  only  to  a  batter  mode  of  waitore,  and 
the  stricter  discipline  which  he  enforced,  but  also 
still  morq  to  tha  moral  influence  which  his  deep- 
seated  luety  snd  his  personal  character  ins^nred 
among  his  soldiers.  The  spot  where  be  fell  on  the 
field  of  Latzen  was  long  marked  bv  the  BiAaedm- 
Meitt,   or   Swede's   Stone,  erected   Dy   his  aerrant, 


centenary  of  the  batUe 
held  in  1332. 

OUSTATUB  III.,  king  of  Sweden,  was  bom 
at  Stockholm  in  1746,  and  sacceeded  his  father, 
Adolphus  Frederick,  in  1771,  at  a  period  when  the 
country  was  distracted  by  the  intrigues  of  the  rival 
political  parties  of  Horn  and  Gyllenborg,  known  as 
the  'Eats'  and  'Capa.'  Finding  that  tiie  people, 
who  were  thorongbly  wearied  with  tie  misrule  of 
the  nobles,  were  ready  for  any  change,  G.  covertly 
fomented  the  ceneral  discontent,  and  having  raised 
a  fictitious  rebellioo,  through  the  agency  of  his 
friend  and  adherent.  Captain  Hdlichius,  he  collected 
ti^ther  a  large  body  of  tioops,  on  pretence  of 
restoring  order,  and  having  arrested  the  council 
in  a  body,  convoked  the  diet,  snd  lud  before  it  a 
newly  framed  conatitntion,  to  which  the  assembly 
was  compelled  to  aubacribe.  A  revolution  was  thna 
^ected  without  the  shedding  of  blood,  and  by  a 
stroke  of  the  pen  O.  recovered  all  the  ikgal.  power* 
that  had  been  gradually  lost  by  his  immediate  pre- 
decesBora.  O.  acted  with  great  moderation  after 
this  auccesaf  ul  amp  if  flat ;  and  he  might  have  long 
retained  the  advantages  he  hod  gained,  if  his  love  (U 
display,  and  his  wish  to  emulate  the  king  of  France 
in  extravagance  and  magnificence,  had  not  led  him 
into  profuse  expenditure,  which  embariaaaed  the 
finances ;  at  the  same  time,  the  introdnctiou  of  the 
mannen  and  usages  of  Versailles  at  his  own  court 
irritated  the  national  party,  while  it  ondoubtedly 
tended  to  demoralise  the  upper  classes,  and  throng 
them  the  nation  generally.  In  1788  he  engaged  m 
war  with  Bossia,  at  the  moment  that  the  empire 
vraa  engaged  in  active  hostilities  aninst  tlie  Tnrka^ 
bat  derived  no  advantaoes  from  uie  contest.  On 
the  linialiiii]i  out  of  the  flench  Berohttioo,  he 
combined  inth  the  other  moDarolu  agwnat  Franca, 
and  applied  to  tha  diet  for  foods  to  aaiat  the 
Bourbont.  Hia  repeated  anilicatiana  having  bean 
dedsiveiy  rejected,  the  noblee,  amongst  whom  he 
had  many  enemies,  took  advantage  of  his  general 
nnpopalarity,  and  entered  into  a  ccaquaoy  aounat 


t.Google 


OTJBTAVUS  IT.— OUTJEHUKUO. 


him,  the  leMUn  of  whiob  wers  Bibbing,  Hcan, 
ud  FeoUin.  On  the  IBQx  Haroh  1792,  a.  wu 
mort«l^  mnnidtd  bj  thur  i^aiit,  »  Oqitain  Ankmr- 


nfi. 


t  miiked  b«il  m  tiie  ofMn-hmue 


hkd  UmMlf  bmli    The  dUM  Iwd  baea 

kwded  with  biok«n  ihot,  wbkh  leDcUnd  the  mnnd 

tsptdtUy  pamfnl,  aad  the  hing  ralbrad  the  me  ' 

dreidfttl  agoitf  lor  thirtten  dayi  before  lot  ieMx. 

0.  wu  a  mail  of  niied  iMoning,  and  tiie  anth 


able  merit.  Sa  writingB  hare  been  pabUdied 
in  a  oolleaUYe  fom  both  in  Swadidk  and  nenoh. 
In  ITSS,  Q.  depoiited  osrtain  pweta  in  Oa  Vbatrj 
of  UpaiJa,  whioh  azcitad  mooh  taitwMt  from  tha 
&Ct  that  ther  were   not  to  ba  opeMd  for  flftr 


aUSTATaS    IT.,   the    Km    and 


Hii  onclc^  Duke  U  E 

dnrine  hia  minority.    "^^  jonng  k   ^, 

•ion  to  power,  at  onoe  save  eTidence  of  the  b 


at  which  be  held  the  kinglj  powt 
ooalitio 


fint  act  WM  to  join  the  third  ooalitiou  uainat 
France,  oonta'ary  to  Uie  wiihea  of  his  people.  &tred 
of  Napoleon  loon,  however,  became  the 
ii^nenceof  bit  life.  The  lemlt  of  hi*  dec:, 
of  polk^led  to  the  ooenpationof  Swedieh  Pomerania 
byTreneh  trotma  oadei  Marthal  Bmite,  ^o  took 
Stxalnmd  and  Kiga  tnta  tiw  Bwedei  in  1807,  and 
thna  deprived  than  of  the  laat  ti  their  Oennan 
poHewona.  ISie  king  opened  all  hia  porta  to  Engliah 
Teswlt,  and  thereby  involTed  himMU  in  a  war  with 
Buada.  Hie  scene  of  theae  traetilitiea  wm  Finland, 
which  the  Swedes  were  obliged  to  ^ve  op  to  Bnnia 
at  the  dose  of  IBOS.  Norway  became  nen  the  scene 
ol  war,  the  Swedsa  being  atWBted  byaa  Bnglinh  lab- 
«idy  of  10,000  men,  who,  however,  speedily  retnmed 
to  EWlond  when  they  fooud  that  O-  intended  to 
send  vuaa  to  Finland,  ^e  nnfortiinate  war  with 
Bosiia,  whioh  had  been  excited  entirely  tbrongh 
the  folly  of  the  king,  gave  rise  to  io  much  discontent 
in  Sweden,  that  a  oonsidraey  w**  set  on  foot  hy 
several  <ffloei8  and  nobles,  the  object  of  which  woa 
to  dethrane  the  unpopular  monarch.  The  conspija- 
ton  todi  forcible  poiitsiion  of  the  palace  at  Stock- 
holm, ud  placed  him  under  arrest;  and  after  an 
ineffectoalMtampt  at  escape,  he  consented  to  abdicate 
Om  throne,  29t&  Uaroh  1S09.  After  wandering 
for  a  time  a«m  place  to  plaee,  he  flnaUf  settled  at 
St  Gall,  where  he  died,  lofgotten  and  m  poverty, 
in  1637.  Bia  mid&  the  Soke  of  Sndermania,  after 
acting  as  regent  of  the  kingdom,  was  finally  pro- 
claimed  king,  under  the  title  of  Charles  Xm.,  at  the 
diet  nhioh  met  in  Uay  1809:  Hy  Uie  uonseut  of  the 
diet,  Charies'ZIT.  (Bemadotte)  pMd  over  the  value 
of  the  private  estates  of  the  famUv  of  Tasa  for  the 
bokefit  of  Qnatavna  and  hia  ohHaran;  bnt  aa  Uie 
dethroned  king  refused  to  reoslva  aof  ec  this  money 
directly,  or  to  aooept  the  peniaxai  irtuoh  the  Swedish 
government  had  Battled  npni  him,  he  was  oftbn  in 
peonniarT  diffionltiei^  Iron  whkh  he  was  olandea- 
finely  raliaved  by  his  divorced  qnsen  and  chUdreu, 
who  oonbivBd,  wiHuot  hia  knowledge  to  siqtply 
hi*  wants. 

OtT^TROW,  a  town  of  Heoklenbwg-Soliwwin, 
and  long  the  rssidsnos  ol  the  priooes^  is  sitnated 
on  ffae  Mt  bank  of  the  Nebei  S7  milss  sooth  of 
Bcstock.  AmoBf  the  princJpM  haldings  are  the 
mnnasiiim,  tlw  <3d  oasda  (dsw  tiia  wotkhona^,  Uie 
fine  Ootiuo  oaUndral,  and  Aa  town-hoosa.      The 


feimsr  rampaita  ban  bean  wansitsd  into  plssaant 


and  haa  SOTmal  water-mills.    Pop.  (1971)  10,fi7& 

0T7T  MAITUFACTUBE,  an  unpleasant  ttungh 
ratlier  important  branch  of  moniifacttire,  the  open- 
tions  of  which  consist  in  preparing  the  manbnuus 
of  snimal  intwtinea  for  vanona  nseful  porposcs. 
The  French  call  it  bmavidtrie,  bom  bofOM,  mtes- 
tdiw,  and  have  placed  it  under  stringent  Ic^  regn- 
lationa,  on  account  of  its  offensive  aad  pAtiferooi 
character,  eapedaUy  when  conducted  in  a  populoqa 
^nsrter  of  a  tows,  as  at  the  Bue  de  la  Bo^wderia, 
m  Faris,  One  branch  of  gnt  manofactDre  has  bem 
described  under  Qoldbbatkbs'Skih.  Col-^salt 
is  called,  is  njsde  from  the  intestineB  of  ahsen  which 
are  first  cleansed  and  treed  from  loose  b.t,  um  pre- 


-  -,   jsn^nt 

then  further  soaked  in  clean  water  and  scnpeo 
separately.  After  this,  they  are  treated  with  s 
Bcdutioa  of  potssh,  and  drawn  by  women  through  s 
sort  of  thimble,  and  sorted  for  twiatinz  into  thieada 
Th^  are  then  exposed  to  fmnes  of  ai^phuronf  sod, 
oven  off  from  burning  salphnr,  'whitdi  deodorises 
Uiem,  and  prevents  sabeequent  putrdlaction-  Hie 
smafl  intestines  are  u«ea  for  cat-gut,  the  Isige 
intestines  are  simply  scraped  and  salted,  for  the  nn 
of  sanssge-makera  and  by  confeotionei^  and  for 
t;rii^  ever  preserve  and  pickle  jars,  &c.  lliecosiMT 
kinds  of  cat-gnt  striogi  are  used  for  pulley  snd 
lathe  bonds,  strings  for  archery-bow^  drill-bow^ 
hatters-bows,  and  other  purposes  where  a  ttron; 
oord  subject  to  friction  is  required ;  the  fino'  kinds 
are  twisted  into  whip-cord,  and  are  used  for  fishing- 
tackle  and  the  sbingt  of  musicsl  instruments.  Fit 
the  latter  pnipoM  a  vray  superior  qnidiW  is  required. 
The  best,  calted  Soman  itHags,  are  made  chiefly  it 
M?1mi.    Our  manu&otursra  have  .  ■   ■  - 


■  I 


equal  Qime,  and  this  is  attributed  Ira' 
fsd^ Uiat  the  Italian  sheen  m  -  -^ 
ODis,  and  the  membranea  of  lean 


aie  miioh  leaner  thsn 
"i  are  tougher 
and  mpidlj 


aUTENBERO,  JoaAmrao,  or  Hxmn,  wboss 
proper  name  was  amrauBBCS,  or  OJimvLiiBca, 
snd  who  is  legaided  I^  ^e  Oermsna  as  tiu 
inventor  of  the  art  of  employing  movable  tyv"  >" 
printing,  was  bom  near  the  dose  of  the  l«h  n  st 
Mains.  He  waa  spraiw  from  a  patrioisn  bmib, 
irtutdi  took  the  names  <rf(liitenbarg  and  OensflsisM 
from  two  eststea  in  ita  posseasion.  Of  G.'s  sariy 
lifls  no  partioolara  an  known,  but  it  sunns  probaUe 
that  he  devoted  himself  at  an  esrir  age  to  msehsniesl 
arts.  In  the  year  1434,  ha  was  living  in  Stniha^ 
and  tiiere,  in  1436,  mode  *  oontraoTwitii  Aadrsw 
Drnehn,  or  Dritsehn,  and  others  W  iriiidt  he 
...__>  ^=_.....   =_^..  ..  .     in^ki,. • 


and  WMkdsifal  aits,'  and  to  «anploT  tiiese  for  tlMir 
advantage.    Tliis  undartskii^ 


prdiended  the  fiist  itsna  in  tlM  art  d 

bustnAsd  l^tlie  dsatii  of  Diyzdm,  ■>«-.■  i 

briy  as  Omh^  Dtyadin,  a  teotbw  4^  the  dsosssid. 
ocsnmenoed  a  lawsuit  with  G.,  whioh  was  dsdded 
againat  the  latter.  Wbsn  and  whws  the  Snt 
memiitB  in  the  act  of  printing  wets  madsi  cm- 
not  with  osrtain^  be  asoertained,  as  the  wow 
printed  br  O.  bear  neither  nana  not  dsts;  ttw 
much  is,  nowew,  oertaiiH-iianMly,  that  moraoH 
woodan  tvpaa  ware  flnt  «suh>yad  by  him  shoot 
the  yesr  14381  In  1443,  he  isiwned  from  Btw 
bwg  to  Hains,  when,  in  14M  or  14C0,  he  «^««> 
'io  partneiBhip  with  Jobannss  Fanst,  <k  Fut, 
wei^y  gtdd^tb.  Fknst  tenishsd  ti»."<^ 
teqnind  to  set  up  a  printing-pres%  in  '"^"^-^ 
Latin  Bible  was  psintsd^Qir first  tin*    n» 


-tr 


lUgt^ 


QUTHSIB-OUTB  KDTHB. 


parbMnhip  ma,  hmrnrsr,  dinolTed  after  the  impta 
of  B  faw  jeaiB.  Fanat  had  mads  larsB  advalHH 
irliidi  Q.  wai  now  to  Tefond,  Imt  u  be  paoBeaud 


in  ccnjnnotion  with  Peter  SohSer  rf  Oemihaim. 
By  the  aaiiitiince  ol  Cotind  Hummer,  a  connciUor 
of  Uhdz,  6.  wu  again  enaUed  to  fet  ap  a 
^en,  from  which.  Id  all  probabili^,  piaoe«ded 
^ornuMiii  da  Saidit  Bpteuiiht  SaturOcttm,  -^-^  ' 
in  qnarto  withoat  dm  er  nMD&  i  — 
Bome,  toaz  adituna  of  tiw  Domtttu 
wias  printed  by  G.,  irhlla  otitaia  aaorllM  tham  to 
Fhort  aod  SdUtSw.  &i  14S7,  ^^Mued  tin  Latin 
Ptailerhan,  or  raHier  a  Invnaiy  amtuning  jiUiam, 
itipboiM^  coOacti,  to.,  and  amnged  ftr 
I  ICC  Sandra  and  hdidayi.     Thia  aped- 


non,  ana  vauea   oy  uuxna  m   «iv,wv,  waa 

nted  wHh  an  eleganoe  whioh  nffieiantij'jiroTea 

s  n^M  prosnM  tint  had  been  made  m  Ae 

wlj  mTsnted  art,  and  Om  dJUaenoe  with  iriiioh 

It  had  been  proeecnted.    O.'a  ptinnBg  eataUiihmant 

eziated  tin  14M  in  Uhdil     Ha  diad,  aa  ii  gaoai- 

allr  bdiend^Uth  ^brtuiy  I46S, in  wliicli  TMT  tha 

amibialiopi  Elector  of  Maim,  appointed  him 


, the  i»nk  of  a 

nohlc^  tXongh  oUiera  place  hia  death  at  the  oloae 
of  the  mmom  year.  The  evidenoe  in  (aTovr  of 
bemg  tbo  ioTentor  of  printing. 


EhiiM  . 


ly  bia  oonntrymen  anite  oonolnaiTe.  They  adduce 
the  teatimony  of  Xnrieh  Zell  of  Huiao,  who  Sent 
introdoced  the  art  into  Cologne  (14^,  and  nbo 
'  '-  ■<-  - '  '  tliia  noble  art  wis  inTSnted  for 
in  Qermany,  at  Mainz,  npon  the 
W  a  citizen  of  Myft7>  nuned  John 
ibcn'    Sinulariy  nieaka  WinqifelinA  a  leuned 

ian  (bora  at  Stzaatmrg,  14S1,  and  partly  oon- 

tanponneona  irith  Gntenbeig).  'In  the  year  1440, 
nnM  tlie  reign  ol  Frederick  IIL,  u  almoat  divine 
benefit  WM  oonfcRed  on  mankind  by  John  Onten- 
bds,  who  flnt  diaooTered  the  art  of  pinlina.' 
ao,  toa,  Itithaonw  (bom  140%  died  ISIS).  <Zt 
thu  epixili,  tUa  mannaUa  art  {Ti&,  of  printii^ 
waa  dmiaed  and  isTnated  by  Gtthtibcc£  a  cititai 
-'  ^'-jnzi-  irbik  Jehann  aabSBt,  aon  ot  Petw 
>  (the  partBtr  of  Fanat),  in  Ilia  v«f«oa  to  a 
n  tmwbtion  of  liry  {luini,  UMK),  «Kpi«ady 
k»>  '^iginally  the  adminKileart 


ma  Johann  GnteobM^  lISQ  a.Dl,'  and  that  it 
anbaeqaaitly  inmrored  and  nvpa^tad  to  poate 
7  the  wealth  and  laboon  of  Johann  Foat  and  F 


That  O.  may  hare  moetrcd  tfaa  flrtt 

hinta  of  hi«  isnotitm  from  th«  Dotdt  xjlempta, 
ianotdenied.  Sea  Oonn.  tllilah  ZaU  hiraidf 
■dnuta  thia ;  bat  th*  iBTeatkm  of  t^p^piplty,  and 
beyond  aD  doubt  of  the  printing-pn*,  mnat  be 
aacribad  to  tba  Qarman.— Ocnpafe  Ofaeriin'a  Stai 
<r^M«ifa«d«faFt«d«0«lMi»«ry(a»ihDrK  1801); 
M«odaUBocbaIla^B«IO|r*fwftinw  de  J.  OhUk- 
btrg  (IW.  1811)1  Oama'a  Am  HiMoHgi*  de 
Ovtaitra  (Par.  ISffH ;  and  LamartiiMi'i  OtUaiierg, 
r/iM^few  (fa  PIn^iritMrle  (Par.  1803). 

OUTHBIE,  Tatntu,  D.D.,  an  (minent  ptUint 
orator,  phDantiamdat,  and  aocial  reformer,  waa 
bom  m  1803  at  Bradiin,  Forfanhiie,  where  hii 
ftOtet  waa  a  merchant  and  banker.  He  went 
throodi  the  ovrionliim  of  stndy  preaciihed  hj_  the 
Clmi^trf  Scotland  to  candidates  for  the  miuia^ 
at  die  nnfrmv^  of  Edisbargh,  and  deroted  two 
additioualwinten  to  the  atody  of  chonirtiy,  natnral 


hlatory,  and  anatim?.    Heaniriule,  ha  w 

._  _  . v_i_.>. "^-teryof  Breo): 

mimtiu  in  Pari*,  ftody- 
.1 — !-. —   ^jjj  natmnd 
.   .  „  ,   he  for   two 

yean  conducted,  on  Mhalf  of  hit  family,  the 
affitiia  of  a  bank  i^enoy  in  Brechin.  In  1830,  he 
beoane  miniater  of  Aitnrlot,  ia  hia  natiTe  coonty; 
and  in  1887  waa  ifipoiated  mo  of  the  nunintera 


reelaiiB  Ilia  dagnded  popolatian  of  one  of  the 
woiat  diatnota  <d  the  d^,  aoon  won  for  him  a 
hi^  place  in  public  eatim^ion.  In  1843,  G.  joined 
tho  Aae  Ohnrofa,  and  for  a  long  aeries  of  ^ears  con- 
tinned  to  miniiiti"  to  a  laise  and  influential  congre- 
gation in  Edinbutdi.  In  I34C — 1846,  ho  perframed 
a  great  aerfioe  to  the  Vne  Chnndi,  in  hia  sdTooaoy 
throof^wnt  tho  countiT  of  it>  acheme  tea  ivovidii^ 
manaes  of  lendencea  fot  its  miniaten.  O.'a  ze^ 
howeret,  waa  not  diverted  into  mere  denominational 
or  sectarian  channela.  He  came  forward,  in  1847, 
aa  the  advooste  of  Bagged  Sdioolt  (q.  v.]  ;  and  to 
him  die  rsind  azteuaioD  of  the  syttsm  over  the 
kingdom  ia  vsr;  mnob  to  be  aacribed.  He  also 
eameat^  exerted  himael^  in  many  wayi,  in  oppo- 
mtion  to  intemperanoa  and  other  prevuhng  vioea. 
O.  poMMBed  (Veat  rhetorical  talent;  and  his  style 
waa  remarkaUe  tor  tJie  abondance  and  vari^  of 
tiie  illaatrationa  ha  naed.  Few  public  speak^^ 
have  ever  blended  aolemnity  and  deep  pathoa  eo 
intimately  with  the  homorons,  hia  tendency  to 
which  baa  more  frequently  than  anything  elae  Decn 
painted  ont  aa  his  foult.  G.  always  cKapUyed  a 
generona  aympathy  with  all  that  tends  to  progresB 
or  iimroTement  of  any  kind.  He  waa  moderator  of 
the  Qenmal  Aaaenibly  of  the  Ft«e  Chnrch  of  Scot- 
land in  Hay  ISSi  G.'s  most  important  publiihed 
worka  Kn—TAe  Ootpd  in  Szdael,  a  teritit  ofDii- 
courut  (A.  and  0.  Black,  Edin.  1865) ;  TAe  Wai)  to 
Life,  a  volume  of  aermona  (Edin.  1862) ;  A  PUafor 
Dnaiard*  and  (uoteit  DntiAepmeat,  a  pamphlet 
(Edin.  1866) ;  A  Plea  /or  Sagged  SdiooU,  a  pam- 
phlet (Edin.  1847),  followed  b^  a  second  and  a  third 
pIe«^  the  latter  ooder  the  btle  of  Seed-time  and 
Harvett  qf  Sagged  Schooh  (Edin.  1862);  The  Ota/: 
Us  Bbu  and  Somnm  (Edin.  18S7).  Parhape  hia 
Pltaa  fnmiah  the  best  pablished  specimeng  of  Dr 
O.'s  eloqnence.  For  some  yean  before  hia  death  he 
acted  as  editor  ti  the  Sunday  Magatiiu,  founded  in 


1864,  in  which  year  be  retired  ffom  lua  ngnlar 
miniatrationa.  He  died  on  tiic  24th  of  Febniary 
1873. 

GUTHRIE,  WiLLUJc,  a  pditical,  biatocical,  and 
misoellaneans  writer,  was  bOTn  at  Brechin,  in  Far- 
&nhire,  in  1708,  and  educated  at  King's  College, 
Aberdeen.  At  an  early  peiiod,  be  removed  to 
London,  where  he  worked  hard  for  forty  yearB  aa 
•  man  of  letten.  He  died  Uarch  1770:  Among  his 
Tadoua  works  are  a  ffitlory  nf  Eiigland  (3  vols. 
Lond.  1744—1750);  and  A  Muloncai  and  Geo^ror 
p&uol  Oramimar  (1st  edition,  1770;  24th  edition, 
1827);  a  nsefiil  m<mi»1  of  infonnation,  which 
enjoyed  jpi'"™'"  popnlaiity  in  its  time, 

OT71%  HTTTHB,  JoH.  Chbibtoph.  FiOKra:.,  a 
Gennan  instructor  of  yontii,  was  bom  at  Qaedlin- 
bniK<  in  ftnaatao  Saxony,  9th  Angost  17tW,  studied 
at  Hall^  and  aubaeqnently  became  attached    to 

>  SehnepfenthaL    Thaie  he 

thetlabomtu      


Bpeoially  to  til 


gave , -      —   - 

and  praotioal,  of  Oymnaattea  (q.  >.;  >■  >  unuuu 
of  e&caticn ;  and  Dom  him  it  has  paased  into  the 
carricnlmn  of  other  Gwman  inslitDtioDa.  In  17A3, 
G.  paUidied  hia  OjfmtKoliJi  far  die  Jagtnd,  friuch 
hM  become  a  claasio  work  on  tiie  sabject^  and  tha 


tyGooi^le 


GUTTA  PEECHA. 


bins  of  &U  Bubseqaent  treatioea.  Beaides  wvenl 
other  works  on  hig  favourite  subject,  G.  M.  Loldi 
m  distinguiahed  place  as  a  'writer  on  geograpli;. 
He  died  in  1839.  His  centennial  anniversary  was 
celebrated  August  9,  1869,  at  SclmepfentlilJ. 

GU'TTA  PE'ROHA  (pronounced  per(»fta),»  sab- 
sttuice  in  many  reepects  sunilar  to  caoutchouc,  is  the 
dried  milky  juice  rf  a  tree,  Ixmaiidra  OuOa,  which  is 
found  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  the  Malayan 
Archipel^.  The  tree  belongs  to  the  natural  order 
SapotaceiE.  It  ia  a  very  hu^  tree,  the  trunk  being 
sometimes  three  feet  in  diuneter,  although  it  is  <u 
little  use  as  a  tiniber  tree,  the  vnoA  being  spongy. 
The  leaves  are  alternate,  on  Iraig  stalks,  obovata- 
oblong,  entire,  somewhat  leatheiy,  green  abors,  and 


¥ 


Outta  Peicha : 
r;  j,  a  plitll;  i,  a  bnncfa  with  Iut« 
rent  Krtlrni  of  otbtj  ;  i,  Tcnical  mc 


of  a  golden  colour  beneath.  The  floiren  are  in  little 
tufts  in  the  axils  of  the  leaveo,  small,  each  on  a  dis- 
tinct stalk  ;  the  corolla  having  a  short  tube  and.  eii 
elliptical  segments  ;  they  have  twelve  stamens  and 
one  pistil.  The  name  QuUa  Percha  is  UaUyan, 
gotta  BigmfyinK  the  concrete  juice  of  a  plant,  and 
percha  being  l£e  name  of  the  particular  tt«e  from 
which  it  is  obtained.  The  present  mode  of  obtain- 
ing the  gutta  percba  ia  a  moat  destructive  one.  The 
finest  trees  are  selected  and  cut  down,  and  the  bark 
stripped  off;  between  tie  wood  and  bark,  a  milky 
juice  is  foond,  which  is  scraped  up  into  little  troug' 
node  of  plantain  leaves.  This  ia  the  gutta  perel  . 
which,  as  it  hardenii,  is  kneaded  into  cakes,  and 

Gutta  pereha  was  known  in  Europe  long  before 
its  peculiar  character  and  uses  were  made  known. 
It  was  from  time  to  time  brought  home  hj  voyagers, 
in  the  form  of  drink  ing-bowls,  which  excited  much 
ctuiosiliy  on  account  of  the  material  of  which  they 
were  nude.  Some  thought  it  a  spedea  of  india- 
rubber,  others  asserted  it  to  be  a  kind  of  wood, 
which  they  named  nuaer-toood,  from  its  use  in 
making  these  drinking-cups.  Bat  we  are  chiefly 
indebted  to  Dr  William  Montgomerie  of  the  /rxfian 
Medical  Service,  whose  introduction  of  it  in  1S43 
was  rewarded  by  the  gold  medal  of  the  Society  of 
Arts.  He  first  noticed  that  the  Malays  used  it 
lor  "1*1"  np  handles  to  their  knives,  ftc ;  and  it 
immediat^y  occurred  to  him  that  it  m^ht  be  of 
4.  —  ;_  J  variety  of  ways,  especially  m  making 


the  importation  of  gutta  percha  has  increased  amaz- 
■  "  ;  in  1860,  it  exceeded  16,000  owta.  The  years 
1865,  1870,  and  1871  were  m&rked  by  large 
impo'rts,  varying  from  25,966  owts.  to  35,636  owta  ; 
in  the  intermediate  years,  the  imports  varied  from 
15,134  cwts.  to  23,535  cwts.  It  has  been  nsed  for 
making  a  vast  variety  of  ornamental  and  usefol 
articles;  but  its  most  important  application _ hat 
been  the  coating  of  marine  electric  telegr^ili  wires. 
In  this  application,  as  in  most  otherv,  its  inherait 
defect,  ansmg  from  the  readineaa  with  which  it 
becomes  oxidised  and  decomposed,  ia  nnfortonately 
manifestins  itself  seriously,  ud  a  sabetitute  having 
greater  stAility  is  amiously  looked  for.  ,.  .   . 

Its  great  value  arises  from  the  ease  with  vniidi  it 
_in  be  worked,  and  its  being  so  complete  a  non-con- 
ductor of  electricity.  It  softens  in  warm  water,  and 
can  be  moulded  into  any  form  in  that  state ;  a>  -wbiea 
soft  itis  not  8ticky,and  turns  well  oat  of  maulds.  It 
will  always  be  of  great  value  sa  a  material  in  which 
to  take  casts,  as  it  con  in  the  soft  state  be  made  to 
take  the  sharpest  forms  moat  faithfully,  and  as  it 
quickly  becomes  bard,  and  fireservee  its  shape  if  noi 
too  thm,  the  range  of  its  utility  in  this  respect  is 
very  extensive.  Golf  balls  are  made  of  gutta  pereha. 
It  is  imported  in  blocks  and  lumps  of  five  to  ten 
ponnds  weight,  in  various  forma,  chiefly  like  large 
cokes,  or  rounded  into  goord-like  lamps.  It  has  a 
vety  light  reddish-brown,  or  almost  a  fleah  colour,  j 
is  mil  of  irregular  pores  elongated  in  the  direction  | 
in  which  the  mass  has  been  kneaded.  It  has  a  i 
cork-like  appearance  when  cut,  and  a  peculiar  i 
cheese-like  odour.  Before  it  can  be  used,  it  has  to 
nndergo  some  preparation.  This  consists  in  slicing 
the  lumps  into  ^bin  shavings,  which  are  placed  in  a 
darilling  or  tearing  machine  revolving  in  a  trough  of 
hot  water.  This  reduces  the  shavings  to  exoeeduigly 
small  pieces,  which,  by  the  agitation  of  the  tearing- 
teeth,  are  washed  fni  from  many  impurities,  espe- 
cially fragments  of  the  bark  of  Uie  tree,  which,  if 
not  separated,  would  interfere  with  the  compactneM 
of  its  texture,  which  is  one  of  its  most  important 
Qualttieo.  The  small  fragments,  when  samcientlj 
cteaosed,  are  kneaded  into  masses  which  are  rolled 
several  times  between  heated  cylinders,  which  firess 
out  any  air  or  water,  u^d  remler  the  mass  uniform 
in  texture.  It  is  then  rolled  between  heated  steel 
rollers  into  eheeta  of  various  thickness  for  use,  or  is 
formed  into  rods,  pipes  for  water,  or  speaking-tubes, 
and  an  endless  number  of  other  articlea. 

Gutta  percha  differs  very  materially  from  caout- 
chouc or  india-nibber  in  bemg  non-eloatic,  or  elastic 
only  in  a  very  small  degree.    Notwithstanding  this 


idles  for  SI 


.oiy  striking  charactCT  of  caoutchouc,  the  two 
articles  ore  very  often  confoimded  in  the  public  mind, 
prebably  from  the  similarity  of  their  applications. 
It  is  most  probable  that  iodu-rubber  will  eventually 
displace  gutta  percha  in  some  of  its  most  important 
applications,  and  especially  in  the  coating  of  tele- 
graph  wires,  to  which  purpose  it  has  been  aoccesi- 
nilly  applied  in  America.  There  are  two  or  three 
kinds  of  gutta  percha  known  in  commerce,  and  it  is 
more  than  probable  these  are  yielded  by  different 
species  :  that  frem  Singapore  is  esteemed  Uie  beat. 
Slid  is  distinguished  by  the  Malay  tiaders  as  On^a 
Taban  or  TUun ,'  that  of  Borneo  is  of  less  vahM 
—this  is  called  ChiUa  Percha  by  the  tradelK  ■>" 
has  given  the  general  name  to  all ;  and  anotbc 
kind  goes  by  ^o  name  of  Outta  Oirek  The  fint 
two  ore  those  generally  known  in  ouj  markets. 

Outta  percha  is  turned  by  snroeons  to  vaiicii^ 
uses,  chieSy  for  splints  and  covering  moist  afpEi- 
cationa  to  retard  evaporation.  A  splint  of  gutta 
pereha  is  made  by  taking  a  rigid  board  of  the 
substaaee  cnt  to  the  desired  shape,  Boakino  it  in  hot 
water,  and  then  bandaging  it  to  the  liton.     Id  * 

ciizodty  Google 


QTJTTA  ROSEA— OTTTZLAPF. 


GUTTA  SERBTSA,  ai 
(q.».). 


riyph* 
They  1 


partai  The  cloth  of 
gotta  _peTcha  is  tometdme*  naed  instead  of  oiled  eilk, 
»■  it  n  kboat  half  the  price ;  it  is,  however,  apt  to 
tor,  does  oot  rtuid  mncti  heat,  aiul  is  teas  flexible. 
Ontbt  pen^  being  readily  aoluble  in  chloraform, 
■Doh  a  solotioil  il  MimatitiiJj  QBod  fOT  coTering  law 
snifacea,  aa  wlieu  the  chloroform  evaporates  it  warea 
a  pcJUde  of  solid  gotta  percha.  It  has  also  been 
used  for  ttopping  h^low  teeth. 

OUTTA  RO'SEA,  a  lund  of  cutaneoiu  eruption 
on  the  face,  popularly  called  '  brandy  bloBsonu,' 
from  its  fraqusnt  ooannenoe  in  disaipated  penwim 
advanced  in  life.  It  is  an  affection  very  tUScult 
of  oote,  and  to   be   Seated  chiefly  by  a  careful 


e  for  Amanrosia 


nndermde  of  ^e  Mutolea  (q,  v.),  and  nnder  the  ti-i< 
ihi  of  the  Doric  order  (see  fig.  nnder  Couna). 
~  '~  generally  in  the  form  of  the  fmstmn  of  a 
■»iuE.  uui.  are  sometimes  cjlindricaL  It  is  not  clear 
Tvhat  tJieir  origin  may  have  been,  whether, 
name  indicates,  Ihey  represent  drops  of  wi 
idcles.  Albert!  call*  them  uails;  and  it  does  seem 
likely  that  as  many  other  parts  of  Greek  architec- 
ture have  been  shewn  to  be  derived  from  stractural 


conditicDa  (see  ExuaLiTUBi),  so  these  also  shoold 
owe  their  origin  to  a  similar  canae.  lliey  have  moat 
probably  be^  derived  from  the  wooden  pins  ar 
plum,  which  were  no  donbt  much  more  commonly 
used  than  iron  nsils,  and  of  which  it  is  still  common 
to  leave  the  ends  projecting  in  any  large  wooden 
structure,  inch  ai  toe  centering  of  a  bridge.  What- 
ever thmr  origin,  they  ware  nwdiSed  by  the  Oreehs 
into  a  graceful  ornament. 

GOTTfi,  or  GUTTY,  from  the  Latin  gulta,  a 
drop,  ia  laid  in  heraldry  of  a  field,  or  any  psrtigular 
ohaige  on  the  field,  covered  with  drops.  When  the 
drojM  ai«  red,  they  are  soppoeed  to  represent  drops 
of  uood,  and  t^  bearing  is  said  to  be  auUi  de  tang. 
In  this  case,  some  great  sn&ringor  laboor,  such  as 
fighting  for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land,  in  indi- 
cated. Where  tiiey  are  blue,  again,  they  represent 
tears,  and  Qm  bearmg  is  said  to  be  giUU  de  formes. 
When  white,  they  are  galled  drops  of  water,  and  the 
bearing  ia  dMcribed  as  g^tUi  de  teau;  bat  Niibet  is 
of  opinicai  tikat  teon  are  intended  in  this  case  also, 
and  that  repentance  or  penitence  is  signified  by  both. 

OtTTTXSl,  an  open  channel  for  conveying  water 
from  buildings,  roads,  Ac.  Qntters  are  necessary 
for  the  ineaervatiint  of  mch  structures,  and  have 
thns  beok  in  nte  in  all  ages.  The  Greeks,  who 
constructed  their  roob  wiui  a  limnle  span,  used 
gutters  at  the  eaves  of  their  btulmng^  hollowed 
out  of  the  stone  whioh  formed  the  cornice.  These 
gutters  dischaiml  their  contents  on  tiie  gronnd  at 
mtervals  throng  email  Gwvovles  (q.  v.),  nsosUy  in 
the  shape  of  lions'  heads.  Tne  Bomana  followed 
this  example,  and  sIm  filmed  gntten  witii  tiks 
laid  in  cement. 

In  the  middle  ages,  the  eaves  seem  to  have  been 


Mt  williout  gutters,  nntil,  owing  to  the  csstles  being 
frequently  railt  on  dry  rocky  sites,  it  was  found 
desirable  to  collect  the  rain-water  and  preserve  it 
in  cisterns.  Stone  or  wooden  eaves,  gutters,  and 
pipes  were  used  for  this  purpose.  In  eccleaisstical 
architecture,  when  the  oonatruotian  became  compli- 
cated, it  was  necoMsry  to  ccoTey  the  water  from 
the  Toob  with  great  care,  so  as  to  prevent  dam^e 
to  the  building.  It  was  oolleoted  st  the  eaves  of 
&e  central  roof,  and  by  means  of  well-prajected 
gargoyles,  thrown  along  chaimela  formed  in  the 
crest  of  ,the  buttresses,  and  so  carried  beyond  the 
waDs  of  the  building  and  thrown  off  thtourii  gar- 
goyles in  a  nomber  oTsmall  sbeams,  which  diipened 
the  water  before  it  reached  the  ground.  This  acted 
well  in  calm  weather,  but  during  atornui  the  water 
was  blown  back  all  over  the  building,  which,  in  case 
of  ita  being  of  a  pprooi  stone,  softened  and  became 
liable  to  decay.  This  led  to  the  use  of  lead  pipes, 
which  carried  the  water  directly  to  the  ground,  and 
discharged  it  into  open  gutters.  At  first,  the  pipes 
were  ased  for  conveying  the  water  from  the  main 
roof  to  the  roof  of  the  side-ohapeli,  whence  it  was 
fles.  Pipes  oonreying  the  water 

_. ._ twilding  were  first  employed  in 

England,  where  they  seem  to  have  come  into  use 
during  the  IWi  century.  They  were  formed  with 
great  taste,  end  had  omamentel  oups  or  cisterns 
at  top  to  receive  the  water  from  the  mouth  of 
the  galKi^l&  They  were  then,  with  amsiderable 
foresighl^  made  jfuore  in  form,  not  circular,  as  they 
usually  now  ue.  The  advantage  of  the  former 
section  is,  that  in  case  of  the  water  in  the  pipe 
'  'ng  frosen,  there  is  room  for  the  enanding  ice 
swell  out  by  slightly  ''*'«"g'"g  the  form  <^  the 

Pipes  for  conducting  rain-water  have  the  great 
advantage  of  saving  foot-passengen  the  annoyance 
they  meet  with  from  the  discharge  of  the  water  from 
gai^o^es ;  but  the  latter  have  the  advantage  of 
being  mne  outily  inspected  and  kept  in  good  order. 
Whenever  a  gargoyle  is  choked,  it  shews  the  acci- 
dent by  its  ai^mrd  spouting ;  <but  a  lead  pipe 
froqncotly  bm«ta,  and  does  much  damage  before 
the  leak  is  discovered.    See  Sewaok 

GUTTITBRi:,  or  CLUSIA'CHS;  a  natnnJ 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  consistiiig  of  trees  and 
shrabs,  natives  of  tropical  countries,  very  generally 
secreting  an  acrid  yellow  resinous  juice.  A  few 
are  e^^ytet.     The  leaves  are  oppoaito,  destitute 


of    stipules,   leathery,   and 

characters,  this  order  is  allied 

contains  about  160  known  species,  the  greater  part 

of   them   Bouth  American,  although   all   tropical 

conntries  produce  some.     The  reemoua  secretions 

of  some  are  valuable,  particularly  of  those  trees 

widek  yield  Gamboge  (q.  v.)  and  Tacamahaca  (q.  v.). 

See  also  Oi,uau-^A  few  species  afford  valuable 

timber.    See  Calopbtlldi*.— The  flowws  of  some 

very  fragrant ;  those  of  Matut  ferrea  are  found 

a  dned  state  in  ev^  bazaar  in  India,  and  are 

d  as  a  perfume. — Tha  fruit  of   some   is  very 

_hly  eateuned ;  the  Msngoeteen  (q.  v.)  has  be^l 

descnbed  as  the  finest  fnut  in  the  world.     Hie 

Mammee    Apple    (q.  v.)    is   another  of   the   most 

celebrated  fmita  of  this  order. 

GUTZLAFF,  Karl,  a  miaaionarj',  was  born  at 
Pyriti,  in  Pomerania,  8th  July  1801  At  an  early 
'  e  was  apprenticed  to  a  belt-niaker  in  Stettin, 
he  composed  a  poem,  in  which  he  expressed 
his  earnest  wish  to  become  a  tnissicnary  to  the 
heath^,  Kod  in  1821,  presenteA  it  to  the  Ung  of 
Prussia.  The  king  cau^d  him  to  be  placed  in  the 
missionary  institution  at  Berlin.  At  the  expui4- 
■■       3f  two  years,  he '  '-  ■""  "-'-•■ 


s  removed  to  the  Dutch 


tyCuOl^lC 


OUT— OUTOF. 


mit^oouyioaiety  Bt  Botterdmin,  and  in  Angiut  1S26 
WM  mat  to  Snmatn.  Being  detuned  at  Jkt*,  be 
fixed  hia  resilience  kt  BkUvu,  irkora  he  deroted 
hiniEeU  to  th»  (tndf  of  Ohinee^      •  ■   "  -•     • 


two  yew*,  hAving  acquired  a  oonnderable  kno«^ 

ledge     of     thO     laiUniMA     '^^     tvmiUm^amA     TiimMlf 

iriu  the  hatats  of  the  Chinoxi  naidents  in  Bata-ria, 
b«  detmnitted  to  give  up  hij  ootinecrtaoD  with  tha 
Dutoh  Boeietf,  a^  derate  himself  to  the  oon- 
venion  of  the  Chineoe.  He  joined  Tomlio,  the 
Engliah  miamonaiy,  and,  in  the  nunmer  of  1828, 
acaiHiqaided  Um  to  Siam.    ThtQT  Mttled  at  Bankok, 


aoqnaiirted  with  tite  Siamoan  lantniage,  and  to 
perfect  theaualTefl  in  CbmeM.  For  Uie  aake  of  hit 
heidth,  be  now,  by  the  adnoe  of  a  Chinnao  friend, 
undertook  a  voya^  to  China ;  and  frcm  thia  timM, 
Macao  became  hu  pnncdpal  (tation,  and  bare  bis 
formed  an  intimate  fiianuhip  with  Robert  Moiti- 
■on.  In  ooi^iinotioD  with  Uedhniat  and  two  other 
friendi,  <>.  SegBn  a  new  traneUtion  of  the  Bible 
into  Ohineee.  With  the  awintenae  of  Morriaon, 
he  foimded  a  eocietr  for  tlie  diffiuion  of  nacfol 
knowledge  in  China,  pobliahed  a  Chitwee  monthly 
tuagaiine,  and  preached  at  Maeao  and  daewhera. 
Compara  hia  Jtmnud  of  Tknt  Yafafiu  ai/Mg  lAe 
Ooail  </  CUu  IK  1831,  1882,  owl  1839,  wM 
Noaoe  <tf  Siam,  Oorta,  and  Oe  Loo-tAoo  IthmU 
After  tbe  deaUi  of  the  elder  Morriwn,  6.  was 
i^>^ointed  cbki  inteipretar  to  the  Britiih  bodq^ 
nuonal  gorenunent  in  China,  with  a  aalary  of  £800. 
In  this  c^iaoity,  he  attempted,  in  Uay  1S3S,  to 


penetiate  into  tie  interior  of  the  province  of  Fo-kien, 
but  without  eocceaB,  At  the  ume  time,  the  printing 
of  Chrietiaa  books  in  the  Chineee  language,  and 


even  the  dittribotion  of  Chriitian  writingE  among 
the  inhabitants  of  Canton,  wete  prohibited.  Thns 
restricted  in  hia  miaionaiy  career,  O.  joined  the 
dniing  the  war  with  the  Chineee,  and  hia 
.1 ;_. with  tba  Ohineae  t«idered 


bated  to  bring  about  the  peace  in  1842.  Finally,  in 
18M,  he  fbmiaed  a  Chineae  aooiety,  for  the  pmpoee 
of  difiniins  the  goapel,  by  meani  of  native  Chrii- 
tians,  in  the  interior  of  Uia  conntry.  To  promote 
the  objecta  of  the  muBii"n,  he,  in  1H9,  Tstomed  to 
EhiTope,  and  vieited  England,  Oerman^,  and  other 
conntries.  He  retomed  to  China,  landrng  at  Hong- 
kone  in  January  1851,  but  died  Uiare,  9th  Angiuit 
of  the  eame  year.  O.  publielied  variona  works,  in 
different  languagea,  eome  of  which  ar«  extremely 
valuable :  the  principal  are  Oetehidtt  da  China. 
Seidu  (Stnttg.  1847],  and  The  Lift  Of  Taohutiui 
(Loud.  1861). 

OUT,  TBxaua,  foonder  of  Guy'i  Hoefatal,  South- 
wark,  Lraidtm,  waa  born  at  Honaleydown  in  16M 
He  began  bnuneaa  ai  a  bookaeller  with  a  rtock  ot 
about  £20(^  dealing  eztenaively  in  th«  importa- 
tion ol  ^g|'i^  Biblos  &om  Holland  (Oioae  printed 


Ozfnd  for  the  privilege  of  piistiog  mbl««,  which 
be  coutinaed  to  do  fw  many  yean.  Hi*  priudpal 
gain*,  however,  aroae  from  the  not  very  creditable 
mdioe  of  porchaain^  during  Queen  Anne'*  wan, 
the  priis-ticketa  of  leainen  at  a  iNm  diacount,  aud 
mbeeqnently  investing  them  in  South  Sea  Com- 
pany's lioek,  by  whioh  meatia  he  ama*i«d  a  fortune 
of  neariy  half  a  milli(«  aterliw  In  1707,  be  built 
and  fnrniahed  three  wafda  «(  mThoma***  Ho^taL 
In  building  aud  endowing  tJM  hoaprtal  in  Sontii- 
wbA  wlii(£  bean  hi*  name,  he  «et  apart  £238;29S, 
16i.  He  waa  alio  a  liberal  benMMtor  to  Om 
Stationer*'  Company,  and  built  and  endowed  alma- 
bonaea  and  a  libntiy  at  Tamworth.    BsBidea  making 


Cbriita  Hotpital,  Mid  varioo*  oOmi 
charities,  he  left  £80/)00  to  be  di'rided  among  tbaae 
who  ooold  ia«ve  any  degree  of  ndataonahip  to 
him.    He  naa  of  mean  aiq)earaiuMk  wiUi  ft  melan- 


Hedied 


Deoember  27,  1724,  aged  sa 

GTrrS  HOSPITAL,  founded  by  the  preoediDe. 
Hiomaa  Guy  iMsed  from  the  govemoru  of  & 
Thomas'*  hospital,  a  lat^  piece  of  sronnd,  fin'  a 
term  of  999  years,  at  a  ground-Tent  M  £90  a  year. 
The  spaoa  being  dgared,  Me  fir«t  atone  <rf  the  Innld- 
ing  wa«  laid  in  1722,  and  the  hospital  •dmitted  it* 
fint  patient  in  1725,  a  few  day*  after  th«  death  of 
ite  founder.  The  whole  expenae  waa  £18,796^  Ifia, 
gi«at  part  of  which  Guy  expended  in  Iii*  lifetime, 
and  he  bequeathed  £219,499  to  endow  it.  Sotm 
after  bi*  death,  an  aot  of  parliament  vraa  obtained, 
rngnlating  the  nianagament  of  the  rrutitntiotL  The 
■- '  -ttieDt*  at  fir*t  amonnted  to  402  -  *'•- 


nmal  number  of  governors  is  60,  who  are  aelf-elee- 
tive.  Student*  enter  tlie  hosjotal  for  study,  attend- 
ing chemical  ^aotice,  lectwee,  fto.,  and  payi^ 
annnal  fee*.  The  bDUding  coniuta  at  two  quad- 
ran^ei^  united  by  a  arois  ilruoluzv  or  anade, 
beside*  two  winp  eiteaditig  from  tlie  front  to  the 
atreet — weatwingbuiltwidi  elegance  and  nniimnity, 
and  whole  edifioe  handsome  and  regotar.  New 
wards,  with  tall  towers  for  ventilation,  were  bnilt 
in  18S2,  from  the  deeicns  of  Mr  Hawkins.  In  the 
chapel  is  a  fine  marble  statue  of  Gay,  l::^  Bacon, 
which  cost  £1000.  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  the  eminent 
snrceon,  is  buried  in  the  chapel  The  Sonth-Easteni 
ana  Brighton  Railways  wbich  swept  away  St 
Thomai'*  Hospita],  now  abut  closely  npou  Guy's. 

GT7Y0N,  Bjchabs  Dxuutbs,  a  general  io  the 
Hnngaiian  onny  dnring  1843—1849,  was  bom  at 
Walcott,  near  Bath,  in  Ebigland  in  1813.  After 
having  fou^t  against  Dom  Miguel  in  Portugal,  Q. 
enter^  the  Au*&ian  servioe  in  1832 ;  and  on  bans 
attached  as  aide-de-camp  to  Baron  Splfinyi,  married 
the  daiuhter  of  that  general  in  18^  Frtan  tiut 
time  till  the  ouAieak  of  the  revdntion,  G.  led  the 
life  of  a  oountaj  gentleman  cm  hi*  a*latei  neaf 
Comoni,  but  waa  one  ^rnnng  the  flrvt  to  ofl^  ^" 


prraninent  part  in  the  atnu^  for  ind^endssce. 
Dnring  tba  rabeat  of  QOigiff*  army,  O.  earned  tto 
monntain-paas  of  Branyia^o,  and  by  tiiat  daring 
feat  of  his  re.«*tabli*h«dthe  wmunmiioation  widitM 
govomnent  at  Debiearin,  ■«  also  with  ths  ssveiw 
other  Hnngsrian  ann  ooqia.  Wben,in  April  184^ 
the  garrison  of  the  Sealed  fuliii*  Ooinain  wa* 
to  be  apprised  at  Hu  vntosioas  unrosoh  of  the 


ont  his  way  through  tlie  erMony's  line^  and  sn- 

'  the  apprraehins  idiaL    The  bloody  a&ir 

"  ^^^^^- ■    ■  i.  ptot*c*rf>  <*• 
of   O.    ■       -^ 

, e  <rf  U_  . 

fought  sod  lost  on  tha  9tb  of  Ai 
esc^ed  to  IWk«^,  and  entered  tbe 

suhu,  witlmut  bong  oUiged  to  tarn ! 

Under  the  name  ot  Konnbid  Pasha,  he,  *•  -  e — . 
at  divuicn,  was  governor  of  Damaaeni,  aad  at  uw 
begiiming  ii  the  CrinMan  war,  did  nuoh  to  ctgw?* 
tiie  army  of  Eaia.  He  died  at  Omstantinopla  u 
1806.    todomitaMa  oottt^^  aad  an  inowaat  cat* 


TTGoogTe" 


OUTON— GWTHIAIX 


« tiw  ahiaf  featam*  in  O.VohanMter. 


13lih  April  I64a  Sh«  bad  destdned  E^lf  for  the 
*  '  "  but  »t  the  tuoxtt  Kiliritatlon  of  her  (uxdlf 
,  «t  tite  ige  ot  14>  H.  Oirnm,  the  ion  of  a 
. .  traotoT  of  ptibue  works.  Being  left  »  vidov 
>t  2S,  ud  rtiD  retaining  h0  earljr  religioiu  leaniiim 
aha  faanatered  Iter  tJ^ee  children  to  the  care  M 
gnardiant,  Mttlios  on  them  almoat  all  her  puberty. 
Being  thm  eatirelj  withdrawn  from  secular  aSahv, 
■he  attracted  much  notice  bj  the  hi^  tone  ol 
■piiitaalit;  which  her  convereatioD  breathed,  and 
was  inritod  by  M.  d'Arenthon,  Biahop  of  Oenera, 
to  lettla  in  his  dioceae,  where  ih«  formed  ^e 
•cqoaintance  ot  a  Bamabite,  P^  Looombe,  tiien 
in  much  repute  aa  a  director  of  souls.  The 
myitic  doctrinal  which  she  learned  from  thin  eccle- 
tiastic,''and  whieh  involved  snch  a  degree  of  leU- 
abn^ation  as  to  auiipaee  that  the  tn^  Christisji 
•oul  miiBt  hecmw  indifferent  not  only  to  life  and 
death,  but  even  to  its  own  satration  cor  .perdition, 
bavi^  oome  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Ushop,  he 
withdrew  his  pmtection  from  Madame  GuTon.  In 
conaeqnence  she  left  Genera,  and  accompanied 
hy  F&e  I^oMube,  went  to  various  citiea  ol  Italy 
and  naoc^  and  erentually  to  Paris,  where  they 
drew  about  them  a  nnmber  of  followeiB.  The 
repntad  extravagance!  of  Madame  O.  led  to  ber 
beingahnt  vp  by  a  royal  oider  in  the  convent  ot 
Uie  vMtaticai,  from  which,  however,  she  was  set 

thnmgb  tliia  lady  obb^ed  enbance  into  the  highest 
drdes  of  Virm  kid  Teraullea.  It  was  now  that 
■he  formed  tiie  acqnaintance  of  Fenelon,  who  was 
completely  won  by  her  eridentty  sinceie  pie^,  and 
eaptiTated.  by  the  eameatueH  and  lofty  ipiritnality 
ot  &«  views.  Ha  failed  to  see  tlie  evil  conseqneiicei 
idkicb  they  involved ;  and  the  confiding  ceal  with 
which  he  defended  hse  not  only  against  the  misre- 
wiOk  which  she  was  aasailec' 


spinet  tiie  too  wdl  fomided  impatationa  whi<^  her 
piincmlea  had  dnwu  upon  her,  was  tiie  cause  of 
hia  noiu^ipT  mptnte  with  BcMsuei  8ee  Pshklok. 
Madaina  Q.  having  submitted  her  writings  to 
Boanet  and  oUier  meubeia  ot  a  royal  commission, 
mbecribed  34  artidce  irtdeh  were  drawn  np  by 
them,  and  promised  to  abstain  from  all  furUwr 
■peciualim  on  these  subjects.  Bnt  the  failed  to 
keep  her  promise,  and  not  only  drew  agun  upon 
heisalt  the  hoatility  of  the  court,  but  also  became 
the  object  of  much  scaodal  on  account  ot  her 
intiinacy  with  Pire  Lacomba  That  the  latter 
impntaoon  was  a  calumny,  it  is  impossible  to 
doubt ;  but  Madame  O.  was  again  pat  under  arrest, 
and  imprisoned  first  at  Vinoennea  and  Vaugirard, 
and  ultimately  in  the  Bastile.  She  wsi  IJMrated 
in  1702,  and  henceforward  lived  in  commrative 
privaty  till  her  death,  whieh  took  place  at  Blois  in 
1717-  She  is  the  author  of  seremworks,  the  chief 
of  which  are  TorrertU  SpirUtidj,  Moyen  Cotiri  d» 
Fain  Oraiton,  and  Lt  CaMigvie  dea  Ciwiliquet  inter- 
mtt  idon  h  tent  nyiliqut,  together  with  an  Auto- 
DiogniAyaiid  Letters,  as  also  some  spiritoal  poetry, 

OTTZEIrHIBSAB.    See  Amur. 

OU'ZBRAT,  a  geographical  division  of  India, 
atretches  in  S.  lat.  from  20°  to  24°  46',  snd  in  B. 
long,  from  69°  to  74*  W,  containing  about  42,000 
aqusre  milca  and  about  3,000,000  inhabitant!.  Its 
moat  important  saotion,  perhaps,  is  the  peninsula 
of  Eattywar,  whieh  m*ojects  into  the  Arabian  9ea 
between  the  OnU  of  Outoh  on  the  north-west  and 
the  Ghdl  ol  Cwnbay  on  the  south-east.      Of  the 


— . is  shut  out  from 

the  sea  In  the  British  distnota  of  Broach  and  Surat^ 
•o  that  the  peninsula  oeoqsiaM  naa^  tiie  whole  of 
the  ooart-lina  and  moat  ^  the  available  harboni* 
With  reraid,  howavw,  te  intamal  oommonioatitms^ 
the  nwiiilanil  has  the  advantage  <A  the  pwinsnla, 
being  toavened,  to  «ay  nothing  of  streams  ot  inferior 
magnitude,  by  the  fTtt'bndda  and  the  TaptL  To 
the  south  of  the  laat-mentaoned  river,  G.  presents 
of  the  Western  Ohants. 


of  Bombay.  The  sgrionltnnl  ptodnoticHis  ace  rice, 
wheat,  barley,  tuxBr,  tobaooo,  Mrtor-tdl,  maize, 
opium,  cotton,  and  muta.  The  onhbaar-bar,  wgieat 
banian-tree,  stands  on  aa  ialand  in  the  Nerbndda, 
covering,  with  it*  aecondary  tmBk^  several  acres. 
Iron  is  found  in  Kattywar. 

OWA'LIOK,  the  capital  ot  the  state  of  the  same 
name  in  Central  India,  itands  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Chnmbul,  towards  the  nort^-east  of  its  iingn- 
larly  stnwgUng  territory,  in  lat  2(r  13*  N-,  and 
lonK-  78'  Iff  E.  Its  nndraa  is  a  ocunpletely  isolated 
rook  of  about  SOO  feet  in  hei^it,  peipentGeiilar, 
ettiMT  natmally  or  ntlfldally,  on  ^  noM ;  aad  aa 

it  mea««tt««  1}  miU  h-  "" '-    ' 

modata  a  garriMmof  _.. 

ally  impregnablft  againat  any 

spot  is  mi&watood  to   have  been  oocujaed 


atrondiold _  .. ^ , 

anmmtt  has  been  provided,  from  time  to  time,  witi 
aaveral  apadow  taak&  Along  the  eastern  base 
of  this  aminmce  lie«  tlte  town  of  G,  containing 
little  wi»1hy  ot  notioe  but  a  beautiful  mouaolaum 
(d  white  •andaton*}  and  to  the  aouth-waat  there 
extandj  for  teveikl  milea  Om  Ioshkar,  cc  camp  o( 
tha  Mahanjah't  own  sn^,  while  to  the  tu^- 
eaat  ia  the  looorar,  or  oantcaunsnt  of  the  proteotiug 
oontiumL  During  the  tooaUes  tt  1857  and  18S8, 
the  place  attained  an  unenviable  notoriety  aa  a 
centre  of  rebellion,  having  notwitliataaduig  the 
fidelity  of  the  Mahsrajah  Umael^  been,  £^  rather 
more  than  a  year,  in  t£e  power  of  the  iusurgenta. 

OWALIOB,  the  state  above  mentioned,  with  a 
remarkably  inegnlar  outline,  and  an  area  ot  only 
83,119  aquare  milea,  atoetohea  in  N.  1st.  from 
21°  ff  to  26°  ISO',  and  in  K  long,  from  74°  4S'  to . 
79*21'.  lAing  partly  in  the  basin  of  the  Jumna  and 
partly  in  tns  Mdns  ot  the  Nvbudda  and  the  Tapti, 
it  dividea  its  drainaga  between  the  Bay  <rf  Bengal 
and  the  *  T«>»i>n  Sc&  It  haa  been  nnuhly  eeti- 
mated  to  ccotain  about  3^  miUiona  of  iohabitanta. 
Though  Q.  ie  a  Uahratta  loinaipality,  beii^  in  fact, 
tbe  principal  fragment  of  the  great  empire  of  the 
Peiahwa,  yat  it  ia  only  to  the  aonth  of  the  Nerbndda 
that  the  Hahrmttaa  ttnm  any  amaidwable  propcvtion 


of  the  peoide^     Undei  auoh  c 


he  forcible  utterpeeildon 
S  and  by  the  treaty  of 


fore,  tiie  draninant  raoa  can  "■""*«■"  ita  anpremaoy 
by  foree  alcma  Sinoa  1803,  the  oountry  haa  been 
nuder  BriUah  proteatim.  The  "^^ting  relatiotn  of 
the  two  partifB,  however,  date  <»ly  fnm  1814  in 
1843)  the  deaOi  of  the  aovereign,  b^  ;  ' 
univeraal  anaraby,  led  to  the  forcible  utt 

ot  the  Biiti^  govcnunent;  and  by  the  ,    ._ 

the  following  January,  in  addition  to  a  lai^  con- 
tingent under  Britiah  anthoriW,  tlie  native  govern- 
ment was  permitted  to  have  9000  boopa  of  ita  own. 
During  the  troublea  of  16$7,  the  new  Maharajah, 
"  I  22  yean  old,  remained  faithful  to  the 
ithstanding  tiu  almost  entire  defeotion 
of  the  military  f  caroe. 
GWTTflAD  (Coritponiu  Pennant^,  one  of  the 
British  speciea  of  Coregonui  (q.  v.)  which,  from  their 
form,  the  large  siae  of  their  aoalea,  and  th^  aitveiy 
^peaianoe,* "-* "'  ■"--'----—  " — -■-- 


Bngliah 
ofCoth 


hyCOOgIC 


OTBraO— OYMNASTIOS. 


G,,  when  full  grovo,  is  kbont  ten  or  twelTe  inohea 
in  length ;  ths  fint  dorul  fin  ii  hi^ ;  the  snout 
ii  a  little  piodaced ;  the  mouth  ii  inudl,  the  jaws 
without  teeth,  a  few  minute  teeth  on  the  tongue 


OwynUd  {Cortgontii  Ptnnanii). 

only.  It  is  foond  in  some  of  tbe  l>ke«  of  WaJea  and 
Cumberluid.  G.  is  a  Webh  name.  At  Ulkwxter, 
the  fiah  ii  called  SclieUs.  It  oconn  in  that  lake  in 
great  shoali,  bo  that  man;  hundreds  ue  >ometiiDea 
taken  at  a  single  draught  of  the  net.  It  ii  rather 
an  insipid  fiih,  and  cannot  be  k«)t  Ions  after  being 
taken  out  of  the  water,  unless  salted,  which  it  often 
ii  bj  the  poor.  The  Freshwai^T  Herring  of  Loch 
Lomond  is  not  the  Q.,  but  the  Powan.  Many  of  the 
qiecica  of  this  eenua,  however,  very  nearly  resemble 
each  other,  and  are  not  easily  distuigiiished  by  mere 
descriptioiL 

GYBING,  or  JIBING,  in  (ailing  with  fore-and- 
aft  sailH,  the  act  of  shifting  over  tbe  boom,  when 
the  wind  is  aatem  or  at  any  point  abaft  Oie  beam, 
to  that  the  wind  may  be  brought  to  bear  on  the 
sail  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  vessel  to  that  in 
which  it  was  felt  previoost;  to  ^e  operation. 
With  a  change  of  wind  or  course,  the  boom  and  its 
sail  ore  gybta  to  the  other  side  of  the  vessel. 

GTOES,  u  Lydian,  about  whose  early  life  little  ia 
known.  Nyssia,  wife  of  Candaules,  king  of  Ly dia, 
having  been  grievously  afirouted  by  her  husband 
in  presence  of  G.,  ordered  the  latter,  who  was  in 
high  favour  with  his  sovereign,  eiOier  to  slay  Can- 
daules  or  to  prepare  for  his  own  fate.  (Compare 
the  history  of  Kosamond,  wife  of  Alboin,  king  of  the 
Lombards;  Gibbon,  voL  v.  p.  339,  Murray's  ed.)  O. 
accordingly  put  his  master  to  death,  married  Nyssia, 
and  assumed  the  sapreme  power,  about  716  B.a 
The  Lydians,  however,  refused  to  acknowled^  his 
aathonty,  until  the  oracle  of  Delphi  declared  m  his 
favour.  In  return  for  this  service,  he  made  immense 
presents  to  the  sacred  shrine^  He  is  said  to  have 
reigned  38  yean,  and  to  have  amassed  enormous 
wi^th,  HO  as  to  giye  origin  to  the  proverb,  'the 
richee  of  Gygea.'  The  successora  of  G.  were  Ardys, 
Sadyattes,  AJyattes,  and  Ocebus,  who  was  defeated 
by  Cjna  the  Great  in  646  B.C.  (or  648).  The 
Lydiaji  empire  was  thus  overthrown.  Flato  has 
a  fable,  in  which  G.  is  represented  as  a  shepherd 
of  Candanles ;  but  having  miraculously  obtained 
possession  of  a  golden  ring  of  great  virtoe,  he  was 
enabled  by  means  of  it  to  make  himself  invisible 
when  he  chose,  uid  thus  took  oocuion  to  morder 
his  sovereign,  and  osurp  tlia  supreme  power.  The 
ring  of  O.  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  middle 
ages. — Gyobs  is  also  the  name  of  the  hundred- 
handed  giant,  son  of  Cfelua  and  Terra,  who  with 
his  brotheiB  made  war  on  the  rnds,  and  after  his 
overthrow,  waa  subjected  to  everlasting  punishment 
in  Tartarus. 


buildinga  where  the  Greek  youths  emcised  tboM- 

selves.  In  Atiiena  alone  thtve  were  seven  lueuils  al 
this  fc'"'i  Fhiloaophei*  alto  gave  inaboctitni  is 
theae  amuiaaa,  hence  the  trantierence  t£  the  name 
to  pibhc  building  erected  for  the  mental  dia- 
ciplming  and  tostruction  of  youth.  The  Gennao 
gymnasium  oorresponds  roughly  to  the  gnuunar 
and  public  schools  of  England,  and  the  graaunar 
and  mgh  schools  of  Scothuid.  All  three  had  their 
origin  in  the  cathednd  and  monaateiy  schools  <^ 
the  pre-refcrmatioD  period.  The  widening  circle 
ot  buman  knowledge  in  the  ITth  and  ISth 
ceutariei  made  its^  felt  in  these  educatianal 
semiiutitieSt  as  in  the  univervties,  Their  curriculum 
became  i^adnaUy  extended,  and  with  the  farther 
increase  and  development  of  universities,  their  aims 
became  higher.  In  Germany,  as  in  this  coontry, 
the  "'n-w-^"'  tongues  formed  and  continue  to  form 
the  great  inatrament  of  mental  discipline  in  schools 
of  toit  higher  class,  though  other  subjects  have 
been  added  from  time  to  time.  The  subjecta  of 
instmotiou  which  were  first  added  to  the  clasaieal 
tongues  were  georasphy  and  history.  The  natural 
sciences  and  maUiematica,  the  pursuit  of  which 
has  fonoed  a  characteristic  feature  of  this  cen- 
tuiy,  gradually  found  a  place  in  the  schoolroom ; 
and  tlie  study  of  the  mother-tonsue  and  of  modem 
languages  was  also  admitted.  For  a  time,  these 
subjects  held  a  co-ordinate  place  with  Lalui  and 
Greek.  Departmental  studies  were  taught  with 
ardour,  and  educators  were  sangnine  of  the  results 
which  would  flow  from  early  initiation  into  tba 
results  uid  processes  oC  the  various  sciences.  These 
anticipations  having  been  aomewhat  disappaint«d, 
there  nas  for  some  time  been  a  steady  movement 
towards  the  restoration  of  classical  or  humanistic 
studies  to  be  the  main  instTument  of  education, 
while  retaining  other  subjects  as  a  subordinate 
portion  of  the  cuniculum.  The  idea,  howeva',  of 
the  gymnasium  as  specially  a  preparatory  school 
for  i£e  university,  aiid  th^efore  not  suited  to  sU 
classes  indiscriminately,  has  been  more  steadily 
kept  in  view  in  Germany  than  in  Great  Britain, 
and  the  consequence  has  been  the  breaking  up  of 
the  middle  school  or  gymnasiiun  into  two — the 
gymmurinm  proper,  where  those  are  taught  who 
propose  to  enter  the  univeraiti^  or  who  desire  a 
partial  classical  training ;  and  real-schools,  where 
elementary  science,  foreign  languages,  and  mathe- 
matics form  the  principal  subjects  of  instruction. 
In  this  respect,  the  middle-school  education  of 
Germany  afiorda  a  favourable  contrast  to  Uiat  of 
England.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  however,  that 
in  England  the  grammar  and  public  schools  are  less 
efficient  in  their  classical  training ;  the  contrary  is 
probably  the  fact,  so  far  as  our  principal  schools, 
such  as  Eton,  Harrow,  and  Rugby,  ore  concerned  ; 
but  the  methodised  system  of  examinations,  and  the 
more  rigorous  methods  of  Germany,  seem  to  turn 
out  a  larger  proportion  of  well-instructed  boys  from 
each  school,  while  the  influence  of  central  authority 
secures  greater  uniformity  of  processi^s  and  results 
throughout  the  country.  The  boys  attend,  as  in 
England,  till  they  reach  the  age  of  18,  when,  after 
a  special  examination  (the  abituricnt  or  maturity 
examination),  they  are  transferred  to  the  university. 
The  German  gymnasiums  difier  from  I'ingliiib  public 
schools  for  the  middle  and  higher  classes  in  being 
day-Bohools,  and  not  the  oenl^  of  great  boarding 
ea^blishments.  In  this  respect  they  resemble  the 
Scotch  grammar  and  high  schools. 

GYUNA'STICS  (see  Gwhasiom),  a  term,  in  its 
more  restricted  and  proper  sense,  applied  to  those 
exerdses,  not  amounting  in  intricacy  to  games,  \^ 
which  partioular  limbs,  either  aingiy  or  in  com- 
bination,  are   rendered  more  pliant  or  itttmga: 


LitRt^lC 


OYMNEMA— OTMKirnKJa 


theaa  ezercioea  ire  ■rranged  in  a  dne  progrtnion, 
And  Bia  mtiTe  aeiiea  becomes  a  ByBtem  under  ths 
nama  grnmaitica.  Swimming  (q.T.),  Boating,  and 
mnea  like  Qolf  (q.T.),  Cricket  (q.  t.),  fta,  an  among 
ue  most  efficient  STnmaatia  ezemiwa ;  but  ia  tliia 
article  attention  wm  be  confined  to  exerciaea  whose 
^imaiy  and  direct  aim  is  mnaoiilar  derekipment 
andbealtb. 

Oymnaatio  Bamea  are  ao  old  as  to  be  pTa-hiatoric ; 
they  an  aUo^  to  in  tbe  2d  and  SSd  books  of  tbe 
ISad.  Before  the  time  oE  Hippocrates,  gjmnastic 
ezetctses  had  been  adopted  in  Greece  as  part  of  tbe 
covne  of  uedieine  intended  to  oonntenct  increbdng 
laxniy  and  indolence.  The  Tarioos  eiarejaeB  were 
speedily  combined  into  a  system,  and  gymnatia, 
where  the;  should  be  earned  oat,  were  formsd 
flnt  by  the  I^oednmonians,  and  sabseqnentiy  at 
Athens.  See  OnnuannL  The  Bomans  adopted 
tbe  ^stem,  and  consbneted  synmasia  on  a  msg- 

eXtensiTB  batiiB  attached,  were  known  as  Tkmia. 
The 


in^  hnriing, 
m  Dore  aims, 


tLose  days,  irtien  all 
when,   in   close   combat,    victory   went    eenerally 
with  the  strangest  man,  theoe  games  were  doubtless 


thon^  kas  pnblicly;  bnt  wit£  the  introdnetitm 
(rf  gonpowder,  and  throng  its  means,  Uie  gndnal 
■abstiluUon  of  fighting  at  a  distance — in  which 
science  and  skill  were  the  main  requisites — for 
personal  enconnters  where  strength  and  muscle 
went  far  to  carry  the  day,  tlie  attention  paid  to 
gymnastica  decressed,  and  finally  Taniihed  alto- 
ntber.  To  make  infontry  soldiers  perfect  in  the 
driUed  morements  of  mnwini,  cavalry  good  horse- 
men and  fair  swordsmen,  and  to  have  gunnen  who 
could  take  an  accnnte  aim,  became  the  utmost 
•OD^  by  the  po«>enon  of  great  armies ;  while 
the  sciesoe  of  gjrmnastics,  hsTing  gone  out  of  repute 
for  tile  niilHK7,  was  speedily  aujleoted  in  ma^y 
dnl  hfa^  It  is  only  from  the  eafUer  portion  of  the 
prtaent  ceutmy  that  the  sdenoe  has  at  all  revived. 

The  revival  oommenoed  in  Prussia,  wbere,  about 
1808,  gymnasia  were  opened  by  Basedow  and  Sab- 
nuum,  that  at  the  latter  being  nndsr  the  superintend- 
ence of  tbe  oelebrated  gymiastic  pedagoeae  G^ts 
Mutbs  (q.  T.) ;  Jahn  followed  in  the  game  line,  and 
rendered  tbs  science  so  popular,  that  it  apeedily 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  vouth  throuKhout  the 
kin^m,  md  to  the  training  ttins  obtained  must  be 
attnbated,  in  no  small  degree,  the  vigour  which  suc- 
ceeded in  driving  oat  tbe  French  armj>  of  the  first 
empire.  Sweden  soon  imitated  Pmsna,  and  from 
tlu^  time  gynmsstice  has  formed  a  prominent  feature 
in  the  Scandinavian  course  of  education.  In  Prussia, 
tbe  gymnasia  bwan  to  be  the  scenes  of  poUtical 
gatherings,  too  hberal  in  tendency  to  please  its 
•emi-nulitary  government ;  and  in  1818,  they  were 
all  dosed.  "Xbe  troops  were,  however,  continued 
in  gymnastic  exercises,  and  sbewed  so  clearly  the 
advantages  of  the  training  they  experienced,  that, 
about  1S44,  Louis  Philippe  adopted  and  improved 
the  systcin  in  the  French  armv.  From  that  time, 
^rmnaaia  have  been  constructed  for  almost  all  con- 
tinenlal  armies,  and,  with  more  or  less  success,  for 
the  dvil  population.  England,  last  ordinarily  in 
pnblic  im^novementa,  only  moved  in  the  matter  a  few 
years  sgo  by  establishing  instruction  in  the  science 
at  Aldershot  and  other  camps ;  in  private  life,  how- 
ever, there  liave  long  been  many  eicellcnt 

Different  instntctors  adopt  various    w, 
instruction.     The    course  psssed   throuA.   _   ._. 
French  aimy  is,  however,  one  among  the  beet,  as 
its  fmiti  evinoe,  in  tbe  wjnarkahle  aetivify  and 


readinrsss  for  emergency  displayed  by  the  soldiers 
who  have  nndergoDe  it.  The  equipmeut  consists  of 
a  broad  belt,  to  be  strapped  tightly  round  the  waist 
above  the  hips,  as  a  support  to  the  body  in  the 
arduous  motions  to  ensue,  braces  being  of  course 
discarded.  The  implements  most  conmoDly  required 


an  iron  ball  in  a  rope-sling,  with  a  loop  for  the 
hand  to  pass  through ;  wrestling-handles,  consisting 
of  two  wooden  bus,  each  about  18  inches  long, 
connected  W  stout  cordage  ;  a  club ;  leaping-bars, 
to  be  leaped  over ;  and  leaping-poles  wherewith  to 

The  system  of  instruction  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  '  courses '  regulariy  graduated,  beginning 
with  elementary  and  special  movements,  with  a 
view  to  render  every  part  of  the  body  supple,  and 
to  develop  the  several  muscles  and  give  com- 
plete command  over  all  their  motions,  [daneniary 
gynmatUc*) ;  and  proceeding  to  exercises  of  leaping, 
suspension,  standuig  and  walking  on  beams,  walk- 
ing on  stilts,  climbing,  swingmg,  vaulting,  ftc. 
[ap^ied  gpnniutiei). 

The  theory  of  the  advantage  derivable  from 
gymnastics  is  simple  enough.  An  admirable  law  of 
nature  provides  that — wiuiin  certun  limits — parts 
of  tbe  human  frame  increase  in  strength,  aptitade, 
and  uze,  in  proportion  to  the  use  nude  of  tiiem. 
In  gymnastics,  this  law  is  brought  to  bear  snc- 
ceanvely  on  every  part,  and  fin^y  on  the  whole 
tjratem  in  combined  actioa  If  the  exertion  be 
not  carried  so  far  as  to  induce  excessive  fatigue, 
all  other  parts  of  the  body  sympathise  witii 
tbe  impronng  condition  of  that  which  ia  mainly 
exerted ;  the  circulation,  excited  from  time  to  time 
by  the  exercise,  acquires  fresh  vigour,  and  blood 
being  driven  with  unwonted  force  into  all  ports 
of  tat  system,  every  function  is  carried  on  witit 
increased  activity ;  an  improvement  in  the  general 
health  becomes  soon  manifest,  and  the  miod — if 
simultaneously  cultivated  vrith  judgment — incresses 
in  power  and  endurance. 

Qymnasttc  exercises  require,  however,  to  be 
practised  with  many  precautions,  and  always  with 
moderation  and  due  regard  to  the  strength  of  the 
individual.  The  whole  beneSt  may  be  counteracted 
by  excess ;  the  muecles  may  be  overstrained,  and 
ruptures  and  other  serious  accidents  ensue,  'ilie 
danger  of  such  evils  from  gymnaatio  exercises  has 
perhaps  been  exaggerated,  and  it  has  no  doubt 
hindered  their  more  extensive  introduction  into 
sobools.  But  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  hardihood 
am  in  no  way  be  obtained  without  risk ;  tot 
cricket,  fencing,  boating,  and  other  manly  sports, 
are  attended  with  at  least  as  much  daiiger  as  a 


Becreations  is  given  in  ChanJitnfs  InformaHon 
for  Vie  Pfopit,  vol  iL  Otiier  works  on  the  subject 
are— Captam  Chiatso'*  ^miMSfia  attd  Calulhenieg ; 
Q.  Roland's  Oynmat&a;  Walker's  BritMi  Manly 
JixerciKt;  and  MaolAren's  TVuinnf,  in  Theory  and 
Praclice;  and  Phytieai  Education,  ThmreAcal  and 
Practical  (1868).  The  books  written  in  German  on 
Gymnastica  fTumkunst)  would  form  a  amaU  library. 


GTMNE'MA.    See  Cow  Plast. 


OYMNETRUS,  a  genus  of  acanthopterooB  fishes 
of  the  Sibbon-Ssh  (q.  v.)  family,  havmg  the  body 
much  elongated,  "~       '  "  '"  '    ' 


e  time  attenuated 


.  inhaMt- 

ants  of  great  de^tths,  and  are  rarely  taken  or  thrown 
ashore.  3.  remicepi  is  a  nativa  of  northern  sess ; 
Q,  HattkatU  has  oocnired  on  tlie  cmstof  Britain; 


t,\_,OOgl( 


OTMKOOLADUa-OTPSIBS. 


other  >peoiaa  aie  tnKootL 


;  hM  been  nppoMd 
nuiy  h»Te  gnta  riie 

I  of  the  Bbaioi        "^     "      '  "  "  " ' 

I  lately  oftptored: ,-,r 

store  fi^  bnt  mat*  thkn  IB  feet  m  Langtli, 
and  -with  a  row  ti  long  flexile  filamenti  on  the  Intok 
of  the  head  and  antoior  part  of  the  back,  which 
might  well  repreeent  the  mane  often  waribed  to  Om 
Set.  Serpent    A  spedmea  of  0.  HmdMnU,  oan^t 


B  wholesome  and  elightly 


QTDiuetniB  Hawkenil. 

on  the  ooaat  of  Northnmberltuid,  waa  exhibited  in 
London  at  the  time  when  the  mbject  of  the  Orest 
Sea  Serpent  excited  grasbst  iutereEt,  and  wai  by 
many  Buppoeed  to  eiplain  the  acoonnte  of  it 

GTMNO'OL  ADUS,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Leffuminove,  sab-or&r  C(t»alpatiece. — O,  Como- 
dauit  is  a  North  American  tree,  found  both  in 
Canada  and  over  a  great  part  of  the  United  Stat^ 
attaioiDK  a  heioht  of  60—60  feet,  with  blanches 
ramiu'kable  for  their  upright  directJon,  and  an  exceed- 
ingly loogb  bark  which  cornea  off  in  slips,  llie 
leaves  of  young  treea  are  veiy  largo,  three  feet  long, 
bipinnate.  The  flowers  are  white  in  ehort  apikea. 
The  pod*  aro  five  inchea  long  bv  two  broad.  The 
tree  is  called  Cfttcot  in  Canada,  ana  lometimes  Stump 
Tree,  from  it*  dead  appearance  in  winter,  and  the 
abaeoce  of  conapicaons  buds.  It  is  also  called  the 
Kaittttky  Oqfee  Trt«,  becwue  the  seeds  were  formerly 
roasted  and  ^roond  aa  cjoETee  in  Kentucky.  It  grows 
wall  in  Britain.  The  wood  is  used  both  by  cabinet- 
makera  and  by  caipenten.  It  has  vary  little  sap- 
wood.  The  pods,  preserved  like  thoee  of  th« 
tjuiuuind,  xn  (aid  to  be  who' 

OT'MNOOENS,  in  the  botanical  ayatem  of 
Lindley,  are  those  plants  with  exogenow  atemi  and 
perfectly  naked  seeda.  He  foima  H  them  a  aepaiate 
claaa,  of  whioh  Ooniftnt,  Taxaeta,  Cgeadacea,  and 
Qn^Jieeee  are  the  omen.  They  are  Moaibble  for 
the  laige  apparent  peifontionB  or  diiki  in  tiie 
vessels  ot  the  wood,  bat  tiiey  have  oonoentrio  zones, 
■uirol  TsMels,  and  a  oentiBlpitii,  like  other  exogenona 
plants.  Their  ^eat  peonliaritieB,  however,  are  the 
total  abaence  <d  a  pericarp,  and  that  faitiUsation 
takes  place  directly  tiiropgh  Uie  foramen  of  tho 
ovule,  without  the  intervention  of  style  or  itignuL. 

GTMHOSCMATA  (Of.  naked-bodied),  an  orfer 
of  Fteropodooa  (q.v,)  moUuscs,  destitute  of  sbell, 
having  a  distinct  head,  and  swimming  by  flns 
attached  to  the  sides  of  the  neck.  They  ore  all 
marine.  The  Clio  borealU  ot  the  anitia  seat  [see 
Clio)  is  the  b«st  known  and  most  interesting 
example. 

aVMNO'30FHI3TS  (Le.,  'naked  .sages'),  the 
name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  those  ancient  Hindu 
phi]oao|ihen  who  lived  solitarily  in  the  woods,  wore 
UtUe  or  no  clothing  and  addicted  themselves  to 
mystical  oontemplation  and  the  practice  of  the  moat 
rigorous  asoetioism.  Strabo  divide*  them  into  Brah- 
mana  and  s*™*"",  the  former  of  whom  adhered 
to  Um  atrictwt  priJaaiplaa  of  eoMt,  while  the  latter 


OYUSO'TTTS,  a  ganns  of  m>laoopt«N«f 
of  which  only  one  speoiea  ia  knoira,  (ha  eels 
0.  ieetritMt,  or  Eleotrioal  BsL  Thia  «bih  gins  | 
its  name  to  a  family,  Oynmatida,  of  whidi,  however, 
no  other  known  spaoiaa  haa  any  aleotrkal  pown  i 
The  CynwutUis  are  mostly  8oatiiAmeri<aii,iiihilHt-  I 
ing  the  freah  waters  oF  the  tropical  regiona,  TImj'  I 
are  eel-lika  in  forto,  and  like  eela  are  destitatedl  I 
ventnl  fiw  {apodal),  but  they  are  fonishad  vith 
complete  }awB  and  with  riba,  and  their  fin-rayi  tra  , 
jointed  or  branohed.  They  have  peottaal  flns,  bat  i 
no  doT«al ;  tiie  anal  fin  is  largely  daTsloped,  extend'  : 
ingvithsrtathepointof  thetaU,a*uiUieeleobie>l  | 
ee^  or  lt«ving  it  free.  The  electrical  eel  has  te  ' 
Aia  entiti^  soft,  and  destitnte  of  soaUa.  It  it  vtij 
widely  difmaed  over  tiie  warm  parts  of  Anwiea, 
and  m  fonnd  both  in  streams  and  pools.  Ita  dec- 
trical  uparatiia  and  powers  are  dMcribed  fa  tha 
arttole  BuOTBiaiTr,  Amiiui.  It  is  capable  of  bai| 
tamed,  and  whan  familiar,  will  allow  itaelf  te  m 
handled  without  giving  a  ahock,  bat  (onpli^^  ib 
electrical  power*  both  in  csderto  *  '" 


--,  r7^:> 


ElectriMl  Bel  (OgtMutM  tUetrtciu).  \ 

defend  itself  from  assaJlanta,  most  frequently, 
perhane^  alligators.  All  the  Ogmnolida  ore  remui-  | 
able  for  tbe  position  of  the  tnoa,  which  is  lo  very 
far  forward  as  ia  the  electrical  eel  to  be  before  tbe  . 
(^-openings,  whilst  in  some  of  the  other  fiihel  of  ' 
Qiis  ^nily  it  is  even  before  the  eye*.  Some  fishes 
of  this  family  have  an  elongated  tnonb  The  dec-  ' 
trical  eel,  however,  has  a  rounder  and  more  obtme 
nose  than  the  common  eel.  J 

GYIfE'RlUM.    See  Pahfu  Gufis.  I 

GYONGYOS,  a  toi 

of  Hevea,  is  situated . 

Matra  Mountains,  about  BO  miles  north-ewt  a 
Festh.  The  hut  dedivitiea  of  the  Mobs  Uonii- 
tains  produce  an  excellent  red 
"-cnnana  Erlaner,  a    '  •  '•    -■ 

ideed,  it  is  often  ... 
manufaotares  woollen  &bric*,  and 
in  wine  and  fruit    Pop.  (1869)  15,83IX 

GTPAETOS.    See  LXufEBasncK. 


ItaL  Zingani;  Span.  GUaaot,  ZiaoaM;  Hnw  t^' 
jditf/ot,  Pharaon^>ei  ;  Pars.  Staech ;  Hindn,  JTim'' 


the  whole  of  Europe 
of  Asia  and  Africa.  Whenoe  they  origmsllT  W>^ 
and  what  were  the  motive*  which  drove  than  ^'l^ 
thmr  native  khI,  are  queetioiu  which,  after  h*^ 


TTGoogle" 


yhkTe  of  Ute  yeu*  been  Tenblatedby 
inf«itumton,  boQi  lingmsta  and  lii«ti>- 
an  BtiE  bnt  pattUDy  idTed.  So  inaoh 
on^taeniB  now  artalidiabed,  tbat  India,  the  omdla 
of  raujr  natiDDi,  wai  abo  the  lODTce  fnm  w' ' 
Uuy  qiranjt  Whether,  howarw,  they  an 
^Uiandalaa  cd  which  the  laws  of  Menon  spaak,  or 
the  kinsmen  ci  the  Baieenn  or  Nuta  at  CaJoutta; 
whathca  they  belong  (o  toe  TBhinmni,  a  bond  of 
robbna  near  the  month  of  the  Indu,  or  are 


Fenian  and  Aiaiaa  anthoiitieB,  with  the  Zut*  or 
Djatta  of  Nortbem  India — whinn  lirdtui  mentiona 
as  having  be«a  called  into  Fema  t^  ''t«>'f"  Gar 
to  the  number  ol  lOfiOO,  abont  420  A.n,  that  they 
mis^t  aet  >«  mnaiaiana  to  Uiapoar— cannot  be  affirmed 
with  certainty,  alUiongh  thece  can  be  no  doubt  that 
theiia  most  liaTe  been  ftt  aU  times  one  of  the  pooiot 
and  most  obsoore  tribe*  of  India.  !Fhe  fint  oon- 
sidenble  body  left  Ami  fcr  Europe  before  the  12th 
0.,  perbapa  in  conaeqaenoe  of  diaastious  enooai ' 
with  the  Aialaan  conqoeron ;  and  Tamerlane 
oiKjuestionably  the  caoae  <k  still  mote  nume 
amisrationi  in  the  14th  century.  The  fint  iiotiae 
of  ihem  which  ooonre  in  European  literature  is 
embodied  in  a  free  paraphiaae,  m  Qermao,  of  the 
Book  td  OfuMii,  written  by  an  Aoetrian  monk 
abont  1122.  Th^  are  there  dMcribed  as  '  Ishmael- 
itee  *  and  brasen,  who  bo  peddling  throogh  the  wide 
world,  having  neither  honae  nor  hmn^  Seating  the 
,  and  deeeirmg  ■""'ft"^. 


people  witii  their  tiicki,  a „  

but  not  openly.'    Two  bnndtcd  years  later,  wi. 

them  settled  mHnnsary  {under  Beloa  IL),at  Cyproa, 
and  in  Wallanhia.  In  1417,  they  tmvelled  in  great 
hordes  into  Molda^  and  many  parts  of  Germany. 
In  1418,  five  tnontlu  after  the  Cooncil  of  Constance, 
they  appeared,  about  1000  strong,  before  Ztlrich, 
a  Duke  Miohaal  ■  of  Little  E^t,' 
-  several  dnkea  and  knights,  and 


bya; 

I  by  « 


they  deaceoded  into  Italy,  and  in  1422  tliey 
'ed  uenisd,Te*  at  BokigiM  and  ForlL  Another 
,  nnmberin^  this  tim^  ocoordins  to  the  old 
■  hiitorian,  Sttuupf,  14/KX^  arrived  in  the  tame 
year  at  BiseL    On  the  17th  of  Angntt  1^,  a  band 

..11...  .  Tl.,.._.  »  ..         ■.gppejj, 

_.-„ , „ iu 

Saint  Denis.  OlJier  hordes  ancceeded  these 
following  yesr^  spreading  in  rapid  suocesEiau  over 
all  puis  of  Qermauy,  over  Spam,  England,  Rasaia, 
Scandinavia,  and,  indeed,  over  the  renwtest  parts  of 
Eoiopa  The  aeconnt  miiah  tiiey  moat  firauently 
nve  of  tbemselrei  wm,  that  they  ondnallj  came 
oom' little  Xlgypti'  that  the  king  of  Hnagaiyhad 
oompelled  about  4000  d  them  to  be  baptued,  had 
slain  the  remainder,  and  had  coDdenmed  the  bap- 
tised to  seven  yean'  wandtting.  Anctiier  vetwon 
of  tLor  story  was,  that  the  Sataceni  had  gone  to 
war  with  them  in  Egypt,  had  snbdncd  them,  and 
farced  thmn  to  rcmounoe  Chiialaanity ;  tliat,  after 


some  year*,  they  had   been   reconquered   by  the 

Christians,  and  that  the  pope,  Martm  V.,  had  laid 
npon  them,  as  a  penance  for  their  renundatitm  of  the 


I  faith,  a  life  of  wandering  for  the  space  of  si 
years,  dniing  which  they  were  not  to  Bleep  in  a 
bed.    At  the  end  of  this  period,  they  would  be  sent 

*  Uhnuehtes — a  notion  perpetoated  in  the  deaigna- 
"-'m  SaAmeam  cl  tha  Danish  thievea'  jargon,  and  the 

"  ■• li,44andU;  Qrohnan,6B)— 

to  pOBlad  all  innsti^tori, 

*  aionited  (d.  v.  3S;  E^ste^p.  S), 
thtw  but  a  noaaftiaa  et  the  Hebrew 


Clemun  SottwOlKft  (Doiph,  44 
t  term  wfaiah  has  Utherto  p 
PatL  himidf  not  aionited 
inothtw  but  I 
■Isl^aeKtes. 


aits  of  chiromancy,  magic,  and  thieving  to  which 
they  again  resorted  for  their  support,  like  their 
eanier  brethren,  described  by  the  monk.  And  with 
"--  ^eckless  bnitality  characteristic  of  the  middle 
edict  after  edict  was  hnrled  against  these 
..  .-len  and  wicked  Tuh-But^t,'  The  oovemments  of 
Europe  vied  wttli  eai^  other  in  baaishm^  outlawing 


to  a  fine  and  fertile  land.  Tet  another  account  wai^ 
tliat  they  were  commanded  by  God  to  roam  throof^ 
t^  wco'Gl  for  that  period,  in  expiation  of  thdr  want 
td  hospitality  towuds  Joutf^  and  Mary— a  notion 
«duah  haL  cnrionaly  cnon^^  been  partly  rsvived  in 
oar  own  day  by  B«berla,  with  thia  differenoe  onlv, 
that  he  proves  then,  from  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah, 
Jeraniah,  and  Eaekiel,  to  be  the  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  their  wandering  to  be 
the  predioted  pnniahntent  of  the  variona  iniquities 
of  their  f  (Hefathers. 

'i  first,  th^  were  well  reeeived  The  ronmnoe 
which  they  sntTOOuded  themsdves,  thdr  pn- 
tended  state  of  penitenoe,  above  all,  the  pomp  and 
wealtii  they  displayed,  were  snffioient  to  sscnre  the 
gaod-wOl  <a  the  oonntries  tiuoooh  which  they  passed 
— so  mnoh  lo,  that  letten  cl  safe-oonduct  were 
given  them  by  the  Emperor  Simsmund,  the  genoine- 
nees  of  whim  there  is  no  reason  to  donbt  Soon, 
howevw,  the  tide  begin  to  toiu.    Hieir 


?a: 


the  deviL' . . , 

countries  down  to  the  ISth  c ;  and  IVederick  the 
Great,  in  1748,  renewed  the  law  that  every  Gypsy 

beyond  the  age  of  13,  found  in  his  states,  should 
be  hanged  forthwith.  In  TilngtniiH^  the 
baroua  deareee  against  Uiem  were  issued 
TUL  in  1631  and  Elizabeth  in  1C63.  In 
where,  under  Jamea  T.,  a  certain  Johnny  Foa  bod 
been  officially  recofpised  by  the  crown  bb  Locd  and 
Connl  ot  Little  Efmrt,  aome  of  the  seTerest  edicts 
date  bom  1570, 1603,  and  1609 ;  and  in  1624,  Helen 
VtM,  a  dtaeendant  ot  Johnny,  together  with  fifteen 
other  women  ot  ('  '         '  '  ' 

to  be  drowned.  ' 
centory,  however, 
adopted,  towards  them,  with  a  view  to  the  improva- 
!nt  of  their  social  andmoral  state.  Maria  Theresa, 
1T6S  and  1773,  issued  ordiikancce  for  the  education 
of  their  children,  and  their  o^oal  settlement  sa 
cnltivaton  of  the  soil,  chiefly  in  Hungary  and 
^ey  Bwanned  in  hroe  uum- 
,   .^  ere  built  for  them  at  the  ends 

of  the  villages,  and  the  name  of  Uj-Mogyar,  Dj- 
PanMCtok  (New  Peasants),  was  officially  bestowed 
upon  them.  Joseph  IL  renewed  these  edicts  in 
1782,  with  ceituu  modificationB.  Various  other 
methods  of  gradually  «.mnlg«Tn«<jiig  them  with  the 
gUMnl  population  were  taed  elsewhere  (a  society 
wa*  fanned  for  that  puipcee  at  Southampton  l^ 
the  Bev.  Mr  Crahb  in,  1832),  but  with  oompara- 
lively  littJe  efCect    'Oitrj  have  continued — wit£  few 


lively  litiJe  efCect    'Ousj  have  continued — ' 

exceptions — thtdr  peoohar  nomad  life,  with  all  its 
questionable  resonrcee  and  .praeticea.  it*  joys  and 
its  sorrowB,  unchaoged,  up  to  thia  djiy;  and  even 
fQipsy  children,  bn»igbt  up  far  from  Uieir  tribe,  in 
Sie  midst  of  Christian  {amilieL  hav^  driven  by 
some  mysterious  and  oaconttollable  unpnlse,  run 
away  from  thdr  dvilised  homes  as  sood  aa  a 
favourable  opportuiuty  offered. 

Before  proceeding  to  give  a  nnenl  outline  of 
their  present  condition,  we  must  briefly  mention 
what  have  been  the  opinions  held  about  Uiem  rince 
the  IGth  e.  by  the  learned.  Thay  have  been,  then, 
by  tnms  set  down  as  Sgyptiana,  Nubians,  Taitan, 


tyGoogk 


CiliciuiB,  MeBopotaTniaiia,  AuTTiana,  EtHopuuu, 
Moors,  Aimeniuu,  ManichieuiB,  Banditti,  iind  Ger- 
man JeTE.  More  recenUy,  they  were,  <m  account  of 
the  name  oE  Zingari  or  ^n^nni — probably  a  corrap- 
tioQ  from  their  own  name  Smte  (from  Ind},  by  which 
they  are  known  in  many  countriea  of  Eorope — 
brought  in  connection  with  the.  Sigymud,  a  (wople 
of  A^dian  origin,  settled  on  the  Danube,  menijoned 
by  Herodotm ;  wiUi  the  Sigynni  of  Strabo.  in  the 
Caueasua )  with  the  UibeckB,  and  a  boat  of  other 
tribes  known  and  unknown.  Again,  their  name  has 
been  derived  from  one  Zinganeua,  who,  in  1SI7, 
when  they  had  long  been  known  as  Zingani,  flad 


origin,  proved  inconteatably  by  their  langoage,  was 
fii^  positively  advanced  ^  BJldiger  in  1782 ;  and 
in  his  truk  followed,  with  more  or  less  success — 
collecting,  comparing,  or  arranging  new  and  old 
linguistic  materials — Grcllmann,  Alter,  Seetzen, 
Pottinger,  Hmrland,  Puchmayer,  Onseley,  Danilo- 
wicz,  Bischoff,  Domeny  de  Pieozi,  GraSimder, 
Borrow,  Bichaniflon,  Biahop  Eeber,  and  many  others. 
But  the  /acile  ^neeps  of  all  Gypsologists  is  Pro- 
fessor Pott  of  Halle,  whose  ZigeuneripTadx  (1844 
— 1315)  is  the  most  wonderfully  thoroi^  and 
exhauitdve  book  ever  written  on  this  subject  of 

This  their  language,  ^en~a  daughter  of  the  old 
Sanscrit — has,  brides  giving  the  only  real  clue  to 
their  origin,  also  shea  some  rays  over  the  dark 
period  between  their  first  emigration  and  their 
appearance  in  Europe.  Ordmnally  the  distinct  mode 
of  speech  of  a  eingle  ana  special  border  tribe  of 
Northern  India,  it  nas,  during  the  many  wander- 
ings of  the  race,  appropriated  words  from  every 
country  through  which  they  passed ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  lost  many  of  its  own  words,  and  stall 
more  of  its  own  inherent  power  and  elegance,  and 
mach  also  of  its  resemblance  to  its  mother  and 
siaten.  These  adopted  foreign  words,  th^  respec- 
tive Qumber,  and  lieir  more  or  leas  corrupted  state, 
point  pUdnly  to  the  gyfMiea  having  passed  first 
into  Peteia,  to  their  havmg  remained  there  for  a 
conaiderahle  time,  to  their  having  then  wended 
their  way  to  some  Greek  country,  perhaps  Aaia 
Minor  V&B  deBKoatians  for  7,  S,  and  9  bemg  still 
Greek),  and  to  their  descent  thence  into  Hungary, 
Cyprus,  Ac 

But  their  language  also  (Bomany  Tschib),  though 
split  into  different  dialects,  has  ahu>  r«muned  almost 
the  only  tie  which  binds  the  widely-scattered  nomad 
members  together.  Those  of  their  bianohea  who 
for  centuriES  have  had  no  intercourse  with  each 
other,  would,  although  the  strange  elementa  in  the 
other's  speech  would  be  incomprehensible  to  them, 
yet  recognise  each  other  at  once  by  certain  words 
and  formulas  indelibly  written  in  the  memory  of  the 


to  be  one  of  the  handsomest  races  of  humanity, 
varies  in  some  degree  according  to  the  climate  under 
which  they  are  bom  and  in  which  they  roam. 
Their  chief  characteristics,  however,  remain  every- 
where the  same :  tawninesa  of  skin ;  slightly  pro. 
iecting,  but  agreeably  formed  cheek-bones;  long 
hair,  of  the  colour  and  lustre  of  coal ;  large  block 
eyes,  exquisitely  shaped  months,  ruddy  lips,  teeth 
of  a  dazzling  whiteness,  slendemess  and  agilit 
of  limb,  expressive  features,  and  well-proportionei 
often  elegant  build.  Their  women  ore,  indeed, 
exquisitely  beautiful  when  young,  but  they  lose 
their  good-looks  at  a  very  early  period,  partly  on 
account  of  the  squalor  of  thedr  habits,  and  portly 
from  their  imaeUled  and  preoaiioas  life.  Liks 
cliildreD,  they  are  fond  oE  showy  colours  in  dress, 


their  clothes,  however  poor,  with   gre*t   . 

their  other  qualities,  their  manner*   And  customs, 

e  can   only   say   that  they   were,    and    still  are, 

ipposed  to  be  cowardly,  revengeful,  and  treacher- 

is;  that  they  allow  themselves  to  be  used  as  spies, 

_e   the   associates   of   robbers   and    thieves,   and 

that  their  women,  chaste  themselves,  ply  all  sorts 

of  questionable  trades,  chiefly  Belling  poiaona,  and 

acting  as   go-betweens.     It   is   further    said   that 

their  langmwe  hu  no  word  for  God,  immortality, 

soul that,  m  fact,  they  have  no   religion  what- 

et ;  that  their  marriages,  contracted  very  early, 
J   not   binding ;    that  they  were,  or   are,  wont 
..  eat  tbeir  parenta;  and  that  they  Are  altogether 
a  very  criminal  race.    How  much    of    all    these 
charges  is  more  founded  on  fact  than  tbeir  inter- 
course with  demons,  for  which  they  haTe  been  lO 
dastardly  slaughtered  in  former  days,  we  arc  not 
able  to  decide ;  certain  it  is,  however,  that  their 
elliical  coda  d^eis  moat  easentially  froni  that  of 
other  people  (Goreio),  whom  they  despise  on  account 
of  thet  childiflh  credubty  and  brutal  cruelty-    They 
have  proved  themselves,  on  several  occasions,  bow 
ond  OTHiageoiia  as  lions,  but  they  prefer  ronnmg 
away  to  fighting  the   battles   of   tha  foreigneiB; 
and   it  is    also    agreed    on   all  hands,   that  tbey 
are  passionately  attached  to  their  relations ;  that 
they  are  fatalists,  and  have  a    sort   of   feticbisEn 
or  pantheism,  though  its  peculiar  form  has  never 
be*n  revealed  by  them  to  any  inquisitiVB  tourist 
At  the  same  time,  they  belonfj  outwardly  to  the 
religion  of  every  country  which  they  happen  to 
inhabit,    and   repeat   the    process   of    bapbsm   as 
often  as  they  can,  with  a  view,  as  some  have  it,  to 
the  presents  of  godfathers  and  godmotheia.    They 
believe  in  a  motempsychneia  or  tranamigration  of 
souIb,  and  refrain  for  that  reoaon  from  eating  eertam 
animals  (eels,  *c.),  although,  generally,   they  aie 
anything  but  choice  in  their  food.    Thff?  are  dirty, 
laiy,  fond  of  diinking  and  smoking.     Their  talent 
lor  muaio  is  remarkable  in  the  extreme ;  their  eus 
seize,  and  their  instruments  reproduce,  after  the 
fltat  hearing,  the  nwwt  difficult  and  compKcated 
pieces,   even    entire    symphonieB.      Many  faroon* 
Brtista  (Kecskemecz,  Bunks,  4c.)  have  iaaned  from 
their   ranks  ;    and  their   own  melodies   sounding 
over  the  wide  Hungarian  poshtas,  the  steppes  rf 
Russia,  or  through  lie  streets  ot  Jassy,  are  not 
eaaily  forgotten.    Some  of  them  have  indeed  become 
the  mudi-vjued  property  of  other  nations,  •*  "* 
embodied  in  soma  of  our  favourite  operas.    No  J(m 
wondaifol  is  tie  grace  and  diarm  of  *^^,^il 
dances.      Altogether,  the  gypsies  are  one  ot  tta 
most  gifted  races,  the  lost  geniuses,  so  to  ssy,  ot 
humanity.      The   real   truth    about    them,    tbM 
traditions,  and  religion,  will,  we  fear,  bo  ever  kq* 
a  secret    The  statement  ot  Borrow,  who  has  hyeH 
so  long  among  them,  that  their  entare  catechism 
is  summed  up  in  the  three  precepts :   '  Be  true  to 
your  people— be   faithful  to  your  hnabonds-W 
never  pay  any  debts  eioept  those  owing  *"  J^ 
own  kindred,'  must,  we  fear,  be  received  with  tHe 
same  degree  of  caution  which,  we  are  sorry  W  »J' 
has  to  1»  applied  to  many  other  statements  abo" 
their  manners  and  customs  contained  in  hia  otna|' 
wise  useful  Oypna  in  Spoin.    The  incredibly  awn" 
descriptions    of   the   Jewish   marriage-ceremonies, 
about  which  we  do  possess  the  fullest  and  nun 
authoritative  information,  given  there  aa  a  coiuit<^ 
part  to  those  ot  the  gypsies,  shew  plainly  ^* 
eaaily  and  abundantly  nu  good-natured  crednhV 


hyCuO^IlT 


OTPSUM-aYK-PALCON. 


ealtnn  all  over  Europe,  am  Uieir  wont  enemiea. 
Their  foreata  ore  cnt  oown,  their  heaths  enclosed, 
the  hooaea  are  pnahed  right  into  their  commonB  ; 
•od  the  euf  and  lemunerative  belief  in  their  secret 
arta  is  wiing  more  and  more.  It  ii  doubtful, 
indeed,  whether  they  will,  aa  &  sepuate  race,  lur- 
TTve  many  more  centuriea  ia  Europe.  Their  num- 
bera  at  this  moment  ate  stated  eo  very  diSerently, 
that  we  would  fain  caution  the  reader  against 
aa  implicit  belief  in  the  following  figures,  which 
we  extract  from  the  comparativ^  moat  teliablo 
authorities :  in  Hungary,  140,000  ;  m  Tianaylsania 
aod  the  Principalities,  162,000 ;  Spain,  40,000  ;  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  18,000  (their  chief  famihes  m 
tieae  countries  being  the  Rm/al  Lees,  the  Stanleys, 
Coopen,  Hemes,  Smiths,  Lovells,  &c.)  ;  Poland, 
2000 ;  Russia,  10,000  ;  Gennany,  France,  and  Italy, 
40,000 ;  Norway,  1500.  Altogether,  including  those 
in  Tarhej  and  in  Asia  and  Africa  (their  sojourn  in 
Mexico  is  questionable),  they  are  computed  at  about 
five  millions  (Bienzi).  A  en^U  portion  only  of  these 
occumes  as  a  body  fixed  habitations  in  Hungary 
and  Traasylyama,  where  they  are  agriculturists  and 

Eoldwashers  ;  and  in  the  Principalities,  where  they 
Te  in  a  hind  of  serfdom,  and  are  divided  into  fonr 
different  classes — Rndari  or  Aorari  (gold-seekers), 
Uraari  (bear-leaders),  Lingnrari  (mannfacturers  of 
and  dealers  in  wooden  spoons,  moose-traps,  &c) ;  and 
Lateasi  (masons,  smiths,  tinkers,  Ac).  All  the  rest 
lead  a  roaming  life,  live  in  kennels  and  under  tents 
from  one  end  of  the  year  to  the  other,  gaining  their 
scanty  livelihood,  like  their  forefathers,  as  best  they 
can,  fearing  and  detesting  nothing  so  jnuch  as  a 
fixed  and  continuous  occupation,  i^iich  would  take 
them  away  from  '  their  free  monntains,  their  plains 
and  woods,  the  sun,  the  stars,  and  the  winds.' 


Fonquel  lochipen  abajo 

Atallela  nn  balichor^ 

Abillala  k  goh  goli, 

Ustilame  Calotfi. 

There  runs  a  swine  down  yonder  hill 

As  fast  u  e'er  hs  can. 

And  as  he  runs,  he  orieth  still : 

'  Come  steal  me,  gypsy  man.' 
OYP3UM,  a  mineral  consiBting  easentially  of 
sulphate  of  lime  and  water,  the  proportians  of 
its  constituents  being  lime,  3256 ;  sulphuric  acid, 
46-51  ;  water,  20-9%  It  is  very  widely  diffiised, 
occuis  in  great  abundance  in  many  puts  of  the 
world,  and  is  found  in  rocks  and  strata  geologically 
veiT  differeat,  as  in  transition  rocks,  in  sectuidary 
and  in  tertiary  formations.  It  often  occnrs  in  nests 
or  kidney-shaped  maascs  in  clay  or  marL  It  ia 
found  above  chalk  in  many  places,  and  laree  quanti- 
ties oE  it  are  qnanied  in  some  parts  of  England 
from  the  red  marl  immediately  above  the  great  bed 
of  rock-salt.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  beds  many 
feet  Uit(^  It  is  transparent  or  opaqne,  whit^ 
yellowish-white  or  gray,  or  even  yellow,  red,  brown, 
or  black,  according  to  its  parity  of  chemical  com- 
positioa  or  the  quantity  and  nature  of  impurities 
present.  It  is  also  compact,  fibrous,  foliated,  or 
earthy ;  sometimes  crystalliBed  in  six-sided  prisms 
or  in  lenses.  Twin  crystals  are  fteqaent.  It  is 
eamly  broken,  scratched,  and  cut.  Before  the  blow- 
pipe, it  becomes  opaque,  if  not  already  so,  and 
fuses  into  a  white  enameL  The  water  which  it 
contains  is  driven  off  by  a  heat  of  about  272°  F., 
and  it  is  then  easily  reduced  to  powder,  in  which 
state  it  is  well  known  as  Platler  qf  Paru. 
Uubomed  G.  is  tough,  and  not  easily  reduced  to 
powder.  Q.  is  soluUe  in  cold  water,  to  the  extent 
of  about  one  part  in  461,  and  is  »  frequent  ingredient 


in  the  water  of  springs  ;  it  is  scarcely  more  soluble 
in  boiling  water  or  in  acids.  To  this  solubility  in 
water,  although  so  slight,  must  be  ascribed  the 
value  of  Q.  as  a  manure  ;  the  Itarther  chemical 
explanation  oE  which,  however,  still  remains  to  be 
ascertained,  although  theories  have  been  proposed 
by  Sir  Humphiy  Davy  and  by  Liebig.  the  former 
supposing  the  G.  to  act  chiefly  by  itself,  becoming 
the  Dutnment  of  the  crops  to  which  it  is  mon 
beueficially  applied ;  the  latter  supposing  it  to  act 
chiefly  by  finng  the  ammonia  of  the  atmosphere 
and  conveying  it  to  their  roots.  As  a  manure,  G.  ia 
more  extensively  naed  in  some  parts  of  the  continent 
of  Europe  and  of  North  America  than  of  Britain. 
In  North  America,  it  is  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  by 
mills,  in  order  to  be  used  as  a  roanure,  for  much  M 
its  value  depends  on  the  fineness  of  trituration.  To 
clover  crops,  the  apphcation  of  Q.  is  particularly 
beneficial,  aod  although  it  does  not  produce  much 
benefit  in  its  direct  application  to  gram  crops,  yet  iu 
an  alternation  of  wheat  and  clover,  the  crop  of 
wheat  is  larger  because  of  the  liberal  supply  of  this 
mineral  manure  to  the  clover.  An  excess  of  G., 
however,  is  prejudicial,  as  has  been  found  in  some 
parts  of  England,  where  the  subsoil  contaiiiiDg  it 
m  great  quantity  has  been  rashly  brought  up  by 
the  plough — G.,  deprived  of  its  water  by  burning, 
and  reduced  to  powder,  forms  a  paste  whi<^ 
almost  immediately  eda,  or  becomes  Gim  and  solid, 
when  mixed  with  its  own  bulk  of  water  ;  hence  the 
great  use  of  Platter  qf  Paria  for  makiug  casts  and 
cornices.  But  if  the  G.  is  burned  at  too  great  a 
heat,  it  refuses  to  set,  and  the  powder  of  the  mineral 
called  Anityiirile,  which  is  an  anbj'drons  sulphate  of 
lime,  has  not  the  property  of  setting. — One  of  the 
finest  varieties  of  unciystallised  and  nntransporent 
Q.  is  Alabaster  (q.  v.). — Satin  Spar  is  a  beautiful 
fihroos  variety  of  G.,  exhibiting  a  fine  play  of  light, 
and  employed  for  necklaces,  inlaid-work,  aud  other 
ornamental  purposes,  but  having  the  disadvantage 
of  being  easily  scntched. 

GTKATION,  CzHTBB  OF.  See  Cbktkx  of 
Gyration. 

aYK-PALCON,  or  JER-FALCON  (Fako  gyr- 
fako  or  F.  I^ndicat),  a  species  of  Fidcon  (q.  t.) 
of  large  size,   the   female,  which   is   the   largest. 


Oyr-falBOD  [Faito  Iilamitvui). 

being  about  two  feet  in  entJre  length ;  the  plumage 
almost  brown  when  the  bird  is  young,  but  gradu- 
ally changing  to  white  as  it  advances  in  age,  the 
white  margin  of  each  feather  encroaching  on  ita 


tyCoogle 


QTBINXTS— GTULA. 


brown  0Biib«,  nntfl  aged  birda  ue  almost  pure  white. 
It  il  tvaly  nen  in  Brit&ijt,  uid  Tery  rarely  in 
Oi6  Mnthem  parts  of  the  iiland,  bnt  mhabite  all 
the  Tet^  oold  northern  parts  of  the  world.  It  was 
formedy  in  high  ertMm  for  falconiy,  and  waa  pro- 
cured at  great  expenae  from  Iceland  and  Norway. 
It  ia  aometimes  called  Icilard  Falook,  and  aome- 
timei  OvxKa.Aifi>  Tucov. 

GTBI'NUfl,  a  T.inn»an  gentu  of  coleopteroua 
inaeoiB,  now  oonatitntuu:  a  familj,  OyrvUda,  closely 
allied  to  JSjiuefAa,  or  Watei  Seetlea  (see  Dytibod^, 


Gjiiniu: 


arma,  the  other  lega  vtr^  ihort  and  oomparatiTely 
broad.  The  eyea  an  diTided  by  homy  pioceaKs, 
to  that  eacli  of  them  almoet  beccmes  two.  The 
body  ia  oral,  aa  ia  the  Df/tuada.  The  OfrMda 
are  Toy  generally  charaotenBed  by  metalfio  taH- 
liancy  of  colour.  They  are  moatly  imall  inaecta. 
Ther  fly  ireD,  awim  and  dire  well,  spend  Uw  winter 
in  tlie  nmd  at  the  bottom  of  ponda,  and  in  apring 
and  anmmer  may  be  aaen  iwinuiiing  Teiy  actively 
on  the  anifaoe  of  the  water,  r««dy  to  dire  on  the 
alighteat  alann.  In  dlTing,  tW  carry  down  with 
than  a  blight  bubble  of  ur.  They  geoenlly  swim 
in  litUs  partiea,  aeeminff  to  chaaeeaeh  other 
fiivlWi  wnfinoe  tt 


Uidr  Kn^iah  name,  Whirlifiigi.  They  feed  on 
amaller  aqnatio  "'i"«l",  which  thoy  aeiie  in  their 
CTiationa.  They  depoeit  tiieir  egga  on  tha  leana 
Mt  aqnatio  planla.  Tlieir  larvn  ais  aquatic,  hanns 
their  bodiea  composed  of  Uiirteai  demly  dirided 
rings,  of  which  three  bear  the  feet,  and  the  rest  bear 
filamenta  probably  aerring  aa  o^^ina  of  rcapintion. 
The  moat  common  British  apedea  ia  C/jfrimu  natalor, 
a  amooth  shining  blackish  mseei^  tbree  line*  kmg. 

OT'ROUAKOT  (gyroi,  a  drde,  and  manlaa, 
prophecy)  was  a  method  of  divinatioD  by  numi  at  a 
circle,  and  was  generally  performed  in  the  following 
manner :  the  Boothsayer  dGBcrii>ed  a  (arcle^  ud 
marked  it  all  round  witii  letters ;  then  he  com- 
menced to  walk  round  the  circle,  mueatiug  his 
incantatioDi,  and  at  the  places  where  lie  atopped 
'  the  letters  were  carefnlly  noted,  and  by  the  inter- 
!  pretatioD  put  npon  these  letters,  the  answer  ef  the 
'  god  mM  obtained. 

OTBOTHORA.  Bee  Tsi»  be  Boohx. 
QY'KOSOOPEl,  an  inatnanent  inTented  by  U. 
Fonoanh  to  rutder  palpable  to  4^  eye  the  euih'i 
rotation.  Jts  aoocees  depends  on  the  prinotple, 
tttat  if  a  mass  be  set  in  rotation  freely  in  space, 
it  win,  nnleo*  diaturbed  or  oonatnitMd,  [maerra 
abaolnbd^  the  plane  of  its  Totatioiv  ana  will,  to 
effect  tills,  eren  oTeraonut  slight  obataolea.  In  the 
gyKlaoop^  a  heaTv  rmg  of  metal  ia  altnoat  bedy 
suspended  by  meonanioal  oar '~' "     * 


«  uioir  French  name,  Toumirjiufs,  and 


to  it  a  very  r 
in  the  plBDe  of  i 


t  oaoaea  a  gradnated  slip  to  mors 
a  tdeaoope  fuoad  in  p^'^t'^  and  so 
LTth's  motioa  palpable  to  the  eye.    See 


round  tudsr 

renders  the  earth'i , 

OvRoeoops  in  Bvvt.,  VoL  X. 

GTDliA,  a  town  of  Knn«^,  in  the  coonty  of 
Bekes,  is  situated  on  the  White  KHrUe,  which 
divides  it  into  the  German  and  Hungarian  qnarten^ 
30  milea  north  of  the  town  of  Aiad.  The  trade  ii 
chiefly  in  cattle.    Pop.  (1S69)  1S,49G. 


y/Guo^lir" 


H 


THE  eighth  letter  ia  the  Engliah 
alphabet,  belong  to  the  ordei  ' 
gnttnrali,  and  U  a  mere  attenaat 
of  the  lound  indicated  by  the  Greek 
X  and  the  German  (and  Scotch)  ' 
Th«  tendency  of  gnttnral  sonnda 
beooma  lighter  an^  lighter,  and  at 
diaappear,  ia  itrikinglf  seen  in  trfto- 
the  birtory  of  the  letter  K  The  form 
B  character  eorreaponda  to  the  Phce- 
lan  or  Hebrew  cMh  (ri)  and  the  Greek 
eta  (H,  probabl]'  at  one  time  prononnced  heia), 
whidl  dcnotol  originally  the  tyliaile  ehg.  The 
Greeks  dropped  the  guttural  port  of  the  aoond, 
and  took  the  chaneter  to  mark  the  rowel  I, 
whUe  in  tiM  lAtin  alphabet  it  was  taken  to  mark 
the  (buot  aaplnted)  guttural  That  the  aound  of  h 
b  Latin  miut  hare  been  faint,  is  proTed  by  the 
t»t^  that  many  words  were  written  indiffercmtly 
r  without  an  A;  as  Aomuttu  or  ontulvt; 
or  aSneua.  In  the  languages  derived  from 
'  I,  the  force  of  h  has  almoet  disappeared. 


/,  aa  Ayo  a  Lat.  JOms,  a  son ;   humo*o  ^/amomu. 

In  the  langoagea  of  the  Oothio  stock,  h  often 
repreaeoti  the  biud  gattoral  sound  of  jt  or  e.  See 
'  "  "  This  mbetitation,  and  the  aabBequent 
injt  of  A,  especiaUy  before  r  and  I,  bate 
y  disgniaed  the  tclalioiithip  of  many  words 
B  yet  of  the  same  root:  e.  g.,  Bng.rau; 
Ang.-Sax.Jtreaw;  Latcru-or,  blood,  «ri^ut,  bloody. 

The  uatoral  tendency  ia  £iu;Hsh,  as  in  other 
tonffoe^  is  to  attanoate  the  aoond  of  h,  and  alto- 
gether eliminate  rt.  This  tendenoy  is  strongeet 
among  the  illiterate,  who  are  unrestrained  by  the 
ence  of  the  written  character ;  and  accordingly 
p  one'a  Kb'  (e.g.,  am  for  ham)  a  a  sign  of 
it  of  edncation  and  of  Tolgarity.  The  per- 
'  putting  h  where  it  ought  not  to  be 
t  for  tggt],  is  not  aaalyaocoanted  for. 
s  use  the  letter  E,  in  tiiear  musical 

_ ,  le  same  note  which  we  call  B,  while 

they  call  our  B  flat  simply  B;  poosibly  from  the  flat 
terenth  being  more  nearly  related  to  C,  as  a  funda- 

^i  note,  than  B  natonl  the  sharp  serenth  ia, 

.  thty  deaignate  "     "^ — 


whidithiydi 


Thus, 


BAA.'S.IjEM,  the  chief  town  of  a  dirtriet  of  tlie 
Mine  name  in  the  prorinoe  of  North  Holland,  is  a 
clean,  well-bnilt  <aty,  lying  on  the  shoreE  of  the 
Spaarn,  12  nrOe*  ireit  of  Amstodam,  and  inter- 
~  ~*ied,  like  moat  Ihitoli  towna^  witb   oanala  and| 


avennes  of  trees.  Pop.  (1872)  32,156.  H.  is  the 
seat  of  government  for  the  province,  and  the  see 
of  a  Cauiolic  bishop.    Among  its  13  churches,  the 

Sindpal  ia  that  known  as  De  Groote  or  St  Bavo's 
erk,  which  wss  built  in  the  IGth  c,  is  the  largest 
in  Holland,  and  is  specially  noted  for  its  lofty  tower 
and  its  famous  organ,  construe'""'  """  ■"■■■"- 
Amsterdam,  which,  till  recently, 
its  kind,  having  6000  [npes,  60  stopn,  ana  t  rows  oi 
kejrs.  Before  the  church  stands  die  marble  statue 
of  Lanrena  Cwler  (g.  v.),  to  whom  hiB  countrymen 
ascribe  the  invention  of  printing.  Among  the 
buildings  worthy  of  note,  we  may  instance  the 
town-iiaU,  with  its  flne  carvings,  formerly  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Counts  of  Holland ;  the  palace  of  the 
states-general ;  the  prison ;  and  the  Teyler  Inatitu- 
tion.  which  is  endowed  with  ample  fluids  for  the 
poor,  and  has  numerous  scientific  and  antiqaariau 
collections.  H  has  a  good  gymnaeium,  numerous 
academical,  scientific,  and  benevolent  institntionB, 
Hud  ix  also  the  hcsd-quartem  of  the  Society  of 
National  Education,  which  has  here  ita  Bcho<H  for 
teachers.  Although  H.  Is  no  longer  celebrated, 
OS  in  former  lames,  for  its  flonriuing  trade,  it 
still  possesses  extensive  refineries  of  salt,  taimaies, 
fouDdriea  for  type  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  and 
voriooa  manufactories  of  silk,  linen,  and  thread, 
and  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  flowers  and 
seeds,  sending  its  tuLpa,  hyacinths,  and  other  bulbs 
to  every  port  of  Europe.  H.  was  a  flonrishing 
town  aa  early  as  the  I2th  c,  when  it  took  an 
important  put  in  the  wars  between  the  Hol- 
landers and  West  Frimana,  At  the  close  of  ilie 
IBth  c,  it  lost  all  its  privil^es,  and  suffered  severely 
dniing  tho  revolt  of  the  peasantry ;  and  in  the 
followmg  cectory,  during  the  war  of  independence, 
it  sided  with  the  allies,  and  underwent  a  seven 
months'  si^  in  1S72 — J073,  which  is  unparalleled 
in  the  annus  of  h^toiy  for  the  heroism  erinoed 
by  the  citizens,  and  for  the  atrocities  which,  in 
violation  of  tluur  faith,  the  Spaniards  perpetrated 
after  the  surrender  of  tho  city, 

HAABIiEH  LAKE,  which  ia  now  d>«ined  (see 
PoiJ)SR),  lay  betweeu  the  towns  of  Haarlem,  I^yden, 
and  Amsterdam,  and  communicated  with  the  Zuider 
Zee  by  a  narrow  strait  called  'Het  Y.'  Before  its 
thorough  drainage  (1839—185^,  it  embraced  Hie 
four  ponds  of  Haarl^  Leyden,  Spieger,  and  Helle, 
which,  in  oonteqoence  of  an  irruption  of  the  ses  in 
ihe  16th  0.,  when  several  villagea  were  destroyed, 
had  merged  into  one  vast  sheet  of  water,  sad  in  tlie 
cont«e  la  time  encroached  wo  far  upon  the  adjacent 
land  as  ultimately  to  cover  an  area  of  more  than 
60,000  acres.  The  depth  did  not  exceed  IS  feet, 
more  than  half  of  whicb  was  composed  of  mod  and 
clay,  from  which  the  Dutoh  prenaied  a  kind  of 
brick  known  as  'klinkers,'  whidh  were  used  for 
purposes  of  paving.  The  waters  of  the  l^e  fre- 
quently rose  during  storms  to  an  alarming  height, 
neceecitating  an  enormous  annnal  outlay  in  keeping 
the  dams  and  alnicea  in  nipair.  In  oonseqnenoe  M 
the  damage  done  to  the  cities  c£  Amsterdam  and 


tyCiOOgh 


HABAKKUK— HABEAS  CORPUS. 


licyden  by  aa  overfloir  of  the  lake  in  1S36,  Hhe 
goremmeiit  entered  into  an  aEreement  with  a  com- 
pany of  English  etigineeni  to  drain  it.  Thia  under- 
talcing  vaa  effected  hy  several  gigantic  Eteam- 
engines,  by  which  the  water  was  pumped  up  into  a 
canal,  which  bad  been  dug  raond  the  circumference 
of  the  former  area  of  the  lake,  and  connected  with 
TariouB  inlets  of  the  aea.  By  these  means  tiie  bed 
of  the  lake  waa  left  diy,  except  channeU  for  the 
purpose  of  drainac^  and  a  spaoe  of  more  than 
SO.OOO  acres  of  good  land  reclaimed  and  thoroiigMy 
drained.  This  nan  now  been  divided  into  f  arme,  and 
U  tmder  tiUage.  Pop.  (1870)  11,272,  with  2  Dutch 
Reformed,  2  Duaenting  obarcfaes,  and  3  B.  C.  chapels. 

HABA'KKUK  (Greek  forma,  Aiabaioiim,  Aba- 
cum,  &c  ;  Latin,  Ambacian,  Ambacae,  and  AlnKtic), 
the  eighth  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  No  occoont 
whatever  is  contaioed  in  the  book  itself  either  of 
the  events  of  his  life,  or  even  the  date  when  ho 
lived;  and  the  namberless  conjectnres  that  have 
been  made  respecting  him  are  unwoitliy  of  notice. 

Iq  turning  te  the  book  itself,  we  Snd  bim,  first  of 
all,  bewailing  the  Keneral  corruption  of  bis  people, 
and  prophesying  t£e  speedy  vengeance  of  God  by 
the  hand  of  the  Chaldeaus.  These,  however,  sball, 
when  they  have  fulfilled  the  divine  wrath,  perish 
suddenly  themselveB,  because  of  their  own  iniquities ; 
and  the  prophet  winds  up  witli  thanks  for  thia 
just  retribution.  It  is  evident  from  this  that  H. 
must  have  lived  at  a  late  period,  about  the  time  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  invaaion;  but  whether  he  wrote, 
aa  the  rabbinical  traditions  sui>poBe — at  the  time  of 
Manaaseh,  or  as  others  (Keil,  Davidson,  DelitzH^) 
assume,  at  the  early  time  of  Joaiab,  or,  finally,  in 
the  days  of  Jehoiolum,  according  to  Ewold,  Boeen- 
mllller,  Knobel,  Meyer,  De  Wette,  Hitiig,  Stahelin, 
are  points  upon  which  we  cannot  enter.  We 
muat  not  omit  to  mentioa  here,  that  the  vaiions 
chaptera  have  also  been  supposed  to  have  been 
written  under  different  successive  kinga  (Rosen- 
maller,  Kalminaky,  tc]  ;  but  the  umty  of  the 
whole  book  is  so  obvious,  that  this  notion  has  been 
almost  unanimously  rejected. 

Critics  have,  in  all  tmiea,  been  unanimons  in  their 
e  of  the  style  of  this  prophetic  compmitioo. 
uks,  indeeo,  for  grandeur  and  sublimity   '' 


praise  o 


It  is  more  especially  the  peculiar  strophic  . 
ment  of  the  second  chapter,  with  its  awful  four 
'  woes '  denounced  against  the  Chaldeans,  and  above 
all,  that  matohlesB  '  Pindaric  Ode,'  as  Ewald  calls 
the  third  chapter,  which  have  challenged  univenial 
attention  and  admiration. 

HA'BEAS  CCfEPUS,  Witir  or,  a  writ  diT«cted 
by  coorta  of  law  or  equity  to  produce  the  body  of 
a  person  illegally  detained,  and  to  state  the  reasons 
of^Eoch  detention,  so  that  the  court  may  judge  of 
their  anffidenojt.  Thia  writ  is  one  of  tne  chief 
guuda  of  English  liberty,  and  the  envy  of  foreign 
nationa,  being  one  of  ue  beet  securities  ^oinit 
tyranny  ever  devised.  It  is  often  erroneonsly  sup- 
posed that  this  efficacioua  protection  of  personal 
freedom  waa  first  bestowed  by  the  statute  of  31  Ch. 
IL  c  2,  called  the  E^>eaa  Corpna  Act.  But  the  true 
foundation  of  that  act,  aa  well  aa  of  many  other 
cardinal  principlea  of  the  F.nglish  cooatitution,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  Great  Charter,  or  Magna  Charta,  of 
which  Hallam  (1  CotuL  HitL  16)  observes:  >No 
freeman  could  be  detained  in  prison  except  upon  a 
criminal  charge  on  conviotion,  or  for  a  civil  debt. 
In  the  former  case,  it  was  always  in  his  power  to 
demand  of  the  Court  of  Eing'i  Bench  a  writ  of 
habeat   corpu*    ad   m^'tnendum,  directed  to   the 


person  detaining  him  in  custody,  by  vrhicfa.  he  waa 
enjoined  to  bring  up  the  body  of  the  prisoner,  wiHi 
tlie  warrant  of  commitment,  that  the  court  nugbt 

C'  ^  of  its  snffictency,  and  remand  the  par^,  admit 
to  bail,  or  discharge  ^lin^,  accoraing  to  ths 
nature  of  the  charge.  This  writ  issued  of  right.  Mid 
conld  not  be  refused  by  the  coorl'  The  QretX 
Charter,  aa  Professor  Creasy  sums  op  this  put  of 
its  substance,  '  contained  two  great  pnnciplea.  First, 
that  no  man  shall  be  imprisoned  on  mere  ^ensral 

Sands  oE  suspicion,  or  for  an  indefinite  penod,  at 
discretion  or  caprice  of  the  executive  power ;  hot 
that  imprisonment  shall  be  only  inflicted  aa  the 
result  of  a,  legal  trial  and  sentence,  or  for  the  pur- 
pose o£  keeping  in  safe  custody,  when  neocssary, 
accused  person  on  a  definite  charge,  until  he  can 
tried  on  that  charge.  Secondly,  that,  aa  a  general 
rule,  every  person  accused  of  a  criminal  offence  shall 
have  the  question  of  his  guilt  or  innocence  deter- 
mined by  a  free  jury  of  his  fellow-conntiymen,  and 
not  by  any  nominee  of  the  government'  And  Black- 
stone,  with  great  spirit,  thns  discourses  on  the  social 
and  politicu  effects  of  this  feature  of  the  British 
consbtution  (1  BL  Com.  136) :  *  Of  great  importance 
'—  the  public  ia  the  preaervatioii  of  this  personal 


3  left  i 


hest,  magistrate  to  imprison  arbitrmrily 
whomever  he  or  his  officers  thought  proper,  thei« 
would  soon  be  an  end  of  all  other  rights  siid  inuini- 
nitiea.  Some  have  thought  that  unjust  attacki^ 
even  upon  life  or  property,  at  the  arbitrary  will  of 
the  magistrate  are  less  dangerous  to  the  oonunon- 
wealth,  than  such  as  are  made  upon  the  persoiuil 
liberty  of  the  subject.  To  bereave  a  man  ol  life,  or 
b^  violence  to  confiscate  his  estate  without  accusa- 
tion or  trial,  would  be  so  groes  and  notorious  an  act 
of  despotism,  as  must  at  once  convey  the  alarm  oE 
tyranny  throughout  the  kingdom ;  but  confinement 
<a  the  person  by  secretly  hurrying  Ti'"'^  to  jail,  wherr 
his  sufferings  are  unknown  or  forgotten,  is  a  less 
public,  a  lea  striking,  and  therefore  a  more  dan- 
gerous engine  of  arbitrary  government.  And  yet, 
sometimes,  when  the  state  is  in  real  danger,  even 
thia  may  be  a  necessary  measure.  But  the  happi- 
neaa  of  our  constitution  is,  that  it  is  not  left  to  Uie 
executive  power  to  determine  when  the  danger  lA 
the  stete  is  so  great  aa  to  render  this  measure  eipe- 


for  a  short  and  limited  time,  to  imprison  i     ^ 
persons,  without  giving  any  reason  for  so  doing.' 

The  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  which  was  pasMd  in 
31  Ch.  II.  c.  2,  therefore  did  not  introduce  any  new 
principle,  but  merely  defined  with  greater  precision 
and  detail  the  appropriate  remedies,  in  oonaeqnence 
of  the  frivolous  objections  made  by  the  jodges  in 
the  preceding  reign.  The  substance  of  these  details 
is  as  follows :  Where  ai^  person  is  committed  uid 
charged  with  crime,  the  lord  chancellor  <»  any  of 
the  judges  may,  unleaa  thsre  has  been  great  dslaj 
in  application,  iasue  the  writ,  and  order  the  j^tsaaa 
to  be  brought  up  and  discharged  with  or  without 
baiL  The  writ  is  to  be  obeyed  more  or  less  promptly 
according  tothedistanoe,bntiiiiio  case  mnstthe  delay 
exceed  twenty  days.  Any  ofBcer  or  keeper  neglect- 
ing to  deliver  a  copy  of  the  warrant  of  commitment, 
or  shifting  the  prisoner  to  another  custody  without 
cause,  ah^  forfeit  £100,  and  for  the  seoood  offence 
£200,  and  be  disabled  to  hold  office.  No  penon  once 
delivered  by  habeat  eorpia  shall  be  recommitted  bxr 
the  aame  offence  under  a  penalty  of  £600.  Evny 
person  committed  for  treason  or  felony  may  inast 
on  being  tried  at  the  next  assizes,  or  admitted  to 
bail,  unlet*  the  crown  wttnessea  cannot  be  itadj  in 
that  time;  and  if  not  tried  at  the  second  sssiasB  or 


t.LiOogle 


HABENDUM— HABIT. 


mon  Pleu,  or  Exchequer,  uid  uiy  judge  denying 
■uch  writ  IB  liable  to  a  fine  of  £SXI.  The  writ  m&y 
be  applied  for  by  persons  confined  in  any  part  M 
Hn^uuid,  or  Jeisey  and  OnernBey.  Indeed,  it  ww 
Tecently  held,  in  the  case  of  Anderson  the  fogitive 
slave,  uiat  thia  writ  could  be  applied  for  by  a  peraon 
confined  in  Canada  or  any  other  of  the  colonies, 
eren  thoogh  tlieie  were  courta  establiahed  there 
vrliich  had  previoiialy  been  applied  to,  and  had  the 
power  to  iMve  the  writ,  but  refused  to  do  bo.  The 
JadRet  of  t^  Queen's  Bench,  on  eT«.miniiig  the 
AntAOiitJes,  held  that  this  prerosatOTe  power  had 
»lwt,jt  been  ioherent  in  the  Engtish  ojurt  in  favonr 
of  British  subjects  wherever  imprisoned,  except  in 
a  fonign  conntry,  and  had  never  been  taken  away 
by  eipren  statnte.  There  has  now,  however,  been 
passed  a  statnto  (25  Vict)  depriving  the  English 
Gonrts  of  this  jurisdiction  over  the  cSonieS,  when- 
ever local  coorti  exist  by  which  such  a  jurisdiction 
can  be  esercised. 

As  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  extended  onlv  to  euaoi 
Ifhere  penoos  are  imprisoned  on  criminal  or  sap- 
posed  criniini]  chai^ea,  the  other  cases  being  left  to 
the  openrfdon  of  the  oonunon  law,  which  was  found 
defe(iiTe,the  statute  66  Geo.  UL  c  100  wss  psased, 
which  extended  the  writ  to  other  cases.  Under 
thia  last  act,  any  person  confined  of  restrained  of 
liis  liberty  [otherwise  than  for  criminal  matters, 
and  except  persona  imprisoned  under  a  judgment  or 
decree  for  debt),  may  apply  to  any  judge  of  the 
oommon  law  courts  for  a  habtat  corpus,  on  shewing 
by  affidavit  tbat  there  is  a  reasonable  and  probable 
ground  for  complaint. 

The  remit  is,  that  in  all  cases  whatever  where  a 


e  applicant ;  and  ii  such  person  refuses 
to  make  a  fooper  retam — that  is,  shew  good  l^al 
gronnda  tor  what  ia  done — he  wiU  be  conuoitted  for 
contempt.  If  the  party  is  confined  under  recognised 
authority,  as  a  child  by  a  parent,  theee  facts  mnat 
be  stated.  If  the  party  is  confined  under  some 
l^al  authority,  then  the  warrant  of  commitment 
must  be  prodnced,  and  the  rule  is  that  snch  warrant 
most  set  forth  the  subject  matter,  and  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  judge  or  justice  who  so  committed  the 
nuty,  so  that  the  legality  of  the  imprisonment  may 
be  jodgBd  of. 

The  Hsb«M  Corpns  Act  does  not  extend  to  Soot- 
land,  but  in  that  countn  aimilar  redress  is  provided 
to  the  subject  nnder  ute  Wrongaua  Imprisonment 
Act,  1701,  c.  6  (q.  v.],  which  ia  often  called  the 
Scotch  Habeas  Ccopua  Act. 

Sabtai  earput  is  also  the  formal  commencement 
of  several  other  legal  writs  in  En^ish  law  of  a 
kindred  nature  to  that  lost  mentioned,  and  which 
is  strictly  called  the  writ  of  Aoinu  wrpai  ad  tub- 
jideadmn.  Thaa,  the  Anieos  eorpu*  ad  Terpondendum 
is  a  writ  issued  by  a  common  law  court  to  bring  up 
a  prisoner  to  serve  him  wiUi  a  writ  in  another 
actiim.  Bo  a  habttu  eorjnu  ad  tal^faeiendtim  ia  a 
eimilai'  writ  to  take  the  prisoner  in  execution  for 
another  cause  of  action.  Sabeat  eorpia  ad  U^i- 
Jixmdum  is  tiie  writ  by  whioh  a  prisoner  Is  Imni^t 
up  by  the  jailer  to  give  evidence  as  a  witness  in  a 
court  (rf  jnstice. 

HABETTDUM,  in  English   Law,  is  the  name 

ffttm  to  a  clause  in  a  deed  of  grant  or  lease,  in 

,    which  clause  the  Idnd  and  nature  of  the  estate  is 

described,  and  it  is  stated  for  how  long  the  estate  is 

to  be  held. 

320 


HABBUE  FA'CIAS  POSSEaSKyNEH,  in 
English  Law,  is  the  name  of  the  writ  which  issues 
after  a  succeuful  plaintiff  has  recovered  judgment 
in  an  action  of  ejectment.  He  then  calls  on  tiie 
aheriff,  by  this  writ,  to  put  him  in  possession  of  the 
land  or  pronises,  and  the  sheriff  execute*  it  by 
breaking  open  the  doon,  if  necessary,  uid  then 
delivering  over  the  posaesaicn  to  the  plaiatiK 
Habere  /ado*  snnnam  ia  a  similar  writ,  now 
superseded  by  the  last. 

HABEItOEON,  a  short  coat  of  niail.  consisting 
of  a  jacket  without  sleeves.  In  early  tiluee,  the 
habergeon  was  composed  of  chain-mail ;  but  in  the 
14th  a,  a  habereeon  of  plate-armour  was  wont  over 
the  hauberk.    See  Haubebx. 

HABIT.  This  fsmiliar  word  applies  to  a  certam 
portion  of  our  acquired  powers  or  aptitudes.  Com- 
mon usage  does  not  very  closely  define  tha  kind 
or  extent  of  acquisitionB  intended  by  it.  Habita 
may  be  eiOter  mtellectual  or  moniL  We  speak 
of  a  habit  of  talking  or  writing,  as  well  as  of 
a  haUt  of  early  rising,  or  of  truthfulness.  The 
[oinciiJe  of  the  human  constitution  on  which  the 
giowtL,  of  habit  depends,  when  geneialised  to  the 
utmoet,  may  be  called  the  power  of  reimUvenat, 
or  of  plastic  growth,  and  ia  one  of  the  foundatianB 
of  the  intellect,  inasmuch  as  memory  and  all  the 
other  intellectual  facnltiea  involve  it  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree.  See  IsTSUjaoTf  and  Asociatiok  o> 
IsKAfl.  Education  of  every  kind  must  proceed 
upon  this  property,  and  should  be  conducted  in 
conformity  with  its  exact  nature  and  laws.  The 
maxims  that  govern  the  formatJon  of  habits  are 
the  same  as  the  principles  of  mental  acqoireinfflit 
in  every  shape.  Some  of  the  most  important  of 
these  mav  be  indicated  here. 

1.  It  snould  be  understood,  at  the  outset,  that  all 
persons  are  not  alike  susceptible  of  the  growth  of 
new  powers,  ot  of  the  process  of  education ;  nor  is 
the  same  P^^on  equally  susceptible  ss  regards  all 
subjects.  The  consequence  is,  that  a  much  greater 
amount  of  practice  is  necessary  in  oue  case  than 
in  another ;  iteration  being  the  mode  of  supplying 
the  defective  cohesiveness  of  the  system. 

2.  However  oommon  the  remark,  that  youth  is 
the  season  for  improvement,  it  may  be  doubted  if 
we  generally  appreciai«  to  the  full  dt^ree  the 
superior  plasticity  of  early  years,  and  the  p^ual 
decrease  of  the  property  as  life  advances.  The  as 
yet  unoccupied  stato  ot  the  infant  mind  must  be 
taken  into  account  along  with  the  very  great  energy 
of  the  principle  of  growth,  which  gives  a  firmness 
and  security  of  bold  to  early  impressions  beyond 
Bverythin^  that  is  communicated  in  later  life.  We 
Bee  diia  m  the  imposaibilily  of  eradicating  a  pro- 
vincial accent  after  one  has  grown  to  maturity ;  bo 
the  t^iinions  and  sentimentu  contracted  in  youth 
can  seldom  be  changed  in  middle  or  advanced 
life. 

3.  In  acquiring  habits,  the  favourable  disposition 
of  the  mind  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  liking, 
taste,  or  p«dilection  lor  the  task  concentrates  & 
the  energies  of  the  system  upon  the  work,  and 
favoun  to  the  utmost  the  cementing  process.  A 
Etrong  natural  liking  will  often  compensate  for  want 
of  natural  aptitude,  by  mAing  the  most  of  what 
power  iiere  ii. 

4.  In  the  default  of  natural  liking  for  the  subject, 
the  attention  may  be  secured  to  a  certain  extent  by 
painB  and  penalties ;  but  as  these  waste  and  enfeeble 
the  powers  (rf  life  ^together,  there  is  a  loss  on  the 
whole,  aJtfao^h  there  may  be  a  gain  in  the  parti* 
cular  case.  Tae  education  of  the  young  cannot  be 
conducted  wholly  on  the  principle  of  nacination ; 
but  if  pain  baa  to  be  frequently  or  lystsmatioiUy 


tyCOOglc 


HABIT  ASD  BBPUTE-BASDINQTOHSHIBSL 


t«««ted  to,  no  cowidanblB  gcncnl  progww  seed 
b«look«d  tor. 

0.  Hnia,  fawhniMi,  and  Tigonr  in  tke  bodily 
>jilr«M  an  eoaditiona  of  tbs  growtli  of  habit.  The 
bMin  ttOkj  b«  powerfnl  in  a  fadila  bodj,  bat  a 
otrtaiii  MKiptnitMNl  of  tha  otiur  otgana  ia  naoeaaary 
to  tlw  integh^  of  it*  fuMlioaa;  a>d  whan  tha 


ia  nothing  gauMd  by  oofltinning  the  ^xodae.  Aft«r 
adequate  rest  and  reftvahmoit,  H»  plaatic  jmipvtj 
ii  ^  its  heisht;  tlien  ia  a  limit  to  what  it  can 
peifonn,  whi^  ia  nutriced  b^  the  ^tproachin^  asnae 
of  tatipu;  and  at  Oia  pcdnt^the  eSbrta  m  the 
wav  of  leaniing  slionld  ceaaa.  Tlie  prerailing  ei 
hitherto  haa  Men  to  ov — "-    "■"  "— '^    —' 


.. ■  limil^  ud  to 

keep  up  achool  ezeidaeB  too  long  at  one  time.  A 
Aort  int«iniad(Hi  (bablea  tike  work  to  be  Teamned. 
0.  Tluaa  otaarrattoau  i-pplj  to  mental  aoqni- 
ationa  genaMlfy.  Ib  the  poouliar  caae  of  morai 
aofiBBitioBa— ani^  a«  bihita  of  fottttnd^  oounge, 

nacaal  oonadaiatioaa  an  af^nblch    In  the  fint 

fiuoe,  th«M  mat  b*  a  powerful  u'"-'"      

inflmifti  abong  MWimJi  to  make 
ttentfOBaataiM  toMs  up  ttMdea 
ftMrtiinlMg&oItiDU.  sStharthe 
"'''  IT  ft  powarfal  exMaoUi 
t  Um  todindnal  will,  d 


•  plattie  wooetf, 
it,  bH  bad  time  t     . 
w  nay  then  be  giailaally  with- 
[  tha  ialf-wutainiBg  foroe  that 

HASIT    ASD   BBPOTB,        , _ 

Scatoh  Law  to  denote  awriBtTiing  ao  jtotnrioua 
Vbti  it  U  taken  withoot  fortbv  proof  to  be  te«e. 
Hie  beat  known  aiaiqile  of  ttia  ia  whne  a  man 
and  woMaa  oekiUt  •■  hwtaBd  and  wife,  aad  are 
■anted  hj  tt*  ueuAtem*  to  be  named,  ia  lAudi 
«Ma  Ite  law  <(  SaetlMid.  wMi  an^  UberaUy, 
aiimit*,  aa  a  pnaltiTe  and  iaotn&orertibia    fact 


.    fa<^ 


ooMie  prenila,  and  Out  Marriage  wnaM  tiave  ._ 
«  i«orad  in  tbe  aaml  w»7,  if  ealled  in  qoeatimi, 
J  a  Nit  wbick    " — ''-   — ' —   — -■-    "-- 


i^plioatiiM   «f  Hu  doctrine  of  habit  and  repute 
indnidual 


»  cireaitooalr, 
bj^oriag  after  the  tnal  that  the  thief  had  been 
BBTCial  timea  pnnoa^  oooncted,  in  whieb,  c«jw 
ha  ie  genendly  pmiiahed  hj  a  eeveier  aarteBoe. 

HABITATION,  in  (he  Boman  Law,  meant  a 
Mrritiida  In  wiuch  a  penon  ooald  only  uae  a 
haute  aa  a  habitation  or  dwellins-boaBe,  aed  for  no 
otlter  pnipoatk  In  tDaglaad  and  SooUand,  ancfe  a 
reetariotiaa  oaa  oaW  be  Rednoed  In  the  ^erstioD 
of  ui|niai  oonDauta  «■  Mipalationt  m  the  leaae. 

BA'OKBEKRT.    SeeNxmzTuB. 

HAOKLANDEB,  Pkied.  WnA,  a  popoUr 
{tannan  poat,  wae  beta  at  Bortedhcid,  near  Aix- 
kH)h»ell^  let  NovMiber  1816.  After  aennl 
Tienmadea,  he  piooeoded  to  Stottgart,  when  he 
eoBMneaoed  hie  literaij  earner  with  S>U<r  ow  d«m 
SoUalmMm  mn  A-wdM,  iriuoh  upeand  in  the 
"    ei   traudated  into 


katteaetad  the  attenlioM  <it  Baion 


him  on  hie  tntveli  to  the  Eaat. 
of  thia  jonnwy  were  DaguerTtotjfpai,  anfyatommi 
i)H/'£aurJM«  (B  denOrint  (2  vols.  Stuttg.  lSt2;  ' 
2d  edit.  184G),  and  tha  POgatug  tiack  MMa,  a  I 
oolleotion  of  Oriental  taiea  and  legends.  At  a  lets  I 
period,  ha  publiehed  WtuiMt^xi^-abeMaitr  (a  con-  | 
tinoalion  of  the  jbUoteaMoi),  liOnAmt  and  a  I 
variety  of  amaUarwoAa    In  Uarah  1840,  he  w«it 

moot,  and  aftnwarda  pnblie^d  hia  ^olSatadAai  im    I 
£Hv>  <S  Tola.  1M>— ISfiO).     In  1849  be  mairied,    ' 
and  aatUad  near  Stuttgart,  wher«   b*   haa   ainte    ; 
pttblidtad  aersml  hnmomoa  rooiaiicea :  Haadd  tad 
Wmtid  (X  Tole.  ISGO),  Auai  StO^ried  (3  vola.  185S}, 
Naaeabm  AnaUcAtet  (I  toU.  ISSl).  &c.     H.  hat 
been  atyled  the  Qennan  Dickena.      Hia   eomtdj 
entitled  the  QAeimtr  Agent  haa  baen  perforsad  oo 
all  tha  atacaa  of  Oermaoy,  and  tranalated  into  Boa- 
gariaa,Pc&li,end&i^iMi.     Hia  JVoynetiwAe  Cafra 
wae  a  neoeaa.    Other  woika  «(  hia  are  Sm  WvMr 
ta  Spomai  (ISfiS);  Dtrnmu  Don  QtOtaU  (1868)} 
KtiiutUrman    (1868);    Ztii^i^f  Zolal  (1867);  Dt 


HA*OKITBT,  tfte  name  of  a  pariali  of  ^-\^~*. 
in  the  ooonty  of  Middlmag,  whidh  now  tone  a 
■uburi)  of  IiOndoB,  and  ie  thrae  nailea  acath-acrA- 
eaat  of  St  Panl'a.  It  waa  at  raw  tirae  a  hnramte 
■ubmban  naidence  of  the  *^'«mi>T  mtizan^  bat  the 
ouncot  of  faihaBB  haTiBg  for  maiijy  yean  been 
Batting  to  the  west,  H.  no  leaigw  holda  bh  laak  it 
farmeriT  did.  In  ito  eariier  and  fudooBaUe  da^ 
\t  ie  aaid  to  hare  giren  ite  name  to  haok>«y-«oaekeL 

HACKNET-OOAOHHBN  diffier  in  no  napect 
front  otiier  oanien,  esoept  that  in  addition  they  *n 
generally  put  nndnjKilioe  r^nlatiaaa  in  nU  the  towM 
and  dtiee  of  the  United  SWdom,  and  "* 

farce  impoeed  upon  tlie 

ffcon  the  toffn-comioil  .  _    . . 

moet  coaform  to  the  regulationa  impoeed  oj  this 
anthmity.  In  London,  u^  of  parliament  have  been 
paasfld  to  define  these  i^olationB,  and  the  loal  fen 
IS  fixed  at  6(t  pm  mile,  <x  part  <rf  a  mile.  £a  othK 
citiee  and  towne,  the  1^^  ure  ie  higher. 

HADDINGTON,  a  maiket  town  and  imral  and 
porliunentary  borough  of  Scotland,  capital  of  tha 
cooDty  of  the  wune  name,  ie  aitnated  at  the  foot  of 
tha  Qarleton  Hill*,  on  both  aidee  of  the  river  Tync 
about  IS  milea  eut  of  Edinburgh.  The  old  Abber 
Churoli,  a  fine  Gothic  Btmoture,  in  piutiaJ  ruin,  tad 
ntoated  oloae  to  the  hanks  of  the  nrer,  ii  tha  moat 
intereeting  object  in  the  town.  John  Knox  lad 
George  WidiMt  preached  in  tliie  church.  Ainoi« 
^e  other  piincipal  buildinga  may  be  moitaonaa 
the  Corn  IjohaogB,  neoeeianlT  a  very  c««nmodi'»" 
boildii^  H.  being  one  of  the  largeet  min-marketi 
m  Scotiand.    Tlw  inhabitanta  are  ohi^y  depnd^t 


nnitea  with  North  Berwick,  I>unbar,  J( 
and  Lauder  in  aendiug  a  memba 
Poik  (1871)  4007. 

HADDUrGTONSHIBS,  or  EAST  LOTHIAN, 
a  marittBM  county  in  SootJaad,  lyitig  batweea  N- 
lat  iS>4' and S6' 6', and  W. kmg.  tSs' and 7 if. » 
bounded  on  tbe  N.  and  £.  bythe  Firth  of  Foiu 
and  the  Gennan  Ocean,  S.  and  8.  E.  by  Berwi*- 
ehtre,  and  on  the  W.  by  Midlothian.  Ilia  exhw^ 
length  ie  about  25  miW,  and  braadth  about  Hi 
area,  179,142  aeree.  oi  280  aquare  milo.  \^ 
Bouth  of  the  ooonty  are  the  Lommeimair  EiU^ 
ririiw  to  the  hc^t  of  1733  feet.  In  tbe  norih  u^ 
north-eaet  ie  a  (trip  of  level  gronnd  of  naeV*' 


t,  Google" 


HADDOCK—HABJI  aHAt.T>:HT 


ipcnd  (rf  cl>7  and  loam,  and  mottly 
vaij  jKodoetiTe  for  all  kinds  of  ciopa,  The  al>m»tia 
ia  acdleDt  on  tin  low^  ponnia.  and  &<>  nuufall 
nnuli  nnder  Hm  aiTsan.  l%sra  are  faw  atreaou  of 
ao^  oonaidnBUe  maa,  uis  ptiiMnpal  bong  tiie  Tyne, 
"wmch  flowB  north  cart  aanm  tlie  ooim^  into  the 
■ea  at  T^nin^iani.  East  Lothian  baa  kn^  ttnoyed 
hi^  agnooltaral  fame.  John  Co<ALbnra<rf  Onmrtan, 
f^D  ia  reguded  *a  Ibe  briber  of  unprerad  Soc^^iah 
hnbandm  and  who  was  botn  in  thn  oonntr  m  the 
end  of  ttu^lTA  c,  WM  tiu  fint  to  teat  iU  oapa- 
entetpiiaing  man  gave  lou  leaM% 
1  ha  tenaoto^  to  laj  ont  Hmx  fanna 


^tetoea 


9,  tape,  and  <dover;  and  tamna  in 

~i.  one  id  hia  fanna  u  «Hly  aa 

^  parfection  m  ten  yttit* 

D  ot  a  tmnqi,  vewhiag  S9 

a  aont  nr  paUie  e^ubftioB  to  Eanbmf^ 

~  1  bvt  planted  in  Uw  field*  in 


re  fint  idanted  in  Una  oonnty, 

. ^maohme  waa  fint  ntradnoed,  in  1786,  fay 

a  natire,  Aikdrmr  Heikle.    In  Sept^ber  18^  (h« 

""^    "^ 'mgb   f  awEMad   by  a   tnant-tanuer 

.  ja  mbrodnoed  into  tUa  oanntf  liy  Mr 

u>iwB,  Pen^nta.  ^le  wdl-kaown  Tanetaw  U 
tthttt,  Himt^e,  Hontonn,  Fanfam,  and  ShiimFs 
bcMded,  all  on^nated  in  Haddin  ' 

AeeuilinK  to  Ibe  aariodtanl 
187%  thTtSu  nnmSr  of  aoraa 
4aof»  WM  11^698,  ooeapad  t^  MS  tenuta.  T^tn 
■wm  10,79)  a«B  under  wfaBBtj  1S,498  under  bar- 
ley; 1S,»«  adw  oati;  SttI  nadtr  bMU;  6181 
■nder  potatoea;  lad  IMS  andar  toniqiB.  1^ 
■nBtbcr  of  dnwight  and  otiwr  honea  waa  9629; 
oOtk,  7678;  elkm,  114,162;  awine,  2911.  Total 
atock,  12M70:  On  com^mten  wiA  ^te  other 
Sootaoi  ooDBtiea,  it '  irill  be  fonnd  there  are  only  S 
wiUia  mater  aoreaee  of  wbaat^  4  with  nore  bar- 
ley aad  potataat,  ud  13  witii  mmt*azt^;  «fcfle 
in  yidd  per  aore  B.  ootnQiiee  a  venr  hi^  BoaitiDn, 
pa^cnlaily  in  iti  eropa  of  oata.  TJa  bBd  rental, 
eocchinve  <d  raihnn^  waa  16291,462;  nilwaya, 
£17,4m  Old  vahiagon  (1874),  £14,«71  Cod  and 
Umaatone  are  abundant.  Hie  tanmBr  waa  wretu^ 
in  the  ISth  c,  the  aailieat  reeotded  ia  Sootlatid.  O. 
tatnrns  one  member  to  the  Honae  4it  Gmnmoaa ;  ita 
pariiamentary  cenalitaeaey  in  1S7X—1874  waa  9M. 
Pbft  (Itfjl)  W,771. 

Hiatoneal  intercet  ii  oo^kaed  almoet  entirely  to 
4^  battle-field  of  Daubs,  wbere  OrtnnweD  didntad 


rc^al  tnrape  in 
174&  Amnw  Qa  antiqnitiaa  oMf  bo  named  ti» 
raina  of  the  ^atlea  of  lantalkn,  Dirleton,  t^Hft— 
Bailee,  and  Innerwiok.  The  principal  towna  are 
TTjH^ingViiij  Dunbar,  and  North  Berwick. 

UADDOaX.  {Chtdm*  or  Mon*ma  JB^^mm),  a 
fith  of  the  aane  geona  with  tke  cod,  and  miwh 
iiaiiiilirum,  it  in  genanl  Myaataao^  Tie  nuiBber  of 
fiaa  ia  the  aaaia  aa  in  the  oed,  there  bttng  llkree 
donate  and  two  anala.  Tlie  H.,  like^e  cod, 
liaa  a  bailnde  at  the  point  of  the  lower  uw.  The 
H.  it  brown  on  the  back,  bItot  aa  the  heEf ; 
the  lateral  line  ia  blaok,  and  tWe  ia  a  hluJi 
Bpdt  behind  each  of  tha  peotorala,  theee  apota 
'  ''  >o  aa  to  meat  on  the  back, 
aaoribea  theee   epoto  to  the 


Qie  tribute-money,  '  the  inventors  of  the  It^^d 
noTS  adveiling  to  the  improbability  of  a  maiine 
fiah  liniu  in  &e  frcah-wakar  kke  of  Oennesaret' 
"Da  H.,  indeed,  ia  not  even  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean.    Sta  doea  it  enter  the  Baltic,  although 


the  Little  B^  33  milea  nai«h  af  nenaboig. 
church  of  6t  Sbry  ia  a  large  and  liandwme 
aa.    H.  haa  a  port  for  Bmatl    1 1  am  ia ;  attd  a 


^entiful  in  tiie  nmiheni  parta  of  t^  Adantis 
Ooean,  both  on  &«  European  and  the  Ammoan 
ooaati.  On  the  BritiBh  coaata,  it  i*  abundant  almoat 
ererywhere,  a^^wazing  in  great  aboala  at  partioular 
■aaaoni,  but  in  aiae  and  quality  the  haddocka  taken 
at  one  part  of  tiie  ooaat  differ  mnch  from  thoaa  of 
another.  Thoae  of  like  e««t  ooart,  aad  parbanlarly 
Uioeeoaoght  in  deep  water,  are  in  neat  eate^  and 
thoee  lO.  Dublin  Bay  aie  Temaikable  for  their  large 
•iae.  AH.af  l«U>a.haabacait«k«ninDablinBaf. 
(hneially,  however,  thia  fiah  J*  nnah  amallir.  It 
b  tak<n  botii  by  toairi-net*  and  linee.  Piaoei  od 
&M  h«ariw  and  eaod-eel  are  moat  attnotirt  baita. 
The  H.,  when  redlr  of  good  qnili^,  ia  petli^  I^b 
fineatttfaUttieaiKNdB;  and  tiMiia»b«ra  taken  on 
Kune  parti  of  the  Brttiah  ooaati  are  vsy  fftai, 
rendenng  it.  in  an  ectmamical  point  of  view,  a  veiy 
important  Sih.  It  doaa  not  'take  ealt'  ao  wall  aa 
the  oed,  but  ia  often  oared  by  drying  and  — "^=ig 
In  March  and  April,  the  H.  U  o«t  <^  aeaaon:  m 
Octobs,  Noveraber,  Deoembcz,  and  January,  tt  ia 
infinaatconditi«a.  FtBaanfliadefadbandAnJetara 
well  known,  partionlady  in  the  fluuttJah  maiblB. 

HA'DEBSLEBEK,  or  HADSl&LET,  a  town 
of  theOennaa  empire,  in  the  north  of  the  proriBoa 
of  Bbavig-Holatein,  <m  tlie  Hadadeben  Fiotd,  a 
aea,  etoefa^ing  inland  weatward 

the  lAUe  J.'  -   —     ■'  ..     .  ~      . 

He 

edifice.    H.  haa  a  port  , 

py— "•"""  Fop.  (1871)  62Sa  B.,  which  formerly 
beloDAed  to  Denmark,  received  iia  town-righta  from 
Wal&mar  II..iii  1292;  and  here,  in  1448,  Count 
Cbriatian  ot  Oldeoborg  wa«  elected  king  of  Den- 
maik,  and  be^n  tlie  preaent  dyoaa^. 

HA1>BB,  in  Oieek  Hytiiolagy,  waa  the  god  of 
Idle  kwar  w«rid.  more  eommanbr  Q>'>k<ai  of  aa  FInto 
(q.T.);  Ae  nanewaa  alao  aT^Hiedto  hi*  kiogdom, 
t£e  abode  of  &e  dt^iarted  epinte  or  eh  ado*.  See 
OrBXMK  Smiamv,  ako  Sm,vvt  and  H«iJ> 

BADITH  (lometlunB  new,  a  atoiy,  Imnd, 
tale ;  emphatically,  Hadiui  Ar-Raaaul),  tlu  tiadUiana 
about  Mohammed  Qa  Frophet'i  eayinfai  and  doingi, 
which,  a«  a  oomplementaiy  to  tne  Kcran,  form, 
together  with  it^  the  anpreme  autliurity  for  all 
leUgieua  and  l^al  queationa  of  the  H<diammedant. 
Ori^nally,  it  waa  not  allowed  to  commit  then  to 
writduf  (like  the  Hiahnah,  q.v.],  but  the  danger 
of  their  b^ns  antirely  forgotten  in  the  oonise  of 
time,  led  to  their  being  wnttec  down  in  tliB  fint 
centuiiea  after  Mohammed.  Hoee  wlio,  notwitlt. 
standing,  know  them  well  by  heart  are  honoured 
with  the  title  of  Hafiz  (retainer,  keeper).  "^  ~  ~" 
'  lal  Bouroee  for  thes  '  '''' 
tie  dsatb  of  Chadij 
wife ;  Abu  Hnreita,  1^  oonataot  ooiapaiiiou  and 
amrant;  AbdaUah  Ibn  Abbas ;  Abdallah  bun  Omar 
b.  A1-Am;  Djatier  b.  AbdaUah  Anaari;  and  Ana 
b-  Malik.  Tbt  prinoipat  and  moat  aathorttatdve 
ooUaotiona  «l  traditiona  aie  tboae  of  Bocbari, 
M^liy^  Abu  Dhand,  Taiiiiiai.  Niaeai,  M— 1~"  and 
SojntL  Of  theae,  uain,  tli*  moat  iu^orbot  code  i» 
tiuSaltihot  Bochan,  irtio,  it  ia  aaid,  apanl  Bxtaea 
yean  of  hi*  liie  in  taavdli^  throo^  the  len^ 
mill  breadth  of  the  luid  far  the  Borpoee  of  ooUeotuig 
Buch  baditkma,  and  who  nnj^ed  out,  from  a  Dum- 
ber of  60,000,  about  7270  as  alone  geoouia.  This 
code  waa  prilled  Ua  the  first  time  with  oonunen- 
tariea  (Delhi,  1S4S— 1S54J,  of  which  only  three 
oopiea  are  to  be  found  in  Europe — one  it  at  pre- 
eent  in  the  Britioh  Moaenm:  and  another  edition 
(by  KnM,  in  Leyden)  has  been  publiifaed.  See 
SmiiA,  Moauaai),  UoaAiaixaAxiBis. 

HADJI  KHALIPAH,  the  aumame  cf  Muo- 
ui'A-BXH-ABbULLaB,  a  odsbrated  Tuikiah  hiatorian. 


t.LiOogle 


HADLET— HaaiASTATlOa  AMD  HAUADTNAMICS. 


I  bom  &t  CotutuitioD[de  abont  the  end  of 


1622  tUl  1633  he  wu  amployed  ia  the  Turkiih 
anay,  and.  had  an  eicellent  opportuoitj  of  acquiring 
infoimation  t«arding  matten  of  histoiT,  geography, 
Ac,  of  which  he  eagerly  availed  himaelf. 

BL'i  works  are  written  in  Turkish,  Arabic,  and 
Fanian.  Beaides  a  number  of  amaller  worka  on 
geography  and  biitorf,  we  have  the  celebrated 
Aiam  al-tobmb  ve  al-fanmim  (Name*  of  Booki  and 
Sciences),  writtea  in  Arabic,  and  of  which  FlUgel 
has  given  a  tranalation  wiUi  the  text  under  uie 
title  Leaem  Bibliooraphieian  tt  JBneydf^>adieiaii  a 
MuaU^fahen-AbdaliaJi  (Lelp.  lasft— 1808,  T  vols.). 
There  ii  also  a  French  truulation,  by  Petii  de  la 
Croix  (16M— 1706),  which  is  to  ba  aeen  in  MS.  in 
the  Impeml  Library.  In  this  work,  H.  givea  a 
deflnitiOD  of  each  science  and  the  principa]  writers 
on  uuJi;  specifiea  the  title*,  contents,  laogiuige, 
datea  of  compoaition,  and  translatioDS  of  more 
than  26,000  works ;  also  the  nameg  of  the  author* 
and  date*  of  their  death.  It  it  the  most  eompleta 
catslogae  in  eiiitence  of  works  written  in  AAbic, 
Feraian,  and  Turkish;  Tarikh  Ktl^  (Great  His- 
tory), a  histmy  of  the  world  from  the  creation  of 
Adam  to  166fi,  containing  notice*  of  ISO  dniasties, 
principally  Aiiatie ;  also  a  history  of  the  Ottoman 
emiure  fron  1G91  to  1658 ;  and  a  history  of  the 
mwitime  war*  of  the  Turks,  which  has  been 
translated  into  English  (Lond.  1331). 

HADLBT,  John,  an  BnglMh  mathenuticiait,  the 
intimate  friend  of  Newton,  from  whom,  as  is  now 
geneially  supposed,  he  borrowed  the  idea  of  the 
inatniment  called  Hadley'a  Quadrant  (see  Six- 
TaKT).  In  1717,  he  became  a  member  of  the  Boyal 
Society,  before  which  he  read  some  nseful  papers, 
•which  were  afterwards  published  in  their  Transoc- 
.ftons.  The  honour  of  having  invented  the  sextant 
is  claimed  by  their  aupportera  for  H.,  Godfrey,  and 
Newton  ;  for  H.,  because  he  was  the  first  to  coo- 
struct  the  instrument,  and  give  a  description  of 
it,  which  he  did  in  1731,  before  the  Boyal  Socie^ ; 
for  Godfrey,  because,  in  1730,  he  presented  a  gentle- 
man in  Philadelphia,  United  States,  with  a  deecrip- 
tion  of  t^e  instrument  almost  coinciding  with  H.  s, 
which  deocriptioQ  was  transmitted  to  the  Royal 
Socie^  in  1732 ;  and  for  Newtoo,  because  he,  in 
1727,  KJiyB  a  description  of  the  instrument  to  his 
friend  Halley,  who,  tor  some  reason  unknown,  sup- 
^  "     IS  not  till  after  his  death  in  1742 


t,an^it 


of  the  invention,  and  accordingly  each  received  a 
reward  of  £SOa     K  died  16th  February  1744 

HADBIA'NUS,  P.  Msjv^  •  Roman  emperor 
(117— 138  A.l>.),  was  bi^  at  Rome,  24th  January 
70  A.  D.  Daring  the  reign  of  Trajan,  who  was  his 
gnardian,  and  with  whom  he  was  coonected  by 
mairiage  (his  fatlier,  who  was  a  Roman  senator, 
having  manied  the  aunt  of  Trwon),  be  filled  several 
liigh  offices  in  the  state.  He  accompanied  the 
emperor  in  his  wars  against  Decebalus,  where  he 
distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery ;  and  in  117, 
when  Trajan  set  out  on  his  return  to  Italy,  he 
was  left  behind  with  the  army  as  governor  of  the 
provinoo  of  Syria.  When  the  inteuigenco  reached 
Antioeh  that  Trajan  had  died  in  Oilicia  on  his  jour- 
ney home,  H.  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  army, 
August  11,  117  k-v.  The  state  of  the  empire  at 
the  time  was  extrMuely  critical  Insnrrections  had 
broken  out  in  E^pt,  Paleetine,  and  Syria ;  Mcesia 
in  the  East,  and  Mauritania  in  the  West,  were  both 
invaded  by  bartiarian  hordes;  while  the  Parthians 
bad  once  more  asserted  their  indejiendenoc^  and 
won  several  snocc— ce  over  the  imperial  force*,     H., 


perceiving  the  advanta^  of  a  peaceful  policy,  wiaely 
resolved  to   limit  the   boundaries   of   the   Boman   I 
dominion  in  the  East,  and  concloded  a  peaoe  with   I 
the  Parthians,  surrendering  to  them  all  the  country   | 
beyond  the  Euphrates.  In  118,  he  remired  to  Rome  j 
(where  he  had  been  acknowledged  by  the  senate),   j 
established  his  authority  by  liberality  towards  thje 
people,  and  suppressed  with  great  severi^  a  patri- 
cian  conspinicy  against  his  life.       The    Roxolani 
(modem  Ruaaians),  who  had  m&de  an  inroad  into 
Mcnaia,  were  induced  to  retire  by  large  gifts.    In  the 
year  119,  for  the  purpose  of  beooming  acquainted 
with  the  state  of  the  provinces,  he  oommenoed  hii 
celebrated  journey,  which  he   ia  >ud  to  have  per- 
formed chiefly  on  foot.    He  visited  Qanl,  Qermany, 
Britain  (where  he  hnilt  the  famona  wall  extending 
from  the  Solway  to  the  l^ie).  Spain,  Mauritania, 


a  great  predilection. 
After  once  more  vintiog  Syria,  he  retnmed  to  Italy, 
and  spent  the  last  year*  of  his  life  at  Rome  soil 
Tibor.  Daring  the  severe  illness  which  carried 
him  aS,  July  10,  138,  at  BsJ»,  he  was  subject  to 
violent  outburBta  of  cruelty,  to  which,  as  well  Si 
to  jealousy  and  pleunre,  he  was  naturally'  addicted- 
After  the  death  of  Lucius  CeiooioB  Commodni, 
whom  ha  had  adopted  onder  the  name  of  Ludas 
.^ius  Varus,  he  appointed  Titus  Anrelina  (after- 
wards the  emperor  Antoninus  Pius}  his  ■ucceMff. 
Daring  his  reign  tie  array  was  vigorously  disci- 
pltned  and  reorganised,  so  that  the  barbarians  were 
not  likely  to  atbibute  H.'s  conciliating  and  peaceful 
pohcy  to  fear  or  weakness.  As  a  dvil  ruler,  he 
merits  high  praise,  particularly  for  the  just  and 
comprehensive  view  he  appears  to  have  taken  of 
his  duties  a*  a  sovereign.  Henoe  to  him  is  attn- 
buted,  more  than  to  any  other,  the  consoIidatioD  of 
the  monarchical  ayatem  of  Rome.     H.  also  di~''' 


Rome  (the  groundwork  of  the  modem 
oastle  of  St  Angelo),  tiie  .Glian  bridge  leading  to 
it,  and  the  magnificent  villa  at  Tibur.  He  hke- 
wise  laid  the  foundation  of  several  cities,  the  moat 
important  of  which  was  AdrianopoUs,  H  wu  s 
lover  of  the  fine  arts  (in  the  history  of  which, 
a*  well  as  of  jurispmdance,  hia  reign  forms  an 
important  era),  of  poetry,  philosophy,  and  rhetoric, 
all  of  which  ha  attempted.  He  set  a  high  valoe 
on  Greek  literature,  and  likewise  on  the  cnltns  of 
Greece,  and  caused  himself  to  be  initiated  into  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries. 

H.a]MADYHAMO'METBB  (derived  from  the 
Greek  words  }uana,  blood,  dynami*,  force,  and 
mttron,  a  measure)  is  the  name  of  an  instmnient 
devised  about  thirty  yean  ago  by  Poisseville  (or 
detemuning  the  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the  srtenta 
and  veins  of  the  living  body.  The  preaaure  of  tte 
blood  is  measured,  as  in  the  barometer,  by  »* 
column  of  inercaiy  that  it  balancts.    Il>s  mst*"- 


ment  has  been  recently  improved  in  valionf  J™?* 
and  a  contrivance  has  been  added  by  which  t» 
oecillatioos  of  the  mercury  are  insoribea  in  the  lonn 
of  an  undulatinp  curve    On   a    cylinder    madt 


revolve  by  oloo£-work ;  the  hdaht  of  the  nnda- 
lations  denoting  the  prwrnre,  and  tiieir.  brain''''*' 
amplitude  the  Itine. 

h.s:masta'tics  *hd  h^mattna'MICb, 

the  Stottcs  (q.  v.)  wd  Dynamics  (q.  vj  «  we 
blood  (Or.  haima).  See  Blood,  ClBcCuno>  of 
tesBiaoDl 


hyCoogle" 


HJEMATStSESa—'BXtii.TOZOA. 


H.^MATE'H^I3  (Or.  haxma,  blood,  and  emetu, 
vomHiag),  a  rejectioii  of  blood  &om  the  Etonuch, 
oauaJly  ui  oonaequence  of  some  morbid  cbuige  in  ita 
mucous  membrane.  See  ^roiucH,  DrsElSES  or. 
HsnLatemede  is  apt  to  be  mistaken  for  Hiemopty< ' 
careful  attei ' 


(q.  v.),  uuleOB  careful  attention  is  givei 
in  'wbich  the  blood  is  ejected.  The  proper  remediea 
are  th.e  liberal  lue  of  ice  or  of  ice-cold  water ; 
acetate  of  lead,  in  dosea  of  two  to  five  gnum ; 
tannin,  five  to  ten  ffraini  (it  mult  not,  however, 
be  given  with  acetate  of  lead) ;  oil  of  torpentiiie, 
six  to  ten  drops,  repeated  ever^  horn  oc  two.  The 
first  and  the  laat  are  perhaps  the  moat  eSectool 
meaniB,  which  can  be  used  m  oombination.  The 
turpentine  may  be  g^ven  whipped  np  with  tiie 
ivlute  of  an  ^g.  It  muet  be  discontinued  when  the 
■ymptomi  of  oiinaiy  irritatioa  begin  to  appear. 

H.<fi'MATINE,  or  HjEM.ATO'SDfE,  is  the  term 
ujiplied  by  chemiits  to  the  red  colouring  matter  oE 

Btate,it  occnninlolataonintbe  interior  of  the  blood 
cx>Tpiiselea  or  oells :  bat  in  certain  morbid  conditions, 
in  -which  the  blood  undergoes  a  species  of  dacompo- 
sitaon,  it  is  d^osited  in  a  solid  form  in  the  tissnes 
■OTTonnding  the  smaller  Tesaels  throngh  whose  walls 
it  has  peioolated.  It  con  only  be  isolated  in  a  coagu- 
lated form,  in  which  state  it  has  been  sabmitted  to 
aoalysis  by  Mulder,  who  ossigiig  to  it  the  formula 
Ctta,,S,0,Fe.  Its  chief  peculiarity  is,  that  it 
contains  a  compaiatiTely  large  percentage  of  iron 
(veiT  nearly  7  per  cent).  It  is  the  onl^  constituent 
oE  the  body  (if  we  except  the  hair)  wlucih  does  con- 


haima,  blood),   a   mineral 


tain  Uiis  metaL 

HEMATITE    (Or. 


Isox.  There  are  two  principal 
ff.  and  Srwrn  Stmatila.  The  former  frequently 
OCCIU8  in  globolar  and  grape-like  maases,  with  a 
ndiating  fibrous  strnctore.  It  is  sometimee  of  a 
dnU  relish-brown,  tometimea  of  a  briUiant  bluiah- 

Ey  coloor;  the  streak  is  blood-red.  An  earthy 
d  U  called  /ron  froth,  and  consists  almost 
entirely  of  peroxide  of  iron.  Brown  H.  contains 
about  14  per  cent,  of  water.  Ita  colour  ia  generally 
some  shade  of  brown,  soffietbnes  almost  black. 
Different  shades  of  colonr  are  often  presented  in 
concenbic  wavy  bands.  The  suiface  is  often  covered 
with  a  beantifnl  black  vaniisb,  which  is  sometimes 
iridescent  It  is  not  unfreqnently  found  crystallised 
in  riHimbohedric,  prismatic,  or  tabular  crystals.  The 
primarv  form  is  a  right  rhombic  prism.  Both  Red 
H.  and  Brown  BL  are  found  in  Britain,  bat  the 
former  more  abundantly. 

HiBTHATOCELB  (Qr.  hainta,  blood,  and  tlli, 
tomonr),  a  tomonr  containing  blood;  apposed  to 
Hydrocele  (q.  v.). 

IL^HATO'XYLINB  is  a  chromogan  (a  term 
used  by  chemists  to  denote  certain  nearly  or  quite 
colonrleas  BubBtancea  which,  under  certain  influences, 
yield  well-marked  colours)  obtained  from  logwood 
(HiBnataxjilon  CampftuJuanum].  Ita  compoaitioQ  is 
represented  by  the  formula  C,,H,^0,  ,  +  Saq.,  and 
in  ite  pure  state  it  occurs  in  transpantnt  glistening 
etraw-coloored  prisma.  It  haa  a  sweet  and  not 
astringent  taste,  is  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water, 
bat  dissolTes  readily  in  boiling  water,  alcohol,  and 
ether.  The  wateiy  solution  ia  not  affected  by  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  bnt  if  a  rery  small  qoantilT  of 
oia  is  added,  it  aaaumes  an  intensely  reddish 
le  colour. 

ematoiyline  ia  obtained  by  mixing  powdered 
extract  of  logwood  with  quartaose  sand  (to  prerent 

'omeration  into  lamps},  and   C 

for  aereral  days  with  about 


volume  of  eUier.  The  liquid  is  then  distilled  till 
the  residue  assumes  the  oonnstence  of  a  syrup.  If 
this  residue  is  mixed  with  water,  orystals  of  hnma- 
toxylina  are  in  a  few  days  deposited,  which  on 
on  average  weigh  about  one-eighth  of  the  extract 
that  was  employed. 

The  coloQT  reactions  of  this  substance  with  metal- 
lic compounds  are  singular,  and  in  coiuequance  of 
the  tini^rial  power  of  some  of  them,  deserve  a  brief 
notice.  Solution  of  acetate  of  lead  gives  with  one  of 
luematoxyline  a  white  precipitate,  which  speedily 
becomes  blue ;  salts  of  copper  give  a  dirty  greem 
precipitate,  which  also  soon  beoomes  blue ;  ch^rida 
of  barium  produces  a  red  precipitate ;  protoohlorids 
of  tin  gives  a  rose-coloured,  and  iron  slam,  * 
scanty  Uaoki^  predfdtate. 

The  purple  colour  which  the  solution  of  lusma- 
toxylins  Binnmni  if  oxygen  and  """■""'»  are  pre- 
sent, is  due  to  a  deoompositiou,  of  which  a  substuoe 
termed  luBmatdn  is  one  of  the  products;  tlie  — 

pound  resulting  frmn  the  union   "'   "" '■'" 

ammonia  possessing  this  tint. 

The  solution  of  luBmatein-smm 
of  ammonia,  as  some  chemists  have  termed  it]  yields 
coloured  precipitates  with  many  metallic  aalta  ;  with 
acetate  oi  lea(C  it  gives  a  deep  blue,  with  sulphate  of 
coin>er,  a  violet  blue,  with  protochloride  of  tin,  a 
violet,  and  with  iron  alum,  a  black  precipitate. 

It  is  upon  the  various  reactions  which  have  been 
described  in  the  preceding  paragra^  that  the  valua 
of  logwood  as  a  dye  dependa 

H^MAT0Z0;A  (Or.  hama,  blood,  and  zoOn,  a 
living  (mature)  is  Uie  term  applied  by  helmin- 
thologistB  to  the  entozoa  eiisting  in  the  blood.   They 

invertebrate  animals.  Some  of  them  belong  to  the 
Nematoidea,  others  to  the  Trematoidea,  and  others  to 
the  Protozoa.  Most  of  them  are  microscopic,  devoid 
of  generative  organs,  and  exist  in  the  blood,  circn- 
labng  both  in  the  arteries  and  in  the  veins.  A  veiy 
smalT  number  attain  a  considerable  size,  and  are 
provided  with  organs  of  reproduction.  Theee  laraer 
ones  are  generally  found  in  some  definite  part  of  the 

L —  m._.     I 1 jjIJj^ 


entirely  n         

iiuu  leiiuuB  BjFBiicui:   lu  tme  horse,  the 
.  anettrymialiatm  to  the  abdominal  arterial 
d  in  the  porpoise,  the  Psnujoltusjlbim  to 
the  puln;oiiary  artery  and  its  branches. 

Nothing  deSnite  is  known  regarding  the  origin  of 
theseporasites,  but  certain  observations  mode  upon 
the  R.  of  the  frog  by  Valentin  (and  sabeequently 
confirmed  by  Tulpian),  lead  to  the  belief,  that  some 
of  the  more  minute  forms  ore  the  lorvie  of  a  worm 
living  in  the  organs  surrounding  the  vessels.  We 
shall  restrict  our  remarks  to  the  EL  oocnrring  in 
and  the  dog.  By  far  the  most 
aan  H.  is  the  DvUmia  hamatobiuta 
already  mentioned.  It  has  only  been  observed  in 
Egypt,  where  it  is  very  common,  and  where  it  was 
found  by  Orieeinger  117  times  in  363  aatopeiee. 
The  mala,  which  is  the  larger  of  the  two,  is  about 
Aths  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  common  Liver  Fluke 
(J!>.  Afflatimm)  bas,  in  one  instance  at  least,  bean 
found  m  the  interior  of  the  portal  vein.  In  the 
varioQS  cases  in  which  distomate  have  occurred  in 
tumours,  they  must  have  been  conv^ed  to  the 
places  in  which  they  were  found  hv  the  blood. 

In  the  year  166S,  Kuysch  discovered  a  large 
number  of  small  worms  in  a  dilatation  of  the  mesen- 
teric artery  of  a  horse.  Six^  yean  afterwards,  a 
seoond  case  was  noticed,  and  it  is  now  known  that 
are  of  extreme  frequenoy.  These  rer- 
Df  the  abdonunal  orteriw  ocoor  a 


t.GoogIc 


RxukTUBiAj—mra. 


oaeot  tha  Neaatmdek,  Mtd  often  more  than  an  iwsk 
in  lenffth.  It  u  old  hones  that  are  ofakfly  aabcted; 
indeed  they  Ksrcvly  ever  seeta  to  eacape,  for  B*^ 
found  theae  tmnonn  48  tunea  in  the  exanmateik 
of  SO  worn-out  borsea.  Formnch  tot  intarMting 
information  on  this  cnriom  subject,  th«  raador  m 
Tefeired  to  BaTer's  Memoir  in  the  ArdiB.  <U  UttU- 
■  tOTl64£ 


the  naked  eye  an 

collected  by  Davaine  in  hia  TraiU  eU* 
ISee,  the  worm  genenUj  being  a  filaria,  Tha 
mioTOHOoino  larra  m  anematoid  worm  ate  aometiiltiel 
fomid  in  SDramoni  qoaotHiea  dronlatiiig  in  tha  hlood 
of  this  ulimal  From  the  examination  of  the  blood 
of  480  doga,  Omby  and  Delafond  believe  that  L  in 
erery  SO  of  theae  animala  fnuentm  this  ftm^ntitf. 
'  "      '  do*B  the * 


BMBIATU'SIA  (Gr.  Aaima,  blood,  and  otuvn, 
ohne),  the  diacharge  <rf  blood  viUi  the  nrina,  nsoally 
from  diaeaae  of  the  kidneya  oc  bladder.  It  is  rather 
a  aymptom  than  a  diaeaae,  and  takaa  its  chsraoter 
from  the  aaaodated  morbid  eooditions  oF  the  parts 
oraicemed.  It  ia  a  symptom  always  of  some  navrty, 
bnt  not  very  often  directly  fatal  Perhaps  the  b^ 
^meral  ranei^  ia  the  tmctnre  of  the  mariate  of 
iron,  given  In  vatcr  in  dcaea  of  twenty  drops. 

H^UODOBA'CKS,  a  natural  order  of  endo- 
soiouB  plants  oonaiBtizig  of  herbaceona  planta  with 
fibrooB  roo^  and  BW(«d-ah«ped  leavHi ;  diflining 
from  Iridacta  in  habi^  and  in  having  toe  stamena 
six  in  numb^  or  if  only  three,  t^ipoaite  to  the 
petals  Thva  are  aboot  finy  known  nwdea,  ohieBy 
nativei  of  Nortii  and  Snath  Aumiea,  sooth  Africa, 
tha  Maaoaraoe  T.l..w).  uij  Hew  Bollaod.  Some  of 
them  have  beautiftil  fioweia.  A  md  colont  sziBtB  in 
tha  roots  of  lome;  henee  tha  name  Blood-xoot  haa 
bean  gjfwi  to  then.  In  tbia  ordsr  an  tanked  the 
reCinaM  or 'Kee  Lniea. 

HAMOPTTBIS  (Or.  fifnt,  qnttins),  eiBectai^ 
ation  ol  hlood,  a  Tery  signiflcaBt  and  nten  ^nger- 
ona  symptom  of  diaaaie  of  tha  Ini^  or  hear^  in 
aU  eaaea  of  great  importance,  and  requiring  imme- 
diate attantaon,  bnt  apt  to  be  'riewad  pi^pnlatly 
irith  a  aomeiAat  ezaggstated  alann.  It  is  aaldam 
d^«ctly  fataL  It  ia  tatbei  m  an  indicatom  of 
danflsfona  disease,  than  from  its  i»wTw*i<i*ta>  danger. 


digkteat  tinae  of  blood  in  liie  expectoration  fiom 
the  lungL  The  giavi^  of  this  ^r&^tom  d^ends 
▼etyipaah  on  ilj  caose.  The  treatmeat  can  acaro^ 
be  nndortakco  witboot  a  medical  examination ;  bnt 
in  ease  of  extatmi^,  it  may  be  desirable  to  knuw 
that  repeated  doses  of  Ipecacnaoha  (q.  v.),  carried 
even  np  to  the  onelao  effect,  have  ofttm  beat  found 
•nvioeable. 

HJVMOBRHAGB  (6r.  a  bnisting  forth  of 
blood),  a  flns  of  blood  fram  raptured  artsriaa, 
veins,  or  capillaries.    See  BunDDra. 

HJTMOBItHOtDS  (Qr.  flowing  of  blood}.  See 
FnjB,  for  which  disease  hnmorrhoida  is  a  technical 
^nouyuL 

'BMXU9,  UOVOT.    See  Baixam. 

KXBBDITAS  J  A'OENS,  in  Sootoh  Law,  meani 
tfae  hatitaUe  eitats  iriiich  a  deceased  penon  haa 
kf^  aa  it  nmaina  belon  die  Imt  baa  made  up  a 


to  it^  and  when  thanfoie  tha  ptuptsLji  Has  to  a 
liB  extent  in  aheyanoa.  Whoi  a  creditoc  of  tha 
Med  wants  to  noow  hia  debt^  ha  waa  frmnMiy 
coMpcUed  Xfj  a  dieiubiaa  pcoeeas  Stat  to  ocnnpd  taa 
hair  to  cenqileta  hia  tithkor  dadara  hia  tefossl  to 
lb  io ;  bnt  now,  l^  tha  litl«a  to  I^nd  (Scotland) 
&A,  31  and  32  Tuak.  &  101,  be  merely  rataas  an 
action  in  the  nanal  way,  and  obtaiiu  a  deoec  of 
adjndieatto^  ■■dar  i^ch  ha  can  help  Umadf  to 
theprawtr.  ThawpwwwonofifredftaajaMMia 
not  Msd  in  bi^^and,  where  similar  nicetiea  of  feodal 
conveyaading  £itb  long  been  extinob 

nXBXmCO  COMBURSnrDO,  aa  old  writ  ia 


HA^,  a  word  now  obai.    . .  .     . 

rignifies,  m  the  Danish  langnam  Qie  sea,  at 
Bdsable  portion  of  tte  sea.  in  Gobbm,  it 
anlyaat^  propernaoM  of  tiii«a '    '       ~ 

Stettin  Haff  [q.  v.),  the  niachea  Haff  (q. 
Knrisohee  Bt/t  (q.^-).  Haff-fldiing  is  a 
by  Via  inhabitant*  ot  SbsAsad  to  apiify  i 

HAFI2   {oiw  who  knows    the  Koran  and  Xb». 
Traditiona  b*  heart),  MOHainm).  8BAin-AI>-l>n 
(Snn  of   ReUgion),  alao  called  Iabih-aItObud 
(Voiae   erf   Hystery),  an  eminent  Pvsian  dirin^ 
philoBophar,  andgiaiamari«n,»nd  one  of  Ae  grectsrt 
poetical  geninses  of  all  times.    Ha  was  bora  in  tho 
banning  of  the  14th  o.  at  Shiraa,  and  eai^  ^ipljed 
himself  to  tha  pnisnit  of  science  and  Icaniw    ffia    ' 
proficiency  in  various  branches  of  knowledge  braogbt 
him  nndtr  the  noldce  of  tha  then  reigniiu;  Hooee  of 
Mnnffer,  and  ho  waa  not  ooh'  qipoBitad  teadbar  in    : 
the  royal  family,  b«t  a  meoiM  oeOesa  waa  toindsd    . 
for hiin.   His sporit of inaependawe^howsfTer, atoed 
in  the  my  of  hie  woridlj  adrancwawt,  axA  nob-    ' 
withatsodmg  many  offen  of  ftinoe^  fivonr,  ha    ' 
i^nained  darmi  hia  whole    life   in   Iha  ►■"'M-    ' 
conditkm  of  a  turvish.    'Hta  hrodsn  of  hia  pestkal    ' 
oompoaitioDB    is    iar   Ika    moat    part   wnta^    love,    I 

"    alaothepiMBeof  AlbOiaadtheS 


joys;  thimi^  all  of  thsm  thsre  mna,  howersr,  a 
wit^erin;  ecotMMpt  of  bU  wetbaaional  psstr,  bo^- 
hnmility,  and  sanctified  aUwnence  of  ni*  good 
tikinn  ef  this  weHd.  nieaa  poena  aio  of  endi 
ntq&ite  iw««toa**,  UMi  the  poet  haa  alio  twMirad 
the  nania  of  T»c^»gnitb  0Sagariq>> ;  and  hia  eon- 
tempetaiiea  raeak  id  Us  hwvin^  dmnk  bant  the 
fountain  of  lila,  a  dran^  of  whioh  wm  bconght  to 
him,  in  rewatd  tor  hu  untiring  psrawwwaoe  in 
atody,  and  his  power  of  adf-ahnegatioB,  by  Ztkhr 
(the  Hohammsdan  Elijah)  l>i°>>«U-  No  less  remarii- 
able  an  the  aadden  and  akriking  traaritions  in  his 
writiDK^  and  the  readineas  of  wit  whiidt  he  dis- 
played on  seroal  notioeabia  ooeanma  daring  his 

Bafiiwaa  natried,  and  wpean  to  haiveieacheda 
hjppr  old  age.  The  ticoa  oi  his  death  is  imotrtaia, 
tha  dates  being  varionaly  gtven  between  the  yaaia 
791  H.  (I38S  A-s.,  the  date  on  his  tonbslane).  and 
797  H.  (1394  A.D.).  The  enmity,  however,  which 
had  been  provoked  in  the  breaati  ot  tite  asaloan 
daf  mtden  of  religion  \ty  tha  freedmn  of  hii  maanen, 
and  his  more  than  Sn&tie  contempt  fbr  the  outward 
forms  of  godlineas,  broke  ont  undiiffniaedly  at  hia 
deatli.  l£e  ministara  of  reli^on  remaed  to  reptsit 
tha  nsual  prayeia  over  the  dead  body,  and  after 
long  altercations  between  the  members  of  his  fomily 
and  his  enemies,  it  waa  agreed  that  the  question, 
MCOrdiiw  to  tha  usual  custom  of  the  East,  should  be 
decided  by  lot.  The  result  waa  favaorabls ;_  whora- 
npcu  ha  wsa  bnried  wiUi  great  honour.    Kb  tcmib. 


t.Google 


HAft—HAOSdACH. 


attoatad  aboat  two  nika  to  Um  north-eut  of 
Shira^  luw  been  aderiMd  with  tlie  fimiemt  munp- 
tuuustMM  t^  prmOM  and  nobles,  and  la  still  Maorted 
to  tty  pflgnma  &om  all  parti  of  Penia.  It  baa 
been  Tiaited  and  deaeribed  b;  Kiwnrfer,  Fiatca 
didla  Talle.  Chaidm,  Le  Brayn,  Scott  Waring  ~ 
FriLDUin,  Ooaaley,  and  others. 

Bo^r  &r  Bome  <rf  tha  odea  of  H.  are  bond  fiiie  pro- 

aoat  KoaBtiona  natnre,  or  are  intended 

mystical  lanJattMl  of  tiling 

r  of  Snfiam  (q.r,),  at  ia  deoland 


■■  an  aBegoiiB^  a 
<lririne  in  fte  nam 


briUialtt,j 

— ondnlabng  mekxfy  and  cIm 

diiaf  cliai^enitieaof  H.'a  ai 

hwv«  not  onlj  beoooB  the  national  poabj  of 

county,  bnt  are  eren  appealed  to  aa  an  erada  ._ 

nkoai  tsiportattt  <]n«ationa  of  paaca  aad  war.    ^a 

munbo'  of  thair  ooamaBtatora  ia  le^nn ;  the  laoat 

TvloaUenote^  bowarer,  an  thoae  «<  Hbemii, 


at  OalMlta(17Waod  ISM),  at  Boafaw  (tsS 
-        ~ <l«3*andlM0), 


Kaiiiii  Aimri,  aftar  Um  death  of  __ .  , .  __    _ 

ETnlnd  and  printed  editioat  of  H.  have  been 

lUwAatOBknttaflTWaodJ"        "     ' 

— iaB0|,atCh«nponi(1831), 

OoMte»liBeJa  (B41K  **    A 

\ij  H.  BnsdAana  ia  aow  in 

IkiaAioa  at  I^paio.     Of  tnnalationa  in  Earopean 

toBgiHi^wa  B^  mention  Ooee  of  RawitzU  in  Latin 

(VicMa,  1T71>;  RiehardBon,  Jimea,  Ouaeley,  Hindlay, 

Rimaeaaw,  is  Bntfib;   and  by  Eammar-Pqa^lrtaU 

amA'Uvtmm,  iaCltrman 

H  ACl  ( JTycine  or  QoMtrdhrva, 
tn^BOda  i™»jM^  aUted  to  luoi 
laoked  aucng  DemK^twoiia  naliei  by  Owen.  The 
fiabee  of  thia  gteoe  are  of  low  orgaoiiMtion,  and 
miiiiii  to  eonneet  Aahaa  with  cephalopodona  molhiaca. 
Tha  vertebral  cohmm  ia  redooad  to  a  mere  flexible 


B  -ttiBie  any  other  bonea. 


neaa  placed  theae  "'''"»l"  asMnE  the  r«nnML 
'Dm  montB  ia  fonMd  by  a  mere  memtmnoni  ring, 
with  a  aingla  tootii  on  ito  upper  par^  whibt  the 

andalao  pcrfinnu  Ae  offiee  of  a  piston  in  the  naa  of 
dw  nonoi  as  a  meker.  Aroimd  tha  mouth  are 
df^  baAnlea  or  citrhi,  which  hava  bean  reearded 
a  analogm  to  (}ia  tmtaclee  of  the  ontUe-fiB,  and 
on  ^parently  tile  principal  apecial  otgana  of  aenta- 
tion.  Then  are  do  eyca.  There  are  six  sill-bua 
on  e>di  nde,  receinng  etnuna  of  water  &om  the 
ndlet  (amr(^gv»)  by  ae  muy  tebea,  the  water 
being  admitted  to  the  gidlet  by  an  apertote  dtnated 
istfaer  OD  the  left  side,  and  carried  oEf  by  a  oaaal 
iriiich  opetn  about  tite  end  of  the  flrrt  third  of  tike 
IcngtiL  Hm  tail  it  unannded  by  a  nanmr  fin. 
The  ikin  ia  amooth  and  Terj  mictaoQa. — One  Bpeeica, 
the  OLtmirovB  Hio  {M,  ghaiinoaa  or  G.  cmea*),  ia 


Ifae  ooaat  rJ  Norway ,  where  it  ia  m  obj  ect  irf  dialika  to 

thCTbelii       ^    -^  ■' 

.  _ . .       ana  other 
Old  to  pny  Bpon  them  ao  ae  to  rednoe  them  to 


fidieriuea,ai 


fiaheloMuht  in  tl 
n  ae  to  rednee  thei 


■Un  and  akdatoo.  A  fiah  wUcii  haa  bera  thu 
treated  ia  called  a  poUsdjM.  Sz  hi^  have  been 
taken  out  of  a  ain^  haddoak.  Hie  hag  ia  alao 
aatd  to  make  its  way  into  flalMa  throng  tiiair  ■H'tt 
and  ia  tbccefore  aomatiBMa  caked  tiieSm-.    Siana 


aoppoea,  however,  that  kaga  are  awaDowed  by  Ac 
Gahea  on  lAiek  they  afterward  pi^.  Tbedntinoni 
hag  attaiaa  a  li^lh  of  U  to  16  iiMihea,  ai5  anulai 
fioid,  'rti^Boon  taru  into  a  ki   ~ 

*y  of  BDona  \ 

la  luK  oenflnad  in 
itoakindaf  jaUr- 
ia  avaAid  from  latval  poraa 


mtkaown)  baa  been  derivad  bom 
vanooa  room,  and  hae  been  trandated  accoidiug^ 
— 'dander,'  'atrmser,'  and  'fli^t'  (in  aU^oa 
to  her  after-Iifa).  Snah  having  remamed  barren 
np  to  a  v«ry  adTeooed  i^  *l  hut  gare  H.  to 
Abraham,  ten  yean  after  hn  soioum  in  Canaan,  h 


the  hope  of  being  'edified  l^ogh  her,'  L  e.,  eetab> 
liahins  a  bmily  1/t  her  own.  K  bore  Abratiam  a 
son,  whom  he  called  T**""— 1  (Ood  haa  heard),  and 
in  whom  h«  for  a  time  aaw  the  fatnre  ftfber  of  the 
pnwcOT  promised  him.  But  Bizteen  years  later, 
and  when  Abraham  waa  (wa  are  trid)  a  haadred 
^eara  old,  Sarah  herself  bore  laaao;  and  w«  find 


(Qeo.  zxL  9-9)  that  Ateaham  and  Sarah  v«n 
hie  parHiti — ia  aapodiattan,  aoeording  totabbiaiod 
artb(«itia%  of  certain  rumowa  abaart  Isaac's  Qki^ 
timocy,  spread  by  Wapr.  At  last  tha  doiBsaSe 
coatentioDs  that  iiatnrally  arose  lad  Abraham, 
though  relnctantiy,  to  cast  out  H.  together  with 
TjAtiimoI  Eow  the  two  fligitivea  loat  their  way 
in  the  deeert  of  Beersheba;  bow  the  water  in  tiM 
bottle  being  ^pmt,  (be  bnkeu-beaited  motiier  set 
heraelf  at  a  dtstaaes  bosn  her  «liild,  in  Md«r  that 
abe  might  not  see  Us  deaMi;  bow  her  weeping 
and  the  loud  voice  of  tba  bojr  w«r*  answsrad  by  aa 
angel,  who  pointed  ottt  a  well  (Tsmara^  in  tha 
si]^aBiiieof  Hesoa) — dl  tUs  ferma  one  of  tkomoat 

ucfaing  and  well-known  narralivea  of  tike  Bible. 

In  tiie  New  nstamenl,  H.  ia  rsbrred  to  allegorie. 
dly  aa  Homt  Sinai  or  'the  Jerosalem  wUdi  now 
ia'  (QaL  iv.  38).  Soma  rabbinietd  traditions  (Bar. 
S.  fi?  d.)  identify  her  with  Ketarah,  the  second  wife 
of  Abraham,  mentioned  Oea.  xxv.  1 ;  others  (B«r. 
R.  01  d.)  nuke  her  tite  daughter  af  Pharaoh,  iriio, 
seeing  the  miracolona  interference  ob  behalf  of 
AbraMm  in  Egypt,  said :  '  Better  that  my  danghter 
■hould  be  the  slave  of  this  man  than  the  queen  of 
any  other.'  Tha  Hoiuu»medans  look  upon  H.  aa 
the  le^  wife  of  Abraham,  and  Ae  is  mppoeed  to 
'-I  boned  in  Mecca. 

HAGBERBT.  Sa«  BiBiMlHXBnY  and  Ncttlk 
Tsxn. 

H  AOBK,  a  mall  town  of  Fmaria,  in  Westphalia, 
ia  aitaiated  on  tha  Volme,  26  miles  wast  of  Ama- 
berv.  It  oontaia*  several  cluuehes,  and  has  a  poo. 
(1871)  of  13,440,  wbo  oarr^  on  a  oonsiderabla 
iEkdttstir  in  dyeing  and  printing,  and  in  tha  mum- 
^Msture  of  doth  v^  hardware* 

EAOmrBAGH,  Kau,  RuiMnr,  Chrmaa  theo- 
logian, waa  bora,  4th  MacA  1801,  at  Basel,  wher* 
hia  father,  Karl  Fiiadndi  H^Ki^^  author  ti. 
tiie  TentonMn  Fiont  itoatlsHMUt  waa  ■pttAtmat  ut 
anatomy  and  botany.  WMe  at  tits  nauvarstiea 
-'  "onn  and  Bariin,  ba  beeame  anoBMntad  with 
lirection  given  to  theology  by  Sdlleicrmaober; 
and  oB  hia  letom  to-  Basal,  ae  raceived,  fcom  hia 
intenMmrae  iritii  De  Wette,  a  fiiali  ijnpiilse  to  tha 


tyCoogle 


EAOEBSTOWN— HAGOAL 


development  of  his  tbaological  opiniom.  After 
being  an  extraordinary  profeMor,  he  became  ordin- 
ary profesaor  of  theology  in  1828,  becoming  aa 
honorary  doctor  of  theology  in  1830.  He  delivered 
to  pnbho  audienoea  beyo^  tbe  univargiby,  and  bas 
ainoe  pnbliahed  throogli  the  prew,  aeveral  courses 
of  lectures  on  the  fiature  and  History  of  the 
Beformation  ( Waen  u.  Oeteh.  d.  E^ormatUm,  6  Tola. 
18M— 1643;  2d  ed.,  1851— 1S66\  on;  the  Earlj 
History  of  the  Church  {Atllere  Kinhaigetch,,  2( 
ed.,  1867—1863),  and  on  the  Church  HUtory  of  the 
18th  and  19th  Centohea  (Kire/ieage*ch.  d.  18  u.  IS 
JaJirh.,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1866,  ttantUted  into  £ng- 
liab).  His  tabolar  new  i^  the  History  of  Dogmas 
0828),  and  his  compend  of  the  same  department  of 
historical  theology  (MtrbutJt,  d.  Dogmtngesth,,  2 
vols.,  4th  «d.,  18fi7,  translated  into  Bngliah),  are 
liighly  praised.  His  StuyklopHdit  u.  Melhodol/^ie  d. 
Tkeologitchtn  Wwoucno/'Un  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  manuals  for  the  student  of  Oermaa  theology, 
and  its  ^pulority  in  Germany  has  necessitated 
seven  editions.  A  History,  of  Evangelical  Frotea- 
taotism,  several  volumes  of  Sermons,  a  Memorial 
of  De  Wette,  and  a  work  on  Beligious  Education 
in  the  Gymnasia,  have  also  come  from  hia  pen  ;  and 
be  has  given  proof  of  his  poetical  talents  in  two 
small  T(3umes  of  poetry,  and   in  a  collection   of 

Kms  entitled  Liither  u.  Sebis  ZeU. — Of  H.'s 
then,  JoEANN  Jakob  has  gwaed  distinction  as 
an  entomologist,  and  £iiuasd  as  a  physiologisL 

HA'OEBSTOWN,  a  town  in  Maryland,  United 
State*,  America,  66  miles  west-noiiih'WeEt  from 
Baltimora.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  nine 
churcbea,  two  academies,  aeven  newsnaper-offices, 
court-bouse,  town-hall,  almshouse,  and  jail  Pop. 
(1870)  5779. 

HA'OGADA  (Heb.  front  nagad,  hogged,  to  say, 
relate)  is  4^  free,  rabbinical  interpretation  of 
Soriptore^  chiefly  for  homiletdoal  puiposee.  Aa  iti 
name  aignifiea,  Haggada  was  something  '  said'  (not 
'received,'  like  the  authoritative  TTQ.lmK«)  (q.  v.); 
legend,  sag*,  tale,  gnome,  parable,  allegory ;  in  fact, 
p^^try  BlaiDging  up  from  the  saorra  soil,  wild, 
luxuriant,  and  entangled  like  a  primeval  forest. 
On  its  tliree  jprinci^  directions — the  Pahat  or 
hermeneutioal  investigation,  DtmA  or  practical 
application,  and  Lod  or  mystical  illastratLona— wa 
cannot  dwell  hare,  nor  can  we  follow  Zunz's  minute 


Ithieal       _ 

4,  Historical  Haggada  ;  S.  Secret  esoteric  doctrine , 
6.  Special  Hagga^  It  flowed  in  an  uninterrupted 
stream  for  more  tJian  a  thousand  yean — ixsaa  the 
Babylonian  exile  to  Uie  10th  o.  A.  D. — and  its 
innumerable  authors  are  e^er  entorel^  anonymoua 
or  at  beat  pseudonymous.      It  new  mto  immense 


bous.  These  eiUier  followed  the  order  of  the 
Scripture,  and  were  called  after  the  ipedal  biblical 
book  around  which  they  had  woven  their  fabric. 


'e  ocdlections,  originally 


mitcluded  about  1100  A-s.),  oompriung  the  Penta- 
teuch and  the  live  M^iUoth,  and  the  Pesikta 
(about  700  A.  D.),  which  contains  the  mort  complete 
cycle  of  perioopee.     Stnugely  enou^  this  latter 

it  at  an  early  period  (j^nt,  Pesikta,  Babbathi, 
,  fallen  inf 


U4 


s,io.),l 


1  into  oblivion  since  the  ISth  o 


until  Zunz,  in  his  iJie  OottadunML  VortrOfe  der 
Jitden  (Berlin,  1832),  not  only  proved  its  eiutenca 
by  evidence,  but  even  restored  it  out  of  tbe*« 
fragments  and  parallel  paasagea ;  and  about  th« 
same  time,  the  old  MS.,  which  agreed  with  Zimz's 
statements  to  the  minutest  det^a,  was  fooud  by 
Steinscbneider  at  Oxford. 

For  the  general  form  of  Haggada,  ita  language,  ita 
sources,  and  ita  development,  no  leas  than  its  vaafc 
influence  on  Chriatianity  and  Mohammedajiisai,  and. 
its  imKiense  usefulness  for  historical  and  theological 
investigations,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  articles 
MiDKAsa  and  TtiJfnD. 

Haggada  tAd  PeaaA  is  the  name  of  a  ritual, 
partly  in  Hebrew,  pertly  in  Chalde«^  used  on  the 
two  flr«t  ereninga  of  Uie  Paaaover,  which  contain^ 
beaidea  ■  brief  dascription  of  the  exodus,  extracts 
from  the  Scripture^  the  Misluia,  Toaephta,  Ueohilth^ 
Sifri,  and  tlie  two  Talmuds,  and  some  lituipcal 
pieces.  OriginaUy  within  a  very  small  compaaa, 
it  has  been  extended  to  its  present  larger  size  by 
subsequent  centuries.  Two  '  Piutim,'  or  religioua 
poems,  were  added  in  the  11th  c.,  and  four  mcoe 
Hebrew  and  Cbaldee  songs  (the  last  originallf  > 
Grermon  yolitlUd)  as  Ute  aa  the  14th  centiuy. 

HA'GGAI  (Aggaat,  Haggatu),  the  tenth  of  the 
twelve  minor  propbeta,  and  the  first  eA  tlioao 
who  prophesied  in  Faleatine  after  the  Babylosiaa 
captivity.  Of  his  own  hiatory,  nothing  positive  ia 
known.  It  is  related  that  he  waa  bom  in  Babyloit, 
of  priestly  lineage,  and  came  to  Jeruaalem  at  a  very 
early  age.  The  Church  Fathers  suppose  him  to 
have  been  one  of  the  exiles  who  had  returned  with 
Zerubbabel  and  Joshua ;  and  Ewald  infers  from  iL  3, 
tiiat  he  was  one  of  the  few  who  had  seen  the  first 
temple,  in  which  case  he  most  have  been  a  very  old 
man  when  he  composed  his  book.  The  time  of 
his  prophecies,  however,  is  knovm  with  accural 
to  fall  m  the  Gth,  7th,  or  8th  month  of  the  second 
year  of  Darius  HystsajBa  (cf.  Ezra,  v.  1;  vl  14; 
Haggai,  iv.  24)  =  S20  B.C.  Fifteen  years  had  then 
elapsed  since  the  foundations  of  the  new  temple 
had  been  lud ;  but  during  t^e  reign  of  Cambysea 
and  Pseudo-Smerdia,  Qua  work  had  oeen  neglected, 
and  even  the  most  zealous  men  began  to  think  that 
B  of  the  re-establisbment  of  the  sanctnarr 
t  yet  at  hand.  Suddenly,  H  presented. 
before  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua  the  high. 
priest,  and  strongly  urged  the  re-establiahment  of 

the  culpable  neglect  of  the  people,  who  only  thought 
of  their  own  h^xsea,  and  not  of  that  of  God.    Hia 

(L).  l£e  second  disoourte  of  dM 
prophet — about  a  mouth  later^^rediots  a  still  greater 
lory  to  the  new  temple  than  nad  bdonged  to  tha 
mner  ^  3—9).  Two  months  afterwards,  he  bad  ta 
mew  lus  reproaohea  against  their  inertness,  and  hia 
romisea  of  a  blessed  future  (ii.  10 — 19).  Tbe  fauith 
(iL  20—23),  delivered  on  the  tame  day,  is 


prophei^  (i 


shall  remain  a  '  signet '  in  the  hands  of  Ood- 

JewB  and  their  prinoely  leaders  would  not  be 

The  atyle  of  H.  ia  prosaic,  and  labours  under  an 
icommon  tameneaa  and  poraty  of  exprsasitm, 
principally  ai^arent  in  the  frequent  rqMtitioil,  within 
the  abort  space  of  two  chapten,  of  certain  w<ads  and 
phrases,  which  could  not  well  hare  been  puivotdy 
retained  itsr  the  sake  of  ornamentation  (£Sch& 
"'  '  .  a  B9S).  There  is  hardl?  any  parallelism;  bat 
^>rophet  haa  endeavoured  to  impart  a  oartain 
Tivadty  to  hi*  writing  by  means  of  interrogation. 
The  diction  itself  is,  generally  speaking,  puio  and 


tyCiOogle 


HAQHK-HAHNBMAKN. 


Zeduiioh  in  Bome  of  the  micriptiona  of  tlie  Pwlnu 
(127  and  145—148  in  Izz.,  125,  126.  14&-148  in 
Peahito,  111  >Dii  145  ia  Vulg&te),  a  circnmitajiM 
-which  most  point  to  tlis  ezi>tence  of  an  old  ttsdi- 
tion  about  tbole  propheta  faavinff  itriTen  for  tlie 
iv-estsblishioeDt  <A  the  ntuaio  and  iriTiging  of  th« 
'a  the  temple.     Some  cnticB  EuppoBa 


f  Hsggu  to  be  simply 


Boma  lareer  book,  or  a  condensation  of  H.'b  oralljr 
deliTerea  propheoieB.  Bowerer  ttuB  may  be,  they 
have  certainly  not  gained  in  ttrength  by  any  Eocn. 
oomtTeaoon,  at  most  well  hjive  been  preBmned. 


HAQHB,  Loms,  a  weU-knovn  water-colonr 
painter  of  the  preoent  day,  was  bom  in  Belgium  in 
ISO^  but  settled  ia  LondoD  at  an  early  age.  He 
first  aeqnirad  ■  repatation  as  a  lithographer,  his 
moat  Kplandid  lithographic  work  being  Boberta's 
'  Sketclua  in  tiie  Holy  I^d,  Syria,  Idnmea,  Arabia, 
Egypt,  and  Nnbia.'  Not  lea*  mperb  were  his 
liut^npha  of  his  own  drawing!  M  old  Flamish 
interior*.  Snbaeqnently,  he  devoted  himielf  to 
painting  in  water-colonn^  became  a  leading  munber 
of  the  BBsodatioa  formed  to  p^tmota  this  branch 
of  art ;  and  in  the  erhibitiDni  of  thiB  Society,  his 
prodnolJoas  have  always  been  among  the  moet 
attractive.  H.  displayi  a  decided  prMilectdon  for 
the  scenery  and  hiaiaiy  of  hie  native  land.  Among 
hii  pictorea  may  be  mentioned  the  '  Palace  of  Conr- 
tray,'  and  the  '  Audience  Chamber  at  Bmgea,'  which 
are  remarkable  for  their  harmony  of  colonr,  fidelilT 
in  detail,  and  richneaa  of  architecture.  He  obtained 
a  gold  mjedal  at  the  Paris  Bihibitiou  of  1855. 

HAOKyGRAPHA.    See  Biblc 

HAQUE,otThs  HAGUE  (Datch,'«£^awtU<i^), 
the  capital  of  the  Netherlaads,  and  the  residence  of 
the  king,  is  a  pleasantly  sitoated,  well-built  city  in 
South  Holland.  Fop.  (m  18T0)  90,277.  It  is  i^ter- 
(ected  in  all  direotionB  by  conali,  and  shady  avennes 
of  linden-trees,  and  abouads  in  palaces,  public 
bmldings,  and  stately  houses.  B  has  a  good 
pablio  library,  contaiuing  100,000  volumes,  and 
noble  ^alleriea  of  paintings,  the  choicest  of  which, 
containing  some  of  the  moat  urecioos  epecimens 
of  Um  Dutch  school,  ia  in  the  palace  of  the  present 
king.  The  town  contains  14  churches,  the  most  not- 
able of  which  is  that  of.  St  James,  founded  in  1308, 
and  distiiuuiihed  for  its  lofty  hexagonal  tower 
with  a  canliim  of  38  bells.  The  H.  is  the  seat  of  the 
second  chamber  of  the  statee-general,  and  of  various 
tribunals  and  public  officea,  in  one  of  which  are 
deposited  the  Brchiveii  and  state  papers  which  have 
been  pmerred  by  the  republican  and  regal  govern- 
ments of  the  country  for  400  years.  In  a  historical 
point  of  view,  the  most  interesting  buildings  of 
the  H.  are  the  Oevangenpoort,  or  the  priaon  gate- 
house, in  which  Oldenbarnevalt,  the  brothers  De 
Witt,  and  many  others  dlgtingniBbed  in  the  history 
of  Holland,  have  at  different  periods  been  con- 
fined ;  the  Binnenhof,  in  which  the  former  of  these 
patriots  was  executed,  and  which,  together  with 
the  Bnitenhof,  fomui  an  irr^olar  mass  of  public 
buildings  of  various  ages,  enckised  by  moats,  and 
approa^ed  by  drsw-bridgea.  Besidea  the  varioos 
palaces  within  the  H.  itseS,  which  are  appropriated 
to  the  residence  of  different  membera  of  the  royal 
family,  or  ta  the  preservation  of  various  national 
collectionB  of  inteieet,  the  most  notable  of  which  is 
the  Mauritz  Hnis,  containing  a  splendid  collection 
of  pictures  by  the  Dutch  masters,  the  palace 
known  as  't  Hois  in  't  Bosch  (The  House  m  the 
Wood),  which  lies  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  in 
the  midst  of  a  noble  wood,  is  specially  worthy  of 
notice  for  the  fiesaoea  and  other  paintinf^  which  it 
contun*  by  Bnbena,  who,  in  conjuiution  with  several 


I  causeway^ 
nof  theH. 


brewing  distilling  gin,  cabinet-work,  rope-spinning 
mahiuK  leather,  ftc  ;  and  the  nativee  of  Uie  port 
gain  a  livelihood  by  fishing.  In  the  neighbombood. 
are  many  tumdstmie  country-seats ;  and  not  far 
off  are  Kyswick,  celebrated  for  the  treaty  of 
peace  signed  there  in  1697,  and  Schevingenen,  » 
&iToarite  bathing-place  on  the  sea-coast,  wittl 
which  the  H.  is  connected  by  a  broad 
bordered  with  rows  of  trees.  Thi 
ia  very  ancient ;  and  as  far  back  h  >£uv,  n  uuaui. 
Duke  of  EoUaad  and  Emperor  of  Germany,  ereoted 
a  hnntiiig-seat  there,  on  the  site  of  an  older 
residence  of  his  predeoesaors.  In  the  t6th  c,  it  was 
the  seat  of  govemmant  of  the  states-general;  and 
in  Hie  next  century,  it  became  the  birthplace  of 
many  distinguished  members  of  the  House  of  Orange, 
and  amongrb  others,  of  William  TTT.  of  TJinglan^ ; 
while,  as  the  residence  of  the  stadtholders,  it  was 
natonkll^  the  centre  of  the  numerous  important 
negotiabouB  of  European  diplomacy,  with  which 
they  were  associated.  The  H.  is  connected  by  a 
railway  with  Amsterdam,  36  miles  north,  and 
Rotterdam,  13  miles  south. 

HAGITEKAU,  a  town  of  the  German  empire, 
in  the  province  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  ceded  by  tile 
French  m  the  war  of  1B70— I87I,  is  situated  on  th* 
Moder,  18  tnilee  H.H.S.  of  Strasburg.  It  bad  been 
a  free  town  of  Germany  before  it  belonged  to  Franoa 
It  was  founded  in  1164  by  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and, 
as  it  was  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  imperial 
itudKnia,  it  was  stron^y  fordBed.  It  succenfully 
wiustood  many  d^ei^  especially  doriae  the  Thirty 
Years'  War;  but  on  its  occnpation  in  1676  by  the  im- 
lerialists,  its  fortifications  were  destroyed.  On  the 
.7th  Oct  and  22d  Dec.  1793,  bloody  batUes  took  placs 
lere  between  the  French  and  Auatrians,  in  miich 
the  former  were  the  victors.  H.  is  a  place  of  consid- 
erable maDofactaring  industry.    Pop.  (1871)  11,331. 

HAHNEMANN,  SAirexi,  a  celebrated  German 
physician,  was  horn  in  April  1755,  at  Ueissen,  a  small 


IFUrilentchule)  of  Meissen  afforded  him  gratuitonsTy 
all  the  advantages  of  that  institution,  and  he  remained 


be  was  20  years  of  age.  He  then  left 
Meissen,  with  20  crowns  as  his  whole  fortune,  and 
went  to  Leipdc,  to  prosecute  his  medical  studies. 
Here  he  maintained  nimself  by  translating  works 
out  of  Latin,  French,  and  'l'!"gii«'h  into  German.  By 
hii  indosta^  and  fru^Utty,  he  saved  enongh  of  money 
to  enable  him  to  visit  Vienna,  where,  under  the 
direction  of  Dr  QiutiD,  he  pursued  his  studies,  and 
after  various  viciuitudet  of  fortune,  he  returned  to 
Saxoi^,  and  settled  in  Dresden  in  Hm  year  1764. 
Here  he  discovered  a  new  salt  of  mercury,  known 
by  the  name  of  Jf«reurtu4  Solubiiu  Sa/menumni, 
and  still  extensively  employed  by  physicians  in 
"  any.  He  also  publish«l  a  mimiwnph  upon 
ical  poisoning,  which  is  distingoiued  by  inch 
accuracy  of  observation  and  clearness  of  diction  as 
to  be  quoted  with  approval  by  Christison  and  othtl' 
modem  toxicologists.  After  spending  font  yean  in 
Dresden,  where  he  had  for  a  time  the  direction  of  a 
lai;ge  hospital,  he  returned  in  the  year  1789  to 
Ijeipsic  In  the  following  year,  while  translating 
CnUeu'i  Materia  Mtdiai  out  of  tii"giif[*i  into  German, 


dtyLiOOgIC 


HAHN-HAHir— HAIL,  HAIL8T06M. 


took  a 


„_  doM  of  Uut  nili«tute«,  to  MoertMa  Urn 
tha  hwHihT  U)iy.  In  tii«  conn*  ot  a  fco 
dsTB,  ha  ■zpsrieocoa  &•  aynptom*  ^  tgae;  and  it 
then  aGoniT«d  to  bim  that  peiliapa  A»  rw«M*  tn^l 
cmcAcwi  cure*  opw  t(  tteow*  if  Aa«  M«  Mwo-  lajmv 
duc*  tymptomt  in  a  heiUliiy  pen&»  tiwalar  to  thtM  of 
ague.  To  MoertHn  tho  tmtli  of  thii  oonjaotoM,  bja 
ranoMikad  tha  recorda  of  mecbjuie  for  wall-attartod 

cunt  eridMoe  of  tbj^bct,  Ite  adnmoad  a  >tcp  forttwr, 
and  pn^toed  in  an  attielv  pobliihed  in  Ihffiia»tt» 
JniniaJ^intlM7earl797,toajf>l7thia  BflwjKiBi^)* 
to  tiM  cbMoraiy  of  tha  propor  audidiMa  nr  evarjr 
font  ot  diMHe.  Soon  aftenruda,  be  pnbliihad  a 
0M»  to  iUwrttata  hia  mrthod.  It  waa  sna  of  a  *arr 
kind  of  txitia  cored  I7  a  ataoag  doae  of  Fera- 


mina,  to  stre  tiie  fraotton  of  a  dn>p  tr  gnm,  and 

ha  thna  inbodmad  j-'-'-- -■ — ■  ' " 

latir,  ha  upbed  bia  i 


I  laaiiM  a  nlatSra  ot  bar  oiwn ;  bat  tiie  onion 
|a«*iBg  imbantT,  waa  dinolrad  in  1SS9.  "Dm  ladv 
taoAt  dmMoUi&oa  i>  poabj  and  taavel,  and  Tiaitad 
SwflMriand,  Vienna,  Italy,  flpain,  Pnnea,  Swa^ 
and  anaUjr  ^lia  and  tha  EaaL  In  ISSOl  aiA  of 
b«r  naUaa  and  aniatirfash»T  mode  of  lifi^  aba 
— 1 .  B r.^1.  j:,!,^  ,^  t^  j„„  j,j„ 

Of  tbaOideFaf  theOMd 
w  writingi^  rniMMtinn  o( 
.  loiela,  and  -wujagm,  aia  TohnuKm,  and  aM 
gensaUy  uaifcad  by  moibid  aitiineataBtj  and 
ariatoccatia  piajodice.  She  ia  nwialiiim  ekmr,  and 
even  brilliant,  bat  ahf^naopaficBBL  8a«anle<bar 
norela  have  been  tnnalatad  into  Ba^iah. 

HAIL,  HAII.8TOBBL  Ik*  WMd  haO,  w 
J'^gli'l'i  i»nnft>rtmately  naadtodMola  two^iMo- 
laaaw  of  umaMnOy  diBer«d  «iigi&  Tii  fiaaiih  aa 
ban  tha  t^na  orM*  and  0rMI-%  focmr  aliAiA 
ia  Ul  pK^ar;  the  lattw  i*aokm  tha  (bo  omm, 
like  mmO  ^e^  which  <«mi  Ul  i»  wWv,  wadt 
mora  Mial*  in  maaom,  aod  Mnnally  nraaada  mnr. 
The  MUM  of  tiu  brt«ai  aaMa  to  ba  aim^  tha 
&Mrins  rf  Min-dta^  aa  tW  paM  in  V^-^  '-" 
tbrcw|$  a  oaldw  raean  of  air  uum  that  vt 


tlwpeonliartnl*  irf  tbatdk 
in  Cfaioany,  be  propoaed  fa 


mvp!t^(Mtie,  or   mr* 

Fnnn  that  tiBM  hoaa  been  axtinuiTaly  enndi^ed  for 

this  parpoatk    In  tha  year  1810,  ha  pabliahed  hia 

gnat  mM  anlitUd  Oraonon  t^  M«dieine,  which  baa 

Man  tianalated  into  aU  'Eactovaa  langoaffl^ 

ai  into  Anhie.    In  thi*  book  he  fiuly  «^ 

bit  aew  ayaton,  wbkb  ha  tailed  Hoi 

deaoivitiiai  of 

_,._  ^____j»  in  health.     Theae  woAa 

wen  pvUidied  batwean  the  yean  1810  and  18S1, 
-'■  ' '-    -Fb«»  ba  foooded  a  mUtwA,  and  waa 


ilaal^  and  in  doae*  iBSnitely  niinute,  there 
longer  ainr  B««d  of  tha  i^otbecai^ 'a  intwranlion 
batWMB  ue  ^yaidao  and  Um  pafaenfc  In  oonae- 
qiMBee  ot  thN,  tite  ApotiMoaria^  Coi^any  bnra^ 
to  bear  npos  K  an  act  fnrind^ng  ^^aaiaiiB  to 
diapeaae  their  own  nedioineB,  and  wiUi  anob  eSbct 
that  be  wai  ohliKod  to  leave  LeiriBa.  The  Grand 
Doke  of  Anhalt-Ktftben  tnipBaBted  him  Ua  jihvm- 
cian,  and  invited  bim  to  hva  at  Ktttbo.  Tbither, 
accDtdin^,  he  removed  in  tha  ^ear  1821,  and  there 
be  prepued  variona  new  edittoB*  of  bia  Organon 
and  new  volnnue  of  bia  Matrria  Xedtea  for  pabli- 
oation.  Ia  1S35,  he  nutnied  a  geeond  time;  hia  wife 
ma  a  French  lady  of  wrisidFrable  poeitJon  ;  and  in 
the  aama  year  be  left  Katben,  and  aettled  in  Paria, 
where  be  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  till  bii  death, 
which  took  idaoe  in  tbe  ^ear  1843.  On  the 
centenaiy  of  bia  birtb-yeor.  m  18SS.  a  atatoe  waa 
erected  to  bia  hononr  at  Leipaic,  at  tbe  expense 
of  bit  diaeiplea  in  Germany,  Fmuw,  f^Eland,  and 
otbor  eonutriea,  with  tbe  concomnoe  of  the  local 
antboritiea,  lAo  aappHed  tho  aite  in  one  (rf  tira 
publio  plaeea  ia  tbnr  haadaoine  tovm. 

H.  ia  nnivoriially  acknowledged  to  have  diqrfayed 
great  genina,  indnstry,  and  entdition.  Jean  iVnl 
Ricbter  calla  him  'a  prodigy  of  ijhiloaopby  and 
learning.'  He  waa  a  man  of  unblamiabed  parity  of 
morale,  and  hia  Itf^  aa  w^  as  hia  writings,  wae 
characteiiaed  by  atrong  nafaual  piety.  He  left  a 
□nmeiona  family  of  aona  and  dangbtera. 

HAHN-HAHN,  Ida,  Comn^  daughter  ot 
Ettl  Friedrioh,  Connt  von  Hahn,  a  w^-known 
anthoiwo,  waa  bora  at  Tteaaow,  in  MecUenbore' 
Scbwenn,  22d  June  ISM.    At  tJio  age  ot  21,  ahe . 


cnrrenta  of  ur — one  hot  and  iwtwwtod  wiUi  ytfoar, 
the  other  very  cold — ia  rendered  pretty  oectam  by 
ancb  facta  aa  the  following,  A  baiUtorm  ia  gener- 
ally a  merely  local  jdienamenoB,  or  at  moat,  lavan 
a  belt  of  land  of  no  great  TiiaadlTi,  ttiengfa  it  mafba 
of  oonaidwable  Imgtb.  HaiMonn*  oocnr  in  liu 
gnateat  perfection  m  tha  waiveat  aeaiOB,  a&d  at 
tno  wainigat  pecbd  of  tba  day,  and  gtamJir  are 
M(e&    A  & 


<I  hail  nnontl^  pneedM,  aonelniea  aooonpania^ 
and  rai^,  ifeiver,  Mlewa  a  ttnndot-ahowv.  A. 
oommoo  idea,  idiiah  haa  fotmd  it*  way,  a*  many 
popular  preivdiaai  eontinnal^  do,  into  acientifici 


ahow  that  cleetcid^  ud 
MUM  oombiDation  of  canae*. 

When  a  maaa  of  air,  aatorated  with  vHBonr,  riring 
to  a  higher  level,  meeta  a  cold  one,  oiere  ta,  of 
course,  instant  condensation  of  v^cnr  into  ice  hj 
the  cold  doe  to  ezpanaion ;  at  Hie  same  tim^  there 
ia  generally  a  rapid  prodoction  of  aleutricity,  Hm 
effect  of  which  npon  ancb  light  nuBea  aa  anall 
hailatone*  i*  to  give  them  in  general  ra^ad  motdoB 
in  variou*  direebona  anooaaaively.  Theae  motiona 
are  in  addition  to  the  v<Htez  ntotioBB  or  eddie^ 
canaed  in  the  air  by  the  meetiiig  of  the  rinng 
uxd  descending  cnrrenta.  "nie  amall  ice-maaaea 
then  moving  in  all  directiona  impinga  npon  each 
other  Bometimea  with  great  force,  prodndng  that 
peculiar  rattling  sonnd  which  almost  invariably 
precedes  a  hajT-abower.  At  the  aame  time,  by 
a  well-known  property  of  ice  (RlOELinDH),  the 
impinging  mftlTti  are  froien  together ;  and  thia  pro- 
ceaa  oontinnea  ttntil  tbe  vreiBbt  of  the  acoomnlated 
maaa  enables  it  to  overcoBie  Uie  vortioea  and  the  deo- 
trical  attoactiona,  when  it  falla  aa  a  larger  or  amaller 
hailstone.  On  examining  ancb  hailftonea,  which 
may  have  any  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  Ibat  irf  a 
w^ut,  or  even  an  oranKe,  we  at  once  reoogniae  the 
oompcaite  chameter  which  nught  bo  expected  from 
such  a  mode  of  aggregation,  ^ilatooes  are  reported 
to  have  fallen  in  troiucal  conntriee  aometimes  *a 


t.Liodgle" 


EAIMEAUDAXB— HAnt. 


large  SB  a  deep,  ioiii«tiiDefl  u  luce  h  ui  oz,  or 
even  ui  ele^huit !  Bat  it  u  probttUe  that  the 
aggregation  m  theaa  cwel  waa  prodnMd  b;  nige- 
IMmb  at  the  Eorf>c«  of  Uw  earth,  vhoi  ■  aartea  of 
laiffe  laaBsea  had  iiiniwj,nil  on  each  othtr,  having 
ta&a  sucoeanTvl;  on  the  nue  ipob  Whethn^  thia 
Im  the  true  exi^itnattDn  oc  no,  it  ia  certala  th«t  in 
Britiah  Imlia,  at  the  mmnat  acaaon,  hailitonea  have 


their  bJL  A  cmwms  iostuM  of  tiie  fall  of  large 
hail,  or  ntber  ic*-r>«i)«,  oontnred  on  one  of  Rer 
Hajeety'a  ships  off  the  C^  i>  JaMiarj  1860.  Hare 
the  itoDee  woe  the  aixe  of  haU-b>icka,atu  beat  sevMral 
otItecrawofftherignDg,  doing  leBoiiB  iniiuy. 

We  BMV  eoQchidt  bv  a  deacriptiMi  (taken  from 
Mat.  Ha  tAeaiL  dm  Sdmeet,  1790)  of  one  of  lli« 
Bxat  diwtionB  hnbtarma  that  hM  oeanned  id 
Enope  for  maD;  jvtn  bank.  It  tllatttatea  very 
happuy  the  great^  ftat  of  what  we  have  aaid 
aboat  tte  erigu  of  thn  meteor.  Thi*  atom  fmed 
onr  parts  of  HoUaDd  and  VmuM  io  ixHy  178S. 
H  travelled  Mmwtfaneam^  sloig  two  line*  ofiij 
paiaUri— t^  eartWB  oos  had  a  ln-e»iHh  oj  from 
BaX  a  Iea|^  to  five  leognea,  the  weatem  of  from 
three  to  fi^  le^naa.  The  space  between  WM  «iaited 
obIj  bj  heavy  am ;  its  bieadtk  varied  Erem  three 
to  five  and  a  half  let^pMe.  At  the  ontei  bordtt 
of  each,  tkve  wae  alio  hea(vjtau>,  b<dwe  are  not 
toM  bow  lar  it  exteadecL  Hm  gOMcal  dinetaoa 
4rf  the  meteor  was  from  eonth-wrat  to  notth-CMt 
"nie  iaagA  wm  at  least  a  bandred  lewtea ;  bat 
from  o&er  reports,  it  m«7  be  gntbeMd  that  it 
really  extended  to  neari;  two  handled.  It  nemw 
to  have  origimded  near  the  PyreBeaa,  and  to  have 
toavalled  at  a  mean  rate  of  abmit     -  ^    -    --■   - 


half  lewoee  per  traur  towards  the  Baltic,  whfov 
it  -na  tost  eight  ol  The  hul  only  fall  for  about 
■even  aitd  a  half  minutes  a*  any  one  placa  The 
haiktraiee  wen  generally  of  irreKoIar  form,  the 
heaviMt  weired  about  ^it  ¥nmA  ovaoe*.  Thi* 
■tontt  dcrvBstated  lOW  pahihoi  m  Frmto*  afeoe, 
and  an  <tfcial  inqoiry  ued  Hbm  daouun  at  about 
UfiOltfiM  baiMs— neariy  a  milliciBef  En^iik  MMney. 
HAINCBAIiDA'BB,  aa  old  Sootdt  law-term, 
meaning  to  recover  tme's  goods  aod  biii^  tibam 


HATUSUGKKK,  or  HAMESUCKEN,  a  Scotch 
Ittw-tenn,  denoting  the  offence  of  leloiiioaaly  a«anlt- 
■Ug  a  man  in  hii  own  house  or  todzings.  This  was 
an  aggravaticm  of  the  ordinary  o^nce  of  ataault. 
It  waa  not  so  in  England,  where  there  is  no  paenliar 
name  to  diatiogniah  thia  from  other  aseanlbL 

HAIMU'RA  (ErgAnmis  naendon),  a  large  fresh- 
watar  fiah  of  Qoiana,  hi^ily  esteemed  for  the  table- 


It  bsbn^  to  a  imsU  family  of  fiAss,  fryUrnidd, 
ezhibitiDg  relationa  to  tha  herring,  aalmon,  and  oarp 
[amaies.  It  is  semotimea  foor  feet  in  length.  Hie 
teeth  are  hnge,  aad  ao  formidable,  that  inatanoes 
•re  smd  to  have  ooennred  at  a  oaptsred  H.  biting  off 
a  maa'a  band.  Ths  H.  aboonde  partioalarly  in  the 
[ipper  parti  of  the  rivers  of  Oniana. 


HAIIfA'N,  a  Urge  iaUad  in  tb«  China  Sea, 
constituting  a  department  of  the  province  of  Ewang- 
tun^t  is  abont  130  miles  lone  and  100  broad,  and 
is  eeparatad  from  the  mainland  by  a  strait  15 
miles  wide,  filled  with  shoals  and  reefs.  Its  prin- 
cipal city,  Kiung-d^a,  in  20°  7'  N.  Ut.  and  110* 
15'  B,  long.,  is  the  most  Bouthem  of  the  porta  opes 
for  trade.  The  interior  of  the  island  is  mountain- 
ous, and  the  inhabitants  give  but  a  partial  sub- 
mission to  the  Chinese.  The  population  la  about 
-1,900,000.  Its  productions  ore  rice,  sweet  potatoes, 
sugar,  tobacco,  fniits,  timber,  and  wax.  Typhoons 
or  cyclones  are  freqaent  off  tbo  coast  during  the 
summer  months.  Wh^sg  is  pursued  here  with 
success  by  Chineee  fiahenaen. 

HAINADT,  or  HAINAULT  (Ger.  ffeantgau), 
a  frontier  province  of  Bdgiom,  is  bouaded  on  the 
E.  by  the  province  of  .Kaamr,  on  the  N.  by  the 
provinces  of  Brabant  and  Kast  and  West  Flanders, 
and  OQ  the  S,W.  by  Itaiice.  ' 
miles  ;  pop.  (1S70)  SeSJU  1  .  . 
the  north  and  west  of  lat  sad  fniitfnl  plains,  the 
south  is  occupied  by  tte  Forest  of  Ardennes.  TTilU 
occnr  only  in  the  ulatt  tut,  and  consequently  the 
conne  of  most  of  the  riven  ia  tenratd  the  west  and 
north-west  The  ^mcipa)  riven  are  the  Haine 
— from  which  the  piovince  baa  ita  name- 
Scheldt,  the  Dendre,  and  ths  Sambre,  the  lost  a 
tribntary  of  the  Mease.  Tha  soil  is  highly  produo 
tire ;  wheat  and  fl»i  are  very  extensively  grown. 
Excellent  breeds  of  bonieB,  homed  cattle,  ajid  sheep 
ore  reared.  Toward  the  west,  in  the  neighboorhood 
of  Mona,  are  very  extensive  cool-fielda.  There  are 
in  this  district  more  than  200  coal-pits,  from 
which  about  2,000,000  toas  of  coal  are  annually 
expcoted.  Iron  is  alao  prodnoed  in  consideiable 
quantity,  and  narUe,  building  stone,  and  limestone 
are  quarried.  Linen,  porcelain,  and  pens  are  exten- 
sively manufactured. 

HAINAOT,  FsBNCH,  See  the  French  depart- 
ment of  NOKD. 

HATNBUltG,  or  HAIMBUSO,  a  amidl  but  old 
and  interesting  town  of  Austria,  in  tba  a 
of  Lower  Anstiia,  is  aituated  on  the  ri^t  bank  of 
the  Dannbe,  27  oules  east-south-east  of  Vienna,  and 
two  miles  from  the  Hnngarian  ftontier.  It  is 
snnounded  by  old  walls,  pierced  by  two  castellated 
gates,  and  contains  on  imperial  tobacco  factory,  the 
Lrgeat  in  the  oonntiy,  an  institution  for  cadeta,  and 
an  infantry  schooL  Among  its  more  notable  edifices 
oie  the  town-hooae,  with  a  Koman  altar,  a  •■ 


(1869)  4na 

Many  conader  H.  the  ancient  Camunimn,  once  a[ 
important  Roman  Htxongbold,  and  the  station  of  thi 
Danubian  fleet,  and  which  rose  to  its  highest  pros 
parity  during  the  reign  of  M.  Aarebus.  However 
this  may  be,  it  is  certuii  that  considerable  remains 
of  the  fortiiicatians  of  Camuntum  ore  found  in  the 
immediate  vicinity.  A  Reman  aqueduct  still  supplies 
the  market  of  U.  with  water.  In  the  Nibdungaitied, 
the  castle  of  Hainburg  is  called  Heimburc,  the  border 
fortress  of  the  counti?  of  the  Huns.  It  was  forcibly 
torn  from  the  Hungarians  in  1042  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  HI.,  and  afterwards  it  became  a  residence  of 
the  Austrian  princes. 

HAIB,  including  bristles,  wool,  fnr,  &c,  is  a 
modification  of  the  Epidermia  (q.  v.),  and  consista 
esaentially  of  nnoleated  particles.  An  ordinary 
hair  consists  of  a  shfffl  and  a  bulb.  The  shaft 
is  that  part  which  is  folly  formed,  and  projects 
beyond  the  sorfaoa.      It  i"-  " "  '*  -'-'- 


t,  Google 


..e  find  it  rooted  in  a  follicle  in  the  cntia  or  tms 
•Idn,  or  even  in  tha  connectiTe  or  cellolar  tiime 
beneath  it.  This  follicle  ii  bulbous  »t  its  deepest 
part,  like  the  hair  which  it  ooataioB,  tmd  its  aides 
are  lined  with  a  layer  of  cells  coDtinuatui  with  the 
epidermis.  The  layer  (ft)  in  fig.  1,  aocordinff  to  Todd 
and  Bownurn  (PAj/noIag^tcni  AruUomy,  voL  l  p.  417), 
'  resembles  the  cuticle  in  the  rounded  form  of  its 


Icli:  bt  Ujtr  of  vnldvrmlD 
it  Imbtfuud  ctlte.  lonnlnc 
iMhilri  d,  moie  bulkf  Hill 
'  «lli  Id  th*  ul)  et  th«  hiir, 


deep  cells,  and  the  scaly  character  of  the  ; 
superficial  ones,  which  are  here  in  contact  with  the 
outside  of  the  hair  {e).  The  hair  grows  from  the 
bottom  of  the  follicle,  and  the  cells  of  t^e  deepest 
jradooUy  enlarge  as  they  moont  in  the  soft 
bulb  of  Uie  bair,  which  owes  its  size  to  this  circum- 
If  the  bair  is  to  be  coloured,  the  pigment 
oells  are  also  here  developed.  It  frequently  happens 
that  the  cells  in  the  axis  of  tiie  bulb  become  loaded 
with  pigment  at  one  period,  and  not  at  another,  eo 
that,  OS  they  pass  upwards  in  the  abaft,  a  dork 
cenbvl  tract  is  produced,  of  greater  or  less  length, 
and  the  hair  appears  here  and  there  to  bo  tabular  (e). 
The  shaft  is  much  narrower  than  the  bulb,  and  is 
produced  by  tiis  raUier  abrupt  condensatioa  and 
'  ration  into  hard  fibres  of  the  cells,  both  of  those 
3i  contain  pigments  and  those  which  do  not.' 
le  tissue  is  softened  by  acetic  add,  t^ese  fibres 
may  be  readily  seen  under  the 
f  microscope  j  they  seem  to  be  united 
I  into  a  solid  rod  br  ■  material 
\  umilar  to  that  which  cementa  Uie 
I  scales  of  the  cuticle.  The  central 
[  cells,  when  filled  with  [ngment,  have 
less  tendency  to  bec^ne  fibrous 
j^  2,  than  those  lying  more  extemallT ; 
Satfut  or  buDun  '^^  hence  some  writers  have  de- 
biilr,  maiiUM.  scribed  Om  centre  as  a  meduUa,  in 
distinction  from  the  more  fibrous 
part  of  the  shaft,  which  they  term  the  cortta.  (This 
tubulsf  character  is  constuit  in  the  hair  of  many 
ftpjinfl^,  but  is  very  Tsriable  in  human  hair,  and 
even  in  the  same  hair  at  difierent  parta  of  its 
lensth.)  The  term  cortec  or  hark  is  mora  oor- 
recUr  applied  to  the  linKle  ootermoet  layer  of  cells 
which  overlap  one  ano^er,  and  cause  the  siiiuon* 


lines  which  are  at 
under  iiie  microscope. 

In  some  hairs,  espefnallf  those  which  act  as  tactile 
organs  in  some  of  tiie  lower  animals  (as,  for  instance, 
in  the  whiskers  of  the  vorions  cats],  a  true  papilla. 


projectiou  may  often  be  seen  in  hnmaa  hairs. 

Ae  hairs,  like  epidennis,  are  thus  seen  to  ba 
organised,  and  to  maintain  a  vital,  although  not 
usually  a  vascular  connection  with  the  body.  The 
colour  of  hair  seems  to  depend  on  the  presence  of  » 
peculiar  oil,  which  is  of  a  sepia  tint  in  dorfc  hair, 
blood-red  in  red  hair,  and  yellowish  in  fair  hair. 
This  oil  may  be  extracted  by  alcohol  or  ether,  and 
the  hair  is  then  left  of  a  grayish  yellow  tint  The 
chemical  composition  of  hair  elosely  resembles  that 
of  horn,  and  will  be  described  in  the  article  HoBirr 
TisnnB. 

Hut  is  extremely  strong  and  elastic,  and  hence  it> 
uses  for  the  construction  of  fishing-lines,  the  stuffing 
of  cushions,  balls,  &c  Amongst  its  other  pbysicu 
properties,  we  may  mention  that,  when  dry  and 
warm,  it  is  easily  rendered  electrical,  and  that  it  is 
extremely  hygroscopical;  readily  attracting  moisture 
from  the  ahnosphere,  and  no 'doubt  from  the  body 
also,  and  yielding  it  again  by  evaporation  when  the  l 
air  is  dry.  Hairs  elongate  very  considerably  wlLen 
moist — a  property  of  which  Sanssure  availed  him- 
self in  the  constructioa  of  his  hygrometer,  in  whicli  { 
a  human  hair,  by  its  elongation  and  contiactiou, 
according  as  the  atmosphere  is  moist  or  diy,  is  nuule 
to  turn  a  delicate  index.  I 

Hairs  are  found  on  all  ports  of  the  surface  of  the 

soles  of  the  feet ;  they  diSer,  however,  extremely  in 
length,  thickness,  shape,  and  colour,  according  to 
situation,  age,  sex,  oi  race.  The  differenoes  depend- 
ent on  situation,  age,  and  sex,  are  so  obvious  that 
we  shall  pass  them  over  without  notice,  and  proceed 


body,  the 

difierent  races.  The  Mongols,  and  other  northern 
Asiatics  who  are  similar  to  them,  are  noted  for  the 
deficiency  of  their  hair  and  for  scan^  beards,  uid 
the  some  character  is  ascribed  to  all  the  American 
nations  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  among  Hie  Ainot, 
or  in  the  Kunlian  race,  there  are  individuals  who 
have  the  hair  growing  down  the  back,  and  coverina 
nearly  the  whole  body.    The  northern  Asiatics  and 

while  Europeans  have  it  sometimes  stroi^t  and 
flowing,  and  occasionally  curled  and  crisped.  Negroes 
present  eveiy  possible  gradation,  from  a  completely 
crisp,  ot   what  is    termed    woijly  hair,  to  merely 

observation  holds  regarding  the  natives  of  the  islands 
in  the  great  Southern  Ocean.  As  there  is  a  gener- 
ally diffused  opinion  that  the  head  of  the  Afncaa  is 
covered  with  a  species  of  wool  instead  of  with  true 
hair,  we  may  mention  that  all  true  wools  which  have 
been  examined  microecopically  (as  merino  wool,  the 
wool  of  the  tiger,  rabbit,  bear,  seal,  and  wolf-dog, 
which  were  investigated  by  the  late  Mr  Yonatt), 
present  a  more  or  less  sharply  serrated  or  jagged 
surface,  while  hairs  present  merely  on  imbncated 
appearance.  This  characteristic  of  wool  is  shewn  in 
fig.  3,  where  a  represents  a  fibre  of  merino  wool, 
viewed  as  a  transparent,  and  6  as  an  opaqoe  object. 
Hairs  of  a  negro,  of  a  mulatto,  of  Enropeans,  and 
if  some  Abyssmiana,  sent  to  me  (says  Dr  Prichard) 
by  M.  d'Abbadie,  the  celebnted  traveller,  wer«, 
together  with  the  wool  of  a  southdown  sheep,  Tiew«d 
both  as  transparent  and  opaque  bodies.  The  fila- 
ment of  wool  had  aveiy  roi4ih  oiid  itregnlar  surfaM; 


tyCuuyle 


HAm-HAIR-DBE9SINa. 


ti^^  filfnept  of  n^^^a  huTf  whic}!  ma  extreniely 
tmlike  that  of  wool  and  of  nil  the  other  vaxietiea 
mentioned,  had  tha  appevmnce  of  a  cylinder,  and 
UiA  oolooring  matter  wm  appareDtly  muoh  more 


abundant  than  in  tbe  others.'  It  is  is  oonsequence 
of  tbe  above  named  difference  between  hair  and  wool 
that,  although  the  former  will  entangle  to  a  certain 
decree,  it  will  not  felt  into  a  compact  mass,  which  is 
Urn  oliancteristic  property  of  good  wooL 

The  grayness  of^hair  in  advanced  life  lesiilts  from 
»  deScient  secretion  of  pigment.  Well-aathenticated 
cases  ant  on  record  in  which  tbe  hair  has  grown  gray 
or  white  In  a  single  night,  from  the  inSnence  of 
fear,  diatress,  or  any  variety  of  strong  mental  excite- 
ment. It  is  not  easy  to  eipUui  this  phenomenon. 
"VanqneliD  loggested  that  it  might  result  from  the 
■ecretion  at  the  bnlb  of  some  Biud  (perhaps  an  acid], 
-which  pereolatet  the  hair,  and  cheioically  destroys 
the  coloDtinff  matter. 

He  chief  Dse  cf  the  hair,  and  particularly  of 
the  fur  of  Tuioiis  m^tninnln  which  is  especially 
^lereloped  in  the  winter,  is  to  protect  the  body  from 
•zteinal  cold.  Except  on  the  scalp,  and  on  the 
throat,  this  cannot  be  conaidered  as  applying  to  man. 
What,  then,  are  the  usee  of  the  hair  on  the  face,  and 
eepedaUy  on  the  npper  lip  t  We  shall  answer  this 
question  with  an  extract  fratfi  an  article  '  On  the 
Use  of  the  Hair'  in  Tlie  Lancet  for  November  3, 
1S60 :  '  Mr  Chadwick,  who  haa  done  so  much  for 
■y  reform,  tella  na  that  he  was  once  verymudi 
b^  seeing  some  blacksmiths  who  wore  beards, 
with  thrar  moQitaches  diseolonred  by  a  quantity  of 
iron  dnit  which  had  accmnulated  amongst  tke  hairs. 
Taming  it  over  in  his  mind,  it  stmck  him  that  had 


■anitaryreft 
struck  by  at 


it  have  been  otherwise  than  productive  of 
evil  Mnseqaeuces.  He  hence  rightly  advised  that 
the  razor  should  be  discarded  by  labourer*  in  all 
dusty  trades — such  as  millers,  bakers,  masons,  Jkc. ; 
by  workmen  employed  in  grinding  iron  or  steel ; 
and  hy  tmveUen  on  dusty  roads.  In  hot,  landy 
conntnes,  the  use  of  the  beard  is  soon  discovered ; 
and  travellers  in  Syria  and  l^ypt  find  it  necessary 
to  defend  their  mouths  i^ainst  the  entrance  of  tlie 
hot  air  of  the  desert.  Bat  not  a^;ainst  dust  alone  is 
the  facial  hair  a  firotectioa  ;  it  is  the  best  barrier 
against  cold  air,  biting  winds,  and  wheezy  fogs  that 

a   Northman  can  obtain According  to  Mr 

Chadwick,  the  sappers  and  miners  of  the  French 
army,  who  are  remarkable  for  the  size  and  beauty 
of  their  beards,  enjoy  a  special  immunity  against 
bronchial  affections.'  In  corroboration  of^the  last- 
named  fact,  we  may  mention  another  of  a  still 
more  striking  character.  During  the  long-continued 
•earch  for  Franklin's  expedition,  a  transport  vessel. 
the  North  Star,  was  frozen  up  duriM  one  of  the 
severeat  arctic  winters  on  record,  in  Wohrtanholme 
Sound.  The  crew  maintained  their  health  perfectly 
daring  all  tbe  trials  to  which  they  were  eipoeed.  On 
their  return  to  England  in  the  early  summer,  they 
■haved  off  the  hair  that  had  been  growing^  aroand  the 
month  and  throat  for  the  last  eight  or  nme  months, 
and  within  a  week  evrrv  man  was  on  the  sick  list 
wtth  some  form  of  bronchial  or  pulmonary  disoider. 


In  the  '  Hair  Court'  of  the  International  Exhibition 
(IS62),  there  was  a  beantiiul  specimen  of  jet-Uaek 
hair  (Britisli,  we  believe)  measurina  74  inches. 

Cases  occasionally  occur  where  Uiere  ia  an  abnor- 
mal abundance  of  hair  of  considerable  tengtti  in 
women,  on  parts  where  the  hair  is  usually  little 
more  than  dowo.  A  hairy  lady,  named  Julia  Pas- 
trana, supposed  to  be  a  Mexican,  was  some  years  ago 
exhibited  m  London.  Her  embalmed  body  was  ex- 
hibited also  in  that  city  in  1S62,  and  we  extract  the 
ioUowiog  renuuks  from  a  memoir  on  her  in  Tht 
Lancet  for  May  3  of  that  year .-  '  The  ears,  and  all 
parts  of  the  face  except  the  eyes,  were  covered  with 
Hair  of  different  lengths.  The  beard  was  tolerably 
thick,  the  hairs  oomnosing  it  being  itcaigbt,  bhkck,  and 
bristly,  the  part  of  it  which  grew  on  the  sides  of  the 
chin  hanging  down  like  two  plaits.  .  .  .  The  npper 
portion  m  the  back  of  the  neck  and  the  hinder  sur- 
face of  tbe  ears,  were  covered  with  hairs.  On  the 
shoulders  and  legs,  the  hairs  were  as  abundant  as 
they  are  occasional^  seen  on  veiy  powerful  men.' 

Dr  Chowne  has  deacribed  similar  but  lees  marked 
cases  of  hairy  women  in  The  Lancet  for  1S43. 

HAIR-DBB8SINQ.  As  a  matter  of  convenience, 
as  well  as  of  taste  and  fashion,  the  dresaing  of  fie 
hair  has  received  much  attention  in  all  civilised 
nations,  ancient  and  modem.    The  growth  of  hair 
on  the  sides  and  lower  part  of  tbe  male  face  haa 
caused  some  perplexity  m  management,  and  as  a 
method  of  overcoming  the  difficulty,  shaving  has 
been  resorted  to.  although  at  the  sacrifice  of  what 
nature  gives  to  distinguiah  the  male  from  the  female 
countenance,  and  also  to  proteot  the  respiratory 
organs.    See  BEAJts.    The  Jews,  by  their  scriptun^ 
law,  were  enjoined  not   to  shave.     The  Romans 
shaved,  and  bo  did  their  immediate  sncceasots,  the 
Bomanised  Britons.    The  Saxons  and  Danes  did  not 
shave,  and  wore  long  hair.    The  Nonuans  shaved, 
but  thcry,  too,  adopted  long  hair  as  a  fashion ;  and 
from    them,  and   the   more    modem   French,  the 
conrtien  and  cavaliers  of  the  17^  c  adopted  the 
practice  of  wearing  those  Sowing  'love-locks'  which 
excited  the  ire  of  tjie  Puritans.      It  was,  however, 
in  the  management  of  ladies'  hair,  that  the  art  of 
the  professional   hair-dreaser  was  in  those   tiniei 
mainly  exercised.     In    the   18th   c,  through  the 
influence  of  French  fashions, 
the  dressing  of   hur,  n^iale 
and  female,  rose  to  a  great 
pitoh  .  of  extravagance  and 
folly.    The  hair  of  a  lady  of 
fashion  was  frizzed   up  in 
convolutions  and  coils,  de- 
corated with  ribbons,  jewels, 
and  feathers,  and  filled  with 

SDmatam  and  powder  to  a 
agree  perfectly  monstrous. 
The  adjoining  figure   repre- 
sents one  of  those  extraor- 
dinary   head-dresses.       As 
women  of  leas  exalted  rank 
slavishly  attempted  to  follow 
absurdities,  the  bnsi-   . 
of  dressing   hair  was 
extensively  followed.      The  y^^j^  buwsh'i  melt  Art 
cost  of  B  full  dreeaing  being,      o/ Bair-Jruiing,  I'Sl. 
however,    too    high   to    be 

lightly  incurred,  ofteu  one  dressing  was  made  to 

ffice  for  a  week  or  fortnight,  during  which  period 

ch  care  was  taken  to  preserve  the  greasy  fabtic 

[disturbed,  tliat  it  became  the  resort  of  insects, 

and  how  to  eitinguisb  these  odious  peste  was  in 

itoelt  a  matter  of  serious  concern.    From  pressure 

frequently  happened  that^  prerioDS  to 


t.LiOogk 


HAIR  DTES-HAIB  HANUFACTUEES. 


ballfl,  lodiea'  bur  had  to  be  drawnd  me  or  two  dkys 
in  BdvkDoe;  aad  to  keep  the  head-dreu  uiiiiijiiTad, 
the  lady  ut  in  a  diair  perhi^  two  niglita,  initead 
of  eoing  to  bed.  The  wtiter  of  thii  hu  conTtned 
wiu  •  l>dy  who  m  thi*  nuumm  ut  up  one  ni^ 
for  Uw  wke  of  iuc  Body  powdered  ana  frixnd-nip 
hair.  A  tozalian  OB  halT-powder,  aloDg  with  tbe 
nmplifioatioD  of  fMhk—  cooMquent  on  the  E^ench 
revolution,  itot  onlr  oroelled  uiir-powdar  and  per- 
TaqnM,  hut  bron^t  the  pttttmion  of  hiir^lreaBer 
within  reasonable  bonndi.  Aa  regards  ladke'  hair, 
fadiioB  i*  oonataotly  altering ;  aiM  at  praecat  the 
chignon,  ooDMttdng  a  ouahioDa  at  the  back  or  top  of 
tbe  head,  and  oovered  wilii  bur,  is  gndually  giving 
w^  to  a  iy«tem  of  ooila  and  idaita.  With  reapeot 
to  men'a  bur,  abort  euttinjg  it  bow  nniTcrsal,  and 
any  indnlgenoe  in  long  luur  bebind  ia  Chouoiht  to 
mark  a  degree  of  aloTenlima  or  whinwicuity  of 
fancy.  Punned  m  an  ordinan  biuineM  in  Skigiuid 
and  eonliDeotal  i  couDtriea,  bair4reaailig  in  the 
Unitad  Statea  ia  entiidy  reoigned  to  men  of  oolonr, 
--'  in  oonncolion  with  many  of  the  hotela  they  an 


.  tar  uDgoant 
aanctioiMd  ity  tiadition,  aM  injorioua.      In  otdinai^ 
'   Bcea,  ngolar  but  not  vitdent  laodii^  a 
I  for  — — *-i-:-(r  iiliiiiilimaa  and  iiliMiiiiiM 


pnferaUefa 
Wh«Q  the  b 


tt  remova,  let  the  f  oUowiag  effioa- 
aoaa  ana  anque  ntathod  M  parifioatim  ba  adopted. 
Bm*  op  an  eg^  and  nb  it  win  in  all  over  tbe  bead ; 
Uian  pour  ortr  it  warn  watw,  wbicb,  Virile  removing 
tbe^,  will  Ukewiae  cany  away  all  tbe  acnrf;  laitly, 
diytboroii^y  withadotk  The  bead  nu^  be  hang 
over  a  anuul  tab  during  tbe  piooeaa.  After  Hua,  Uie 
hair  will  be  very  dean,  and  will  take  on  a  fine  ^oaa 
with  a  bmah.    On  »  ''     ' 

dttD  the  head,  f  or  th 
of  *li*  hair,  and  after  wl  fai 
KAIR  DTBR  Variona 
for  cbanging  the  natoial  colonr  of  the  Lair 
more  favound,  coe,  and  for  hiding  liie  q>proaobe«  of 
Boe,  aa  indicated  by  the  praaenoe  of  giay  haira. 
Tueae  naually  conaiit  in  waahing  the  hair  with  a 
solution  of  Bome  metallic  aalt  known  to  have  the 
effect  of  darkeoiug  its  coloar.  llieae  an  the  aalta 
or  ozidea  of  utver,  mercury,  lead,  andUmuth.  Tbe 
meet  perfect  mode  of  dj«ing  Uie  hair,  howerw,  ia 
that  of  previously  prepuing  it  by  a  ocmplate  soak- 
ing with  a  aolutioa  oC  sulphide  cf  potanium ;  the 
B^Dgtb  of  this  solution  mnat  depend  va  tbe  dmtii 
of  tint  intended  to  be  given ;  tiie  atrouger  the  soln- 
tioD,  the  daiker  tiie  oidonr  wiU  be.  When  thoron^Oly 
wetted,  Uie  hair  ia  allowed  to  dry  partially ;  and 
whilst  still  damp,  it  is  to  be  uam  thoroo^ily 
wetted  vith  a  somtdou  of  nitrate  m  ailirar,  also  ih«- 
pcwtionedin  strength  by  theaamemlessinthe  oaae 
of  tbe  Boktiou  first  applied.  This  makeq  a  wry 
lent  dye,  which  vtij  nqnirea  renewingas 
w  KFowtb  of  hair  beooiMa  oonspionaus.  Tbe 
I  of  dyong  the  hair  is  v«iy  aneisBt,  and  bdonp 
BB  much  to  aavue  as  to  dvilised  nations;  but  in 
tbe  caae  of  the  fnlncr,  v<^^ble  dyea  have  beai 
duefly  naed;  and  tbe  ladiea  of  Guna  and  other 
eaatem  oountriea  alao  Ksort  to  tbe  same ;  tbe  inioe 
of  tbe  petals  of  Hibiscus  l^ionnm,  the  Kaddcr- 
Eetmia,  and  probably  other  apeciea  of  Hibiacoa,  ia 
in  gsnenJ  nae  with  tbtm. 

Tht  detection  of  stained  bur  is  sontetinet  an 
object  of  medico-legal  inveatigation.  Lead  nu^  be 
detected  by  boiling  tbe  hair  in  dilute  nttrio  acid,  and 
thai  applying  tbe  tcato  for  I«ad  (q.  v.)  to  tlM  acid 


BidBlian ;  lAile  tbe  pRMoae  of  ailver  nay  be  Bbewm 

and  submitted  to  the  ordinary  testa  for  Silver  (q. 

HAIB  GRASS  (-^im),  a  genua  d  gnmat, 
having  loosely  paoioled  flowers,  and  two  unequal 
glnmea  oontuning  two  perfect  fioreta,  eadi  witJi 
two  thin  membimnouB  palen,  of  which  the  outer  ia 
generally  awned  near  tbe  base.  Hie  spedea  are 
natives  of  temperate  and  cold  climates.  A  number 
of  them  are  nativea  of  Britain,  some  of  which  are 
of  vary  humble  growth,  and  are  chiefly  found  in 
moors,  aandy  poitursa,  and  other  aituationa  where 
the  BoU  ia  unfertile.  The  TtrFrm  S.,  or  Toen 
E.  {A.  empiU)»a),  comnum  in  better  pantnras  and 
mesdowa,  ia  a  beantifQl  graaa  when  in  ftower,  bat 
forma  coarse  tufts;  has  vary  m     '   '  "  ' 

if  drawn  roughly  sioroea  tbe  hsi 

able  wounds,  vWoe  the  i^ant 

tbe  name  irf  '  Cutting  Qiass.'  It  is  wjectsd  W 
cattle,  if  other  herbage  is  witUn  tbair  readt.  It 
attains  a  bei^t  of  2— (  feet,  and  is  somelames  (Bed 
for  tbstoliing  rii^  of  hay  or  oom,  and  ia  some 


drainiiw.  It  ia  aomelamea 
to  the  bulk  of  Bog  Hag  in  mooridk  nonnd^ 
carefully  extirpated  wherever  agricutonl  im], 
ment  takea  place.  For  ita  extirpation,  drunage  is 
reqniaite  above  all  things ;  bnt  the  '*'cr"g  cat  of 
the  tnfts  is  alao  praotiBed,  and  othv  giaaaet  am 
sown  instead,  niia  naaa  ia,  howwer,  aanatinaa 
Bown  to  form  oover  Tor  ^me,  partieuariy  lures ; 
and  in  marshy  situationa,  for  anipea  and  wild  towL 
It  ia  tbe  iaindle*rat  of  the  Sootoh.— Allied  to  the 
genus  Atra  is  Oatabrota  (q.  v.). 

HAIB  HAjnTFAOTUREa  These  ooanst  of 
fakiea  woven  or  felted  of  various  kinds  si  har: 
bnidMB  made  *d  partioular  kindia  of   hair;    aad 

Bxtoaaiwdy  aaed 
for  oovaring  ttw  seata  at  cbairs,  ooocbsa,  ana  oth» 

of  bonea'  taila.  Aa  tbe  bair  is  of  n<^  varioas 
oolonr^  it  ia  naosaaaiy  to  dye  all  the  daikar  riadas 
so  sa  to  prodaoe  a  nnifonn  glean  Uaok  j  this  is 

done  1^  logwood  and  saliiliMe  of  inr    ' * 

in  the  foUinring  manner.     The  hair  a 
eleansad  snd  deprived  of  ita  aisasi  by  i 
lime-wster  for  a  day  i  it  is  Uoi  taaaal 
dye-vat,  irtudi  ia  tbaa  pr^aiedfor  a  bandr*dv(S|^ 
otbair.    Snffiaicait  water  to  fill  a  boilar  f * 


Fossa  Fabri/x.—'OtB   uaat    i 


■risMsasi^h 
60  lbs.  <rf  DBt 


in  aStb-w^er, 


red  from  the  lime-water,  and  well  wsahed 

is  immaned  iait 

.  ud  wain  WBabed, 

i^i,  dried,  and  abaksn 


fOT  24  boais ;  it  ia  then  removed,  and 
•nperflnons  i^i,  dr' 
.    Psriaetly  whits 


to  tree  it  from  the 

out  ready  for 

be  dyed  variom  colonia,  and  is  well  adapted  so 

receive  tbe  htightst  Ottes,  bsnoa  it  baa  ba^  miNh 

i1  iif  Istn  j'nais  tn  prnlnrn  nrnaniiiiilal  bail  iliitlai. 

which  ate  nt  great  reqaeat  abroad,  eandally  in 
South  Amerioa.  Hm  weavii^  of  binaiiltaii  doth 
is  difiertait  from  that  of  otMr  tiHBM,  in  ooaaa 
quenos  <d  tbe  riurtaeaa  of  the  hair,  wbiA,  for  tbe 
same  reason,  osn  onfy  be  used  for  the  w^  ^wsnt 
in  tbe  op«n  or  move  dlotb  wbioh  ia  only  made 
in  saall  aqnsres  fee  the  aisve-aakers.  Eaok  hair 
has  to  be  worked  sangly,  and  tbe  loan  reqnirea 
two  psrsom  to  work  it.     Ibe  wup  aaad  ia  *<ker 


t.Google 


HAIR  UANUFAC3UBES. 


wuiuUd,  a«ttak,  n  linta  yam,  gtoerally  the  Uat 
Xba  ham  fv  the  mA  an  kcfit  wet  by  tbe  >(d« 
of  tfae  ««««(,  and  m«  handed  to  him  one  by  ooa. 

a  kind  of  hook  at  lite  and  of 


ic,  tb»  liook  oatrhing  a  knot  tied  by  tbe 
t  child  who   huad^   the  hair*      In  othtf 


^ , weavuig  dvSen  little  in  ita  genanJ 

■"*'"*^'°'  from  that  ordinarily  enployed  for  other 
fal^ica.  When  the  web  ■■  ooupletea,  it  ii  dmsed  by 
caleuderiiu^  whicli  gives  it  a  awDoUi  and  gloaay 
auiface.  U  ij  to  be  regretted  that  the  popular  taate 
in  Great  Britain  doea  not  turn  to  Qie  ornamental 
kioda,  irhich  are  not  only  very  beaatifnl,  bat  are 
dimble  and  eaaily  cleaned.  The  troe  crinoline 
cloth,  for  ladiea'  dr—BB,  Ac, 


r  Aloe 
t  for  most  porpotea, 
bonneta,  for  which 
it  ii*  largely  employed  both  »■  a  material  for  the 
bodr  of  the  btHuwt  and  alao  ai  a  trimming,  The 
ba^  in  dinoline  trimming  in  Switierlaad  and 
F^anoa  ia  large,  and  oonaiderable  qnantitiea  are 
impcsted  into  BritMn.    HoTse-hair  i«  twisted  into 

way,  in  Anatolia  and  Ronmetia ;  and  oow-hair 
ia  worked  up  into  a  ron^  y^"^  and  ii  woven 
into  caipeta  m  Oezmany ;  and  in  Norway  is  made 

employed  in  China;  and  omoi^Bt  the  natives  of  the 
Hndaon'a  Bay  tenitoriea,  A»^  hair  i*  Died  tor  the 
mmepnrpcMh  Tha  goat'ahair  of  Tibet  and  Penia, 
wd  the  owaeTa  hair  nnd  in  weavii^t  belm^  TtJiac 
to  Uw  bna  woola,  aad  will  he  b«ated  of  under  Wool. 
•n»  diflenaoa  Iwliiean  kaff  and  wool  depiada 
dually  npcD  tbe  0eatv  or  kM  ■nooUmeM  01  the 
Bvr&oe  4k  each  fibffi%  Ivttce  the  haira  vAidh  are 
■mnntlwt  OMBot  e^^  be  fehad,  for  if  tn^N^ht  mto 
contiBtlfcey  hare  no  projegtmna  erf  Ute  Kiifaoe  to 

■ome  of  the  hain  proper,  by  a  little  preparation, 
may  be  ao  rouf^iened  aa  to  fit  them  Cor  felting. 
""  wool,  or  the  h^  o£  rabbit"  and  haree, 

'".a  tolotian  of  nitrate  of 

_._,, .._  ..  .       .  andsnuMtJi  character  in 

diyiDg,  and  i*  then  reaouly  felted. 

The  ahortei  kinda  of  hoiae-haii  from  the  nianel 
and  tula,  aleo  cow-hur  and  the  softer  kinda  of  pig- 
hair,  are  twiated  into  ropea,  which,  after  being  boiled 
and  then  thtnonghly  dried  in  an  o*ea,  are  polled  to 
piacta.  The  hair  retuna  the  twiot  given  it,  and  ia 
then  naed  for  atnffing  aeata  of  chain,  Ac 

BnuiM  ^Aair  are  of  variona  kindi  1  aome  are  mode 
of  the  stiff  hain  from  the  backa  of  pigs,  and  othen 
are  made  of  the  aofC  hairs  of  the  camel  and  other 
«"'■"»<■  The  haira  for  the  fiiat  kind  are  called 
briatlea  (see  BBiBn.is).  which  conatitnte  an  important 
trade  with  tor«ign  oonnfaiea.  They  are  chiefly  used 
in  the  manDfactore  of  iuur  and  dothea  bmahea, 
tooth  aad  nail  bnulMi,  konae-aweeDins  brooma.  the 
lumr  kinda  oC  painter^  brashes, 

kina  an  dhiedy  ttn^oyed  in  the 

the  fine  bmahea  or  hair-pe«rila  naed  by  painter* 
and  artists.  The  best  bnatles  come  frtttn  Bossia. 
BesLdes  the  camel,  baira  are  yielded  for  this  pnr- 
pose  by  the  badger,  sable,  goat,  dog,  Ike  In  both 
caaee,  tiie  sorting  of  the  hairs  into  i^^ha  ia  a  vei^ 
' — —"-ut  and  tronblewnne  matter.  Oenerally,  it 
br  placing  the  hain  in  wuJl  base*  (with 

B  tin  ^waid),  Miffideutly  deep  to  ke^  thei 

ri^t;    and  ue    sorter   then,  with  nioe   e; 


Thai,  coney  w 

if  p 


important  and  tronblCH 
a  done  b;  plaeing  the 

the  tin  vpi 

npd^t;    ai 

and  nand,  > 

longest,  * 


t  all  Ui< 


of  the  hain 
difficult  Client 
fftti  uiactiassi  ia  MeoMssry.    Semal 


have  been  made,  in  Buina  and  in  this  coontry, 
to  sort  brtEtles  by  machinery,  and  one  person  has 
snooeedsd  in  doing  so  with  a  rode  wooden  machine. 
But  the  really  sucocasfnl  mannfactun  of  a  machine 
whksh  can  be  madegenoally  availably  belongs 
apparently  to  Hr  WT  S.  Yates  of  Leeds,  who 
ezbibited  in  the  International  Exhibition  (1862) 
a  maohine  of  great  beauty  and  simplicity,  wfaich 
— ._  :_i.  .._  --  -|  ai^  with  great  rapidity. 
requirad  to  have  the  bristlee 


Uoat  hair-bmahee 


of  those  which  are  called  aitiBts'  and  painten' 
pencils,  tiieir  valne  consista  in  having  a  One  point, 
BO  that  the  selection  of  the  haira  aO  ai  to  insnre 

selecting  ■ 

pincenbeing  employed  to  bold  each  cut  of  hairs, 
whilst  the  knife  or  shean  severs  than  from  the 
akin.  They  are  then  placed  in  smaU  idtaUow  titt 
boxes,  with  the  tips  npwardj  andtiieboxb«ingott*- 
fully  shaken,  and  gently  struck  on  the  bottton  onttl 
tiw  hain  have  completely  anuged  theaiadvse  in 
an  vprieht  pootion,  they  sn  ttau  ucksd  ont,  m 
bef  on  ^scriW ;  tmA  sue  isiilBoed  tnr  itsslt;  and 
the  bmshmsker,  aoooiding  to  (fas  kind  ot  peiKril  bs 
is  Buying,  takes  the  proper  nae,  and  wpamiiig  a 
■nffleiait  nnniber,  tiiey  are  pbued  vioi^t  in  ano&w 
little  tin  box,  bat  now  with  tbe  root-end  of  the 
hain  nppamast,  so  as  to  iuanie  the  tips  bemg 
perfectly  even,  whidi  ii  fartiier  iosnred  oy  gently 
t^iptngtheboxasbefne.  KnetiiTeadisthoBkMiied 
rMnd  tlie  base  of  the  little  bundle  of  hain,  and 


tims  made ;  and  the  bradLBOweo  te  oon^dned,  only 
requires  its  handle  of  qnm  or  wood,  aoeording  to  its 
size  and  character.  Amsti^  pencil*  being  of  tmiow 
sizes,  and  many  extoemdy  smaD,  semnd  kjods  cf 
qnills  are  Teqo^ed.  These  an  obtnned  from  serenl 
btid%  SI  tiie  swan,  ffocae,  dnck,  fold,  piMon,  li^ 
wing,  and  ecen  sack  small  ones  a*  tie  laik  and 
thrnsh.  Previous  to  leoeiving  the  bmsh,  'Bie  quills, 
beeideB  b«ang  cnt  to  the  reqnired  lengths,  hav«  to 
be  further  prvpared  by  soaking  in  water,  to  prerait 
tiiem  splitting,  sa  the  thick  end  t£  like  brash  i* 
being  rushed  down  from  the  wider  to  the  narrowo' 
end.  lliey  also  contract  somewhat  in  drying,  and 
conaeqnently  hold  tiie  bradi  veir  tightly. 

Onttonemtal  i/otr-uiart  consists  chiefly  of  the 
human  hair  plaited  into  chains,  guards,  Ac,  or 
wtn-ked  up  into  various  other  fanciful  devices,  as 
souvenirs,  ftc  Under  this  head  we  may  also  men- 
tion those  manufactnres  of  Uie  hnman  hair  whicli 


clasi  belong  the  trig,  the  front,  and  otiwr  imitatiims 
of  the  natiml  covering  of  the  human  head ;  and  to 
t^  latter,  a  variety  (rt  oontrivaDce*,  irtteee  myste- 
are  only  known  tr  *— *^- '  i-a-— • 


a  barbsn  ud  ladis*' 


In  the  prcimt  day,  the  gnat  object  ia^  in  the  first 
nlaos,  as  fsz  as  possible,  to  imitate  nature,  and 
decdva  the  eye ;  and  secondly,  to  produce  wigs  of 
extreme  lightiusi — a  full-siaea  ponke  rarely  being 
more  than  two  or  three  onnoes  in  weight.  A  full 
head  of  hair,  from  a  yonng  woiaan's  head,  will 
soDietimsB  woigh  five  or  six  ounces.  There  are  two 
head*  of  hair  in  the  South  Eenaington  Mnaeotn, 
which  are  in  the  raw  state  as  inqiorted,  and  weigh 
toseUnr  11^  omicea. 
TbiB  ehicf  portion  of  the  hair  used  in  Great  Britain 


t.LiOogle 


HAIR-FOWDEB— HAIBS. 


H  t«c«iv«d  throncb  Ft«iic1i  dealeri,  who  collect  it 
fiom  HaU&nd  and  Qemuiiy,  aa  wall  as  bom  the 
vuioiu  depurtmentt  of  their  own  coQiitry. 
light  colours  &re  uguall;  obtained  from  the  former 
countries,  and  the  dark  shades  from  Brittany.  Thie 
does  not  arise  from  the  circumstance  that  these 
countri«a  yield  the  finest  heads  of  hair,  but  becanse 
the  poverty  of  the  people  causes  ita  sale  to  be  a 
matter  of  miportance,  and  the  peculiar  fashions  of 
the  country  heod-dreasea  render  its  loss  of  less 
consequence. 

The  wholesale  price  of  long  hair  ia  from  30t.  to 
400(.  per  lb.,  and  tbe  peasants  of  France  ah 
anpply  20,000  lbs.,  of  the  value  of  £40,000.  1 
avarage  import,  during  four  years  from  France, 
was  14,000  lbs.,  of  the  value  of  £2S,00a  Besides 
the  imports  from  France,  which  chiefly  compriBe 
the  darker  colours,  a  considerable  quantity  i 
from  Qermany.  usually  of  light  shades. 
HAIR-POWDER,  a  pure  white  powder,  made 

from  pulTeriaed  starch,  soented  with  violet  or 

other  perfome,  and  at  one  time  largely  uaei 
powdermg  over  the  head.  The  strange  fashion  of 
dang  hair-powder  is  said  to  have  originated  from 
some  of  the  ballad-singers  at  the  fair  of  St  Germain, 
in  EVance,  whitening  their  heads,  to  render  them- 
selves more  attractive.  Introduced  into  Great 
Britain,  the  fashion  became  universal  among  the 
Iiigher  and  middle  classes,  and  bv  ladies  as  well  as 
gentlemen.  To  make  the  powder  hold,  the  hair 
was  usnally  greased  with  pomade,  and  accordingly 
the  fashion  was  extremely  troublesome.  An  act  of 
poiiiament  fixed  that  the  fine  dust  of  which  the 
powder  was  composed  should  be  made  from  starch 
alone ;  and  we  learn  from  the  QentUman't  Magazine, 
that  on  November  20,  17«,  fifty-one  barbers  w 
convicted  before  the  Commissioners  of  Eicise 
London,  and  fined  £20  each,  for  having  in  their  keep- 
ing hair-powder  not  mode  of  starch,  contnuy  to  act 
of  parliament ;  and  on  the  27th  of  the  same  month, 
forty-nine  others  were  fined,  for  tbe  like  offence,  in 
the  same  penalty.  In  17S5,  a  tax  of  a  niinea 
{afterwards  £1,  3^  &d.)  was  put  on  the  use  of  hur- 
powder,  and  at  one  time  yielded  £20,000  per  annum, 
bnt  it  had  the  effect  of  causing  hair-powder  to  fall 
into  general  distissi.  The  French  revolution,  which 
overtarned  so  many  institations,  coatribat«d  also  to 
the  people  of  Europe  retnrning  to  natural  and  on- 
powdered  hair.  When  gentlemen  first  left  off  hair- 
powder  with  queues,  they  were  considered  very 
nntaahionable ;  and  the  custom  of  having  the  hair  cat 
4dl0tt,  whioh  is  qnitfl  aniversol  at  present,  was  then 
deeiued  vulgar.  At  the  present  day,  powder  con- 
tinaes  to  be  used  by  some  of  the  footmen  of  tbe 
Dobili^  and  higher  ranks  as  part  of  their  livery ; 
and  occasionally,  at  public  or  private  baU  coatumis, 
ladies  and  gentlemen  stQl  appear  with  tbeir  heads 

powdered.    Ths  tax  on  hair-powder  was  done  i 

vith  nnder  32  and  33  Vict,  c  14,  the  act  n 
aubstituted  a  system  of  eioise  licences  for  tbe  former 
mode  of  collecting  assessed  taxes.  At  tbe  time  (^ 
its  abolition,  it  was  paid  by  about  SOD  persons,  and 
yidded  a  revenue  of  about  £1000  a  year. 
HAIR-SPRING.  See  BaiAMCB-SPRitia. 
HAIR-TAIL  (TWcAiurus),  a  genus  of  aconthop- 
tereuB  fishes,  which,  on  account  of  their  compressed 
and  very  elongated  form,  have  been  classed  in  the 
liibbon-fish  funily,  bat  are  otherwise  allied  to  the 
mackerel,  tunny,  Ac,  and  are  therefore,  in  recent 
^ystematia  works,  referred  to  the  family  Scomiierida. 
The  doi«al  fin  extends  along  the  whole  back,  and 
is  ([dny  throughout ;  there  are  no  ventral  fins, 
no  MUd  fin,  and  no  tail  fin,  the  toil  ending  in  a 
•ingle  dongated  filament  One  speoies,  the  StLvntT 
H.  (T.  (eptunu),  sometimes  called  tbe  Blade-fish,  is 


foond  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  has  been  cast  en 
the  shores  of  Britain,  bnt  is  more  common  in  warmer 
regions.  It  ia  called  Sabre-fish  in  Cuba.  It  some- 
times attains  a  length  of  twelve  feet.  Ita  flesli  ia 
good. — An  Eaat  Indian  species,  the  Savaia  (?'. 
Savaia),  is  much  esteemed  for  food,  and  commonly 
sold  in  the  markets  of  India. 

HAIR3,  in  Botany,  ore  very  different  from  the 

sideiable  general  resemblance,  and  the  same  purpose 


Hg.  2.  —Hairs  of  Plants. 

Dobedhilrot  AllamuUiara  Aill1>r<i-IW  dli: 

r   from   the    ind  or  AcwEliodliun   Si^ol 


dludflw 

I  cold  and 
I  also  to  be 


tyCOOglC 


HAJDUE— HAKE. 


-tfami.  They  axe  prodnced  by  no  apecial  orgui 
■judDcom  to  the  hnlba  from  which  the  halt*  of 
""'"■■I"  grow,  but  are  composed  of  cellular  tiame, 
«rue  from  the  epidermia,  &nd  ue  covered  with 
e^^eaeioiiB  of  the  cntiola  Some  hain  oonaiat  of  » 
aingla  eloDRBted  cell ;  lome  of  aererol  cells  .placed 
eii<l  to  end.  The  gradatioiu  are  quite  iadefinite 
between  the  moat  efongated  hain  and  the  mere 
Tvaxta  or  nigoaitiea  which  often  appear  od  the 
mrface  of  plasta.  In  like  nuwiner,  haicB  paaa  ioto 
briatla  (>dal  and  prickles  (ocuJei},  which  are  merely 
•troiiser  and  harder  hain ;  bat  apinea  or  tbonu  are 
totel^  different,  arising  from  the  wood  of  the  atem 
or  faFntnch.  Hain  are  Tcry  often  connected  with 
giandt,  which  are  cella  or  clnaten  of  cells,  pro- 
dndne  secretiaiu ;  haira  often  ariae  from  ^nds, 
and.  &en  generally  serve  as  dncta  throuf^  which 
the  eecretioa  may  pass ;  but  haira  also  irften  bear 
Klanda  at  their  apei.  Stinging  hairs,  aa  in  NettleA, 
Iioa^aa,  and.  some  Malpightat  (see  these  heads),  are 
docta,  with  veDODt'Secrsting  glanda  at  their  base. 

ELA.'JDUK  (in  ancient  Latin  docuotenta,  Haj- 
tUme^i  ia  the  name  for  the  population  of  a  free 
distzict  called  Hajdn  Kerlllet,  in  the  emrtem  part 
of  SiiDgaiy.  The  H.  are  direct  deicendants  of 
tihoae  wanjors,  who,  during  the  Ions  and  bloody 
contest  between  the  Hoose  of  Hapabnrg  and  the 
Protestant  insnigents  of  Hungary,  formed  the 
nucleaa  of  Prince  Stephen  Bocakaya  valiant  armica. 
The  H.  enjoyed  privil^ea  of  nobility,  and  immu- 
oitiea  from  tazatioD  ever  since  1606,  m  which  year 
the  'whole  tract  of  land  they  are  in  posaession  of 
to  the  present  day  vraa  ^ven  them  by  the  above- 
named  mnnificent  prince.  Kotwithstanding  repeated 
»ttempta  made  by  the  Austrian  govemmant  against 
their  priviXeges,  the  H.  retained  the  peculiar  org&n- 
iaatioD  of  ^eir  diatriet,  until  after  the  diaastroua 
iBau«  of  the  straggle  in  1848—1340,  when  they 
were  reduced  to  tae  same  level  with  the  so-called 
hereditaiy  provinces  of  the  empire.  At  the  dawn  of 
the  Reformatioa,  the  H.  were  amone  the  fint  to 
adopt  Calvin's  doctrines  (designated  dutins  a  long 
period  'the  Hun^iian  Ful£,'  in  opposition  to 
Luther,  whose  foUowen  were  chieSy  among  the 
Slaves  of  Upper  Himgary).  The  H.  are  umost 
exdnravely  addicted  to  agticnltnre,  and  with  the 
■implitnty  of  mAimeiH  unite  all  the  qualities  which 
diatmguished  their  aacectorn.  Their  total  number 
amonnls  to  70,000,  fanning  sii '  towns.'  The  pohtical 
chief  of  the  district  bean  the  title  of  Captain. 

HAJILIJ,  or  BITO-TEEE  (SalanOm^g^pUtKa), 
a  tree  of  the  oatnn^  order  Ami/ridaixrx,  a  nattva 
of  Egypt  and  of  Central  Africa,  cultivated  for  its 
fruit,  a  drupe,  which  is  edible,  and  from  the  seeds 
of  which  a  lized  oil  is  expressed,  called  ZoeAun. 
So  much  is  this  tree  valued  in  Central  Africa,  that 
there  is  a  common  proverb  to  the  effect  that  a  milch 
cow  and  a  bito-tree  are  the  soma.  (Barth>  TraveU.) 
HAJJ  (HAJI,  HAOOB),  (Heb.  Sag.  one  of 
the  three  festivala  appointed  to  the  Jews  for  the 
porpoae  of  pilgtimage  to  Jerusalem),  Arab,  pilgrini- 
age,  empbabculy,  pUgtimage  to  the  Kaaba  (q.  v.)  or 
temple  of  Mecca,  which  every  MohammedBO,  male 
or  female,  nhoae  theans  and  health  permit,  ia  boond 
to  perionn,  once  at  least  in  his  life,  otherwise, 
'be  or  ahe  might  as  well  die  a  Jew  or  a  Chris- 
tian.' Mohammed,  ^tet  many  fruitleaa  attempts  to 
abolish  altogether  the  old  custom  of  pilgiimAge — 
prevalent  amoitg  most  peoples  in  ancient,  and  some 
even  in  modem  times,  ana  perhapa  uising  from  an 
innate,  instinctive,  travelling  propensity,  but  is  not 
unfrequently  fianght  wiili  mischievous  consequences 

_ ipeUod  finally  to  confiim  it,  only  talcing 

ul  its  idohitrouB  rites,  and  to  destroy  the 


great ni 


t  idols  aroond  Mecca.    The 


12th  inoQtli  of  the  Mohammedan  year,  the  Dsol 
Hajjeh,  is  the  time  fixed  for  the  cdebrstion  of  the 
aolemnitieB,  and  l^e  pilgrims  have  to  set  out  for 
their  journey  one  or  two  month*  before  (in  Shawftl 
or  Dhulkada),  according  to  the  respective  distances 
they  have  to  traverse.  They  first  aasemble  at 
certain  varionfly  appcinted  places  near  Mecca,  in 
the  beginning  of  the'holy  moDtit,  and  the  com- 
mencement n  the  rites  is  made  by  the  male  pilgrima 
here  first  pnttingon  tiie  Ihitm  or  sacred  Eabit, 
which  conauts  of  two  woollen  wrappers — one  arciund 
their  middle,  the  other  around  their  shoutden ; 
their  head  remains  bare,  and  their  slinpen  must 
neither  cover  the  heel  nor  the  instep.  It  u>  enjoined 
that  the  pilgrims,  while  they  wear  this  dreas,  should 
be  particularly  careful  to  bring  their  woiils  and 
thoii^ts  into  harmony  with  ^e  sancti^  of  the 
territory  they  now  tread,  a  territory  in  wmch  even 
the  life  of  «.nimaT«  is  to  be  held  sacred  Irtaa  any 


e  temple,  and  begii 


noly  rites  there 
ST  where  the 


ronnd  the  Eaaba,  starting  from  the  < 
black  atone  ia  fixed  (Tawat).  This 
lowed  by  the  Sai,  or  running,  likewise  performed  first 
slowly,  then  quickly,  between  the  two  mounts  SaSl 
and  Merwa,  where,  before  Mohammed's  time,  the 
two  idols  Asaf  and  Nayelah  had  been  worahipped. 
The  next  rite  takea  place  on  the  lunth  of  the  Dhul- 
hajja,  and  consists  in  the  Wukuf  or  standing  in 
■pnyer  on  the  monntain  of  Arafat,  near  Mecca, 
till  sunset.  The  whole  of  the  anoceeding  night  is 
Bpeat  in  holy  devotions  at  Mosdalifa,  between 
Arafat  and  I£na.  The  next  morning,  by  daybreak, 
the  pilgrims  visit  the  Masher-al-Haram,  the  saci«d 
n^onnment  (a  place  where  the  Prophet  stood  so  long 
in  prayer  that  his  face  began  to  shine),  and  then 
proceed  to  the  valley  of  Mirra,  where  they  threw 
seven  (or  seventy)  atones  at  three  pIllMs,  for  the 
purpose  of  pnttine  the  devil  to  fiight  The  pilgrim- 
age ia  completed  with  the  slaughtering  oT  the 
sacrifices  on  the  sune  day  and  in  tlie  same  nUce. 
The  sacrifice  over,  they  shave  their  heads  and  cut 
their  naila,  burying  the  latter  on  the  aame  spot. 
They  then  take  leave  of  the  Eaaba,  and,  taking 
with  them  aame  aacred  aouveairs,  such  as  dust  from 
the  Prophet's  tomb,  water  from  the  well  Zemzem, 
&c,  they  proceed  to  their  homes.  The  return  of 
the  holy  caravans  is  watched  everywhere  witii  the 
most  intense  anxiety,  and  ia  celebrated  with  great 
pomp  and  rejoicings.  Henceforth,  the  mlgrim  never 
oini&  to  prefix  the  proud  name  of  Hajji  to  his 
name.  It  is  permitted  that  those  who,  tiuvugh 
bodily  infirmity,  are  incapacitated  from  performing 
the  holy  journey  themselves,  rosy  send  a  substitnte, 
who  acts  as  their  representative  in  almost  every 
respect,  but  this  substitnte  has  no  share  whatever 
in  the  merita  and  rewards  belongiog  to  the  Hajj. 

HAE£1  {AferluiAu),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  ood 
family  {Gadida),  having  a  flattened  h^d,  an 
elongated  body,  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  tin  first 


Hake  (ifcrisriui  rulffarii). 

is  abort,  and  tiie  aeoond  Terr  long,  one  very  long 
anal  fin,  and  the  monUi  destatote  c^  barbels.  One 
species,  the  Cokmok  H.  {if.  vulgarit),  is  foond  in 
the  British  seas,  in  thoae  of  the  north  of  Eiu«p«^ 
and  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  ia  aometimn  thiM 
1« 

UintizodhyGOOgll. 


TTAITTM  BEN  ALLAH— HAKODADL 


or  four  feet  in  lenfth ;  and  it  of  ■ 
gnyuh  OB  the  book.    It  U  ft  w] 


a,  whituh  oolour, 

Serouriiig  ^re»t  niuoben  of  hemoga  uid  pilchards ; 
heiica  it  ii  freqaentlj^  called  the  Horiag  Hake. 
[t  is  a  OOUM  (i*l> ;  its  fieili  white  and  Oaky ; 
bat  it  ii  impoitant  h  an  article  of  humui  food  and 
of  commerce )  being  aalted  and  dried  in  the  aame 
maQDer  ta  cod  aod  line,  ia  common  with  which  it 
reoeivea  in  thii  Btatfl  t£e  aame  of  tbxk-JUh.  It  ii 
genarally  taken  b;  line*,  like  ood  and  lino.  In  the 
l^wning  Baaion,  when  it  keep*  near  the  bottom,  it 
il  gometunei  canght  by  trawl-aeta.— Otber  ipeoiea 
of  H.  an  found  in  high  laatheni  latatodea. 

HAKIU  BEN  ALLAH,  oi  BBN  HASHEM, 
called  Hokanna  (the  Veiled),  or  Sagende  Nah 
ndoan-maker),  the  founder  of  an  Arabia  leat  who 
flnt  appeared  in  the  8th  c,  during  the  reign  of 
Maham,  tlie  third  Abauidian  cali^  at  Neuheb, 
or  Mern  in  Khoraeaan.  H.  ii  said  to  have  com- 
menced his  eitnordinaiy  career  aa  a  common 
■oldier,  but  to  have  toon  been  promoted  to  a 
captaincy,  and  ftnally  to  have  put  hinuelf  at  the 
head  of  a  band  of  bii  own.  In  a  fight,  an  arrow 
pierced  one  of  hit  eyea,  and  in  order  to  hide  thii 
deformity,  he  henceforth  cooitantly  wore  a  veil,  a 
habit  attriboted  by  other  writeri  {Rhondemir,  ^) 
to  a  desire  to  conceal  hia  extraordinarj  uglineai — 
by  hia  own  foUowere,  however,  to  the  neoeeeity  of 
ahrooding  the  da^ljng  r»ya  which  iuued  from  his 
divine  countenance  from  tbe  eye  of  the  beholder. 
H.  let  himself  ap  as  Ood.  He  had  first,  he  aaid, 
asaomed  the  body  of  Adam,  then  that  of  Noah,  and 
subsequently  of  many  other  wise  and  great  men. 
The  lut  homan  form  he  pretended  to  have  adopted 
waa  titat  of  Aba  Moslem,  a  prince  of  Khorassan. 
Thabarf  sees  in  tbis  idea  of  metempaychoaia  the 
Jewish  notion  of  the  Sbekinah — the  divinity 
rastiug  on  aome  one  choten  person  or  place— and 
concludes  that  H.  may  have  been  a  Jew.  He 
appears  to  have  been  well  versed  in  the  art  of 
legstdemun  and  'natural  maoic,'  principally  aa 
regards  producing  startling  effects  of  light  and 
coloar.  Among  other  miracles,  he  for  a  whole 
week,  to  the  great  delight  and  bewilderment  of  hia 
soldiers,  caused  a  moon  or  moons  to  issue  from  a 
deep  wdl ;  and  so  brilliant  was  the  appearance  of 
these  luminaries,  that  the   real   moon   quite  dis- 


Soltan  Mahadl  marched  against  him,  and  after  a 
long  siege  took  the  last  stronghold  in  which  he 
had  fortified  himself,  together  with  the  remnant 
of  his  army.  H,  however,  having  first  poisoned 
hil  soldiers  with  the  wine  of  a  oanque^  threw 
himf'f  into  a  Tcsael  filled  with  a  burning  acid  of 
such  a  nature  that  his  body  was  entirely  dissolved, 
and  nothing  remained  but  a  few  hairs :  in  order 
titat  the  faiSifDl  m^t  believs  him  to  have  ascended 
to  heaven  alive.  Soma  remnants  of  his  sect  still 
exist,  and  their  outward  distinguishing  badge  is  the 
white  gatb,  which  they  wear  in  memory  of  the  white 
garb  worn  by  their  divinity,  aa  a  aouiding  token 
of  opposition  to  fhe  black  colour  adopted  by  tiie 
Absasidian  califa.  H  has  fumished  the  sabject  of 
many  romances,  of  which  the  one  contained  in  Moore's 
Laiia  Sookh  is  the  most  brilliant  and  best  known. 

HAKLUTT,  or  HACKLXJYT,  Eighabd,  an 
Ibigliah  author,  was  bom  in  1SS3.  While  at  West- 
mister  8<:iuwl  he  eagerly  pemsed  naTrativea  of 
voyage*  and  travels,  and  continoed  this  coarse  at 
CbrirtM^hurch,  Oxford,  whither  be  proceeded  in 
167&  Being  appointed  leotarar  on  geographj"  ~~ 
■^     '     that  nniwnity,  he  int--^       ' 


use   of   globe*   and  other  geo^phical  ^ipliaaMS 
into  En^ish  schools.    PriTats  individuala,  «•  welt 


Paris,   where   1 


in  French  and  aftcrws .  ._. 

expense.    On  his  return  to  En^siid,  with  t^ 

ance  of  Sir  Walter  Baleigb,  no  began  to  collect 
materiala  for  the  history  of  the  disoovsries  made 

researches,  in  notioea  of  more  than  300  voyagea, 
under  tiie  title  Prinapai  iTavigatioiii,  Fofagm, 
Tru^qutt,  and  Discoveries  ef  lAs  fuUsA  Kabtm, 
(Lend.  1689;  new  edit,  d  vols.  Land.  1809— 
isi2).  Oovemment  rewarded  him  by  bestowing 
upon  him  a  prebeod  in  Weatminster  Abbey,  and  a 
Lvin^  in  Suffolk.  A  work  entitled  A  Se&iUm  qf 
Ciirwut,  Sort,  and  Earig  Yova^  amd  HUloriei  qf 
Interttiitig  Diteatmie*,  &o.,  cbiafly  published  bjf 
H,  or  at  hi*  laggeetion,  but  not  inxJnded  in  his 
celebrated  compUaSon  [4te,  Loud.  181S),  form*  a 
Bupplemeat  to  tiie  above  work*.  He  died  in  1610, 
and  WIS  buried  in  Westmin«ter  Abbey,  H.*i 
unpnbli«hed  mannsoripts  were  made  use  of  by 
PuJiihas  in  his  PilgrijTv.  An  island  in  Baffin's  Bay 
led  after  bim  by  Bylot,  and  a  promontory 


Its  object  is  the  publication  of  all  the  bistories  of 
the  earlier  voyage*  and  trsvels, 

HAKODA'fil,  or  HAKODATE;  the  most 
northern  of  the  opened  ports  of  Japan,  situated  in 
41-  40'  N.  lab,  and  141°  Iff  E.  bn(^  The  town 
ttretchea  three  miles  along  the  base  i»  ft  lofty  pro- 
montory, which  Juts  out  int«  the  strait  of  ITzagar, 
from  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Yesso. 
It  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  low  allavial 
isthmus,  and  separated  from  the  mountainous  region 
'■'  the  north  by  a  pUin  bordered  by  an  amphitheab* 


of  hills. 
Mateun    ' 


%  pUiQ  bordered  by  an  amphitheao* 
.  adjacent  scenery  is  striking  and 
closely  resembling  that  of  Gibraltar, 
-L  to  the  Tycoon  by  the  Prince  of 
loi  in  1894  It  waa  then  a  poor  fishing- 
but  has  now  become  a  place  of  impcstanco. 
The  houaes  are  of  a  single  stoiy,  fragile  wooden 
building*  with  single  rooia,  which  are  retained  in 
their  pGu;e*  by  cobble  stones.  Cach  hoose  ha*  on 
its  roof  a  tub  filled  with  water  for  use  in  case  of 
fire.  The  streete  are  between  30  and  40  feet  wide, 
clean,  well  drained,  and  macadamised.  In  June 
1809,  after  the  rerolation,  the  Mikado's  forces 
attacked  H.,  which  wm  ocenpled  by  the  nbd^  and 
a  great  part  of  Hn  town  was  laid  in  aahss.  Coo- 
sidering  the  latitude  of  H.,  its  dimate  ii  MTsni,  and 
dorine  its  winter  season  the  thennometer  has  been 
fcundto  indicate  18*  below xwo.  The  obssrvalions 
of  1S99  moke  it*  tummer  very  nearly  oomapond  to 


of  rain, 

brought  up  from  the  Facifio  by  the  south-east  win^ 
Quickly  deluge  the  reoentlv  anow-dennded  grmind, 
H.  ia  said  not  to  be  healtny,  and  yc*  kngevity  ia 
frequent  The  harbour  ia  one  oi  tbe  finest  and 
largest  in  the  world,  but  difflenU  <d  aooess.  It  is 
divided  into  ao  oat^  and  on  innes  hariianr.  By 
article  three  «(  the  Treaty  of  Yedo  {Angust  2^ 
1808),  H  was,  togetiwr  with  Eanagowa  and  N*ga> 
*aki,  opened  to  forsipi  ooaimeroe  from  the  1st  July 
1SS9.  It  maintains  oommeraal  inteicuiuss  with  aU 
the  large  porta  of  Japan ;  a  monthly  ateamar  of  the 
Pacific  MaU  rona  to  Yokohama.  In  1869,  the 
import*  were  7S9,32S  Aitlars ;  the  eorpMts,  nO,T10 
doUars ;  bat  in  1871,  owing  to  the  interfeienee  ot 


L,o0^^lc 


mUiCEA—SALE. 


ttM  goreniiBeiit  wHli  tba  flilierisi,  th«y 
reduced  to  183,010  dolIuB  and  49S,1S1  dollftn 
raipectiTely.  Fitii,  oil,  uid  fiib-nuuinra  are  the 
chuf  export*.  Tbtm  f*  a  Urge  flnotuating  popnlk- 
tioa  connected  with  the  flthsries.  The  registered 
Japanew  population  of  the  town  in  1872  aombmed 
14,633  i  38  Eviopeuu  are  reaidcnC,  of  whom  13 
Britiidi. 

HAIiACHA  (Bole)  i*  the  general  term  for  the 
Jewiih  oral  law,  whieh  mm  parallel  with  the 
wiitteo  law  eontuued  in  Uie  Bible,  and  ia  mppoaed 
to  be  like  thia,  of  divine  atipn.  Iti  ralatkn  to  the 
ordinaacM  obtained  in  the  Fentetenoh  ia  tlutt  of  an 
amplified  oode  to  tlte  fnndamgotal,  reli^oni,  and 
QTU  nuTima  wntih  ae  tlia  bhangea  wroogbt  by  tune 
in  file  mam  and  oater  febtMiw  of  a  i^ioIt  incnaa- 
ing  paMle  ironld  at  neotMity  ravdooa.  Handed 
down  throng  a  lime  duun  M  nif^iMt  anthoritiea 
^inaitio  rerdalioa,  McMa,  Jodinft,  Edmt,  Oreat 
8imas(^D«  [^nL  ioX  U  eonld  only  be  trtated 
and  lorthar  dareloped  by  the  fomnoct  man  of  aadi 
generation — mch.  In  fiKit,  aa  dumig^  their  nninenoe 
tn  learning  belonged  to  »  kind  of  ariitooracy  of 
mind  (Charfiaminij  WIm  M«n)jtowering  above  tbe 
moltdtode  (Hediotun,  idioti).  Their  deouion  on  tU 
ordinance!  involved  in  eontndiototy  traditioni  waa 
final,  beeanaa  it  wai  believed  to  aprina  bom  adeepa 
appnhenaioD  of  Soriptore.  Often,  indeed,  they  had 
reconrae,  in  order  to  give  their  opinion  a  neater 
weighty  to  certain  ipeeial  lettere,  words,  and  even 

Xin  tlie  ScriptoK,  which,  aeemingly  aanerflaoai 
B  they  rtood,  were  anppoted  to  point  to  the 
ininnetiofi  under  alaeiution.  Halaoha  embraoea  the 
whole  field  of  jnridieo-politic*],  rdipoiu,  and  prac- 
tical life,  down  to  ita  moat  minnte  and  inslEnifloant 
detailt.  Originally,  aa  we  taid,  the  Oral  Iaw,  by 
way  of  eminsuoe,  it  began  to  be  written  down 
when  the  tuffiuinn,  to  which  the  Jewa  ware  afanoat 
nninterraptadly  sobjected  from  the  flnt  eiile  down- 
wards, had  made  many  portioni  of  it  already  very 
uncertain  and  flnotoating,  and  threatened  finally 
to  obliterate  it  alb^etber  from  menvnT.  The  first 
collection  of  laws  waa  institated  by  Hillel,  Akiba, 
and  Simon  b.  Gamaliel ;  bat  the  final  lednetion  of 
tile  general  code,  Hiihna  (q.  v.),  ia  dae  to  Jebadab 
HaoBMi,  220  A.D.  I^ter  additbns  to  thia  oode 
are  formed  by  the  Baraithas  and  Toeeftai.  Of  an 
earlier  date  with  reepect  to  their  contenta,  bnt 
oommitted  to  writtDB  m  later  time*,  are  the  thi«e 
booka  (Uidraahim)!  Sifra  or^oraUi  Eohanim  (aa 
amnlification  of  Levitieni),  Sifri  (of  Nmnben 
and  IXentenmomy),  and  MecUItba  (of  a  portxm  of 
Exodoe).  The  mairter*  of  Uta  MiehnaJo  period,  after 
the  Soferim,  are  the  nunatm.  Tbeee  wn«  foUowed 
by  the  Amoraim,  who,  W  diaonMiBg  and  fnrtluv 
ampii^ing  ibe  Minhn.,  beoame  the  antWa  of  the 
Oeman  (q.v.),  ft  work  extant  in  two  ledaotions — 
tiiat  of  Faleatine  and  of  Bat^lon.  ^Die  HfJw*'w 
WM  further  davekped  in  nbaeqnent  oentttrie*  ij 
Uw  SaboraisL,  Oeonim,  and  the  aathoritiee  of  eaim 
genaation.    See  also  """  '"■,  Mbhha,  Txlkdd. 

HAIiA'8,  a  town  of  Bongatv,  in  the  district  of 
Little  Cnmania,  ia  situated  on  die  lake  of  Halastfi, 
abont  SO  miles  lonth-south-eMt  of  Pea^L  It  has 
J1869]  13.127  inhabitaata.  who  are  employed  chiefly 
m  agricnltore  and  the  coltivation  of  t£e  vine. 

HALBSRD,  or  HALBERT,  a  weapon  bonw,  np 
to  the  doM  of  the  IBtb  &,  by  all  tatgMnta  of  foot, 
artillery,  and  marines^  and  hy  wmMmea  of  halb«r- 
disa  in  the  variont  legbnanta.  It  ooHiated  i^  a 
•bong  wooden  shaft  about  6  feet  in  length,  anr- 
monnted  by  an  inabnment  mndi  reaembling  a  bill- 
book,  eonalniutad  alike  for  cutting  and  throating, 
witii  a  otMa  mece  of  ateeL  lea  slurps  for  the  pnr- 
P«M  oi  poahing  i  oM  sid  <d  thia  maa-pieo*  waa 


tuned  down  aa  a  hocdc,  for  ue  in  tering  down 
worka  against  whiidi  an  attack  i*  made.  TheWionr 
of  inventing  the  halberd  ia  eontaated  bv  the  Swiaa 


from  the  Teutonio  Alldj  battle,  and  bard,  axe.  ^la 
halberd  appeaw  first  m  En^and  abont  the  Ume 
of  Henry  vTIL,  and  maintwned  ita  porition  for 
upwards  of  two  oentories.  Now,  it  is  rtatiy  seen 
*Tcept  on  certiun  ceremonial  oocasioni. 

HAXBEKSTADT,  an  ancient  and  qniet  town 
of  Prussian  Saxony,  in  the  government  of  Magde- 
burg, and  30  milea  eonth-west  of  the  city  of  ttiat 
name,  is  aitoBted  amid  fruitfiil  plains  on  the 
Holzemme,  a  tribatary  of  the  Said.  It  is  well 
buUt ;  ita  street*  ate  for  the  moat  part  long,  broad, 
and  tolerably  stoaisht ;  and  among  ita  moat  notable 
building*  are  the  Chorch  of  Onr  Lady  {1009—1281), 
in  the  Byiuitine  atyle,  and  the  cathedral,  an 
'  intly  proportioned  Qothio  edifice,  bwun  in  tha 
tie  of  the  13th  &.  and  dedicated  to  St  Stephen. 
H.  ha*  two  good  libraries,  and  numerous  colleo- 
tion*  of  paintings,  coins,  and  antiquities,  which, 
together  witJi  the  Foetical  Society  (Dichterver^), 
finined  by  the  poet  Gleim,  have  had  the  effect  of 
—  '-itMning  here  a  Urely  appreciation  for  the  arta 

..  soienota.  The  mannfaotnres  are  woollen  and 
cotton  fabriM,  leather,  soap,  glores,  tobacco,  and 
~gars  1  brewing  and  oU-refinlng  are  also  caniad  on 

Pensively.    Fop.  in  1871,  25,421. 

HA.XOTON  DATS,  a  name  given  by  the  aodenta 

>  &B  MTen  day*  ^ich  precede  and  the  aeren 
which  follow  the  ahorteat  day,  on  account  of  a  table, 
that  during  this  tim&  while  the  halcyon  Idrd  or 
king-tiaher  waa  breeding,  there  always  pnvailed 
calms  at  sea.  !From  this  the  phraae  *  halcyon  day* ' 
has  come  to  signify  timca  of  peaoe  and  tranqoitli^. 

HALGYO'lTrD^    See  EiKansBEB. 

HALK,  9a  Uarhxw,  a  dJstJugnished  lawyer, 
bom  in  1600  at  Aldwley.  Glo«iMater«hire.  In  hi* 
Mh  year.he  loat  hi*  parmt*,  and  wa»  browht  np  by 
m  kinsman  of  atriot  PorHaa  priBci[de«,  auTinttoded 
for  the  ohnrch.  He  waa  sent  to  Ozfwd  Uni- 
v«nity  at  16,  and  waa  of  stndion*  disposition  till  a 
ooupany  ot  atooUing-players  visited  that  aiat  of 
luarntngi  when  the  long  pent-up  prnmon*  of  ycnth 
— re  nddanly  let  looMv  and  iatni*  vagrant  OMnianj 

-^_ cntizodhyGoO^lL' 


HALB8— HALF-PAT. 


be  pT«  way  to  a  good  deal  of  dinipation.  Mid  at 
last  wu  ftboot  to  enter  the  aimy.  But  ja«t  at 
that  time  lie  become  InTolTad  in  a  litigation  about 
hi*  patrimoaial  estate,  and  paid  a  viait  to  liCmiioD  to 
see  Serjeant  Gluiyil,  tlien  a  leading  lawyer,  on  that 
mbjecti  The  seineant  turned  yonng  H-'a  ambition 
into  a  nev  direction ;  and  ultimately,  in  1629,  the 
latter  entered  the  Society  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  and 
was  in  doe  conne  called  to  the  bar.  He  had  by  that 
time  renounced  gay  company,  and  became  a  gnat 
■tadent,  and  toon  acquired  conaideraUe  practice. 
When  the  Long  Parliament  bwan  to  meet,  he  waa 
of  conaidn«blB  reputation;  and  having  oantiontly 
idrained  from  committing  hinuelf  to  either  of  the 
great  parties,  both  lought  to  enliet  him  in  their 
■errice.  Bat  he  declared  for  neutrality — conduct 
which  Lord  Campbell  pronounceB  cowardly  and 
(etflth.  When,  however,  Hm  parliament  triumphed, 
H.  signed  the  Solemn  Luigne  and  Corenant,  and 
■at  in  the  ABsembly  of  Dirinea  at  WertminEler,  tried 
to  bring  about  a  lettlement  between  the  king  and 
parliament,  and  oltimately  took  his  engagement  to 
the  Commonwealth,  and  waa  made  a  judge  under 
Cromwell  in  16C3,  baring  overcome  his  natural 
•cnplea  about  servins  a  niurper,  on  the  plea  of 
neceanty.  He  actai  aa  a  pttime  judge  of  the 
Common  FIbmb  till  Cnimwell't  death,  but  refused  to 
have  hia  oommiasioa  renewed  by  Richard  Cromwell, 
and  then  entered  parliament.  On  the  Seetor- 
atioD,  he  waa  made  Chief  Baron  of  the  Court  of 
Eicheqoer;  and  after  eleven  yaan,  was  tranaferred 
to  the  Chief-JDsticeali^  at  the  Court  of  Queen'i 
Bench.  He  waa  recktmed  the  beet  judge  of  hi*  tim« 
bebg  acide,  learned,  and  satable,  and  aet  hia  fact 
agMuat  bribery,  one  of  the  vices  of  the  age.  John 
Ktuyan  waa  Inou^t  before  him,  and  convicted  oC 
frequenting  conventicles ;  and  when  Bunyan's  wife 
afterwards  moved  for  her  husband'*  diachaise,  ahe 
waa  politely  diamisied  without  redress.  H.  also 
aentenced  some  women,  convicted  of  witchcraft,  to 
be  eiecated,  avowing  lus  full  faith  in  the  deluaion 
oC  that  age,  that  this  was  a  grave  and  dangerous 
offence.  Daring  hia  career  as  a  judge,  E.  led  an 
aoatere  and  scholarly  life,  1""'"p  to  ^e  aide  of  the 
Poritans.  He  made  a  friend  of  Bichard  Baxttr, 
and  has  left  a  great  reputation  for  pie^.  He  wrote 
aome  legal  works,  which  aie  atill  of  the  highest 
autJlori^,  and  ha  bequeathed  several  valuable  legal 
MSS.  to  lincoln'a  Inn,  which  are  still  tceaaurad 
there.  He  resigned  his  ofGce  from  ill  health  in 
1676,  and  died  ten  montha  after,  on  Christmaa-day 

HALES,  Stefhxh,  an  English  natural  phUaaopher, 
waa  born  at  Beckesbonm,  in  Kent,  in  1677,  and  died 
at  Teddington,  in  Middlesex,  in  1761.    He  entered 
Bene't    (now   known  as   Corpn*   Chriati)  Colli 
Cambridge,  in   1696,  waa  elected  Fellow  in  i: 
and  having  taken  holy  onlers,  waa  preaented  ah . 
1710  to  the  perpetual  curacy  of  Teddington,  where 
the  remaind^  lu  hia  life  seems  to  have  been  spent 

His  first   important   publication    was   VegettMe 


on  rte  iSap  q/"  V<gtlabkt  (1727),  which  rapidly 
acquired  ao  high  a  reputation  as  to  be  translated 
into  Fmich,  Oerman,  Dutch,  and  Italian,  and  which 
may  be  oonsideted  the  starting-point  of  our  true 
knowledge  of  vegetable  phyaiology.  A  aecond  part 
of  this  work,  wuur  the  title  fonMutoiiafcf,  and  treat- 
ing of  the  drcnlataon  of  the  blood,  w>eared  in  1733. 
Bttidea  otho*  independent  wodu,  he  oontzibnted 
nnmeroo*  memaii*  to  the  PhUoiipbieal  Traiuaeliant 
on  VentiUioa,  on  the  Uethoda  of  keeping  Water 
Freeh,  mi  EUotricit;,  on  the  Anidysia  of  the  Air,  Ac 
'  '  '  itroduoed  into  the 


m  waa  alao  adopted  in  Fnmoe  with  tdnilar 

good  results. 

His  improvranents  in  the  mode  of  collecting  gaaea 
d  mueh  to  facilitate  the  ■absequeot  labcmn  of 
Black,  Priestley,  and  Lavoisier. 

HAL^VT,  JAOOvn  pRursois  FsoiflDrraL,  a 
fVench  compoaer,  waa  born  at  Paris,  of  Jewish 
itage,    May    27,    1799.      He    studied    under 

m  and  Cherubmi,   and  afterwarda  at   Borne. 

Ilia  first  work  of  H.'a  that  brmght  him  any  con- 
aiderabta  reputation  waa  La  t/uiee,  produced  at  the 
Grand  Open  in  1836.  The  most  important  of  hia 
subaequent  piecea  (of  a  aeriont  chMacter)  were — 
La  Reine  de  Chypre,  Oluaia  YI.,  Le  Ju^  ErratU, 
and  La  Ma^ieittMe.  Those  executed  for  VM  Optr» 
Comique  are  r^rded  as  his  most  aucceaaful;  the 
principal  are — Let  Motumetairti  (probably  his 
maater-piece],  L'&icar,  and  Lt  Vol  tTAndom.  He 
waa  a  great  favourite  with  hia  countrymen ;  but  his 
atyle  was  so  purely  national,  that,  m  spite  at  hia 
great  dramatic  power,  he  did  not  enjoy  a  great 
celebrity  out  of  France.    H.  died  in  Mi^ch  ISffil 

HALF-BLOOD,  i.  e.,  persona  related  throng 
one  parent  only.  When  two  persima  have  the  same 
father,  but  not  the  same  moUier,  th^  are  called 
brothers  or  brother  and  aiater  conaanguinean ;  when 
they  have  the  same  mother  only,  uey  are  called 
brothers,  Ac  uterine.  In  the  anoceasion  to  real  or 
landed  praperty  in  England,  the  half-blood  relations 
by  the  fatiie/a  aide  ancceed  after  the  fuII-blood 
reUtiona ;  and  next,  but  at  a  oonsiderable  interval, 
the  haU'blood  relationa  by  the  mother's  aide.  In 
Scotland,  alao,  the  half-blood  oonsangoinean  sneoeed 
heritable  estate  in  the  same  way,  thou^  not 
identically  tiie  aame  order ;  but  the^ball-Uood 


In 


regards  personal  estate,  the  half-blood  on  both  sides 
succeed  ludiscriminately,  and  share  equally  with  the 
full-blood.  But  in  Scotland,  the  half-blood  only 
succeed  to  movable  estate  after  all  the  full-blood 
and  their  deeceudanta  are  exhausted,  and  then  the 
half-blood  bv  the  father's  side  succeed  in  exdosion 
of  the  half-blood  by  the  mother'a  side,  who  do  not 
come  in  until  the  ancoession  reaches  a  diatamt  point, 
viz.,  where  the  neszeet  relations  are  dBclea  and 
aunts  paternal,  or  their  descendants,  in  wUch  case 
only  the  half-blood  uterine  after  the  mother'a  death 
take  half  the  properl7,  and  the  paternal  relatives 
the  other  halL    Bee  Faterson'a  Comp.  of  E.  and 

HALF-PAT,  an  allowance  given  in  the  Britiah 
army  and  navy  to  oammiBaionecrofficers  not  activdy 
employed  in  the  lank  to  which  the  half-pay  haa 
leferenoe.  It  oorrcapoods  to  the  French  datu-taldt, 
or  pay  of  non-odtviM.  It  haa  long  been  a  disputed 
pomt  whether  half-pay  ia  given  to  offioen  aa  a  retain- 
ing fee,  to  keep  tbem  at  hand  iai  the  time  when 
their  services  may  be  again  required,  or  an  award  on 
account  of  services  already  rendered ;  but  whatever 
the  terms  of  the  original  grant,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that,  under  the  present  regulations,  half-pay, 
except  when  distinctly  named  retirtd  half-pay,  is 
in  the  nature  of  a  retuning  fee.  This  allowance  ia 
on  quite  a  different  footing  in  the  navy  and  army. 

In  the  royal  navy  of  Qreat  Britain,  officers  are 
merely  appointed  to  aarrt  dnrins  the  period  a 
certain  ship  is  in  commiarion ;  when  tliis  ezpira, 
their  employment  ceaaesi  and  they  revert  to  a  state 
of  non-activity.  As  there  are  always  mai^  mors 
naval  officers  than  appointments  for  them  to  SO, 
a  conaiderable  number  are  at  all  times  on  the  non- 
effective list  These  are  plaoed  on  half-pay  until 
again  called  upon  to  servs ;  the  amount  of  such 
half-pay  being  nsuallv  about  60  pa-  oent  of  the 
fnll  pay  of  eaoh  gtsa&     Half-pay  ia  thna  in  Ihs 


t.LiOogle 


HALraUBTON— HALICZ. 


In  the  Kitdih  tnnj,  the  cue  is  different ;  Uieni, 
M  officer,  OD  joining,  ia  ported  to  >  puticolu'  regi- 
Bunt,  with  which,  in  theory,  he  ia  (nppoeed  to  serre 
nntil  Temored  from  it  on  attaimng  the  nnk  of 
genenL  CScmieqneiitly,  no  fond  liks  the  qatsI  hail- 
pay  lilt  ii  in  my  degree  admitted.  Anaj  half- 
p»y  i«  ot  two  nktnree — temporary  h&If-pay,  mi  (,to- 
laJled}  permanent  half-pay.  The  former  i>  limited 
to  officer*  inoqiacitated  by  cMual  nokaeM^ 
lAo  an  withont  occapation,  in  consequenct 
rednctioQ  of  the  ctnpa  in  wliich  they  were  aerrmg, 
and  to  thoae  ferring  in  oertiiu  ataff  ^ipo™*™-"'- 

Penwment  half-pay  can   be  demmdi 

officer  who  kaa  serred  for  2G  yean ;  it  ii „_ 

to  majon  and  lientenant-coloDcJe  who,  after  Berring 
for  fire  years  with  a  nigimeiit  in  those  ranki,  are 
not  re-employed.  Since  the  abolition  of  paichaw 
and  tale  of  oonuuianona,  this  last  chua  may  be 
expected,  for  the  sake  of  promotion  in  the  lower 
ranlu,  to  iiujTeaae  considerably.  The  cost  of  half- 
pay  is  alieadv  Tf — '     ' 

£348,000. 

formaOT-yL_ „.    ^., 

were  omceit  who  were  placed  upon  the  list  ...  ... 

gnat  redaction  after  the  peace  of  1815. 

The  Sztt  grant  of  army  half-pay  was  made  in 
16«BbyWilliimnL 

HAIiIBUBTON.TBOHAsCHAKSUtB,  ei-ookmial 
Judge,  author,  and  politicaan,  waa  bom  at  Windsor, 
m  Kova  Sootia,  in  1796.  Hia  father,  the  Hon. 
Mr  Jnslice  Halibnrton,  oE  Nova  Scotia,  was 
deaooided  from  an  aiuneiit  Soottiah  family.  H. 
receired  his  education  at  King's  College  in  Nova 
Sootia,  afterwards  practised  as  a  barrister,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  House  of  AssemUy.  He 
was  raised  to  the  bench  of  Uie  Common  Heaa  of 
the  colony  in  1829,  and  in  1S40  became  iodge  of 
the  Supreme  Court  In  13S0,  he  retired  from  the 
bench,  and  took  np  his  residence  in  England,  which 
he  had  always  regarded  as  his  mouier-country. 
In  1SS8,  he  recedvea  the  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the 
nniTenity  of  Oxford,  and  in  1SS9  took  bis  seat  oo 
the  Ckmservstive  benchea  of  the  Houae  at  Com. 
mons  as  M.P.  for  Laonoeston,  which  he  repreaented 
until  hia  deaUi.  H,  ia  beat  known  aa  tte  anthoi 
of  Sam  SUck,  the  name  of  a  Yankee  dockmaker 
and  pedler,  a  sort  of  Ajaerican  Sam  Weller,  whose 

Soaint  drollery,  unsophisticated  wit,  knowledge  of 
Oman  natnre,  and  aptitude  in  the  use  of  what  he 
calls  '  soft  sawder,'  haTe  given  him  a  fair  chance  of 
immortality.  In  a  subsequent  series,  the  author 
biilfff  Sam  Slick  to  Esghuid  as  an  attache  of  the 
United  State*  kgation,  and  is  thos  enabled  to  offer 
many  ahrerwd  aad  hnmorons  observations  on  the 
aspects  of  British  society,  especiallT  in  regard  to  the 
"'  ""'  their  pampered  servants.    Sam 


qp^  eliwe*  and  their  pampered  servants.  Sam 
slt^  baa  been  alinoat  uuTeiwUiy  read  in  the  United 
States  whm*  it*  cstravagances  are  keenly  relished. 
It  ha*  enjoyed  a  wide  popularity  in  England,  and 
baa  abo  been  ttsuslaied  into  many  ooiitmental 
langnMN.  H.  is  also  author  of  the  Lttttr-ba^  t^Oe 
Onat  Waitent,  Wise  Sam  and  Modem  Inatanea, 
Nabart  MdHmMin  Naban,  Bubblet  t^  Canada,  Bvie 
and  Murale  of  the  S^UA  in  Amtritia,  and  A  Si»- 
lory  <ifjfova8eotia,  Hedledin  August  18S5,  haviiw 
attained  a  place  and  fame  difficult  to  aoqnire  at  aU 
time* — that  of  a  man  whose  humoor  waa  nnrtared 
in  one  coontiy,  and  became  naturalised  in  another ; 
for  hompur  ia  the  least  exotic  of  the  gifts  of  genius. 
HA'LIBDT.orHOLIBUT  {Hippogloinum^gaTv), 
one  (rf  the  largest  kinds  of  flatfish  IPImrotttaHda], 
in  form  more  elongated  tiian  the  flounder  or  the 
tnifaot,  the  eye*  on  the  ri(^(  side,  the  upper  stuface 


smooth,  and  covered  with  amall  soft  oval  scales,  tl 
colour  brown,  of  different  shades,  the  under  •niface 
perfectly  imooth  and  white.  The  B^,  althoa^ 
esteemed  for  the  table,  is  not  to  be  compared  m 
quality  with  turbot  j  ita  flesh  is  white  and  firm,  but 
dry,  and  has  htUe  flavour.  It  ta  oonuoon  on  the 
British  ooaate,  but  more  abundant  in  the  north  than 
itt  the  aooth ;  and  great  nnmbera  are  taken  by  the 
<M:ney  fishcimen.  It  is  not  fonnd  in  the  Baltic, 
but  is  plentdfol  on  the  coasts  of  Nc^way,  Iceland, 
and  Greenland,  aikd  large  qoantities  are  taken  on 
the  northern  parta  of  the  Ameiicaa  Atlantic  coast. 
It  is  a  fish  of  great  value  to  the  Qreenlaodeis,  who 
preserve  it  for  winter  use  by  cutting  it  into  long 
stipe  and  drying  it  in  the  air.  Oil  is  obtained  from 
''  ~n  considerable  abundance.  It  sttuns  a  great 
;  specimens  have  been  caught  weighing  nearly 
hundred  pounds.  Other  species  of  ^e  same 
_     oa   occur  m  the   seas  of   otJier  parte  of   the 

HALIOABNA'SSUB  (originaUy  called  Zephyria) 

IS  one  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Uinor,  situated 

,  the  Ceramic  GuE    It  was  founded  by  a  colony 

from  Titezene,  and  Was    one  of  the  cities  of  the 

so-called  Doric  Heiapolis,  from  which  confederacy, 

however,  it  was  eventually  eioluded.    H.  was  the 

lai^est  ^id  most  powerful  of  the  cities  of  Caria,  and 

b^  tte  situation  and  the  inaccessible  position  of  ita 

citadel,  was  reputed  a  place  ol  great  strength;  but 

the  people,  owmg  to  tile  enO'Vatmg  influence  of  the 

climate,  were  of  a  weak  and  effeminate  character ; 

and  during  the  Penoan  conqueeta,  readi^  yiddad 

the  duniniou  of  tiie  conqueraa.     Diuing  this 

■iod  (about  600  B.O.),  however,  adimiestic  t^nuit, 

Lygdamis,  rose  to  si^eme  power,  as  a  vaval  ot 

Persia ;  and  under  his  deacendanta  the  city,  without     ' 

forfeitiiig  the  Greek  character,  or  ceasing  to  cnlti-     < 

'e  the  Greek  Utraatnre  and  aits,  remained  faithful 

the  Persian  interest.     Artemisia,  the  daughter 


of  Salamis.  Alexander  the  Great,  provoked  by  the 
obstinacy  with  which  the  city  held  out  against  him, 
commanded  that  it  ahculd  be  destroyed  Wflce;  but 
tiie  Inhahitanta  took  refuge  in  the  dtaael,  which 
succosrfuUy  resisted  his  aims.  The  city  wm  after- 
wards relmilt,  but  it  never  recovered  it*  ancient 
importance  or  prospsiity.  In  the  days  of  the  Boman 
empire,  it  had.  sunk  into  comparative  political 
insignificance,  ita  only  title  to  ooumderation  at  that 
time  being  the  celebrated  Mausoleum,  erected  in 
memory  m  one  of  the  rulers,  named  Mausolns,  by 
his  sister  (who  had  also  been  his  wife  and  snoceawr) 
Artemisia.  H.  was  the  birthplace  of  two  of  the 
most  eminent  ot  the  Greek  historians,  Herodotus 
and  Dionysias.  The  site  of  the  city  is  oocuraed  by 
the  modem  Boudroum.    Fur  an  account  ot  uie  dU- 

veiy  of  the  ancient  remains  of  the  city,  and  of  the 

•entombment  of  the  Mausoleum,  see  MADSOUm. 

HALICOBE.    See  Diiooira. 

HA'LIOZ,_  a  town  of  Austria,  in  the  orownland  of 
Galicia,  is  situated  on  the  Dniester,  in  a  fruitful 
district  in  Hm  adnunistrative  division  of  Stanislawow, 
about  Ii  miles  north  of  the  town  of  that  name. 
There  are  here  a  convent  of  the  Minontee  ;  a  com- 
munis of  Jews  of  the  sect  of  the  Carites,  distin- 
guished for  their  industry  and  uprightnesa  ;  and  on 

~  ~idge  of  a  hill  in  tlie  vicinity,  the  ruins  of  the 
stronMy  fortified  castle  of  Halicz,  which  has 
frequently  been  the  witness  of  bloody  encounters. 
H.,  from  which  Galicia  has  darived  its  name,  is  the 
oldest  town  in  that  crownland.  It  was  built  in 
Qia  ISth  0.,  and  ita  castle  was  Om  residence  of  tha 
rulers  cd  what  was  formerly  the  grand  principalis 
and  kingdom  of  Halici.    Pop.  26M; 


b;Googlc" 


HALmON  HELL— ttAtlFAX 


HAXroON  HILL,  ututed  kbont  >  mile  to  th« 
north-WMt  of  tbs  town  tt  Bcrwiok,  in  the  tetk 
lenud  hj  the  WUbtddcr  tutd  the  Tweed,  wm  the 
■oene  of  »  bloody  eonflict  betwven  the  Rng'irh  tmd 
Soote,  19th  July  1333.  Edwud  IH,  h&Tins  deter- 
mined  tompport  theolidmeof  BdwiidBeliStotiM 
otowu  of  SoocUnd,  edTUoed  to  the  borden  with  a 
Urge  Kemj,  Mid  laid  liege  to  Berwick,  the  gortnitir 
.  of  which  promiied  to  eiiTreiider  on  the  90Ui  of  Jnly, 
if  not  pnTiomlT  leUered.  On  the  10th,  the  aotins 
iwent  of  BooUand,  Archibald  Donglu,  Lord  3 
Oulcwaj,  nunamed  'tiie  Tyneman,'  with  a  laree 
force,  oame  in  sight  of  Berwick,  and  (oand  l£e 
XhiBltifa  drawn  up  on  Om  noitii  aide  of  HaUdon 
Wiff  B^ardlcM  of  fatigue,  the  Scoti  inuosdiately 
•dTftnoed  to  the  attack,  bat  while  oroeuDg  the 
nonua  which  skirta  the  baae  of  the  hill,  nSared 
•averely  from  the  English  arcben.  They  nerer- 
thelen  itmggled  0Dward«,  and  mounted  the  Tiill, 
when  the  Kngii»li,  cbarging  in  a  compact  body, 
^iraw  them  into  irretiieTiUde  confuiion.  A  total 
nnit  waa  the  inunediato  result,  and  the  En^iah 
oanli7  and  Iriih  auiiliariee  committed  a  prodifiooa 
■laoghto'  among  the  fogitiTei ;  npwarda  of  10,000 
Boots  (aooordina  to  some  authoritiea,  14,000)  being 
left  on  the  fieU,  among  whom  were  DouaJH  tha 
regent,  three  of  the  Stuart  family,  the  Siwil  of 
Soea,  Sutherland,  Menteith,  Lennox,  and  Atbok^ 
and  many  otbere  of  the  nobility.  The  ^^"g|i''*'  loM 
wee  oomparatiTely  emaU.  The  town  coBerwiek 
immediately  tnmndered,  and  Edward  Baliol 
uain  for  a  ihMit  time  kept  powiiiion  of  tlia 

HA'LIFAJE,  the  capital  of  Nova  Sootia,  ibnda 
on  the  Kmth-aeat  or  outer  coait  of  the  peninnila, 
in  lat  44'  Sr  N.,  and  to^.  OS*  37'  W.  Thoti^  it 
waa  founded  ooily  in  1T49,  yet  ao  Eavonrably  wm  it 
Mtoated,  that  in  ITOO  it  anufJanted  Annapdii  as 
the  Mat  of  gonmment  The  harbour  of  H.  ia 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  wurld.  It  ii  entered  &om 
the  SDoth,  ezte&da  northwards  abont  10  miles,  and 


nary  of  England,  uid  offers  all  the  year  loond 
easy  aoeees  and  safe  anohorage  to  vsHda  of  a» 
magnitude.  The  harbour  has  two  antranoe%  made 
by  H'N^'s  Island,  of  which  Uw  weststn  only  is 
navigable  for  vessels  at  large  tonnage,  H.,  with  its 
snbnrbs,  extrada  along  the  slope  ol  a  hill,  and  is 
over  two  miles  in  Isnt^  and  aWt  three-quarters 
of  a  mile  in  width.  The  steeets  are  well  laid  oat^ 
and  at  right  angtee ;  and  handsome  gnnito  and  free- 
stons  have  snpuseded  wood.  The  dockyard,  oover- 
ing  14  aores,  is  among  the  finest  in  the  British 
eolonies.  The  prindpal  edifioes  are  the  Frovinoe 
Building  (which  oontains  the  government  offioee), 
Dalhoosia  College,  Qovemment  House,  military 
hospital,  Innatio  Mylnn,  proTinoial  peoitentaar^, 
te.  H.  also  eootaina  23  plsoes  <£  worship,  and  u 
the  seat  of  two  bishoio.  It  is  an  impmtant  military 
poet,  being  defended  by  strong  forte  and  batteries, 
one  of  which,  called  tiie  Citadel,  stands  on  the  snm- 
mit  of  the  luli  on  which  H.  is  Wilt,  snd  is  said  to 
be,  sfter  Quebec,  the  strongest  fortification  in 
America :  E.  and  Quebec  are  now  the  only  pl^oea 
in  Canada  where  Britieh  troops  are  retained.  The 
head-offie«s  of  the  Nova  Scotia  Railway,  end  the 
Nova  Scotia  Electric  Telegraph  Co.,  are  situated 
here ;  and  the  citiiaas  look  forward  euerlr  to  the 
completion  of  the  great  Intercoloniia  Sailway, 
which  is  not  only  to  give  them  ready  access  to  the 
chief  markets  of  Canada,  but  to  make  their  d^  the 
grand  winter  tenuinns  of  the  Dominion.  BailwaT 
commnnicstion  has  now  been  opened  between  H. 
and  Wiodsor  and  Truro.  Tht  pMt  engrosses  neariy 
ths  whole  of  the  foreign  teads  of  the  colon;.    In 


1869  the  exports  amounted  to  (3,189,548,  and 
the  imports  to  17,802,604,  while  the  duties  oolleated 
were  (972,652-27.  The  population  at  the  census  of 
1871  wss  2e,IU2. 

HALIFAX,  a  thriving  markst-town,  mnnidpal 
and  psrliamentMT  borou^  of  EaglMid,iii  tbs  Wast 
Biding  of  YorkaluNt  is  sttuated  prinapslly  on  ths 
right  Dank  U  the  river  Hebbls,  a  fesd«  of  ths 
Calder,  on  the  slope  of  an  sminen 
the  river,  and  it  almost  whdly 
hills.    It  is  43  miles  south- — '    ' 

miles  north-north-west  of  ' 

is  pleasioft  and  ita  gsneml  ^ipearanca  handstane  ] 
while  its  am[ile  supply  of  water-power  and  ol 
ooal,  its  faoilities  for  transport  both  by  water  and 
by  leading  lines  of  rulway,  and  its  position  in 
proximity  to  many  of  the  great  towns  of  th» 
north  of  fkigland,  contribute  materially  to  iln  manu- 
facturing and  comniercial  importanoe.  The  eocle- 
siaslical  arehitecture  of  B,  strikes  every  visitor. 
The  parish  and  Trinity  ohurchee,  'AH  Soula,'  an 
Episoopalian  church  oompletod  in  1861  from  designs 
by  Sir  Qeorge  Gilbert  Scott,  are  fine  specimens  of 
GkiUiia  The  'Square  Church.'  belonging  to  the 
CoDgiegatioDal  body,  erected  in  1 863 ;  and  another 
connected  with  the  same  sect,  built  in  1867,  are 
con^icaoiie  features.  The  town-hall,  opened  by 
the  Frinoe  of  Wales  in  1863,  is  a  very  omato  erec- 
tion. The  Piece  Hall,  a  large  qnadnuignlor  stone 
bnildin^  erected  in  1779,  at  a  cost  of  £12,000,  and 
comprismg  315  apartments  or  warehouses  for  the 
reception  and  sale  of  msaofactured  goods ;  and  the 
assembly  rooms,  Mechamcs'  loititate.  and  theatre^ 
Amon^  the  numerons  publio  and  private  ednoa- 
tiooal  institntioiu  of  HI  are  the  Heath  Grammar 
School— fonoded  in  1585.  with  an  endowment  of 
£270  a  year— and  the  Bine  Coat  School  In  1857, 
Mr  F.  Crossley,  M.P.  for  the  West  Riding,  pre- 
sented a  magnificent  park  to  the  town.  It  contains 
the  larasst  carpet-works  in  the  world.  The  manu- 
taotniM  goods,  besides  carpets,  are  chiefly  shallootu, 
tammies,  ealamanooM,  duroy^  ererlaatings,  moreensv 
shaga  serMS,  merintMS,  as  well  ss  baises,  narrow 
and  broad  cloths,  keneymens^  and  bombssiiis. 
Cotton  fabrics,  wool-cards,  and  pwar  are  manufac- 
tured There  is  also  some  trade  m  corn,  in  mill- 
machinery,  and  ia  raising  coal  and  slats.  Pop. 
(1871)06,510. 

A  Btraoge  old  local  law,  known  es  the  Wsllfsx 
Gibbet  Law,  was  enacted  here  at  an  early  period  of 
the  woollen  manufacture,  for  the  protection  of  the 
manuiacturers  against  the  thievish  propensities  of 
their  hands,  irtio  were  in  the  habit  ot  robbing  tfamr 
'oyers,  by  keenng  to  themselves  a  pwbon  of 
material  vriiich  on^it  to  have  gone  into  tiie 
,  m  tiiat  whoi  manufactured,  um  hbrio  was 
discovered  to  be  of  inferior  weisht  snd  body.  The 
Gibbet  Law  prorided  that  aU  pereons  within  a 
certain  circuit,  who  had  stolen  property  of  or  above 
the  value  of  13(if.,  were  to  be  tried  by  the  frith- 
burghers  within  the  liberty,  and  if  fcpuiid  guilty, 
wero  handed  over  to  the  magistrates  for  ponish- 
ment,  and  were  execnt«d  on  the  first  mirket-day 
following  by  means  of  an  instrnment  similar  to  the 
goillotine.  The  stage  or  platform  on  which  the 
executions  took  place  is  still  to  be  seen,  and  the 
axe  is  preserved  in  the  old  Jul  in  Jul  Lane. 

HALIFAX,  Coisua  Homkatn,  Eixl  or,  poet 
and  statesman,  grandson  of  Henry,  first  Earl  ol 
Manchester,  and  nephsw  of  the  famous  Pariiamen- 
taiy  general,  was  Ixnn  at  Horton,  in  Northampton- 
shire, 16th  April  leei.  He  was  edncated  at  West- 
minster Bohool  and  Trini^  OoUsn  Cambridge.  A 
laudatory  poem  on  Chsries  II.  &st  brou^t  Mon- 
tagtis  into  publi;  notice.    Two  years  later,  qipeared 


t.Googlc 


HALIOTB— HALL. 


th«  pModf  oa  Drjrden'B  Sind  and  Panlher,  entitled 
Tlu  Town  and  Country  Moiut,  Ol  trhJoh  he  was 
joint  sathor  with  HatUiew  Prior ;  Init  his  poetry 
woold  tujdiy  hare  nude  faia  name  ranembered 
"  e  IQth  oentnry.    He  ahoot  dilappaared  imm 


He 


patron  of  Addiaon  ta 
bad  intonded  to  enter 


the  chnmh,  aa  it 


o(  a  Beat  in  the  Honae  ci  Commona, 
memb^  for  Maiden  in  Uie  ConTeatioii  Parliament, 
where  he  Toted  for  the  declaration  that  Jamea  U. 
had  abdicated,  and  that  the  throne  w^  thereby 
Tacant.  He  retained  hii  aeat  in  William  IIL'a  fint 
parliament,  and  waa  appointed  in  1693  &  Commia- 
•ioDer  of  ttie  Treaatur.  On  the  15th  December  of 
tliil  ^ear  he  propoaed,  in  the  Honae  of  Cammona, 
to  raise  a  million  sterling  bj  wav  of  loaiL  William 
required  money  for  his  wan — the  moneyed  daises 
were  tired  of  bubble  companiea,  and  knew  not  where 
to  inveat  safely,  and  the  landowners  were  weary  of 
heavy  taxation ;  bo  the  National  Debt  was  estab- 
liahed.  In  the  spring  of  169^  mmey  was  again 
wanted,  and  Montaone  waa  ready  to  snppW  it. 
Hiis  time,  he  did  so  by  ormnating  ■  national  bonk, 
a  schema  for  which  had  been  laid  before  govern- 
ment by  William  Paterson  three  yeais  before.  The 
caintal  was  to  be  £1,200,000,  and  the  shareholders 
were  to  be  called  the  Oovemor  and  Company  of  the 
Bank  of  England.  The  bill  for  this  was  ultimately 
paMed ;  the  result  was  immensely  aucceaiful,  and 
Uontague  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  TTin 
next  work  was  the  recoinaae  of  I6B5,  which  he 
carried  out  succesafully,  appomting  Newton  warden 
of  the  Mint,  and  raising  a  tax  on  windows  to  pay 
the  expense,  instead  of  the  obnoiioua  impost  oalliid 
hearth-moDfly.  The  interval  between  the  lost  day 
on  which  the  old  money  was  receivable  in  payment 
of  taxes,  and  the  issue  of  the  new  coin,  was.  owing 
to  the  absence  of  a  circulating  medium,  likely  to 
caose  much  distress ;  but  he  obviated  this  by 
est^ilishing  exchequer  bills  bearing  interest  daily, 
and  ranging  in  amount  from  £5  to  j&OO.  On  Godol- 
phin's  resignation  in  1G9T,  he  became  premier,  but 
soon  becoming  nnpopular,  was  obliged  to  bestow 
upon  himself  the  suditorahip  of  me  exchequer, 
and  reogn  his  higher  offices.  Harley  insisted  on 
his  withdrawal  from  the  Commons,  and  he  became 
Baron  Halifax,  adopting  a  title  which  had  just 
become  extinct.  He  was  impeached  before  the 
House  of  Lords  for  breach  of  trust  in  1701,  and 
again  in  1703,  but  the  proceedings  fell  to  the 
ground.  During  the  whole  of  Anjie's  reign,  H. 
remained  out  of  office,  but  was  active  in  promoting 
the  uni<m  with  Scotland  and  the  Hanoverian  suc- 
cession. On  the  queen's  death,  he  was  naturally 
appointed  a  member  of  the  council  of  regency,  and 
□n  Gkorge  L'p  arrival,  became  an  earl  and  prime 
minister.  His  rule  lasted  only  nine  months,  being 
terminated  by  death  on  the  19th  May  1715.  H. 
thou^  an  arrogant  and  mean  man,  and  fond  of 
display,  wss  a  consiBtent  politidao,  ud  one  of  the 
greatest  financiers  of  his  time. 

HALICTIS,  a  ^us  of  gasteropodoiu  molliuca, 
th«  type  of  *  family,  Hahotida,  belon^e  to  the 
vrSat  Seat&raiteiiata,  and  having  a  widely  open 
««r-iliap«d  ibdl,  with  a  very  low  spire,  and  a  row 
of  bolet  not  £ar  trom  the  oppodte  margin  over  the 
flwore  of  the  mantle,  through  which  the  water 
guns  acceai  to  tJie  gill-c»vity.  He  holes  are  closed 
as  tlie  animal  grows,  and  new  ones  formed,  which 
flrwt  appear  as  notches  along  the  nar^  ot  the 
shelL  The  animal,  in  a  living  state,  exhibit*  sreat 
beauty  of  colours.  It  adheres  to  rocks  by  a  Urge 
'  r  foot,  after  the  manner  of  limpeta.  One 
''.  titberenkUtt,  i*  not  uncomnion  on  the 


is  aba  MO^t  Mfter  for  a 


Haliotis  {lubrrcuZola). 


which  is  much 
and  particularly  for  ornamenting  p^uer-machi 
articlea.  The  shells  of  this  genus  are  called  Ear- 
tfitUt  or  Sea  Sort.  They  are  the  Ormert  of  the 
French.  1^  species  are  very  numeroui 
splendid  are  natives  of  warm  climatea. 
HALL,  BAm,  Captaiit,  K.N.,  a  di 

traveller,  a  younger   son   oF    Sir  Jam(_    __ 

DujDgloss,  wss  bom  in  Edinburgh  in  17S8,  and  died 
at  Portsmouth  in  1844    He  entered  the  n" —  '~ 
1802,  and  became   post-captain   in   1817. 
Lord  Amherst  was  aant  on  a  mia 
of  Pekin  in  1816,  H  commanded  the  Lyra,  a 


When 


along  the  coast  of  tJie  Corea,  which  were  httls  known 
to  S^ropeana  The  chief  results  of  this  exploration 
were  pabliahed  in  a  book,  entitled  A  Voyagt  of  Dit- 
cowry  to  On  Wt»Um  Coatt  of  Corta  and  tiie  Qrrai 
Loo-Choo  Ttland  te  tiie  Japan  Sea  ,(Lon±   1818), 


ConttohUi  Mitcetiany) ;  Travdi  in  North  Amrriea, 
in  three  volumes  (a  work  that  was  violently  assailed 
by  the  American  preai)  ;  Fragment*  of  Voyaget 
<aul  TrawU,  in  three  series,  each  consisting  of 
three  volumes  (a  work  of  great  interest,  and  still 
very  popular);   and  Paldiiiork,  in  three  volumes, 

C'.lished  in  1841.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Roval 
ietiea  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  a  member 
of  the  Astronomical  Society  of  London.  He  was 
the  anther  of  varions  articles  in  the  scientific 
journals  of  the  day,  and  in  the  Enq/dopadia 
Britaimka.  During  the  last  two  or  three  years  of 
his  life  he  sufFered  from  mental  alienation,  induced 
by  excessive  literary  work,  and  was  placed 


HALL,  Joseph,  an  English  bishop,  remarkable 
for  his  learning,  piety,  and  misfortunes,  was  bom 
in  1674  at  Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  Leioestershire.  He 
waa  educated  at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  became  a  Fellow.  Entering  the  church, 
be  became,  in  1617,  Dean  of  Worcester,  was  onu 
of  the  English  dspatiea  to  tha  fynod  of  DmI, 


-~dhyCoogte 


The  Utter 

VMn  of  hia  life  were  uddened  hj  persecution. 
He  WIS  Bccuaed  of  Puritammn,  though  he  zeol- 
Muljr  defended  the  EpiscopMy.  By  atticlcing  the 
Arminiwuinn  of  Archbiahap  Laud,  he  is  naid  to 
hkve  '  axpoaed  himself  to  the  maligiuuit  »ad  w&ntoD 
■ttacka  of  that  priDUte  and  hi*  crew.'  la  IMl, 
hftving  joined  the  prelates  who  protested  aeainBt 
tlie  Tohditf  of  all  Uwi  passed  daring  tlieir  foreed 
ahsence  fcMo  parliament,  he  was  committed  to  Hxt 
Tower,  and  tlireatened  with  a  prosecatioa  for  high 
treasoii,  bat  was  set  at  libei^,  at  the  end  of  seven 
tnontha,  on  findins  bail  for  £60Oa  On  his  return  to 
Konriah,  he  fonnd  his  rerenoes  sequestrated  and  his 
property  pillaged.  He  rented  a  small  farm  at  TTigh«in, 
near  Norwioh,  to  which  he  retired,  1S47,  ana  died 
in  1600,  aged  82  years.  His  works,  mostly  of  a 
controversial  character,  have  been  published  in  folio, 
qoarto,  and  octavo.  A.  new  edition,  with  outobio- 
naphy,  notes,  tc,  wss  published  byUieBev.  Josiah 
Pratt  (Lond.  10  vols.  190S) ;  a  later  edition  by  the 
Itav.  Peter  Hall,  a  descentUnt  of  Joseph  (Oxford, 
12  vols.  1837—1839).  His  writings  most  interest- 
ing at  the  present  tame  are  poetical  SatiTo,  written 


Hallam,  however  [Lit  HiiL  of  k  . 
him  of  b^ng  'hanh  and  rugged,'  and  ai 
•  bis  lines  frequency  bear  no  visible  con 
with  their  neuhbonrs. 


his  other  works  are  CbnJmipIaliDM,  vtrt  of  Dimne 
Mediiotuxt,  and  BnoMMiruu,  or  TVeoftw  on  lis  Modt 
ofWalUnfftBUhOod. 

ttaTjTj^  A^fHqTTAT.T^^  OH  eminent  pbyvologiat  and 
physioian,  was  bom  at  Basford,  Nottinghamahira, 
m  J790,  and  died  at_  Brighton  in  18B7.  At  liie 
toe  of  20  (having  boon  previously  apprenticed  to  a 
c£emist)  be  entered  on  the  study  of  medicine  at  the 
univenity  of  Edinbui^di,  where,  in  1812,  he  took 
his  d^ree  of  ILD.  After  three  years'  snbseqnent 
attendance  at  tk«  leading  Bcho<^  of  medicine  on 
the  continent,  he  commenced  practice  in  Nottingham 
in  1816,  and  rniidly  obtained  a  high  provincial  repn- 
tation.    In  1826,  he  removed  to  London,  where  his 


enabled  at  the  affs 

strictly  profeosicmd  1 


s  so  snccessful,  that  he  was 


Unonghis  o( 
ioned  his  Euav  on  tAe 
.  of&e  Blood,  pabliahed  in  1831,  m  which 
he  made  known  his  discovery  of  the  remarkable 
'caudal  heart'  connaoted  with  the  veasels  in  tlie  tail 
of  th«  eel ;  hia  pwer '  On  Uia  Inverse  Katio  which 
■nbaiats  between  tite  Bespiration  and  Irritability  in 
the  *"'""<  Eingdcan,*  in  Uie  /'itloiopAical  TViuuae- 
tioiu  for  1832 ;  and  ^le  articles '  Hybernation '  and 
'Irritability'  in  Todd's  Oydopaiia  of  Anatomy  aad 
Phyriaioffy.  But  his  name  is  best  known  in  con- 
neotion  with  the  doobine  of  the  Befles  Fnodion  of 
the  KervouB  System:,  wbiah  was  his  most  eugt«saing 
subject  of  pursuit  for  the  last  twenty-five  years  of 
his  life.  In  the  Phllotophieai  TranttuHoat  tor  1833 
appeared  his  '  Memoir  on  the  Befiel  Function  of 
the  Medulla  Oblongata  and  Medulla  Spinalis.'  His 
views  on  the  subject  of  this  memoir  were  extended 
and  oorrected  in  various  publications,  amongst  which 
may  be  eipecial^  mentioDed  hu  Ltetmrtt  on  Ott 
AcreoiM  8y»le>n  aad  ill  Ditttue*  (1836),  Jfemoir* 
on  Ika  NervovM  iSJMlm  (1637),  Neio  Jfenwtr  cm  Ae 


.  ._  to  H.'s  claims  tobe  oonaideredthe  disooverer 
of  Beflex  Action.  He  admitted  that  the  pheno- 
mena of  which  he  treated  had  been  long  known  to 
physidogists,  but  he  beliered  hinuelf  to  have  been 


establiuL  with  predsiaa  the  laws  <£  their  produc- 
tion, to  assign  them  ^eir  just  rank  in  pimiology, 
and  to  apMy  tlie  doctrine  to  the  eluciiiation  oS 
disease.  His  more  strictly  professionsl  writinn  ai« 
many  and  valuable ;  they  appeared  partly  as  mde- 
pendent  publications,   and  partly  in  the  medical 

jonmala.    His  last  bequest  *"  '^'" "  "' '  _-i^ 

dne  and  the  cause  of  hu~" 

of  a  simple  and  easily  i 

suspendu  respiration,  wbich  bos  already 

meaoia  of  saving  many  from  untimely  death,  and  is 

known  as  The  Mabbhall  H  «  t.t,  Method.    It  is 

briefly  desotibed  in  the  article  Ahfeyxu.      His 

memoin,  with  a  Iarf;e  collection  of  his  letters,  have 

been  published  by  his  widow. 

HALL,  Rev.  Boeebt,  a  celebrated  English  dis- 
sentdng  preacher  and  writer,  was  bom  at  Arosby, 
near  Leicester,  May  2,  1764.  He  was  the  ton  of  a 
Baptist  minister  of  some  note  as  a  preacher  and 
author  of  religions  works,  and  was  the  youngest 
of  fourteen  children.  He  was  feeble  in  body  and 
precociouB  in  intellect,  learning  to  read  almost  as 
soon  OS  he  could  speak,  from  t^  tombstones  of 
the  churchyard,  his  playground.  At  the  a^  of 
15,  be  was  sent  to  a  Baptist  academy  at  Bristol, 
when  he  gave  promise  u  his  future  fame  as  an 
orator,  but,  from  his  nervous  organisation,  broke 
down  ill  his  first  public  efforts.  In  1781,  he  entered 
King's  College,  Aberdeen,  where  he  remained  four 
years.  An  mtimate  companionship  with  Hackin- 
tosb,  in  which  they  read  and  discussed  together 
philosophy  and  theolo^,  was  of  great  service  to 
Mm.  Oradnating  in  l78^  he  bei^me,  at  the  a^ 
of  21,  assistant  Baptist  minister  and  tutor  m 
the  aoademf  at  Bristol.  He  was  a  flaent,  tupA, 
and  impressive  speaker,  and  was  liberal,  but  not 
heterodox  in  his  religious  views.  In  consequence  of 
a  disagreement  with  his  coUeacue,  he  went  in  1790 
to  Cambridge,  where,  by  his  euborate  composition 
and  vivid  Sequence,  he  rose  to  the  highest  rank  of 
British  orators.  He  is  not  leas  distingoished  for  his 
writings  and  published  discourses,  than  as  a  pulpit 
orator.  Hiii  Apology  for  &£  Fnedom  (if  the  Pro*, 
1793,  and  sermon  on  Modem  InSdtUtg,  extended 
hia  reputation.  In  1806,  he  setued  in  Leicester; 
married  in  1S06,  after  a  whimsical  oourtship; 
returned  to  Bristol  in  182S,  and  died  February  21, 
1831,  He  was  an  Indefatigable  student,  learning 
Italian  at  60,  that  he  might  enjoy  Dante,  and  full  d 


t,  fan,  a; 


Style  of  his  improvisations  was  'superior  to  that  of 
his  writings.  Nearly  all  his  life  he  sufferad  the 
tortures  of  an  obsciu«  disease  of  the  spine ;  he 
had  at  times  attacks  of  insanity,  and  his  death  was 
preceded  by  great  agony,  caused  by  a  laive  calculus 
m  one  of  his  Iddi^yB ;  vet  few  men  nave  per- 
formed more  intellectual  labour.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works,  with  a  memoir  by  Dr  O.  Gregory,  and 
Observations  on  bis  Character  as  a  Pretchet  by 
John  Forster,  was  published  at  London,  in  6  vols., 
1831—1833;  llth  edition,  1853. 

1£ALL,  Mfia  ANifA  Af  *HTt,  An  eminuut  noTelist* 
the  daughter  of  a  gentleman  named  KeldiuK  who 
died  when  she  was  very  young,  was  bom  in  fiuhlin 
in  1802.  In  her  IGth  jvuc  she  left  Ireland  with  her 
mother,  and  went  to  rcaide  in  London,  where  her 
education  was  completed.  In  1624  she  married  Mr 
S.  C.  Biil,  a  gentleman  well  known  for  bis  works 
coimected  with  the  fine  arts,  and  was  thus  led  to 
become  an  authoress.  Her  fint  work,  Slttdla  of 
IriA  Ckar^der,  published  in  1828,  at  once  estab- 
lished her  repntatioo.  In  1832  die  brought  out 
her   first   novel,   Th»   BiLomter,  *   stoiy  of   the 


hyGoogle 


B  al  the  CommonvaBlth,  in  which  Crom'weU'a 
chanoter  ia  vindicated.  Her  other  vorka  rapidly 
followed— 7'alu  of  Woman't  TVioii,  in  1834 ;  Tht 
Ov&ivi,  a  novel  of  the  reign  of  Jamea  IL,  in 
1835;  The  FrtnA  R^/ugre,  a  drama,  which  in 
S  war  acted  for  abont  fifty  nighta  at  the  St 
Jamea'a  Theatre,  Londoa;  Unele  Horace,  3  vola^ 
1837 ;  Lighlt  imd  Shadotat  of  IriA  Charaeter, 
I83S;  MariaiL,  or  a  Youag  MauTi  Triait,  1839; 
The  Whitaos,  iMB,  to.  Her  Storia  of  lAe  Irish 
PttuaiUr]/  appeared  ori^pnallj  in  CkamiiBr^i  Bdin- 
liuTgh  Journal,  and  were  afterwarda  pnbliahed 
in  •  collected  form.  Site  ia  also  the  authoress  of 
a  graceful  fairv  tale  of  lova,  ifidtummer  Jive, 
ori^nally  oontriboted  to  the  Art  JoarniU,  and  of  a 
pleuant  iilnatrated  aeriea  of  descriptive  sketches, 
inserted  in  the  same  pablicatioa,  and  subsequently 
Jiablished  separately  under  the  title  of  PUgrmtagea 
to  SnglM  Siriiiea.  The  last  two,  with  some  others 
of  lier  writinga,  have  been  translated  into  Qerman. 
Beaidea  assisting  her  husband  in  his  illustrated 
work  on  IrAaid,  Ac,  she  Ixas  fomiabed  numeroos 
eontribntiona  to  the  periodicals  of  the  day,  and 
written  various  books  for  the  yonng.  Of  thsie, 
Uit^  Samt't  Mont^-hox  is  one  of  the  beat. 

HALIi,  the  large  principal  aoutment  of  the 
castlea  and  dweUing-honaes  of  the  middle  ages. 
Hie  hall  ia  of  very  ancient  origin.    The  earliest 


palaces  of   the  kings,   and 


ny  reo 


aeem   to   have 
gj  halL  in  whi< 

dwelt  together,  eating  at  the  ume  table,  and  sitting 
round  the  same  fire ;  and  one  other  chamber,  in 
whicJi  the  king  and  his  hearth-men  alept,  while 
his  retunera  alept  in  tHe  halL  The  Normans  built 
their  honsee  on  the  same  plan — with  the  hall  and 
one  Solar  (q.  v.)  or  Bleeping  apartment.  The  same 
arrangement  prevailed,  with  alight  modificationa, 
during  the  I2th  and  13th  centuries.  In  the  14th 
and  ISth  centuries,  when  the  country  waa  more 
settled  and  prosperoua,  and  manners  more  refined, 
more  numerous  apartments  became  neceaaaiy.  The 
hall,  however,  stull  retained  its  place  as  the  chief 
apartment.  Jii  it  the  king  or  the  lord  of  the  manor 
gave  audioDce,  administered  juatice,  received  and 
entertaiaed  hia  retainers  and  guests,  and  performed 
all  the  public  acts  of  feudal  life. 

At  one  end  of  the  hall  was  a  raised  platform  or 
dua,  on  which  the  table  of  the  lord  of^  the  manor 
was  placed,  and  where  his  more  honoured  gueata 
sat  along  with  hJTn.  The  retainers  sat  at  a  taUe 
which  ran  alooc  the  lower  part  of  the  halL  Tbia 
part  waa  not  a&ays  in  the  cleanest  and  sweetest 
condition,  and  hanoe  it  received  the  name  of  'the 


The  Great  Hall  of  Eltbam  Fslaoe. 


The  hall  partook  of  the  style  of  architecture 
prevailing  at  the  time  when  it  was  built,  and  being 
B  large  and  important  apartment,  was  generally 
■'-'  'n  ito  character.     The  roofs  especially 

the  kiuf 

-.-      . Hall,'  buUt  by 

illiam  JUifiu,  and  restored  by  Richard  IX,  ia  the 


^^!u^ 


finest  example  in  England,  being  300  feet  long  ood 
100  feet  broad.  T^e  great  haU  at  Eltbam,  as  t^ewn 
in  the  above  out,  is  another  fine  example. 

The  hall  waa  essentially  a  part  of  feudal 
architecture.  When  that  system  gave  way,  the 
large  common  balls  were  abandons.  Mimy  old 
ones,    however,    still   remain,    bnt    their   use    ia 


tyCoogle 


TTAT.T — TTAT.T.Tt 


HALL,  HALLB,  akd  HALLBIlr,  «ra  the 
nunw  1^  Tuioni  pUoei  in  Sonthem  uid  Middls 
0«n>iMl7,  poueuing  »ait-uxnir.  BaU  U  also  > 
genend  name  ior  a  Mit  maiia&ctare.  The  Welih 
and  Armorican  woid  for  ult  ii  Ao^  haim;  hmca 
it  is  intarred  that  these  names  ware  becttnTsd  by 
Csltic  tribn  of  the  Cymrie  division  (to  irtkich  ths 
andent  Qaoli  belonged).  The  Oaelio  for  salt  is 
Ml-aiM,  agreeitig  thus  with  tlie  I^  foJ,  and  Va» 
G«r.  aaU.  The  Greek  halt  (Jxi)  agrees  with  the 
Cymrio.  The  names  Salxa,  Salibiu^  are  olearly  of 
TeatoDiQ  origin. 

HALL,  a  small  and  Teiy  old  town  of  Austria,  in 
the  Tyrol,  is  sitnatsd  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Inn, 
which  is  hen  navinble,  sii  miles  east  of  Innsbmck. 
Iti  parish  dinrah,  boilt  in  1271,  with  a  moniuneDt 
that  marks  the  srave  of  Spechbacher,  the  bnveet 
and  most  Bkilfal  leader  of  the  TyrolcM  In  their 
strag^e  for  independence;  its  gymnasium,  ita 
Franciscan  conrent,  and  its  JfOnzfAunn,  are  the  chief 


fonn  of  bnne  ia  oonrayed  to  the  mni  «€  H.  in 
wooden  ripee.  '  Although  tbe  d«maod  is  not  so  great 
as  fonne^,  upwards  of  300,000  ewta.  of  salt  are 
•till  pTodaoed  oere.  H.  has  also  mannfaotnrei  of 
Ml-ommoniso  and  cliemicaU.    Pop.  (1869)  6022. 

HALL,  or  SWABISCH-HAT.L.  on  old  and 
mctanaqoe  town  in  the  Idn^om  of  WUrtemberg, 
is  Tery  beaDtifaUy  ntuated  u  the  deep  valley  of 
the  Eocher,  35  miles  north-east  of  Statlgart.  It  is 
soiTonnded  byaditch  and  by  hi^  walls  sormonnted 
with  towers.  IJke  other  [daoee  in  whose  nsmea  the 
word  Hall  or  Salz  occurs,  H.  has  oonnderable  salt- 
works, which,  together  with  those  of  Wilhehns^ack, 
produce  annoally  neariy  80,000  owts.  "niere  are 
orks,  soap-works,  and  mann&ctiiTes  of 


and  the  coins  fint  strnck  here  were  c^Ied  Heller 
(^Uler).  The  town  beknwed  first  to  the  Counts  of 
Westhein),  then  later  to  the  Kni^ts  Templar.  In 
the  I3tli  0.  it  became  a  free  imperial  town,  and  mch 
it  remuned  till  1802,  when,  with  ite  territory  of  126  . 
aijnare  miles  (pop.  16,000),  it  was  added  to  the 
kmgdom  of  WUrtembeig. 

HAXLA,  or  HALA,  a  town  of  Hindnstan,  in 
the  countay  of  Scinde,  is  situated  on  the  left  bonk  of 
the  Lower  Indus,  39  miles  north  of  Hyderabad. 
Manufactures  of  caps,  superior  coloured  earthen- 
wares, and  lacquered  work,  are  eitensivoly  carried 
on  here.  Pop.  11,000,  the  most  of  whom  are  manu- 
facturers,   n.  is  said  to  be  the  mo«t  ancient  ci^  of 

HALLAM,  Hekby,  philosophic  historian  and 
critic,  son  of  the  Deut  of  Bnstol,  was  bom  at 
Windsor  in  1777,  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ- 
church,  Oxford,  where  lie  took  his  degree  of  M.A. 
He  WIS  first  known  b^  his  writings  in  periodicals, 
especially  by  contributing  to  the  EdMMrgh  Reeiea 
during  ita  early  yeais ;  afterwards,  he  was  distin- 
guished amona  tht  litemy  mett  of  Europe  fot  hi* 
ext«nsiTe  aniTprofonDd  learning,  powors  of  gene- 
ralisation, taste,  judgment,  ana  consdentioasuess, 
exhibited  in  a  suooeasion  of  great  works :  Viae  of 
Oie  State  of  Suropt  itvring  the  Middle  Aget  (2  vols. 
4to,  1818) ;  The  CmtlitiUiimal  Hvtorg  </  &i^md 
from  Ms  Jwesrimt  of  Hmrg  ^'^-  *"  ''^  ^>'°^  tf 
Gepw  //.  (2  Tols.  iiio,  1827) ;  and  Inmduoim  to 
the  LileraOat  iffBtirepe  in  At  IBlh,  Itik,  and  Vlh 
Caituriet  (4  Tola.  Svo,  1837— 1S30),  and  a  volume  d 
■upplementaiy  notes  to  his  Hitliny  of  (As  MidJU 
Aga  (1848).  All  thoa  wmks  have  gone  throng 
several  edition^  and  been  translated  into  the  lu- 
guages  of  the  leading  European  nations.    They  hav* 


proonrBd  for  their  author  the  Miviabla  reputation  of 
having  opened  up  a  new  and  great  field  of  author- 
ship, andT  laboured  in  it  with  a  success  that  ss  yet 
has  not  bean  eqoalled  by  another.     Their  wondennl 

impar^ality  and  veraci^  m  a  rebuke 


o  ordinary 
historionf  :  and  it  provokes  a  smile  to  read,  at  thu 
distance  ol  time^  the  strietnna  d  Sonthey  on  Uu 
aerimony,  &s  arroganoe,  the  InJiwIiM,  and  the  fll- 


>  dinntMwtwIIy  ti 


H.lUm.  H.,  while  yet  a  yoimg  nuui,  was  '. 
&e  highest  estiniation  among  Um  litentry  men  of 
his  time,  both  in  London  and  Edinburgh.  Darius 
Ihe  greatar  portj«»  of  his  long  life^  however,  he  lived 
in  London  in  privaoy,  devoting  him— Jf  to  lingnistdo 
and  bistorieal  stndiet.  In  poutifle,  he  was  a  Whii ; 
bat  for  the  confliots  of  parties  he  wss  unauited  by 
his  candour  and  general  temperament,  and  took  no 
part  in  them,  but  he  displayed  a  genuine  interest 
in  all  questions  of  sooisl  improvMnent,  and  acted 
with  t£s  WHberforoe  party  for  the  ab^taon  of 
slavery,  as  well  as  in  otiier  humane  sdMinss,  and 
was  one  irf  the  ori|dnal  pTomoten  of  the  Society  (br 
the  Diffiisioi)  oif  Useful  Enowledn.  H.  had  two 
sons,  both  of  great  promise,  and  both  prematurely 
cut  off;  the  elder,  Arthur  Henry,  who  died  in 
IS33,  was  the  friend  of  Alfred  Tennyson  the 
laureate,  and  is  the  subject  of  In  Mmnoriam.  Of 
this  BOD,  H.  has  written  a  toaching  memor.  H. 
died  January  1359.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  and  many  other  societies,  and  a  trustee  of 
the  British  Museum. 

HALLAM5HIRE,'a  duitrict  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire  (q.  v.). 

HA'LL^  or  EALLEDf,  a  town  of  Austria,  in 
the  duchy  of  Salzbotv,  and  10  miles  south  of  the 
town  of  that  name,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank 
ot  the  river  Salza,  and  is  noted  for  ita  extensive 
salt-works  and  saline  baths.  Pop.  (1869)  3614.  It 
has  also  important  ootton  and  ne^e  and  button 
factories,  llie  DUrrenlierg.  a  mountain  2388  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  from  which  the  brine  is 
obtained,  has  31  shafts  or  rooms,  from  which  the 
salt  is  conveyed  in  large  wooden  troughs  to  the 
works  within  the  toira.  The  aunusl  produce 
amounts  to  about  400,000  (Twts.  Good  rock-salt  is 
also  obtained  from  DUrrenberg. 

HALLB,  a  city  of  Prussian  Saxony,  in  the 
district  of  MecsebuTK  known  aa  H.  an  der  SaaU,  to 
distinguish  it  from  wier  plaoes  of  the  same  name, 
ia  situated  on  the  ri^t  bank  of  the  Saale,  and  on 
several  small  islands  of  the  river,  10  miles  north 
of  the  city  of  Meresbnrg,  and  conaista  of  H.  proper, 
with  its  five  saburbs,  and  the  governmental  town- 
ships of  Olancba  and  Nenmarkt  It  is  chiefiy  cele- 
breted  for  its  nniversi^,  which  was  founded  in  1694 
by  Frederick  L,  king  of  Prussia ;  and  after  having 
been  suppressed  by  Napoleon  when  it  had  attained 
the  summit  of  ita  fame,  was  re-established  in  1816, 
and  incorporated  with  the  university  of  Wittenbog, 
which  hod  been  dissolved  daring  the  war.  FrMD 
its  eailieBt  foundatioo,  this  institution  has  been 
r^arded  as  the  chief  seat  of  the  pietaitio  school  U 
theology.  The  roll  of  its  professon  ahevrs,  how- 
ever, a  long  array  of  names  distioguished  in  every 
fsculty;  and,  in  additiim  to  its  thetuoncal  aeminary, 
it  haa  an  academy  of  the  physic^  scieneea,  an 
otMervatory,  a  medical  adiod  summed  with  suwcal 
wBida,  an  anatomical  theatre,  and  botanical  gaidea; 
and  a  libraiy  containiug  00,000  volumes,  and  vaiioua 
soieatific  oolkotioas.  Tbs  endowment  for  the 
profiseors  and  other  teacben  are  Ubval,  but  tbe 
atteodanoe  has  deoUned  of  late  jt*M,  and  now  only 
amounts  to  about  700  st«id«nti.  Hie  Fhwdu  Intb- 
tutim  is  one  of  the  moat  importoat  wlsblJiliiiMilB 


"tytStTDgtc 


HAIXEOK— HilJJfflL 


of  tiie  pUca.  8m  Fbakckk  The  red  ttnm  ro 
ifae  BMLrfcet-plaoe,  tiM  town-h>ll,  *nd  th«  Tenudiw 
of  the  Montibarg,  the  aaeieot  neideiicfl  of  the 
arcbbiihope  of  Ukgdaboig,  ue  all  intenetiDg  to 
the  uitiqntiy.  H.  !■  laaflf  provided  with  bene- 
Tolent  and  ednoetional  eatabliihineiitB  for  tbm  pota', 
and  haa  a  ireU-oondiicted  fBatitiition  tar  the  blind, 
deaf  and  domb,  and  inaane,  with  free  aohoola  tor 
both  Mzei ;  and  aa  the  ehief  town  d  a  diabiot,  ia 
the  aaat  of  Tariooa  mreniment  ofBcea  and  conrta 
of  junadiction.  H.  baa  tnanafaotoriea  of  woollen 
Bud  linen  fabrioa,  glorea,  buttons,  hardware,  and 
Btsrdi;  but  ita  moat  importitnt  indostrjal  pti>dQot 
ii  aalt,  obtained  from  the  brine-ipringg  within  and 
near  tiia  town,  whioh  have  been  worked  from  a 
ve^  eariy  period,  and  atitl  yield  between  300,000 
and  300,000  cwta.  tjatxailj.  Tboae  within  the 
town  an  wtrrked  by  a  pirate  oompany,  while  the 
mbarban  works  an  held  by  gorenuoent  The  men 
employed  at  the  aalt-aprufg^  and  known  ■«  the 
'EUlorea,'  an  a  distinot  i»ce,  mppoaed  W  lome 
to  be  of  Wendiah,  and  by  othere  of  Cdtdo  dcacent, 
who  retain  the  pecnliar  habita  of  tbeit  forefathera. 


of  the  Oennanio  empire,  when  it  formed  an  appanage 
of  the  Ardlbisbopa  of  Magdeburg,  aninit  whom 
ihe  atiaot  frequently  waged  luocesafu  war  in  tlM 
middle  agea,  daring  whioh  period  the  city  wu  at 
theheightof  its proepetity.  Aathe point  of  otdcat 
between  raiiouB  miportaot  linea  of  i^way,  and  in 
ooiueqaence  of  the  improved  rneana  of  water-«MU- 
munieation  between  the  Saak  and  Elbe,  H.  hia'cf 
late  yean  been  "■^^'"g  rapid  advanoe  in  oommene 
and  homo  iodnatry. 

HAIJiECK,  Hkvry  Waokr,  an  American 
general,  bora  in  1816,  at  Westernville,  in  the  state 
of  New  York.  Ha  entered  Weatpoint  MUitar; 
Academy  ia  IS3S,  {;radn«tad  in  1839,  and  for  about 
»  year  acted  aa  Aaautant  Prof««or  of  Engineering. 
During  the  Hezioan  war,  ha  aerred  on  the  lower' 
eoatt  oE  CaUfomi%  and,  for  hie  gallant  lervioea,  wa* 
breveted  captain  in  1617.  From  1M7  to  1849,  he 
waa  Secretary  of  State  for  California,  noder  the 
mihtary  government  of  Kearney,  Mason,  and  Riley ; 
and  in  184B  was  a  member  of  the  convention  to  form 
and  draft  the  itate  constitntion  of  that  province. 
He  became  oaptwn  of  enginecm  in  1SS3,  left  &» 
service  in  1SS4,  and  tor  tone  time  practiaed  law  in 
8au  Franeiaeo.  On  the  ontbreak  of  tha  civil  war, 
be  joined  the  Northern  army  in  1861  aa  major- 
gtaini,  and  in  November  of  the  tame  year  waa 
appobted  Commander  ot  the  Department  of  the 
West  In  1S0%  he  beoame  KMund-in-ehi^  rengn- 
ing  in  1664,  and  becomins  Chief  td  the  Stan.  Aa  a 
ooneral,  he  waa  able  and  snoeeaafaL  He  died  at 
Haw  Orleau  in  January  1872.  He  wrote  EltnaOa 
of  Military  Art  and  SeStttet  (IStS),  JTMnt?  Lmti  </ 

HAIiLBLTriAH  (Heb.  Rmite  ye  tie  Xonf),  one 
of  the  forms  of  doxoloCT  nsed  in  t^e  ancient  chureh, 
derived  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  retuned,  even 
in  the  Qreek  and  Intdn  litunpee,  in  the  orisinal 
Helncw.  The  ain^g  of  the  doxolagy  in  this  form 
dates  from  the  very  earliest  times ;  bat  considerable 
diversity  has  prevailed  in  different  chnrchea  and  at 
different  periods  as  to  the  time  of  using  it.  Id 
general  it  may  be  said  that,  being  in  ita  own  nature 
a  canticle  of  gladneas  and  triumph,  it  was  not  need 
in  the  penitential  eeasona,  nor  in  servioea  set  apart 
for  oeoaaioDa  of  aomw  or  humiliatim.  Tn  the 
time  of  8t  Angnatine,  the  African  Chnrch  naed  the 
HaUelniah  only  from  the  feaat  of  Eaater  to  that 
'  "    '  In  other  cborohea,  it  was  foond  in 

rriaei  thronghoot  the  year,  with  tiie 


.....  _  of  the  aaaaoBs  of  Lent  and  Advent  and 
the  TWla  of  the  principal  feativftla.  In  the  Soman 
Oathouo  Chnrch,  th«  Halleluiah  ia  inlmdnoed 
both  into'  the  maai  and  into  the  aevenl  honn 
of  the  pnbUo  offioa,  but  it  ia  ditoontiaDad  from 
Septnagenma  Sondiqr  oatil  Ewteri  and  on  the 
oontrMj,  during  the  interval  between  Batter  and 
Penteoott,  it  it  mtrodnoad  more  frequently  into  the 


kuOM  of  gretktar  lolamnity. 
the  iwncealdr  tho  dead, 
at  the  quarter  tente,  and 


._,  _.  .he  quarter 
I  the  principal  vigil£  In  the  Chnrch  a 
the  firri  Prayer-book  of  Edward  TL  retained  the 
Halleluiah  in  tiie  original  Hebrew.  In  the  present 
Prayer-book,  although  retained,  it  ia  found  not  in 
the  Hebrew,  but  in  iti  ^t"g1"*'  equivalent,  Prt^ 
ye  iU  Lord.  See  Binterim's  iWvKlrijlgMtM  <i«r 
Chrul-Kailui.  KirOiA 

HALLER,  Albskirt  vok,  an  eminent  phvti- 
olodst,  was  bora  at  Bern,  October  1708,  and  died 
in  uiat  dty,  December  1777.  In  early  lUe,  he  was 
feeble  and  delicate,  being  affected  with  rioksta,  a 
diaeaae  whioh  la  not  uutrequently  aooomptmied  with 
coutidersble  inteUeotoal  preooei^.  Hia  fathor, 
Nicholas  Emmanuel  von  Haller,  who  was  as  advo- 
cate, and  had  the  rnmtation  of  bang  an  abla 
lawyer,  intended  Mm  ror  the  church ;  but  hia  own 
induutions  being  in  favour  of  medicine,  he  pro- 
ceeded in  1723  (two  yean  after  his  father's  death) 
to  the  university  of  TUUngen,  whara  he  became 
the  pnpil  of  the  well-known  anatomist  Dnvemoy. 
In  1720,  he  removed  to  Leyden,  where  ha  attended 
wiUi  much  advantage  the  leotorea  of  BoaAaave  and 
of  AlUnna,  and  oMained  the  degree  of  Doetor  tA 
Medicine  in  17S7.  He  then  vidtod  London,  whcva 
he  made  the  aoqnaintance  of  Sloana,  Dotulaa,  and 
Cheselden ;  whence  he  proceeded  to  Oz&rd,  and 
afterwards  to  Paris,  where  for  rix  montbi  he  sindied 
anatomy  and  botany  nnder  Window  and  De  JoasieQ; 
but  one  of  his  nei^boars,  who  waa  aani^ed  by 
hia  diMeotions,  having  Ihraatoied  to  denonnoe  him 
to  the  polioe,  he  made  a  ramd  retreat  to  Baac^ 
whwe  he  became  the  jpi^il  A  3<iba  Bernoulli,  the 
celebrated  matbematioian.  After  aaven  yaan'  ttody 
in  tbcae  different  aeatt  ot  learning,  he  retniued,  in 
hit  22d  yaar,  to  hia  native  mtf,  and  commenoed 
praotiae  aa  a  phyaieian.  Tit*  pMtmot  rf  anat«ny, 
Ueig,  having  fallen  iU,  H  undertook  the  dntiet 
of  hu  doaa;  be  likvviaa  devoted  mnch  of  hit 
time  about  this  period  to  tiw  botany  of  the  Alpa ; 
and  also  pablished  a  otlebcated  deaeriptivo  poem, 
entitled  Dit  Aipen  (The  Alps).  In  17S&  he  waa 
appointed  physician  to  tiie  hotpital,  and  shortly 
Mterwards,  principal  librarian  and  curator  of  tlu 
cahinelof  medal*;  but  theaeoffioea  he  did  not  bold 
long,  for  in  1738)  George  II.  wiahing  to  aetabliih 
a  univani^  at  OSttiiigen,  ofltoed  him  the  ptofta- 
sorship  ot  medicine,  anatomy,  botai^,  and  manuay, 
which,  after  tome  heeitatJOB,  b*  aoeepied.  ran 
this  tmie.  ha  gave  up  tfa*  pvactice  of  hit  profetaion, 
and  for  the  next  18  years  devoted  himself  l<4lolly  to 
ttnnhing  and  tn  nriginal  I  laiMi  iili  He  took  an  aenv* 
part  in  the  form^loa  of  the  Rt^al  Academy  of 
Soienoea  of  GWtingBn ;  and  the  memmia  <rf  the  toaetjr, 
whidi  appewed  nnder  the  title  of  ConunmAiru 
SoeUMU  M«fia  Sdatliantm  QoUingeBtU,  OMitain 
many  of  hia  p^lera.  Daring  the  period  that  be 
held  tlie  jnofeasoTship— viK,  fiom  IT3S  to  17fi3— be 
compoaed  and  pnbGahed  86  worka  on  medical 
BubjectBi  chiefiy  on  phyBology  and  botany;  and  it 
is  recorded  that  he  conbiboted  upwarts  of  12,000 
notioea  or  nview*  of  books  to  tiie  QHUingitAe 
gdArU  Ameigiit,  a  monthly  periodical  woric,  of 
whioh  he  waa  editor.    In  1703.  in  ~~  ~' 


disputea  with  hit  collaagoea,  and  probably  in  part 
itom  tha  delicate  atate  d  hi*  baalth,  ka  reugnad 


HALLET— HALLUOIKATIONa. 


hil  ohur,  and  Ktnmed  to  Ids  native  tava,  nhera 
hs  Eabaeqaeii%  held  nvenl  imporUnt  and  hononr- 
kble  offices.  He  rtill,  however,  retwned  hii  pomtian 
u  president  of  the  Boyal  Academy  of  ScienceB, 
ud  other  more  subEtwitid  dietinctiotu,  inch  aa  a 
retiiiiiK  allowance,  ko.  It  was  after  liia  reti>«iiieiit 
from  GOttingen  tiiat  eome  of  bia  most  important 
writinn  weie  published,  amongst  which  must  be 
aspecially  meuhoned  hii  EUmenIa  Pkyiioiogia  Cor- 
porii  Humani  (Laoaume,  8  voli.  4to,  1757—1766) 
— by  far  the  moat  impcrtant  of  hia  works— and 
hia  fonr  BibBctheea,  or  critical  catalogues  of  worliB 
Ml  botany,  aniveiy,  (uatomy,  and  niedicine.  The 
inoreaai^  maladies  of  hia  lat^  daja  did  not  diatract 
hia  mind  from  the  study  of  his  UTonrite  Bubjecta. 
He  recoided  all  the  aymptoma  of  hia  laat  illness — a 
combination  of  gont  and  disease  of  the  bladder — 
and  the  gradual  cessation  of  hia  vital  functions ;  and 
hia  last  words,  addreaaed  to  his  physician,  were ; 
'  Hy  friend,  the  pnlae  haa  oeased  to  beat.' 

H.'b  enunenoe  aa  a  man  of  science  was  didy 
reoogniaed  even  in  hia  own  lifetime.  In  1739.  he  was 
a[^omt«dptTOciaiitothekiiigof  Great  Britain:  he 
was  eanoolea  by  the  emperor  of  Germany  in  1748 ; 
the  nniverntie8  of  Berlm,  Oxford,  and  Utrecht  in 
vain  endeaToured  t«  obtain  him  aa  their  professor ; 
and  he  was  an  honorary  member  of  all  the  aden- 
tifio  Booietiea  of  Enrope.  Hia  name  ia  especially 
connected  with  the  doctrine  of  muscular  irrit- 
aUlity,  which  ia  noticed  in  the  article  Mubolb 
AMD  MUBCULlA  TiBBUB ;  and  if  he  made  bat  few 
poailiYe  additiona  to  our  loundedge,  hia  teaching 
and  writings  impressed  a  new  aspect  on  phyai<Jogy 
— a  aedence  of  which  he  has  dea^vedly  been  termed 
'The  Father."  But,  while  hia  name  ia  indelibly 
recorded  in  the  annals  of  science,  hia  tepntation  in 
hia  own  country  as  a  poet  ^bably  eioeeda  hie 
&me  as  an  anatomist  and  physiologist,  Die  BUgitAe 
Chdiehle  (Elegiac  Poems),  ftc.  being  still  frequency 
repnbliahad  in  Germany. 

HALIiKT,  EDKcnD,  a  celebrated  aitionomer  and 
'ft  London  aoap-boiler,  bom  at 
■  -  '-  ■"*  -  ---edat  8t 
Colh^, 

Osford,  which  he  entered  in  1673.  Be  early  became 
'  an  experimenter  in  phyaica — before  leaving  achool, 
he  had  made  observations  on  the  variation  of  the 
oeedle.  In  1676,  he  published  a  paper  (PAito- 
tophical  TVowaettoni)  on  the  orbita  of  the  prin- 
oqial  planets ;  abo  obaervatioDa  on  a  apot  on  the 
aan,  nam  which  he  inferred  Ha  rotation  round  its 
axis.  In  November  <rf  the  same  year  he  went  to  3t 
Helena,  wbrae  for  two  years  he  applied  himaclf  to 
the  formation  oi  a  catalogue  of  the  stara  in  the 
•onthern  hemiaphere,  which  he  pnbliahed  in  1679 
[Oalalogiit  8l^UM-um  Attilralium).  On  hia  return, 
he  waa  chosen  a  !F^ow  of  the  Itoyal  Society,  and 
deputed  by  that  body  to  go  to  Danzig  to  settle  a 
controversy  between  Hooke  and  Helvetins  respect- 
ing the  proper  ^aaiea  for  astronomical  obaervatioos. 
In  1680,  he  made  the  tour  of  Europe,  during  which 
lie  made  observationa  with  Caasini  at  Paria  cm  the 
great  comet  which  goea  by  his  name,  and  the  return 
of  iriiioh  he  predicted.  Hia  obaervationa  on  this 
oomet  fonned  part  of  the  foundation  of  Newtm'a 
calcnlation  of  a  oomslfa  orint,  H.  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1681,  and  in  1689  pnbHahed  iPML  Traiu.) 
hia  theoty  ot  the  Tariatim  of  the  H^net.  The 
next  year,  he  ntade  the  acquaintance  of  Newton 
— the  oocadon  being  hia  desire  for  a  test  of  a  con- 
fectore  whicli  he  bad  made  that  the  centripetal  force 


._ this  faot    For  an  aocounf  of  H. 

oomieotkm  with  the  puUiaatiou  ot  the  Frino^la, 


■ee  Nbwtoh.  In  1666,  U.  published  an  acoonut  of 
the  ta^de-winds  and  monaoona  on  seas  near  and 
between  the  taYiplca,  whidi  he  followed  by  some 
other  chemico-meteorological  papers.  In  1692,  be 
published  hia  hypothe«a  relabve  to  the  change  in 
the  Variatbns  of  the  Needle,  to  test  the  troth  of 
which,  by  obtaining  mesaures  of  the  variations  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  he  waa  sent  in  1698  in 
conunandT  of  a  ship  to  the  western  ocean  ;  but  his 
crew  mutinied,  and  he  was  obliged  to  retorn.  The 
next  ^year,  howerer,  be  ssHed  again  on  the  same 
expedition,  and  the  result  of  hia  observations  was 
given  to  the  world  in  a  gener^  charts  for  which  he 
was  rewarded  by  the  ranked  cqitain  in  the  navy  with 
half-pay  for  life.  Soon  after,  he  made  a  chart  of  the 
tides  in  the  Channel,  and  snrveyed  the  coaat  ol 
Balmatia  for  the  emperor  of  Anatris.  On  the  death 
of  Dr  Wallis  in  1703,  he  waa  ^ipointed  Savillian 
profeasor   of  geometry   at    Oxfrad.      In    170S   he 

Eubliahed  his  reaearcliea  on  the  orbita  of  the  oomets. 
n  1713,  on  the  death  of  Sir  Hana  Sloane,  he  became 
aecretary  of  the  Roj-al  Society;  in  1716  he  made 
valuable  eiperimento  with  the  diving-bell,  which 
were  afterworda  published ;  and  in  1720,  after  the 
death  of  Flamsteed,  he  became  astronomer-n^al,  and 
continued  without  aaaistanoe  to  conduct  tiie  opera- 
tions at  the  Obaervatory  with  nnronitting  cmergy. 
In  this  ofBce,  and  eng^ed  capeoially  in  atndying 
the  moon'a  tnotiooa,  he  paaaed  tiie  rest  irf  hia  life. 
In  1729  he  waa  choaen  a  forogn  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Paris.  He  died  at  Greenwich, 
14th  Januan  1742,  SS  years  old.  H.  had  married, 
in  1686,  a  (kughter  of  Mr  Tooke,  auditor  of  Ex- 
chequer, by  whom  he  had  several  children,  Beeidea 
the  writings  mentioned,  H.  wrote  many  othera. 
Hia  Taimia  Aalronomica  did  not  appear  till  1749. 
Amona  his  principal  discoveriea  may  tie  mentioned 
that  of  the  long  inequality  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn, 
and  that  of  the  slow  acceleration  of  the  moon'a  mean 
motion.  He  has  the  honour  of  having  been  the  first 
who  predicted  the  return  of  a  coinet,  and  also  of 
having  recommended  the  observation  of  the  tranaita 
of  Venua  with  a  view  to  determining  the  son's 
parallax — a  method  of  aacertaining  the  paiallax 
Bret  suggested  by  James  Gregory. 

HALLErS  COMET.    See  Comw. 

HA'LLOWELL,  a  city  in  Maine,  United  States, 
the  river  Kennebec,  2  miles  aonth  of  Augusta. 

has  a  town-hall,  7  ohnrche*,  3  banka,  1  newspaper 

ice,  a  cotton-fa<^t7,  Ac  It  ia  belt  known  abroad 
from  the  fine  qnaUty  of  granite  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. Steam-boata  and  yeaaela  of  nine  feet  draught 
~n  load.     Pop,  in  1870,  3007. 

HALLOW-ETEN,  or  HALLOWEEN,  the  name 
popularly  given  to  the  eve  or  vJgQ  of  All  Eallowa, 
or  festi^  of  All  Sainta,  which  beins  the  lat  of 
November,  Halloween  is  the  evening  of  the  31at  of 
October.  In  fkigland,  it  waa  long  cuitomaiy  to 
crack  nuts,  duck  for  applea  in  a  tub  of  water,  and 
perform  other  hannleaa  fireside  revelries.  While 
the  same  thing  can  be  aoid  of  Scotland,  the  Hal- 
loween cenmonies  of  that'coantrypartookmineof 
^  ..perftitioua  character ;  taking,  among  ruatica, 
the  form  of  a  charm  to  discover  who  should  be  hia 
her  partner  for  life.  Of  theae  now  almost  ex- 
ploded cnatoma,  the  best  Bommarr  ia  that  contained 
in  Bnma's  well-known  poem  Hauotceea.  We  refer 
to  Brmd'a  Popular  Antiqtutiet  for  aome  notioe  of 
old  Hallow-even  practicea. 

HALLUCINATIONB  are  morbid  conditiona 
of  mind  in  which  perception  takes  place  where  no 
impression  has  becni  made  npon  the  external  organs 
of  the  special  senses,  and  where  the  object  is  believed 
'-  be  real  and  exiating.    A  picture  is  preaented  to 

e  imagination  when  no  ray  of  light  has  fiUIen 


t.tlTCTOgfe" 


upon  the  eye ;  a  TOice  ia  heard  when  sll  uoand 
id  lileDt ;  a  pleasant  imeU  fills  the  nostril  when 
neither  flowen  nor  feast  give  forth  their  fragrance. 
Delusions,  on  the  other  hand,  originate  at  the  other 
extremity  of  the  chain  of  comsdonsneas  in  the  mind 
itself,  and  consist 
real  sensations.  A  form 
and  it  is  regarded 

what  is  not  and  canoot  be ;  a  voice  mn  addraa 
the  listener  in  accents  of  tendemeas  and  niendship, 
which  befiH^  they  reach  the  mind  have  assumed 
the  shape  of  insnlta  and  calumnies ;  and  the  fresh 
odoor  of  a  rose  may  sngg«>t  notions  of  poison  and 
pollntion.  Bnt  hallndnations  may  involve  internal 
ezperienoca  as  well  as  the  reports  from  the  outer 
woild ;  nor  is  it  invariably  possible  or  neceaaur  to 
distingnish  h^ocinations  m>m  delusioiiiL  Ther^ 
is  a  compoaite  state  in  which  the  eztemal  imprea- 
^on  is  imaginaiy,  and  the  interpietatioit  from  such 
an  impT«aaion,  had  it  been  real,  is  erroneaos.  A 
clock  is  heard  by  a  patient  to  strike  where  not 
a  sound  is  andible  by  others,  snd  tiie  chime  i* 
held  to  be  tiie  announcement  of  the  ctack  of 
doom.  In  all  these  casea,  the  aentoriiun  itself 
must  be  held  to  be  at  faolt,  whether  the  aerves 
of  seeing  hearing,  tc,  be  etnictiirally  aSected  or 
not  These  phenomena  are  obeerved  m  connection 
with  all  Uie  senses,  but  in  different  proportioiiB ;  the 
freaoencT  being  pa-hapa  in  relation  to  the  namber 
oi  healtny  sensations  of  which  the  organ  is  the 
natnral  channel,  and  to  the  degree  of  excitement 
and  cultivation  to  which  it  it  ordinarily  tubjected. 
According  to  one  authority,  hallucinationa  of  hear- 
ing constitute  two-thirds  Ot  the  whole  obaerred ; 
bnt,  upon  a  more  careful  analysis,  the  foUowing 
tabular  expression  of  frequency  appears  to  be 
correct ;  hallacinations  of  hearing,  49 ;  of  viston,  4S ; 
of  taste,  8  ;  of  touch,  3 ;  of  smell,  1.  These  condi- 
tions are  detectable  in  all  mental  diseases  ;  bat  the 
proportioQ  vtries  acconiing  to  the  form  and  the 
mt^sity  of  the  alienation.  All  are  more  frequent 
in  nrjtjtift  ^lan  in  monomania  and  fatui^;  and  errors 
of  vision  are  more  nnmeron*  than  those  of  hearing 
ia  mania.  Lord  Brougham  at  one  time  held  that 
the  presence  of  hallncinatiopB  should  be  elected  into 
a  crucial  test  ot  the  existence  of  insanity.  Practical 
men,  however,  demonsirate  that  derangement  is 
not  necessarily  conjoined  with  socli  a  symptom. 
Eaquin)!  held  that  of  100  lunatics,  (oor-fifths  would 
be  affected  with  hallacinations.  Of  145  indivi- 
duals in  Bicetre,  Baadry  foand  that  56  presented 
hallucinations;  and  the  aubseqaent  reeearcEes  of 
Thore  and  Anhanel  in  the  same  hospital  shewed 
122  affected  oat  of  443  maniacs,  monomaniacs, 
dements,  &0.  Bii^  de  Boismont,  Dea  Hailtuiita- 
tkmt  (Paria,  ISW) ;  Anbanel  and  Thore,  Eechtrcka 
StaUkiqaa  faila  d  rHoipict  d«  Bkitre;  Michta, 
Dv  D&iTu  da  Saaatiom  (Paris,  1848). 

HaUudneUiimt  of  Sane  Men In  a  great  majority 

of  cases,  hollocinations  can  readily  be  tcsced  to 
mental  alienation,  which  is  oognuable  by  other 
signs,  or  to  conditions  of  the  nervons  system,  which 
impair  Or  pervert  without  overthrowing  the  mind ; 
or  to  general  constitutional  states,  or  positive 
disease*,  snoh  as  in  &b  case  of  Nicolai,  which 
involve  distorbance  of  the  functions  of  the  external 
senses.  There  is,  however,  a  class  of  phenomena 
which  cannot  be  ioctodod  under  any  of  these 
categories ;  where  objects  appear ;  voices  tempt, 
threaten,  soothe,  or  where  a  series  of  impreasions 
are  received  by  the  mind,  withoat  any  cotresponding 
sensation;  where  the  system  is  penecUy  healthy, 
and  where  the  indi^uiJ  affected  is  conscious  that 
what  he  mm  or  hears  is  onreaL  Medical  experience, 
however,  goes  to  shew  that  nnder  such  dream- 
stoncM  tiM  nerve,  or  some  o^an  ooonected  with 


-HALOID  SALTS. 

the  devdcipmeDt  of  special  seuBation,  or  the  brain 
itself,  is  in  an  abnoimal  or  excited  condition,  which 
falls  short  of  disease,  not  interfering  with  the  r^olor 
discharge  of  the  ordinaiy  functions  of  these  parte 
of  the  economy,  and  not  being  detectable  in  any 
other  way,  and  wbich  is  sometimea  compatible  with 
great  intelligence,  and  even  senios.  As  illnstrative 
Ot  the  Utter  proposition,  and  of  the  least  morbid 
aspect  of  men  pbantasmata,  it  m^  be  mentioned 
that  the  late  Earl  Grey  was  hanntedhv  a  gory  head, 
which  he  could  exorcise  at  wilL  Swedenborg,  while 
at  the  head  of  the  goverruneDt,  saw  members  of  the 
heavenly  hierurchy  seated  among  the  ministers  at 
the  council  board,  and  bowed  reverentially  to  them. 
Bemadotte  encountered  a  woman  in  a  r^  cloak  in 
his  rides ;  and  a  patient  has  been  described  who  was 
followed  first  by  a  cat,  then  by  a  tatterdemalion 
b^gar,  and  then  by  a  skeleton  which  never  left 
him,  walked  side  by  side,  joined  his  family  cirale, 
and  peered  through  his  curtains  at  night.  Yet 
Swedenborg  knew  that  it  was  not  flesh  and  blood 
realities  he  acknowledged ;  the  kins  shrank  from, 
but  repudiated  the  red  cloak ;  and  the  patient  dis- 
beLeved  the  skeleton,  and  detected  its  trae  nature 
and  origin. 

HALMALILLB  {^enya  amoTtiUaj,  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  TiHaeax,  closely  allied  to  the  Lime  or 
Linden  tree  of  £urope,  and  much  resembling  it^  but 
larger ;  a  native  of  Ceylon,  much  vJuod  for  its 
tiiaber,  which  is  a  favourite  hoase-building  wood  in 
that  island,  and  is  employed  also  for  carts,  casks, 
and  all  household  purposes,  and  also  for  boat- 
building, as  it  is  believed  to  reeiit  the  attacks  of 
manne  worms,  and  in  virtue  of  a  certain  unctu- 
oaity,  to  preserve  the  ironwork  from  ruat  It  is 
exported  to  Madras — where,  from  the  prind^  port 
of  eiportatioii,  it  is  known  ss  Truicomali  Wood— 
and  the  Masula  boats,  which  brave  the  formidable 
surf  there,  are  made  of  it    It  is  alight  wood. 

HA'LOGENS.  This  term,  which  is  equivalent 
to  '  salt-producers,'  is  derived  from  the  Qreek  word 
Aa2*,  salt,  and  indudea  a  veiy  distinct  and  well- 
characterised  grou])  of  non-metallic  elements — viz., 
chlorine,  bronune,  iodine,  and  Suoiitie,  which  form 
with  metals  compounds  analogous  to  sea-salt. 

The  fallowing  are  their  most  important  charao- 
terittics: 

1.  They  combine  directly  and  at  an  ordinaiy  tem- 
peratore  with  the  metals,  for  which  they  exhitnt  a 
very  strong  affimty ;  and  their  combinations  wIUl 
the  metals  present  those  properties  which  pertain 
to  Salts  (q.  v.).  No  elements  eioeptjng  these  four 
possess  the  proper^  of  entering  into  diwot  combin- 
ation with  metals,  and  of  thus  framing  salt-like 
compounds.  When  united  with  the  same  metal,  the 
salts  wbich  tbe  different  halogens  form  ar«  iso- 
morphous;  thus,  for  example,  the  chloride,  iodide, 
bromide,  and  fiuoride  of  potassium  all  crysUlUse  in 

2.  They  all  have  a  very  energetic  affinity  for 
hydrogm,  with  which  tbey  all  nnito  in  one  definite 
proportion — viz.,  2  volumes  of  the  gas  or  vapour  of 
the  halogen  with  2  volumes  of  hydrogen,  the  union 
occurring  without  change  of  bu&,  ttiat  is  to  say, 
being  represented  by  4  volumes,  and  the  resulting 
gaaeouB  compound  being  intensely  add,  and  very 
soluble  in  water.  The  adds  thus  formed  are  hydro- 
chloric, hydrobromic,  hydriodic,  and  hydroiuorio 
acids.  Moreover,  all  these  halogens  (except 
fluorine)  form  powerful  adds  witii  five  atoms  of 
oxygen^viE.,  chloric,  bromic,  and  iodic  acids ;  and 
their  salts  present  nomerous  pobte    ' 

HA'LOID  SALTS.     These 
formed  by  the  union  of  one  of  the  Halogens  (q.  v.) 
with  ft  motal.    We  may  mention  chloride  of  sodiam 


e  tile  oompounds 


tyCOO^Il 


aALOaAGIACEiE^-HALOB. 


example*. 

HAIiORAGIA'CRS,  or  HALOHA'GE^  t 
iwtanl  order  of  eioBenDiu  pIknU,  closely  allied  to 
OltagrwttE  (q.  t.}.— Itere  are  aboot  lerenty  known 
■peciM,  liBTMceona  or  half-ihmbbf ;  pretty  much 
■catterad  over  the  world,  but  almost  aD  aquatic,  or 

Kwing  in  wet  placet.  The  stem*  aod  leaves  often 
'e  Urge  air-cavities.  The  flawen  are  generally 
small,  and  the  plants  insignificant  in  appearance. 
Nor  haTO  any  of  them  any  important  Ofles,  except 
those  of  the  genus  Trapa  (q.  yj.  The  only  British 
species  are  the  Mare's  Tail  (Bipjmra  mJjpirlt)  and 
the  Watermilf oil*  {M]/riopltySum). 

HAXOS,  FABHE'LIA,  CORONA  ka.  It 
would  not  b«  etej  even  to  snomeikt*  the  wioui 
distinot  plMsmnuMMt  whkb  belong  to  the  above 
rlissns ;  we  matt,  thwefora,  be  client  to  ooudder 


thoes  of  the  ot^ns  pteaent  no  furtlur  diffioullae*, 
except  siidh  ■•  aie  of  a  poraly  mathsmatieal  natnra. 

Tm  ^rst  olass  we  have  to  ooQddar_  ia  vny  oom- 
mon.  When  the  snn  or  moon  is  partially  obsoorad 
by  a  mist  or  doud,  the  latter  not  beuig  of  the 
■pecdes  called  dmis  (see  Cuxro),  it  is  almost 
invariably  surrounded  by  coloured  rings  of  a  few 
d^reet  only  in  diameter,  called  Cotvna  [crowns]. 
Thoao  Burrounding  the  son  cannot  alwaya  be  seen 
directly;  but  by  leflection  at  tlu  surface  of  itill 
water,  or  of  a  (^ass-plate  blackened  at  the  back, 
tiie  glare  of  the  ran-light  is  soffioieidlydimiiutlied 
to  permit  the  eorona  to  be  Been.  This  m 
depends  on  the  DirmACnox  (□.  v.)  of  light,  cs  . 
by  tiie  small  splierc*  or  vesicles  of  water  nhicli 
oompose  the  cloud,  and  can  easily  be  ioutated 
by  looking  at  a  bright  object  throogh  a  piece  oE 
glass  wbick  hat  been  breathed  upon,  or  dusted 
with  Lycopodium  seed.  If  the  difEracting  particles 
be  «U  of  the  same  size,  the  rings  are  very  well 
marked ;  but  mnce  they  become  emaller  as  the 
particles  Inorease  in  size,  ordinary  fogs  and  clonds, 
whiob  gen^ntlly  contain  particlee  of  very  diffisrent 
dimensions,  give  a  oomposite  efTect,  which  spoils  the 
diadnctnees,  and  greatly  limits  the  munbo-  of  tbe 
rings.  Thus,  no  geneiw  nile  can  be  given  for  the 
Bomber  or  colonni  of  the  coronie,  but  it  may  be 
observed  that  their  diminution  in  diameter  is  a 
sign  of  the  increMS  in  size  of  the  watery  sphere* 
wldch  cause  tiMn,  sjid  therrfore  in  general  betoken* 
aj^iToaching  rain,  whioh  comes  when  the  particles 
are  no  long«-  able,  on  aecoont  of  their  size,  to  float 
in  the  air  without  sensibly  falling.  As  before  men- 
tianed,  this  appearance  is  very  common^  and,  in  fact, 
we  scaniely  see  a  fragment  01  a  clood  near  the  sun 
which  does  not  give  traces  of  colour,  dei>ending  ~ 
the  average  size  of  the  partiolea  of  which  it  o 
sista,  and  ita  angular  distance  from  the  sun. 

A  different  form  of  corona  is  lometines  wen  to 
■URonnd  the  shadow  ti  the  neetBtoi*s  head, ' 
oact  bv  Qia  ran  on  a  bank  of  foe— in  this  case  _ 
eometaoe*  ealled  a  glory  To  tOs  class  belong  the 
eolonre  generallj  seen  about  Qie  famous  '  Spectre 
of  the  BroekoL'  See  B&ookkh.  Hu  same  appear- 
anosa  sre  ren  frequently  seeo  round  the  shadow 
of  the  spectator  when  thiown  on  muddy  water,  or 
water  canning  numerous  (mall  paitides  of  sand. 
Tha  optical  ezidanation,  lonnded  mainly  upon  reflec- 
tion and  interieieaa«^  m  complete,  but  not  suited 
to  OUT  pages. 

So  ur  ths  phenMoena  depend  merely  or 
cloud  or  fog  ooDusting  of  soiall  particles;  no 
lus  yet  been  said  abrat  t^  tJkops  of  the  partiolea. 


.   -      -         .  ofthe 

sky  and  the  gorgeous  tints  of^  sonrise  and  sunset. 
But  halos  (Or.)  and  parhelia  (Or.  false  or  mock 
sons)  depend  upon  the  presence  in  the  air  of  inoa- 
merable  crystat  at  ice,  generally  forming  a  li«ht 
ciiTUS  cloud.  We  osnnot  enter  upon  a  aomi£te 
explanation  of  Uiese  phenomena,  but  ws  shall  give 
B  general  idea  of  th^  origin,  referring  the  student 
who  wishes  a  timroDgh  knowledge  M  the  snhjeot 

memoir  by  Kmv^  .t/oumol  as  FSeoli  Pat^/teA- 
nique,  iviiL],  who  has  himself  repeatedly  witnWed 
and  carefully  measured  tiie  various  appearanoM  in 
question. 

The  theory  oE  halo*  was  first  roudly  atteopted 
by  Huyghens ;  but  although  his  ezpunatioDt  are  in 
the  main  oorract  {at  all  events,  as  r^ards  the  veiy 
wpearanoes),  they  are  based 
B0&  supp    '"        -    ■  -     ' 

„ ..re  formed  ._  .,    . 

havinc  *b  opaque,  froien  nuoleus.  It  will  be 
thst  uetesnhs  ot  this  simwution  agree  with  those 
of  the  ooneot  one  in  a  few  «••«■  only.  Fnrtlur 
progrew  was  impowiUe  nntil  the  orytteUine  form 
ana  the  letraotive  index  of  ice  wtt*  obaerved.   Both 

'use  obserratioas  are  of  ^eat  difScnlty ;  bat 
have  ben  esrrted  oat  by  Wollastoa  and  oUiere 
aoasiderable  accuracy.  After  Enyshen% 
Uaiiotte,  admitting  the  crystalline  form  oi  ice- 
particles,  made  some  great  steps  in  advance,  and 
much  of  what  he  left  unexplained  was  suooeasfully 
supplied  by  Youn^  and  after  him  by  KaemtL 
The  most  oomplete  and  aystematic 


nearly  all  the  accurately  recorded  observations  of 
halos  and  parhelia— -the  great  mas*  ot  which,  ol 
course,  are  due  to  emtio  voyagers,  especially  SodimI^ 
and  Parry. 

Water  cryitallisa*  in  ths  form  ot  regular  hexa- 
gonal prisnu,  eometimea  with  phme  end*  perpen- 
dicular to  the  aides  (as  in  fig.  1),  sometimes  with 
bezagonal  pyramid*  ae  tarminalz  (fig.  3).  There  is 
also  ao  immense  varie^  of  muim  more  complex 

forms;   but  upon  the  aimpler  and  more  ~  ~~ 

once  already  mentioned, 
depend  the  ordinary  cases 
of  the  phenomena  we  an 
about  to  describe.  Now, 
if  we  consider  any  two 
non-parallel  faces  of  one 
of  the  above  ciyatals,  it 

bination  must  act  as 
a  prism,  decomposing 
white  Ugbt,  which  passes       Fig.  1.  ^g.  2. 

throuoh   them,    into    its 

constituent  colours.  Every  tuch  oi^atal,  then, 
placed  somewhere  near  ths  line  joining  the  eye 
and  sun,  must  in  general  ssnd  to  the  fanner  acme 
definitely  coloured  ray  from  each  e&otive  pair  of 
surfaces.  The  refracbve  index,  howevw,  of  we  is 
such  that  no  ray  can  pass  through  a  prism 'ot  it 
whose  ande  is  grestw  than  about  M'-S;  and  we 
are  therefore  limited  to  pairs  of  faces  whose  inclina- 
tion is  not  cuperior  to  this.  The  most  important 
pain  He  two  aitmUt  faces  of  the  prism  (fig.  1), 
where  the  hudinatjoa  is  W,  and  a  faoe  with  a 
terminal  plane  (fi^  1),  the  angle  being  90*. 

ffaio  of  22*  Iladivs. — We  may  now  suppose 
prism*  of  iccs  with  retracting  angles  ot  00*,  to  be 
di*tribnted  (with  every  poenble  positicti  of  thur 
axes)  nearly  between  the  *nn  and  the  spectator,  and 
it  is  evident  that  the  appesranoee  produced  must 
be  symmetrioal  with  reganl  to  the  line  Joining  the 
eye  and  sun,  and  ntustlhsr^oreconaiit  of  oolonred 


a  that  moistoie  often  |  onde*  with  die  sun  s 


d  by  Google 


exftct  idea  of  Ok  uitim  ot  theM  oiiala*,  lui^iaw 


light  falla  on  a  pivn,  it  ia  rtirtotnA  withoat  Mpu«- 
tion.  If  tb»  prion  be  turned  gntliULlly  fad  not- 
btnalj  kboat  iti  ude,  tl>e  rafnoced  ny  klto  tnrnt, 
but  Mii  nnifbrmly — lit  fint  npidly,  thea  alower, 
till  it  NMhM  •  pdiit  tt  vhicA  it  >ppe«n  to  be 
itiktiotuiy  tor  a  litnle ;  theoi  cu  f  urthet  toning  the 
piiiai,  IIm  rrineted  nj  rtlrvfrwttt,  kt  &*t  •lowlj', 
thcD  futar.  TheM  ii  tberetore  %  pontdon  ot  tbe 
priun,  called  Oitt  ot  mininutm  deiriatioa,  tor  whieh 
*  ali^t  ahentdon  ol  the  priim  produces  none  in  the 
diieotioik  of  the  refncted  n^.     Hence,  u  ire  hare 


TninimniTi  deviAtdon  will  conipire  to  refract  light  in 
the  lame  diieotion,  and  their  effeoti  will  be  added. 
All  tbe  othen  will  oaow  a  greaier  deriaticn  of  the 
liaht,  but  few  will  conipire  to  lend  the  light  in 
gfvta  direotioa.    The  appeannce  will  therafon 
a  brii^t  drale  of  red  light  turroimdiiut  the  ek 
centre,    its    angular    radium    being   the    angle 
miniTnnTn  dsvlMioii,  wHoh,  foT  a  piJim  o(  ice  (^  00* 
ansle,  ia  about  21°  SC.     Intlda  thia  dtcle  there 
wiS  be  ao  li;;ht ;  onteide,  k  feeble  illumination  only, 
becoming  famter  ai  we  go  furthei  from  the  — 
fuui. T i;,k»  .1 ■  ■  - 


falS^i 
dark  withii 

mixture   of __   __    .__    ._   ._. 

■pectnun  from  inmds  ontwarda ;  ao  that,  lilu  the 
lainbow,  which  it  much  reaemtuea,  it  diffias  from 
the  ordinary  SpectennL  (q.  v.)- 

If  we  conaider  next  uia  light  r^JteeUd  from  the 
aurfacei  of  the  priama,  this  will  be  tckitt,  and 
difinsed  with  approximate  onifcrmity  all  aboat  the 


ciroulM  halo, 

edge,  and  with   a 

leaa   ot  the   ooloon   of  the 


.       .  .   <r{it 

may  he)  horizoutaL  If  it  be  a  Oat  hexagonal  cake 
(a  treqnant  form  of  anew),  it  will  tend  in  the  main 
to  fall  edgeways  ao  that,  in  addition  to  the  halo 
which  de^da  upon  the  ice-dyatala  having  ever; 
poeaible  poailion,  there  are  distinct  phenomena 
depending  on  an  exceia  of  the  cryatals  having  their 
axe*  wbcal  or  horizontoL  If  we  oonadder  Um  aun 
M  hut  riaing  or  Betting,  it  ia  plun  that  tbe  right 
and  left  ho^  portiona  of  the  halo  will  be  moch 
more  atnnigly  marked  than  tbe  otheie,  m  tiieee 
parta  are  formal  br  eryitala  whoM  axes  are  ver- 
ticsl,  and  which  form  the  majority.  There  are 
therefore  to  lif^t  and  left  ot  the  aun,  and  on  tbe 
halo,  bright-cobnied  images  of  the  aon,  which  are 
called  parhtiia,  or  mock-auna. 

It  ia  perhapa  a  little  more  difficult  to  explain 
to  the  non-mathematic*l  reader  the  formation  of 
parhelia  when  the  aun.  ia  not  on  the  horizoa,  and  to 
ahaw  why  they  then  aeparate  from  the  halo,  and  are 
fonned  externally  to  it,  atill,  however,  at  the  aame 
altitude  oa  the  aun.  We  may,  however,  make  the 
attempt  oa  followi:  Suppoae  an  indeAiiltdv  long 
vertical  priam ;  raya  of  aunlieht  falling  on  toil  ore 
separated,  oa  before,  but  if  the  tun  hi  not  on  the 
honzon,  they  no  longer  fall  on  the  piiam  perpendi- 
cnlarly  to  its  edge.  Optica  however,  shews  na  that 
for  tlua  oblique  inridenea  also  there  ia  a  position 
of  T^ini'"""'  deviation,  and  thoefore  one  "tg"!"- 
diatuice  from  tiie  snn  at  whioh  the  t^ota  ot  a  great 
number  of  [uiama  oosapire,  while  far  fewer  conapire 
at  any  other  angle.  It  ia  alao  ahewn  that  thia 
Twiniifiinw  sDgle  ia  grettar  oa  the  incidence  ia  more 
oblique,    Also  the  mclmation  of  t^  incident  and 


rrfraotad  laya  to  the  edge  <d  a  priom  ia  always  the 
aame,  howem  the  r^  aa»y  UL  Hence,  aa  Uie 
edge*  of  the  pritms  in  question  are  vertical,  the 
re&oeted  toyi  appear  to  oome  from  a  point  at 
the  aame  altitnde  as  the  ann,  and,  by  what  woa 
ronarked  above,  farther  from  the  aun  aa  the  ann  ii 
higher.  Henoe  the  formation  ol  the  parhelia  con- 
aiating  of  two  ooloored  image*  of  ths  ann,  at  the 
aame  altitnde  as  that  body,  and  further  beyond 
the  halo  aa  the  ran  ia  higher.  Aoonrate  mMenr^ 
menta  of  thur  diatanoe  from  the  snn  for  different 
altitudes  have  been  fonnd  to  aooord  exactly  with 
the  resnhs  of  oaloulation  from  the  optical  data.  Sea 
PPjag.  3). 

r^hdad  from  the  mrfaoea  of  the  vertical 


priama,  ^  oonrae  ajmora  to  cc 

the  aun  in  a  vertiool  minor,  w 


,  'hich,  by  optical  Uwi, 
have  the  same  altitude  aa  the  aun  itadl 
Buoh  imagea  then  form  a  vAile  horiaontal  anall 
circle,  paaaing  throngh  the  aun  and  the  p^^fili^ 
This  ia  often  ohaerved,  and  helpa  to  corroborate  the 
above  theory  of  the  coloured  spi)earances.  See  the 
dotted  line  FSP  (fig  3). 

The  light  refleoted  fFOm  the  horizontal  terminala 
of  these  priama  mnat  evidentlv  produce  a  aingle 
white  image  of  the  sun,  aa  mach  below  the  horizon 
aa  he  ia  above  it,  and  rice  vend.  This  appaaruice  ia 
also  common  enough. 

Tangent  Arci  to  the  Halo  of  22°. — We  have  aeeu 
that  in  many  caeee  the  priama  of  ice  ore  oo  abort  aa 
to  be  hexagonal  platea.  Their  natural  poaition  in 
falling  will  be  edge  foremost,  or  there  will  be  a 
multitude  of  anow-cryatals  whoaa  axes  ate  nearly 
horizontal,  but  of  course  arranged  in  all  directiona 
in  the  horizontal  plane.  Let  us  cooaidet  fint  all 
those  whose  axes  ore  perpendicular  to  the  lioe 
joining  the  apectator  with  the  sun  ;  these  evidently 
(by  an  explajuition  similar  to  that  of  the  parhelia 
given  above)  form  parhelia  on  the  halo  at  in  upper 
and  lower  points.  Another  aet,  whose  axes  are  sJso 
neatly  horizontal  and  parallel,  but  al^tly  inclined 
to  the  fonnar,  will  form  parhelia  to  one  o(  otlitt 
aide  of  ths  vertical  plane  paanng  throngh  the  """t 
and  on  acoonnt  of  the  obliquity  M  the  inddenoe,  the 
angle  of  deviation  is  increued,  and  theae  are  ouUde 
the  hala  They  are  further  to  the  right  or  left 
of  the  sun'a  vertical  plane,  and  further  outside  the 
halo  aa  the  oryatala  are  more  and  more  tuned 
in  their  horizontal  plane.  The  complete  temlt  is 
a  brightly  coloured  pair  ot  arcs,  which  loach  the 
halo  at  ite  upper  and  lower  points,  and  lie  completely 
outside.  For  certain  elevation*  of  the  aun,  Uieoe 
combine,  forming  a  curve  like  on  ellipse,  whose 
centre  ia  the  aun,  whoae  larger  aiia  is  honzont^  and 
which  tonchM  the  halo  externally  at  it*  upper  and 
lower  points. 

Sato  q/46*. — Tbi*  depends  npon  the  ri^t-angled 
priam*,  formed  by  combming  a  terminal  ^Haa  with 
one  of  the  face*  of  the  hexuonal  priam ;  and  with 
the  aingle  exception  ot  a  diArent  refrooting  angles 
oouBeqaeut  greater  dimenmons,  ita  explaao- 
1  its  appearanoe  are  the  same  aa  those  cd  ths 
hak)of22*. 
Perhaps  the  most  msgmfloent^  both  tor  brightness 
id  teporation  of  oolours,  of  ijl  the  haloa,  is  the 
coloured  arc  which  touchea  the  halo  of  40*  at  ita 
loint  Thia  depends  entirely  npon  the  refrso- 
lidit  throiwb  the  npper  ei^ea  of  piiams 
to  fi^  1,  and  whoae  oxm  ore  vtrikaL  It  is 
re  due  to  the  same  canse  a*  tbe  parhelia  of 
the  halo  of  22* ;  and  it  ii  a  rtmarkaUe  prod  td  the 
troth  of  this,  that  there  is  bat  one  instance  teoorded 


CglizodtyGuUylt 


HAL0800PB— HAM 


Tliere  ue  also  lometiinea  seen  biigbtly  Dolonred 
•roa  tooolling  one  on  each  nde  ths  lower  hall  of  the 
htio  of  46*.  They  are  explmiaed  by  the  ri^ht 
•ogles  of  primna  wnoae  axes  ue  horizont^  AguUi 
a  pkriwlios  being  itaelf  a  eonree  of  light, '' 


....  „  haloa  of  22°, 

Ac  All  phcmomena  of  the  latter  cUn  are  termed 
mwndaru.  They  are  in  general,  ae  might  be  expected, 
Btnch  famter  than  the  priTnary  ones,  bnt  in  utout- 
sble  cironniatancea  have  been  diatindily  obeerved. 

In  addition  to  onr  Teiy  impcriect  sketch  of  the 
lesnlti  of  the  priEnu  of  6(r  and  90*,  we  might  con- 
aider  ihortly  those  due  to  varioua  combinationi  of 
planet  of  the  hoiagona]  pyramid  (fig.  S)  with  each 
other,  or  with  planes  of  the  priim ;  but  the  pheno- 
mena depending  on  these,  though  eaaily  enoogh 
predicted  mathenaticallf,  are  aat  well  niited  for 
rerbal  explanation. 

We  ooncluda  with  a  ron^  geometrical  aketoh  of 
a  tolerably  complete    iet    of  haloe,  obeerred  by 


Bravua  in  Sweden  in  1S39.  The  marks  on  the 
sketch  irill  be  sufficient  to  inform  the  mtdec  to 
whidi  of  tlw  clnaiM  above  mentioned  the  vinous 


HAX08COPE,  tlie  name  of  a  beautiful  Optical 
instrument  invented  by  M.  Bravaia  of  France,  for 
the  exhibition  of  oil  the  phenomena  connected  with 
halos,  parhelia,  Ac  It  consists  of  a  vertical  axis 
with  a  clock  morement^  for  the  purpose  of  giving  it 
a  rapid  rotation;  two'gUa  prisms,  one  h^w  to 
contain  water ;  two  opaque  platce  of  glass  to  obeeore 
one  or  two  sides  of  the  prisms,  as  required  in  differ- 
ent ezperinientB  i  a  quadrangnlar  prism ;  and  a  small 
arm  canying  a  mirror  -  ^is  lost  and  the  three 
prisma  are  ofi  adapted  for  mounting  on  the  oiiii.  To 
imitate  the  parhelion,  the  vertical  axis  with  the 
•olid  glass  prism  is  set  in  rapid  rotation  in  a 
darkened  chamber,  with  a  candle  ten  or  twelve  feet 
distant,  but  with  the  flame  on  the  same  pUne  as 
the  rotating  prism ;  two  sides  of  the  prinn  are 
to  be  obscnmd  with  the  movable  opaqoe  sUdes  of 
gloss.  The  spectator  then  looks  honxontally  at  the 
revolving  instnunent,  and  aeet  the  parhelion  ciide. 
Different  diapontions  of  the  appetatus  produM  the 
■llied  phenomena. 

HAL8TEAD,  a  market-town  of  Enghuiil,  in  the 
oonnty  of  Essex,  is  agreeably  situated  on  both  banks 
of  the  Colne,  about  43  mHea  north-east  of  London, 
and  on  the  high-road  from  that  city  to  Norwich.  Its 
parish  ohtirch,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  count?,  is  in 
the  -pezpendicnlar  style,  with  a  decorated  chanceL 
The  chief  educational  institution  is  Lady  Msiy 
Kaiosey's  Grammar  School,  with  a  small  eodowment, 
founded  in  1094    The  mannfactnrea  are  cr^B,  silk. 


wdgtraetber 
I,  byBobett 


velvet,  snd  paper ;  brick-nuking  and  stnw-plaituig 
are  also  earned  on.    Pop.  (1871)  S783. 

HA'LTARDB,  the  amallcr  ropea  and  tacUa  used 
in  hoistmg  soils  or  other  portions  of  a  ship's  eonip- 
ment  The  signsl  halyards  are  mnning  ootds  ol  t£a 
best  white  hetnp,  pasang  throtwh  a  po^MV  in  tli» 
tniek  at  the  mast-head,  or  gafpcnnt,  and  thenoa 
to  the  deck ;  the  flags  when  attached  to  tliem  are 
rolled  up,  and  then  hoisted  snd  expsnded  to  tiie 
wind  by  a  jerk  when  the  proper  moment  arrives. 

HALYBUBTON,  Tsohah,  a  Scotch  divine,  bom 
1674,  died  1712.  He  was  ths  author  of  several 
works,  including  Jfoterof  Adtfion  ititt^itimi,  and 
Saeaied  naeatar]/  to  Matt'l  HapfMtM ;  Tim  Ortat 
Concent  t^  Baleaiuit;  and  2Vk  Strmoni  prtadied 
Wore  andqfler  tht  CWefrmtMH  tff  lit  Lordt  Simper. 
Ilia  works,  especially  the  antobiagt^ihie  memoir, 
of  the  '  Holy  Halybmion'  wer«  once  very  popular 
among  the  people  of  Sootiaod ;  and  ctmi  at  the 
present  day  they  are  greatly  relished  by  netsont  of 
a  serious  disposition.  They  wvrepuUisbed, traetber 
with  an  Essay  on  hU  Life  and  Wiib'  •  *  ■  ■ 
Boras,  D.D.  (London,  1635). 

HAM,  according  to  tile  writer  of  Geneais,  was 
one  of  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  and  the  brother  of 
Shem  and  JaphetiL  Hie  word  is  derived  .by 
Oesenius  frcon  uia  Heb.  Samam,  '  to  be  hot.'  Hn 
descendants  are  represented  in  llie  biblical  nsrra- 
' '      as  peopling  the  southern  regions  of  tiie  earth, 

^.    .u-  a — :-_  /i_i.  D 1   Ethiopia,  Libya, 

m  ajlpear  to  have 
particular.  The 
„,  IS  Kem  or  CAem, 
supposed  to  be  the  same  word  as  Ham,  and  sinii- 
fymg  both  black  and  hot.  In  the  hierogly^iie 
language,  the  name  of  Egypt  is  m  iiiiiiwiil  by  the 
two  letters  K.  M.  In  the  Bosetta  Ijiscription,  the 
word  occurs  more  than  ten  times,  and  is  resd  by 
Champollion,  Ohmi.  It  is  a  curious,  snd  somewhiA 
perplexing  drcumstanoe,  thit  Ham  should  have 
reoeived  a  name  that  must  have  been  more  i.-ppto- 
priate  to  his  descendants  tiian  to  himself,  for  we  sre 
not  told,  and  there  is  do  reason  to  beUeve,  that  be 
was  more  sun-bumed  or  blacker  thsn  his  Isothersi 
In  explanation  of  this,  it  is  customarily  urged  that 
the  name*  of  Nosh  and  his  sons  had.  'prophetic 
sipiifications' — an  hypothesis  which  few  feel  to  he 
sUogether  satisfactory. 

HAM,  a  smsU  town  and  fortress  of  France,  ia 
the  department  of  Somme,  and  situated  on  the  rivw 
of  that  name,  is  distant  36  miles  esst-soutb-esst  of 
Amiens,  and  about  70  miles  north-iiorth-east  of 
Psris.  It  is  of  ancient  ori^n ;  coins  were  sbuck 
here  in  the  reign  of  Chsries  the  Bsld  (940—877). 
The  seigniory  or  lordship  of  Ham,  erected  into  a 
duchy  in  14CiT,  was  held  bythe  fsmilies  of  Courcy, 
Orleans,  Luxembourg,  andVendome.  The  town  is 
chiefly  noteworthy  on  account  of  its  old  fortress  or 
ossUe,  built  by  the  Constable  de  Saint  Pol  in  1470, 
and  now  used  as  ■  state  prisoii.  Its  walls  sre  39 
feet  thick,  and  its  principal  tower  is  108  feet  in 
height,  and  the  same  in  diameter.  It  is  memorable 
as  the  place  of  confinement  of  Marlxsuf,  Moocey, 
and  others  ;  and  subseqnentiy  of  Polignac,  Chaate- 
lauze,  Peyninnet,  and  Ouemon  BanviUs  fetmi  I83I  to 
1836 }  and  of  Louis  Nudeon,  the  late  Enqwior, 
from  1840  tiU  1M6.  After  the  coup  ^Oat  of 
the  2d  Seoember  ISfil,  the   republican  C}«ns>*U 

"--" I«morioi^  Channmier,  snd    otjlers 

ime.    Pop.  --- 


avaignac, 
etekept. 


ipt  here  for  so 


Pop.  (187Z)  3674. 


..„ ^lof  the 

>,  or  hog,  more  especially  the  Ion.  Ham- 
a,  what  is  the  ssme  tMns,  baoMS-onrin^ 
med  in  a  varie^  of  methods,  saob  count); 


tyCoOglC 


HAMADAN-HAHBima. 


or  dittrict  hsTing  iti  own  peculiar  treatmeiit ;  time, 
however,  reUte  to  minor  pointa.  The  eanntial 
opentiont  ara  aa  follows :  The  meat  is  first  well 
mbbed  with  bay-aalt,  and  either  left  on  a  bench 
that  the  brine  nuy  drain  away,  or  covered  np  in  a 
clooo  vessel ;  after  a  few  days  it  is  rubbed  again,  this 
time  with  a.  miitore  of  salt  and  saltpetre,  to  which 
siwti  ia  sometiniee  added,  or  with  a  mixture  of  salt 
and  sugar  alone.  It  is  then  consigned  to  the  beach 
or  tnb  for  at  least  a  week  longer,  after  which  it  ie 
generally  ready  for  drying.  Wtt  laUaig  reqnireB,  on 
the  whole,  about  three  weeks ;  dry  aaliing,  a  week 
longer.  Mutton-hams  should  not  be  kept  in  pickle 
longer  than  12  or  14  days.  Some  hams  are  merely 
hong  ap  to  dry  without  being  smoked;  othetH 
ore  removed  to  the  stnoking-houae,  which  consists 
of  two  and  sometiinea  three  stories ;  the  fire  ia 
kindled  in  the  lowest,  and  (he  meat  is  hung  up  in 
the  second  and  third  stories,  to  which  the  smoke 
aacenda  throa^  holes  in  the  flooring.  The  fire  is 
kept  up  with  supplies  of  oak  or  beech  chips,  though 
in  some  diatncb^  as  in  Weatphalia,  twigs  of  juniper, 
and  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britwn  peat,  are  used- 
Fir,  larch,  and  soch  kinds  of  wood,  on  acconnt  of 
the  onpleasant  flavour  they  impart,  are  on  no 
account  to  be  used-  The  fire  must  be  kept,  nieht 
and  day,  in  a  smouldering  state  for  about  sii  weeks, 
at  the  eiid  of  which  time,  if  the  ham  be  not  more 
than  five  or  six  inches  deep,  it  is  perfectly  cured. 
As  cold  weather  is  preferalde  for  this  operation,  it 
is  chiefly  carried  on  during  winter.     Many  of  the 


y-people 
wood  and  peat  ai 
hanging  them  u] 
method  common 
beef  and  mutt 
nortii  of  Engl 
that  of  pork-Ai 


)  inside  large  wide  chimneys,  a 
in  Weabnoreland.  The  curing  of 
hams  is  carried  on  chicSy  in  the 
1  and  Dumfriesshire  in  Scotland; 
I,  on  the  other  hand,  forma  a  large 

.tem   in    the  industry  of   various 

Westphalia,  in  partioular,  is  celebrated 

for  the  delicacy  and  flavour  of  its  smoked  hams. 
The  efficiency  of  wood-smoke  in  preservine  meat, 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  pyroligneoos  acicL  See 
Ptkolionbods  Acid  and  Ckeascie. 

HAMADA'N,  an  important  town  of  Persia,  in 
the  province  of  Irak  Ajemi,  ia  a«reeably  situated 
at  the  northern  base  of  Mount  Mwund,  180  miles 
vest-south-west  of  Tdieron,  in  lat  34°  SCX  S.,  and 
long.  48"  2?  E.  Its  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty ; 
but  the  trade  and  mauufactores  carried  on  impart  to 
it  a  lively  and  bustling  air.  It  contains  nnmeroos 
caravansaries,  excellent  and  well-furnished  bazaars, 
gardens,  baths,  and  mooquee,  as  well  as  two  notable 
tombs,  one  that  of  the  famous  Arabian  pbiloeopher 
and  physician  Avicenna  (q.  v.),  which  draws  numer- 
ous pilgrims  to  the  town ;  and  the  other  affirmed 
to  be  £at  of  Moriiecai  and  Esther.  During  fooi 
months  in  winter,  the  cold  here  is  eioesdve,  and 
fuel  with  difficult  procnred ;  throughout  the  rest 
of  the  year,  however,  tiie  climate  is  deLghtfuL 
Being  the  centre  of  converging  routed  from  Bagdad, 
Erivan,  Teheran,  and  iB^hMi,  it  ia  the  scat  of 
a  large  tranait  trade.  H. .  carries  on  extensive 
maoufoctnres  of  leather ;  coarse  carpets,  woollen 
and  cotton  fabrics,  are  ^so  made  to  some  extent. 
Fop.  variously  estimated  at  from  10,000  to  40,000. 
Beceht  explorers  have  coacluded,  from  hiatorioal 
evidence,  and  from  the  coins,  inecriptdona,  and  other 
remains  found  here,  that  H.  occupies  the  dto  of 
the  Median  Eabatana,    See  Ecbataha. 

HA'MADKTADS.     See  Ntiohs. 

HAUAMELIDE^    See  Witoh  Hazk. 

HAHAITN,  JoBAKH  OxoHO,  a  very  ori^nal 
Uiinker  and  author,  who,  on  the  title-pwe  of  some 
of  his  writings,  called  himself  the  'Mapcian  of 


highly  1 
other  gi 


the  North,'  woa  horn  at  KOnusberg,  in  Prussia, 
August  27,  1730.  His  eariy  Gfe  was  aomewhot 
checkered;  and  a  failnre  to  acquit  himself  credit- 
ably in  some  business  with  which  a  merchant  of 
Riga  had  intrusted  him,  induced  him  to  abandon 
himself  to  dissipation,  from  which  he  was  rescued 
by  reading  the  Bible.  Be  now  devoted  himaalf  to 
the  stody  of  the  ancient  languages  and  of  Oriental 
literature,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of  many 
eminent  aothors.  He  died  at  MUnster,  June  21, 
I7SS.  As  an  author,  H.  was  little  esteemed  by 
his  contemporaries,  as  be  opposed  the  tendenciea 
of  the  age,  and  defended  the  dignity  of  revelation 
Sfainst  the  attacks  of  the  Battomuista,  and  was 
thus  placed  in  opposition  to  the  multitude  of 
scholars.    His  language,  besides,  was  figurative  and 

symboiioal  l~   ^'""   '"'"'" — ^  ^ "~      *" " 

concealed,  r 

thinking.      But  his  unmistakable  genius,  and  the 

rich  suggestiveuesB  of  his  ideas,  were  appreciated 

;hly  by  Herder,  Gioethe,  Jacobi,  Jean  Paul,  and 
. .  ler  great  men.  The  influence  which  he  exercised 
upon  Herder's  views  was  very  great.  All  his 
writings  exhibit  a  deeply  spiritual  faith  in  the 
unseen  and  the  etemaL  Fragments  of  them  were 
pnblished  by  Cramer,  under  the  titie  Sibylimiidta 
BliUUr  da  Magtu  aiu  Norden  (Leip.  1819},  and  his 
SOmmllkAa  Werke,  by  F.  Roth  (7  vols.  Berlin,  1821 
— 1B26 ;  an  8th  voL,  pnbli^ed  by  G.  A.  Wiener, 
Berlin,  1843,  contains  additions  and  exidanationa). 
His  biograijiy  was  published  by  E.  H.  Childe- 
meister  (Uamann't  Leben  umf  SeJinfUn,  3  vols., 
Gotha,  1857). 

HAHBATO,  a  town  of  Ecuador,  in  South 
America,  standa  in  lat.  1°  4'  S.  and  long.  78°  Sff  W., 
at  the  north-east  base  of  Chimborazo,  with  Coto- 
poxi,  about  S5  miles  distant,  in  front.  Its  elevation 
above  the  sea  is  SSflO  feet.  At  this  altitude,  wheat 
grows  even  under  the  equator.  Though  twice 
deetroyed— by  an  eruption  of  Cotopaxi  in  1698,  and 
by  an  earthquake  in  1796 — H.  has  still  a  flourishing 
trade  in  gram,  sugar,  and  cochineal,  and  contaioa 
about  12,000  inhabitonts- 

HA'MBUBG,  The  Befublio  or,  ia  the  lar^t  of 
the  free  cities  of  Germany,  and  is  situated  in  lat. 
53°  32*  N.,  and  long.  9°  68*  E.,  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Elbe,  at  its  junction  with  the  small  s 
the  Alster  and  the  Bille,  about  75  miles  from  the 
German  Ocean.  H.  was  founded  by  Charlemagne 
in  804,  bnt  its  commercial  history  began  in  the  13th 
c,  when  the  Emperor  Frederick  L  granted  it  the 
free  navigation  of  the  Elbe  from  the  city  to  the  sei 
with  the  right  of  levying  a  toll  on  foreign  shipping 
These  privileges  were  confirmed  by  his  son,  Oth 
IV.,  who  raised  H.  to  the  rank  of  a  tree  city.  I 
1241,  H.  joined  with  Lubeck  in  the  formation  of  the 
Honseatic  League  [q.  v.],  and  from  that  time  in- 
creased rapidly  in  wealth  and  commercial  import- 
ance, augmenting  its  territory  by  the  purchase  of 
the  towiuhip  of  Bitzebuttel,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Elbe  (where  the  harbour  of  Cuihaven  ia  now  aitu- 
ated),  and  several  villiwes  and  islands  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  town.  Under  toe  protection  of  the  German 
emperors,  H.  soon  became  powerfnl  enough  to 
defend  itself  and  its  commerce  Doth  by  sea  and  land, 
and  carried  on  war  for  a  considerable  period  against 
the  Dutoh  and  the  Danes,  though  with  varying  suc- 
cess. It  early  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Refor- 
mation, and  in  consequence  of  the  vigorous  adminiS' 
tration  of  its  affairs,  never  had  an  enemy-within  its 
walls  during  the  stormy  period  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.  The  frequently  recurring  disputes  with  Den- 
mark ceased  in  17(18,  when  that  power  renounced 
all  claim  to  any  portion  oE  the  Hunburg  territory. 
The  prosperity  of  the  city  continued  to  increase 


i.,Googlc 


vlMI  ITOB,  whan  a  gwt  OMiiiiMrmal  cniit  ooonmd, 
fallowed  in  1806  l^  Iti  ooranttioa  tij  the  E^enob, 
whioh,  Tith  >  few  intMrapiiMM,  Uated  tiU  1814. 
l>iitiiig  tUi  pcciod  tlia  town  wm  iktoa^  torti- 
fied,  il  btitig  Nuolean'l  intautioit  to  nuke  S.  the 
atrongliald  ol  hu  pow  in  HtwUkcm  Oermamy. 
The  mflhrinn  ot  tba  oitiMm  wwa  veijr  mat,  and 
tlMir  loam  irara  artimated  a*  £10^tKN)^  Tbair 
miaariM  oaiminatad  in  the  siege  whidi  the  n«D  ' 
nadar  Davont  enatained  from  the  BwwUwa  in  i 
winker  d  181S— 1814,  when  90,000  pec^  wi 
drinn  out  of  the  town,  many  of  irium  peiiihed 
oold  and  hnngw.  Id  1S16,  H.  joined  the  Germ 
Oonfedmttion,  and  enjoyed  a  latom  of  ita  font 
protmri^  ontil  the  terrible  fire  of  1842,  by  whii  , 
witlun  tniee  daya,  one-third  of  the  oity  wa«  d«- 
•ttoyed,  and  gre*t  loaa  of  life  and  pn^ierby  took 
place.  The  &e  waa,  howaver,  not  an  onmized 
eril,  for  adTtuitwe  waa  taken  of  the  oppoitDnity 
to  leconttonol  that  portion  of  the  town,  whioh 
by  its  Iroad,  well-lighted,  and  well-drained  Btraebt 
and  Sne  and  lof^  nonsM,  offen  a  strildnfj  ooc- 
tnwt  to  the  Mnuining  part,  mnoh  of  whuh  ii 
deroted  to  wholcaale  bnainev,  and  intaneeted  l^ 
c*nala  iwi«i«i»mT™M.«nff  wititeadi  other  and  witit  the 
river,  by  wUeh  goods  an  owiTqrad  in  li^^iten  to 
and  btm  tiw  warehonset.  Hm  oU  nunparta  ham 
been  ooonrted  into  gardens  and  waUn,  and  the 
besnty  of  the  oity  is  gmtb'  ineniMd  bj  two  large 
iheeti  otwaterfonneabyiheAlster,  andsuroonded 
by  good  hotels  and  ptirate  honaea,  many  of  wh!^ 
in  ue  snbnri>  of  Uhlenhont,  abont  two  milea  tram 
H.,  aze  TBry  cbarming. 
There  ai*  ssToral  fine  bnildin^  of  iriiioh  the 
"~0  nwrohanta  and  othen  meet 


«4000  n 


daily — and  tba  piotnre  gallwy  ai«  the 
Amoiu;  tihe  ohorohM  the  prinoipd  He— St 
hnlt  from  designs  by  Sir  (Ulbert  8oott,at  a  oost  of 


^ .---,—  *  memorial  of  the  firs  of  1842,  a  vary 

fine  Qothia  building,  with  one  of  the  loftieet  ipirea 
in  Eniope  {483  feet  lugh) ;  St  Michael's,  biult  in  the 
18^1  0.,  in  the  Benaisunoe  style,  and  alio  di^tin- 
gmshed  by  a  lofty  qnre  {432  feet  high) ;  and  8t 
Cath^rine'L  whitdi  is  interesting  from  iu  t^jo,  b^ng 
one  of  the  Mw  dnidua  that  esoa^  the  fire> 

H.  is  the  commeroial  anponnm  of  Northern 
Europe^  and  hai  recently  been  connected  ty  bridges 
aorcas  the  noiUMni  and  aontiiem  branches  of  Uie 
ERm  with  Eaibnrg  in  Eanorar,  fay  which  direct 
nulway  ocanmnnio^iini  baa  been  obtained  with  the 
free  aij  of  BruDan,  and  the  rmte  to  Paris  shortened 
by  several  binirs.  &eat  fadlitiee  have  been  given 
for  the  loading  and  diacharging  ct  staamera  by  the 
recent  conatniclion  of  eztennve  quays  fnmiBhed 
with  steam-cranes,  wurehcuKe,  and  communication 
by  tail  with  the  whole  of  the  continent  Constant 
effiMts  ai«  made  to  deepen  tlie  bed  of  tiie  river,  and 
under faTooiahle  orcnmBtajioee  veaaeli  dmwingl8 
feet  can  go  np  to  tiie  harbour  at  high  tide,  lbs 
nomber  of  sea-going  ships  tbst  anterea  tile  port  in 
1873  waa  £263,  with  a  bniden  of  1,887,000  tooM. 
incloding  2S32  steameia  of  1,404,5(X>  tons,  the  totsl 
crews  being  76^00.  The  ammal  imports  have 
trebled  wifiun  the  last  21  years.  Tba  goods 
reoMved  by  sea,  land,  and  river,  on  an  average  of 
the  five  yean  1869—1873,  amonnted  to  e2,SU,000 
cwts-  vmb  a  valna  of  £78,680,000  per  annum,  of 
whkb  3^0,000  owts.,  valued  at  SijBOiflOO,  were 
from  the  Unitad  Kingdom.  Hie  avenge  wtaffit  of 
tin  ontwaid  canoes  m  tba  same  vmod  waa  abont 
1^000  owts~  and  tiieas  shinied  to  Briliab  ports  were 
viOaed  at  aboot  ^£10^000,000. 

<rf  the  laigcat  ooffee-marte,  and  next  to  '■ 


psMons  having  left  dm^  tiio  last  five  yeazs;  obiefly 
lor  the  United  States.  There  an  several  large 
joint-stook  bauha;  marine  insnrance  is  also  okiried 
on  eoctensivety,  tiie  value  of  the  ships  and  oargoea 
insured  in  1879  having  been  £100,SOO,OODl  Theaea- 
goins  shipabdongii^toH.in  1673  were  411,  with 
SH^tnl  tonn^e,  udadina  4S  ocean-eoing  ateamers; 
with  a  buden  of  llO^OHt  tons,  b^mgmg  to  five 
ootnpanies,  and  msintainitig  oommnnicatum  with 
Kfvth  and  Soath  Amerioa  and  the  East  Indies. 
The  mannfaotores  of  £  are  of  little  oonseqaenoa, 
and  are  not  estimated  to  ezoeed  £2JIO0^O0O  in  vabie 
per  annum.  Hie  jvinoipal  are  mgar-making,  spirit 
and  msar  reflninK,  brewtn^  meat  curing,  engineer- 
ing, and  ibipbniKUiig. 

The  charitable  inslitatbns  of  R.  are  nametona 
and  well  endowed.     The  most  important  are  the 
'     ''  nsaa    founded    reoently  by  Schioedsr   and 
and  tilie  Jewish  hos^dtal  founded  by  the  late 

. n  Hein^    ^lere  ara  a  great  many  socneties 

and  axioms  for  tbs  relief  or  reception  of  various 
olasse)^  and  the  poor  in  general  are  well  cared  for. 
The  genenl  hospital  hM  accommodation  for  1800 
patienta,  and  Uiwe  is  a  smaller  boeintal  in  oonneo- 
Mm  with  tils  SHbis'  faomsL  The  Banhe  Hans,  at 
Horn,  near  H^  founded  hj  Dr  mehern  in  1833,  is 
wortt^  of  BotuM  as  a  veir  snoaiMful  attempt  to 
refwm  depraved  and  nsdewsdebildren.  Bdaintlon 
is  well  attended  to,  and  <ltei«  are  aeveral  laige  and 
ezodlent  {aivate  sohoola,  and  a  sdiool  of  art^  in 
addition  to  the  Johswisnm.  a  puUio  grammar- 
school  founded  in   W3S.     There  are  nvo  large 


■oologioal  gaidens, 
ont  with  great  tsrte;  there  eie  also  two  large  and 
aeveral  small  tiieatrea,  and  a  greater  nnmber  at 
public  gardens  and  places  of  amusement  than  in  any 
oUier  aty  of  the  same  popolatton. 

Hie  uoustitation  of  H.  is  dsmocrstic.  The  ex- 
eontive  power  is  vested  in  a  seni^  of  eighteen 
members  chcaen  for  life,  with  the  assent  of  liie 

micipal   connoil,  one-half  of    wfaom  most  have 
"    I  ycymr  beiiw  confined 


studied  law ;  the  tegislatii 

to  the  monidpal  ommeil,  oc 

who  are  deoted  lor  dx  years,  oi 


tion  porta  of  Germany,  abave  a  quarter  of  a  miJ^on 


Hanss  towns  at  Lubeck.  In  1866,  B.  beesme  a 
Imt  of  Urn  North  German  Coafederation,  and  is 
me  of  the  afaatea  of  the  empira,  sending  three 
M>s  to  the  imperial  parliament  at  BetUn.  The 
townihip  of  Bergedorf,  10  miles  soutJi-east  from 
" — ^'"Kf  fcsinerfy  held  jointly  with  Lttbeck, 
as  tb»  sols  property  of  H.  in  1863,  and  the 
wlude  territory  corera  an  area  tl  173  T*»g'"t'  square 
mile^  the  nopalation  being  about  840,00^  ti  whom 

1  an  Jewi^  7800  Ch^olioi,  and  the  remaindw 

stants.  H.  is  a  free  port  ovtside  of  the 
German  Zdbraain,  Ou  oeif  chargss  on  goods 
tod  being  aboot  one.eidith  par  cenL  on 
in  articles  reoarved  for  local  oonaumptLOD, 
many  raw  materials  and  all  goods  in  taanait 
•e.  Bxemptioo  from  the  onstoms  Mid  regnla- 
of  the  ZoUverain  is  secured  by  the  panient 
of  about  £100^000  annuaUy  to  the  2Mlvnrein 
treaamr,  AlthoDsh  retaining  tiie  management  of 
its  local  affiurs,  the  indmnaent  position  fomaly 
enjoyed  by  H.  ceased  in  1866,  ths  most  noticeable 
oonsequraice  of  which  was  the  abolition  ct  the  Ham- 
burg Bag  on  board  merchant-ships,  and  the  with- 
drawal of  its  muneroua  conaolar  and  diplomatic 
representatives  in  foreign  countries,  in  addition 
to  coD^nlsoiy  service  for  three  years  in  the  ani^ 


h.GoogIc 


HAKKLN— HAim/rON. 


nan  bj  all  Tonag  ii 


leeaUmatad 


Om  W«Hr,  tkt  th«  eonflnenoe 
witii  that  riv«r,  2iS  milea  ■onttt-WMt  of  Eanorer. 
It  ii  caitoanded  b;  *  wall,  {oraMrl;  numonnted  by 
20  towai^  and  daiendad  by  a  tort,  whioh,  how- 
ever,  was  Uotni  Dp  bjr  th«TMDoli  in  180S.  It  ji 
in-^alarly  bailt,  ajid  ia  fnU  of  inxxlen ' 


inatitiition  boAt  ia  1827.  The  o^in-bri^  at 
H.,  oiMuiig  tb«  WeMF,  wa*  oompleted  in  183B, 
and  ii  about  7S0  Enghih  f«at  in  Jtogfih.  Fop. 
{1S71)  S530,tiliiafl7  smpIoTod  in  brewingi  in  tM 
manufacture  of  paper,  oamsnt,  iroolleii  gfioia,  and 
carpeti;    and   in   anuntltare,   aalmon-' 


HAHFIiOAB  waa  a  nama  boine  br  leranl 
distiDgaialied  Oaithaginiana,  &e  moat  cdebrated  of 
whom  -irere— 1.  Tbe  cammaiider  ot  the  gre«t  Sldliam 
eipedtUon,  4S0  B.C. ;  2,  One  of  the  comnumdva  of 
a  Carthaginisii  arm;,  defeated  bj  Timcdoon,  tlie 
Corinthian  '     ■    ■'      '-^    '    - - 


■■■■u  toe  BVBtMfitM,     Duon  a  juiuudid  oq  bkw  mmn 

inorewe  tike  pomr  andmami  ofhlB  native  eoan^, 
and  at<»e  to  lur  for  tiw  Iom  of  KtHj  and  »*»^""- 
niii  hi*  gnM  po^poae  Haadnibal  and  Haanlbal 
endeavooMd'to  aoacibqilith.  Ha  muehed  wertwaid, 
irttile  ttte  fleet  nnder  Ui  nn-in-law,  Haadrabal, 
onnaed  along  tiie  eoaat)  Ite  tiian  woeaed  ortt  at 
the  StnOt  of  Ofbnltar.and  made  war  tai  tha  nalini 
of  Spain,  in  the  oomae  of  wbUh  ha  mtiebatod  to 
the  TOT  heart  of  tbe  oonntif,  mbdnaa  u^V  tribe* 
and  «tte«,  and  anaMed  <""»"—  veatUt  He  ipent 
nine  vean  In  Gfpain,  and  at  Itogth,  in  StS  B-o, 
net  bii  dealb  on  the  fl^  of  baWa  irtnle  fi{^itlng 
agtinrt  the  Vettonea.  ffia  mfHtaiy  ganini  it  eou> 
■uend  teaMdf  infarior  to  that  (rf  Ua  aon  HannibaL 
HAICILTON,  a  dtv  of  Canada  In  the  proTinoe 
ot  Ontario^  ii  ntiiated  at  tbe  weat  and  ot  Lake 
Ontario,  or  rather  □(  that  detaobed  Motion  of  It 
whiok  under  the  name  of  Bnilinffton  Bay,  ia  eon- 
nectedwitb  the  main  body  of  Oie  lake  bf  tiie  Bm^ 
linffbon  CaoaL  H.  ia  45  milea  from  tne  FoIIi  of 
Niagara,  38  from  Toronto,  and  378  from  MontreaL 
It  is  aitoated  in  tha  very  oentre  oi  tba  flneit  grain- 
odaoing  ooontry  in  America,  and  it  ia  alto  on 
iportant  centre  of  tha  chisf  Canada  railvam  tbe 


Oi«at  Western,  the  Hamilton  and  Toronto,  uid 
Hamilton  and  Port  Dover  lines,     The  rapid : 


(nunamedB 


tlie  Oreat  after  tbe  Ul  of  Tyre ;  4  ^la  goremor  of 
8ioify,  Sl7n.CLi  S-  Ilta  am  ot  Oiaco,  wbo  anooeedad 
tite  pceoadiiu,  and  oairiad  toi  miHtaiy  t^Mrataon* 
agaiuet  tlie  ^racoiani  and  other  atateii  inth  sreat 
aneowt,  bnt  waa  at  length  taken  jniaoner,  and  put 
to  death ;  6.  A  ccmmandoi  during  the  flnt  Pimio 
War,  who  wa«  voy  ■noceaafnl  agamat  the  Honums 
by  land  in  Sioily,  bnt  irae  afterworda  defeated  in  a 
aea-fldtt  off  E^nnnf,  and  waa  thereafter  recalled 
to  Africa  to  i^ipoae  B^gnlna; 

But  tha  BHMeat  of  all  waa  H.  raniamed  Barea 
or  Barat,  Ca,  '  ligKfaiitig.'  While  very  yoons,  be 
waa  appmited  to  ue  oonunond  of  the  Garthagmian 
foioaa  n  Saily,  in  247  B.a,  at  whiah  tuna  tbe 
Romanahadpoaeeaaionctalinoatalltheiiland.  H,'a 
flist  care  waa  to  diaeiidine  hii  infaatijrthotan^ily; 
he  Own  cBtabBdwd  himaett  on  Mount  !&ete  (now 
PtUtfrino,  near  Alermo),  and  fram  tbia  pt^t  made 
pJHngipg  oEcnrBionB  in  all  direotiona,  tending  bia 
privateen  alom;  the  ooaat  of  Italy  m  far  nntn  aa 
Cnnue,  thna  obtaining  abendant  n^HM  lor  his 
troopa.  From  thia  poaition  the  Btmiana  endeaTonred 
to  dislodge  him,  bnt  in  vain.  After  three  yeara,  he 
left  Erote,  and  eataUiahed  himaelf  on  Moont  Eiyz, 
kee^Hng  np  hla  oommnnicatdon  wiib  Dreponmn  and 
the  aea,  where  the  tame  taotica  were  repeated  on 
botii  aidea,  and  wtQi  the  aama  want  of  aocoen  on 
tbe  part  of  the  Bomans.  Bnt  the  Carthaginian 
adnual  baring  be«  totaDy  delated  off  tbe  Aegatea 
lalandi,  241  x.a,  H.  waa  ocoopelled  to  abaadoD 
bii  f  ortren,  and  sraenate  KfOj.  While  H.  wa* 
engaged  in  Sicily,  he  bad  made  luge  nnmiaea  to  bia 
mercenary  tnxrpa,  wbi^  he  waa  nulue  to  perform; 
tberr  r«Tolted  m  oonaDonanee,  and  were  joined  by 
aome  of  the  ifrii^n  bribes.  Hanno  endeavonred  U> 
iTOlt,  bnt  failed :  H.  waa  aoeordin^y 


appointed  to  the  ccsnmand,  and  meceeded  is  ntteriy 
defeating  Qie  rebela,  captarinK  oU  their  tmnu,  and 
putting  to  death  their  leaden.  E.  waa  next 
appointed  commander-in-cbief  ot  tbe  Carthsginian 
amy,  and  waa  engwed  for  tome  time  in  wan  with 
the  neighbouring  oibea,  wbich  were  abrapUy  ended 
by  H.'a  entering  upon  hia  ^taoiih  conpaJgn  in  (prob- 
ably) 23S  B.a  Bm  great  aim  wot  to  found  a  new 
Mnpire  in  Spain,  from  which,  at  bit  baaia,  he  might 


the 


-        .  rapid 

of  ita  population  ia  remarkable.  InI841,itwaE  about 
S500:  in  1650, 10,312;  in  1861,  19,096 ;  and  at  the 
tdroe  of  the  latt  cenaua  (1871)  it  amonnted  to  26,710. 
The  Great  Weetem  Bulway  and  ita  bmclwa  hare 
done  muob  to  adranoe  Ha  proaperity.  The  mann- 
faotorinK  eataUithmenta  of  H,  are  estentire ;  the 
piiudpu  are  looomotive-workB,  toundriet,  and  car- 
worka.  The  dty  retomt  one  member  to  the  legit- 
lative  aatembly. 

HAMILTON,  a  parliamentary   and  mn»AiipiLl 

burgh,  and  mariiet-town  of  Scotland,  in  tba  oimnty 

of  l^nark,  ia  beantifnlly  ritoated  on  tbe  left  bank  of 

the  Clyde,  in  the  oentre  of  a  fine^  wooded  diabic^ 

'      '   "      "*      BovQi-eaat  of  Olateow,  with  igAieh 

1^  iMtwn.     It  Eaa  a  atiagt^in^ 

bnt  at  tha  aama  tune  a  pfeaaant  rural  mMorano^ 

ly  U  the  hooaea  having  a  ^aoe  of  gaidan-gronna 

iched.    13teitown,iy>ntaina  aome  Bna  ahmtihai: 

lerona  good  Mlioab — of  whicii  tbe  Aead<aiy  ana 

lohn'a  Gianmiar  Sohodl  an  tho  moat  importaot; 

oonnty-haU,  a  notioMblB  Qreoian  atnutera:  a 

'  town-hallf   and   octenaiTa  oaraby  banac^ 

ly  of  tha  fmnalea  are  enmloyed  in  tatnbouring 

ttw  aswed  nuuhn  mannfaotnreii  <d  Oittaow, 

Pop.  (1871)  11,209.— Claaa  to  tbe  town  it  Hi^lton 

Falao^  the  aeat   ot  the  Ihike  of  Hamilton  and 

Brandon,  wltii  the  fmi^  "■■"■"''"■r",  in  dt*  midat 

of    oxtauiTe    idaotom-gKnuidi    bofdtrad    1^   tbe 

Clyde.    Tha  polaoe  it  n  large  and  noble  atawtore, 

and  oQotaina  an  exoellcnt  coUeetifHi  cf  paintingt. 

lin dna  the  nrnmda ai* opoi to  thepifwo. 

Oarile,  and  tb»  nmaina  d  Ckdiow  ForettL 


Onowtaindn 

Cadxow  Oaalu     

in  whieb  a  bod  of  the  b 


a  ab(vi^nalfan< 


'orettL 

_ „_ -„ Mid 

wlU  oottie  are  kept,  »e  in  the  riainity. 

EAHII/FOir,  Thx  Vaklt  ov.  Thii  neat 
Uttorioal  famfly  ia  known  to  be  of  *"£*!*  ongin, 
bdt  whcm  or  bow  it  took  root  in  Scotland  Jkaa  not 
been  olearly  aaocrtained.  Some  genaalof^fti  baYe 
aonght  to  traoe  ita  Unease  to  Bobert,  anmamed 
Blondimaina,  third  Eari  M  Leiceatw,  who  died  in 
119(X  niere  ia  nothing  improbable  tu  the  claim 
— tha  earl'g  second  aon  waa  Biihop  of  8t  Andrew*, 
he  had  other  relatione  beyond  the  Tweed,  tod 
the  cinqnetoil  on  a  bloody  thield,  iriiicb  waa  the 
heraldic  bearing  of  hit  hoote,  teemt  from  on  early 
period  to  hare  been  the  heraldic  beoiiag  of  the 
Scottith  Hamiltona.  But  bowerer  probable  anoh  a 
descent  may  be,  it  wantt  prooC    "tha  nama  ti  tba 


L.Googlc 


HAMILTON. 


lamilj,  obvioualy  toritoiial,  «m  donbtleu  tskeu 
from  some  ona  <^  the  many  Eagliah  huwofb  culled 
Huniltoa,  sc&ttareil  thraagh  Bnckinghitnulure, 
Hunpihire.  Sotiey,  lAncoshire,  fi-utlandghire,  York- 
shire, sad  Leioeatenhire.  In  tha  17th  c,  the  Leicea- 
tenhire  Hamilton— a  patty  manor  in  the  puijsh  of 
Bukby,  oontaiimig  only  a  ihephecd's  oottage — mus 
■hewn  M  the  cradw  of  the  hoiue.  Several  penons 
of  the  name  of  Hamilton  appear  both  in  fcnglUh 
and  in  SoottUh  reoorda  about  tha  middle  of  the 
13th  0.,  and  one  of  them  laema  to  have  held  the 
Yorluhire  manor  of  HamOton,  together  with  lands 
in  the  pariah,  of  Oxoam,  in  Scotland.  Bat  the 
pedigree  of  the  family  cannot  be  carried  beyond 
(1),  'Walter  Fiti-Gilbert  (or  Gtilbertson)  of  Hamil- 
ton,' Tho,  in  1296,  held  Wda  in  Idnarkahira,  and 
■wora  feal^  to  King  Edward  I.  of  England  la 
Overlord  irf  Scotland,  and  in  1314  kept  l£a  caatle 
of  Bothvell,  on  the  Clyde,  for  the  Engliih.  Hia 
early  aurrender  of  thia  itrong  fortreas,  and  of  the 
F.Tigli«h  kni^ta  and  nobles  who  had  3ed  to  it  from 
the  field  of  Sannodtbom,  wx  rewarded  by  Eins 
Bobert  Bruce  by  grante  of  the  lands  and  baronies  m 
Cadyow  and  Macbanahire  in  Clydeedale,  Kinneil 
and  Larbert  in  Weal  Lothiaa,  Kirkinner  and 
Kirkowen  in  Qalloffay,  and  other  lands  forfeited 
by  the  Cumyni  and  other  adherents  of  England.  He 
attained  the  rank  of  knighthood,  and  married  Mary, 
daughter  cj  Sir  Adam  o£  Gordon  of  Hnntly,  by 
whom  he  left  two sooa.  The  elder  (2),  'Sir  David 
Fitz-Walter  Fiti- Gilbert,'  or,  as  he  was  siAnetimea 
mora  ahortly  called,  'Sir  David  Fits -Walter,'  or 
'Sir  David  oE  Hamilton,'  was  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Englisb  at  the  battle  of  Neville's  Cross  in  1346, 
founded  a  chantry  in  the  cathedral  of  Glasgow 
in  1361,  and  appears  among  the  barons  in  tha 
Scottiab  porliamentB  of  1368,  1371,  and  1373.  Hii 
eldest  son  (3), '  Sir  David  of  Hamilton  of  Cadyow,' 
died  before  139S^  leaving  by  his  wife,  Janet  of 
Keith,  only  dau^ter  and  heiress  of  Sir  William 
of  Keith  of  GiJbrton,  five  sons  and  a  daoghter. 
Th«  eldest  aon  (4),  'Sir  John  of  HamilCon  of 
Cadyow,'  married  Janet,  daughter  of  Sir  Jamea  of 
Doiwaa  of  Dalkeith,  bf  whom  he  waa  the  father  of 
(S)  'Sir  Jamea  of  Hamilton  of  Cadyow,'  who,  about 
142S,  macriad  Janet,  daughter  of  Alexander  of 
Livingaton  of  Callander,  by  whom  he  had  (6) '  Sir 
Jame*  of  Hamilton  of  Cadyow,'  and  four  other  sons. 

LORM   HAmLIDH,  ^AMa  OF  AjtRAH,  DlTKBB  OF 
CHATCLHKBA[n.T,  MaBQUISIS  OF  HAMILTON,  DCEKS 

OF  HiKiLTON,  Dtrsm  of  Biuhdck,  kc — Hitherto 
the  family  had  been  only  knightly.  Itwaa  ennobled 
in  ita  sixth  generation,  in  Sir  Jamea  of  Hamil- 
ton of  Cadyow,  who,  in  144S,  was  created  Lord 
Hamilton  by  a  charter  which  erected  hia  manor 
place  of  'the  Orduird,'  in  the  barony  of  Cadyow, 
into  hia  chief  meamuM,  and  gave  it  the  name  of 
Hamilton,  which  it  still  beaia.  It  ia  to  the  praise 
of  the  ant  Lofd  Hamilton  that,  in  1460,  he 
founded  a  college  in  the  onivennto  of  Glasgow — the 
first  college  in  Scotland  founded  by  a  layman. 
Allied  both  by  marriage  and  by  deaeent  to  the 
Douglases,  ho  followed  their  banner  in  the  begin- 
ning of  thor  great  atnigele  witii  the  crown.  But  he 
forsook  them  at  a  criti^  moment  in  1464,  and  his 
seasonable  loyalty  was  rewarded  by  large  graote  of 
their  forfeited  l^ds,  and,  at  a  later  per^d,  when  he 
moat  have  been  well  advanced  in  yeua,  by  the  hand 
of  the  Frinoeaa  Mat;,  the  eldest  dan^tcr  of  King 
Jmosb  II.,  and  the  widow  or  divOToed  wife  <S 
TloDUB  Boyd,  tile  attainted  Earl  of  Airan.    Lord 


Hamilton  anrvivad  hia  mairiass  only  five  yean, 
^ing  in  1479.  Hia  only  eon,  James,  second  I  ' 
Hamdlon,  was,  in  1G03,  made  Earl  of  Arran,  and 


a  grant  of  that  island,  tho  dowry  of  his  motJier  o 
her  first  mamage;     After  playing  an  importan 


part  in  public  affairs  during  tha  minority  of  King 
James  v.,  he  died  in  1529,  being  succeeded  by  the 
eldest  son  of  his  third  wife  (a  niece  of  Cardinal 
Beaton),  James,  third  Lord  Hamilton,  sectmd  Earl 
of  Arran.  The  death  of  King  James  V.  in  IM2 
left  only  an  infant  of  five  days  old  between  him  and 
the  thnme.  He  was  at  once  chosen  regent  of  the 
kingdom  and  tutor  to  the  young  queen,  snd  declared 
to  be  '  second  peison  in  Qie  realm ' — a  position 
which  carried  with  it  something  of  royal  style.  Ho 
signed  or  superscribed  hia  name  as  '  Jamee  G,,'  or 
simply  '  James,'  and  wrote  himself  '  James,  by  tha 
Dace  of  God,  Earl  of  Anan  and  Lord  Hunilton, 
Governor  and  Prince  of  Scotland.'  He  held  his 
high  offices  till  1594,  when  he  resided  them  in  favour 
of  the  queen-mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  recaivinc  in 
retnm,&om  King  Henry  IL  of  France,  agrant^the 
duchy  of  Chatelherault.  Hia  neamesa  to  the  throne, 
his  great  following,  and  huge  possessions,  left  him 
■till  a  pemni  of  such  mark  that  hia  eldest  son,  the 
Earl  of  Airan,  as  he  was  called,  was  proposed  at  ona 
time  as  the  husband  of  Queen  Mary  of  Scotland,  and 
at  another  Idme  as  the  husband  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
of  England-  The  career  which  opened  with  such 
high  aapiratioDS  came  to  a  sad  and  untimely  end ;  the 
eori  was  affiictcd  with  madneaa  in  1562,  and  never 
recovered  hia  leaaon,  althou^  he  lived  till  1609. 
His  father,  the  first  Duke  of  Chatelherault,  dying  in 
1S7S,  his  second  son.  Lord  John  Hamilton,  theUy- 
abbot  or  commendstor  of  Arbroath,  became  virtnal 
head  of  the  houae,and  as  anch  WBa,ia  169S,  created 
Msrquia  of  Hamilton.  He  died  in  1604,  being 
succeeded  by  his  son  Jamea,  the  second  marquis, 
who,  in  1G19,  was  created  Earl  of  Cambridge  in 
England,  and  died  in  1625.  He  was  aucceeded  l^ 
hia  eldest  aon  James,  the  third  marquis,  who  led 
an  army  of  6000  men  to  tha  support  of  King 
Gustavug  Adalphus  of  Sweden  in  1631—1632,  ud 
a  few  years  later  acted  a  coiupicuoua  port  in  tha 
great  conteat  between  King  Cborlca  L  and  the 
Soottiah  Covenanters.  That  king,  in  1643,  created 
him  Duke  of  Hamilton,  with  remainder  to  the 
hein.fonale  of  his  body,  in  the  event  of  the  death 
of  hiTn«plf  uid  his  brother  without  mala  issue.  In 
164S,  he  led  a  Scottiab  army  into  England  for  the 
king's  relief,  but  was  encountered  and  defeated  by 
Cnmiwell  at  Preston,  in  Lancashire.  He  neaped 
from  the  field  of  battle,  but  soon  aftenvarda  waa 
forced  to  aurrender  himself  prisoner  to  the  parlia- 
mentary forces.  He  was  beheaded  at  Weatminater 
in  Mon^  1649,  when  he  was  succeed^  by  hia 
brother  William,  who,  in  1630,  had  been  cte«ted 
Earl  of  Lanark.  He  died  in  1651  of  the  wounds 
which  ha  had  received  at  the  battle  of  Worcester. 
The  duchy  of  Hamilton,  in  terms  of  the  patent  of 
crealjon,  now  devolved  on  the  daughter  of  the  firat 
doke.  Lady  Anne,  whose  husbai^  Lord  William 
DougUs,  £arl  of  Seikiik,  was,  in  1660,  created 
Bake  of  Hamilton  for  life.  He  died  in  1694.  The 
Dnchtea  Anne,  who  survived  tilt  1716,  had,  in  1698, 
resigned  her  titles  in  the  king'a  hands  in  favour  of 
her  eldeat  son,  Jamea,  Earl  of  Arxan,  who  was  anew 
created  Duke  of  Hamilton  with  the  precedency  <rf 
1643.  In  1711,  he  waa  created  Duke  of  Brandon  in 
England,  but  the  House  of  Lords  refused  him  a  seat 
or  vote  in  parliament,  on  the  ground  that  the  crown 
waa  diaabled  by  the  Act  of  Union  from  granting  a 
peerage  of  Great  Britain  to  any  person  who  was  a 
peer  of  Scotland  before  the  Union.  The  duke  was 
killed  in  a  duel  in  Byde  Pork  with  Lord  Mohun  in 
1712,  He  waa  succmled  by  bis  eldest  eon,  Jamw, 
who,  dying  in  1743,  waa  sncoeeded  by  his  eldest  son, 
James,  who,  in  1752,  married  the  famous  beanty, 
Elizabeth  Gunning,  and  died  in  1758,  being  snc- 
oeeded by  his'eldest  son,  James  Oeotge, aniutaat 
of  three  year*  old.    On  tha  deatli  ot  like  Dak*  of 


~dhyCi005lC 


Dcmglaa  in  17B1,  the  male  Tepresentation  of  the 
'red  or  Angna  branch  of  the  Doogloeea,  with  the 
titles  of  Marqiiia  of  DougUs,  Earl  of  Angos,  &c, 
devolved  on  the  Dtikea  of  Hamilton,  at  descendants 
of  the  Dachesa  Anne'a  hoaband.  William,  Earl  of 
SelUrl,  tliird  aon  of  the  fint  Marquis  of  Donglaa. 
Dj^g  in  17S9,  in  hii  16th  year,  Junes  Qerase, 
seventh  Dnke  of  Hamilton,  was  succeeded  l^  his 
only  brother,  DonElaa,  who,  in  VJS2,  took  his  seat 
in  parliajDent  as  Dnka  of  Brandon,  the  House  of 
Lonls  being  now  satisfied,  aft^  ccoistiltation  with 
the  twelre  judges,  that  the  Act  of  Union  did  not 
prohibit  the  crown  from  maki^  a  peer  of  Scotland 
a  peer  of  Great  Britain.  Duke  Douglas  died 
withont  isane  in  1799,  when  the  titles  and  eatates 
passed  to  his  UDcle,  AnJiibald,  the  second  son  of 
James,  the  fifth  dnke.  Dnke  Archibald,  dying;  in 
1819,  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  AlezaiMar, 
who,  in  1810,  married  a  daiujiter  of  Mr  Beckford 
of  Fonthill,  and  died  in  1852,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  only  son,  William  Alexander  Anthony 
Archibald,  eleventh  Duke  of  Hamilton  in  the  peer- 
age of  Scotland.  He  died  in  1863,  and  was  sue- 
cleded  by  William  Alexander  I,ouiH  Stet" 
Donelaa  Eamitton,  the  preaeaC  duke,  who  was  t 
inlS46. 

LoBva  pAiBLBr,  Lonnei  Abxrootih,  Eabih 
Abkbookh,  Lobih  Snuxun,  Visooonts  Strabani, 
Vtscovins  Hahh-to)',  MAitqtiisia  or  Abebcobn, 
Dtna  OF  AxBRCORH,  Ac. — Lord  CUnd  Hamilton, 
fotirth  son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Chatelherault,  w 
appointed  commendator  of  the  abbey  of  Paisley 
1&53,  created  Lord  Paisley  in  1587,  and  died  in  16! 
During  his  life,  his  eldest  son,  James,  was  made  Lord 
Alteroam  in  1603,  and  Earl  of  Abercom  in  1606.  He 
had  large  grants  of  lands  in  Dieter ;  and  dying 
1618,  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Jamea,  who 
1016  had  been  created  Lord  Strabane  in  the  Irish 
f  eer^e.  The  sixth  Earl  of  Abercom  was, 
created  Viscount  Strabane  in  the  peerage  of  Ireland^ 
The  eishth  Qui  of  Aberoom,  then  one  of  the  16 
Sootti^  representative  peers,  was,  in  1786,  created 
'^Bconnt  ^milton,  in  the  peerage  of  Great  Britain ; 
when  the  House  of  Lords  lounif  by  a  vote  of  62'to 
38,  that  a  peer  of  Scotland  who  had  been  created  a 
peer  of  Great  Briton,  coold  not  sit  in  parliament  as 
a  representaldve  of  the  peerage  of  Scotland.  His 
nephew,  the  ninth  Earl  of  Abercom,  was,  in  1790, 
created  Marquis  of  Aberoom.  It  was  ruled  in  his 
case,  by  the  House  of  Lords,  in  1793,  that  a  peer  of 
SooUand,  who  had  been  created  a  peer  of  Great 
Britain,  was  entitled  to  vote  in  the  election  of  tiie 
Soottish  relnvsentative  peers.  On  the  death  of  the 
second  Duke  of  Hamilton  in  1661,  the  second  Earl 
of  Abercom  had  daimed  the  male  representation  of 
the  House  of  Hamilton;  and  in  1861,  the  second 
Marquis  and  tenth  Earl  of  Abercom  {created  Dnka 
of  Abercom  in  1868),  was  lerved  heir-male  of  the 
first  Duke  of  Chatelherault,  in  the  Sheriff  Court  of 
Chancery  at  Edinburgh,  under  mutest  by  the  Doke 
of  HanuttoQ,  Brandon,  and  Chatelherault.  The 
Duke  of  Abercoro  is  one  of  three  peers  who  hold 
peerages  in  Scotland,  in  Ireland,  and  in  Great 
Britam  ;  Uie  otJlen  being  the  Marquis  of  HastiDgs 
(Eari  of  Loudoun  in  Scotland.  Lord  Grey  de  Ruthyn, 
&a  in  Englaod,  Earl  of  Moira  in  Ireland,  Ix)rd 
Kawdon  ia  Great  Ibitain) ;  and  the  Earl  of  Temlam 
(Lord  Forrester  of  Conterphine  in  ScotUnd, 
ViMOunt  Otimstone  in  Ireland,  Lord  Verulam  in 
Orest-Britain).  The  House  of  Abercom  gave  birth, 
in  1646,  to  Anthony  Hamilton  (q.  v.),  the  author  of 
the  Ah.rming  Mfnwhret  du  Comte  de  Oramomt.  He 
was  the  gnndson  of  the  first  Earl  of  Aberoom. 

Easia  or  Sklkibk. — Lord  Chules  Hamilton, 
third  son  of  Anne,  Dncbeas  of  BainiJtoo,  was,  in 
1688,  on  his  father'!  resignation  of  the  title,  created 


Ead  of  Selkirk,  wiili  the  precedeiuy  of  1616. 
Dying  childless  in  1739,  he  was  sucoeeded  by  bis 
brother.  Lord  John  Hamillion,  Earl  of  Bnglen,  who 
died  without  male  issue  in  1741,  when  the  title  of 
Eail  of  Selkirk  passed  to  his  grand-nephew,  Dunbar 
Hamilton  of  Baldoon  (the  grandson  ci  JjocA  Basil 
Hamilton,  sixth  son  of  Anne,  Duchess  of  Hamilton). 
Ha  died  in  1799,  and  was  imcceeded  by  his  son 
31ioma^  who,  dying  in  1820,  was  luoceMed  by  his 
SOB  Dunbar  James,  the  preaent  and  sixth  earL 

Baku  or  OnaNST.— Lord  George  Hamilton,  fifth 
son  of  Anne,  Dncheu  of  Hamilton,  waa,  in  1696, 
created  Eari  of  Orkney,  with  remainder  to  the  heirs 
whalsoever  of  hia  body.  Dying  in  1737,  he  waa 
succeeded  by  hia  elij^st  d^ghter,  whose  great-ereat- 
grandson,  'Diomas  John  Ibuniltou  Fitzmaunce,  is 
DOW  fifth  Earl  of  Orkoey. 

Eabis  or  BuoLZN. — Lord  Jtdm  Hamilten,  fourth 
son  of  Anne,  Duchess  of  Hamilton,  was,  in  1697, 
created  Earl  of  Buelen,  with  remainder  to  the  heiis 
whatsoever  of  his  body.  He  succeeded  to  the  title 
of  Earl  of  Selkirk  on  the  death  of  his  brother  ia 
1739,  and  died  in  1744,  when  the  title  of  Eod  of 
Selkirk  went  to  his  grand-nephew,  and  the  title 
of  Earl  of  Bngleu  went  to  Ms  eldest  daughter, 
Anne,  the  widow  of  William,  second  Earl  of  Uuch. 
On  her  death  in  1 748,  the  earidcm  of  Bnglen  devdved 
on  her  son,  William,  Eari  of  March,  aftenraids 
fourth  Dnke  of  Queensbeny;  and  on  hii  death 
in    1810,   the   tiUe    of    Earl    of   Buglen   became 

Easa  or  Hassihotor. — Sir  Walter  Fitz-Qilbert, 
the  first  a»certained  ancestor  of  the  House  <rf 
Hamilton,  had  a  brother.  Sir  John  of  Hamilton  ot 
Roaaaven,  Uie  progenitor  of  the  family  of  Finnlton 
and  Preston,  which,  in  1788,  gave  birth  bi  Sir 
William  Hamilton,  the  famous  scholar  and  philo- 
sopher ;  and  of  tJie  family  of  Innerwick,  which,  in 
1563,  gave  birth  to  Sir  Thomas  Hamilton,  nick- 
named '  Tam  of  the  Cowgate,'  one  of  the  ableat  and 
most  learned  of  Scottish  lawyers.  He  was  created 
Lwd  Btiming  and  'Bmt  in  1613,  and  Eul  ot 
MelroM  (a  title  afterwards  chained  into  Haddington) 
in  1619.  His  descendant  G«)rge  Arden  BaiUie 
Hamilton,  is  now  eleventh  Earl  of  Haddington. 

LoBDB  BAitaENT.— Sir  John  Hamilten  of  Bargeny 
and  Oarriden,  the  illegitimate  grandson  of  the  first 
Marquis  of  Hamilton,  was,  in  1639,  created  Lord 
Bargeny.  The  title  became  dormant  or  eitinot  on 
the  death  of  the  fourth  lord  in  1736. 

LoBss   BsLHAVEM  AND   SnuiTOUN.— Sir   Janes 
Hamilten  of  Biel  miuried  a  natural  danghter  of  tiie 
second  Marqnis  of  Hamilten,  and  was,  in  1647, 
created  Lord  Belhaven  and  Stentoun,  with  remainder 
his  heirs-male  whatever.    He  resigned  the  titie 
1675,  when  he  had  a  new  patent  creatijig  him 
Lord  Bdhaven  and  Stentenn  for  life,  with  remainder 
after  his  death  te  the  husband  of  one  of  his  grand- 
daughters, John  Hamilton  (son  of  BobeH  Hooiilton 
of  Samcluith,  a  jo^e  oE  the  Court  of  Session). 
This  gentieman,  who  succeeded  te  the  title  and 
rtates  in  1679,  distinguished  himself  1^  hia  wild 
nt  eloquent  speeches  against  the  Union.    He  died 
L 1708,  and  waa  succeeded  by  his  sou  John,  who, 
beJDg  drowned  in  1721,  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
John,  who  died  in  1764,  and  waa  succeeded  by  Us 
brother  Junes,  who  died  in  1777.     On  bis  death, 
the  great  estates  of  the  family  paased  to  Mrs  Maiy 
Haimlteii-Nisbet,  wife  of  Mr  Hisbrt  of  Dirieton, 
owposacsied  by  hm'  graaddan^iter,  IJaAj 
tce-Kiabet- Hamilton.    The  titles  were,  in 
1790,  adjudged  by  the  House  of  Lords  te  William 
Hamilten  ofWishaw  (as  descended  from  the  House 
of    Bamoltuth).      His   son,    itebert   Montgomery 
Hamilton,  7th  Lord  Belhaveu  and  Stenteun,  was, 
in  1831,  created  Lord  Hamilton  of  Wisbaw  in  the 
113 


lyCoo^k- 


menge  of  the  Unitad  Kingdom.  Tha  titla  beoome 
domunt  in  1866,  but  tm  kdjndged  in  1876  to 
Jkmea  fiutllton.  Who  thna  b«o«iae  the  9th  lord. 

Vnoouira    Bonn— OiutkniB    Hftmiltoii,    ) 
gnniiwni    of    Lord   Claod    Hmmilton,    &nt    Lc 
!ntitler.  «M^  !in  17I&  cnatsd  Loid  Euoiltan 
StBokmUan,  and,  In  1717]  Titooant  Boyae,  in  th« 
F«arag«   of   iNlaodj     Hu   dansmAiat,  Gnitavoi 
mdwiok   RomcU  Hamilbni   Bbh«U,  cnatad  in 
1866  Banm  &«iia«path    in    tiie    pMnfi*    of    the 
United  Kingdom,  li  now  the  8tb  Titoonnt. 

Vwxaarn  ov  Oi-uraoT,  Bixu  o>  OLunuaBii, 

Ao-^^ftDlfli  TJmatlton     son  <rf   Wtia  Qimilton   (a 

ntfnnd  aon  ef  AioUbtid  Hamihon  of  Ba^ooIi),  Tioar 
of  Dnnlop,  in  AjnUn^  arttied  in  Ireland  about 
1087,  and,  in  1BS%  wai  cmated  TiaaiMnit  of  OlaaboT. 
Hi*  aon  Jamea  wu  onrtad  Eari  of  OlaiiliiM^ 
and  dring  in  USO,  ma  nooaeded  br  hii  am  Baary, 
09  Khoao  death,  in  IVIt,  the  tttb  iMoame  extmoi 
H  IrM  rettnd,  neariy  «  OKimj  aftmnidi,  in 
&T0U  ct  hla  kinimaDf  Janua  Handlton  of  Tnlll' 
SUW0  (th0  nandaon  <n  Hmu  Baniltoo, 
Dnnlop),  who  in  1719  had  bwn  ontfad 
Umeiiitt  ul  Lotd  COan^,  and  in  17H  waa  made 
Earl  of  OlanbMMQ  in  the  peerage  of  Ireland.  On 
the  datth  of  hia  aon  JamM  in  17W,  the  Utlea  beoama 
extinot  Hliaatatea  went  to  Uiaiateg  Anne,  Oonn- 
teea  of  Bodan,  whoaa  gnndjon,  Robert,  Sari  of 
Koden,  wa^  In  1821,  oeded  Lord  ClMbnuaQ  ta  the 
pewage  of  tiia  Unite '  "'     ' 

A.Bri^e  Aeeoum    .,    . ._  _ ,        , 

written  Taj  Dr  Jamta  BaiDie  of  OanibnA  dsrins 


he  waa  appointed  one  of  the  delegatea  to  the  «on- 
Tontion  wnidi  met  at  Fhiladdpliia,  for  the  pnrpoae 
of  icTiaing  the  Artialea  of  CtnifadeiBldon.  In  oon- 
Jnnntion  with  Madiaon,  he  had  the  ntoct  important 
■bare  In  drawing  np  the  cwutitntion  aftwwaida 
adopted.  He  waa  a  atrong  aujpporter  of  the  federal, 
aa  oppoaed  to  the  damotnaho  partjri  and,  along 
witli  Jay  and  Wj>HTr>n,  defended  the  oonibtntiiHi 
asainat  all  attaoki,  by  a  aeriea  of  lettera  in  the 
i)ai^  JdoerHierotKew  York,  afterwards  ooUeoted 
and  pnbliihed  nnder  the  title  of  TU  RdavUti. 
FUty-one  out  of  tiu  SB  nnmbara  of  which  the  woA 
ia  ooaqvoaed  w«n  writtca  by  H.  On  the  eatabUah- 
ment  m  the  new  goTemment  in  17S&  with  Waih- 
ington  aa  pnaident,  E.  waa  apiKanted  secretary  of 
the  treaanv.  The  diaordar  of  the  p«blio  credit^ 
and  the  deSeiennr  of  offioial  aoconnta  of  the  aUte 
trwanw,  randerea  thia  <^e«  one  of  Daonliar  diffi- 
aoltr.  In  order  to  re-establUh  pnuio  oredit,  he 
oarned,  in  apite  of  nauh  owoaitioii,  a  measore  for 
the  fandiDg  of  the  domeatio  deb^  fonnded  a  national 
bank,  rearranaed  the  iTston  Ot  dntiis,  and  alto- 
sether  ahewed  himaelf  one  of  the  ybij  irreatait  of 
"  ■  -  In  1796,hei«signedhii  " 
—  1  <rf  Iftwm  New 

s  broke  ont  in  1708;  lie 


the  death  of  'Waahit^ton,  he  anooeeded  to  &b  chief 


Hittary  qf  Ot  SouM  of  Sanmton,  wi«t«m  abont 
slxtT-  yeara  aftowaidi  by  Hamilton  of  Wiahaw,  i* 
not  now  known  to  be  ertaat  Manoin  of  the 
Livtt  and  Ae^oni  ^  Jamet  awf  WS^tm,  Xhitet  iff 
ffamtUon  md  ChMHvnuH,  by  Oilbett  Bomet, 


1977. -L— » . 

published  Hidorieal  oncf  aatetUogieal  Mmtoirt  of 
the  Hovtt  itfBamiUoit  in  182^  in  1  toL  4to. 

HAMtLTOK,  ALKXAjnntB,  a  celebrated  Ameri- 
can rtateamao,  bom  Jannoiy  1767,  in  the  Weet 
Indian  ialand  of  Neria,  ■•      -         -       «... 

merchant  who  had  marri 
Bis  faUier  soon  failed  ii  ... 

at  tbe  age  of  twelre,  had  to  enter  the  connting- 
honae  of  a  rich  American  merchant,  named  Cmger. 
Sa  extraordinary  abilities,  however,  Indnced  some 
of  his  friends  to  jffoenre  for  him  a  better  edneation 
than  ooaU  be  got  at  home.    He  waa  accordingly 


a  schoolboy,  and  barely  18,  wrote  a 


*e  at  iiTft  taken  lor  the  production 
itatesman  Jay,  and  which  kecnred  ( 
._s  notioe  and  oonaideration  ot  the  p 
leadan.  ^  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  he  obtained  a 
ocmmission  aa  o^itain  of  artillervj  guned  the  confi- 
dence  of  Washington,  waa  made  lua  aide-de-camp  in 
1777^  mid  aoqnired  tLe  greatest  inflnenoe  with  him 
aa  hi*  friend  and  adviser. 

In  1780,  he  married  a  daa|^ter  of  Qeneral 
SdmTler,  who  wm  a  member  of  a  very  old  bmily. 
On  the  termination  of  the  war.  be  left  the  aerrioe 
with  tike  rank  of  oolimel,  and,  betaking  lumaelf  to 
legal  stadias,  soon  became  one  cA  the  most  eminent 
lawyen  in  New  York.  In  178S;  he  wai  elected  by 
the  itatp  d  New  York  a  repreaentatiTe  at  tbe 
Oontinental  Congreas ;  in  1786,  he  became  a 
member  of  the  New  York  legialatnre;  and  in  1787, 


His  writings,  ezolosive  of  TAe  AdaroJifC,  have 
been  pnblished  in  7  volA  by  his  son,  Jonn  C. 
HamUKm. 

HAMILTON.  AirraoNT,  Comr  ni,  deacended 
from  the  SoottiEh  dncal  family  of  that  name,  waa 
bom  in  Ireland  in  the  year  1646.  After  die  ezecn- 
tdon  of  Charles  L,  he,  wiUi  hil  ponrnte,  followed 
the  royal  family  to  !nanoe.  On  ihe  acceoion  of 
Charles  IL  in  lASC^  he  retained  to  England,  bnt  was 
excluded  from  office  aa  being  a  CathoCo;  Jamee  n. 
gave  him  a  re^ment  of  infantiv  in  Ireland,  and 


his  lif^  and  died  at  S 


where  he  passed 


»t  monarch, 
the  rest  of  ! 


'aris,  ISOq.  Hia  JfAnotriet  de  OnmnnMtf  is  a 
livdy  and  Bjdrited  production,      '  ' 


gafreeand 


iutli^  delineation  of  the  oonrt  of  Chulea  IL 
baa  been  often  translated  into  T!"trl'«*'  The  loit 
edition  ii  that  In  Balm's  Seiie^  wiOi  Seotf  s  not«a 
and  illuitratioiu.  One  of  the  best  edidons  of  hi* 
collective  works  ia  that  pnLlilhed  by  Benonard 
(3vola.Paria,  1812). 

HAUIIAY)N,  FAtBKK,  one  ot  the  moat  pro- 
minent precnrsors  ot  the  Soottiah  Befoimation,  was 
yomger  son  of  Sir  Patrick  HamUton  of  Kiaoavel 
id  Stimehouse,  and  of  Oa<2ieriue  Stewai^  dso^tcr 
I  Alexander,  Duke  cl  Albany,  aeoand  son  erf  Sing 
u«mca  n.,  and,  in  all  probabili^,  waa  bean  in 
the  year  1604^  «d  in  tiie  et^  of  Glasgow.    He 
was  edooated  at  the  nniTtcsi^  of  Fatia,  whme  he 
t«ok  his  degree  in  IBOO,  after  whioh  he  [Rooeaded 
to  Louvain,  where  he  ronained  tat  soma  time,  and 
thenoe  removed  to  Basel  in  1C2L 

When  H.   settled  fn  8t  Andrews  in  102S,  ha 
brooght  with  him  the  new  taatea  an'    '  ' 
which  he  had  leatned  to  chsriih.    For 
lis  opinions  attracted  no  particular  attc 
luietty  paisaed  his  theokigieal  studies  aod  did  not 


~l,zodtyCUOgll 


J 


M  yet  vBDtnre  to  pat  hinuelf  forwrnid  aa  a,  rafiniiLer. 
He  had  b««ii  i^ipoiiited  in  hia  boyhood  Abbot  of 
Feme,  and  aWKnigli  ba  nevv  went  into  reaidfoiae  ot 
lived  aa  a  nonk,  M  waa  oootent  to  enjoy  the  ad-ran- 
tagea  and  digni^  cf  hia  eodeaiartiDal  poaitian.  Bnt 
gndnaUy  hie  ooanotiona  nutoied.  Fiom  ayweing 
iritix  Eraanuu,  he  cane  to  agree  with  Lnther  t  and 
about  1026  he  ^ipean  to  h»Te  amunnoed  hia  new 
Tiewa  in  miah  a  manner  aa  to  draw  the  notjoe 
of  the  Arabbuhop  Beaton.  Earlj  in  1527,  Beaton 
made  'in^niaition*  into  the  raonnda  of  tbamminiT 
againet  him,  aud  found  tiurf;  lie  waa  'infamed  with 
betDg[  djapntiiu^  holding  and  maintaininn  diT«ne 
hetenM  ot  Surtin  Lnther  aod  hia  tollowen, 
iqnuiuuit  to  tika  IxHi^'  and  thereirpMi  proeeeded 
to  'deeiTe'  itim  to  be  fonoilly  Baamoaua  and  pot 
to  bial.  In  the  following  year,  be  oanried  oat  nu 
Mmunona  by  a  piofeaed  tiial  and  canriction,  dedar- 
ing  him  to  be  worthy  of  death.  In  the  meantime, 
H.  bad  fled  to  Qannany,  where  he  became  *""'!' «■■ 
with  Lnthar  and  Helancthon.  The  Proteetant 
education  of  H.  was  in  thia  manner  very  complete. 
Such  a  man,  while  he  beoune  a  Teformer,  beoame 
one  in  no  Hctariui  eanM.    Hi  a  dootrinal  opiniona 


>1itan  breadth  i 


by  a  aoiiptnnl  nniidid^  befiUang  hi 
penereriiig  cjrint  ol  iiMnirr.  The 
hia   doatnoei  haa  be«ai  lOrciiBal 


were  oharacteiiaad  t^  aomeCbing  of  the 
whioa  matked  hia  trainii 
unidid^  befiUang  hia  htm 
,..it  ol  iiMnirr.  The  ndi«<._.  .  ._ 
.  J  haa  be«ai  xOrmiMte^  ptwerred  bj 
hia  own  pen  tinder  the  title  of  PaCncF*  PloMt; 
and  aimplieity,  combined  with  eomprebenaion  and 
apboriatio  brevity,  may  be  *^  to  b«  the  chief 
charaoteriatice  of  t^h^in 

After  a  residence  of  aix  montlia,  H.  retained  to 
hi*  nalne  ooontry.  He  repaired  to  the  familyimtut- 
■ion  at  Kineav^  and  there,  in  the  uajghbonrbood 
of  linliUigow,  wenlv  jireatdkad  the  gM^eL  What 
ii  more  rtmarkablcL  he  u  snppoied,  during  thia  htM 
period  of  qniet  and  retiremo^  at  EinoaveL  to  have 
married.  It  ia  somewhat  rtrange  that,  following 
inch  an  erent,  he  should  huva  been  induced  to 
quit  hit  retiraneut,  where  he  waa  in  oomparatiTC 
ufety,  and  proceed  to  St  Andrews.  Beatoo,  how- 
erer,  contrived  to  allure  him  within  his  erssp.  He 
'tr*Tuled  with  the  said  Mr  Patrick,'  Knoz  saya, 
'  Uiat  he  got  him  to  St  Andrews.*  Hop«a  aeem 
to  have  been  held  out  of  some  good  being  effected 
ij  a  oonfeienoe  with  him  as  to  the  state  of  the 
church  and  ite  need  of  reformation ;  for  '  reforma- 

in  tJu  dim«h,  and  many  pUns  were  considered,  and 
■ome  attemptod  for  oanrmg  it  ou'L 
S.  aniTed  at  St  An^ews  in  January  1G28,  and 
I  hia  abode  in  a  lodging  provided  for  him  bv 


took 


k  IV  hia  aboi „ ^  ,_ . 

archtuahop.    A.  oonCvenoe  waa  .       ._ 

bis  oppownts  ahewed  a  concdliatMy  tpiritj  and 
erem  to  sonte  octent  expraased  concurrence  in  his 
views,  No  advHitage  ai^iean  to  have  been  taken 
of  his  foTtoer  smajDons  and  condenm&tioa.  He 
waa  allowed  openly,  for  some  time,  to  ^romul- 
■L.^    '     --^_— *.-  ^^   ^^  jj^  g^  nniMB^ity. 

' aned,  and  among 

:  AlisiQa,  at  -this 

in  the  ^oir,  and  with 

Alenuider  Campbell,  one  of  the  DonunioHi  frian, 
man.  tK  good  wit 


time  one  of  tin  c 


d  iramiita,'  aubomed, 
nqibim  intoavowala 


answer  brfote  Beaton  to  a  charse  of  heresy.  The 
trial  took  place  on  tike  last  day  of  Febraary,  and  the 
lentlt,  in  sinte  at  hia  lominons  and  nnanawenble 
argument  was,  that  R  was  condemned  for  dime 


a  the  aeonlar  power  to  \ 


ably   did    l 


I  waa  OBiried  oat  without  delay.  The 
of  Hm  Moolar  powst  must  have  been 
seoored,  for  on  tiui  very  s 

of  whidihe  was  tried,  H.  ■ ,, 

a  in  the  front  of  the  gato  of  St  Salvador's 

College.  He  died  as  hs  had  lived,  a  hombls, 
eameal^  heroia  man.  His  character,  if  it  soamely 
attoined  to  sraatneaa  in  hia  brief  lifetime,  yet  shine* 

the  firsa  iJ  his  eariy  martyrdMiL  His  death  prob- 
9  to  extend  the  Safoimation  in 
iven  bis  life  oonld  have  dona.  The 
'  reik  of  Ur  Atdok  Hamilton,'  said  one  of  Beabm'a 
own  retainer^  'ha*  infected  m  many  aa  it  dldUow 

HAUILTON,  Bnt  Wiluul  of  Pretttu,  Bart, 
the  most  learned  and  at^»npAA  phUoAcpher  of 
the  Soottish  Kdiool,  was  bom  March  8,  1788,  at 
Olsagow,  where  his  father,  Dr  William  Hamdton, 
uid  hia  grandfathfw,  !Dr  Uuffliaa  TTmnilto";  held 
in  suoceasion  the  churs  of  Anatomy  and  Botany. 
Though  the  Hamittons  cf  Preaton  (Haddington- 
shire), yAo  were  raised  to  a  bsranetoy  in  1S73, 
had  not  aasnmed  their  title  nnoo  the  death  of  Sir 
imiiam  Hamilton  in  Novoubc 
bcotlur  and  heir,  Sir  Robert,  the  < 
totakatiteoathof  allegiaao*,  Uu  philo*oph*r  made 
good  hia  claim  to  tMnastit  theco,  and  tuodor*  to 
be  deaoended  tioai  the  leadw  lA  Hie  CoTonanten  at 
Dnmdog  and  Bothwell  Bridge.   After  ^ainins  high 

"""""'"'""    '  "~  '    "^"  "■""■' — luoal  clawM, 

Uiol  Collan 
Sndl  oJutntioner,  and  th«n,  notwiSt- 


.tliat  he 

tioQ  in  medieval  and  modena,  as  well  a*  in  andent 
literature,  and  he  him^itf  felt  that  his  residence  in 

Balliol  waa  the  ifaost  importuit  period  of  his  life 
in  determining  the  drift  of  his  suheeqaent  specn. 
latJona  and  studies  (see  Diteuuion*,  2d  ed.,  p.  760, 
note).  He  left  Oxford  in  1812,  and  «it«t«d  the 
Sootoh  bar  in  1818,  bat  be  seems  never  to  have  hod 
any  practice  in  hi*  profesBiDD  eicent  what  became 
incumbent  oa  him  sftfirwsrds,  on  being  appointed 
CTOwn-salidtor  of  the  oonrt  of  teinds.  In  1820,  on 
4he  death  ot  Dr  Brown,  he  was  an  unsnooeMfvil 
competitor  for  the  chair  of  Moral  Philosophy  in 
Edinburgh.  In  the  following  year,  hoWBVer,  H. 
was  appointed  to  the  profeewiuilp  id  History  by 
ite  patrons,  the  Faculty  of  Advocates. 

H.  had  now  reached  his  80th  year,  without  ffiving 
to  the  worid  any  Indication  of  those  specnlatious 


Sevitm  a  critique  of  Dousm's  Qourt  de  PhScmi^tie  of 
the  previous  year,  in  which  was  developed  that 
pbilow^ihBr's  docblne  of  the  Infinite.  The  critdqne 
immediately^  excited  admiratioii  not  on^  among  the 
few  in  our  island  who  oomprehended  it,  bnt  mndi 
moTQ  extensively  on  the  continent,  Cousin  himself 
being  among  tbe  first  to  acknowledge  that  hia 
reviewer  at  once  nnderstood  Uioron^y  the  theory 
which  he  opposed,  and  combated  it  with  a  speoa- 
lative  power,  wiui  a  knowledge  of  phUosophical 

— 1 —  — J --J  -*  --Lii vj_ri  oxpreesion, 

existing  in 
_   ..  ,  IS  aregular 

contributor  to  the  E^nhtirgh  Reeita.  BeaideB  other 
'  ilosophical  artdcles,  two  of  whidi,  on  the  Phil. 
i^y  of  Perception,  and  on  Recent  Publicatioas 
li<iical  Sciei 
. .  itributed  sev( 
reform.  Many  of  tbese  . 
R^blished   in    Mr   OroMs'B 


hyGuu^le 


Ettinburgk  SecitiB,  wei«  tmulated  into  QanoAQ, 
Prench,  and  Italuui,  the  French  cdlection,  FroffmaU* 
de  PkUoiophie,  b^ir  eapeci^y  valuable  for  the 
uitroduutiouT  appendiXt  ami  ttotea  of  its  editor, 
M.  Peiwe.  la  1852,  they  were  all  edited  by  H. 
faiouelf,  vith  large  notea  and  appendices,  under  tlie 
tiUe  of  Diteattiimt  m  PhUoiophy  and  LileraluTe, 
Sdtieatiott,  and  Univtrtity  B^form.  In  1S36,  after 
a  aerere  contait,  H.  was  elected  to  the  chair  of 
Lofpc  and  Metaplijiics  in  EdinburgL  During  hia 
first  Reaeion,  he  delivered  a  course  of  lecture*  on 
Metapbyaici,  vbich  wu  followed  in  the  Bucceeding 
neaaloD  by  a  coarae  on  hogid ;  and  these  two  courses 
he  continued  to  read  an  ea<^  alternate  year  tUl  the 
cloie  of  hia  life.  Win  influence  soon  began  to  shew 
itself  in  Vbe  university  amona;  the  young  men  who 
were  attracted  thither  from  cMerent  parts  of  Scot- 
land, and  otber  countries,  in  many  cases  chiefiy  for 
the  sslce  of  hearing  H. ;  and  many  of  hia  pupils, 
tJOW  rising  to  distinction  in  Taiious  professions,  trace 
to  the  impulaeB  which  issued  from  his  class  the 
most  valooble  element  of  their  education.  Exten- 
aive  Dotea  af  his  leotnres  were  taken  by  hia  students, 
and  numerous  copies  of  them,  transcribed  from 
short-hand  reports,  were  in  circulation  during  the 
later  yean  of  his  life.  Since  his  death,  they  have 
bean  published  nnder  the  editorship  of  Professors 
Mansel  and  Veitch  {Sir  WiUiam  MamUUm't  Let- 
tmra,  4  vol*.  1859—1861).  These  lectures,  which 
were  mostly  written  during  the  currency  of  the 
seatioiis  in  which  they  were  first  delivered,  want 
the  exactness  of  thought  and  expression  which 
reader  the  woriu  revisra  by  himself  for  pubhcation 
models  of  philosophical  ccmposition ;  but  this  may 
be  said  to  convey  hieher  value  to  tliem  as  intro- 
ductory works.  Still  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
materials  embodied  in  these  volumes  were  never, 
as  was  intended,  wrou^t  mXa  another  work  which 
H.  had  already  plann^  at  the  time  of  his  appoint- 
ment. Hu*  was  his  edition  -of  the  works  of 
Ketd,  with  notes  and  supplementary  dissertations. 
It  is  perhaps  impossibte  to  adduce  any  writing 
which  have  received  the  same  amount  of  editorial 
care.  The  general  aim  of  H.'s  whole  philosophy  is, 
in  fact,  bat  the  special  aim  of  this  edition  of  Beid. 


speculation,  and  he  souglit,  accordin^y,  in  his 
annotations  of  Ecid's  writings,  as  in  his  indepen- 
dent works,  to  point  out  the  relation  of  the  Scottish 
philosophy  to  the  systems  of  other  countries,  as  well 
as  to  translate  it  into  a  more  scientific  expression, 
that  he  might  bring  into  clearer  view  at  once  its 
true  character  and  Uae  real  basis  on  which  it  rests. 
In  this,  therefore,  mere  than  in  any  of  his  other 
works,  he  betrays  his  fondneaa  for  ehcitiiie  his  own 
theoriea  from  uie  hints  of  previous  Ihiueis )  his 
peculiar  doctrines  of  perception,  of  the  condiisoned, 
of  mental  reproduction,  4c.,  are  traced  to  tiie  writ- 
ings of  Aristotle.  Valuable,  however,  as  this  work 
is,  its  latest  edition  coutaios  references  to  nmneroiiB 
dissertations  beyond  that,  in  the  middle  of  which  it 
abmptlv  stops.  This  is  undoubtedly  to  be  attributed 
to  the  decay  of  H.'s  health  By  the  paralysis  of  his 
whole  riflht  side,  thongh  his  mmd  continued  unim- 
paired, nis  power  of  work  was  serioosly  curtailed 
during  the  later  yean  of  his  life.  He  was,  however, 
eenentlly  able,  witli  an  assistant,  to  perform  the 
duties  dl  his  class  till  the  close  of  session  1356 — 
18SC,  when  his  health  suddenly  became  worse,  and 
he  died  6th  May. 

The  time  haa  scarcely  come  for  eafdmating  the 
podtion  of  H.  in  the  history  of  philosophy.  Though 
his  system  nofesses  to  be  merely  an  explication  of 
the  Scottish  philoscvhy,  he  aeema  to  db  already 
creating  an  independant  school,  and,  indeed,  it  may 


be  questioned  whether  all  his  exegetical  skill  has 
vinmcated  the  position  claimed  for  Beid,  whether, 
therefore,  it  would  not  have  been  better  for  E.  had 
he  struck  into  a  separate  path.  For  while  hia 
philosophy  is  distinguished  in  general  from  pre- 
vious Scottish  specuLitions  by  ite  more  rigorously 
systematic  character,  it  Yeutures,  as  in  his  doctrine 
of  the  conditioned,  into  realms  of  thought,  whose 
existence  had  been  scarcely  suimised  by  any  of  his 
countrymen.  This  doctrine,  which  lixoits  posil ' 
thought  to  the  conditioned  sphere  between  the  c .  . 
tradictory  poles  of  the  infinite  and  the  absolute, 
has  attracted  mora  attention  than  any  of  his  other 
doctrines,  especially  since  the  publication  of  Mr. 
Mansel's  Bampton  Lecturta  in  1358 ;  and  though 
H.'s  discnsnan  is  confined  to  the  metaphysiul 
aspects  of  the  question,  and  is  perhaps  incompatible 
with  a  consideration  of  the  ethical  ideas  which  must 
be  embraced  in  oor  conception  of  the  Infinite  Being, 
it  is  likely  for  some  time  to  gather  round  it  the 
higher  efforts  of  British  spec^tion.  H.  is  also 
worthv  of  being  diatinguisbad  by  hia  important 
contributions  to  logic  Tnese  may  be  reduced  to  the 
two  principles  (1)  of  distinguishing  reasoning  in  the 
quantiW  of  extension  from  reasoning  in  that  of 
comprehension,  and  (2)  of  stating  expucitly  what  is 
thought  implicitly ;  from  the  former  of  whioh  issues 
his  ^ofold  determination  of  major,  minor  and 
middle  terms,  as  of  major  and  minor  premisea;  from 
the  latter  the  qoontificatioa  of  the  predicate,  the 
reduction  of  the  modes  of  conversion  to  one,  and  his 
nmnerous  simplifications  in  the  laws  of  syllogism. 

HAMILTON,  Sm  William,  grandson  ol 
William,  third  Duke  of  Hamilton,  bom  in  Scotland 
in  1730,  was,  in  1764,  appointed  En^ish  ambassador 
to  the  court  of  Naples.  Ihiring  his  residence  there, 
he  took  an  active  port  in  the  excavation  of  the  ruins 
of  Herculaneiun  and  Pompeii,  and  collected  a  rare 
assortment  of  art-relics,  consisting  chiefiy  of  Qreek 
and  Etruscan  antitjuities,  which  was  afterwards 
purchased  for  the  British  Museum.  He  was  recalled 
to  England  in  1800;  but  while  on  his  way  home  the 
veasel  in  which  he  sailed  was  anfortunately  wrecked, 
and  a  great  port  of  his  collection  of  autiquea  lost 
Dmwiaga  of  these  had,  howover,  been  preserved, 
which  were  afterwords  published  in  his  AtOiqaUti 
Etmaipia,  OrtapKt,  tt  RoTnaina,  tirtei  da  Gabhut 
de  M.  HamiUm  (4  vols.  Naples,  1766).  He  also 
published  Olnervationa  on  Mmmt  Vauviui,  Moanl 
&na,  Jtc.  (Ix>nd.  1772) ;  Campi  PhUgmd  (Naples, 
1776—1777),  &0. ;  besides  tama  papers  in  the 
PAttowpAicai  7Van>iTC(imM(Lond.  1767— 1795).  H.'b 
claim  on  the  British  government  for  special  services 
was  disallowed,  and  he  died  at  Loudon  in  com- 
parative poverty,  6th  April  1803.— He  wife  of  H. 
was  the  notorious  Lady  Hamilton,  whose  name 
figures  unpleasantly  in  the  biography  of  Lord 
Nelson.  She  died  at  Calais  in  1816,  and  her 
Memoin  have  been  published. 

HAMILTON,  SiK  WiLLUH  BowAK,  LL.D.,  one 


sent  century,  was  bom  in  Dublin  in  August  180 
From  his  ii^aoof  he  displayed  extnordinoiy  talents, 
having  at  the  age  of  13  a  good  knowledge  of  thirteen 
languages.  Having  at  an  unusually  euty  age  taJ — 
to  the  study  of  mathematics,  in  his  ISth  year  _. 
had  mastered  thoroughly  all  the  ordinaiy  umvenity 
course,  and  commenced  oriidnal  investigations  of  so 
promising  a  kind,  that  Dr  BrinJJey,  himself  a  voy 
good  mathematician,  took  him  under  his  especial 
patronage.  His  earlier  essays,  connected  with  con- 
tact of  curves,  and  caustics,  grew  by  degrees  int" 
an  elaborate  tteatiBe  on  the  Thioru  qf  Syttem*  % 
Rays,  published  by  the  Boyal  Iri&  Academy  in 
1828.    To  tJiis  he  added  votioas  supplementa,  in  the 


tyCoogle 


BAUtLTONIAN  8Y8TBM— HAMMER,  SIBAM-HAUMER 


(■ee  Rkiiucttor),  the  experiniBnUI  Terification 
of  whioli  by  Lloyd  Etill  fomu  one  of  tbe  moet 
oonvinciag  pioofi  of  the  truth  of  the  tJndulatory 
Theory  of  Light  S«e  LlOHT.  The  gre&t  featare 
of  hia  Sytemt  tif  Baj/t  ii  the  empteymeiit  of  a  lingle 
fimcidol],  npoB  whoae  difleientud  coefficienta  (taken 
OD  TBiioua  bypothesee)  the  whole  of  a^y  optical 
problem  ia  nude  to  depend.  Ee  laemi  to  nave  been 
led  by  thia  to  his  next  great  woA,  A  OenemJ  Me&od 
in  I>yruaide»,  pnbliahea  in  the  PhSotap^eai  Tram- 
aeiiont  for  1834.  Here,  again,  the  whole  of  ai^ 
dynamical  problem  ii  mode  to  depend  upon  a  lingle 
function  and  it«  differential  coefficients.  Thia  paper 
prodnoed  a  profoimd  Mosation,  eapectDlly  among 
continental  mathematiciuu.  Jacobi  of  EBnigiberv 
took  ttp  the  pnrvlj  mathemiLtical  part  of  Q.'i  method, 
and  ooutiderably  extended  it ;  and  of  late  years  the 
dnuunieal  part  baa  been  richly  commeat^  ot>  and 
eUbcmted  Dy  tereral  French  matbematiaiaiui,  all 
nnitiug  in  tbeir  admiration  of  the  genius  displayed 
in  the  original  papers.  For  these  researchcB,  H.  was 
elected  an  honorary  member  of  the  Academy  of  St 
Petetsbnrg,  a  rare  and  coveted  diBtinction.     The 

SvindfJe  of  varying  action,  which  forms  the  main 
eature  of  the  memoirs,  is  hardly  capable, 
events  ia  few  words,  of  popular  explanBtioo.  Among 
H.'s  other  works,  which  are  very  Domeroas,  we 
may  mention  particularly  a  Tcry  general  TAeortm  in 
Oie  Separation  qf  iSVmi«i  in  Fmite  D^ffereaea,  and 
his  £xamiaaliott  of  AhtCi  Argmnad  amixmv^  &t. 
J 'npoetibiiilji  q/"  loiviag  tAs  Qtntral  Equaiion  qf  lite 
FiftltDtgree. 

We  may  also  portioularly  allude  to  his  memoir  on 
AlgAra  at  Vie  Saaux  of  Pure  Time,  one  of  the  first 
steps  to  hiB  grand  invention  oE  quaternions.  The 
steps  by  which  be  waa  led  to  this  latter  investiga- 
tiuu,  which  will  certainly,  when  better  known,  give 
him  eren  a  greater  reputatioa  than  conical  redac- 
tion or  varying  action  has  done,  will  be  more  pro- 
perly treated  under  Quate&niohb.     On  the  latter 


volume  of  a 
character  on  the  some  subject,  contsiDiug  in  addition 
his  more  recent  improvements  and  extensions  of  his 
calculus,  was  published  after  his  death,  which  took 
phice  2d  September  1S65. 

While  yet  an  undergraduate  ol  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  he  was  appointed,  in  1827,  successor  to  Dr 
Briokley  in  the  Andrews'  chair  of  astronomy  is 
the  university  of  Dublin,  to  which  is  attached  the 
ostronomer-royolship  of  Ireland.  In  1835,  he  was 
knitted  on  Ms  deuvering  the  address  as  secretary 
"  itish  Association  for  its  Dublin  meeting. 


to  the  I 


most  of  the  great  soientific  academies  of  Europe. 
¥i_  i._>j  '  — 'ng  iiig  jife^  QQt  jg  Dublin  alone,  b("  "~ 
science,  a  position  as  merited  as  it 


[AMILTONIAN  SYSTEM,  a  method  of 
teMhing  lanEungee,  so  called  from  the  inventor,  an 
English  merchant  o£  the  name  of  James  Hamilton, 
bom  about  1769.  Having  removed  to  Hamburg 
in  1798,  he  took  lessons  in  German,  on  the  under- 
standing that  he  was  not  to  be  troubled  with  the 
grammsT  ol  tiie  language-  He  and  his  teacher 
read  together  a  Qerman  book  of  anecdotes,  the  pupil 
translating  word  for  word  after  his  teacher;  utd 
after  twelve  leswns,  Hamilton  found  himaelf — so  at 
least  we  are  told — able  to  read  an  easv  German 
book.  His  attention  was  thus  drawn  to  tne  subject 
of  1^»jTiing  foreign  laogiiageB^;  and  finding  himself, 


after  a  life  of  vicissitudes,  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
about  the  year  IBIS,  he  wrote  a  treatise  expound- 
ing his  views,  and  commenced  putting  tliem  in 
piactioe.  He  undertook  to  teach  adults  in  fifteen 
lessonB  to  translate  the  Gospel  of  St  John  from 
French  into  T'i"gl"t',  but  found,  we  are  told,  tea 
lessons  sufficient.     After  teaching  for  a  time  with 

"^  — cos  in  America,  he  returned  in  1823  to 

and  visited  the  chief  oitiea,  everywhere 
crowds  of  pupils,  notwithstanding  that 
lystem  was  denounced  by  many  aa  quackery. 
He  died  in  Dubhn  in  1831. 

The  Hamiltonion  method  was  only  one  it^e 
in  the  reaction — begun  ■■  early  as  the  time  of 
ComeniuB  (q.  v.),  and  carried  on,  among  others,  by 
Milton  and  Locke — against  the  pedantic  meUiod 
of  beginning  to  teach  a  foreign  or  dead  language 
by  making  the  learner  commit  to  memory  a  oom- 
jdete  set  of  grammar  rulea  before  he  had  aoqnired 
sufficient  practical  acquaintiuice  with  the  language 
itself  in  its  concrete  form,  to  give  the  mlea  any 
meaning.  Hamilton's  method  of  procedure  may 
be  shortly  summed  np  as  follows ;  Supposing 
Latin  to  be  the  language  to  be  learned,  Hamilton 
yai  into  the  pupil's  hands  the  Gospel  of  St  John 


,  so  literal 


shew  the  gender  as  well  as  the  number  of 
nouns,  ftc,  and  the  mood,  prason,  and  tense  of 
the  verbs.  The  idioms  were  not  translated  by 
corresponding  idioms,  but  each  word  by  its  hteraJ 
equivalent  in  English.  A  fundamental  point  with 
Hamilton  was  to  ^ve  the  primitive,  and  not  the 
derivative  signification  of  the  word,  and  to  give  the 
same  signification  to  the  same  word  in  miatever 
connecbon  it  might  stand.  When  the  pupil  had 
by  this  practice  got  a  conuderable  knowledge  of  the 
vocablea  and  accidence  of  the  language,  he  was 
practised  in  turning  tiie  P.ngli"«)i  vermon  back  into 
the  Latin.  Hamilton  undertook  in  this  way  to  give 
boys  of  eleven  as  much  knowledge  of  lAtm  in  six 
months  as  they  usually  learn  at  our  public  schools 
ia  six  years.  One  obvious  defect  of  this  method  is, 
that  no  language  admits  of  a  word-for-word  and 
uniform  translation  into  another ;  the  method  ia  in 
this  respect  misleading.  Besides,  one  great  oae  of 
learning  languages  is  ss  a  mental  discipline,  and  in 
this  pomt  of  view  the  Hamiltonian  system  is  usdess. 
It  may  be  useful  in  the  case  of  adults  who  widi  to 
acquure,  with  as  little  labour  as  possible,  a  Ihnit^d 
power  of  reading  and  speaking  a  languue ;  and  in 
any  case,  a  langnsge  once  b^un  to  be  ^uned  on 
Hamilton's  principles,  may  be  afterwards  prosecuted 
on  a  better  method,  thus  avoiding  the  painfnl 
initiatory  stages  of  the  grammatioal  metho<£  The 
necessi^,  however,  of  having  reoourse  to  the  omde 
method  of  Hamilton,  is  superBeded  in  the  praotiee 
of  most  modem  teachers,  who  contrive  to  maka  the 
practical  and  grammatical  knowledge  of  a  language 

HAMM,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province  of 
Westphalia,  ia  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Lippe,  22  miles  north-north-weat  of  Amaberg,  It 
is  surrounded  by  an  old  wall  now  converted  mto  a 
promenade,  and  by  a  ditch ;  contains  a  castle,  gym- 
nasium, and  colWe.  and  carries  on  the  mannfactore 
of  linen  extensive^.  Iron  ia  also  produced  H.  was 
formerlyoneofthcHansetowna.   Fop.  (IS71)  IMl^i- 

HAHMBR—STBAM-HAHHEIt-a  tool  used 
for  applying  the  force  of  impact,  either  for  the  pnr- 
pose  of  beating  malleable  materials  into  a  required 
form,  or  for  driving  nails,  wedges,  JCc  The  common 
hand-hammer  consiita  of  an  iron  head,  nsually  faced 
with  steel,  fixed  crosswise  upon  a  wooden  h.nilla 
When  one  side  of  the  head  is  thinned  out  of  a  wedse 
form  or  to  a  point,  this  is  called  the  pons  of  the 


t.Cuui^lt 


TT*1Lf\ntn.BHAM_TTA]Lninni.Tni!*Tt, 


hunmer.  The  faei  is  tha  flat  diu  which  ttrike* 
the  worit.  OmwitarB'  uid  ioinew'  himmets  hiiTa 
B  b«iit  pane  iriui  >  V-ih>ped  aotoh,  which  u  used 
H  a  bent  lever  for  dnwiog  ntih,  tu.  The  pane 
ia  iometimes  •bupencd  ao  m  to  form  on  adze  or 
obiaeL  A  ninltitnda  erf  other  modificaijana  in  the 
foRU  of  hamtosn  are  made  to  aoit  differeot  kioda  of 
irork.  Some  of  the  more  Important  of  theae  are 
treated  aader  the  heada  of  the  Tariooa  operationB, 
trnoh  aa  FosaiHO,  FiLi-cumvQ,  OoLS-BKinRO,  ftc. 
For  many  pnrpo■a^  hammers  are  reqaired  of 
greater  weight  than  a  mao  can  wield  iana  a  great 
Tariety  of  power-hammen  an  naed.  These,  for  the 
most  part,  are  mswai  of  iron  raised  by  steam  or 
other  power,  and  then  allowed  to  fall  \ij  their  own 
gmTi^  t^xm  tha  woA.  The  Mm  or  Mngting 
MmmuT,  oaed  for  OMnpreosing  the  man  of  iron 
drawn   from  the   ]       ~  ~ 


E  furnace,   and  the  tilt- 

, actnre  of  ahear-rteel,  are 

important  ezamplea  of  anch  hanuners.  The  first  is  a 
heayy  bar  of  cast  iron  abont  ten  feet  lone,  wd^iinA 
three  or  four  tons  and  npwarda,  to  which  u  attached 
a  head  of  wrooght  iron  faced  with  ateel,  weighing 
nearly  half  a  ton  more.  It  works  npon  an  axis  at 
the  eoA  of  the  bar  fnrthest  frooi  the  head,  and  ia 
raised  by  cams  attached  to  a  heavy  whed  set  in 
motion  bj  steam  or  water  power ;  theae  oana  strike 
or  ■  lick '  a  projection  eztending  beyond  the  hMd, 
and  thns  raise  it  about  18  or  20  Uiehea  at  the  rate  of 
bom  70  to  100  times  per  minnte.  Hie  tilt-hammer 
is  similar,  bat  mnoh  lighter,  and  is  adapted  for 
striking  above  300  blows  per  minute.  In  order  to 
obtain  this  Wocity,  a  abort  '  tail '  extends  with 
a  downward  inclination  b^ond  the  aida,  and  the 
eama  strike  thia  downwards,  and  thna  lift  tiie 
longer  aim  o(  the  lever  to  which  the  head  ia 
attached.  These,  when  worked  by  ateam,  aa  they 
ntnally  Sfe  in  thia  country,  are,  of  coune,  ateam- 
hammeia ;  but  when  the  term  Btesm-hammer  is  used 
withoat  qnalification,  it  applies  to  another  and  more 
elaborate  machine  of  very  different  cooatructioii, 
invented  by  Mr  Jamea  Nasmyth  in  1S42,  and  anbae- 
quently  modified  and  improved  in  some  of  its  mintv 
details.  In  thin,  the  hammer  is  attached  to  the 
bottom  of  a  heavy  mass  of  iron,  the  '  hammer-block,' 
capable  of  riling  and  falling  between  upright  baia 
—  'goidee;'  this,  again,  is  fixed  to  the  rod  of  a 


simply  toaching  a 
handle.  The  adjnstanente  are  ao  perfeot  that  it  may 
be  made  to  oruah  a  maaa  of  iron,  and  at  the  nert 
blow  to  ciBck  a  nut  held  in  the  fingen  without 
damaging  either  kernel  orflngeiB,  or  to  oiackthetop 
of  an  ogg  in  an  egg.cnp,  aa  might  be  done  with  the 
bowl  ofa  apoon.  The  machaniam  by  which  thia 
is  eSeoted  is  too  elaborate  to  be  deaciibed  here 
in  detail.  One  novel  contrivance,  viz.,  the  '  latoh,' 
which  revetses  the  action  of  the  steam-valvea  at  the 
pi«ciB«  moment  reqnired,  is  of  remarkable  ingenoi^. 
Inthefiiat  'Nasmythi'  that  were  naed,  the  wmght 
of  the  deacending  mass — viz.,  the  bammer-block, 
hammer,  &c. — wss  from  thirty  to  sixty  cwts., 
and  they  were  justly  regarded  ss  mechanical 
marvels.  Steam-hammers  with  a  descending  masa 
of  twenty  to  thirty  tons  have  since  been  eon- 
•tnicted.  In  order  to  compare  the  power  of 
tlieM  with  the  '  helve '  or  otluer  hammers,  which 
desoand  by  angular  motion  on  a  pivot,  it  most  be 


remembml  that  theae  latter,  when  formed 
straight  bar,  tie  on^  effective  to  the  extent  of  .. 
body  of  one-third  </  their  wei^t  fallins  direotly 
bcm  a  oorreaponding hei^it,  '~    '>--•--- 


D  aaoount  A  the  fact 


t  BdMS,  arid 


that  the  whole  bar  forming  the  hammer  ia  moving 
with  a  velocity  vaiying  from  nothing  at  tha  aiia, 
to  a  maodmam  at  the  tmd  of  the  bar,  where  tha 
bammer-faos  is  fixed. 

HAMMEB-BEAU,  a  portion  of  an  tnien  timber 
roof,  forming  a  truss  at  tine  foot  of  the  ratter,  which 
gives  atrength  and  elegance  to  the  constrnctic 
IiMkE  08  if  there  had  bem  a  tie  Tight  aonM 
the  centre  part  being  cn1»  cnt^  the  remna  . 
each  end  fonn  the  hanun«r-besin.  Hia  end  next 
the  apartment  ia  uaoolly  ornamented  with  fbi^Hf, 
heads,  pendants,  ha. 

HAUICBB-OIiOTH,  a  doth  whidh  ooven  tha 
driver's  seat  in  tome  Idnda  of  gentlemen's  oaniagaa. 
The  term  ia  belisved  to  be  a  onnqttion  of  hammook- 
oloth,  the  aeat  which  the  okrth  oovon  being  fotmed 
of  alraps  or  webbing  stretched  between  tw«  omtoliea, 
as  a  sailoi'a   '  .     t      .     ..      •  a       ■».._.    .. 

motion,  oa  in 

iented  with  fiingea,  and  bear  tha 
:_L„  ^  ^^  cainage.    They  are  du- 
lore  seldom  seen  thsn  formerly. 
HA'MUBBFEST,  the  prindpol town  and  taading 
port  of  Finmaifc  {qrV.},  in, Norway,      ■■  ■■     - 


oorthttn  town  of  Binfope,  is  sitorted  in  70*  40^ 
N.lat,and23*30'E,lo^  Pop.  abont  I20a  E.U 
sitoated  in  a  bomn  tnebsa  dlrtrlot,  in  the  rcol^ 
island  of  Qiialoo  fWhale  Idaud'),  and  oonriitB  St 

one  long  atreet  aknting  a  wall  of  rock.  The  hatbonr 
ia  goo^  and  pnaents  a  buav  appauanoe  daring 
anmmer,  when  it  ia  visited  by  aome  ZOO  Te«els, 
which  bring  hemp,  meal,  potatoes,  and  oQur  pro- 
visions, in  exchange  for  oil  and  fiah  (the  atHda 
oommoditiea  of  the  iaiand},  reindeer  hidea,  eider- 
down, and  foi-akina.  During  the  two  summer 
montha  the  sun  is  continually  above  the  horizon, 
and  the  heat  is  very  great,  yet  the  winter,  singolar 
Bay,  ia  mild  enon^  to  allow  of  the  fiaheiies 


Bngliali 


..__^._^  1847,  ia  al«>  sent  to    . 

Hammerfest.  H.  is  the  northern  limit  of  the  birch. 
HAMMEB-HBAD,  or  EAMICEE-HEABED 
SHARK  [Zygama  or  Spkifma),  a  genns  <A  fishes  of 
the  great  familf  of  Snsrksi  having  the  guieial 
form  and  diaractei*  of  the  family ;  but  distin- 
gdahed  from  all  other  fishes  by  the  extraordinary 
form  of  tha  head,  which,  in  the  odulta,  reaemldes  a 
double-headed  hammer,  being  extended  on  both 
ddes  to  a  considerahle  bagth,  and  having  the  eyes 
at  the  enda  of  the  lateral  eztenaiona.  "Dm  mouth 
ia  below  the  centre  ti  the  head.     The  hammer* 


Haimnv-headed  Shwk  {^ygana  MoJInu). 
beaded  form  ii 


ftff  enlargement   of  tha  > 

fcatal   aUte,   the   lateral** 

upcm  themadvea.     The  hsn 

parous,  and  prodnce  many  (about  forty)  yoong  a 

birth,     'niey  are  moat  abundant  in  trr^cal  at 

In  the  Bi^  of  Beniik,  '  th^  may  oftai  be  ai 

asoending  bom  tha  dear  bine  deptiia  of  tlte  oe< 


TTGoogle" 


HAUMBBSUTEH— HAUFDEK. 


lika » great  oload.'  They  utevtrf  ..    _ 

J  iv u^i.  ,  ^^^  ^^    One  ipeciee  (^.  malkiu) 

m  on  th*  firitiih  ooMts.    It  attutii 


Thamca,  which  U  hara  aToased  by  la  elegknt 
nupfuinon  hridge,  completed  in  1827,  at  a  ociat  of 
i£60,0DO.  Hie  KroimdB  in  the  vioini^  are  oocapied 
u  nuTMirin  nna  market-gardena,  from  which  a  laive 
mpply  of  flowert  and  Tegetablea  ii  sent  ta  ^e 
ei^.  Tht  pariih  ohnrch,  a  plain  brick  bnilding 
with  a  low  tow«r,  ww  eracted  in  1681,  and  conse- 
craledbflAndftlumBuhop  of  London.  H.oontaini 
also  the  convent  of  the  Oood  Shepfaod,  and,  in 
oonneotioii  with  it,  an  tajhan  ftn'  pemtent  women. 
Near  the  Ktadway  itanda  the  Wat- London 
Hoipilal,  lappoited  hj  volnntary  oontritnitioQi. 
Theie  ii  also  a  lai»  mdowiad  achool,  lonnded  by 
■  Mi  'William  GtSolphin,  and  which  takes  hu 
name.  The  premiae*  and  eroandt  of  the  eohool- 
room  eorer  npwaidi  of  fonr  acrea.  Fonmaiy, 
a  detached  Tiuage,  and  oconaotad  with  London 
onlj  in  a  oonuneraial  aenae,  H.  ia  now  joined  to 
that  oitT  by  oentdnnona  liitca  of  atreet,  and  foima 
eaaentiaUy  a  porttan  of  it.  The  pariah  of  H.  ia 
travened  bjr  lix  vetj  important  railwaya,  two  of 
which  terminate  here.  Fop.  of  the  pariah  in  1871| 
43,691. 

HAiraOOK,  the  appuatna  in  which  a  aaiior 
alinga  hia  bad,  deriTca  its  name  through  tiis 
Spaniih  haiitge,  from  a  PemTian  woid ;  the  cnatom 
of  thna  anipmiding  a  bed  hB:Ting  been  derived  from 
Pern,  where  the  nativea  Faaten  the  two  enda  of  a 
piece  of  canvaa,  or  of  a  netting  of  graaa  twiet^  to 
the  btanohea  of  a  tree,  and  lie  aafpnided  on  it  in 
Inznriooa  ease.  A  aaiWa  hammook  oouaiata  of  a 
rectangular  piece  of  hempen  doth,  abont  aix  feet 
loDE  and  three  in  widlh,  gathered  together  at  each 
enabf  meana  of  corda  and  a  dew,  and  hung  to 
hooka  under  the  deck  The  hammock  thua  aoi- 
poided  foima  a  aort  of  bag  capable  of  oootaining 


the  ■ailor'a  mattraa,  hia  blanketa,  and  himaeU,  aa 
MOD  aa  be  haa  aaqnired  the  far  from  easy  knack 
of  climbing  into  it.  The  bammooka  ore  taken  bdow 
at  ■oiuet,  and  hiuig  in  lowa,  abont  two  feet  apwt, 
in  the  men's  portioa  oE  the  ahip.  Whan  done  with 
In  the  monunA  the  bedding  la  carafnUv  tied  up 
within  eadi,  and  the  whole  stowed  in  the  hammock- 
nettin^  whuh  ia  generally  in  the  bolwarka  of  the 
waiat  It  tiM  weather  oe  not  euffidently  dry, 
howerer,  to  allow  of  tbia,  the  haaunooks  are  1^ 
below.  Stowed  thna  in  the  netting,  the  hammocka 
(orat  a  ibeoug  barrier  against  small  shot 

HAMHOHD,  HnxT,  D.D.,  a  leaned  IkgHah 


divine  and  able  contraveraiil  writei^  the  yonngest 
kon  of  Dr  John  Eamniond,  a  phyaician,  was  bom  at 
ChHriaey,  Somy,  Aagmt  IS,  1609.  Educated  at 
Eton,  ha  was,  ia  161t^  sent  to  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  eednloosly  applied  himself  to 
dauioal  studies.  In  July  1625,  he  became  a  Fellow 
of  hia  college,  and  in  1629  entered  into  holy 
ordera.  In  1633  he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  (X 
Fenshont,  in  Kent,  and  in  1643  he  beeame  Arch- 
deacon of  Chichester.  E.  followed  the  njifortanata 
Cbarlea  to  the  lale  of  Wight,  and  continued  witii 


the  king  aa 


and  wsa  dioaan  aub-dean  of  Chiiatchun^  In  1648, 
he  WBB  deprived  of  liia  oollege  offioes  by  the  par- 
liamentary commiaeionerf,  and  ahortiy  aner  ntired 

to  Westwood,  in  Woreestenhire,  the  seat  of  Sit 
John  Paokwood,  where  the  remalndo  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  litaraty  labour.  He  died  April  25, 
1660.  Hia  calebiated  work,  the  FaraphraM  taut 
Annolationt  on  At  if  em  Tt4lamtnt,  was  published 
in  1693.  A  new  and  enlarged  edition  came  out  in 
1656,  but  the  b(«t  edition  is  that  of  1702.  Hia 
collected  works  were  pubUahed.  in  4  vola.  folio,  in 
1674—1684  His  sennons  and  minor  works  are 
reprinted  in  the  Oxford  Libmry  qf  Angto'CaOiolie 
Theohgy. 
HAMOO'N.  See  SKmrAH,  Laxz  or 
HAMPDEIf,  JoHit,  a  odebmted  En^ish  patriot, 
said  to  have  been  bom  in  London  in  1S9^  was  the 
son  of  Williaoi  Hampden  of  Hampden,  Buckings 
bamahire,  and  EUsabeth,  daui^ter  of  Sir  Henry 
Cromwell  of  Hinchingbrooke,  i^mtinAdonahire,  aunt 
of  Oliver  Cromwell  Hia  father  died  in  1697,  when 
be  was  only  three  years  old.  In  1609,  he  was 
entered  a  gentlemaa  commoner  at  Magdalen  Collie, 
Oxford,  and  in  1613  was  admitted  to  the  Inner 
Temple,  where  he  made  considerable  progress  in 
the  study  of  law.  On  January  3D,  1631,  he  first 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  as  member  for  the 
now  disfranchised  borough  of  Qrampound.  He 
attached  himself  to  Uie  party  of  St  John,  Selden, 
Coke,  Fym,  and  those  who  opposed  the  arbitrary 
encroachments  of  the  crown,  but  at  flnt  took  no 
veiy  forward  part  in  public  bniinesa,  and  spoke  but 
sddom.  In  the  first  three  parliaments  of  Charles  T., 
he  sat  for  Wendover.  In  1627,  for  refusing  to  pay 
his  proportion  of  the  gcnaral  loan  which  the  kmg 
attempted  to  raiae  on  his  own  authority,  H.  waa 
conunltted  to  close  imprisonment  in  the  Oatehonso. 


by  an  order  of  conndL  TTi«  activity  and  indiutry: 
in  pariiament  now  rendered  him  oae  of  its  leading 
and  most  oscful  membsra ;  be  was  on  most  of  its 
conuuitteea ;  but  aft^  the  diasoIutJon  of  the  pu^ia- 
ment  of  162S— 1629,  he  retired  to  his  estate,  and 
devoted  himself  to  study  and  to  country  sports  and 
occupations.  Claiming  tbe  power  to  tax  the  country 
in  any  way  he  thought  proper,  in  1634,  Charles  had 
recourse  to  the  impoet  <A  uiip-money.  At  first 
limited  to  Londom  and  the  maritime  towns,  and 
levied  only  in  Idme  of  war,  it  was,  in  1636,  extended 
to  inland  places  in  time  of  peace,  wtien  H.  reso- 
lutely refused  to  pay  it,  and  his  exatnple  was 
followed  by  nearly  the  whole  conn^  of  Bucking- 
ham. In  1637,  he  wsa  prosecuted  before  the  Court 
of  Exchequer  for  non-pavment,  when  a  majority 
of  the  judges  gave  a  verdict  against  h'Tn  Qi  the 
short  parliament  of  1640,  H.  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  great  contest  between  the  crown  and  the 
House  of  Commons.  To  tlie  Long  Parliament  he 
was  returned  both  for  Wraidover  and  the  county  of 
Buekinghsm,  and  made  hia  election  for  the  latter. 
For  hia  mriatanoe  to  the  bui^s  pcooeedii^  he  was 


t.Guu^li. 


BAMP8HIBB-HAUPT0N  OOOHT  OOSPEKBSCK 


<m«  of  the  &fe  momben  whom  CluLrlei,  on  Janokry 
4,  1612,  ruhlj  attempted  ia  perami  to  Miie  id 
the  Han«e  of  Commons ;  and  on  the  brenkuig  out 
of  the  cdvil  war,  he  ruied  and  became  coiaaef  of  a 
legLtaeat  in  the  p&rlumentary  array  under  the  Ew\ 
of  Eteei.  He  was  also  a  member  of  Uie  Committee 
of  Public  Safet7,  and  in  the  praaecntton  oE  Om  war, 
oonstaotly  advised  prompt  and  enereetia  meuuree. 
He  wM  present  at  the  rapulae  of  &e  raji^iiMte  at 
ifcrnthun,  at  their  defeat  neu  Ayleaburv,  at  the 
flffht  at  Edgehill,  and  at  the  oHHBUlt  nind  optore 
of  Keoding.  Ptince  Rupert  haviog  attacked  a  par- 
liataentai7  force  at  Chinnor,  near  Thome,  H.  put 
himielf  at  the  head  of  a  few  cavalry  that  were 
rallied  in  haote  to  oppose  him,  and  in  vm  flcht  that 
enaaed  at  ChaJgrove  Field,  received  in  de  first 
charge  a  wound,  of  which  he  died  aiz  daya  after,  on 
June  24,  1613.  He  was  twice  married,  and  by  hie 
&nt  wife  bad  three  wme  and  six  daughteis. 

HA'MFSHIRE,  SOUTHA'MPTON,  or  fami- 
liarly, HANTS,  a  maritime  county  in  the  south  of 
England,  ia  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Dorset  and 
Wilts,  on  the  S.  by  Berks,  on  the  E.  bjr  Surrey  and 
Sussex,  and  on  uie  3.  by  the  Eafdish  Channel 
The  county,  iocludiog  the  Isle  of  Wight,  has  on 
area  of  1,070,2113  acres,  900,000  of  wh^b  are  esti- 
mated to  be  under  culture.  Its  population  in  18G1 
was  481,4Q5 ;  and  in  18T1,  544,684.  The  surface  is 
uregulor,  being  trsvened  by  the  North  and  Soath 
Downs.  The  south-western  portion  of  the  county, 
almost  wholly  detached  from  the  main  portion  by 
the  Southampton  Water,  is  oocapied  mftinly  by  the 
New  Forest.  This  tract  is  64,000  acres  in  extent, 
■        ■  ■■  ...    jj,^  fg, 

it  for 

the  use  of  the  British  navy;.  Within  the  foreet,  an 
aboriginal  breed  of  pony  is  still  found.  BeeideB 
that  Mlled  the  New  Forest,  there  ore  also  remains 
of  those  of  B«re,  Alice  Holt,  Woolmer,  ic  The 
nincipal  riven  are  the  Anton  or  the  Tett,  and  the 
Itcheo,  which  flow  sonthword  throu^  the  county 
into  the  Southampton  Water,  and  ua  Avon,  also 
flowing  aonthwatd,  and  forming  the  western  boun- 
da^  of  the  New  Forest  The  dimate  of  the  coonty 
is  m  general  mild,  and  favourable  to  vegetaticn ; 
indeed  the  climate  in  the  south  of  the  Isle  of  Wight 
is  sai^Kised  to  be  milder  than  that  of  any  other 
portioD  of  Great  Britain.  The  soE  consists  in  port 
of  poor  sands  and  sravel,  and  of  a  mixture  of  stiff 
day  and  chalk.  AU  the  nsool  crops  are  produced, 
hops  ore  cultivated,  and  the  baoon  cured  here 
ia  famous.  The  mannfactarea  of  tlie  county  are 
inconsiderable.  Southampton  and  Portsmouth,  both 
termini  of  important  railways,  are  the  chief  centres 
of  trade.  The  county,  excluaiva  of  the  boroughs 
and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  sends  four  members  to  the 
House  of  Commons.  The  New  Forest  seems  to 
have  been  fatal  to  the  family  of  William  the 
Conqueror ;  there  two  of  his  sons,  and  his  grand- 
son, met  with  sudden  and  violent  deaths.  Of  the 
early  as;es  of  P^igli^h  history,  H.  contains  many 
interestmg  relics  :  of  lliese  the  chief  are  Porcfaeeter 
CoslJe,  at  the  head  of  Portsmouth  Harbour ;  Colsbot 
and  Hurst  Castles,  now  occupied  as  coast-guard 
stations,  erected  in  the  time  ot  Henry  VUL,  and 
Notley  and  Beaulira  Abbeys,  and  the  Priory  of  St 
Dionysiua,  all  in  the  Deighbonrhood  of  Southsjnpton. 
The  coon^  is  eiceedinglv  rich  in  Roman  remains, 
as  coins,  urns,  pottery,  oc  For  further  informa- 
tion on  the  antiquities  and  history  of  the  towns 

of  E.,  see  artialea  Wwht,  Ish  oi;  Wis( 

Ac 


HA'MPSTEAD, 


village  of  England,   i 


the 


It  was  formerly  bunons  for  ill  medicinal  springs, 
and  is  still  a  favonrite  pUoe  of  reaidenoe  and  of 
holiday  resort  among  Londoners,  who  sn  attracted. 
te  it  by  the  beauty  ot  its  situation  and  the  parity 
of  its  air.  On  the  summit  ot  the  hill,  abovo  the 
village,  is  the  Heath,  vriiich  aCTorda  ertensire  and 
pleasant  prospects  of  the  snrronnding  countay.  On 
the  Hompstead  road,  and  in   the  vicinity  of  the 


village,  many  handsome  villas  have  been  erected. 
Pop.  11871)  32,281.  A  house  on  the  Heath,  formeriy 
called  the  Upper  Flask  Inn,  and  now  a  private 
residence,  was  at  one  time  the  place  of  resort  of  the 
famous  Kit-Kat  Club,  at  which  Steele,  Addison, 
Richardson,  and  others  used  to  assemble.  The 
village  of  H.  was  much  frequented  by  Pope,  Qay, 
Johiuon,  and  Akenside,  and  later  by  Byron,  Leigh 
Hnnt,  and  Johanna  BoUlie. 

HA'MPTON,  a  smaU  village  on  the  Chesai>eake 
Bay,  in  Virginia,  United  Stat™,  America,  giviM 
its  name  to  Hampton  Roods,  o  southerly  Inanch 
of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  mouth  of  James  River, 
one  of  the  best  borbonis  on  the  American  coast, 
defended  by  Fortress  Monroe  and  Fort  Calhoun. 
These  Roads  were  the  scene  of  important  events  in 
tbe  American  revolution,  the  war  of  ISIS,  and  the 


MtrriTnac  ond  the  Monitor.      Pop.  (1870)  230a 

HA'MPTON,  a  village  of  England,  in  the  eonntjr 
of  Middlesex,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Thames,  about  twelve  miles  sooth-weat  of 
London.  The  streets  are  narrow,  and  the  houses 
irregularly  built ;  in  the  vicinity,  however,  there  are 
many  noble  mansions  and  beaatiful  villas.  Pop. 
(1871)  2207. 

HiJCPiOM  CoiTKT  Fii^ca,  long  a  royal  residence, 
and  now  naually  occupied  by  persons  of  rank, 
reduced  in  drcuinstancea,  atanda  atMnit  a  mile  from 
the  village  in  the  midst  of  grounda  that  extend  to 
the  Thames.  The  original  palace  was  erected  by 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  came  afterwr~^~  "~'"    """ 


lenry  YIIL,  who  enlarged  it,  and 
formed  around  it  a  totoI  park  or  chase,  which  he 
stocked  with  deer.  Here  Edward  VL  wos  bom, 
and  here  his  mother.  Queen  Jane  Seymour,  died. 
Charlee  L  underwent  a  portion  of  his  confinement 
at  this  palace,  and  it  was  the  occasional  residence 
of  Cromwell,  Charles  H.,  and  James  IL  A  consider- 
able portion  of  it  was  rebuilt  by  William  IIL,  and 
by  hitri  tlie  pork  and  gudens  were  laid  out  in  the 
formal  Dutch  style.  The  palace,  as  it  st  pn 
stands,  consists  of  three  quadnuigles  with  i 
smaller  courts  :  the  great  eastern  and  southern 
fronts  having  bean  erected  by  Sir  Christopher 
Wren.  The  picture-gallery  comprises  Lelv's 
Beautiea  of  the  Conrt  ot  Charles  IL,  volnoUe 
snedmeits  of  Hdbdn,  Kneller,  West,  Ac,  and 
above  all,  seven  unequalled  cartoons  by  Raphael 
The  gardens,  which  are  abont  44  acres  in  extent, 
and  hove  not  been  materially  altered  since  they 
were  laid  out  by  Williun  Tit,  present  a  series  of 
corioos  raised  terraces,  formal  flower-plota,  and  loi^ 
shady  and  trim  arcades.  Among  other  atteactions 
of  the  gardens  is  a  '  maze'  or  labyrinth,  which 
fumishea  much  amusement  to  youthful  visitors 
HAMPTON  COURT  CONFERENCE,  o 
ference  which  took  place  at  Hampton  Court,  shortly 
after  the  acceaaiDn  of  James  L  to  the  throne  of 
England,  in  order  to  the  settlement  of  ecclesiastical 
diroutes.  The  king  preaided  and  took  a  principal 
pan  in  the  conference.    He  \TOS  ottendod  n^  aomr 


divinea  whom  he  had  « 


t.LiOogle 


HAM3TEE— HAND. 


rapresenlktivw  of  the  EpuoopaliAn  part;  were  more. 
numerous  than  the  Pimtam ;  Bad  the  Furituu, 
although  men  of  known  wortll  and  Icanunx,  were 
among  the  leaat  ertreme  of  their  party.  Archbishop 
Whitgift,  with  aif^t  biahops,  six  deftiu,  and  an 
■nihdekooD,  appeared  on  the  Episcopaliiui  side ;  two 
Oxford  piofeMon  of  divinity,  two  diiin«e  from 
Cambridge^  and  alou;  with  them  Mr  Patrick  Oallo- 
way,  minister  of  nrth,  in  Scotland,  maintained 
the  Puritan  cause.  On  the  king's  accession,  the 
Puritans,  eutertaining  great  hopes  of  release  from 
Lhe  rigid  enforcement  of  ceremomee  which  galled  theii 
oonsciences,  and  of  the  reformation  of  abuses  in  the 
church,  had  addressed  a  petition  to  the  king,  known 
aa  the  MiUenary  Ptiitton,  because  it  was  signed  by 
nearly  one  thousand  ministers  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  But  the  king's  intention  was  not  to  comply 
with  their  wishes,  and  the  Hampton  Court  Conference 
seems  to  have  been  merely  a  device  for  making  it 
appear  that  their  demands  had  been  considered  and 
found  unreasonable.  On  the  Srst  day  of  the  confer- 
ence (I2th  January  1601),  the  Episcopalians  alone 
were  admitted  to  the  presence  of  t^e  king,  who 
demanded  their  opinion,  which  they  gave,  on  the 
third  day  after,  in  favour  of  the  existing  system  in 
all  the  parts  compl^ned  oL  The  king  debated 
witli  them  on  some  points  ;  and  in  the  edo,  decided 
against  them  in  a  few  minor  particulars,  thus 
maintaining  the  assertion  of  his  own  eccleaiasttcal 
Buprenuu^,  as  well  as  Snding  an  opportunity  for  the 
display  of  his  attainments  m  theology,  altnoogh  in 
all  that  was  moat  important,  his  verdict  was  in  their 
favour.  On  the  16th  of  January,  the  Puritans  were 
called  to  the  king's  presence,  but  along  with  them 
some  of  the  Epiaco^lions,  when  Jamee  debated 
keenly  against  the  Puritans,  using  language  very 
nnworthy  of  a  king  or  (rf  a  Christian,  and  according 
to  his  own  aocount  of  the  matter, '  peppered  them 
soundly.'  On  the  18th  of  January,  both  parties 
were  called  in,  and  the  royal  judgment  intimated, 
which  was  afterwords  announced  in  a  proclamation 
very  adverse  to  the  Puritans. 

HAMSTER  [Crictfus),  a  genus  of  rodent  quad- 
rupeds of  the  family  Murida,  resembling  the  tme 
mice  and  rats  in  their  dentition,  but  havmg  cheek- 
pouches,  and  a  short  hairy  taih  The  GamfOK  H. 
{CHcetiu  vtdgarit)  is  a  native  of  the  north  of  Europe 
and  of  Asia,  abundant  in  many  parts  of  Germany 
and  Poland,  but  not  found  in  Britain,  and  rare  to  the 
west  of  the  Rhine.  It  is  of  variable  colour ;  although 
■,e  beily  Uack,  the 
^  n  the  sides,  tluvat, 
s  larger  and  of  stouter  fonn  than 
lommon  rat,  the  tail  only  about  three  inches 
It   barrows   in   dry  soils,   eadi    individual 


making  a  bairow  tot  itaeU,  to  which  there  are  more 
entranoes  than  one,  and  which  also  contains  several 
holes  or  comportments,  one  of  them  lined  with  straw 
or  hay,  in  which   it   sleeps,  and  soma  of   them 


■s  thither  in  its  cheek-pouches,  and 


severe  part  o. 
slate  of  torpid  hybernation.  It  is  a  great  peet  to  the 
fanners  of  the  countries  in  whioh  it  abounds,  and 
the  object  of  their  unceasing  hostility;  bnt  it  is 
very  prolific,  producins  two  or  three  broods  in  the 
year,  and  sixteen  or  eighteen  at  a  birth.  It  feeds 
genially  on  vegetable  food,  as  leaves,  sealg,  ' 
although  it  is  said  also  sometimes  to  devour  i 

quadrupeds,  birds,  lizards,  frogs,  Ac    The  H.  ci 

away  pease  and  other  legumes  in  pod,  bnt  shells 
them,  and  deposits  only  the  edible  portion  in  its 
etore.  Its  labours  and  depredations  are  all  curied 
on  by  ni^t.  It  is  on  ezbemely  flerce  and  pugna- 
ciona  animal,  and  exhibits  more  than  the  pertinacity 
of  the  boll-dog.  The  skins  of  hamstera  are  of  some 
value. — There  sre  several  other  smaller  species  c^ 
the  genus,  mostly  Asiatic 

EAJT,  t^e  name  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
twenty-sixdynastieaof  China  (206  b,  c.  to  220  a.  D,), 
founded  by  Kau-tsn,  whose  acceeEdon  to  the  empire 
is  regarded  as  the  commencement  of  Chinese 
modem  history.  The  number  and  character  of 
iis  heroes  and  literati  are  superior  to  most  other 
periods,  and  to  this  day  the  term  Sons  of  Han  is 
the  favDorite  appellation  of  the  Chinoae  to  them- 
selves— the  most  common  term  for  Chinomeiu 

HA'NAPBR   OFFICE,  a  branch-office  of  the 
Court  oC  Chanceiy.  from  which  certain  writs  a 
istniod.     The  name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  the 

epers  and  writs  used  to  be  kept  in  a  hamper  (in 

HA'HAP,  a  flourishing  town  in  the  electorate  of 
HesBe-Nasaau[q.  v.),  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kinzig 
and  the  Main,  12  miles  east-north-east  of  f'rank- 
fort  It  is  divided  into  the  Old  and  New  Town,  the 
latter  of  which  was  founded,  in  1597,  bv  Protestant 
rafngeea  -from  Belgium,  who  introduced  the  manu- 
facture of  woollen  and  silken  goods,  which  still 
flourishes.  The  town  of  H.  stands  pre-eminent  in 
Germany  for  its  jewellery,  and  gold  and  silver  ware*, 
while  it  also  carries  on  extensive  manufactories  of 
carpets,  gloves,  leather,  cards,  paper,  hats,  cutlery, 
tobacco,  and  dgors.  H.  has  broad  and  straight 
streets  ;  the  buildings  most  worthy  of  note  are  the 
ancient  castle ;  a  gymnaaiuni,  in  which  the  Wet- 
terau  Library  is  located ;  and  the  electoral  palace 
of  Pbilippsruhe,  famed  for  its  orangeries,  and  once 
the  property  of  Napoleon's  sister.  Princess  Pauline 
BorKhese.  Pop.  (1371)  20,278.  In  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  town,  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Main, 
ore  the  baths  of  Wilhelmsbad  and  the  village  of 
Rumpenheim,  wi'Ui  its  palace  and  gardens.  H.  is 
celet«ated  as  the  scene  of  the  last  battles  which 
Napoleon  fought  in  Germany,  October  30  and  31, 
1813,  when,  m  his  retreat  from  Leipsic,  after  a 
hard-fought  battle,  he  totally  defeated  the  allies. 

HATICHINOL  {Seimia  lalicifoiia),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Lj/tAaaiz,  with  lanceolate,  fre- 
quently temate  leaves,  and  flowers  on  one-flowered 
stalks.  It  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  and  is  moch 
esteemed  as  a  medicine  for  its  very  powerful  sudo- 
riflo  and  diuretic  properties.  It  is  highly  extolled 
na  an  antisyphilitic. 

HAND,  Tke.  The  genus  Boino,  or  Uak,  takes 
rank  in  the  classification  of  in«tmnn|^  ws  a  diltinct 
order,  BnuKA,  in  consequence  of  man  being  Uie 


the  monk^rs,  a^  and  tiieir  allies,  whliji  ore  placed 
by  Eoologists  m  the  order  QciDBcnuHA. — were 
superior  to  those  which  possess  only  two  hands, 
but  this  is  far  from  being  the  case,  '  " 


iiizcdtgGuu^k 


taaz  bMub  m  adapted  to  the  thWt  erf  ■otunii 
whioh  Um  Imniaii  hand  ia  eqiable  of  partoniiiiig, 
Kkd  Uwraia  all,  to  aoms  dwea,i«qiibad  te  anp- 
part  and  looomotioii ;  m>  tiuft  wiiile  in  tite  hldiv 
bnna  of  the  ^nadmmaiia  the  extnmiUea  pn—a  aa 
appro:dinatii»  in  atriuitura  to  thoae  of  man,  in  tiia 
lower  th«7  gradn^ly  tend  to  TtMmble  the  (ndinair 
quadnqMOal  type.  'That,'  aaji  Oanar,  ■  irMoh 
conriitatM  the  katid,  mopuAj  ao  called,  ia  the 
faoul^  id  oppodng  tiie  thunb  to  the  other  flngsra, 
M  aa  to  ieue  opon  the  most  minuta  objenti — a 
faooHy  <iriuah  ia  canied  to  ita  highest  dcjgree  of 
perfaotion  In  man,  in  whom  the  whole  anterior 
eztnmi^  ia  free,  and  ean  be  onployed  in  pieh«a- 
aum.'  The  paeoliai  prehanaQe  power  of  the liamaD 
band  la  aUaOy  dapoident  npon  the  ]«nath.  doww. 
and  mobility  dI  the  tlmmb,  whioh 
into  ezaot  omoaition  to  too  extrei 
fioeen,  irtietW  aepaiatelv  or  oronped  tog 

Safoie  deaorihiiui  tlw  Aana  itMf,  we  mnat  aay 
a  few  woida  on  the  iTOper  extremi^  AnBraUT-,  ot 
wliiiJi  the  hand  may  be  regarded  aa  the  eaaontial 

The  ganenl  mangement  ot  the  bonea  of  the  arm 
will  be  readily  nnderatood  by  a  reference  to  fig.  1. 
The  genml  plan  of  the  oauoaa  fnaaework  of  the 
Q[^at  and  lower  limb  ia  reiy  aimilar.    ^la  Awneriu 


KftL 
I,  th<  InniaFiui  1,  tlia  ndliu;  3,  thi 
iitlMi  Oil*  at  Cl»  ndltH  ud  nlna  a 


orarm-bonaooneeponda  to  tlie,AmH<*<»' thigh-bone; 
the  loww  and  of  uu  hamcms  la  connected  with  tiie 
two  boDea  of  the  forearm,  the  radiu*  and  the  ulna, 
which  oomapood  with  the  two  bonea  of  the  leg. 
Then  oome  the  carpal  bonea,  the  mdaearjKU  bonea, 
and  the  fAaiattgei,  ioat  aa  wahave  lartai  ^  ~ 
tMlaiartiu  boDM,  taaphalangm  in  the  foot. 
In  fig.  2  (whiou  we  copy  £nm  Somphry'R  .E 


!.    "ODD  sr. 
\QDDfr 

comtn  I 


□  B 


ahewing  the  way  In  which  the  bonea  of  the  hand  ate 
arranged,  lla  carpd  bones  (3  to  10  in  (Jie  flgnre] 
are  ei^t  JB  nnniber,  and  are  arranged  in  the  wrial 
in  two  rows.  Hie  Srat  or  upper  row  conaiet*  pne- 
tieallyof  thr«e  bonea  (3,  4,  S],  the  fotutil  (8)  behlg 


regarded  aa  belonging  to  the  olaaa  of  AaomoU  .SoMi 
(q.  v.),  and  the  aecond  raw  of  fonr  booaa  ^,  8,  9; 
10) ;  ao  tlkat,  eidnding  the  pdai&nm  bone  (0),  the 
oarpal  and  tlia  taraal  Eonee  eMreapond  in  monbar. 
Aa  wa  aoaunoalw tenn  the  palm  H^  firoKt-<^  the 
_  -  -  -'-  ,„„^  o^ildticoaiWthe««». 
theteMTdigiti  btrti 


to  the  inlea  of  oompataare  anabatty,  and  in  eriar 
oompBi*  the  hand  amdfboWwBonght  to  laiaiae  thev 
tama,  Thaonter  <3I  of  liieoar^boneaaf  thefinrt 
rowmpporta  (throng  the  intenwitlen  01  7  and.tt 
the  bonea  ot  the  thumb  and  fivefln^  (I  aad  D),  and 
witii  them  the  OKt«r  dinaian  of  the  hand, 
of  the  carpal  bonea  bean  the  littie,  and 


while  the  middle  one  M] 

[m),  and  bdonga  to  Uu  tiriddls  diriaicD  of  we 

hand.    We  likewiae  eee  from  thia  flgnia,  and  lib- 

wiae  from  fig,  1,  that  the  two  outer  bonea  (S  and  4) 

are  connected  with  the  radiiui  wfaHe  the  f 

'"  ia  oonnected  (indirectly  by  a  thick 


with  the  nine. 
It  i 


to  entw  into  ai^  ana- 
wUidi 


iTBC  anrtaoe,  anon  wUA 
V  mOBcIea  of  the  fingaia 
«  anrboe  on  whidi  tite 


bonea.    CoUediTalj . 
carpna  preaenta  a  dtnaal 
the  teudooa  of  the  eEte 
play,  and  a  palmar  cod 

teiuiDnB  of  the  flexor  uaamam  aa.  xme  ■eraai 
bonsB  an  joined  to  one  another  eadi  bona  b«ng 
nnlted  to  three  at  nan  othera — by  a  lane  extoit  at 
anr&oc^aBdaie  girded  t^rther  by  atrongugaraoitona 
bands.  The  iniat  ii  t&ta  aa  atoong  ai  if  it  had 
been  oonahnoted  o(  one  solid  piece  of  boni^  while 
the  slight  ^diding  moTements  vAich  ooent  batwecD 
the  several  bonce  give  it  on  elaatictty  irtdoh  aetrea 
to  break  the  Bho(£a  that  lendt  tnmt  falls  upon  the 
hand.  Tha  nppermoat  surface  of  the  first  row  of 
oarpal  bonea  ia  convex,  and  tlila  otrnvex  anifaoe  ia 
reoeiTBd  into  a  wide  cap  or  aockat,  fbimed  by  the 
lower  articolar  enrfaoe  o(  the  radins,  and  ay  a 
li^unent  pesatng  foan  that  b<Hie  to  the  nlna. 
^^^  metacarpal  bcoea  and  the  pbabjggsa  nqoiM 
no  apeeial  deamptdon.  like  na  gieat-tse,  the 
thnmli  haa  only  two  phalange*,  while  eaclt  of  the 
other  digita  haa  time. 

We  ahall  now  UotioB  the  nrioiu  moTBiiHita  id 


inble.    They  nay  be  divided 
direotiona  in  irtiich  the  hand 


The  eeopula  or  ahovlder-blade,  with  wU^  the 
principal  arm-bone  ai-ticolataa,  ia  itadf  movable  to 
a  very  considerable  extent  on.  the  snijaoe  of  the 
riba  on  which  it  reata.  Ag^  fba  woAtA  in  which 
the  nearly  i^herioal  head  of  the  tenMRM  vt  aim- 
boDS'  liee  is  very  shallow — not  nnlike  the  onp  in 
the  well-known  toy  atf-and-ball — and  the  arrange- 
menta  of  the  ihonldar-joinl  BBnoally  are  each  aa  to 
peimit  ao  great  a  variety,  mi  W  axtenaive  a  range 
of  movMnants,  that  we  m«  able  to  uidy  the  hand 
to  every  part  of  the  body,  Thia  freedom  Ol  motion 
is  dne  in  a  great  dagree  to  the  clavidea  or  coHar' 
bonce,  which,  by  steadying  the  shonlder'blBdBa,  and 
keeping  the  shonldera  apwt,  afford  a  fixed  point  fi^ 
the  vanona  mnaolsa  which  we  emrik^  in  raising  the 
anna,  in  fading  them  over  the  cheat,  in  the  act  of 
homing,  *a  'Eht  mamatuk  at  tiie  next  Jonetlon 
of  bones,  Am  elbow-jcint,  ia  wj  dilfawt  from 
that  at  the  dwoldw.    Hie  latter  w  termed,  from 


while  the  elbow  ia  a  hing»'j(rin^  and  merely  admits 
of  banding  and  atrBighteamg,or,  inotherword^of 


itizodhyCiOO^lC 


moticiii  in  one  jlane.  Wa  hmTs  next  to  oonmder  a 
olaM  of  moTsmanti  of  the  forsum  aiul  hand,  to 
wllioh  thare  ii  notbiilg  aiulogaiu  (kt  laaat  to  any 
nuitai*!  aitant)  in  the  1^  Tha  moramanta  in 
qaaation  Me  oalled  '  protubon  and  airaination.'  In 
fronaUcm  {daivadizornvrvmu,  with  tue  fsoe  down- 
w&rdi),  w«  turn  tha  pJm  of  tha  hand  downwaida, 
ai  in  pickiiiK  ap  anj  mbataoae  inm  tha  table ;  in 
tttpimUion  (danTsd  from  mpimu,  witii  the  face 
npwarda),  y/e  tara  the  palm  npwwda,  aa  for  the 
pnrpoae  of  reeeiving  anything  that  jn»;  be  placed 


In  both  Sgurm,  m  plDmb-ttni 
from  tlu  outer  condjW  ot  Ou 
hamBnu  It  fomd  to  timTflm 
tba  lower  ODd  ot  tiudlEU  Miti 

s  ifaf -hbco'. 

(Froin  Hamplir;,  Of-  at.) 


^.& 


Kg.  4. 


Diiut  notice  the  three  mtudea  by  which  thev  are 
chiefly  affected.  Ooe  of  the  tiiree  mnidea  (A,  hg.  3) 
puses  from  a  projecting  prooeaa  on  the  inner  aide  of 
the  ann-bone,  at  its  lower  end,  to  the  onter  edge  of 
the  middle  of  the  radioa.  Its  oontractiim  oaosea  the 
radioi  to  roll  over,  or  in  front  of,  the  ulna.  It  thua 
pronatea  the  hand,  and  ia  called  a  pronator  mnacle. 
Another  mnscle  (B,  fig.  4l)  paaaea  from  a  projectiiig 
prooeaa  on  the  outer  side  of  the  ami-b<me  to  the 
mner  edge  of  the  radina  near  ita  nppar  pari  It  runs 
tberafns  in  aa  oj^iocite  direobon  to  tha  fonner 
mnacle,  and  pcodDoaa  an  oppooita  effect^  rolling  the 
ladina  and  tha  hand  baak  into  the  podtios  of  lairina- 
tioo.  Henoa  it  ia  called  a  mpmator  ntuole.  The 
third  ia  a  very  powetfol  muKJe,  termed  the  Bieept 
(q.  T.),  whioh  not  only  benda  tjia  elbow,  but  from 
the  mode  in  which  it*  tendon  ia  inaerted  into  tiie 
inner  aide  of  tha  radiua  (aae  fig.  5),  '  alao  rotatea 
the  radial  lo  aa  to  inpinBte  tlieband ;  and  it  givea 
great  power  to  that  movement.  Wlien  we  torn  a 
aciGW,  or  drive  a  gimlet,  or  draw  a  oo^  we  alwm 
employ  the  mcpimitmg  movement  of  the  hand  tot 
the  pnrpoae ;  and  all  acrewa,  gimlet^  and  imple- 
mente  <u  tha  like  kind  are  made  to  torn  in  a 
manner  aoitad  to  that  movement  of  the  right  hand ; 
beoanaa  meohaniciana  have  obeerred  that  we  have 
more  powar  to  anianate  the  hand  than  to  pronate  it' 
Supination  can  <mly  be  performed  to  ita  full  extent 
by  man,  and  even  in  man  it  ia  not  the  natural  or 


oonatantly 

Tha  movementa  of  which  the  hand  itaelt,  withont 
reference  to  the  aim,  are  capable,  are  Tery  nnmeroua, 
and  in  thia  rsapaot  differ  ceuaiderably  from  the 
porre^wnding  moramenta  of  the  foot,     Thua  we 


can  bend  the  fingne  down  upon  the  palm,  or  we 
can  extend  them  beyond  the  atraight  Ime;  we  can 
aepaiate  tliem  from  one  another  to  a  conaidenjile 


,  tha  lovar  imrt  o(  (he  tdiBii*; 
1,  Ita  UndoD,  ■  lltUa  ttum  lit 
[nKiHoa  iDtD  the  ndltu ;  t,  tha 
radial  OioDr  of  the  wiliti  t,  the 
loB(  pilaur  moBla,  epnwllag 
Dnt(ttfl)  Into  tile  pcImirfUela; 
8,  the  ilsu  flsmr  of  Iba  vtlit ; 
13,  the  loDf  nptaiUoc  miuela. 


extent,  and  we  can  doae  tiiam  with  conaiderahle 
force.  The  wriat  and  hand  are  bent  forwarda  or 
&eied  upon  the  forearm  by  three  mnBcleti  which 
paas  downwards  from  the  inner  coodvle  or  expanded 
end  of  the  humenu,  and  are  termed  the  radial  Jlecor, 
the  vinar  JlaoT,  and  the  long  palmar  mnaclea.  The 
firat  two  of  t^eae  moaclea  are  inserted  into  wrist- 
bonea  on  the  nulial  and  ulnar  aides  reapectively, 
while  the  third  eiponda  Into  a  fan-like  Jataa  or 
membrane  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  thus  servM 
both  to  snpport  the  skin  of  the  palm  and  to  protect 
tha  nervea  and  vesaels  which  lie  below  it.  Beneath 
the  palmar  fascia  He  two  aets  ot /[«xor  mnsdea  otthe 
fingera,  and  they  preaent  ao  beautiful  a  mechanical 
arrangement  aa  to  merit  apemal  notice. 

The  tupaifleitU  or  ptrjbrattd  ^mor  musde  paaaea 
down  the  front  of  the  forearm  ud  divide*  into  four 
tendona,  wMoh  became  apparent  after  the  removal 


phalangea  of  the  fingraa,  eaob  tendon  tplitting  at  its 
terminatioD,  to  give  paaaaAo  to  the  aimilar  ieudoiia 
of  the  deg)  or  perfonMngSaar  mufcle,  which  pasHi 
from  Hlb  upper  part  of  the  ulna  to  be  inaerted  into 
the  laat  phalanx  of  each  finger.  11ns  arrangement 
of  the  tendons  of  the  siq>^cial  and  deep  flexor 
moaclea  ia  shewn  in  fig.  0,  Theae  fiam  muadea  are 
antagoniaed  b;  the  eomnion  aioitor  moacte  of  the 
fingen,  which,  like  the  flexon,  divides  into  foor 
tei^ona,  one  for  each  finger.  Boadea  thea^  there  ia 
a  special  e^mmr  of  the  indsz-finger,  a  aaiiea  of 
mnaclea  forming  the  ball  of  the  thumb,  which  move 
that  organ  in  almoat  every  direction,  and  varioua 
email  aupa  giving  lateral  and  other  movements  to 
tiie  fingers. 

It  ia  anfficient  to  obaarve  that  the  hand  is  very 
richly  supplied  with  blood- veaaals  and  nervea,  without 
entenng   into   any  anatomical  detaila   on  theae 


t.GoogIc 


HAKDEL-HAlTD-TRra!. 


Bngen ;  bat  i*e  BhiU  defar  to  the  article  Touch, 
Oroamb  ixm  SsHBB  or,  the  conuderatioD  of  the 
■pecud  imuigemeiils  wmeh  make  thia  part  of  the 
himd  pecaii^7  important  in  relation  to  oar  know- 
'  'ze  of  extenutl  objects- 
fur  notico  of  the  compuitiTa  anatomy  of  the 
Foot  (q.  T.)  miden  it  ooneccMary  to  trace  tiie  modi- 
fioationi  preaeated  in  the  lower  animala  by  the  bones 
correopoiuling  to  thoM  of  the  human  band ;  an  the 
canal  and  metacarpal  bones  witb  tiieir  phalanges 
imdeigo  adaptations  of  fotm  to  meet  the  mdivii^iBl 
iti  of  the  "'i"'«i,  Terj  mnch  in  the  same  manner 
hetaisslandmBtatamlboDeeandtbeiiphalaDses. 
Tims,  the  reader  vill  readily  see  that  the  so-called 
knee  of  the  horse,  for  eiample,  is  the  carpus,  and 
be  irill  have  no  difficulty  in  tnciDg  the  metacarpal 
bones  and  phalanges.  See  the  articles  Broken 
Khzb  and  HoBBi ;  and  Hnmphry,  Oit  tie  Huntan 
Foot  and  Huvutn  Hand. 

HAITDEIj,  Oiobok  Frxskkice,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  musical  compoaen  and  mnsioians,  though 
-  natiTe  of  Oennony,  spent  WO  large  a  portion 
„J  bis  life  in  England,  where  he  composed  his 
greatest  works,  that  Britun  may  almost  claim  him 
OS  ber  own.  He  was  bom  at  Halle,  Upper  Saxony, 
.February  23,  1SS5.  Ee  manifested  in  infancy  an 
extraordinary  paBtdon  for  music,  and  at  the  age  of 
seveo,  havins  accompanied  his  father  on  a  visit  to 
the  JDnka  of  Saxe-Weissanfels,  he  found  his  way  to 
an  organ,  where  he  was  heard  by  the  duke,  who 
remoDsttated  witb  bis  fatber  against  fmi^her  opposi- 
tion to  a  genius  of  so  decided  a  character.  He  was 
now  placed  under  a  mnsic-teacber,  Zochau,  where 
he  remained  until  he  was  13,  composing  every  week 
cantatas  for  the  ehorch-service,  and  leammg  oil 
instruments,  especially  tlie  organ.  In  1696,  he  was 
t  to  Berlin,  where  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg 

I  so  impressed  witb  his  talents,  that  he  wished 

to  send  lum  to  Italy.  As  his  father  would  not 
accept  this  oQer,  be  returned  to  Eolle,  whence,  on 
the  death  of  bis  father,  be  went  to  Hamburg  in 
1703;  Here  he  played  a  violin  in  the  orchestra  of  the 


iir«n>  and  Ilorinda.  His  riotent  temper  invalved 
n  a  quarrel  with  a  brother- composer,  which 
resulted  in  a  dael ;  the  sword  of  his  adversary  was 
stopped  by  a  button  or  a  music  score.  He  next 
visited  Italy,  in  Florence,  he  composed  Bodrigo, 
1707.  His  Agrippina,  comjMsed  in  Venice,  had  a 
nm  of  thirty  m^ta.  At  Rome,  he  was  received  at 
Cardinal  Ottohoni's  where  he  heard  Corelli,  and 
beat  him  witji  bis  own  violin,  for  not  pUying  to 
Boit  him  in  his  II  Triot^fo  dd  Tempo.  In  171^  be 
leturned  to  Germany,  where  he  was  appointed 
obl^-BUWter  to  the  Elector  of  Hanover,  afterwords 
Oeirage  L  At  the  close  of  the  aama  year  he  went 
to  England,  where  he  woa  patronised  by  Queen 
Anne  and  tha  nobility.      He   oomjioied  Riualdo, 


Ptulor  Fido,   Thaaut,   and   in   1715,   Amadit  da 

QatUa,  in  which  Nicoliui  and  Valentini  first  sung  in 
Bc^laiid.  In  1718  he  undertook  the  direction  of  the 
Due  of  Cbandos's  cbapel  at  Cannons,  where  be  wrote 
jlcis  imd  Qalatea,  EHfier,  the  first  English  ora- 
torio, and  numerous  concertos,  anthems,  fugues,  &c, 
A  Royal  Aoademy  of  Music  for  the  cultivation  of 
the  opera,  was  formed  in  173IX  and,  after  some  com- 
petition, was  placed  under  H.'s  maaa^ment.  This 
undert^ing,  and  other  opera  apecolatioiis,  in  which 
H.  was  engaged,  proved  very  unauooessfuL  H.  lost 
£10,000,  and  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Aik-Ib- 
Chapelle  on  acoouat  of^  his  health.  The  oratorio 
Deborah  was  oomposed  in  1733,  and  was  followed 
by  Alexandtr't  Featt,  Sanl,  Itnui  in  Egypt,  and 
(1740)  L'AU^o  e  Pauerota.  In  the  end  of  1741 
be  went  to  Dablin,  where  his  Itasiah,  composed 
in  that  year,  was  produced  for  charitable  purposes. 
He  remained  in  I>ublia  about  nine  months,  and 
received  a  generous  support.  From  this  time  ine- 
cesB  attended  all  bis  uuaertakings.  On  his  return 
to  London,  be  composed  bis  Samaoa ;  and  the 
Jifetaiak  was  performed  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Foundling  EospitaL  It  was  repeated  annually  for 
the  some  purpose,  and  from  1749  to  1777  brongbt  to 
that  charity  £10,30a  H.  became  blind,  but  he  stiU 
composed,  and  played  On  the  organ,  being  led  to  bis 
•eat,  and  forward  to  receive  the  plau^ta  of  the 
audience.  He  assiBted  at  the  performance  of  one  of 
his  oratorios  on  the  6th  of  April,  and  he  died  as  he 
wished,  on  Good  Friday,  the  13tb  of  April  1750,  '  in 
hopes,'  he  said, '  oE  meeting  bis  good  God,  his  sweet 
Lord  and  Saviour,  on  the  day  of  his  resurrection.' 
Among  his  works,  which  are  in  the  Queen's  library, 
are  60  operas — 8  German,  SO  Italian,  16  English ; 
20  oratorios,  a  great  quantity  of  church-music, 
cantatas,  songs,  and  instrumental  pieces.  Hs  was 
a  wonderful  musician,  and  bit  compoaitious  arr 
often  full  of  grandeur  and  sublimity.  His  operai 
are  s^dom  performed,  but  his  oratorios  hold  the 
same  place  in  music  that  in  the  English  drama  is 
accorded  to  the  plays  of  Shakspeare ;  and  the  Handel 
Festivals,  lasting  severa]  days,  in  which  they  a 
performed  by  thousands  of  sinj^eis  and  musicians, 
are  the  grandest  musical  exhibitions  of  our  times. 
H AHD-FA8TINO,  the  ancient  term  for  betroth- 


.._ ids,  some  of  them  simple  bclla  o. 

glass,  with  a  knob  at  top,  for  convenience  of  lifttn;, 
them,  chiefly  used  for  covering  cuttings  in  tho 
green-house  or  stove,  until  they  »lr3x  or  aend  forth 
roots ;  whilst  others  consist  of  metal  frames — one, 
lead,  iron,  or  copper — filled  up  with  panea  of  glass, 
and  sometime*  of  a  size  large  enoiuh  to  be  used 
for  covering  teee-pesoniea,  acadaa,  and  other  tender 

HAND-TRS:Ei(C'UnM(«nH>»pIataiiaiie(},alarga 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Slerailiaeax,  which  receive* 
its  name  from  the  pecnliar  appearance  of  its  flowers. 
These  have  no  corolla,  but  a  large  6-Iobed  and 
angolar  coloured  calyx — bright  red  within — from 
which  project  the  five  stamens,  united  by  their 
filaments  mto  a  colnrnn,  and  sepuating  and 
curving  at  the  anmmit,  where  they  bear  the 
anthers,  so  as  to  have  some  resemblance  to  a  hand 
or  claw.  It  is  not  merely  this,  however,  which 
makes  tiie  tree  an  object  of  interest,  but  tha 
circumstance  that  it  is  on  object  of  superstitious 
veneration  to  the  Mexicans;  a  single  tree  near 
Toluca,  which  is  mentioned  in  the  earliest  histories, 
being  asserted  by  them  to  be  the  only  one  in  the 
world,  and  their  »iger  gathering  of  ita  flowers 
always  preventing  ite  moltiplicatian  by  teed.    It 


t.Google 


HAKSS— HA2rO-CIHOW-70a 


«  pn>diio«d  Med  abBodaatl^. 

found  in  gnM  •bandkiio*  m 
Oo&tamalx  It  i*  »  lottj  tn«  vitb  >  thick  tronk, 
t,  bftbit  fi*ni1u  to  tb^t  of  •  vdAne,  ftod  bcoAd  maple- 
like  leave*. 


UM  M  (ymboUdag  the  ooof miog  of  oartaia  mterior, 
knd,  genenU^  •peaking,  •jriritul  gifta.  In  the 
ooniemtion  <h  Aaron  and  lus  ■on«,tke7>re  dimoted 
to  Uj  Umit  baada  npon  the  heada  <a  the  victima 
irikich'  were  to  be  offered  in  Hwrillce  (Ex.  xdz.  10, 
16,  19).  Hoaea  aet  Joahna  apart  aa  the  leader  of 
the  people  by  'laying  hia  himda  upon  hia  head* 
(Nttm.  zxvil  23).  Our  Lord  ia  entreated  to  heal 
the  raler'i  dau^ter  (Matt  ix.  18)  by  the  aame 
oereoway.  Thia  ia  the  rite  which  Hs  himaelf 
adopU  in  Ueatinffthe  little  children  (Matt  ni.  IS). 
Th*  gift  of  the  Holy  Oboat  was  imparted  by  the 
(•me  oeremony  (Aoti  Tiii  IT),  and  the  ministei* 
plaoed  by  tbe  t^Matlea  in  the  newly  fonnded 
charolwa  w«re  liniilarly  initalled  (1  Tim.  i<r.  14). 
In  the  early  ehnroh,  the  rite  of  impceition  of  hand* 
Wat  emplc^^d  in  the  receiring  oF  oateobumen*  and 
the  reooitnliation  of  peniteut*.  From  ita  oae  in 
confinoatioa,  that  rite  ia  commoDly  deaignat«d  by 
the  Fatlicn  nndn  the  name  of  Imposition  of  Handa. 
In  the  ancient  church,  this  rite  existed  in  two 
form* :  the  aotnal  laying  on  of  hands,  which  was 
called  (AirotAaia;  and  the  extending  the  band  over 
or  towards  ths  penon,  which  was  styled  eUrotofua. 
In  the  Roman  Catholio  Church,  the  former  ia  retained 
aa  an  s—ential  part  of  the  saeramBnts  of  coofirmv 
tion  and  holy  M'das ;  the  tatt«r  is  employed  in  the 
adminiatiatiaa  of  the  ptjcatly  abaolution.  Both 
forma  an  familiariy  naad  in  bleeaisg,  la  the  mass, 
alio,  preriMia  to  the  oonaecration  of  the  elements  c4 
bread  and  wine,  the  nicst  sitenda  his  bands  over 
them,  repeating  at  the  aame  idme  the  tmparatoty 
fiKyw  or  Uaaang.  See  Wataer'a  Sir^m-Laiteii. 
vol  ir.  803.  Tha  rite  ct  imposition  of  handa  is  nsed 
both  by  the  Epiaoopalian  and  Prsabyteiian  obntobca 
in  tha  ordination  of  ministera.  It  alao  forma  part 
at  the  oeremooy  of  oonlirmation  in  the  Anglu— n 
and  in  tha  Lauierati  cbnrch.  See  P^mer'a  Anti' 
mdtim  of  Om  Jlitgliii  Bilual,  Eeahng'a  Litur^ 
firltowncn. 

HAVDSBIi,  inmeUaiet  used  to  denote  eaniesb- 
money,  or  part-paywenl^  by  way  of  bindiM  a 
bargain.    In  BcotUnd,  it  popttlarly  slgDifies  a  fint 

' ^'ti  in  trade,  ss,  for  eiample,  the  first  sale 

the  day  or  week;  and  is  ukewise  employed 

.  ._    _)  first  * 
Handsel  Monday. 

HAIIDWBtTIIia,  in  Iaw,  ia  prored  by  oaHiag 
■  witnesa  who  eithcv  aaw  the  individnal  write  tba 
idaatital  wtnda,  or  who  by  eorreapondance,  or  t^ 
having  prerionsly  at  other  times  aean  the  aame 
penon  write  other  p^isn,«*n  swear  that  be  believes 
the  p^ier  is  the  haodwriting  of  the  individnal  to 
whom  it  is  attributed.  Sometimes,  where  no  direot 
avideoeo  oan  be  had,  engravere  «md  others  aoeua- 
tomad  to  compare  the  nioetie*  of  handwriting  are 
allowed  to  rave  their  evidanoe,  or  rather  atate  their 
belief  a*  to  we  writing;  but  thia  kind  of  evidanoe  is 
looked  apoa  with  gicat  anapiciaD,  and  is  mooh 
diaooontenanoed.  In  eaaaa  wliare  a  jury  are  called 
■pen  to  dstemine  a  disputed  question  of  hand- 
writing tbey  are  now  allowed  in  England  to  form 
ItMtr  own  (finion  by  oomparing  the  disputed 
writing  with  other  writings  admitted  to  ba  by  the 
— L_     -n-.  y^  eonld  not  be  done  bafora 


■•^'- 


1864,  and  it  can  only  be  done  now  in  ci 
In  Scotland,  a  jury  are  not  yet  allowed  ti 
the  boodwritinB  in  ttiia  way  in  any  caia. 
oonntriea — as,  lor  , 

written  in  the  testator's 
be  gennine  wlthont  the  attastatioa 
being  then  called  a  Holograph  (q.  v 
i>ut  there  is  no  such  prinUse  ii 
Ireland,  as  all  wills,  by  « 
be  attested  by  w" 


Isien-taI^^  where  that  river  diaembogiua  into  tb* 
Bay  of  Haiw-alHnr.&K),  ia  aitoated  at  tlia  oon- 
menosment  of  tha  Qnnd  Caoal,  in  lat  3(r  18-  N., 


S   Stwtb-SM* 


_    It  is  abonk  UO 

of  Hankin. 

C'hina — a  Chineaa  pcovtsh  makes  ^ 

earth.  It  was  tha  oapital  of  tl»*  ssnpire  dnnng 
tha  mle  of  tha  Iftagi^  when  it  was  visitad  by  tha 
celebrated  Mateo  Polo  early  in  tha  14th  oratory. 
There  are  tea  galea  through  ita  loftrwalla,  which 
are  20  miles  in  eiicnmfmeaca^  but  thsre  are  more 
inhabitaota  withoat  the  meitata  than  within.    Tha 


it  oity  of 


nsual  in  Chiaeae  oities,  m  inU  paved,  and  in  a> 
diieotioDa  lined  for  mile*  with  alagMit  •hopa  au 
eztenaiTe  wanhonaa*.  Tba  tenninal  iMuneatiou 
of  the  Grand  Canal  ace  apanned  by  eoontlsM 
elsgant  hridzas.  H.  ia  celebr^ed  for  ita  ailk  mann- 
Eadnrea,  ai^  ita  cmbroideiy  azoela  that  of  any 
part  of  China.  Mnlharry-breea  oocupy  eveiy  vacant 
apot  within  and  withoat  tha  walla.  No  oity  in 
China,  unless  it  be  that  of  Sucban,  poiseaaes  wsaltk 
to  compare  with  that  of  thia  nmariuUe  jdao^ 
which,  moreover,  ia  the  moat  literary  and  most 
religious  part  of  tha  empire.  Coll^ee  aod  tanHdea, 
kl^ai  and  prieattt  abcnind  and  flourish  in  Hang- 
ohow-fao.  Tb«  impoial  library  in  tba  palae*  at 
Kiealnnit  and  the  litwary  iMtitotiana,  appear, 
howeiver,  to  b«  goins  to  daoay,  and  ootdd  nM  at 
any  penod  haTe  had  mneb  emeatiDBal  inflnenofc 
One  oaose  tt  the  odebrity  of  the  oity  is  lonnd 
in  the  beaatrof  ita  envitona.  Tite  toww  of  tha 
Thoadsring  Winda,  althoi^  in  mine,  is  still  aa 
impoaiiip  edifice;  whila  monnmental  gatawayL 
light  auy  Isidge^  and  tein^ee  of  t^  maa  of 
villuea,  render  the  natural  baantiea  of  tha  oity 


SOOmiages 

size  of  Ufa,  riehly  oovered  with  gold.  Nothing 
ezoeed  tha  beauty  ei  the  valleya  evening  into  the 
lake,  richly  adorned  aa  tb^  are  with  trees,  chiefly 
the  camphor  and  tallow  traea,  and  tba  arbcv  vita^ 
From  a  nmote  period,  thaaa  sesoea  bare  been  tha 
reaort  of  pilgrims,  and  antj  apot  ia  hallowed 
by  aoma  teg^dary  inoideat  At  one  place  tbora 
ia  an  image  of  Buddha,  out  out  of  tha  aolid 
rook,  mtssar*"g  48  feet  from  shoulder  to  shonldsr. 
The  nose  is  seven  feet  l<uig,  aod  tha  other  pwtt 
are  of  a  ranportional  aixe;  it  is  gilt  over  like 
wooden  aid  clay  images  <rf  the  sane  pertonue. 
Hie  protruding  rocks  an  profusely  carved  wmi 
religious  inscriptions  and  images  of  mythological 
characters.  The  noith'castern  section  of  the  city 
of  H.  is  called  tiie  Tartar  city,  beina  eichisively 
devoted  to  the  Mantehu  gaiiison  or  military  otdony. 
It  is  separated  from  the  CUimm  city  1^  a  low 
walL  About  20  mllea  below  tba  dty  is  Kanpoo, 
onoe  a  mart  of  considerable  importanos,  tiie  port 
of  H.,  when  that  city  was  tba  mstK^oliB  ol  ChiD% 
dsscribsd  b][  Marco  Polo  as  an  extremely  flourishing 
phMM;  flnvial  chaiue*  have  reodered  it  inaaoea- 
sibla  to  any  biit  smaS  fiat-botlomsd  vwisfllti  Ghapoo 
ia  now  the  port  of  H.,  sitoated  on  the  north  side  of 


t.LiOogle 


HAKOED,  DRAWN,  AND  QUABTERED-HANGIKO  OABDENa. 


tfa*  bay,  abont  60  milei  troni  tb«  capiuL  ChApoo 
llM  alao  ■  Tartar  city  ;  it  cammmucataa  bj  braadiea 
of  tbe  Grand  Canal  vitlt  H.  and  Bhangliai.  It  ii 
the  [lort  to  which  ChineM  trade  witE  Japan  ia 


ifigoration  of  th«  Bay  of  Hang-cbow-foo 
mbouchnre  of  ib«  Tuen-tang  nver,  which 
emptiea  into  it  near  tbe  provincial  cqtital,  favoun 
tha  formation  of  the  tidal  pheoomenon  d^ignated 
an  «vre  or  bore.  See  BoBK  Dr  Maogowan,  the 
firrt  Ennqwan  who  haa  witoened  thia  magnificent 
■pectaele,  haa  published  ao  ■oooaot  ol  it  in  the 
Ptvcttdinga  of  the  Atiatic-Sodeh/  of  Hoag-teng.  Ai 
tha  tid«  ruahca  into  tbe  mouth  of  tbe  river,  it  become* 
elevated  to  a  lofty  wave,  which  attain!  ita  greateat 
magnitoda  oppoute  the  city  of  Hang- chow- foo. 
Oanerally,  there  ia  nothing  remarkable  in  it*  aapect, 
•xoept  it  tlw  period  of  tiia  vernal  and  satuianal 
•qninozea,  the  inaximam  being  at  the  latter 

.     ..     ,  .        t  a..,  .:, ■-", crowd*  _ 

with  the  river, 

,,    _jOp   lading  and 

^^^^l1^il^g  Qmi  Teeaela.  and  put  out  into  the  middle 
of  theArnun.  n«  centra  of  the  river  teem*  with 
oafL  Load  tbonting  from  the  fleet  announoea 
the  appearaoM  of  the  flood,  whieh  wenu  like  a 
dittenmg  white  cable  atretched  athwart  the  bay  aa 
tw  down  aa  tb*  eye  can  reach.  Ite  noial^  com- 
Hued  by  native  poeta  to  that  of  tbuudar,  apeedily 
uowni  that  of  the  boatmen ;  and  H  it  advancee 
with  prodigious  velocity,  it  aaaumea  the  appearance 
of  an  alabaiter  wall,  or  rather  of  an  advaudnK 
cataract  four  or  five  milel  acroaa,  and  about  30 
feet  hi^  Aa  the  foaming  wall  of  water  daahes 
impetuoualy  onward,  one  brmblea  for  the  eafety 
of  the  floating  multitude.  They  oease  ahontiiift 
and  devote  thrir  ensrgite  to  the  iteadying  of  tbe 
prow*  of  their  veaeeb  toward  the  advancing  wave, 
whicb  threatena  to  aubmerge  everything  atloat; 
bat  they  all  vault  aa  it  -nen  to  tbe  aummit  with 
perfect  aafety.  Thia  grand  and  exciting  eeaaon  ia 
but  of  a  moment'!  duration ;  tbe  wave  paaiea  up 
Uie  river  in  an  inataot,  but  fnim  thia  point  witn 
grsdually  decreaiing  force,  volume,  and  velocity, 
aiaappearing  entirely  a  Few  miles  above  the  dtj. 
From  ebb  to  flood  tide,  the  change  ia  atmoat  inaCan- 
: ;  a  tlisht  flood  coatinum  after  the  paaeage 


of  the  wave,  t 
the  hiitonc  pei 
eflected  by  the  actioo  of  thia 
being  the  removal  of  a  rocky  ialet  from  the  centre 
of  Uia  river  opinsite  Hang-chow- (oo.  Chinese 
ingenuity  haa  been  long  exerted,  with  im|)erf)ict 
Buccen,  in  preserving  l£a  allui-ial  nlajn  from  the 
wasting  action  of  the  eagre.  The  nirtory  of  tbe 
dyke*  that  have  been  iiiooessively  ereotod,  of  failures 
and  disasters,  found  in  the  local  annals,  shew  that, 
like  the  Yellow  River,  this  part  of  the  Tiien-tang 
haa  been  a  oonatant  source  of  anxiety  and  expense 
to  the  government  ooatkg  about  130,000  dollaie 

HANOKD,  DRAWN,  akd  QUASTBRED, 
tte  deacription  of  the  capital  senteace  on  a  traitor, 
which  consisted  of  drawing  him  on  a  hurdle  to  the 
plaoe  of  execution,  and  after  hanging  bim,  dividing 
the  body  into  quarters.  This  punishment  wai 
•nbatituted  by  the  stat  M  Gea  IIL  e.  146,  for  the 
ancient  more  barbarous  sentenoe  of  diaanibowejling 
alive,  but  the  croM'a  has  power  to  reduce  the 
•mtouM  to  aimple  beheading.    Se*  also  Hajiodio. 

HANOINO  is  the  mode  by  which  capital  pnniah- 
ment  ia  earned  out  in  tbe  United  Kingdom.  In 
England,  formerly,  in  atrocdoos  eaaea,  it  waa  nmal 
for  (he  court  to  direot  a  murderer  to  be  hung  apon 
a  ^bbet  in  chain!  near  the  pUo«  where  the  crune 


was  committed — also  at  a  later  period  to  order  the 
body  to  be  dissected — and  the  execution  to  take 
place  on  the  next  day  but  one  after  the  aentenoe  waa 
paned.  Bnt  these  uaelcas  laveritiea  were  abolished 
by  the  *Ui  6  and  7  WilL  IV.  c  30. 

The  mode  of  punishing  by  hmging  wm  first 
adopted  in  England  in  1241,  when  Mannee,  a  Doble- 
man's  aco,  wa*  banged  for  piracy.  Other  more 
barbaixnw  mode*  of  Inflicting  d«>«t  were  loiu  in 
DM,  being  prescribed  by  statute,  bnt  have  baoi 
abolished,  lad  hanging  haa  long  been  the  ordinary, 
becaoae  the  moat  hnmane,  mode  of  executing  capital 
punishment.  In  treaaon,  hmging  is  put  of  the 
statutory  punishment,  conplea  wilJl  mangling  the 
body,  though  tbe  crown  may  change  the  sentenDa 
into  simple  beheading,  except  in  the  case  of  women, 
who  are  only  hanged,  in  dsferenoe  to  their 


nd  if  pronounced  north  of  the  Firth,  within  km 
than  40  days  after  it  was  pronounced.  But  now, 
in  both  oases,  the  day  of  execution  must  Dot  be 
less  than  IG,  nor  more  than  21  daya,  aouA  of  the 
F'irtb;  nor  less  than  SO,  nor  more  than  27  days, 
if  north  of  the  Firth,  after  seotence  passed.  Dntil 
recently,  the  hanging  or  execution  took  plaoe  in 
public.     See  EuouTioN. 

The  cause  of  death  in  baQ^ng  ia  oixaples.  Tha 
compresiion  of  the  windpipeby  the  oord,  the 
obstruction  of  tbe  return  of  venom  blood  from 
the  bead,  and  of  the  flow  of  arterial  blood  to  tha 
brain,  the  atretching  or  tearing  of  the  nervoua 
structure*  of  the  neck,  and  in  soi 


attended    with    violent  atmggle*  in 

probably  as  neariy  tastaBtBoeoui  as  poasibla.    The 

subject,  in  its  relations  to  medical   luriajirudence, 

will   be    more    fully   considered  under    the    title 

STRaNoui.aTio». 

HANGING  GARDENS.  The  Hanging  Gardeni 
of  Babylon  were  anciently  reckoned  among  tha 
wonders  of  the  world.  Their  construction  is 
variously  ascribed  to  Queen  Semiramis,  and  to 
NebucbiuineizAr— seven  oentoriea  later,  bnt  still 
more  than  Ave  centuriee  B.a — who  is  sud  to  have 
made  tbsm  for  the  gratiScation  of  hi*  Uedian  qoeen, 
Amytis,  because  the  Babylonian  plain  seemed  drean 
to  her  in  comparison  with  the  varied  and  romantic 
scenery  of  her  native  Uod.  Diodorus  and  Straba 
have  given  particular  descriptions  of  them  ;  aikd 
although  it  is  remarkable  that  they  are  not  men- 
tiooed  oy  Herodotus,  whilst  Quintus  Curtiua  speak* 
of  them  OS  '  fsbulons  wonders  of  the  Greeks — an 
opinion  which  some  of  the  learned  in  modem  time* 
have  adopted,  dousing  their  very  existence— yet 
tbe  probability  seems  to  be  in  favour  of  the  general 


among  the  mounds  which  mark  the  site  <rf  Babyloa. 
See  Sabvloh.  Ttto  flanging  Gardena  an  said  to 
have  formed  a  square,  with  an  area  of  nearly  four 
acre* ;  but  rising  in  terraoe*  onriaualy  oonatrnoted 
with  *tone  pillan,  aorcaa  wfaioh  were  plaoed  stone*, 
covered  with  reed*  and  bitamen,  and  apin  with 
brick*  united  by  cement;  above  thaaet  ebeata  of 
lead,  to  prevent  moi«tiir«  from  flowing  down,  *nd 
finally  a  *ufficient  layer  of  earth  ;  the  summit  being 
elevated  three  hundnd  feet  above  the  baae^  so  that 
at  a  distance  the  whole  presented  tha  appeanuiM 
of  a  p^midal  wooded  nilL  There  was  a  latn 
reservou-  at  the  summit,  which  was  flUed  wita 
water  by  pumi^ng  from  tbe  Enphrates,  for  the 
irrigation  A  tha  gardens,  and  the  supply  of  their 
«i»rt«M.^H>  fnn^t^mj^      Fountaina   ■m   Mikattettng 


jbjGoogle 


HAKKOW— HAMNIBAL. 


nooM  w«n  diitributad  tbron^Loiit  the  n 
tamca)  groTe*  uid  kvenaea  of  trees,  ■■ 
putenvi  of  flowen,  diTenified  tha  Kene 
'^'"  — ' *  "" "  "ity  and  naighbourhood  w» 


HAHKOW,  in  Ut  «bout  80'  SO"  N,  »nd  long. 
IK*  K,  a  port  of  Chinik,  ut  the  jnnction  of  the  Han 
river  nith  tbo  Yang-tze-kUDg.  600  milea  from  ita 
mouth.  It  consistB  of  threo  cities,  the  prmcipal 
beingWn-ohana-foo,  on  odb  side  of  the  Han  riper, 
and  Han-jADZ-ioo  on  the  opposite  side.  Strictly 
■peaking;,  H.  u  a  lubnrb  ol  the  former.     It  was 

f.^ >     ,...,  .,..     m___. ,._„..__    (,^j    ],_! 


eta  of  larse  size  can  reach  the 
city ;  the  livff  i«  aavigable  360  miles  higher  Dp, 
to  the  city  of  IchaDK  Poirerful  flat-bottomed 
ateameia  are  reqaiiite  tor  nangating  this  part  of 
the  Taag-tie-kisDg,  the  cnn«nt  mDoiii^  at  from 
aeren  to  eight  knots  per  honr.  The  principal  ezpin^ 
ia  tea.  Other  natiTe  prodncta  exported  ai«  Hik,  oil, 
tallow,  tobaeco,  and  vaz.  11»  chief  import*  are 
cotton  piece-ffooda,  woolleni,  metala,  Straita  and 
Japaoeae  prodace.  The  total  value  of  the  exports 
amooQted,  in  1870,  to  £4,434,129 ;  and  in  1871,  to 
£5,578,298;  of  tha  imports,  in  1S70,  to  £5,938,3L4; 
and  in  1871.  to  £6.750,631.  The  iacreaie  in  1871 
of  gray  shirtinga  is  noticeable ;  it  vat  £183,393  in 
Talne  more  than  that  of  1870. 

HANNIBAL  {Uie  gift  qf  Boat}  ma  a  common 
name  among  the  Caithaginiana,  the  liat  of  those 
famed  in  history  extending  to  fourteen  or  fifteen. 
Bat  the  greatest  of  all  the  Hannibala  vaa  the 
famous  aon  of  Hamilcar  Barca.  He  was  bom  in  247 
I.  a  Whan  he  iras  nine  years  old,  he  aocompaDied 
his  fathsr  on  hia  Spanish  expedition ;  and  before 
starting  swon  that  oath  of  eternal  hatred  to  the 
Konum  aune,  which  he  kept  so  faithfully  through- 
ont  his  whole  life.  After  the  death  of  Hamilcor, 
he  was  employed  by  Hawlnibat,  his  brother' in-law, 
in  most  of  the  military  oiierationi  which  he  imder- 
took.  Sncb  was  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held 
by  the  soldiers,  and  such  a  repatatiou  for  bravery 
and  strategic  skill  had  he  gained,  that  when 
Hasdrubal  was  assasiiiiat^d,  the  army  with  one  voice 
elected  him  commander-in-chief,  an  appointment 
which  the  authorities  at  Carthage  at  once  ratified. 
H.,  at  this  time  in  his  39th  year,  undertook  the 
command  with  ready  seal,  for  ha  longed  to  realise 
the  legacy  left  him  by  his  father,  and  to  strike  a 
death-blow  at  his  country's  rival  by  attacking  her 
on  her  own  soiL  But  b^ore  he  entered  on  a  taek 
of  sach  magnitude,  he  deemed  it  prudent  to  com- 
plete the  subjngatioD  of  S|>ain,  aod  acoordincly 
apent  two  years  in  cootoiti  with  some  tribes 
hitherto  independent  of  Carthage.  Sagnotum,  a 
city  in  alliance  with  Rome,  was  attacked  by  him 
on  the  ground  that  its  inhabitants  were  making 
•mnaaions  on  the  Torboletes,  subjects  of  Carthaga 
^ner  a  siege  of  eight  months,  the  city  was 
taken ;  and  the  Romans,  after  an  smbaa^  had 
nnanooasafully  demanded  the  surrender  ol  the 
general  who  had  thna  wantonly  violated  the  treaty, 
declared  war  in  218  B.O.  Having  taken  measures 
tor  the  defence  of  Africa  and  Spain  during  his 
abacDOs^  he  started  from  New  Carthage  in  218  B.a, 
Kith  00,000  foot,  and  12,000  horee.  This  force 
was  very  mud  thinned  by  his  contests  with  the 
tribes  bstwsen  the  Iberua  and  tha  Pyrenees,  by 
tha  nsosssity  of  learing  Hanno  with  11.000  men 
ta  kssD  them  io  sobjeetion,  by  desertion  in  the 
of  the  Pyraneea,  uid  by  hia  sending  home 
*  hia  SpMiish  boop^    Hia  object  in  this 


last  act  was  to  inspirq  the  soldiere  with  thorough 
conBdence  in  themselves  and  their  generaL  From 
the  Pyrenees  he  marohed  to  the  Rhone  without 
opposition,  sinos  Scipio  was  at  Massilis  (Maiseille). 
four  days'  march  from  the  point  where  B.  otnaud 
the  river  in  the  faos  of  tbe  Celtic  hordes  who  sided 
with  the  Romans.  Bis  next  great  difGoultir  was 
the  panage  of  the  Alps,  which  he  effected  in  fifteen 
daya.  ia  spite  of  the  attacks  of  tbe  mountain  tribes^ 
the  snowa,  storms,  and  other  difficuttiea.  Much 
diacnssion   has    taken   place   among  learned    men 


by  tl 

rent* ... 

argue ;  and  for  the  latter,  with  better  re*»iHi% 
Niebuhr,  Arnold,  Mommseo,  Ac  After  allowing 
his  army  (now  about  S6.000  strong)  some  time  to 
recruit  in  the  rich  vilWes  of  the  friendly  tnsn- 
brians,  he  first  subdued  t£e  Tanrini,  a  tribe  hostile 
to  the  Insubrians,  and  took  tlieir  chief  city  after  a 
siese  of  three  dajrs ;  and  thus  forced  into  alliaDoe 
with  him  all  the  Ligurian  and  Celtic  tribea  on  the 
upper  couise  of  the  Po.  Scipio,  having  returned 
from  Massilia,  took  the  commaiid  of  the  army  in 
the  north  of  Italy,  and  first  met  H.  on  tha  plain 
near  the  river  Ticinos.  The  Romans  were  entinly 
routed ;  and  Scijiio,  who  was  severely  wounded, 
retreated  acroas  the  Po.  The  armies  again  met 
at  the  Trebia.  with  a  like  result,  though  the 
Romans,  who  had  received  reinforeementa,  were 
much  more  numerous.  These  battles  were  fought 
in  218  B.  a  Having  wintered  in  the  neighliourhood 
of  the  Po.  and  levied  additional  troop*  among  the 
Oauls,  most  of  wliom  were  now  hia  frienda,  H. 
started  southward  so  soon  as  spring  permitted, 
marching  through  Liguria  and  the  swanpa  of  tho 
Amo.  In  this  difficult  routa,  immense  nuinben 
of  his  beasts  of  burden  and  hones  perished,  and 
he  himself  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye.  He  next 
inflicted  a  severe  defeat,  near  Lake  Thrasjmene,  on 
tbe  consul  Flamioiiu :  thoussiids  perished  by  the 
sword,  inclndiog  the  ooosul,  aud  thousands  in  the 
lake,  while  16,000  were  taken  captive,  H.  losing 
only  ISUO.  Aitv  this  victory,  he  crossed  the  Apen- 
nines to  Picenom  and  Apiilia.  and  thence  re-crosaed 
to  the  fertile  Campania,  which  be  ravaged.  Thither 
Fabius  was  sent  with  an  anny  to  oppoae  hiin,  but 
no  general  engaeement  took  place,  the  consul 
endeavouring  to  lead  H-  into  snares,  which  he 
■noceeded  in  doing ;  but  Hie  wily  African  extri- 
cated hia  army  by  a  stratagem,  and  retomed  to 
Apulia.  He  wintered  at  Cauue,  and  in  June,  or, 
according  to  otfaeis,  in  August  (2d)  of  216  &.  a, 
almost  anoihilated  a  Roman  army  of  00.000  men 
under  Terentius  Varro  and  ^miliu*  Paulus.  in  the 
battle,  which  was  fought  a  little  below  the  town. 
About  60,000  are  said  to  have  fallen,  including 
^milius  FauIuB,  and  a  host  of  IRoman  knights, 
Kuators,  and  other  distinguished  penons.  Here 
H.  committed,  perhaps,  the  greatest  military  error 
of  his  life,  in  not  marching  direct  to  Rome ;  but  it 
ia  supposed  that  he  refrained,  in  order  to  allow  the 
tribea  of  Italy  to  declare  in  his  favour.  Many  in 
the  south  of  Italy  did  attach  themselves  to  his 
interests,  but  not  lo  such  numbers  aa  he  had  antici- 
pated. After  aome  delay,  he  marched  on  Neapolis 
(Naples),  which  lie  did  not  succeed  in  taking,  but 
the  gates  of  Capua  were  opened  to  him,  and  here  he 
wintered.  The  enervatii^  effect  which  the  luxury 
of  Capua  is  said  to  have  nati  on  his  army  has  been 
greatly  overdrawn,  but  bis  residence  there  forms,  in 
one  point  of  view,  the  tnrning- point  in  the  war, 
which  from  this  time  became  more  of  a  desultory 
kind.  H-'s  great  purpose  waa  to  arm  tha  Italian 
naticm*  against  Rome,  and  so  to  cniah  her  power  by 


T/Coogfe 


HAWWIBAL-HAJfOVBa. 


contruy,  benoafcrth  avoidad  ooramg  to  ft  pitohod 
bkttla  with  the  Cvthaginuui*,  but  Knurht  ratliflr 
to  kesp  the  tribe*  in  >w^  uid  husM  H.  mid  hii 
lisnteiuuitB  bj  naiiU  ftnoie*  in  diffenmt  puts  of 
the  oonntiT.  H.  tnveraed  Itftljr  in  all  directioiu, 
nupriied  the  Roman  generob,  defeated  their  armies, 
captured  their  towna,  nich  u  Omilinnni,  Arpi, 
TareDtom,  Metapontnm,  Thnni,  hoai,  snd  many 
othoi* ;  lie  defeated  Centeoiiu  near  Capua ;  Co. 
Fulriui  at  Herdonea ;  FolTiiu  Flaccui  on  the  Anio ; 
Oriipiaiia  and  tlMoellnaitiLiuiaBiai  andthebeaieg- 
isg  army  before  Locri  i  in  all  theM  eaaea  tha  anaiea 
vera  akMBt  aneihilated.  The  dabat  •!  B'aadnibal, 
hia  brother,  at  tiie  river  Hetaonu,  and  tha  loat  of  hia 
array,  compelled  H.  to  oonflne  hinaeU  to  the  monn- 
taJBona  peninmla  of  Bratinm,  where  for  four  vean 
he  ranated  all  the  effort*  oE  tiw  Bomon*  to  dialod^ 
him.    At  length,  after  baring  maintained  himaalf  '- 

hroTBry  of  hia  vetentn  Iroc^  be  «a«  defeated  by 
SdptD,  near  Zama,  with  *  loaa  of  20,000  man.  Peace 
m»  eondodad  in  the  foUowing  year  (301  b.  c). 

H.'a  darling  sehenw  had  in  the  meanlame  been 
bt^Ded,  but  I&  hatred  to  Borne  ma  not  diminiahed, 
and  aeoordingty  he  aet  bimaelf  with  all  hia  real  to 
mijce  prmantioui  for  a  etill  more  deadly  itmggle 
at  aoma  intura  day.  Ha  tnmed  hie  attention,  in 
iita  flrat  place,  to  poUtioal  raforma,  and  aome  oouti- 
tntional  ohangea  which  were  loudly  called  for,  by 
iriliah  he  placed  the  flnancea  lai  a  batter  footing. 
Btrt  hil  enemies  aoonaed  him  to  tha  Romana  of 
■luring  np  Antioohae  IIL  of  Syria  to  make  war 
on  them  ;  and  whea  ambaaaadora  oama  to  Carthage, 
H.  Bed  to  tha  court  of  Antloohua  at  Epheao.  In 
the  war  whioh  followed,  he  took  no  ccntpicnoua  part, 
but  the  king  bitterlj;  regretted  afterwarda  that  he 
did  not  take  the  adviea  of  H.  to  carry  tha  war  into 
Italy.  When  peaoe  wat  ooncluded,  the  anrrender  of 
H.  waa  one  of  the  oondittMW  i  bnt  fnrwinning  auch 
a  reaolt,  ha  fled  to  Prattoa^  king  of  B^thynia,  for 
whom  be  gained  a  naval  tlotoiy  over  Enmi 
kins  of  Pargamoa.  He  waa  at  lengOi  demande 
tiie  Romani ;  and  aeeiag  no  hi^  <n  eacape,  he 
poison,  whidi  he  alwaya  carried  with  him  lor  antdi 


dedby 
letocdL 


Among  ancient  antboritlei,  the  reader  may 
eoiualt,  with  great  pttAt,  Polrtriua,  Dion  CaMina, 
Flataroh,  and  Anpiao  |  and  ol  tnodarn  hiitoriaaa, 
Amold'a  Bift  o/jtonie,  voL  iiL  ;  Niebuhr'a  Lteturtt 
m  Soman  Hi*lory,  vol.  L  ;  Manunaen'a  HitL  of 
Bante,  voL  E  (Dickaon'a  truaUtion).  For  military 
eperationi  apecially,  aea  Vaadouoonrt,  Uitloirt  di* 
Oan^pagMt  iPAMuial  at  IlaU*. 

HAIflTIBAL,  a  dty  in  Minouri,  tJoited  Statea, 
America,  on  the  weat  bank  of  the  Miasiasippi,  1^ 
milea  above  St  Lonia.  It  is  tha  east  terminus 
of  tiie  Haanibal  and  St  Joaenh  Bailway,  and  boa 
■t^un-boat  comjnuziicfttioiL  with  other  towns  on  the 
MuaiaappL  It  has  a  Urge  trade  in  pork,  tobacco, 
hemp,  and  grain,  with  mjUt,  foundries,  and  macbine- 
ahopo.    Pop,  (18T0)  10,12Sl 

HAITNO  (perhaps  the  father  or  the  aon  of  that 
Hauilcarwho  fell  at  Himera  infSO  B.(i.)  ii  famed 
for  a  voyage  of  disoovery  which  be  nude  along  the 
west  ociart  of  Africa,  to  found  Libyo-phremoian 
lowni.  Hia  expedition  is  aaid  to  have  conaisted  of 
SO  diipa  and  90,000  men  and  women.  One  eity  waa 
built  not  hr  ftom  tba  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  others 
alonf  the  OMst  reaching  to  Cape  Bojador.  He 
went  Bon^  a*  lax  probably  as  flierm  Leone.  On  bit 
retom  to  Carth^e,  he  inscribed  an  acooont  of  hie 
Toyi«e  on  a  tablet,  and  placed  it  in  ttie  tewple  of 


Eronea  (Satom),  or,  aoeording  to  <4het«,  <A  Jonch  It 
seems  to  have  been  written  m  the  Puiue  language ; 
the  venioa  of  it  which  remains  ia  only  a  Greek 
banslation.  The  Peripbu  haa  been  published  on 
the  continent  by  Gelenins,  Boeclw  and  UUllor, 
and  Berkel,  and  with  an  English  traoalation  by 
Paleocar  (Lond.  1797}.  Great  diseuaaianB  have  take«i 
place  among  the  learned  as  to  the  timt  what  H.'a 
voyage  was  made  (the  beet  autboritiw  favonrine 
the  period  of  about  G70  n,  c.) ;  aa  to  1A<  Haano  on* 
of  all  the  many  Euuios  of  hiator; ;  and  a*  to  tha 
facts  stated  in  the  Feriplut ;  but  on  these  we  Mnnot 
enter.  Some  recent  writeni  Snd  evidence  in  it  of 
tha  existence  of  (he  gorMa  in  those  ancient  day*. 
For  a  full  discnsuon  of  the  subject,  consult  Dad- 
well's  Dissertatioa  (in  Hodaon'a  Oeographi  2f  inorci) ; 
Bougainville's  Essay  {Mtm.  dt  CAttut.  da  IiucrhA. 
ixn.  p.  10,  and  xxviiL  p,  260);  also  falconer,  in  hia 
edition  already  referred  to. 

HAHOTEB,  a  village  in  New  Hampahire^ 
United  States,  Amerioa,  plaaaantly  litnated  on  tha 
•aat  bank  of  the  Connecticut  Biver,  62  mile*  north- 
west from  Concord.  It  is  the  seat  of  Dartmonth 
College,  founded  by  Lord  Dartmoutli  for  the  eduoo- 
tioD  of  the  Indian  y oath,  and  a  medical  oolk^o. 
Pop,  of  township  (1870),  20S0. 

HATfOVHK,  fonnerly  a  kingdom  of  Hortbem 
Germanv,  but  sinos  1886  inccs^ratad  wi^  Prussia. 
(The  following  description  refera  ehiafly  to  the 
state  of  tiilugs  before  the  union ;  (or  more  recent 
information,  see  PscwiA.)  Hanover  axtonda  from 
51-  IS*  to  63*  G3',N.  Ut,  and  trom  6*  43'  to  U* 
35'  EL  long.  It  may  be  divided  iuto  three  distinct 
districts,  viz. — 1.  The  eastern,  which 


Ecincipalities  of  LUnebnrg,  Salenber^  and  HQdea- 
aim,  and  tha  oouatshipt  of  fioya  and  Dicpholz  g 
2.  Tb«  western  (sejiarated  fnHn  the  former  by  tha 
duchy  of  Aldenbiug)  eompriaes  the  duchy  of  Arun- 
berg-Meppen,  the  prinoipalitiea  of  Osnabrllck  and 
East  FtiMlaod  with  the  Hartingerlanda,  the  lower 
conntahips  of  Lii^^en  and  BcntlMim,  and  tha  cirda 
of  Emabuhr«>,  which  formerly  belonged  to  the  see  <^ 
Muntter;  S.  TIm  aouthem,  which  is  separated  &om 
the  other  Hanoverian  territeries  bv  Branawick,  and 
compisea  the  prindpalitisa  of  Ombenhaaen  aid 
Oettmgen,  togeuier  with  the  districts  of  Elbingeroda 
and  Huld.  E.  is  bounded  N.  by  the  0«nnan  OoeM) 
and  tha  river  Elbe,  E,  bv  Mecklenburg  and  Praa- 
lian  Saxony,  8.  chiefy  by  Westphalia  and  Heasa 
Caatel,  and  W.  by  UoUand.  The  foUou-ins  Ubla 
shews  the  divisions,  or  landroateien,  of  K,  with 
their  rei^ective  areaa  and  popolotiona ; 


■tsss::- 

L*Ei- 

CL«T««. 

'32' 

HU»T«,      .          . 

tSDO-lS 

»s*.7ia 

1  Hu*«T.   1 

K.fm 

EHIdobttn,    . 

IWM 

MII.S01 

«M« 

LOMburj, 

IHt4S 

IM.MB 

Aerloh.     . 

*,m 

Hln«ofao>l>r. 

ta-n 

AH* 

CU.^ 

UJM 

ilationwas-l,9S7,607. 

Charaaler,    «a— Tb«   general   p^rfoal 


the  popnlat 
Phj^taU 
character  of  H.  ia  that  of  an  extnided 


of  the  Han,  togetlur  i 


hyCoogle 


the  EJebsfeld,  Sollinger,  BUatal,  Daiiter-CMar,  Had 
Hildeaheimer-'W'&ld.  Fram  tha  bus  of  thN* 
hllli  to  thfl  >e&-«>M«t,  th«  I^mI  ii  am  rut  pUin, 
ohIt  intarmptad  >t  oaitam  points  hy  Imr  rangM  of 
hilfy  eroand.  Tha  monntaiiiB,  whioh  kbonod  ia 
mtDCTUi,  an  aoverad  with  denia  woodi,  uu)  tka 
Tallaya  lying  bctwaen  them  ara  fertile  and  veil 
adapted  to  aKriniltiue ;  Imt  beyond  theae  Tallfyi 
the  oonntry  la  baveraad  from  caat  to  ireat  by  a 
Bindy  traot  {rom  00  to  SO  Mulaa  in  wid^  knowt) 

with  difBemty  gain  a  acanty  aabaiateDOe  by 

Qg  aheap   and  keeping  ' <i— .  _-_v.- 

,  eat-mooiB    oovar    the 
diatiiota,  but  theae   hare  i 


jraiaing  aoma  oi  Uke  i . __ ,. 

Xhe  eoaats  ara  low.  and  raqnira  to  be  protaotad 
from  tha  oraflowing  of  Uie  aea  l^  embwakmeuts 
and  dykM,  the  land  being  in  many  parte  baloir  the 
ordman  l«i«l  ot  tike  aaa.  Along  the  bank*  of  the 
rirera  there  are  fwrtila  diabiiFta,  eroi  m  tiie  nartb 
of  the  osDnby. 

Hie  prinoipal  rirera  an,  tha  Elba,  which  lama 
120  mUea  m  tha  north-eaat  boundaay-lina ;  the 
Wcaer,  cs  whoa  afflaent  tha  Loine,  the  capital 
•f  K,  la  Btnated  {  the  AUer,  the  f^na,  and  tbe 
Vechte,  which  all  fall  into  the  Qennaa  OoeiD. 
Then  an  nnmanma  amall  lakea  in  Hanover,  Tbe 
prinoipal  canal*  arc  those  between  Xiingui  and 
Happen,  AiiqoI>  u>d  '*i^'l°"|  and  the  firemen 
Cand,  botweai  Uia  Hamma  and  tha  Swinge,  whioh 
aarraa  to  drain  the  mtoor^  and  totianB|icirt  th«  t>if 
andpeat  whioh  titay  yield. 

Ciintale.-~-Tia  cfimiita  ia  moiit  near  tha  nf— ii. 
and  fo^  and  heavy  winda  asa  fre^ucot ;  in  the 
■outh  it  ia  dry  and  colder ;  and  in  aome  parte 
of  tha  counby  marah  feven  pravail,  although  the 
ganer^  ehancter  of  the  dimate  in  H.  may  be 
oharaeteailed  ••  baaltbj.  The  mean  animal  tem- 
peratore  ia  KTB ;  winter,  28'-7  ;  and  ailamer,  64*-& 
ErtveMiaa  an  nwe-  ^h«  arorage  aantial  fall  of  nin 
iaSSinobea. 

Boil,  Pnnluett. — The  aoil  ia  ^jeoerally  of  inferior 
qoality.  although  it  Tariaa  oouidevaUy  in  different 
oiEfariGta.  Agncaltnra  ta  in  a  very  backward  con- 
dition, and  notwithstanding  arana  impforsmente 
w^ch  haT*  bean  made  of  late  yean,  large  tracta  of 
land,  whioh  ale  well  adapted  for  ooltivation,  lia 
waate  ia  evaiT  part  lA  Ota  oomrtry.  Tha  mat  anb- 
diviaion  ol  the  land,  and  the  aMaaqneift  abaence 
of  aapital,  ara  Qm  mua  canaa  of  thia  impcilect 
mod*  of  agrionltOfe.  The  toUowins  propartioni 
are  ginn  by  Maraaid  fcr  llie  dirtributum  of  the 
land  in  Hmonr.  Arable,  meadow,  and  garden 
luu).  0,893,000  mwgen  (the  mmgen  U  0-6810  acn) ; 
loreata,  ifi^fiOQ;  waste  landa,  Sfil4fl0f). 

The  Tu^eat  oom-gnnring  diatrieta  are  Eildnhobn, 
OVttingeB,  and  Kalenbcog,  and  the  marab-Unda  near 
tha  Elba  and  Weaer ;  lye  ia  srown  for  the  porpoae 
tk  making  bread,  aad  largdy  oaad  by  the  rural 
popnlatiau.  The  t«rf  obtamaa  from  the  peat-mo<H» 
IB  Ike  north  and  north-weat  diatrieta  constatntea 
the  only  kind  of  fnel  oaad  in  aome  aavlB  of  the 

qnantdlua.    CatUe,  horaea,  and  geeaa  are  eztanairay 

bariey  and  oata  are  raiaed  in  anffioieat  qiiaiiti(>r  £or 
flapertation. 

The  Unebiira  and  other  ^rtaMive  heath*  aSord 
nod  ibaap-waua ;  and  wbsn  the  heather  k  in 
Moaaom,  are  raaorted  to  by  tha  heepara  of  heea, 
wko  tend  tlkmr  hiTca  with  moah  care  and  oeaaddsr- 
abU  aoaaeaa.  In  1867  there  were  aOO^T'hiTca, 
<kia^  in  the  LOnaborg  diatcict,  yielding  hoacy  to 


w.  which  7SO,T0O  woe  mUch  Mwa) ;  IMO.TJ* 
abeep,  102,001  twice,  and  123,781  goata.  In  But 
FrieaUnd,  laige  lloebi  of  geeae  are  reared,  the  fleah 
of  which  i«  calted  and  «atpoTbed ;  while  laige  qnan- 
titie*  of  bnttw  and  ofasMe  are  annually  aq>ortad 
bom  the  MHio  looalitiea. 

The  rivM*  and  lakea  of  H.  yield  an  abnndanoe  of 
flah,  and  there  are  upwarda  of  £500  well-stocked 
Sahpend*  iu  the  kingdoBi.  Salmon  ia  obtained  in 
large  quantities  in  tiw  W«aer.  The  hemng-fiahur 
i«  principally  carried  on  from  Smdeo,  whence  it  u 
prosecuted  with  considerable  enteiprises  the  boata 
jcoing  not  uofrequently  as  far  aa  the  coaeti  of 
aoetlMd.  The  foreata  on  the  Han  MonntMn*  and 
their  offhhooti  yield  lane  qnantitiea  of  wood,  chiefly 
piBe  and  oak,  while  tbt  **Usn  grow  tobaeeo  and 
accae  good  frnit*.  Ibe  mineral  rMooroea  irf  E^  are 
rich  Md  Tuied,  inclwUnK  itoa,  cmiper,  Bilrer,  Itad, 
Bklfbut,  nnc,  eoal,  oobiut,  vitvio^  aloo^  antnic. 
We,  gypenm,  narUa,  fripeiday,  kadin,  beertene, 
alate  tw  tiles,  aalt,  oblauied  bom  IS  vwki,  Ae. 
According  to  ElOden  (1861),  the  retnma  for  eome  td 
tbe  more  Talnatd*  mineral  prodaota  wen  es  followi : 
iron,  606,083  cnt ;  lead,  100,000  ant. ;  aalt,  028,000 
onb ;  00^  1,750,000  cnt.  About  one-thiid  ol  the 
iron  and  (me-fonrth  of  tiia  aalt  are  obtained  from 
tha  minea  of  the  state,  and  it  ia  eatimated  Uiat 
3S,000  peraona  are  emidoysd  in  the  diAereU  mining 
opwationa  of  Hagorer. 

Commenx,  Ox, — The  trade,  which  hat  nndergone 
aome  augmentaticte  once  H.  idned  the  German 
ZoilTiifip  (a.  r.)  in  UBA,  i*  etall  vwy  animportant 
and  vadeirelt^Md  notwithrtanding  tiia  nomeroD* 
farew^le  oonditiona  preeeoted  oj  tha  navigable 
rivan  of  the  Hanorerian  Statea,  their  good 
pwte,  weU-kept  liigh-roed%  and  extended  raUwaya. 
Beaidea  auntnfr  agriculbue,  and  the  rearing  of 
eettla  end  ether  animals,  tbo  ehief  branahee  of 
iudnabry  an  angar-refineriea,  uid  the  BMnofaotim 
of  tobMMo,  paper,  hewp,  thnad  and  linen,  lei^ifr, 
brioka,  pipee,  lift 

The  (oporte  conabrt  mainly  of  minenU  prodoett, 
ooarte  lioeoa  and  caavaa,  boney  and  wax,  featban, 
wood,  wool,  boraee,  cams,  wheai  and  rjre,  butter, 
hope,  rape  and  linaeed,  oil-cakee,  hams,  and  eaoaages. 
The  iwport*  eomiiriBe  Engliah  niaoufactnred  soods, 
eulosial  podnote,  wine  »na  ^inta,  and  ailk.  .&)dm 
ia  the  pnnoipal  badi^  pwt,  bat  the  chief  aea-trade 
of  the  ooontry  i*  ei^Mted  throng  Ban^mrg  ud 
BresMn,  while  B.  he*  an  extensive  commieaion  and 
tiaoBt  biuineaa  with  Lupeic  and  Fnnkfurt-on- 
tiie-Haine.  Beside*,  Emden,  Pappenberg,  Barbnrft 
Lehe,  and  Leer,  ara  rising  into  some  note  aa  trading 
porta.  H.  haa  good  Ugh-roada,  and  ita  poatal  ^atem 
w  well  organised.  The  length  of  ita  poet  and  high- 
roads is  eatimated  at  upwards  of  3800  milea,  and 
that  of  ibe  linea  of  railwaf  in  operation  (in  1801) 

BOOmiles,    '^'  '-"-   '--"- ^"'-  -■--'-' 

linei(66Ani 

Saieaue. — The  ravenne  amounted,  according  to 
the  budget  for  1861—1862,  to  igj»S,322  thalers 
(the  thaler  b  2f.  lOid.),  while  the  ezpmditure 
for  the  same  year  waa  19,T63,M1  thalen.  Tha 
nalaonal  debt  had  riaen,  in  1861,  to  46,344,836 
ttiolers,  inohiding  a  debt  for  lailvayi  of  3lyfi23,V36 
tfaaleiK 

jinny.— The  am^  nnmbered  nearly  27,000  men. 
Hie  eerrics  wae  for  a  poiod  of  seres  yaaii,  the  laat 
year's  swiee,  however,  beiae  limited  to  the 
reaerred  eorpL  The  prinoipal  fortreaaea  ara  iboae 
of  8tade,  Harbnrg,  aiM  7ort- William,  in  the  hai^ 
b«ur  ef  Bremen.  H.  fanwhed  lB,e30  man  to  the 
n» 


G«nnau  Confederation,  and  had  foar  votei  in  the 
Plennin,  br  Fall  Coancil  of  the  diet. 

SeiigUin,  iHucalum,  *e. — The  population  of  H., 
In  1867,  WM  1.937,837.  Of  these  there  were— Pro. 
teetaiiti,  1,693.219;  Roman  CathoUce^  229,740; 
different  CbriitiaTi  aect^  2307;  Jew^  12,399.  Re- 
lisiona  matten  are  under  the  directdon  of  Lutheran 
(Evangelical)  and  Reformed  coBsietoriea  at  Hap- 
orer,  Stade,  Otterndorf,  Aurich,  Hiuleln ;  tne 
■ee  of  Oinabrilck,  which  ia  held  alteinatelf  by 
A  Soman  Catholic  and  a  aecular  ProteetAnt 
bishop ;  and  the  Roman  Catholic  aee  of  Hildee- 
heim. — H.,  li^  other  countries  of  Northern  Qer- 
nuuijr,  it  amply  provided  with  educational  insti- 
tntions.  It  baa  one  university  at  GCttingen,  17  hi^h 
and  13  lower  gymoasla,  6  nonnal  and  21  polytechnic 
•chools,  a  mihtaiy  academy  at  Hanover,  a  '  FanadB- 
tion  FadBgogium '  at  Uefdd,  achoola  of  mrgery 
and  midwiAry.  of  which  that  at  Celli  il  the  most 
esteemed,  schDols  for  the  blind,  deaf  aod  dumb,  and 
about  3600  free  parish  ■chools.  which  are  in  most 
catei  dependent  upon  the  local  church  put;,  whether 
Protestant  or  Catholic  There  are  also  several  good 
mining  and  forest  schools  in  different  parts  ca  the 


kinirdoD 

■A.  I 


poor  ate  provided  for  partly  bj  voluntary 
■nhecription  and  partly  by  the  proceeds  of  their 
own  labour  in  the  poor-honses  erected  for  the  recep- 
tion of  persons  in  wantl  There  are  partially  self- 
■upportmg  reformBtories  at  Emden  and  Celle,  while 
Hanover,  Homeln,  Gflttingen,  LOneburg,  Emden, 
and  Hildesheiin  have  all  uieir  separate  houses  of 
detention  and  poor-houses. 

Laa. — The  odminiBtration  of  the  law  was  pro- 
dded over  by  a  spMial  ministty.  Criminal  cases 
have,  since  184S,  been  tried  before  sworn  juries. 

Coiutitution,  Gorornmeii*.— H.  was  a  sovereign 
kingdom  from  1314  to  1S63.  The  monarch]'  was 
hereditaiT  io  the  nrale  line,  and  the  admimstration 
was  conducted  by  a  responsible  ministry  with  two 
representative  chwnben,  whose  oonoumnee  was 
eaiential  to  the  eierme  of  eertain  ^rontivsa  of 
The  apper  of  the  two  ohsmbers 


sisted  of  the  princes  oE  the  blood-nyal;   sei 
mediatised   pnnces,    and   other   members   ef 


of  Oomany,  is  the  language  of  the  educated  and 


kingdom  of  H.  was  occupied  in  remote  ages  by 
Saxon  tribes,  which  after  a  long-continued  atmgde 
under  their  leader  Witikind,  submitted  to  Uie 
dominion  of  Charlemagne,  and  embraced  Christi- 
anity. H.  oMitinued  to  form  jnrt  of  the  Fraokiah 
empire  until  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Ludvig  the 
Oerinan,  when  Ludolf  of  Meissen  moorporated  it  in 
the  duchy  of  3aiany.  In  951,  the  Emperor  Otho  L, 
who  tud  inherited  Saxon;  from  bis  father  Hear;  L, 
the  hereditary  duke,  bestowed  it  On  Hennann 
Billing,  on  the  extinction  of  whose  family  in  1 106, 
it  poesed  to  Lothuire  of  SoppliDbiirK  Bv  the 
marriage  of  Lothaire  with  Richenza  of  Kordheim, 
new  territories  were  added  to  the  duch;,  which 
passed  to  the  family  of  the  Queliihs  through  their 
deacendont  Gertrude,  who  married  Heni7  the  Proud 
of  Bavaria.  Henry  the  Lion,  the  son  d  the  latter, 
much  to  advance  the  civilisation  and  oommeroe 


but  when  he  fell  under  the  boa  of  the ,  _  .,  _ 

period  of  anarchy  and  oonfuaion  sucoeeded,  which 
at  tirat  threatened  the  ruin  of  the  country.  When 
Henry  loat  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  he  retained 
his  hereditary  lands  of  Brunswick  and  LUnebug, 
through  the  special  favonr  of  the  emperor. 

The   Refoimotioa    early  found  adherents  MDOnv 
the  burgher  and  rural  populations  of  H. ;  but 


nobles,  their  formal  iatroductiaD  was  made  the 
subject  of  violent  oltetcattoua  between  the  opposite 
partiea,  until  the  conversion  of  Emeet  L  of  LUne- 
burg  in  153S  gave  support  and  stability  to  the 
osuse  of  Proteetantism. 

The  line  <rf  Brunswick-LUoeburg  began  with 
William  the  younger,  who,  io  the  ^irtition  which 
he  and  his  elder  brother  Henry  (^e  founder 
of  the  reigning  Brunswick  house)  mode  of  the 
dominions  of  tbeir  father,  Ernest  I.,  obtained  in 

569  the  duchies  of   Lllnebur^  and   Celle   (Zell). 

mediatised  pnnces,  and  other  members  ef  the' William  died  in  1592,  leaving  seven  sons,  who. 
hidier  nobility;  four  members  nominated  by  the' with  a  view  of  avoiding  the  further  dismembar- 
king ;  and  fifty  other  members.  Half  tbe  number '  ing  of  their  patrimony,  agreed  that  the  eldest 
of  tiie  elected  representatives  retired  ever;  third  I  should  succeed,  but  that  one  only  of  their  num- 
year.  The  lower  chamber  consisted  of  2  of  the!  her  should  mttry.  The  lot  of  marriage  fell  upon 
members  of  the  ministry  nominated  by  the  king,  2  the  sixth  brother,  George,  who  died  in  1641,  in 
deputies  appointed  by  the  chamber  itself,  38  repro-' the  reign  of  his  fourth  brother,  Dnke  Fredenck, 
sentatives  of  towns  and  borongha,  and  44  members '  the  last  survivor  of  the  family.  On  the  death 
for  the  countiy  districts.  There  were,  moreover,  7|OE  Frederick  in  1648,  Christian  Lewis,  the  eldest 
provincial  assemblies,  whose  concurrence  and  assent  I  son  of  Duke  Qeorge.  succeeded  bis  uncle,  and  in 
were  necessary  for  the  promulgation  of  laws  and  tbe  accordance  with  a  family  eompact,  took, 


.  .  the  inheiitauce,  LUnelnm  Gn^wn- 
bagen,  Diepholz,  and  Hojia,  with  Celle  hr  his  resi- 
dence; while  his  next  brother,  George  William, 
obtained  Kalenberg  and  Ottttingen,  with  Hanover 
for  his  residence,  and  thus  gave  origin  to  the  lines 
of  Celle  and  Hanover,  which  were  again  merged  in 
one  after  the  death  of  Duke  George  William,  third 
■on  of  Duke  George,  who,  dying  without  male 
heirs,   was   sucoeeded  by  his  kinsman  and 


le^ng  of  taxes  within  their  several  districts. 

The  highest  department  of  the  government  was 
the  Council  of  State.  The  cabinet  which,  after 
1848,  was  compcaed  of  responsible  members,  com- 
prised seven  ministers,  each  of  whom  presided  over 
a  special  department  of  the  odministratioo.  The 
chambers  were  summoned  every  two  yeara.  but  the 
diet   or   huldtag  was   septennial     The   monetary 

system,  aud  the  weights  and  meotnces  of  H.,  were  .  -   ,      .      ,   „ 

the  some  OS  those  adopted  by  the  German  Zollverein '  law,  the  elector,  George  Lewia  of  Hanover,  w^„ 
,g  y  I  I  OBceuded  tbe  throne  of  England  as  Oeorge  L  (q.  v.) 

f'eople. The  Hanoverians  are   a   nnxed    looe  :  I  on  the  death  of  Queen  Ajine  in  1714,  as  Uie  nearest 

those  inhabiting  the  north-eastern  and  central  |  Protestant  heir  of  the  decessed  sovereiun,  being 
provinces  are  mostly  Saxons,  but  those  on  the '  son  of  the  electress,  Sophia,  dau^ter  of  Elizabetli, 
coast  are  of  Frisic  origin  ;  those  on  the  west  of  the  '  queen  of  Bohemia,  and  granddaughter  i^  JanMa  L  of 
Ems,  Dutch ;  and  those  in  tbe  eouthern  provinces, '  England.  Duke  George  William  of  Celle  dessrves 
Thnnngians  and  Frauconians.  Ptatt-Deutach,  or  notice  for  bis  warlike  and  active  odminiatratiou,  and 
Low  German,  is  commonly  spoken  in  oil  the  rural  for  the  part  which  he  took  in  all  the  momentous 
districts  eice]iting  those  bordering  upon  the  Nether-  i  affairs  of  his  age :  thus  he  sent  auxiliaries  to  Venice, 
lands,  in  which  Dutch  is  the  oMinary  form  of .  to  aid  the  republic  sgaiost  the  Turks ;  oo-opeisted 
speech  i  wl^  High  Qermon,  as  in  every  other  p«rt  i  with  the  Dulu  of  Brunswiok  to  isduoe  his  innuip''* 


jbjCuu^lt 


eapitel ;  mtsred  into  an  ftQuuM  with  the  emperor 
•ninat  E'lmnoe  and  Svoden ;  aent  aa  army  into 
HoDgaty  to  r«mit  tba  Tarka ;  and  in  I6SS,  lanl 
tioatia  and  moAcy  to  William  of  Orange  apinat 
James  IL  of  England. 

With  George  Lewia,  kin^  of  Gnaland,  and  tha 
Mcood  elector  of  H.  or  Bmiuwi^-Lllnebiii^  a 
brighter  epo^  opened  to  the  Hi^ovenana,  who, 
on  hia  acceaiion  to  the  throne  of  En^and,  were 
relisTed  from  the  burden  of  maintaining  the  conrt 
and  dnca]  houehotd,  while   the  revennei  of  the 


obtained  in  thil  nign  by  piirchaae  from  DeO' 
mark.  George  II.,  who  tncceeded  in  1727,  (hewed 
the  same  care  a*  hie  father  to  apara  the  revenues 
of  H.  at  the  expense  of  those  of  England.  Il 
his  character  of  elector,  he  participated  in  thi 
Anitrian  War  of  Succeasion,  1740—1748  ;  bat  ii 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  when  H.  aaOered  material!^ 
from  the  incnraiona  of  the  French,  be  aided  wit] 
Pnuaia.  This  king  fonnded  the  omvenity  of 
OOttin^  in  1745.  The  lint  thirty  yeara  of 
the  reign  of  George  tU.  (q.  v.),  who  auoceeded  on 
the  death  of  hii  grandfather  in  1 7S0,  contrihQted 
largely  toward*  tbe  proapeH^  of  H.,  which,  like 
the  other  atate*  of  Northern  Germany,  profited  by 
the  increaaed  Blugliah  and  American  trade,  for 
which  the  Haooverian  porta  aad  rivers  formed  the 
ngolar  ohaonels  of  comnooication  with  the  rest  of 
Germany.  In  1793;  Hanoverian  trooM  took  part 
in  tha  wan  uunat  the  French  repubCc,  bnt  the 
rxpenaea  of  ^eir  maintenance  were  defrayed  by 
a  not  tin  I80I,  when  Prnaaia, 
_-    __^_  Jio  QeatralitT  of  H 

_  electoiate, .  .._. 

of  the  anomalDDS  poaition  in  which 
0  England  placed  it  in  regard  to  the 
of  (^rmany.  The  Pnusian  troops 
evacuated  H.  at  the  close  of  the  same  year,  m 
accordance  with  the  trealy  entered  into  between 
Franoe  and  England ;  bnt  the  claims  and  coonter- 
daima  which  arose  from  Uus  occnpation,  gave  rise 
to  nrotnteted  diacuasions,  which  were  not  finally 
settled  tiU  1830,  when  it  waa  stijinlated  by  b«^  that 
H.  wa*  to  pay  to  Prussia  an  mdemni^  of  3TS,000 
thalera.  In  1803,  when  war  waa  renewed  between 
England  and  HVance,  Napoleon  threw  an  army,  under 
the  conunaod  of  Mortier,  into  H.,  and  the  result 
of  tbia  measure  waa  to  compel  the  Hanoverian 
Eovemment  to  enter  into  a  convention  with  the 
French  general,  by  which  it  bound  itseS  to  abstain 
train  serving  agunst  France  during  the  pending 
war ;  to  give  up  fortieeees,  arms,  and  honea  to 
the  enemy  i  to  aubaidiae  French  troops ;  and  to 
participate  micoiiditionalTy  in  the  general  costs  of 
"       ~  '    large  number  of  the  army,  however, 

ived  to  evade^  aiguiog  these  article* 
md,  where  t&e  men 
irjnrated  into  the  Orenata  legion,  which 
service  both  in  tbe  PeninauULr  war,  and 


having  contrive 


having  ceded  H.  to  Pnuaia,  and  again  withdrawn 
it.  appropriated  a  portion  of  the  electorate  to  com- 
plete the  newly-formed  kingdom  of  Westphalia, 
which  in  1810  received  Oit  whole  of  the  Hanoverian 
territory.  Finally,  U.  was  onited  with  Pranoe,  and 
tbe  Dorth-weet  inrtioD  divided  iato  tbe  deiiartment* 
of  Benches  de  I  Elbe,  Bouohea  du  Weser,  utd  Leine, 
while  the  soutb-eaat  portiona  formed  the  Wwtphalian 
department!  of  Attcr  and  Haxa.  After  the  eiinkl- 
aioB  of  the  French,  EL  waa  elevated  to  the  rank 
of  a  kingdom  in  1814.  In  the  same  year,  the  Prince 
B«ent  of  England  convoked  the  Hanoverian  states 
to  dcUberata  upon  the  best  manner  of  oonaolidatlBg 


the  vmriouB  independent  govenunente  of  the  different 

Eovinoea  into  one  B]pst«natic  whole.  In  1816,  ttw 
uka  of  Cambridge,  the  brother  of  the  Prince 
Buent,  waa  appointed  {^emor.general  of  B.;  and 
in  1819  a  new  constitution  was  gnuited,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  the  pravincial  atatea  were  retained 
and  enlarged,  and  two  repreaeatative  chambeta 
aaaodated  with  them.  Very  little  was  dona  in 
the  time  of  Geor^  tV.  towards  tha  amelioration 
of  the  administratiDa,  and  the  general  disaffection 
and  distrust  had  risen  to  the  highest  pitch,  when 
William  IV.  aaoended  the  throne.  The  influence  of 
the  French  revolution  of  July  (1830)  extended  to 
H..  and  in  IS31,  disturbances  broke  out  at  Otterod* 
and  GOttingea.  Tbeae  were  speedily  put  down, 
but  sa  the  uatioiial  discontent  did  not  abate,  the 
prime  minister.  Count  Mnnster,  who  had  long  been 
obnoxioaa  to  tbe  mass  of  the  people,  was  diamiaaed, 
and  tha  Duke  of  Cambridge,  who  had  hitherto 
acted  aa  govemor-gcDcral,  inveeted  with  the  titie  of 
vicmoy,  and  intrusted  with  very  eitenaive  powers. 
The  diikfl  recommended  gradual  reform*,  but  as 
the  popular  feetine  was  decidedly  in  favwur  of'a 
thoroughly  remodelled  constitution,  the  atatea  *er< 
again  convoked ;  and  finally,  in  1833,  a  draft  of  tha 
proposed  coDatitution,  wtuch  had  been  prepared 
by  a  oommissioD  aiipointed  by  tbe  ministry  and  tha 
state*,  was  laid  before  William  IV.,  and  after  it  bad 
been  considerably  modified  in  England,  it  received 
bis  signature,  September  26,  IS33,  withont  having 
been  again  aubmitted  to  the  assembly  of  the  states^ 
Tha  death  of  WilCam  IV.  in  1837,  placed  H.  nndw 
the  rule  of  the  next  male  heir,  Enieat  Auguat,  Dnka 
of  Cumberland.  One  of  the  firat  meaauna  of  the 
new  king  was  to  ^rogate  the  eoDstitntiao  of  1833,  to 
which  be  bad  from  the  time  of  ita  adoption  refused 
to  eiyo  bis  aasent,  and  to  restore  that  of  1319. 

When  tbe  government  demanded  tbe  oath  at 
allegiauce  from  all  persons  holding  office  under 
the  state,  seven  of  the  GSttingen  professors — viz. 
Dablmann,  Qervinua,  J.  Grimm,  F.  Grimm,  Ewald, 


. vinua,  J.  Grimm,  F.  Grimm,  Ewald, 

Albrecht,  and  W.  Weber— refused  to  take  tha 
required  oath,  in  consequence  of  which  all  ware 
delved,  without  any  preliminary  inveatintion,  of 

from  the  country. 

ProD  this  period  till  1848,  when  the  sucoess  of 
the  French  revolution  compelled  the  German  rulera 
to  adopt  a  more  liberal  policy  towards  their  suh- 
jecta,  Uie  king  shewed  hims^  resolutely  averss  to 
sanction  reform.  Liberal  nuasures,  however,  wera 
at  length  introduced,  and  the  new  oonstitutira) 
of  1848  waa  more  liberal  than  that  of  1833:     The 


"C" 


aeveral  of  tiie  lowna. 
ohambera  of  U.  shewed  pt*t  seal  in  the 
reorganisation  of  Germanj'  and  Rmg  Enieet  entered 
7_..  -  .._-. ,-  ^jjj^Qog  qqt^  Prussia  and  Saxony,  to 
unity  of  the  German  nation.  Unlika 
many  of  his  German  coatemporarie*,  Kin^  Ernest 
kept  the  promiaea  which  ha  had  made  to  his  people 
during  the  revolutionary  criaia  of  1848 — 1840  ;  and 
although  the  noblGtv  made  tbe  moat  piiiaiiiiijr 
appeala  to  him  for  tbs  recovery  of  their  ancient 
pnvileges,  and  the  overthrow  of  tha  conatitution,  in 
refused  to  withdraw  hia  pledge  that  tha  oounby 
should  ba  governed  in  accordance  vrith  oonstitu- 
*^'-ial  principles  t  and  such  confldeuoe  was  placed 
hia  werd,  that,  notwithstanding  hia  avowed 
opinions,  hia  death,  in  I8SI,  was  regarded  aa  a 
serious  blow  to  the  cause  of  reform,  for  his  son 
r,  George  V.,  was  known  to  hold  very 
"s  in  re^^ard  to  the  kingly  power  and 
tha  claims  of  the  anatocracy.  The  early  meaauraa 
of  tbs  new  king  were  not  calcnlated  to  aUay  tha 


„Googl( 


HANOVEE— HANSEATIC  LEAGUE. 


__ *       •  ■   '"'*  **■"  deciriTO 

deol«mtioa  of  the  usembly  of  Uie  atstca  that  they 
were  deurooa  of  teeing  the  rafomu  completed  which 
iaA  been  begtm  hy  the  Iste  king,  and  their  vo1«  of 
want  of  ooiJIdeiice  in  the  new  cabinet,  prerented 
any  marked  retrogteattive  moTement  on  the  part  of 
the  ministiy,  and  in  18M  H.  joined  the  ZoUrereiii. 
In  ISS6,  the  conititution  nnderwent  Tsriona  modi- 
flcatioos  in  accordance  with  the  demaoda  of  the 
federal  diet,  by  which  it  was  made  to  amnoximate 
more  cloaely  to  that  of  l&iO.  Althongh  toe  change! 
were  nnpopolar,  they  met  with  no  energetio  opiKwi- 
tion.  After  the  war  of  1866,  K  became  aprovince 
of  Prm«»ia.    See  Qbbiunt  in  Svrr,,  VoL  X. 

HANOVER,  tlie  capital  of  the  former  kingdom, 
■ad  the  chief  town  oE  tlie  province  of  Hanover,  is  an 
iiregularly  built  town,  situated  on  the  buike  of  the 
I.eiua — which  ia  oroaaed  by  ten  bridgei,  and  ia  navi- 
pble  hence  to  the  ocean — about  100  miles  sonth- 
■nith-west  of  Uunburg.  It  consistkoftheoldtown, 
and  tli«  laborbs  Glockne  and  Linden,  and  with  these 
inolnain^  it  had,  in  1S71,  a  population  of  88,000 
Hm  older  part*  of  the  city  are  mean  and  nnattrae- 
tiTa,but  lineelSS?,  whanbythe  acceadon  of  Emeat- 
Aoftlatua,  Duke  Ot  Cumberland,  to  the  throne,  it 
became  tbs  naidenoe  of  tbe  lovereign.  H.  haa  nnder- 
fcaw  TUT  cxtenaive  alterations  and  improvementa. 
u  tba  Waterloo  Platz,  with  its  column  aurmouuted 
by  a  figure  of  Victoiy,  are  the  One  new  bamcka 
and  arwnaL  Beaides  the«e,  the  moat  intemting 
buildiniB  are  the  stately  town^baU  in  the  market- 
place Siunded  in  1439,  with  an  adjacent  public 
tihracy  ot  40,000  volumei  ;  the  riwal  libfary,  with 
its  100,000  Tolumea  and  2000  MSS.,  it«  inconabnhi, 
•idiivei,  and  valaabte  state  papers;  the  theatre, 
one  of  t«  lalvevt  in  Oermany ;  the  king's  palace ;  the 
mnaanm,  wi£  good  natunJ-history  collectiona ;  a 
nllcry  of  plctorea,  &c. ;  and  the  rcnral  itate  palace, 
bnilt  on  the  lite  of  a  monastery  of  Uinontea  in  1632, 
which  deserrea  notice  for  tiie  magniflcence  of  its 
internal  decorationa,  and  for  tbe  number  and  value 
of  the  objecta  of  ancient  and  modem  art  which  it 
contains  j  ita  fine  galleiy  ot  painting ;  its  chajtel,  in 
whu^  are  preserved  nnmeroua  rehcs  and  antiques, 
many  of  which  were  brought  from  Palestine  by  Henry 
Om  lion  in  117! ;  and  an  altar-^iece  by  L.  Oranaeh. 
Among  the  charitable  uurtJtntiona  of  E.  are  the 
oi^ian  aaylum,  school  for  the  blind,  infirmariea, 
hoapitiil^  Mid  poor-hoows,  the  latter  of  wfaicA  are 
Brittdpiilly  snpporled  by  private  sufaacription.  H. 
u  wttl  pnMded  witli  edncalional  inatitutiona,  the 
moat  nMewortby  of  which  an  the  Oeorgianqiti,  a 
fnllflglat*  tohool  for  the  tons  of  noblemen ;  a  lyeenm, 
and  a  gymnuium.  The  city  haa  abo  potyteohnie, 
normal,  and  medical  achoola,  and  26  five  public 
■ehoola.  H-  was  the  flnt  plaoe  in  Qennany  that 
was  lighted  with  gas  (in  1826).  The  diaciTvery  of  a 
lieh  bti  of  asphalt  in  the  neighbonrhood  of  the 
town  ha*  been  uie  meuia  of  giving  tbe  streeta  better 
•ide-pavement*  than  moat  other  German  towna 
potaeaa,  while  the  recent  improvementa  that  have 
bees  effected  in  the  old  system  of  sewera,  which 
datea  from  the  16th  c,  render  the  drainage  paiti- 
oolariy  good.  H.  haa  gained  pleasant  walka  and 
^eaanrs-gronnds  by  the  lerellmB  >Bd  ^antanx  of 
Hw  lamparta,  while  in  the  immediate  Tieinity  of  the 
town  lie  tlie  royal  palace*  of  Hetrenhavaeii  and 
Hontbrillant,  wboae  beantifnl  ground*  and  garden* 
we  freely  cnened  to  the  public 

The  tfiief  mannfactnrea,  none  of  which  am  very 
cooaiderable,  are  sold  and  nlver  ware*,  was-dotha, 
bionae  and  plated  good^  stan^  Uqnenn,  &&    Hie 


See  Lentach,  Bin  Blidc  laif  dit 

(1S2T) :  Kobbe,  Abriu  antr  OtaMchU  d. . 
H.  {lS23);Balow,  SatPd^iurOesaLff.Arwuuo&w- 
hftuMaada  (1829) ;  atialer'a  AOm  (lUl) ;  EUdan'* 
Erdkundt  (1861),  ^ 

HAKSAHI},  a  well-known  name  in  coimeotion 
with  the  printing  of  the  Britiih  parliamentary 
records.  The  flrat  of  the  family  waa  Luke  H.,  who 
was  bom  in  1732  at  Norwich,  and  coming  to  Lcmdon, 
work^  for  some  years  aa  compoaitor  m  the  oSre 
of  Hogbea  llie  printer  to  Uie  Houae  of  Commons ; 
and  in  ISOO  aucceeded  Hughes  aa  sole  proprietor 
of  tlie  biuineas,  which  is  still  carried  on  by  Ida 
family.  Competition  and  other  causes  have  led 
io  a  ^vision  01  the  parliamentary  printing,  but  tin 
Measra  H.  still  print  the  bill*  before  pariiament,  tlw 
reporta  of  oommittee*,  and  some  of  the  aoootint*. 

The  name  of  H.  !•  CMioected  with  an  important 

Sneation  of  parliamentary  piivil^e:  The  caae  waa 
riefiy  aa  follows :  A  booueUer  named  Stoekdala 
brou^t  an  action  for  libel  against  the  Measrs  H., 
the  hbel  consisting  of  statements  in  the  parliamen- 
tary reports  which  tbe  latter  bod  printed,  and  Lord 
Chief-justice  Denman  decided  in  favour  of  Stoek- 
dala. The  House  of  Commons  complained  of  a 
breach  of  privilege,  and  anoQier  action  waa  raised  in 
the  Court  of  Queen's  Bendi,  but,  aa  before,  the  [Jm 
of  tit  order!  and  privUeoei  <tf  At  Himtt  waa  orcr- 
ruled.  After  a  tjiird  action  had  been  bron^t^  witt 
a  similar  result,  an  act  of  parliament  waa  pasted, 
directing  that  any  proceedings  against  penon*  fw 
publication  of  paper*  printed  by  order  of  cHhw 
House  of  Parliament  are  to  be  stayed  by  the  ooort* 
of  law,  upon  delivery  of  a  certificate  and  affidavit 
that  such  publicatinn  is  by  order  of  etther  Honae. 

The  Hansards  are,  however,  moat  widdy  known 
by  the  reports  ot  tbe  debates  in  parliament,  whidt 
are  published  by  tham  and  bear  their  name.  When 
chaises  of  inconaisteni?  are  made  in  parliament, 
they  ore  usually  varified  by  a  ijuotation  from  Hatt- 
•ord,  the  accuracv  of  which  is  seldom  or  nevw 
disputed.  An  opinion,  in  conseqnenoe,  widdy  n«- 
vaila  that  the  ifeaara  H.  retain  a  corps  of  pania- 
mantary  short-hand  writers  in  their  terrioe,  from 
whoaa  njiorti  the  debataa  printed  in  their  woA 
are  prepared.  This  popular  imprssaion  ia  entirely 
emmeona.  Hie  apeechea  printed  in  Bantard  in 
taken  in  the  gross  bom  the  London  morning  newi- 
papera.  They  are  usually  sent  to  the  peer*  or 
members  by  whom  they  are  spoken  for  revision  and 
correction,  and  many  important  alterations,  expnr- 
gation^  and  additiona  are  made  in  the  apeechea  thai 


aay  all  th«t  was  in  hia  mind  when  he  rose.  The 
convenience,  however,  of  poaaeasing  tome  reoord 
more  or  lea*  autbentic  ot  parliamentary  proceeding 
haa  led  tbe  executive  Baremment  to  take  t,  oertMB 
BUBber  of  cooieaof  Aonannf  fordiitributira  amou 
tha  pnUio  orooe*  and  departnuutA  UanypeenaBd 
membara  of  patliament,  foreign  govemnents,  and 
puUic  librenea,  also  •nlwciibe  to  thla  woric,  which 
IS  issued  at  a  certain  fixed  prioe,  whidi  the  Heina 
W  niarantec^  at  the  '^fBamffnwTtiftiit  of  each  aasoo, 
ah^  not  be  exoeeded. 

HAXBEA'TIC  LBAaiTE,  Tn,  or  the  HANSA. 
WM  a  bvds-iinioo  eatabliahed  in  the  13th  e.,  by 
certain  eitiea  of  NcvtlMm  Germany,  for  their  mntou 
aafety,  and  for  the  proteotian  of  their  tmde,  whieh 
at  that  period  waa  czpcaad  to  tha  r^aeity  of  mlera, 
and  tbe  lawlaaa  attooka  rf  maniMeia  on  land, 
and  pirataa  at  aea;  y«t,  notwithstanding  obataolaa 
•neb  as  thsaa,  and  the  heavy  impoata  leviad  on 
til*  Garman  faadezs  by  tfanr  prince*,  aavenl  towns 
d  Northan  Omrnany,  ■*,  for  '"**"**.  HaM^bag, 


t.Gooi^le 


HANSEATIO  LEAGDE. 


Lobeck,  uiil  Bremen,  bad  acquired  I 

inpcntuice  ta  eiily  h    Um   llth  oanhirr.      „ 

faiiis  at  the  rich  eargoca  that  found  their  way 
into  their  tactorin  had  giyen  ris*  to  awanai  ol 
pintM,  who  infeeted  the  montliB  of  tha  Elbe,  aod 
the  outlet*  to  the  Baltio-,  and  the  neoeMit;  vbich 
the  ueiKhbonnng  ports  felt  of  protaoting  tfaamMlvei 
effectuulj  from  rach  tronbleeoiiiB  enfmiaa,  led,  in 
1219,  to  the  settlement  of  a  oompact  betveeo 
Hambore,  Ditmmh,  and  Haddn,  to  proton  tha 
eoune  of  the  river  and  the  adjacent  sea.  This 
agreement  was  followed  two  years  later  by  a  treaty 
<d  motnal  aid  and  drfence  betwaen  Eainbnrg  and 
lAbeek,  which  was  joined,  in  1217,  by  the  town 
of  Bmnswit^ ;  and  thus  was  lormed  Uie  German 
Le««a,  or  Hansa,  Uie  name  of  which  indicated, 
iJw  Plattdantaeh  of  tin  tntden,  a  bond  or  compiaot 
for  Biatttal  aid  The  progre*  of  the  Lewie  was 
so  Mpid,  that,  bafoTfl  the  tmt  1S80,  when  the 
Ant  diet  met  at  Ubeck,  wnich  wsa  tbie  central 
point  of  the  wbols  aasodatiDn,  it  had  it*  regularly 
' ,  with  a  fixed  syatent  of  fi"""^ 


Tb«  eatire  Iie^e,  which  at  one.  period  nnmbered 
86  towita,  and  indnded  ewy  «ity  of  importanoe 
between  Holland  and  LiTonia,  was  divided  uito  four 
ehwsee  or  oirclaa:  1.  The  Vandal  or  Weodie  cities  of 
tke  Baltia  t  2.  Tha  to>wn«  of  West^wlk,  the  Bhina- 
Isnd,  and  the  Natlurlanda;  &  Those  of  Saxony 
and  Biandenbnrg ;  4L  Thoae  of  Fraatia  and  Livonia. 
The  eapitaU  of  vm  respective  cjrolea  ware  LUbeck, 
Cologne,  Bmnswiok,  and  Danzig. 

The  dtiea  omnpoedDg  the  Leagna  wire  re{R«aent«iI 
t^  depatiea  at  tlie  gawnl  diet,  which  met  evety 
tliree  years,  generally  at  LUbeok,  which  wa*  oon- 
■idend  as  tlie  c^lw  of  the  Leagne,  to  discnn  and 
settle  tiM  ourrent  bosiDew  U  the  League,  aod  held 
an  extraordinaiy  meetinf;  eTuy  ten  yeai^  to  renew 


ITinas  ^nw  edicts  of  the  diet  wfre  communicated 
to  the  nuwtvi  of  tike  sreat  Circles,  who  ramitt«d 
them  to  the  aairaal  gnilda  witiiiB  their  rsspectire 
JnrisdietioiM. 


treJttiwflf  bmited  aOianee  witii  the  League;  as,  for 
instance,  AButerdem,  Antwerp,  Bordeaux,  Bwce- 
lona,  Cadiz,  Dordncht,  LMhom,  LitbMi,  Mareeille, 
Mesaina,  Nudee,  OsUud,  SottartUm,  Bouen,  Seville, 
StMak). 
The  Henseatic  Le«gtM  wa*  the  first  syatematia 


daily  sports  and  light  ocoupations  for  tha  recreation  of 
the  nun,  while  isDsible  r^rnlations  for  tfa^  cimifort 
and  cleanliness,  and  for  the  oelebratioa  of  feativala 
at  ocriain  fixed  times  of  tha  year,  bear  evidence  of 
tha  Bound  lenae  that  influeiicoct  the  mode  of  govern- 
ment of  the  Hansa,  and  whioh  waa  further  ahewn  by 
tha  ininnotion  to  the  waateri  of  factories  to  avoid 
everytiiiiig  that  oould  hurt  the  prejudicea  of  tha 
bireignetB  among  whom  they  were  plaMd,  and  to 
conform  in  all  tiling  lawful  to  the  habita  of  the 
oountry. 

For  many  yean  the  Honiaatia  League  wm  tha 
undiaputed  mistreea  of  t^  Baltic  aod  German 
Ocean.  It  created  new  centres  of  trade  and  civili- 
sation in  numerous  parts  of  Northern  Europe,  and 
oontriboted  to  the  eipanaion  of  agricultiun  and 
other  industrial  arte,  by  opening  new  channels  of 
comwiimifrtion  by  meana  of  the  canaU  «J"^  nuda 
with  which  it  conneoted  together  the  memben 
of  its  aseociBtion.  The  ^pvateat  powers  dreaded 
ita  boetility  aod  aoi^t  its  »iHf^"a  and  many 
of  the  powerful  aovereif^  of  the  middU  ages  were 
indebted  to  it  for  the  most  substantial  benefits. 

In  England,  aace  the  time  of  King  £thelr«d, 
OemuD  traders  had  enjoyed  tha  aame  privili 


attained,  wa*  doe  to  it 


develofsnent 
any  uat  bd 


had  hitherto 

mriier  pen 

of  its  existeoces  it  exerted  a  bmefieial  aotton 
the  advanoe  of  civilisation,  which  cao  scarcely  be 
oveiTBted.     Ita  professed  abject  waa  to  protect  t' 
commerce  (A  ite  members  by  land  and  by  eeo, 
defend  and  extend  ite  commercial  relations  witii 
and  among  foreignen,  and  as  far  as  poaaiblt 
•Kchide  alTother  oompetiten  in  trade,  and  firmly  to 
maintain,  and,  if  poasible^  extend,  all  the  rights  and 
imrnnnitiea  that  Bad  been  granted  by  varioas  rulers 
to  the   eorporation.      For  the  |Tomotion  of  these 
ends,  the  Leogne  kept  ships  ani 
Day,  the  diarge  of  wnose  mainte 


Day,  the  diargi 
Era  regular  a; 


^.  .  .   .,    . .  .  and  1^  the  funda 

oMdned  by  tiie  money-fiaee  which  the  diet  levied 

lents  of  its  laws.     ^     ''"  '-  -*     '  ' 


the  by-law*  ef  the  League  praamibed  a  ayeten  of 


__, Henry  IL  took   the 

Cologne  merchant*,  tcsetiiBr  with  Uie  house  whiij) 
they  occupied  on  the  Thunea,  specially  under  hia 
protection,  allowii^  to  them  and  their  aucccaaota 
the  privilwe  of  exporting  goods  free  of  duty,  and 
eelling  their  Bbenuh  wine*  for  the  aame  price  at 
which  French  wines  ware  then  sold  in  I^oadon;  and 
in  IS61  theae  privilege*  were  extended  bv  Eenty 
IIL  to  all  the  German*  in  London  who  had  a  share 
in  the  Hanaeatic  Factoiy,  or  Aula  Tetitoniconim, 
which  was  loot  known  to  Londoners  aa  the '  Steel- 
yard.' In  13^  tha  Hansards  gained  the  oood- 
of  Edward  IIL  by  aupplying  him  witf  the 
t^  neceaaarv  to  redeem  the  re^lla  and  cotona- 
jewela  of  bia  queen,  which  he  had  pledged  to 
Cologne  money-landen,  and  by  allowing  bun  to  draw 
upon  their  hoDsee  fc^laixe  nuns  with  which  to 
defray  the  coat  of  his  Jtench  war*.  Their  relations 
to  other  sovereigos  at  that  period  were  equally 
eignificaot  of  their  power,  for  tbey  defeated  Kings 
Enc  and  Sakon  of^  Norway,  and  King  Waldemar 
IIL  of  Denmark,  in  18i8,  depoe«l  Magnue  of 
Sweden,  and  bestowed  his  crown  upon  Duke  Albert 
of  Mecklenburg ;  and  in  1428  equipped  a  fleet  of 
248  ships,  cairying  12,000  aoldien,  against  Erie  ol 
Denmark. 

With  the  fiftemth  eentory,  Uie  Lnzue  reached  at 
once  its  culminating  point  and  ita  3— lin«^  lor  in 
looportion  aa  the  seas  and  roads  were  better  pro- 
tected by  the  etates  to  which  tbey  belonml  and 
ruler*  learaed  to  comprehend  tlte  commeroid  advan- 
t^a  of  their  dominioua,  its  supremacy  declined; 
wtule  the  discovery  of  America,  aod  of  a  new 
sea-ronta  to  India,  gave  an  entirely  different  direc- 
"-  ■-  tbe  trade  of  Europe,  lla  Honaa  had, 
airoaated  to  itself,  in  tlie  caune  of 
_  lumed  righta  of  impoaing  the  greater 
and  lener  ban,  and  exercising  acts  o(  sovereignty 
and  judicial  power,  which  were  incompatible  with 
ipremaov  of  the  rulers  in  whose  statea  they 
enforced,  and  hence  the  League  was  necea- 
sarily  brought  into  freouent  hostile  coUIbIou  with 
the  local  authoritie*.  Xhua,  in  accordance  with 
their  ayitem  of  exclosiva  policy,  tbe  Honsarda 
refused  to  grant  to  merchants  tradiiig  !a  forei^ 
parts  tbe  aame  privileges  in  the  Honaeatic  cities 


arose  disa^sions,  whicll  not  nnfrequentiy  ended  in 
a  fierce  maritiiDe  warfare.  By  way  of  retaliation 
for  tJie  pertinadly  with  whioh  the  League  refused 


t.CuU^lL^ 


HASSl-HANTTMAN. 


to  gntnt  to  the  Encluh  tlie  wns  inunimitie*  which 
had  been  mooordea  to  tntden  of  other  utiona, 
parliamant  required  that  G«niuiaB  thould  pay  the 
twc  on  wool  and  Tine,  which  wu  exacted  from 
all  other  foretspen  in  the  Eii);Iish  markets ;  and 
tlthoDgh  the  Huuardi  strongly  reaisted,  they  ~ — 
at  length  condemned  hy  the  courta,  in  146 
nay  a  fine  of  £13,SI)0 ;  and  they  wonld  prohably 
have  loat  all  they  pooened  in  England,  if  their 
cauM  had  not  lieen  adrocated  hv  Edwnrd  IV., 
who  had  mora  than  once  heen  indebted  to  them 
tor  money  and  aid,  and  who  in  14T4  aecured  for 
them,  hy  a  clame  in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht, 
tMtitutiun  of  ueoriy  all  their  former  rights 
EcElaad.  In  1598,  their  obstinate  pertinacity  in 
innitiog  apOQ  the  maintenance  of  their  old  pre- 
rof^tivea,  notwithitandinE  the  altered  condition  of 
the  tiraee.  drew  upon  them  the  anger  of  Qaeen 
Elizabeth,  who  despatched  a  fleet  uHder  Drake  Wld 
Norris  to  seize  n]ion  the  Bhi|«  of  the  Honaa,  at 
which  61  were  captured,  while  ahe  banished  the 
Hanaardi  from  their  footoiir  in  London.  These 
measures  had  the  desired  effect  of  compeBiog  the 
League  to  receive  En^jlirti  traders  on  equal 
ditiona,  and  thenceforward  the  Haaaards 
elyard,  as  in  olden  t 
.  outlined  ita  date,  and  at 
Lubeck  in  1630,  the  majority  of  the 
cities  formally  reuoanced  their  alliance.  Hamburg, 
Lubeck,  Bremen,  and,  for  a  short  time,  Danzig. 
remained  faithful  to  their  aacient  compact,  and 
continued  to  form  an  anodation  of  free  reiuhlics. 
that  exirted  ODchanged  till  ISIO,  when  the  Bnt 
three  were  iDoornorated  by  Napoleon  in  the  Fraoch 
empire.  These,  in  1813,  combined  with  FVackfurt- 
on-the- Maine  to  form  s  union  of  the  '  Free  Hanaeatio 
Citiea.'  At  a  coDTcntion  in  Jul;  1670^  the  powen 
and  privileges  of  the  throe  free  towns  were  re-estsb- 
liabed  and  re-organued. — See  Sartorial,  KuniUieht 
Oadi.  d.  Ortpningt  d.  deutnX  Santa  {1802) ;  J.  U. 
Lappenherg,  OrtmidL  OeiA.  d.  Han*l»A.  SUhUu^. 
E,  London  OSGl) ;  B.  Paoli,  i^cturo  <^  OU  Emlaad 
[mi).  ^ 

HAIfSI.  a  town  of  the  distriet  of  Hissar,  in  the 
province  of  the  Punjab,  lies  89  miles  to  the  north- 
weet  of  Delhi,  ia  Ut.  20°  6*  N.,  and  long.  76*  3  E. 
It  ia  watered  by  s  bnwch  of  the  Delhi  Uanal,  made 
in  13M  by  Feroz  Toghluk,  and  cleared  in  1325  by 
the  British  government  Thia  work,  heaides  '~ 
domestic  and  agricultural  uses,  is  available  for  n 
gation.  The  population  of  the  town,  according  to 
the  Utest  aenaua  (1868)  WM  13,563. 

HANSTEEN,  CKnisroPH,  a  Norwegian 
mar,  was  bom  at  Chriitiania,  2Sth  Se)^mbcr  1784. 
At  irst  intended  for  the  1e^  profeasion,  he  sub- 
aequeutly  devoted  himaeU  entirely  to  the  study  of 
mathematical  science.  In  1814,  he  was  ajipointed  to 
the  ehair  of  mathematics  in  the  nniversity  of  Chris- 
tiania,  and  there,  in  1819,  nubllshed  his  celebrated 
work  OD  Hsgoetism,  which  was  afterwardi  trana- 
lated  into  Oennan  under  the  title  of  OMtrnutJutmai 
Obtr  dot  Matpttlimna  da-  EnU,  and  producea  a 
great  sentatiuo,  especiafly  in  Ei^Iaiid,  so  much  ao, 
that  in  almost  all  the  voyagM  of  discovery  arnca 
undertaken,  magnetic  obaenvtiona  have  been  made  in 
conformity  to  hts  directiona.  In  ISSI,  ha  diacevered 
the 'law  of  magnetic  force.'  See  MAOKmaM.  After 
having  viittsd  London,  Faria,  Hamburg,  Berlin, 
and  different  narta  of  hia  native  cooiitry,  he 
resolved  to  undertake  a  journey  to  Siberia,  for  tbs 
puitioae  of  continuing  hia  macnetie  obaervationa, 
which  he  accompliahed  from  ^828  to  1830,  and 
retunied  to  Europe  with  a  large  eollection  of  facta, 
which  were  of  much  service  in  aiding  to  dispel  the 
obacurity  which  enveloped  and  still  partly  envelops 


this  snhject.     On  hi*  n 


a  to  Christiania,  he  pi«- 
n  observatory. 


1  of  Norway.     H.'a 


turn  virga  Magnetica  partim  ob  Temporv,  pariin  ob 
Ttmpa-atura  Uulalionia  (Christiania,  1842) ;  beddea 
a  work  on  Mechanics,  another  on  Oeometiy,  and 
several  memoin,  of  which  the  greater  part  are 
inserted  in  the  Magamn/or  NaturviUeuiixibtme. 

HANUmAn,  or  HANI^mAn  {the  nominative  of 
the  Sanskrit  base  NamaiuU  or  Uanimal,  literally 
meaning,  '  having  a  jaw,'  but  understood  to  im]dy 
'  haviog  a  broken  jaw '),  is  the  name  of  a  fabulous 
monkey,  who  play*  a  great  rlMe  in  the  lu^ndary 
history  of  the  Second  or  "l"*'"*'  period  of  Hindu 
mrthology.  He  is  repreaeated  there  as  the  strenuous 
fnend  and  ally  of  Vishnu,  when  the  latter,  in  his 
incantation  as  Rims,  made  bis  expedition  to  Ceylon, 
in  order  to  recover  his  wife  Sttl,  carried  off  by  the 
giant  lUvana.  Sea  Vishno.  In  the  war  between 
Kftma  and  Bivan*,  Hanumin,  on  one  occasion,  t* 
related  to  have  bridged  over  the  ocean  between  tha 
continent  of  India  and  Ceylon  with  rocks  of  a 
prodigious  size,  which  he  and  hia  friends  threw 
mto  the  sea ;  on  another,  to  have  set  L^nkft  on  fire 
by  means  of  igniting  his  tail,  previously  di]iped  into 
combnstible  matter  ;  and  when,  to  reatore  to  life  bis 
frienda  slain  in  battle  by  the  armies  of  Rivana,  he 
Qew  to  the  Himalaya,  whw«  he  intended  to  gathw 
the  magical  herbs  required  for  hi*  purpoaa,  be  grew 
impatient  at  not  finding  them  quickly,  and  tore  off 
the  whole  peak  of  the  mountain,  which  he  then 
carried  to  Lankl,  the  capital  of  Ceylon.  Such  and 
many  other  extraordinary  feata  an  related  of  this 
'chieftain  of  the  monkey  tribe,'  especially  in  tbe 
greet  poem  RAmAytma,  which  is  devoted  to  the 
niatoy  of  Vishnn  in  his  descent  on  earth  as  Blma, 
and  in  many  of  ita  ohapten  dwells  with  particular 
predileetioD  on  Hninin.t  the  monkey.  Of  his  origin 
and  hia  first  darings,  the  older  version  of  this  epos 
give*  us  tha  following  account ;  Hi*  mother  waa  an 
Apaaras  or  nymph,  PutuitnMluM,  who^  throng 
a  curse,  howaw,  was  Eum  a*  the  dau^ter  ot  » 
ihey,  uid  under  tha  name  d  Ama^  becama 
wile  of  tha  monkey  Kt»arhL.  neaiaiiiiii  the 
vr  of  aBumins  wMtever  shana  ahe  pleMM,  she 
once  tranaformed  neraelf  into  a  human  being,  and 
walked  in  splendid  attire  on  tha  top  of  a  mouatsin. 
There,  V&yiL,  the  god  of  wind,  caught  sight  of  her, 
•od  became  bewiklered  with  love.  The  t«sult  of 
his  stormy  courtakip,  though  purely  ideal,  as  ha  at 
least  eiplsined  it  to  her,  was  the  child  Hanumat 
The  later  vernon  of  the  RimdyoMa  adds  to  this 
story  a  prefatory  incident  to  justify,  as  it  wer^  the 
liber^  which  the  god  took  with  the  wife  of  Keaarin, 
by  makiag  him  act  ander  the  promise  of  a  Kiahi  or 
'  it.  When  a  child,  Hanum&u,  while  once  lying 
the  lap  of  hia  mother,  saw  the  sua  rise,  and 
thinking  it  was  a  fnii^  concdvad  the  deaire  of 
takloB  it.  Up  he  atarted,  therefore,  into  tha  air  ; 
but  IndTs,  angry  at  his  nresumption,  burled  him 
down  with  hia  bery  thunderbolt  to  the  top  of  the 
mnntain,  where  in  hia  fall  he  broke  his  left  jaw. 

The  numerous  pictures  and  sculptures  by  which 
this  singular  Hindu  deity  is  represented,  refer  to 
theae  wud  Mmilar  epiaodea  of  his  hiitory.  He 
a[inean  either  in  a  fighting  posture,  armed  with 
diak,  sword,  er  fariden^  aad  trampling  on  some  van- 
quidied  foe ;  or  he  is  carrying  the  rocks  with  which 
he  bridged  over  the  sea ;  or  he  is  in  tha  attitude  of 
a  worshipper — which  means  of  Viahnn.  Fraquentlv 
his  figure  i*  single ;  sometimss  it  is  connected  with 
that  of  Qsruda,  the  saorad  hird-vehinle  of  Viahnu  \ 


t.LiOogle 


HAPSBUBG— HARALD  IQ. 


d  it  ill 


matio&Uy  reprMent  .       ,         ,  ..    ._   

life.  Those  not  vary  fftmiliAr  with  tbe  mtuming  of 
UiDdQ  idol*,  will  never  ful  to  recogniae  liim  by  hu 
prodigioni  biiL 

That  Hamimlii  ij  ths  type  of  the  tnoDkayi 
wonhipped  by  a  certain  claaa  of  Hindot,  reqiiiraa  no 
further  ramarii,  nor  will  it  be  iiiirimi —  *-  —  "--* 
thia  monkey-wotahip,  to  vbjob  ao  ew 
M^^heaea  bean  teotiiaaDy  when 
tbe  Dumeroaa  monkeya  comiiiB  to  the  town  Latage 
— probably  in  tbe  north  <rf  India — and  being  fed 
there  daily,  hot  it*  orwin  in  the  devotion  to  tt- 
memory  of  Huumtn,  that  preat  friend  of  Viihni 
The  loundatiDn  of  tbe  myth  a  probably  an  hiatorical 
one.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  tradition  when 
tell*  OS  that  a  hero — it  calls  him  Ktma — carried 
Bnthmanic  inatitutions  from  the  north  of  India  to 
Ceylon,  and  we  may  beliare  it  also  when  it  eoaplea 
with  this  erent  a  cause  which  traasformed  this 
expedition  into  a  war  between  the  Brahmanic  popn- 
lation  of  India  and  that  of  Ceylon.  Nor  ia  it 
iro|irDbable  that  Rkma,  on  his  march  to  the  south, 
toiined  alUanoea,  and  that  his  alliea,  on  account  bi 
their  barbarooa  condition,  ware  compared  by  hia 
tollowen  to  monkeya.  There,  however,  aU  that 
may  be  real  in  the  myth  of  Hanum&o  seems  to  end, 
'—  -'-  other  ingtedienta  are  sither  purely  legendary, 

1  phenuBieDa  of  a  physical  kind.     Whan 

nama  oeeeed  to  be  the  huniAD  hero,  and  became  an 
incamatiDn  of  Tiahnu,  it  followed,  as  a  neeeoaary 
Mnaequence,  that  the  hietory  of  bU  the  eircum- 
■tanoea  connected  with  tbi*  chaiwe  also  became 
in  part  imaEiaary,  and  in  part  inSucnced  by  tbe 
character  which  belong  to  the  god.  It  u  tbe 
latter  influence  which  is  especiallv  peredvable  in 
the  origin  ascribed  to  Hanumin.  Viiluiu  ii  in  the 
Yedas  a  deity  reuresentine  attributes  of  the  tan, 
and  the  le^nds  of  tbe  hizOi  of  his  ally  are  such  as 
woold  originate  in  phenomena  connected  with  sun- 
rise. To  thia  the  oamei  ascribed  to  his  mother 
seem  to  point ;  for  the  Apsarasaa  'were  orij^natly 
pervouiflcations  of  tbe  VB[»urs  which  are  attracted 
by  the  sua,  and  form  into  mists  or  clouds '  (see 
QoldstUcker's  Sanscrit  Dictionary  under  the  word 
'Apsants'};  and  AiyanA,  among  other  meajunga, 
signifies  uight. 

BA'PSBURO,  or  HABSBUItO,  Houbb  or,  of 
which  the  imperial  family  of  Austria  are  the  repre- 
lentativee,  derived  its  name  from  the  castte  of 
Hababurg,  or  Habichtibur^  (Hawk's  Castle),  on  the 
right  bank  of  tbe  Aar,  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Aorgao.  The  castle  was  built  in  the  lltb  c  by 
Werner,  Bishop  of  Strasbnrg,  grandson  of  Guuthrun 
the  Rich,  Count  of  Alsace  and  Breisgan,  who,  accord- 


]f  Count  of  Haps- 
uuig.  AiorecnE  or  Aioen  iii.,  the  great-grandson 
of  Werner  II.,  aasumed  the  ^tte  oi  Liudgraf  of 
0j>per  Alaace,  or  Sunilgnu.  This  prince  poaseased 
a  great  part  of  Swabia,  Alaace,  and  the  Aar^u, 
to  which  bis  son,  Itudolf  L,  added  LauflenbuKL 
On  his  death  in  1232,  his  sons,  Albert  IV.  ai^ 
itudolf  IL,  divided  their  father's  poasesaiona — Rodolf 
becomine  the  founder  of  the  Ha|eburg-LaalfeDbiirg 
line.  This  bruch  became  extinct  in  1408  in  Oer- 
manv,  but  is  still  repraaented  in  Englaad  by  the 
Fieliting  family.  The  whole  ]io«aesaioas  of  Rudolfs 
lineage  reverted  to  the  Austrian  line  in  1415.  Albert 
IV.  laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  greatness  of 
the  Home  of  Haiiabni^  He  left  three  sons,  the 
eldert  of  whom,  Rudolf  III.  (Rudolf  L  of  Austria), 
■ucceeded  him,  and  by  appropriating  the  provinces 


which,  as  emperor,  be  had  wrested  from  Ottocar  ol 
Bohemia— viz..  Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  Styria, 
Carinthia,  and  Camiola — greatly  increased  the 
power  of  hia  family.  Hia  son,  Aibrecht  or  Albert  L 
(q.  v.),  succeeded  in  1291  to  the  family  poaseesiona. 
The  further  history  of  the  House  of  U.  may  be 
traced  in  that  of  Austria  .<q.  v.).  It  maybe  noted 
here  that  Emeat,  lurnamed  the  Iron,  one  of  the  sons 
of  Leow^  IL,  and  founder  of  the  Styriau  line, 
married  Cymburga,  daughter  of  ZiemovitZ,  Dulis 
of  Masovia  (now  province  of  Warsaw),  and  niece  of 
Uladialss  Jagellon,  lung  of  Poland,  oelebnted  in 
Austrian  history  not  only  for  her  beauty  and 
occompliahmenta,  but  ollD  lor  her  great  strength  of 
body,  of  which  latter  quality  some  historians  give 
remarkable  iuatanoea.  Prom  ' —  —  *-■■"  '-  "-- 
derived  the  thick  lipe  which 
feature  of  t^  Austrian  family. 

Compare  Prince  Lieknowski,  OttcAuilt  da 
Hautt  HaMmrg  (2  vols.  Wian,  1S36— 1S37},  «!«> 
Coxe'a  Hoitte  o/Aii4tria. 

H  ABALD  I.  (snraamed  Eurfaokii,  or  beantifol- 

haired),  king  of  Norway  1863 — S30),  waa  a  descendant 
of  the  aooeut  race  of  the  Yn^ings  in  Sweden, 
and  the  son  of  Holfdan  Svarte,  a  poweriul  jar]  in 
Norway,  who  is  ooted  as  the  earliest  lawgiver  of 
bis  country.  According  to  the  popular  saga,  U.  wot 
induced  to  attempt  the  subjugation  of  the  whole 
of  Norway,  through  his  love  to  a  high-bom  maiden, 
named  Gydo,  who  declared  that  she  would  not 
be  his  wife  until  be  was  sole  king  of  Rorway ;  and 
he  swore  that  he  Would  neither  cut  nor  comb  bit 
hair  till  he  bad  subdued  all  tbe  land  to  hia  sway — 


the  country  from  Pinmarken  to  the  Naze  of  Norway ; 
and  after  defeatias  tbe  lost  general  confederacy 
of  the  independent  Norwegian  chieftains  in  ■  navd 
battle  at  Hafursfjord,  the  present  Stavengerfjord, 
remained  sole  ruler  of  tbe  land  (872).  PKvioualy 
his  reign,  Norway,  like  the  other  Scandinavian 
countries,  bad  been  divided  into  numerous  [nd«- 

Gndent  districts  or  tribes,  governed  by  their  several 
nga.  H.,  however,  rep£ced  oU  these  rulers  by 
jsrla  of  his  own,  under  whom  were  placed  Herser 
or  bailifis,  to  whom  was  committed  the  charge  of 
seeing  that  the  tax  which  was  imposed  over  oU  the 
land  was  faitlifully  paid.  H.'s  severity  comjielled 
the  deposed  rulers  to  seek  other  homes ;  and  hia 
reign  la  memorable  for  the  manynew  settlements 
which  were  made  by  thenc  exiles.  Thus,  the  Orkneys 
were  settled  by  the  fugitive  Ejnar,  the  son  of  tbe 
king's  friend,  Kognvold,  Jari  of  Uore ;  while  another 
son.  Ganger  Boll,  who  hod  incurred  H.'s  anger  by 
repeated  acts  of  piracy,  sailed  with  his  foUowen 
...   D-o  ._   pp^ee_  where  he  tonnded  the  Norman 


king) 


power.  Other  exiled  NnrwegiaB  ii 
colonised  the  Hebriilea,  Shetland  and  FarOe  Islan..., 
and  Iceland,  whence  they  continaed  their  cua- 
tomary  sea-roving  and  plnnden  nstil  theaa  islands, 
■-*'■  the  exception  of  lotland,  were  aubdued  by 
Id.  AJthongh  a  barbarian,  he  mted  with  B 
sound  policy  in  advance  of  hia  age,  and  by  his 
en  succeeded  in  suppreaaane  for  tha  time  the 
te  warfare  and  sea-)iinu:y  which  had  prevailed 
in  Korway  before  his  reign  )  but  the  disaenaiaas 
of  his  numerous  sons  checked  all  the  gpo^  that 
might  have  resulted  From  his  meaanrea.  To  restore 
concord  in  bis  family,  be  divided  his  dominiona 
among  bis  children,  reaerviog  only  the  supreme 
power  to  himaell.  He  died  in  933  at  Trondhiam, 
which  he  had  made  hia  eajutal,  and  waa  snoceeded 
by  bis  son,  Erie  Blodoxa,  or  the  Btoodaie,  to  whcun 
he  hod  thiise  yean  before  resigned  tha  govemmest. 
BABALD    III.   (sumomed    H^-uDRaASi,    or 


TTt^nogk 


EARALD  IIL— HARBOUK. 


Double  Bewd),  king  of  Norray  (10*7—1067),  wm 
Uielol] of  Sigurd,  chief  of  Stiiig>Tiaa,and&  descendant 
of  H*nJd  £  In  hii  boyhood,  be  waa  present  &t 
the  battle  of  Stiokleitad,  in  wMah  hie  brother  Olaf. 
■nrnuDcd  the  Saint,  king  of  Norway,  wai  ilain ;  and 
he  afterwArda  (ou^t  an  aarluin  at  the  oourt  of  his 
relative,  Jaroalav,  Duke  of  Kuaiia,  irhoae  daughter 
he  longht  in  nianiage.  The  rejection  of  hta  aoit, 
however,  again  drove  him  forUk,  and  ho  entered 
npon  ronuntia  adveatarei ;  and  having  sons  to 
donatantinople,  and  become  eapUin  of  t&e  Vaerins- 
}ar,  or  SoaodinaWan  bodj-guard  of  tha  Greek 
emperore,  he  experienced  many  marvelloua  adven- 
tuna,  which  bave  eupplied  abundant  material!  for 
the  narnitiTea  of  the  older  aagaa  and  modern 
lomxDcee  of  the  north.  H.  took  part  in  the  expe- 
dition against  the  pirates  of  the  Mediterranesa ; 
Tisited  Jerusalem,  where  he  fonoht  ■iioeeeefolly 
against  the  Saracens,  whom  be  also  defeated  in  Sicily 
ud  Africa  in  eighteen  pitobed  battles.  On  bis 
retam  to  Coiut«ntiTiople,  he  drew  upon  himself  the 
TenAeanoe  of  the  BnmrfSs  Zoe,  whose  proffered  love 
he  had  rejected,  and  with  difficulty  escaped  from 
tha  prison  into  which  he  hod  been  thrown,  on  pre- 
tenoB  of  tressoD.  Raving  mode  good  his  escape, 
he  returned  to  Russia,  mamed  the  daoshter  of 
Duks  Janielav,  and  totJi  her  with  him  to  Norway, 
where  bis  ne^^ew,  Magnul  (the  son  of  St  OU^, 
agreed  to  divide  the  autn^me  power  with  him,  in 
Tctuin  for  a  share  of  bis  treasures.  The  death 
of  M^nus  in  1047  left  him  sole  king  of  Norway. 
His  unruly  spirit  would  not,  however,  suffer  him 
to  rast ;   and  in  opposition  to  the  pledge  he  had 

S'lven  his  dying  nephew,  he  entered  into  a  war  to 
sUiroDe  the  king  of  Denmark,  on  whose  crown  be 
had  no  just  chum.  Although  he  wa*  miccesaful  In 
battle  against  the  Danes,  he  gained  no  real  advao- 
tsgea  by  the  contest;  and  in  1064  be  recognised 
the  right  of  Svend,  tiie  nephew  of  Canute,  ^  the 
throne  of  Denmark,  and  hsvine  cooctuded  a  peace, 

of  Norway.  In  106C  be  landed  in  England,  to  aid 
Toatig  against  hia  brother  Harold,  king  of  England, 
but  waa  slain  in  battle ;  his  followen,  after  having 
foB^t  with  desperation,  were  obliged  to  retreat 
to  their  ships,  in  which  they  aailed  for  Norway, 
undar  ths  command  of  Olaf,  the  aotx  of  the  slam 
monarch  (2Sth  September  106G). 

HARBOUR  an  inlst  of  the  sea,  u  protected 
from  Uu  winds  and  waves,  whether  by  natural 
oonfonnation  of  the  land,  or  by  artiRcial  means,  as 
to  form  a  teoure  roadstead  for  ships.  It  is  with 
those  barhooi*  wholly  or  in  part  artificial  that  this 
Bttiole  will  dW. 

Harboora  may  be  divided  into  harbours  of  refuge, 
and  those  for  oommercial  purpose*.  The  latter  are 
mo«t1y  tidal — i.  e.,  capable  of  being  entered  by  vessels 
only  at  eertain  atates  of  the  tide.  The  former  are 
'  '  'of  good  depth,  protected  by  breakwaters, 
lible  at  all  tidea,  where  ships  may  take 


refuge  during  stomu.  The  two  kinds 
conbined,  there  being  the  harbour  proper,  and  a  capa- 
cnoDS  proteoted  roa^rtead  outside  of  it,  aa  at  Cher- 
beuTgaadebewhera.  S«eBaBA2WATBIl,CHiaB0UBO, 
Pavnt,  Pi/nu>uTB,  PoKn-aHD,  Bolybead. 

With  the  Urth  of  oonuneree  and  naval  warfare, 
■  the  MkrliMt  ages  of  dvilisation,  arose  Hha  neoes- 
•ity  to»  artitiei«r  harbours.  The  Phcsniclans,  the 
fatlwi*  ot  tUTigatian,  soon  set  to  wqrk  to  protect 
tfasir  scanty  sftip  of  Levantine  coast.  At  Tyre, 
two  baiboura  were  foimed,  to  the  north  and  to  the 
sooth  of  tike  jMoinsola  on  which  the  city  was  placed. 


At  Sidon,  s 


r  bnt  leai 


Carthage,  in  anothar  part  of  the  Ueditemneao, 
also  possessed  a  harbour,  though  its  site  is  not  very 
satisfactorily  determiued.  It  was  in  two  division^ 
formed  by  moles  ;  time,  however,  iias  dealt  so  hM^y 
with  it,  that  few  traces  remain.  Still  koeping  to 
the  great  inland  aea,  we  aome  to  Otmos  ;  bnt  hera 
natare  bad  provided  so  many  navigable  inlets,  that 


of  the  world,  set  iwout  oonstmoting  harbours  for 
them,  in  their  usual  sohd  and  workmauliks  manuer. 
The  aoaata  of  Italy  still  shew  how  well  they  nnder- 
stood  both  the  prineiples  and  the  practice  of  this 
branohof  marine  engineering.  Below  is  giron  ft  ptaa 
of  the  ancient  port  of  Ostia  (now  two  or  tbrsa  milss 
inland),  one  of  tiisir  finest  and  mast  complete  under. 
takings  of  this  uatora.    A  diatingniahing  feature  of 


their  barbonr-making  ii  the  open  or  arched  mole. 
Built  with  open  archea,  resting  upon  stone  piers,  it 
give*  full  play  to  the  tidal  and  littoral  currenla, 
thus  preventing  the  deposit  of  sand  or  mud;  bat 
in  proportion  aa  this  advantae;e  is  increased  (by 
increasmg  the  span  of  the  arches),  bo  also  Is  the 
B^tation,  and  conaaquent  insecurity  of  tb9  water 

The  decay  of  commeree  and  civilisaUon,  conse- 
quent upon  ths  fall  ot  the  Roman  empire,  put  a 
atop  to  harbour- making ;  nor  conld  any  want  of 
the  art  be  felt,  until  ue  revival  of  commerce  by 
the  Italian  republics  of  the  middle  ages.  But 
the  rich  traffic  ot  Venice  and  Genoa  soon  led  to 
the  construction  of  suitable  |Kirta  at  thoss  places ; 
and  the  molea  ot  the  latter  city,  and  the  works  in 
the  lagunea  of  Venice,  remain  to  this  day.  Trance 
was  next  iu  the  field,  embanking,  protecting,  and 
deepening  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  along^her 
uorth-westem  shores,  as  at  Havre,  Dieppe,  Uun- 
kirk,  Ac  In  1627,  durins  the  siege  of  itoohelle, 
Metezeau  constructed  jetties  of  loose  rubble-ttone, 
to  prevent  access  to  the  city. 

Meanwhile,  England,  whose  ocean- comittero*  is  ot 
comparativelv  recent  date,  and  whose  fisheries  even 
scarcely  employed  a  vessel  three  huodred  yeara  ago, 
lagged  far  behind  her  contineotal  rivals.  With  few 
exceptions,  her  porta  were  absolutely  unprotected, 
or  rather  uncreated;  and  this  state  of  things  con- 
tinued nntit  late  in  the  last  century.  One  ot  ths 
few  exoeptions  waa  Hartlepool,  where  a  harbour 
wa*  formed  about  1250 ;  and  Arbroath,  in  1394  In 
the  17th  c.,  at  Whitby  and  Scarborough,  also  in 
Yorkshire,  rough  piers  were  thrown  out,  protecting 
the  mouth  of  the  port;   while  at  Yarmouth,  in 


tyGUUglf 


XKz&betli'i  rdgn,  »  nortli  jattj,  ud  lubwqneDtly 
»  natli  cma,  were  formed.  An  ancisat  mole  eiistrd 
ttt  Lyme  Regie,  ft  eeotiOD  ot  whicK  &1H11  Mr  Smilca'i 
LiBf  <tf  the  Engineer*,  >•  gtren  belo*  (we  fi^  3). 
But  tKe  obief  effortfl  of  the  early  English  engmeen 
were  direoted  agftiikit  the  •hMli  and  wftre*  «( 
Dover.    When,  howerer,  SmMton  raie  to  vindiosU 


Tig.  1. 
D«nr>«boH;  t^p.Htiu'r  ViIL    I 

the  anfbairiiig  Ulant  of  England,  tlutigi  todc  a 
different  tam[  and  nov  few  oonDtriea  etiipaM 
Gnat  Britaia  in  tii*  wunbtt  of  •rtiScially  improved 


I  ihfl  Jnrt  iqipnoiatioD 


•ommenial  liarbovn, 
<rf  thttr  inportaiiaA. 

Id  the  eonitmetion  of  harboon,  the  great 
dieiderftta  are  mfBcieDt  depth  of  water  and  p^eot 
•eoDiity  for  the  veaeeli  likely  to  freqnent  then, 
together  with  the  greattat  poeiibla  fadlitiea  for 
ingreu  during  any  weathar ;  while  the  ohief 
obetaclca  to  be  mrmoiintad  are  the  aotian  of  the 
wftTee  nnm  the  protecting  pieie  and  breakwaten, 
and  th«  formation  of  nnd-baJiki  and  bar*. 

The  dtvgn  of  harboara  mav  be  oUuifled  nnder 
(he  fdlowing  head*:  1.  Harboun  of  refuge  and 
anohotago  makwaten;  2.  Deep  water  and  tidal 
harbonn  for  oommercial  porpoaca  j  S.  Kanted  or 
onrred   pien ;    A,    Sought    pi«T« ;    S.    Qnaya    or 

Theta  diChrent  works  are  obrionily  anited  for 
diAvent  localities  and  for  oontendiM  with  different 


czpoearei.    The  last-moilioncd 


Uarly  euitod  for 
only,  and  the  engini 


miut  ooiMidet,  when  doigning  a  harbonr,  which  of 
all  tboM  will  be  moet  eeonomioal  and  eSeotin.     In 


d  eSeotini 

1  the  001    . 

_  chart  ftir- 

Talnabla  srideiMa  m  to  the  loreea  to  which 
harbooT-worki  will  b«  empoaed.    AnMiag  thoae  may 
ha  Mt«d  the  Him  «^  naximtum  moma*,  ta  the 
aea  En  front  of  the 
eiril 


greMealft 


prorad  by  oheerrfttiou  that  lie  vava  btenat  m  IM 
ratio  t^  fAe  tqaart  root  of  thdr  diilanea  from,  U14 
aindward  lAore  ae  measnred  along  the  line  of  ex- 
pomra,  and  he  givea  the  foUowiea  nmpla  fcrmnla : 
Where  A  —  hei^t  of  wave  in  feet  during  a  itrong 
gale,  and  d  —  tength  of  expoence  in  milea  f<«  di«- 
taaoea  of  uy  10  lulea  and  njiwarde  i 
A  =.  l-S^if. 

'Dm  hriehta  to  oM^ned  win  be  inereaaed  when  they 
pau  into  eonfiaed  ehannela,  and  decreaaad  when 
(hey  pam  into  expanding  chaaneja.  The  great**! 
mownied  heidit  Ot  the  ware*  wia  by  Scoraaby  in 
Uie  Atlantia  Ooean,  where  ha  teaad  billowa  in  49 
feet  in  height  from  hollow  to  creet  and  36  f**t  wa* 
net  an  anoommon  heighL  At  Wiok,  Caithaeae- 
ahire,  wave*  of  abont  40  feat  atrike  the  break- 

The  greatnt  raeorded  forge*  aaert*^  by  the  warei 
an  til*  followiBg:  A  ma**  et  1>  too*  waa  broken 
or  qnanied  ont  ot  it«  poMtioii  l»  lUu  on  the  Skcrria* 
of  Whalaey,  in  Zetland,  at  a  level  o(  74  bet  abore 
the  aea )  bnt  the  moat  aatoniah^  feat  of  wbioh 
w*  haTO  any  knowledge  wa*  at  Wiok  breakwater, 
iriiere,  in  the  winter  of  1972, 


___jreted  tc^;>ther  a*  a  menoUth,  and  bound  with 
irra  bar*  4)  mobea  in  diameter,  and  weighing  Hole** 
than  13S0  ton*,  wa*  ton  from  Ita  eeat  m  the  weik. 


L  thrown  to 


Hr  Thomae  StevaDeon,  by  meana  of  an 
called  the  Harine  Dynamoneter,  ha*  atcortained 
mmerkalig  the  force  which  is  exerted  bv  the  waree 
in  th*  Atlantia  and  Qermaa  Oceani,  ana  haa  found 
that  the  mean  of  obserretion*  diuing  winter  wa* 
moie  than  three  timea  that  eztfted  daring  enininer, 
thenaiimumforaereoordedbeiDBS)  lOMptrtjuar* 
foot 

TarEoni  loeal  caniea  matanally  alUct  the  height, 
and  therefore  the  foroe  of  the  ware*.  In  eom* 
eaaea,  where  a  ttioBg  current  (et*  off  the  eoaet,  a* 
at  Snmburgh  Head  rooet,  in  Zetland,  it  caneea  a 
danqerOM  breaking  aea,  and  while  this  rooet  or  rae* 
continue*  to  rage,  the  coaat  nnder  lee  is  oonnaia' 
tivdy  aheltved ;  bnt  when  the  foroe  of  the  tide  ii 

_  enoonnter  between  the  groniid-ewell  of 
wie  Dowo  and  the  onrrent  of  tide  or  land  water, 
nhieb  eaniee  tniniature  noes  at  tha  month*  at 
river*.  Another  most  msterial  elmeat  in  the  qn**> 
ti<Hi  of  exposure  is  the  depth  of  water  in  froot  of 
the  harbour ;  for  if  that  depth  be  insaffident  to 
admit  of  the  propegatioD  of  the  wa*e*.  they  btaak 
or  spend  themselTe*  before  they  reai^  the  pieia. 
Thns,  Mr  Leilie  f  rand  at  ATbroatli  harbenr  that  tha 
work*  were  not  eo  levcraly  tried  by  the  heaviest 
wavsa  *a  by  other*  of  leeasr  iiM  wbi^  wen  not 


the  bar  ia  more  dietnrbed  bv  ordinary  wave*  than 
daring  great  atormi.  It  tbna  appear*  that  the 
lanM  wavea  are  not  alwaya  ao  deatmetiTe  a* 
■rndlM  ono.  ib  Scott  Ensadl  ha*  *tat*d  the  law, 
that  wavea  break  whenever  they  come  to  water  a* 
deep  a*  thnr  own  height ;  bo  that  10  feet  wave* 
ehould  Iweak  in  10  feet  weter,  and  aO  feet  wave*  in 
W  feet  water.  There  leem,  hcrwevn,  to  be  asme 
wave*  whioh  break  so  naehing  water  whoee  depth 
i*  equal  to  twice  their  own  height.  Froofe  of  the 
deiiui  t«  which  the  rarfao*  nndalation*  extend 
have  been  given  by  Sir  George  Aiiy,  Sir  John  Coodc^ 
CM*i"  Calver,  and  Mr  Jdin  Mumy,  CE.  The 
late  Dr  Baakine  hae  ehewn  that  the  oreat  and  trough 
of  the  aea  ar*  not,  ••  waa  generally  believed,  equi- 
dietauit  fi«m  the  level  of  stagnant  water.    "" —  ' 


When  I 


,Cooyl*j 


Creit  sboTe  atiU  i 


=.H' 


Trough  below  am  »«ter  =  s-  -  TSSl 

There  a  much  differeQca  of  opinion  among  en- 
cineen  u  to  the  best  profile  or  erosi-aectioa  of 
braabwaten  for  deep-water  harfaoan.  It  ii  auerted 
by  Colonel  Jooea  and  otben,  that  io  deep  water  the 
wavea  ara  porelr  oscillatoiT,  having  no  power  of 
tranilatioD,  and  uwretora  incapable  o[  eierting  any 
foroe  againit  the  masoniy.  Thii,  howeTcr,  ia  incor- 
Noti  and  ealonlated  to  lead  to  dangerous  conae- 
qnenees.  Wen  there  do  wind  propelling  the  waves, 
and  no  onrrent  to  interfere  with  their  character, 
■noh  a  reiult  miirht  be  tnie.  Thii,  however,  ii  not 
the  oaie,  and  all  eea-work*,  in  whatever  depth  oE 
water  they  may  be  plaoed,  will  aeeuredly  have  to 
withstand  imjinlsire  action.  Beaides,  it  must  be 
kept  in  view,  that  in  order  to  reduce  the  ezpease  of 
eonstruotion,  it  is  eosential,  where  the  bottom  ia 
aoft,  to  make  the  foundation  a  pile  of  loose  mbble, 
or  concrete  blooks,  It  follows,  from  what  has 
already  been  said,  that  the  rubble,  by  ihoaling  the 
water  in  front  of  the  work,  will  eauM  the  waves 
to  become  wavea  of  translatioD  before  they  reach 
the  vertical  anpenbuotnre^  which,  aantmiDg  the 
waves  ta  have  been  simplv  oacillatory,  woula  have 
reflected  them  without  breaking,  and  therefore 
without  their  having  exerted  an  impnlsire  force 
Dpon  the  masonry. 

There  is,  however,  no  fixed  mle  as  to  the  prafil 
of  any  sea-work,  which  mnst  necessanly  depend 
apon  a  variety  of  local  peculiarities,  such  as  the 
natnre  of  the  birttom,  and  the  site  and  quality  of 
the  materials.     While  a  long,  sloping  breakwater 
does  not  offer  the  same  amount  of  reDsCaoce  to  t' 
waves,  neither  is  it  in  itself  so  strong,  for  the  weia 
rating  on  the  face-stoaea  is  decreased  in  proporti 
to  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  the  elope.     Oa  tba  other 
hand,  the  tendency  of  the  waves  to  produce  hori- 
tontal  displacement,  sujlpoiiDg  the  diirctian  of  the 
impinging  particles  to  be  horizontal,  is  pmportional 
to  tlit  cuSe  of  M«  «iM  1^  Me  on^ie  <^  tieoalion  c/  ijle 
waU. 

In  tidal  harboors,  or  those  in  shosl-water,  it  is 
admitted  b^  all  that  the  waves  break,  and  tberelore 
exert  an  impulsive  force.  Such  works  have  to 
withstand  (I.)  llie  direct  hnritontal  force  whieh 
tends  to  remove  the  masonry;  (2.)  The  vo-tical 
force  acting  upwards  on  projectinjc  stones  or  protu- 
berances, and  against  the  l^ing  beds  of  the  stonea ; 
(3.)  The  vertiou  force  actine  downwards  apon  the 
talus  wall,  or  passing  over  tne  parapet,  and  tailing 
apon  the  roadway ;  and  (4.)  The  back-drangh^ 
which  ia  apt  to  remove  the  soEt  bottom  in  front  of 

In  designing  the  gronnd-plan  of  harbours,  some 
mlee  should  be  kept  in  view:  {1.)  The  entrance 
should  be  always  kept  seawards  of  the  works  of 
mssonry  ;  (2.)  Long  straight  piers  are  not  so  safe  aa 
thoae  of  boriiontal  curvature  ;  (1)  There  should  be 
agood  'loose,'  or  point  of  departure  free  of  rocks  or 
a  lee  shore;  (4)  The  relation  of  the  width  of  en- 
trance to  the  area  of  a  harbour  should  be  a  matter 
of  careful  study,  aa  upon  this  depend*  the  tran- 
quillity of  the  interior,  or  whst  has  been  called  the 
raductive  power  of  the  harbour  Mr  StevensoD's 
lonnnla  for  the  reductive  power  is  as  under  ;  U  =• 
height  of  wave  at  entranoei  £~breadth  of  entrance;, 
B  —  breadth  of  harbour  at  plaoe  of  observation ; ' 
D  —  distance  from  noath  of  harbour  to  place  of 
observalioQ;  ZHrednoed  height  of  wave  at  place 


_HV6 


GU 


The  late  Mr  J.  M.  Beudel's  plan  of  depositing 
rubble  from  open  stages  of  pile-work  is  now  univei 
aally  used  in  the  construction  of  d«ep-water  pien- 
Sir  J.  HawkshaVs  method,  adopted  at  Holyhead, 
consists  of  huge,  irregular,  undressed  masses,  set  ' 
hydraulic  mortar,  and  resting  upoo  pitrru  perdufi 

The  commercial  value  of  a  harbour  increaaes, 
according  to  Mr  SCeveosoD,  not  simply  as  the  depth 
of  the  water  is  increased,  but  as  the  cube  qf  the 
depth.  Hence  the  great  expense  which  is  willia  ' 
incurred  for  securing  even  a  foot  or  two  of  ad. 
tional  depth.  The  greatest  feat  in  deepening  is  at 
the  Tyne,  where  Mr  Ure,  C.K,  dredged  out  the 
channel  to  20  feet  at  low-water  all  the  way  up  to 
Newcastle.  Scouring  is  also  employed  for  increasing 
the  depth,  as  by  Sir.  W.  CubiU  at  Cardiff,  where 
2500  tons  of  water  a  minute  ara  let  oC  The  late 
Mr  Bendel's  scheme  for  Birkenhead  was  baaed 
simply  on  the  quantity  liberated  and  the  sectional 
area  of  the  channel,  and  was  therefore  operative  for 
aoy  distance,  and  did  not  depend  on  the  propelling 
head,  or  on  the  direction  in  which  the  water  left  the 
sluices,  which  conditions  regulate  ordinary  scouring 
on  the  small  scale,  and  which  is  efficaciaus  for 
only  short  distances  from  the  outlet. — Docks  (q.  v.) 
of  various  kinds  are  connected  with  harbours. 

Fine  timber  is  admirably  adapted  for  soft  soils, 
when  the  exposure  is  not  great,  but  owing  to  the 
ravages  of  the  Teredo  navalU  and  Limnoria  lerebram 
in  localities  where  there  ia  no  admixture  of  fresh 
water,  it  is  soon  destroyed.  Greenheart,  African  oak, 
and  buUet-tree  are  little  affected  by  the  worm 


a,i1iilM 

shewnbyexperimentsmadeinlSUat  the  Bell  Bock 
by  Mr  Robert  Stevenson.  Even  limestone  and  aand- 
stone  are  perforated  by  the  Pholades  and  SazicavB. 
Uetals  also  suffer  from  chemical  action  when  int- 
mersed  in  salt-water.  Mr  George  Bennie's  experi- 
ments shewed  that  wrought-iron  resists  this  actioa 
better  than  caat  in  the  ratio  of  8  to  I ;  while  Ur 


of -wrought-iron,  will  be  destroyed  in  a  oentnry  in 


jbjLaOogle 


BAKBOmtS— HARDENBERO. 


dcMl  u1t-w>t«r.  A  cannon-ba}!  4}  inchn  in  dian]< 
«ter  becama  oziiliied  to  the  extent  o(  J  of  an  inch  in 
the  century.  The  lue  of  Portland  c«inent  ma;  be 
rsgarded  ■■  the  molt  important  at  recant  im[irove- 
menta  in  harboar  conttrnction.  Blooka  o!  any  lizc 
can  be  farmed  of  tand,  graFel,  or  •tones,  mixed  with 
oement'in  the  proportion  of  1  of  cement  to  9  of  the 
other  material!.  This  will  eet  readily  in  itill  water, 
and  io  «  week  will  be  nearly  aa  hard  ae  any  ordi- 
nal; Bandelona.  Sea  walls  oi  oement  work  can  also 
be  bnilt  ooatinnoualy,  so  aa 
monolithic  maaa. 

Reference  may  be  made  to  Sir  J.  Beanie's  book 
on  ffarboKrt,  to  that  of  Mr  Thmna*  Sterentgn  on 
the  aame  anhjeol^  and  to  the  MinntM  of  Instibitioa 
of  Civil  Engineen,  pamm. 

BARBOVKS,  OT  PORTS,  in  Law.  In  England, 
aa  well  a*  Scotland,  the  ri^hC  to  erect  and  bold  jiorU 
and  harena  b  Tested  in  the  crown.  Neverthelees, 
this  right  may  legally  exist  in  the  subject,  provided 
the  latter  can  prove  that  he  has  a  charter  or  grant 
from  the  crown,  or  has  exereised  the  right  from 
tims  immemorial,  which  preeumea  a  charter  or  grant. 
But  even  though  an  individual  has  a  right  to  a 
particular  port  or  harbour,  he  holds  it  chained  with 
or  subject  to  the  right  of  the  ])ubhc  to  make  use  of 
it.  The  crown  has  also  the  superintending  power 
of  opening  and  shntting  ports  for  the  puriiose  of 
prohibitiug  the  imiwrtation  or  exportation  of  gooda 
It  is  also  a  settled  maxim  that  the  duties  or  tolls 
exacted  should  be  reasonable  and  moderate.  In 
England,  the  grantee  of  a  port  is  presumed  to  be 
bound  to  re[>tur  it ;  but  in  Scotland,  this  obligation 
only  extends  to  com]ie]  the  owner  to  ap^ily  the  dues 
towards  reiiairs  so  far  as  they  will  go. 

In  most  cases,  the  powers  of  Uie  common  law 
have  been  insufficient  to  regulate  the  progressive 
wanta  of  the  publio  sa  regama  harbour  accommo- 
dation ;  and  various  sets  of  partiainent  have  been 
passed  tor  the  pur{K>se  of  authorising  harbours  to 
M  oonstnicted,  or  extended  and  improved,  and  for 
exacting  dues  or  tolls  for  the  puriioee  of  repaying 
the  exjienses.  In  1847,  a  general  (Xineolidation  Act 
(10  Vict  0.  27)  was  jiaraed  fur  the  United  Kingdom, 
providing  a  code  for  the  regulation  of  the  pro- 
cedure and  conduct  of  all  bodice,  comminioners, 
Ad.,  charged  with  making  and  improving  harboun, 
docks,  and  piers.  The  duties  ol  such  bodies  are 
there  deSned  in  all  their  details,  as  weU  as  the 
mode  of  levying  and  collecting  Uie  tolls  which  they 
are  empowend  to  levy.  Varion*  local  acta  are 
^BO  from  time  to  time  passed  to  mset  the  peculiar 
wants  of  localities.  The  princijdB  of  alt  these  acts 
is,  that  the  conuniadooei*  are  empowered  to  make 


HA'RBUBG,  an  old  town  and  ridng  seaport  of 
nonover,  in  the  province  o(  LUneliurv,  is  situated 
tbnr  iCbd  •  half  mile*  south  of  Uamtnirg,  on  the 
southmost  branch  of  the  Elbe,  in  a  marshy  district 
at  the  foot  of  a  wooded  chain  of  hills.  It  is 
snrroonded  with  walls,  and  has  a  fortified  castle. 
Sugar-refining  and  tanning  am  extensively  carried 
on,  as  well  ss  manufactures  of  woollens,  linens, 
and  ho«er]r.  Its  transit-trade  with  Hamburg  and 
the  eountriea  sontb   of  tbe  Elbe,  which  has  long 


vessels,  and  admits  of  landing  cargoes  at  the  wharfs. 
The  paaaenger- traffic  between  H.  and  Hamburg  it 
carried  on  by  steamers,  of  whioh  from  four  to  six 
■irive  and  depart  daily.  H.  is  a  place  of  holiday 
taOTt  for  the  Hambnrgeia.    Fop.  (1S71)  16,606. 


HARD  LABOUR,  an  addition  often  made  to 
the  puuiahmeut  of  offences  besides  mere  imprison- 
ment, lliis  practice  ia  aaid  to  have  been  intro- 
duced by  the  atatuts  of  6  Anne,  o.  6.  It  is  now 
firmly  ertablishsd  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  and  by 
express  statute,  the  power  of  addine  bard  labour  Ui 
the  punishment  of  unprisonment,  has  been  given 


be  made  of  the  proper  materials  for  the  purpose. 
Picking  oakum,  working  the  tread-mill,  ic,  form 
part  ofthis  labour ;  and  in  general,  the  number  of 
hoon  for  such  181)007,  unleas  in  caos  of  sickness,  is 
ten  hours  daily. 

BARDENBEBO,  Fbixduch  vov,  better  known 
by  his  literwy  pseudonym  of  Novalib,  was  the 
son  of  Boron  von  Hordenbsrg,  and  was  bom  at 
the  family  residence  in  Prussian  Soiony  in  17TSL 
Hi*  father,  then  director  of  the  Saxon  aalt- 
worka,  wo*  a,  man  of  a  reLKions  disposition,  and 
a  member  of  the  Hermhut  cumm union,  while  his 
mother  ia  described  as  '  a  pattam  of  noble  piety 
and  Christian  mildnesa.'  Young  H.  inherited  the 
eerious  and  reverential  nature  of  hia  i>arenta.  He 
studied  at  Leipeic  and  Wittenberg.  After  a  brief 
life,  made  beautiful  by  love,  friendship,  study,  and 
literary  activity,  be  died  of  consuntjition,  ISth 
Manih  18U1,  in  the  arms  of  his  friend,  Friedriuh 
Schle^eL  His  chief  works  are  Lehrlinge  tu  Sait 
(Disct]ilea  at  Sois) ;  a  Physical  Romance,  'con- 
taining,' says  Carlyie,  '  no  story  or  indication  of 
a  story,  but  only  jwetised  philosojihical  sjieeches, 
and  the  strangest  shadowy  aUenorical  allusion*;' 
HeinTKh  van  OJttrditvjrti,  mtended,  as  he  hirn*^ 
informs  ua,  to  be  an  '  auotheusis  of  poetry,'  but 
which  he  waa  not  s]iarea  to  finish  ;  and  ngmnen 
on  dit  Nacla  (Hymns  to  tbe  Night).  'H.,*  says 
Carlyie,  'is  ths  most  ideal  of  iileoluta.'  A  pro- 
found, beautiful,  bnt  indefinite  as|iiratioii  breathes  , 
through  all  ths  fragments  he  has  left  us.  WliBt  he 
lacka  ia  foroe,  activity,  and  common-senss  rigour 
of  understanding.  H.  belonged  to  the  romantio 
school  of  German  titerstnre,  but  he  tnnk  no  jiart  in 
the  cDotrovenies  of  his  friends.  Hi*  SUmmtlicht 
Sdiriften  were  published  in  1802  (5th  ed.  1837)  by 
Tieck  and  F.  Schleuet,  ths  former  of  whom  prefixed 
a  biography.    See  Carlylu's  iliiceilaiutnit  Kaiayt. 

HARDBNBERO,  Karl  AoflDBT,  Prikci  tok, 
a  Pnusian  statesman,  was  born  at  Eaaenrodo,  in 
Hanover,  Uay  31,  17S0.  He  was  educateil  at 
Leinaic,  OOttingen,  and  Metzlau.  and  during  1776 — 
1778.  travelled  in  tiermany,  Franoe,  Holland,  and 
England.  On  his  return  to  Hanover,  he  becsnie 
privy-councillor  of  the  exchequer,  and  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  count ;  but  a  quarrel  with  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  originating  in  a  matter  deejily  affocting  his 
honour,  induced  him,  in  1782,  to  quit  the  service  of 
the  Hanoverian  government.  He  now  rejiaircd  to 
the  court  of  Brunswick,  where  the  duke  ajiiKiinted 
him,  in  17S7,  president  of  the  council  of  state.  He 
wa*  also  oommissiuned  by  his  mmrter  to  convey 
the  will  of  Frederick  the  Great,  which  had  been 
deposited  in  the  duke's  hands,  to  the  sew  king, 
Praderick'William,  who  received  bim  with  markS 
diatincti«i.  In  VtM,  the  markfrraf  of  Ausjiach  and 
Baireuth  bairing  raqnested  ths  nuasian  luouarch  to 
fnnusb  hia  with  a  pei«on  competent  to  aduiiuiiter 
the  affur*  of  hi*  dominiona,  Frederick -William 
nconuaeaded  Hardenber^  After  Ansjiach  and 
Baireuth  were  united  with  Prussia  in  1701,  H. 
waa  appointed  a  Pnuaian  minister  of  states  and 
>  member  of  the  cabinet  ministry.  At  the  com- 
mencement  ci   ihe   war   with   franoe,  the   king 


tyCOUylt 


HABDEEWUK— HABSmSE. 


fimimoiied  him  to  hia  he*d-qturten  *t  Fnukfort- 
on-tba-MuDB  u  adminUtrstor  o£  tha  mnay.  Earlv 
in  )7eS,  ha  wm  imt  to  Baael,  whara,  an  the  fil^ 
April,  ha  concluded  ■  praam  batwaan  Pnuou  ud 
tha  Franch  republic.  Oa  tha  ftcocBston  of  Frederick- 
Williatn  IIL  in  1797,  H.  wu  rac«Ued  to  Berlin,  and 
WM  intxofted  with  tha  nijwgfment  of  all  foreign 
affairi.  In  1804^  ha  bacame  ^it  Proaiian  miniftar 
on  tha  ndgnatioD  of  Eangwiti,  and  in  tbia  m^*- 
city  wideannrad  to  preaerra  Beutrality  batiraatt 
France  and  England.  But  irhwi  tba  Fratch  tmopa 
attackad  ABBpaeh,  ha  changad  hi*  pdii^,  and 
addwMad  »  abrong  ramonitranoa  to  V^yi  Duoc 
Aftw  tba  viotany  of  K^xdeon  at  Awtarliti, 
*^"— '"  — -  -"ipeUad  to  eater  into  amogmienU 


.    . -.mperor  Alexander. 

In  ISIO,  ha  waa  appointed  chancellor  of  itata. 
Pnuda  wat  at  thia  period  in  a  deplorsbla  con- 
dition, bumbled  in  the  very  diut  before  Fnmca; 
narartheleaa,  H.  waa  u«aoiaiis  enoivh  to  perceive 
that  tba  power  of  Napoleoa  was  on  Uie  wane;  He 
laboured  ardent^  to  create  a  natianol  feeling— « 
Mtriotio  tiiint  lor  ra*eDg«.  Tba  victoriei  of  the 
Britith  troope  in  tba  Spauiah  peniiuula,  and  the 
diiaaten  that  overwhebaed  la  ruin  Napoleon'a 
vast  army  in  RuBata,  greatly  aaoated  him  In  hia 
afforta,  and  he  had  tbe  aatiifaction  of  beholding 
them  ctvwned  with  anccesa.  Hii  eiertiona  were 
unwearied  j  he  aubacribad  to  the  Peaoe  of  Faria, 
June  1S14 ;  and  waa  aoon  after  raiaed  to  the  rank  of 
prince  by  hia  aovercign.  He  accompanied  the  allied 
aovereigna  to  London,  took  part  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  congreat  at  Vienna,  and  In  the  treatise  of 
Faria  (1810).  In  1817,  he  reorganised  the  conncU 
of  atate,  of  which  he  waa  appointed  preaidant  He 
waa  alao  present  at  the  congruaaei  of  Aix-W 
Chapelle,  Carlsbad,  and  Vienna,  and  drew  up  the 
new  Pruaaian  sjatem  of  imposta.  During  a  tonr 
tltrongh  the  north  of  Italy,  he  was  taken  ill  at 
Pavia,  and  died  at  Genoa,  2Bth  November  1822. 
Tbe  Bervioea  rendered  by  H.  to  hia  country  were 
ondoabtedly  great ;  to  him  Fruaaia  ia  mainly  in- 
debted for  the  improvementa  in  her  army  aystem, 
the  abolition  of  serfdom,  of  the  privilegaa  of  the 
noblea,  and  of  a  multitude  of  trade  cotporations^ 


gniva  U 

Stephen 


reform  of   bar   tax 

of  hia  memoire  of  tbe  period 


from  1801  to  tbe  peace  of  Tilait,  wore  aealed  up 
by  Fredariok-William  IIL,  who  dapnaitad  them 
in  tha  M«hivea  of  tbe  atata,  and  forbade  them  to 
b*  opened  before  tbe  y«ar  ISfiO.  They  have  not 
yet  bean  poUiahad. 


shore  of  tha  Zaidet  Zee, 

nilea  eaat  of  Amsterdam.  It  waa  at  one  time  a 
Banae  town,  ia  fortified  after  an  ancient  faahioc, 
and  baa  aapacioos  harbour,  in  which  vessels  ^^aged 
in  tile  Eaat  India  trade  are  fitted  out.    Pop.  sToo. 

HAKDIOANUTE,  king  of  Ensland,  aon  of 
Canute  tbe  Qreat  by  Emma  of  Kormmdy,  the 
widow  of  Ethelred  IL  At  the  tima  of  his  fatW'a 
death  H.  was  in  Denmark,  and  the  throne  <d  Eng- 
land waa  urarped  by  Harold  bis  yonnaer  brother, 
£mniB,  however,  preaerving  bar  »«K»  anthoiity 
over  WoMax.    In  this  atato  matta- 


sha  sent  to  H.  to  wqnaint  him  with  tbe  ilak 
of  affairs  in  England.  H.  being  of  aa  eaaj  asd 
self-indulgent  dispoaitioe,  allowed  two  _yem  to 
pass  before  taking  any  atqta  to  aaaeit  hi  li^ta 
Roused  at  last  by  hia  motber'*  lemoMlnuMea,  it, 
in  ID3Q,  eqmpped  a  fleet  aad  anny,  aiul  was  deal 
to  aail  for  Englaml  to  diapoaseas  the  nanrmr,  win 
be  waa  met  by  a  deputation  of  Bo^iah  n<x>le^  win 
infonned  him  of  the  daath  of  HmoM,  and  oSM 
him  the  orewn.  H.  reigoad  in  England  tOl  IH^ 
wlien,  after  a  quiet  Kign,  ba  died  of  ^ofloj, 
induced  by  hia  gluttonous  babita.  With  B.  mm 
the  Danish  line  in  Kagland, 

BARDIHO,  SnPKBi,  the  third  abbe*  rf  tb 
oelebretad  monastery  of  Citaanx,  and  one  <rf  Ih 
moat  remarkable  r^giooa  refomen  of  Uia  19h 
ontury.  Of  hia  parentue  and  youthful  hiatmy,  litUi 
is  known  bavond  the  fitct  that  Im  waa  ol  a  nobis 
Engliab  family,  and  in  eariv  life  a  aoldi«K  Duds 
ona  of  tboaa  r^igioua  impuUea  which  ao  freqneatly 
occurred  in  the  middl*  agea,  ho  nodeitaak  a 
pilgrimage  to  Boma.  He  tubaeqnently  cntcnd  tlu 
Franch  monaatery  of  St  Claude  de  Jouz,  when  In 
waa  BO  distinguiabad  by  his  atrict  and  exemiiluj 
life,  that  ba  waa  oboaeo  abbot  of  the  numutcij 
of  B4za,  with  a  view  to  the  reformatioa  of  iU 
diadpline,  which  bad  become  much  relaxed,  tma 
thia  monastery  be  waa  tranafen«d  to  that  d 
Citeaux,  where,  on  the  death  of  Albetio  in  1109,  lie 
was  elected  abbot.  Tha  lifour  of  obaurrsnoa  which 
he  here  enforced  bad  anch  an  oSeot  in  detcnim 
novicea  from  antehng  the  new  order,  that  a 

fean  ware  entertained  for  its  atabilityi  bat 
len,  placing  hia  trust  in  the  oood  cansa  which 
—  had  undertaken,  panevared  in  tbe  caast  "f 
reform;  and  he  was  rewarded,  in  111%  by 
acceaaion  of  St  Bernard  and  tbuty  oUier  yODtb^ 
whose  emiiWDt  virtue  gave  such  an  impulse  la  tba 
institut*^  that  in  a  abort  tima  tha  number  of  claim- 
anta  far  admiaaion  compelled  bim  to  found  aannl 
new  conventa.  and  especially  that  of  Ctab**!!^ 
which,  under  tbe  rule  of  St  Bernard,  attainsd  la 
the  vaiy  bi^iwt  distinctiou  in  that  ag&  Abbot 
Stephen  continued,  tiU  bis  death  in  llM,todirsol 
tbe  fortunes  of  the  Ciatercian  order ;  and  in  111% 
ha  drew  up,  in  conjunction  with  St  Bernard  and 
o^ar  maibeia  of  the  brotbcnhood,  4lie  waD-kM*! 
oonatitutians  of  the  order,  entitled  Carta  Cirnlalii 
which  were  appreved  by  Pope  Caliztna  IL  aad 
EoganiuB  IIL,  and,  with  aame  modiBcations,  ban 
continued  down  to  modem  timea,  aa  Uis  rule  of  tba 
Cistarcian  institute.   BtrnMabiiitmAmalBftiiai*- 

t  V.  p.2oa 

HARDINGE,  Viscomrr  (EEinrr  HASWWft 
eld-manhal  and  oommander-in-diief  of  Ae  ftitiu 
armv,  the  third  aon  of  the  Bev.  H.  Haiding^  redo 
<^  Staubopa,  in  tha  county  of  Duihasi,  wal  bon 
March  30,  17SSk  and  was  saretted  aa  endgn  Ulon 
hs  had  attained  hia  IStb  year.  He  obtoiwd  a 
brigade  conunand  before  hia  25th  ynr,  and  hi* 
grade  waa  commuted,  abortly  afl«rwsri% 
.bsh  rank,  after  which  he  waa  attacbad  *> 
tbe  Fortnoneae  army  from  1S09  to  1813,  in  tht 
capacity  of  depnty  (■uartac-maataf-ganeiaL  Vhm 
Napoleon  effeded  bia  memorabla  tvtniu  fram  SUb^ 
B.  joined  the  allied  armiee  in  Belgjui^  and  «*■ 
^pointed  b^  the  Daks  of  Wellinxton  comouMioner 
at  Uts  Pruasian  head-quarteia.  Hia  lost  bit  hand  a* 
Ugny,  and  waa  thua  unable  to  partioipria  in^ 


— ^.  filled  tba 

aaoratary  of  Ireland.      In  ISM,  ha  aocapted  IM 
'' '  '    pcct  of  goramor-genarBl  «f  Indi^  wbiob  hs 


jbjGoogle 


oat,  ha  honied  to  the  ntniS-weatem  frontiec  of 
Tiwiia,  and  Berved  m  lecond  in  oommand  nnder 
Xjord  Ooaeh  doriiis  the  raiiguinarr  and  hard-foaght 
battles  of  Mood&ee,  Feroae^utlL,  and  Sobraon. 
-After  the  pacification  of  L«bore,  hia  eerrioea  wore 
rewarded  by  a  Tiaconntr,  the  EaM  Indian  Company 
gnntiiw  him  a  peoiicot  of  £5000,  and  paiiiament 
votins  Eim  an  annuity  of  £3000,  tor  himaelf  and  hia 
next  iwo  ancGeaaar*.  On  Uto  death  of  the  Doke  of 
Wellington  in  1802,  H.  waa  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Biitiah  army,  a  diatlngiuHhed  poat 
larhicll  he  filled  dniing  the  eventful  epoch  of  the 
BoMiaD  war,  and  which  he  only  reoigned  a  few 
■nontba  before  hia  death.  In  October  1856,  he  was 
advanced  to  the  rank  of  field-nmrahal.  He  died 
September  24,  1S66,  at  hia  aeat,  South  Park,  near 
Timbridge,  Kent^ 

HARDITBSS,  Scalb  or.      The  hardneaa   of  a 
body  ia  meaanred  by  its  power  of  adatehing  other 


MMented  t^  different  cryatalliaed  bodies  often 
fnrniali  a  Talnable  phyaical  msn  W  which  one 
mineral  may  be  readily  distingmahcd  from  othera 
cloaely  reaembling  it.  Moha  aelected  tea  well-known 
minerala,  each  ancceeding  one  being  hatder  than  the 
preccdina  one,  and  thoa  formed  the  Scale  of  Hard- 
«<■*,  which  haa  been  senerally  adopted  by  mboe- 
qoent  mineTBlogiatB.  Each  mineral  m  the  following 
table  ia  acratched  by  the  one  that  foUowa  it,  and 
conaaqnently  by  all  the  aubaequent  onea,  and  the 
hardneaa  of  any  mineral  may  be  determined  by 
reference  to  the  types  jnst  selected.  Thoa,  if  a  body 
neither  acratchea  nor  ia  icratch^d  by  felspar,  ita 
haidneaB  ia  aaid  to  be  6  ;  if  it  ahonld  scratch  felspar 
bat  not  quartz,  its  hardness  ia  between  6  and  7 — the 
d^ireea  of  haidnesa  being  nmnbered  from  1  to  10. 
The  figme*  on  the  right  indicate  the  nomber  of 
known  mineraja  af  the  same  or  nearly  the  aame 
d^ree  of  hardoew  as  the  anbatanoe  oppoaite  to 
which  they  stand  : 


t.  Fdqai  (aaj  slMnbla 

TuW),  » 

1.  Limpldqturli,    .       .   a 


The  canae  of  the  va 
different  bodies  ia  noi 
— M,  for  ezanrple,  a 

inflnence  ol  different  

take  impreaakina  from  a  die,  or  may  be  nearly  »a 


haidx 

HABDOTTIN,  Jeut,  was  ban  tn  1645  at  Qnimper, 
in  Brittany,  where  hia  father  followed  the  trade  of  a 
bookaeller.  H.  receired  his  first  education  in  the 
t^ioola  of  the  Jesnita,  and  being  received  into  that 
order  at  the  age  of  SO,  competed  hia  atudiea  in 
Pari&  On  the  death  of  Pta«  Gamier  in  1683,  E. 
waa  appointed  Ubmian  of  the  college  of  Looia  le 
flrand,  in  wUch  office  he  enjoyed  ndl  leiaore  tor 
the  litiMy  pimniti  in  whioh  he  delighted,  and 
which  hia  ratiaTuaneea  have  acqnired  for  him  _ 
notoric^  alnuwt  withont  any  parallel  in  the  aonala 
of  litMMry  eoceotricitT.  Dopin  plaoea  him  anKing 
the  T^v  fint  achalara  of^  hia  learned  brotlier- 
hood.  In  a  apirit  of  literary  iceptidam  whioh  it 
ia  difficult  to  look  upon  aa  aerioua,  he  main- 
tained, not  only  that  the  entire  bo<^  of  nlaaaical 
Uteratnre,  with  the  exoeption  of  In  Latin,  Pliny's 
Natural  Bilory,  Virgil^a  Oeorgle*,  the  comedlea 
of  Plantoa,  and  Horace'a  iSdfire*,  and  in  Oreek, 
Homer's    jUad,    and    Herodotus'a    BMory, 


falsely  aacribed  to  the  authora  whoM  vorion* 
namea  it  beara,  bat  that  it  waa  all  the  pro- 
duction  of  the  monka  nf  the  ISth  century  1  In 
the  aama  aoeptical  apirit,  he  rejected  aa  apnriooa 
all  the  reputed  remains  of  ancient  art,  together 
with  tba  inscriptions  and  coins  which  ore  attributed 
to  clBBsical  tim«e;  nay,  he  eitaided  the  aama 
BCeptieism  to  the  Septoagint  vetaioa  of  the  Old 
Teatamont,  and  even  to  the  Qreek  text  of  the 
New,  the  original  language  of  which  he  held  to  have 
been  Latin  t  Opiniona  so  oxtravBgant  naturally 
called  forth  the  reprobation  of  the  authorities  m 
his  order.  He  waa  required  to  retract  them ;  and 
there  is  aome  reason  to  believe,  that  they  were 
pat  forward  by  him  rather  from  a  love  of  paradox 
and  a  morbid  deeire  of  notoriety,  than  from  any 
inviction    of    their    prohttbilily,      Never- 


works  are  of  great  historical  and  criticsl  value. 
Hia  editicoi  of  FUny  (6  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1689)  is  a 
prodigy  of  learning  and  industry.  Of  his  remaining 
works,  the  moat  valuable  ia  hia  great  Co2Iec(to  Con- 
eOiorum  (12  vola,  folio),  a  work  of  great  leoniing 
and  utility,  which  has  Uie  rare  advantage  of  possen- 

;  one  of  the  beet  iodexea  extant ;  a  commentary 

.the  New  Testament  in  folio  ;  several  voliimea  on 
the  study  ol  numismatica  and  chronology;  and  a 
Toat  number  of  dissertations  and  eesays  in  the 
MfjiuAra  dt  Tretumx.  He  died  at  the  oao  of  83,  in 
the  convent  of  his  order  in  Paris,  September  3,  1729. 

HARDWABE,  a  commercial  term  applied  to  the 
commoner  articles  made  of  iron,  copper,  or  brass, 
auch  aa  locks,  heya,  anvila,  grotea,  ahovela,  &c  The 
it  hardware  manufocturca  of  this  country  are  at 
niDgham,  WolTerhompton,  WalaaJl,  Willenall, 
Sheffield,  ta.  Tho  extent  of  the  trade  of  theae 
plocea  is  enormous  ;  the  value  of  the  exporta  of 
hardware  alone  amoimting  to  millions.  The  retuma 
for  the  year  1871  give  for  bordwarea,  including 
cutlery,  £4,000,00a    See  iBOtr. 

HABD-WOODED  TBBES  are  foreat-treea  of 
comparatively  alow  growth,  producing  compact, 
hard,  and  valuable  timber,  aa  oak,  oah,  elm, 
cheatnnt,  walnut,  beech,  birob,  &o.  From  theae, 
willows,  ddera,  poplars,  Ac,  are  dJaUngoiahed  as 
aon-woMfad  Ireei.  Neither  terra  ia  extended  to  flra, 
pmes,  cedua,  or  other  coniferous  trees,  the  wood  of 
whi(^  ia  of  a  peculiar  and  very  different  character. 

HARB  (Lepua),  a  genua  of  rodent  quadrupeds, 
of  which  there  are  many  apeciea  very  aimilor  to  each 
other.  The  Linnean  genua  Lepui  now  forms  the 
family  Ltporida,  whiui  includes  the  genera  £«pif« 
and  Lagomgt,  and  of  which  a  peculiar  characteristio 
is  the  presence  of  two  amall  inciaon  immediately 
behind  the  ordinary  rodent  inciaon  of  the  upper 
'  iw,  ao  that  these  teeth  aeem  to  be  double.  The 
-i<jar-teeth,  six  on  each  side  above  and  Ave  below, 
are  teanaveraely  grooved,  being  fomaed  of  two 
vertioal  ]dataa  soldned  together.  All  the  animals  of 
tJii«  family  feed  excluaively  on  vegetable  food,  and 
chiefly  on  herbages  although  they  are  also  fond  of 
grain,  roots,  and  the  bark  of  treea.  Their  fore-feet 
have  five  toea,  their  hind-feet  four ;  the  aolca  are 
hairy.  Their  fur  is  soft;  the  colouia  mostly  gray 
or  brown,  the  alpine  and  arctic  apecies  becoming 
whit«  in  winter. — The  CouHON  H.  [L.  linudut)  is 
widely  diatiibuted  over  Europe  and  the  northern 
and  central  parta  of  Asia.  The  Irish  H.  (X.  Hiber- 
meu)  has,  however,  recently  been  described  aaa 
diattnet  apecies.  It  differs  mmk  the  common  H.  in 
ita  rounder  head,  ahorter  ears,  and  ahorter  liinba ; 
alao  in  having  the  fnr  composed  only  of  one  kind  of 
hair,  abort  and  aoft,  with  none  of  the  long  black- 
tipped  hair*  whioh   are  mixed  with   this  in  th« 


t,L,oogl( 


HABE— HARFLEU& 


■buiding  the  character  of  timidity  osoallj  aacribed 


Oommoa  Hate  iLtpiu  Hmidiu). 


ham  cui  onfy  ba  bought  bom  ft  UocDaed  dealar.  and 
■old  1:^  lioeiiied  penoni.  The  ownar  of  endoaed 
land,  uid  alao  the  teaaot,  if  otherwiae  entitled  by 
hii  leaie  to  UH  hana,  ma^  do  lo  withoat  a  licenae. 
Bo  thoM  who  hunt  th«ai  with  grayhomida  or  beagle* 
nqnira  no  boanae.  All  tMima  require  a  lioanie.  To 
kin  bare*  unlswfii]^  by  ni^t  in  a  warren,  or  place 
kept  tor  breeding  barea,  it  now  a  miadetneanottr  by 
M»nd2EVkitM,B.17i  to  kill  them  elaowiiere,  u 
Wy  a  miadeneaaoiir  when  the  third  offence  i>  oom- 
mitted.  In  SooUand,  the  law  ia  mbetaotially  the 
same,  eioept  tiiiat  the  killing  of  bane  unlawfully 
by  night  a  only  an  offence  pnoiababU  nmunarily, 
nnlesa  it  ia  ft  third  offence,  wben  it  bacomee  indict- 
able. In  Iidand,  Oiere  ia  a  oloae  Mason,  when  barea 
cannot  be  killed— TJz.,  between  the  &nst  Monday  in 
Novemb^  and  the  Brat  Monday  in  Jnly  foQawing. 
See  PateiBOD'e  Oame-lami  of  lAe  United  Kingdom. 

HAB£BEU%  or  BLUEBELL  [CamfiaitKlaralan- 
difolia),  the  moat  common  of  all  the  Biitiah  tpedea 
of  BeMower  (aea  CixtAxuLt),  growing  abnnoiatly 

d^  tmd  hilly  paatnrea,  on  wayude    ""        * 


t  really  ■  pngnao 


diapl^a  no  little  ooviMe  bi  ntooonten  with  thoaa 
of  its  own  raoe,  or  wSh  ""'■"»'■  at  nearty  eqnal 
poweti.  It  bai  beoi  an  oUeot  of  tba  «ih«ae  fnmi  ~ 
vwy  «*riy  period.  Xeuo^oo,  ia  hia  ^—^~ 
gives  an  eauuuiaatdc  deMnptioD  of  tbe 
ceming  tbe  bnutiiig  of  the  H.,  lee  Cons: 


evidra^y  denied  to  seek  aafety  from 
'he  E.,  however  well  BU[mlie<i 

fat.    It  ordinarily  Gee  qoiet  in  its 


fleetnen,  the  I 


form  during  the  day,  and  goea  in  quest  of  food 
the  evening  and  morning.  Where,  throogh  game 
preserving,  it  ia  abundant  it  doee  no  little  d^iaee 
to  crops.  It  ia  a  prolific  ftnimal,  allbongh  not  nearly 
so  mnch  so  as  the  rabbit.  The  femiJe  produoee 
from  two  to  Ave  at  a  birth.  The  young  {Ustrttt) 
are  bom  covered  with  hair,  and  with  the  eyea 
open. — The  ViBYDiQ  H.  or  Alkki  H.  (X.  vari- 
abOiM),  which  inbabita  the  mountains  both  of  tlie 
north  and  south  of  Eorcoe,  and  ia  foond  on  thoae  of 
Scotland  and  of  Cmnberland,  is  remarkable  for  the 
change  of  ookmr  which  it  nndeigoes,  withont  chauf 
of  hair,  OD  the  ftpproac^  of  winter.  Ordinarily  of  . 
bluish-gnty  ooloor,  it  beoomee  of  a  shining  iriute, 
the  chuge  beginning  with  tite  feet  and  extendi)^ 
upwards,  tenninatinf  with  the  back.  This,  which 
in  many  pLwss  ia  called  th*  BUit  H.,  is  about  «inal 
in  size  to  the  common  H.,  but  ha*  eborter  limbs 
and  ears,  and  ia  loa  swift.— Id  the  arctic  reguna 
both  of  the  Old  and  New  Worids,  the  Ascno  H. 
01  PoLaB  H.  IL.  glaeialit)  abonnda.  It  is  antitcly 
white  in  winter,  brownish'.nay  •-  -"'"—"  v— 
long  soft  for  on  the  belly,  aM.  fici 
ba(& ;  ia  oonndeiably 


thick  for  on  the 


white 

long  soft  for  on  the  belly, 

bau ;  ia  oonaideiably  luger  _.  . . . 

and  spends  the  whole  year  withont  hybeniation, 

even  m  MelfiUa  Tslaivi,  *j>^  ■rimilf  oiud  deaolate 

regions ;  lichens  and  mossca  pn>bably  affording  it 


part  of  its  food. — North  America  pro- 
iberM  other  tpaoiea  id  H.,  of  whidi  acme 
inhabit  the  swamp*  of  the  sonQtam  ttfttea. — India 


has  a  H.  (L.  rt^emdatni)  very  Kmilar  to  the 
mon  H.  i  othst  neeiM  are  found  in  other  p«t* 
Asia,  Ikypt,  the  Cape  (rf  Good  Hop^fto.    lite  f- 
of  the  5.  i*  naad  lor  felting  foe  making  hats  and 


HARE,  in  p<Ait  of  Kiglish  law,  ia  one  of  the 
wild  «"■"■»<■  called  Game  [q.  v.],  and  i*  specialty 
protected  bj  the  nine-laws  for  the  benefit  of  the 
ownen  of  land.  There  is  no  close  season  i 
bares,  which  may  therefore  be  lawfolly  killed  by  a 
lioensed  sportaman  all  the  year  roimd.    Being  gaMX^ 


Euvbell  [Oampannla  ntaiidifiilia\ 


parts  of  Europe,  and  even  to  the  extreme  north, 
it  ia  ererywhere  ft  favmrite  from  its  beanty  and 
eraoefDlneas,  and  is  the  subject  of  many  aUnmons 
m  poetry.  It  is  a  pereonial  plant,  with  a  slender 
item  S— 14  inches  high,  sometimes  bearing  only 
one  flower,  bat  more  generally  a  looee  paniije  vt  a 
tew  drooping  flowers,  on  very  aiender  stalks;  lie 
flowers  sometimes  wbit&  but  genmaUy  bn^t  bine, 
bell-^iaped,  and  folly  hau  an  inch  lon&  Tbo  jnioe 
of  the  Sowen  yields  a  fine  blue  coloiir,  and  may 
beniedas  ink. 

HAHE'S-EAB  {Bupintrum),  a  gmna  of  planta  of 
the  Batoial  order  UmbtUfflrm,  haring  eamponnd 
umbels  tt  yellow  floweta,  and  gMsnlty  simple 
leavea.  The  teare*  of  the  moat  ooMmon  fiiitah 
specie*,  &  roi¥)>M)ti»m,  «mbnc«  the  stem  and  are 
rodDidiili  ovid.  Tim  plants  which  bowb  in  oom- 
fleld*  in  the  ebalk  dirttiols,  i*  the  Hen^^-waas  at 
th*  old  herbftli*b*,  and  w««  <»ea  in  nnpBte  as  a 
Tolnaaiy,  bnt  has  fallen  into  diaoae.  llie  fpeotea 
of  H.  are  nnntarona,  and  are  native*  of  tempemte 
climate*  in  most  parts  of  the  warid. 

HABFLEUR  (called  in  the  middle  age*  Han- 
JMi,  a  small  town  of  ^ance,  in  the  deputment  of 


i^tkiogle 


EASGILKAyES— HAIUSl 


Sdns-InfirieiiTB,  ii  attocM  

LCEard«,  on  the  nortlteni  bftnk  of  the  Seine,  ftboot 
four  mika  eait  of  Le  Hkvre.  lite  chief  bo^Qng  ii 
s  bMatifol  Oothio  ehnrdt  witli  an  elegant  tower, 
built  by  the  B"el'"«>'  h  •  nMQtori&l  of  tiie  tieto^  of 
ApaoataL  Fop.  ISOO,  who  an  smidojred  in  fiiEing 
o^  tho  rearing  of  oaCtie.  In  former  timaB,  before 
the  liie  of  Eavre,  H.  wa«  a  flourishing  totrn,  and 
wot  the  key  to  the  entrance  of  the  Seine.  Its 
harbonr  now  forms  a  meadow.  It  wm  taken  by 
the  ISnglish  nnder  Henry  T,  in  I4I6,  retaken  by 
the  TVenoh  in  1433 ;  in  14W  it  wm  again  adeed 
by  the  En^ish,  and  ten  yean  ^ter  was  raeqitiired 
bj  Oharlee  VII  of  FnatM.  Off  tUa  town  the 
Doke  of  Bedford  took  or  destroyed  nearly  SOD 
French  ahipa,  Angnst  IE,  1416. 

HABOBEAyXB,  Jakb,  whoaa  BanM  will  «tb 
faotare  of  ttia  G<nintiT,a«  the  inventor  of  the  carding- 


.  .  n  iffitcaate  man,  and  nipiiorted  falmaelf  and 
tami^by  weavfa^  and  ndnning  eaniad  on  in  his 
own  howe,  aeo«r&ig  to  the  enatom  of  the  tima.  In 
1761^  he  inrentedtiM  eardiiig-madiine^  as  aMfaalftBte 
for  the  use  of  hand-oarda  |  and  four  yean  later,  he 
prodooed  the  spiiiQit^jamy.  E.  had  EMqtMDtly 
tried  to  qiin  with  tiro  ct  three  apindlea  at  oooeL 
holding  the  aerenl  threads  between  the  flngtca  <d 


while  he  was  at  work,  .  _  .    . 

in  hia  hand,  the  wheel  oontinned  rerotrimt  hoiizon- 
taUy,  and  the  apindle  TertioaUy.  Hie  tfiaerratiaD 
..  .1...     ..    .-    _  jTodooed  the  iJunight,  that  if  a 


jnt  his  idea  into  footioe,  and  the  result  was  Qm 
Msy,  at  which  he  mmI  hia  famfly  worked,  till  the 
lar^  amoont  of  eotton  whieh  they  epmi  h>i ' 


d  irii£ 

3,bn 
e  thi 
„  lam  in  1768,  where  he  erected  a  spinning 
milL  Tin)  year*  later,  he  took  ont  a  pateiA  for  bis 
nuohiDe;  and  diaaonriDf  that  it  was  "  ~"  '^~ 
mannfactiiren  in  I^noashim  withont  his 
bnmght  an  aotion  for  ^000  damago. 
trial,  he  waa  offered  by  a  oonqally  £300l 
of  the  jenny;  but  refused ;  and  it  htiring 
that  he  had  sold  some  of  hit  manhim—  osiun  hh 
patent  waa  obtained,  it  was  ttwt^  dedared  to. 
MTtt  been  invalidated,  and  Ut  elaim  tot  octnpen- 
sation  fell  to  the  gmmd.  nnia  the  inventor  waa 
bat  little  bttHdtad  by  faia  work.    H.  eontinned  to 


£3000  f(x  the  nae 


junction  wttk  a  lb  Jonea,  with  modamte  iwooest, 
tin  his  death  in  April  1778t  when  hia  dun  ia  the 
miIlww1xmBiitbyhiapartBcrfcT£MIX  Saoonnt^ 
never  gave  H.  at^  reward  for  Aainv«ntioa  to  whiA 
ao moch of  its  wadth  is  dne lyet  it  ia h«t  jnsi  to 
Um  BMsnOTT  of  Oe  late  Sir  Kobnt  Peel  to  sMe, 
that  oM  of  Ua  last  acta 
botowoi  ' 
of  this  E 
Bounty  Fnnd. 
yt^-KiVATtt     Bee  HabbI-SUjz. 


btmi  at  Brwlan  in  the  year  1798.     He  waa 
in  Berlin,  and  served  sa  a  volunteer  ia  tlie  ..    .,..-o- 
of  181Gl    He  afterwards  studied  law  at  Berlin  and 
Brealao,  but  abandoned  this  pnteuit  for  a  literary 


career.  After  lereial  poetical  and  other  literarr 
effort^  E,  flrat  made  himself  known  over  all 
Germainr  and  abroad  by  hia  romance  of  Waliadmor 
(2d  edit.1829— ie!4),writtenmoonBeqnenMof  awaser 
with  a  friend  that  be  wonld  prodnoe  a  woik  wUdt 
■hoold  be  mistaken  for  one  of  Sir  Walter  Sootf  s. 
WaBadmor  wA  a  most  andacion*  nysldfleaticni,  wd 
waa  greedlty  devoured  in  Germaay  m  a  prodnctioii 
of  the  Soottiah  novelist.  It  wm  toandate'  ' 
vaiioaa  laagOMca,  aoMng  othcn  into  EnoL 
ThoOM  de  4*>meay  (IioMlon,  1S2«,  artioae  fa 
tion,  however,  diMMited  w  widdy  frou  the  <■ 


i!ts,m*yiw  ngsfded  aahia  beat  work;  iMand 
Arlm  (8  v<da.  1840>j  D«rfaM»  WaUmar 
(8  vols.  ISffi)  lAoM /HtyM  tad  £aw /oeAm  (3  voIk 
1846);  Dtr  WOnteV (S reU.  18U)f  aad  BaAt  id 
dU  mtt  BtrgerpJuAt  (E  nla.  1862),  nu^  likewiae 
'-a  daawd  amoiur  tha  dfit  ipetdmeiM  of  the  Uatorioal 
manoe  in  the  Qonan  langnaga.  He  died  in  1871, 
HARIRI,  Ami  Hosamud  a.  KAani  um  *", 
most  eelebiBted  AraUe  pldkdosiBt  and  poe^  bom 
b  Baawirah,  on  the  Tigrb,  in  AS  H.  (lOH  a.j>.). 
Little  ia  kncnnt  of  hia  Ufa  and  otraauMtaDOea,  aave 
that  be  waa  the  aoo  of  a  nlk-nMMbaat  (whanoa 
his  name  Harirt-AoHr,  ailk).  H;  wnrte  aeveral 
valnable  grammatical  woika,  and  hia  lyrina  are  of 
a  bi^  order.  Bat  ttia  moat  famona  of  all  hia 
wribngs,  and  indeed  one  of  the  moat  Imaam  etaa- 
positions  of  all  timea  and  ooaatriea,  ia  his  book 
entitled  MaiamAs  (Stdngs).  Tfai*  my  beat  be 
described  as  a  novel,  or  a  coUeotiaa  of  Aymed 
le&  looaely  struns  tomt&er,  the  oentxe  of  whidi 
alwaya  a  certam  Abn  Send  from  Semj,  who, 
tty,  dsver,  amiable,  «4  ideaaing  mannoa,  wdl 
read  in  sacred  and  profane  Iok^  bnt  conning, 
nnacrapfilcnn,  a  tharou^  rogna  ia  fact,  tnma  mi 
nndet  all  pcenble  dispdeaa,  and  in  io  poanbu 
plaoes— aermoainnf^  poetirin|^  telling  advtaitiea 
and  tab*  of  all  kinda— alw^r*  amaainA  and  alw^a 
gettiikg  money  out  ol  hii  andienoa.  The  brilliancy 
of  im^ination  aad  wit  displayed  in  these  stnuige 
advantuei^  thair  starikiDg  OMngea^  and  dnwoatio 
aitnatim^   have   hardly  ever  basn  eqaaDad 


.of  lao- 
"DtB  whole  foree  of  t^  Movmbiid  fulness 
leaaica,  writ,  alagatiee,  and  grandenr  of  the 
idiom,  H.  baa  broo^  to  bear  (m  hia  anbject. 


guage.    ^Qie  whole  foree  of  tna  p 
ot  ezjfnaaica,  writ,  elsgane^ 
Aratno  idiom,  H.  baa  brM^ 


has  indeed  beoome  the  annooty  __ 

Ine  of  aO  Arabia  wiitesa  cinoe  bb  day.  Poets 
and  historians,  srsmmaiians  and  Iezio(^iaplier& 
look  npon  the  MabamAi  as  the  highest  aooroe  of 
antbon^,  and  nert  to  the  Koran,  ae  far  at  least 
aa  langosge  la  oonoemed.  His  book  has  been 
banslated  dtber  entir^  or  partiaOy  into 
evary  "    ■  .-.>-.  .      . 


iT  oE  which  la  tiie  o 


t^  into  nearly 
1  Entmiean  tcogne,  has  been  ttie 
imeraUa  imitatimis,  the  moat  i 


u  Hebrew,  TVidUmmi, 


3  vols. ;  another  by  Oansain  de  Fcroeval,  in  Paii^ 
1818 ;  one  mneh  more  valoabU^  chiefly  on  aoootmt 
of  its  oommentai;  by  Silvesbv  de  wy,  appeared 
in  Paris,  ISSl— 1322  (re-edited  1847— I86S). 
llie  &it  (Latin)  tronalationa  in  European  tongoM 
\  BiDgle  Makanielis  vere  mads  by  Qolius  [IoS6) 
..ad  ^haitena  (1731,  ftc.).  Bat  the  palm  of  all 
traiuUtians  is  dao  to  BUckert,  who,  with  a  power 
only  inferior  to  that  ot  E.  himself,  has  so  eom- 
ptetely  reprodnced  the  spirit  and  form  of  the  woril 
in  German  in  his   Veraxm^umgea  dea  Abtt  Btid  h. 


biailiz..lb,GoOgll 


HAKISOEANDEA-HAItliBQUIN,  OLOWN,  PANTALOON,  AND  COLUUBINE. 


Berug,  first  publiahed  in  1S26,  th&t  the  MabamA 
itidi  luil  become  a  fftvourito  form  for  limilor  com- 
potitioni  in  Oermuiy.  Itngliah  traoalatioiu,  bat 
wldch  f&U  for  diort  of  the  Qermttn  one,  were 
publuhed  in  I7QT  by  ChapeUon,  uid  ia  1850  by 
PreEton.  Honk  uid  De  Sacy  have  lendered  tome 
poitioui  into  French. 

HABISOHAITDBA,  a  Hindu  king  of  the  sokr 
dynM^,  a  deooendant  of  IkshwUiu,  and  one  of  tbe 
mora  prominent  peraonagfS  io  the  le^ndwy  history 
of  ancient  India.  The  earliest  loeDtJon  i«  m&de  of 
him  in  the  JtUtrayO'iiKlAnHina  (see  Veda),  where  he 
u  the  sabject  of  one  of  the  moat  interesting  legends 
of  the  Yedic  period.  He  ia  represented  tb^  as 
demnxiB  of  obt«ii^s  »  son,  and  of  making  a  com- 
pact with  the  god  Vwnna,  b^  which  he  promised  to 
■aorifioe  to  the  god  his  son,  if  he  granted  him  one. 
Varnna  aoeedea  to  his  prayo',  and  the  AitAreya- 
Sr^Anaita  then  proceeds  to  relate  how  H.  delayed, 
from  time  to  time,  the  fulfilment  of  his  part  of  the 
compact,  until  at  last  he  succeeded  in  finding  a 
■abstitiite  for  his  son  in  S'oashs'epa,  who  was  sold 
t»  him  by  his  father  for  100  oowa,  to  be  offered  in 
■acrifioe  to  Vanina.  Ultimately,  however,  S'linah- 
s'epa  beoomea  released  from  his  bondage  through  tbe 
interrention  of  the  gods.  See  S'TTiriilB  EPA.  Acoord- 
ing  to  the  epic  poem  MaMbhArtUa,  Q.  wu  a  type 
of  munificence  and  piety,  and  after  death  became 
derated  to  the  court  of  Indra ;  and  aome  of  the 
PnriUlM  are  stall  more  explicit  on  his  wonderful  fate. 


the  damuida  made  by  this  greedy  prieot  for  his 
aasistanca  at  a  sacrifice.  H.,  in  consequence  of  this 
pious  act,  beoajoa  elevated  with  his  sabjecta  to  the 
paradiae  of  Indra ;  but  haviss  been  insidlouBly 
mialed  by  Nbada  to  boast  of  hm  merits,  was  again 
precipitated.  The  repentance  of  his  pride,  however, 
amated  his  downward  descent,  and  he  and  his 
train  paused  in  mid-ur,  where  his  city  is  popularly 
believed  to  be  at  times  still  viable.— See  Wilson's 
■  the  FMrnt-PurAna. 


HARIYAN 8'A,  a  Sanscnt  epot  oC  some  extent, 
which  professes  to  be  port  of  the  MaMbb&rata,  but 
may  be  more  proper^  clawed  with  the  Pminaa. 
It  IS  chiefly  occupied  with  tbe  adventures  of  Vishnu, 
in  his  incarnation  m  Krishna,  but  treats  likewise  of 
'  the  worid,  of  patriarchal  and  regal 


of  the  day,  familiar  in  his  youth  with  the  lu^jea  of 
Highland  warfare,  and  more  recently  distingniBhod 
inthe  wars  of  France  and  Flanders.  Tbe  anniea 
met  on  the  Eve  of  St  James  <24th  July)  1411,  at 
Harlaw,  a  low  table-land  on  the  banks  of  the  Ury, 
about  18  miles  to  l^e  north-west  of  Aberdeen.  The 
battio  was  bng  and  bloody,  but  the  Highlanders 
were  at  last  diiTen  back.  They  left  two  chiefs, 
Macldm  and  Macintosh,  and  more  than  900  dead 
upon  the  Geld.  The  loss  upon  the  otiier  aide  was 
oomputed  at  SOD  or  600,  among  whom  were  the 
CoDstabte  oE  Dundee,  horeditaiy  bearer  of  the  royal 
baimer.  Sir  Alexander  Irvine  of  Drum,  and  other 
knights,  many  of  the  best  eequires  of  Angus  and 
Meanis,.near^all  the  gentry  of  Buchan,  and  Jtobert 
Davidson,  the  provost,  and  many  of  the  buighen  of 
Aberdeen.  So  obstinate  and  sangninaiy  was  tho 
stmggle,  and  so  greatly  were  the  Lawlandeis  out- 
numtered,  that  lew  of  them  escaped  without  a 
wound.  The  coufliot  made  a  deep  and  lasting 
impression  on  the  national  mind.  For  more  than  a 
hundred  years,  the  battle  of  Harlaw  continued  to  bo 
fought  over  again  by  •chool-bays  in  their  play.  For 
more  than  two  hnndred  years,  it  was  remembered  in 
&.e  music  of  the  people.  It  lived  still  longer  in  their 
traditions^  and  it  ii  not  yet  forgotten  in  their 
poetry.  It  is  the  subject  of  a  stilTpopuIar  ballad, 
written,  it  would  seem,  towards  the  end  of  the  16th 
0.,  printed  at  least  aa  early  u  1668,  reprinted  in 
Allan  Esiusay's  Evergreea  in  1724,  and  included  in 
most  subsequent  collections  of  Scottiak  ballads. 
Sevtt,  in  his  Ald/imiary,  has  oommemorated  'the 
nir  fidd  of  Harlaw   in  a  fine  fra^ent  of  song. 

HA'RLBQUIN,  CLOWN.  PAHTALOO'N,  and 
OO'LUMBINE,  the  four  chief  persona^  in  the 
modem  ChristmsB  pantomime.  iW  species  of  ptay 
is  divided  into  two  parts — the  one,  the  introdnction, 
or  opening ;  tbe  other,  the  harlequinade.  BoUi 
divisions  of  this  kind  of  play,  but  particularly  the 
opening,  were  wont  to  be  act»d  in  dumb-show,  and 
at  one  time  the  same  performers  used  to  play  all 
throu^  the  piece  ;  the  idea  of  which  was  a  sto^  of 
love,  mterspeiwd  with  groteegue  elements..  At  a 
oertun  stage  of  the  plot,  a  faury  was  employed  to 
transform  the  tyrant  and  his  abettor  into  Clown 
and  Pantaloon,  and  the  lovers  into  Harlequin  and 
Columbine ;  and  tbe  motley  quartett  were  sent 
away  for  a  period    -  ■  '—  "  -*---   "--  "- — " 


PuRiHA. 

HABLAW,  Battlb  or.  From  the  beginning  of 
the  12th  a  to  the  beginning  of  the  14th  c,  the 
power  and  territory  of  the  Cfitic  tribes  in  Scotland 
steadily  gave  way  before  the  encroachments  of  the 
An^o-Normans  of  the  Lowlands.  But  during  the 
long  Wars  of  the  Succession,  and  the  feeble  reigns 
of  the  first  and  second  Stuart  kings,  the  Ceftic 
people  regained  so  much  oC  what  they  had  lost, 
that,  strengthened  by  alliaooes  with  England,  tbev 
b^^  to  be  regarded  with  alarm  by  the  Scottish 
govemnient  A  trial  of  strength  seemed  inevitable, 
and  it  was  precipitated  by  a  dispute  as  to  the  right 
of  Buccenion  to  the  earldom  of  Boss,  between 
Donald  Lord  of  the  Isles  and  a  brother  of  tjie  Regent 
Albany.  The  island  chief,  gathering  a  boat  of  10,000 
Isleamen  and  Highlandeia,  marohod  rapidly  south- 
wards, leaving  bsToo  and  desolation  behmd  hini. 
The  rich  city  of  Aberdeen,  and  the  whole  country 
to  the  north  of  the  Tay,  seeioed  to  be  within  hia 
grasp,  when  he  was  encountcnad  by  a  vastly  inferior 
force  of  the  chivalry  and  men-at-arms  of  Mar, 
Qariooh,  Badian,  Angus,  and  Meams,  under  Alex- 
ander Stewart,  iWl  of  Mar,  one  ol  the  beat  captains 


a  of  which  took  ploM  at  tiie  wiU  of  the  good 
lairy.  During  this  cI^hb,  the  object  of  the  Clown 
ought  to  be  Uio  capture  of  Columbine ;  but  Harle- 
quin, who  is  provided  by  the  faiiy  with  a  magio 
sword,  the  loss  of  which  renders  him  helpless, 
is  usually  able  to  thwart  all  his  designs,  and 
protect  his  mistress.  A  rymbolical  meaning 
may,  no  donbt,  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  sucE 
representations,  at  least  in  many  oE  their  parta; 
but  as,  in  their  modem  form,  they  are  a  jumble  of 
fragments  from  older  ncenio  entertainmenta,  auy- 
thing  like  a  consistent  scheme  is  not  to  be  looked 
for.  As  to  the  characters,  the  prototypes  of  the 
Clown  and  Harlequin  may  be  traced  back  to  the 
Roman  AteUann  (q.  v.).  The  arlechina  (Fr.  arit- 
quin)  of  the  early  Italian  dramatic 


advanced,  the  character  gradually  became  .  ... 
refined,  then  was  confined  to  the  ballot,  and  at  last 
disappeared  from  the  regular  stage.  He  still  figurea 
in  tlie  improvised  plays  of  the  Italians.  In  Ec^sfa 
pantomimes,  the  Clown  is  the  prime  mover  in  the 
'  comic  business ; '  and  there  are  often  two,  tho 
*  talking'  Clown,  and  the/;  tumbling '  Clown,  who  acta 
chiefly  as  an  acrobat.  The  Clown  is  also  a  nevet^ 
failing  adjunct  in  cirena  entertainments.  Pantaloon 
is  usMlly  represented  u  a  rery  Mule  old  man,  the 


tyCoogle 


HABLEQUm  DDCK— HABMALINE  AND  HABMINE. 


knoeted  about  and  well  cuffad  by  every 
f^nerally,  therefore,  weoni  a  st^ed  dross,  in  order 
to  protect  bimaeU  from,  accident  Columbine,  the 
lover  of  Harlequin,  ha<  nothing  to  do  all  through 
(he  piece  bat  to  drees  veil,  looE  pretty,  and  dance 
het  best  Tha  character  of  Colmubiue  is  naiuiUy 
represented  by  a  well-tnuned  dancer.  Harlequin 
wears  a  tight  dress  sewn  over  with  spangled 

The  persons  engaged  in  theflo  oocnpations  require 
to  be  trained  to  it  &om  infancy.  To  nuke  a  good 
Clown  or  Harleqoin  (in  the  continent&l  uid  origiDal 
sense  of  tbe  word)  requires  decided  senios  ;  and 
though  the  rAIe  may  seem  the  lowest  in  ue  dramatic 
art,  lasting  European  reputations  have  been  obtained 
in  it,  OS  by  the  Englisii  clown,  Orimaldi,  and  the 
famous  French  Carlin  (1713—1783). 

HARLEQUIN  DUOK  ICImtguia  hidriotuea),  a 
species  oE  Oarrot  (q-T.),  which  recdves  its  name 
from  its  variegated  markings,  chiefly  white,  gray. 


and  black.  It  inhabits  the  arctia  regions,  where  it 
is  found  not  only  on  the  sea,  but  on  lakes  and 
rivers.  It  is  a  rare  winter  visitor  of  the  British 
islands.  In  America,  it  is  pret^  plentiful  in  winter 
Da  far  south  as  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Ita  whole  length 
is  about  17  inches, 

HARLGY,  SoBEBT,  Earl  ty*  Oxtord  and 
MoRTium,  the  son  of  Sir  Edward  Harley,  an  active 
partisan  of  the  parliament  during  the  civil  wars, 
and  descended  aoni  an  illustrious  Herefordshire 
family,  was  bom  in  London  in  1661.  H.  entered 
pariiament,  being  returned  for  the  Cornish  boiongh 
of  Tregony,  M  a  Whig  ;  but  he  soon  began  to  viSa 
and  spetk  agsjnst  his  party ;  and  poLoy  and  ambi- 
tion, rather  than  choice,  made  bi'"  an  anti-dissenter 
and  an  ardent  TotT.  He  shortly  acquired  a  great 
reputation  for  his  knowledge  of  parluunentary  law 
and  practice,  a  study  not  much  pursued  in  those 
days ;  and  in  the  parliament,  which  met  under 
the  chieftainship  of  Rocheatar  and  Godolphin,  In 
February  1701,  he  was,  by  a  large  majority,  elected 
■peaker.  H.  retained  this  post,  having  been  twice 
re-elected,  till  Amil  1704,  when  he  became  secre- 
tary of  statft  The  conviction  of  H.'s  aecretaiy 
for  tnaaonable  correspondence  with  France  caused 
his  master,  though-  entirely  exculpated,  to  resign 
his  office  in  February  1708.  H.  remained  out  of 
power  two  yean,  long  enoneh,  with  tha  aanst- 
•ace  of  Mra  Masham,  to  oomfdetely  undarmine  the 
pomr  of  tlia  Whig^     In  Angust  1710,  Oodolphm 


was  dismissed,  and  H.  was  appointed  to  his  post 
of  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  and  bronnht  back 
the  Tories.  An  event  occurred  in  1711,  which 
raised  H.  to  the  acm£  of  popuLuity,  A  French 
prieat  and  spy,  who  assumed  tbe  title  of  Marquis 
ds  Guischard,  being  brought  before  the  council 
on  the  6th  ManJi,  on  the  charge  of  treasonable 
correspondence  with  France,  rushed  upon  H.,  and 
stabbed  him  with  a  penknife.  His  hie  was  said 
to  have  been  in  danger,  and  recovering,  he  waa 
congratulated  by  parliament  on  his  escape,  created 
Earl  of  Orford  and  Mortimer,  decorated  with  the 
Garter,  and  in  the  following  May  appointed  lord- 
high  treasurer  of  Gi«at  Britain.  From  this  point, 
HTs  course  was  downwards  :  he  was  not  a  man 
of  business,  and  wss  destitute  of  that  indispens- 
able quality  for  a  premier — decision  of  character. 
Macaulay  had  but  a  mean  opinion  of  H.  as  a  statea- 
man,  yet  he  gives  him,  as  a  man,  a  higher  character 
than  could  oe  given  to  any  other  ptuitician  of  the 
time.  The  pnnciral  act  of  H.'s  administration 
was  tbe  treaty  of  Utrecht :  though  England  might 
have  obtained  better  terms,  she  had  nothing  to  gain 
from  a  continuance  of  the  war ;  and  the  peace  waa, 
at  all  events,  popular.  HL  ceased  to  pay  court  to 
Lady  Mashaio,  and  tha  unscrupulous  Bolingbioke 
succeeded  in  getting  him  dismissed  on  Jmy  27, 
Lord  (uford  was  dismissed  on  'I^Leeday — 
igbroke  became  premier — and  the  queen  med 
on  Sunday.  George  1  was  proclaimed,  and  Boling- 
broke  fled  to  Fraoca,  bat  (teford  remained  to  meet 
his  fate.  Ho  waa  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  after 
two  years'  imprisonment,  brought  to  trial ;  the  two 
Honaea  qnarrellsd  as  to  the  miMe  of  procedure,  and 
tbft  Commons  having  in  anger  refused  to  take  any 
part  iu  the  trial,  he  was  acquitted  by  the  Pe^ 
I  released.  Be  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life 
retirement— the  fiiend  of  scholars  and  men  ol 
letters — the  founder  of  a  collection  of  books  and 
MSS.  which  peipetuatea  his  name— and  died  May 
21, 1724 

HAllLINGEN  (Frisian,  /Tarns),  a  flourishing 

seaport  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  West 

Friesland,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Zuider  Zee,  about 

65  miles  north- north- east  td  Amsterdam.    It  stands 

the  site  of  a  former  town  Uiat  was  engulfed  in 

I  aea  in  1134,  and  is  itself  protected  man  the 

oads  of  the  ocean  by  one  of  the  laivest  dykes 

Holland,  which  is  40  feet  high,  and  fenced  in 

along  its  base  by  three  rows  of  piles  driven  into 

the  grenod.    It  carries  on  an  impiuiant  tntde  with 

Norway  and   En^and,  butter   being   i 


ftnnfacturing,  brick-making,  tc 

HA'BUALINE  and  HARHINE  are  vegeteUe 
basea  oocntring  in  the  husk  of  the  seeds  of  the 
Peganwn  hiayatla,  or  Syrian  me,  a  pUnt  that  grows 
abundantly  in  the  steppaa  of  Southern  Bussia, 
and  whose  seeds  are  used  in  dyeing  lUk,  to  which 
they  impart  Tarlooa  shades  of  rM.  ffarmatint 
(C,,H,jN,0,),  when  pure,  crystftlliaea  in  colour- 
less prisma ;  but  ite  salte  are  yellow,  and  oxidising 
its  transform  it  into  a  red  colouring  matter, 
ji  combines  with  acids,  forming  salte,  which 
constltnte  tho  basis  of  the  Harraaia  Red  of  com- 
merce. Harmine  (C,,Hi,N,0,)  may  be  obtuned 
by  oxidation  from  harmaline.  It  crystallises  in 
delicate  prisms,  and  forms  colourless  salts. 

The  Pegaimm  Aarmala  belongs  to  the  natural 
order  Zygophyjiacea.  It  is  a  half-shrubby  plant, 
with  smooU)  linear  pinnate  or  bipinoato  leaves,  and 
solitary  white  flowers.  The  seeds  are  said  to  poa- 
MH  narcotio  properties,  and  the  Emperor  Solyman 
ii  reported  to  have  kept  himseU  intoxioated  by 


hyGoogle 


HARUATTAK— HAAMOHIOS. 


Mttug  ttLWL    They  m  nwd  hj  the  Turks  u  » 

HABIUTTAIT,  ft  dt7  hot  wind,  prarftlent  on 
the  Oninea  cout  11011112  Deeamber,  JAituHy,  and 
Febnuiy,  blowing  fromlhe  interior  to  the  AtUntia 
Oceto.  Hiigena«Ily>oO(nspaiued  bye  fog,  throng 
which  the  nin  ^pean  of  ft  pole-red  ooloar.  It  Hm 
ft  hnrtfol  dieat  on  Tflcetaticin,  and  tho  ni^leemntlr 
affeeti  the  hnman  boify,  drjring  np  tlie  eyei,  uoetaile, 
•nd  mouth,  and  even  Cftoims  tike  ikin  to  peal  oC 
It,  however,  baa  the  good  ufeot  ot  nhe«Aing  epi- 


[q.  T.)  of  Italy. 

HABMODIUB  amd  ABISTOGEITOS,  two 
Atheoijuw  ctaniigly  attached  to  eaob  otlier,  who 
murdered  (SU  b.0.)  ffipparohna,  the  yonufpr 
btother  of  the  '  tyraat'  ^iriaa,  on  aooonnt  of  m 
intuit  oSered  by  nim  to  the  niter  ot  Harmodini. 
They  mMnt  to  UU  Hinpiaa  alee,  with  a  view  to  the 
oreithrow  ol  the  Pinrtratid*,  but  in  tlua  tbey 
did  net  mooeed.  H.  wia  ont  down  1>yth«  body- 
gaud  immediately  after  the  murder  ot  ^pparcihas. 
A.  fled,  bat  WH  ftfterwarda  taken  and  ezeonted. 
Aa  ^ppiaa  wai  bftuiihed  fnHB  Athena  a  few  yeara 
later,  BT  j-iij  A.  natuially  came  to  be  r^arded  as 
pabiotio  mar^ra ;  ud  in  Uiii  Jj^t  thajr  appear  in 
all  aabaeqneat  Greek  hiatory.  They  reoeivaa  diTina 
hononn  btjui  the  AtJienian^  and  bad  atatnee  raiaed 
to  their  metnoiy.  A  very  baanliifal  drintdns-aontf 
on  thia  anbjeet  baa  oome  down  to  na  in  the  Uteek 
Scholia. 

HABHO'NIO  PBOFOBTIOir,  Three  nnm- 
beiB  are  aaid  to  be  in  hannoniapropcrHMi  irtien  tba 
Brat  ia  l«  the  third,  aa  the  diderenoe  between  tbe 
fint  and  aeoond  is  to  the  diSerence  between  the 
ucond  and  third,  otherwiaa  haimonio  {voportion  ia 
that  which  snbiiata  between  the  MOtprooab  ot  nam- 
bera  whioh  are  in  arithmetical  proportion.  "Bius, 
3,  5,  7,  tc.,  being  in  arithmetical  pn^oition,  t^  4,  f, 
Am.,  are  in  bajmonio  propoTtaon.    IngennBtay,ftIme 


AB  ia  aajd  to  be  harauminaUy  divided  when  twg 
pointi  are  taken,  one  in  the  line,  and  the  other  in 
the  hne  prodaoed,  aa  C,  and  D ;  aoeh  that  AC  : 
OB  ;  !  AD  :  DK  Whan  tiie  line  i«  tfao*  divided, 
AD,  CD,  and  BD,  an  in  harmani«  proportdon. 
A  hannanio  prograaaion  is  a  aetiea  of  Diuin>en  in 
hannonid  proportun,  aa  the  aeriei  fotmed  by  the 
radpiocala    Ot   mnnbm   fonning   an   aiithmetioal 

HAKHO'ITICA,  a  moaical  inatnmient  of  a 
faacinftting  qoalitiy  of  aonnd,  invented  bv  Benjamin 
Tranklin,  the  tonnd  of  which  was  prodaoed  from 
^aaa  in  the  ahape  of  a  cap,  or  half  globe,  which  waa 
{ntbtoanvolvingBotienon  its  oentM,  while  the 
rim  waa  tmohed  I>t  the  finger.  IHuklin,  in  a 
lettw  dirted  13th  July  ITesHc  Fadn  BeooatuL  at 
Tmin,  nMotiona  tbe  battan  m  bii  Inrentuai.  It  had 
alraady  been  known  that  beMrtifnl  Honda  oonld  be 
prodneed  by  diction  of  the  fingw  on  the  rim  of 
an  (sdinaiy  drinldng-glaBB.  An  Iriihman,  named 
Puokerid^  waa  the  S^who  hit  on  the  idea  of 
playing  am  on  ft  raw  ol  glaaaiw,  irinoh  he  toned  by 
pattinc  water  into  aaoh.  He  perfnned  poUicly 
m  LoMon ;  bat  he  and  hia  nlnaiin  ware  burned  in 
the  great  Sie  in  Leaden  in  171)0.  When  Franklin 
finianad  hia  invention,  he  fonnd  an  exoeT 
former  in  a  ICm  Savia,  to  whom  he  made 
of  hia  hanncniofc  Hiae  Davia,  in  1766^  i 
(CI  the  hanMBicft  In  Paiia,  Vienna,  and  all  the  large 
cttiea  cf  Qennany  with  great  efbd  miia  badn- 
atiogmibWDait  found  many  adminn,  bnt  none 


of  them  ever  succeeded  in  improving  it  The  com- 
paaa  of  ita  notee  was  from  C  to  F,  inclnding  all  the 
chromatio  sanitonek  Tlie  pradnoina  of  the  aonnd 
by  the  pointa  of  the  flngeri  prodnced  such  an  efleot 

to  oaoae  f»intiiig  fita.  All  attempts  to  msks  the 
harmonica,  thraaghmeans  of  keya^  easier  for  amatenn, 
ended  in  failure^  aa  no  •nbatanoe  waa  found  to  act  as 
a  aubetitnte  for  the  human  fingmv  whioh  donhtlesa 
imparted  an  expreaaion  to  the  aonnd  whidi  no  dead 
Euba^oe  could  poMeet.  The  harmonica  nve  rise 
to  a  hoat  of  ^■■"■i*i'  inatrumeata  hj  C^iladini, 
lf.iifTn..nn,  HleSelMn,  and  olhcn^  whi^  were  not 
eminently  auooeaifuL  Othcs  insfcrDmenta  of  no 
merit  or  in^ortauce  todc  the  aame  name,  bnt  had 
not  the  moit  temote  raaemblance  to  the  original. 
The  harmonica  waa  aomewhat  I'Twir'T-  to  tbe  instm- 
meut  DOW  known  aa  mniioal-glaMea. 

HABMONIOA,  CsBaoAi.  Thia  term  it  applied 
to  the  murioal  note  which  ia  evolved  when  a  long 
dry  tubak  open  at  both  eola,  ia  held  over  a  jet  1^ 
burning  hydrogen.  A  rapid  onrrent  it  pnidnoed 
through  the  tnta,  which  oecations  ft  fliekoing^  and 
is  attanded  by  a  leriee  of  amall  ezplo«<»e  that 
aucceed  each  ath«  to  raj^dfy,  and  at  inch  regolar 
interralt,  as  to  ore  rite  to  a  mnnoal  note,  miose 
pitch  and  qnali^  vary  wifli  the  ten^;ih,  thickness 
and  diameter  of  die  tube.    The  expluation  of  this 

iiheiu>inenon,iriiiabwatditoovendl^lAnipadius,bnt 
ong  remained  nnaoooaiited  for,  ia  doe  to  Faraday. 
A  carious  modifloatioii  of  the  experiment  is  given 
I:?  BOttgar,  in  the  Mth  vol.  of  Poggeudcrffa  Jnniitot, 

HABM<yKIOB,  the  acoeaKiry,  or  conoomitant 
■onnds  whioh  an  prodaoed  by  a  tandamental  musi- 
cal aoond,  either  natoial^,  or  by  a  divinon  into 
aUqaot  ptrta.  Every  uu«^  soond,  althou^  to  the 


, r~   —   - icnnd,  aooompanied  by 

other  feeble  acute  acnnds  in  peiieot  harmony  [see 
Habmont).  The  existence  ta  such  accompanying 
sounds,  which  are  eallad  harmonice,  can  oa  beet 
demonatrated  by  tiie  vibrationa  of  a  string  atretched 
twtween  two  points,  ih'  bridges.  Ei^t  feet  ia  a 
good  length  £>r  auch  a  alzing,  althrai^  18  feet, 
or  even  W,  would  be  better,  fzmn  bridge  to  bridge. 
A  scale  or  measure,  acoutately  dividing  the  length 
of  the  stritw  into  aliquot  putt,  from  f-  up  to  ^> 
is  placed  aloDgaide  of  it.  When  ft  violin.bow  ia 
drawn  across  the  atring,  it  vibratai  from  end  to 
wid,  and  giva*  out  ita  fondamentsl  sound.  Divide 
the  string  into  halves  bj  slightly  touching  it  with 
the  finger  at  the  m»A  ^  on  tJis  aeti»,  or  bettor, 
with  a  strobohed  thread  lightly  pteatad  vpoa  it 
at  that  poiiiti  when  soiinded,  it  will  be  found  to 
Tibrate  in  two  halves,  each  part  vibt^i^  aa  fast 
MMjn  pa  thw  entire  string,  and  prodadiig  a  toond 
an  ootftvB  above  the  funaamentuontt  w at  2  to  L 
Divide  in  the  tame  mannw  at  h  and  the  lonnd 
nroduoed  is  tiia  fifth  abovie  the  lait  ootave,  bdng 
m  the  propcNrtioB  «l  8  to  2  It  hi  not  neooitary 
to  touch  uie  string  on  Buxt  than  one  ttf  the 
paints  of  the  divinm,  for  the  lou  aidJa  of  the 
string  slwav*  dividea  of  itaelf  naSualb',  which 
can  M  seen  by  tlie  tj9.  The  parti  wnere  the  string 
seems  at  rsst,  are  called  the  nodal  pomts.  Divide 
aa  before  at  \,  and  tbe  leoond  ooUve  above  the 
lowest  sound  u  heard,  beint:  to  the  first  ootave  aa 
4  to  2.  At  ^  the  major  third  above  the  laat  octave 
is  found,  bemg  as  6  to  4>  At  ^  the  ootave  of  the 
former  fifthTS  toS.  Atfwefindthehraefiat 
aevB&th,  or  7  to  4 )  at  i,  a^in  the  ootave  of  the 
loweat;  at  )  Uie  m»i(x  second,  01  9  to  8;  and 
above  this,  at  ^^  ^  ^  we  And  the  oetoves  1^  the 


hyCoogle 


HA^UOHIOS—HABMOHICJM. 

nwjot  third,  the  fifth,  and  the  flat  sereiLtli ;  while  bannonics  uiae,  """"'"g  that  the  itrinc,  at  its 
at  ^  we  obtain  the  sharp  Mrenth,  or  16  to  8 ;  fall  leDeth,  Bounds  the  note  C  on  the  second  ledger 
and  at  tW  aoother  octave  d  the  fundamental  I  line  below  the  Imm  iAiS,  or  lowest  itring  on  a 
■onnd.     Tut  following  ia  th«  order  in  which  the  I  violoncallo. 


SiTiBonsirfctriiig^    1        2       8        4        S        «        7        S        9       10      12      U      U      1« 
0       COCE      GBbODE       GBbBljO 

From  theoa  bamuHiiot,  tile  true  nttioi  of  all  the  j  fundamental  key-note,  are  found,  and  in  the  nMt 
iotervili  of  the  diatonlo   scale,  in  relation  to   b|  perfect  tuoe;  lii^  are  aa  followi  i 

Degrees  of  the  scale,    .    .    .    .    L     IL     ILL    IV.     V.     TX     VIL     TIIL 

N(&  of  the  scale, ODE       F        0       A        B  C 

Batioa  to  k^-note, 1|)        }         )        t        V  i 

Attomijig   24    as    ths    nnmber    of    vibrations  1  the   scale   m^  be  expressed   in  whole    nonibmi 

KotM  of  the  soale, ODE       F        O       A        B  O 

In  whole  numben, 242730      32      38      40       4S  48 


In  Ae  Mtifidal  .dividou  of  the  ootave  into 
a  ehroBatio  acale  <rf  twelre  mubI  iemitonas^  all 
the  intemJa  maA  necetMiily  be  mada  Mmawhst 
impeifeo^  which  is  called  tenQiMkment  (see  Txh- 
PBHUODre}.  This  mut  be  eapeeially  sttanded  to 
in  k(;ed  initnuneatt.  Siof^era,  ood  petfonnen  on 
stringed  iostmmenta,  an  guidad  hj  their  ear,  beinK 
free  frtmi  the  fetten  <u  fixed  notes,  to  which 
keyed  instnuDsnta.  ore  necesssriJ;  sabjecL  Even 
in  the  natonl  diatooio  scale  at  produced  bv  the 
hamtmio*,  it  will  be  found,  on  aoalyBis,  that  a 
certain  d^ice  of  temperunent  is  required  to  make 
the  fifths  within  ths  ootave  eqnal  For  example,  the 
fiftiia  txttoi  F  to  C  ud  fnnn  K  to  6,  will  be  found 
to  be  aoaatat«^tbe  iwowM  the  fifth  from  C  to  O 
— ria.,  f ;  whicA  i«  easily  asceitained  1^  reducing 
thmr  isnaotiTe  nnmbeoi  to  the  lowest  frsctloii ; 

thDa,FtoOi*H'-h>4>  ^'°°'  ^  toB  "  ft=i' 
while  bom  D  to  A,  wlWi  in  laactieal  munc  most 
aUo  be  treated  as  a  fifth,  will  be  found  to  be  too 
flat ;  thna,  D  to  A  is  |^  which  cannot  be  reduced 
to  I ;  bnt  when  both  are  Ironght  to  the  fractiona  of 
■  ooumoD  danominator,  which  is  done  by  multiply- 
iiig4ftqr2-|f,and)b727-:(titia  <li««n  thlt 
D  to  A,  in  the  scale  (^nature,  is  flatter  than  a 
peifeot  fiflli,  in  the  proportton  of  81  to  80 ;  so  that 
withoat  tampomnent  A  oannot  at  the  tame  time  be 
at  sixth  to  0,  M  a  key-note,  and  also 
to  D,  the  tnw  major  second  of  C. 
H  A  MfiVwlTTMj  a  mndMlinstranent  of  modem 
Invention,  for  whi<^  there  are  toany  claimants'  Thf) 
prinei^  by  idnch  tiie  ■onada  of  the  harmoniom  are 
tsodnoedj  u  oaUed  the  fite  vibraiiHg  ntd,  supposed 
to  have  i>een  a  modmn  disoorery,  but  now  asoer- 
tained  to  hare  bean  known  In  Ohina  long  before  it 
was  ever  heard  of  in  Europe.  Its  oonstouotion  is  as 
follows  t  A  narnnr  rectangnlar  sht  bsfaig  made  in  a 
piece  of  brass-plate  <rf  a  qnarter  of  '' '  ' 


end  l^two  small  riTete  to  the  smfaca  of  the  plate, 
elofe  to  one  end  of  the  slit,  being  ao  adinrted  u 
to  flU  the  area  of  the  slit,  and  that  irtiea  pttned 
Into  H  at  Uie  free  end,  it  may  pass  inwards  without 
' "      the  end  or  the  ttdss  of  the  slit,  and  when 


itfifthtol 


tonolune  tl 
Wt  toltst 


covering  the  slit.     The  firing  at 

pennaneniJy  bent  a  very  litue  on....^ 

a  cnirsnt  of  air  is  forced  tiiron^  the  slity  the 
spring  is  put  into  vibration,  and  produces  a  con- 
tmuoos  mosioal  sound,  acute  or  grave,  accordins  to 


the  reed  of  the  organ-pipe,  the  spring 
of  which  entirely  covers  an  oblong  slit,  in  the  nde 
of  a  brass  tube  closed  at  one  end,  and  vibrates 
against  the  cheeks  or  oatside  of  the  sht,  instead 
of  within  it  After  raocy  attempts,  in  Torioos 
couDtriee,  to  conatnict  a  keyed  instrument  of  really 
a  oseful  kind  with  the  free  leed,  Debain  of  Fans 
produced  bis  invention  of  the  harmoninm,  which 
became  more  or  lew  the  model  of  aH  the  others 
that  have  followed.  The  harmoninm  occnpie*  com- 
paratively but  little  space,  being  only  abont  3  feet 
3  inches  nigh,  and  3  feet  D  inches  broad ;  the  depth 
being  acoording  to  the  number  of  the  stops.  It 
has  a  oompasB  of  five  octaves  of  keys  from  0  to 
C,  the  key-board  being  ^ac«d  on  the  top,  imme- 
diately bdow  the  lid.  Under  the  key-board  is 
the  wind-box,  on  which  are  valves  for  each  key; 
while  below  the  vslvea,  and  inside  of  the  wind- 
box,  ilie  different  rows  of  reeds  are  placed.  The 
sizes  of  the  reeds  diffo*,  according  to  pitch,  from 
about  3^  ioches  long  to  i  inch ;  and  ths  qtuJity  of 
BOimii  la  aSectcd  and  modified  by  the  breadth  of  the 
vibrating  port  of  the  reod,  and  the  shape  of  the 
ftperture  in  the  wind- box  oovered  by  the  valve.  The 
preasure  of  wind  is  from  a  bellows  with  two  feeders, 
which  the  player  moves  altematalv  with  his  feet, 
tilling  a  magaone,  fr^mjli^r  to  the  bellows  of  a  small 
organ.  .  Wh^ft  key  is  preoed  down,  the  valve 
bdow  it  opais,andthe  wind,  wUt^has  aooeMfrom 
the  bellows  to  the  wind-box,  nuhea  throogh  the  slit 
of  the  reed,  and  produces  a  sonnd  which  Mmtinnes 
while  the  valve  is  kefit  open.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of 
the  free  reed  that  an  incteaae  or  a  dlmmution  of  the 
prenure  irf  wind  doe*  not  alter  the  pitch  of  the 
sound,  bnt  merely  increases  or  diminishes  ita  volume. 
Advtwtige  is  taken  of  tUs  peculiarity  to  effect.  In 
the  luumonium,  a  bcAntifuIly  expressive  swell,  or 
dimiuution  in  the  sound,  by  gradu^y  increasing  ttt 
^iTniniftliinjT  ^f  pnifare  of  the  win^  The  vibmtioikB 


t.LiOogle 


aASUOKnrU— HABMOHY, 


of  the  spring  t>eiiig  like  thoee  of  a  peDdnlum, 
wochroDoiu,  ramain  fixed  in  rapidity  or  Blowneaa, 
kocoiding  to  the  length  oad  elasticity  of  the  vibrat- 
ing slip  ot  metal,  and  thuE  regulate  the  pitch  of  the 
■onnd  without  reCerence  to  the  presaare  ol  wind. 
For  the  deep  bam-notea  the  springi  are  heavily 
loaded  at  the  loose  end,  to  mate  tnetn  vibrate  ilowly ; 
whils  in  the  higher  notei  they  are  made  thinner  at 
that  end.  Harmoniunui  are  made  ot  vuimu  lizea, 
and  from  one  tow  of  reeda  (or  -vibrato™,  as  they  are 
now  called)  to  fonr  or  mora  rows;  each, row  ia 
divided  near  tha  middle,  between  an  E  and  F ;  and 
each  half  hai  ila  •apanta  draw-atop.  Lately,  a 
'  knee '  movement,  erroDeonaly  called  a  pedal,  for 
prodnaing  a  amall  d^ree  of  creeoendo  on  either  bass 
or  treble^haa  been  attached.  Some  harmoniuma  are 
nade  with  two  rowa  ot  keya,  thna  affording  a  greater 
variety  in  playing  aolo  with  an  accompanmient ; 
and  for  more  Bkilful  performerH,  pedal-keys  for  the 
feet,  like  tboae  of  a  chutch  or^n,  am  added.  The 
manufacture  of  the  harmonium  in  Faria  baa,  of 
late  yean,  increased  almoet  incredibly.  Tfia  varioua 
puis  of  the  haimooium  can  now  be  got  made  there, 
and  fomiBbed  from  a  single  read  to  a  complete  tet. 
Many  attempte  were  formerly  made  in   England 

called  tha  aerwihine,  but  it  was  a  mueb  inferior 
inataimient,  althou^  more  enienaive.  Even  now, 
the  harmoniomi  Mud  to  be  made  in  this  ooontry,  are 
all  mt  joecemeal  from  Paris,  and  put  together  in 
Loiulon.  The  beat  makers  in  Paris  are  Debaiu 
and  Alexandre ;  and  in  Qermany,  Scbiediaayer  of 
Stuttgart  and  Eaofmann  of  Ditsden.  The  latter  ia 
the  inventor  of  the  Feraation  adion  for  the  hor- 

of  a  (nanoforte,  which  atr^eii  a  blow  on  the  vibrator 
the  moment  the  key  ia  preaaed  down,  and  «ete  it 
instantly  into  vibration,  thus  asaiating  the  action  of 
the  wind.  Haimoniuma  may  now  be  nad  of  variona 
aizea  and  qualities,  at  jaices  nam  £5  to  £60.  Valuable  , 
chiefly  for  acoompanying  psalmody,  they  suitably  I 
take  tha  idaoe  of  organs  in  temporary  places  of  I 
pablio  wonhip,  or  among  the  leas  opulent  class  of 
congregattona.  For  domMtic  use,  they  ore  not  likely 
to  aupened*  the  pianoforte,  but  pooaeeaing  the  im- 
portant advonta^  of  not  going  out  of  tone  through 
hoinidity  of  otmoaphare,  they  will  be  found  available 
where  pumoa  cannot  properly  be  kept. 

HARHOMT  (Gr.,  a  joining  or  fitting  of  pieces 
into  one  another],  in  Music,  is  uudentood  to  be  the 
nnioo  of  sounds  which  individually  appear  different, 
but  when  heard  blether,  form  a  cotlecti 
called  a  chord  (see  Chokd); 
as  the  melting  ca  flowing  toi 
into,  »•  it  wan,  one  sotma;  in  cmueqiu 
arising  from,  the  consonant  nature  of  Ui«r  relative 
ptopiftioilt  to  a  fundamental  sound.     All  musical 

'tiona  can   be   reduced   to    a   fundamental 

r  of  snccsHive  ohords,  which,  in  their  pro- 
,  are  ngulated  by  tiie  rules  of  tlie  theory  of 
DiNOtumti  as  well  aa  consonant,  chords  are 


it  may  be  explained 
"- '.  tavenl  soonds 


fundamental 

aound,  or  baas  note,  in  common.  The  hannony 
of  chorda  can  either  be  close  or  spread,  which 
tha  poaitdon  oi  distance  of  the  aounds  or  iutervals 
from  one  to  another,  forming  the  chords,  determlnea. 
Cloae  harmony  ia  when  the  sounds  composing  each 
chord  are  placed  so  near  to  each  other,  tnat  no 
Mund  belonging  to  tha  chord  could  again  be  inter- 
poaed  between  any  of  those  already  present  Spread 
harmony  is  when  the  sounds  ot  a  chord  are  placed 
at  a  greater  distance  from  each  other,  so  that  some 
of  thmn  mi^t  be  aoain  interpowd  between  the  parts 
of  thoae  sounds  a&eady  pieoent.  Oloao  harmony 
generally  takes  place  in  muaio  in  which  there  exiata 


aible.  In  chonuea  for  mixed 
mental  compoaitioits,  spread  harmony  is  more  used, 
and  the  intervals  of  the  chords  are  frequently 
inverted,  which  produoea  what  ia  called  doubia 
Counterpoint  (q.  v.).  In  the  inversion  of  inter- 
vals, great  care  must  be  token  to  avoid  a  con- 
Becntive  progression  ot  Such  intervals  as  become 
fifths  by  inversion ;  also  that  on  alto  part  should 
never  approach  nearer  a  baas  part  than  the  distance 
of  an  octave.  Close  and  spr^d  harmony  are  often 
mixed,  in  order  that  individnal  jtarta  may  become 
more  melodious  apd  easier  to  sing,  as  7all  as  to 
prevent  unpleasant  or  abrupt  skip*  in  the  melody ; 
or  to  avoid  an  equally  faul^  monotonous  formaUty 
of  movement. 

Although  it  haa  been  sud  that  every  chord, 
whether  consonant  or  dissonant,  forms  hannony,  it 
most  not  be  understood  that  any  combination  of 
Bonnds  vdiich  one  may  eboose  to  sound  tosether  ia 
harmony.  A  dissonant  chord  treated  as  harmony 
is  always  judged  of  according  to  the  nature  oif 
its  different  intervals,  ot  which  there  are  often 
some  that  tat  treated  as  dissonance^  although  they 
are  fundamentally  consonancea,  only  more  cr  less 
imperfect.  All  hannony  in  muac  la  derived  from 
what  are  called  the  aliquot  tone*.  When  a  tbciag 
is  made  to  vibrate,  we  at  first  think  that  we  only 
hear  one  aound ;  but  on  cloeer  and  more  careful 
obeervation,  we  easily  discover  that  the  fundamental 
sound,  particnlariy  when  it  is  a  deep  one,  ia  occran- 
panied  by  others  m  the  most  perfect  normony.  The 
accompanying  aounds  are  exactly  thoee  of  which  the 
chords  in  music  are  formed,  and  on  whioh  the 
foundation  of  the  whole  system  of  hannony  in  music 
is  built  From  the  mathematical  proportions  and 
the  relations  of  the  accompanying  sonnds  to  the 
fundamental  or  piinapsl  sound  from  which  they  all 
arise  (see  Habhonics),  it  follows  that  harmony,  in 
its  first  and  natural  state,  can  oidy  be  in  four  parts, 
and  it  is  then  called  perfect,  or  completes ;  in  opposi- 
tion to  harmony  ot  two  or  throe  parts  which  cannot 
be  complete,  as  some  of  the  inte^als  of  the  chorda, 
essential  to  characterise  the  key  or  scale,  may  be 
awanting.  A  four-port  harmony  may  be  so  sn-anged 
that  five,  or  even  more  parts  may  appear,  by  means 
of  doublmg  one  or  more  of  the  mt«rvals  in  the 
octave,  nom  this  increasiDg  of  the  porta  ariaea 
what  is  called  the  aubordinate  harmony,  aooompany- 
ing  the  priocipal  or  fundamentaL  In  order  to  avoid 
faulty  progressions  in  the  subordinate  harmony,  care 
must  be  taken  to  strictly  observe  the  ndes  which 
apply  to  the  intervals  in  thedr  fundamental  state. 
The  porpose  ot  the  inbordinate  harmony  is  only 
that  of  ornamenting  the  origirtal,  which  the  Oermani 
call  ^ifurinmg,  oommoiJy  called  figured  harmony, 
but  should  be  taore  prt^wriy  called  florid  oounter- 
point.  If  it  be  admitted  that  the  intervals  and 
chords  that  are  most  aonwmant  are  also  moat 
harmonious,  it  naturally  folkwa  that  the  union  of 
similar  sounds  must  be  the  moot  perfect,  tlierefore 
the  ordo-  of  perfection  in  which  they  rank  must  arise 
from  their  mathwnatical  proportions  in  relation  to 
the  fundamental  aound  or  unison.  The  common 
chord  of  a  third,  fiflfa,  and  octave  to  a  bass  note 
is  the  moat  purs  aud  perfect  harmonv ;  after  which 
follow  the  (Aoid  of  the  sevoith,  and  the  chord  of  the 


ndamental  humonv.   nwpoaitionot  the  intervals 

respect  to  the  fundameDtal  t)ot«  is  alao  an  element 

the  purity  ot  chords  ;  a^  for  example^  a  chord  of 

Uie  seventh  in  close  harmony,  is  far  Ina  satiafaotory 

and  pleasing  tiian  it  ia  in  spread  harmany,  where 


tyCoogle 


HARMONY  OF  THE  OOSPEU-RABOLD  I. 


the  dlfferetit  Intervoli  ura  St.  or  near,  tlieir  nBtonl 
dirtuice*  fcum  the  fasdunental  note.  Sach  con- 
nderationa  are  of  great  importance  to  the  musician 
who  has  to  occompanj  from  a  figured  ban  ;  and  also 
to  organ-bnildera  in  airan^iig  tbe  compolition  of 
mizture-atopa.  Haniionv,  in  modern  mumc.  ia  there- 
fore a  encceaaion  of  ohordB  accotding  to  certain  Wirt. 
In  the  earJj  ages  ot  the  science,  the  lawi  of  harmonT 
were  most  aTbitrary.  Naturo  presenta  na  with 
solitary  chords,  but  she  does  not  establiih  their 
■accession.  A  collection  of  chords  ia  not  music,  any 
more  than  a  collection  of  words  ia  a  speech.  Music, 
like  a  discontae,  moat  also  have  ita  phrases,  periods, 
pimctuation,  Ac,  and  all  in  harmony.  Tbe  mott 
useful  works  on  harmony  are  those  of  Dr  Marx, 
JVofeaaot  Dehn,  and  Dr  Ired.  Schneider. 

HARMONY  OP  THE  GOSPELS.  Tha  nar- 
ntives  of  the  Eroogelista,  iind  specially  those  of  the 
fint  dme,  ore.  in  many  things  close  repetitions  of 


the  other  hand,  they  occsaionolly  exhibit  seemingly 
grave  diacrepanciea,  whether  of  facts  or  of  circnm- 
-'----  -   relating   on   occnrreoce  not  noticed 


complete  and  easy  elucidation,  tha  passagea  of  the 
aeverol  goBpels  which  bore  upon  each  subject  or 
iucident  were  collected  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
parison and  of  mutual  illustratjoo.  The  title  under 
which  the  earliest  compilation  of  this  natore, 
which  dates  from  the  second  half  of  the  2d  c,  was 
known  was  JXaUuaron,  because  it  consisted  of 
axtracta  from  the  /our  Evangelists.  The  author  of 
this  compilation  was  tiie  heretic  Tatian,  and  it  is 
remarkome  that,  in  order  to  give  a  colour  to  his 
own  peculiar  opinions  aa  to  the  unreality  of  the 
flesh  <rf  our  Lwd,  he  omitted  from  hia  collection 
the  entire  history  of  the  birth  and  childhood  of 
Jesaa  as  related  by  Matthew  and  Murk  (Eusebius, 
EccL  Sid.  ir.  29).  St  Jerome  states  that  a  similar 
harmony  was  compiled  about  the  same  tima  by 
Theophjlus  of  Antioch,  although  no  trace  of  such 
a  wont  ia  now  discoverable ;  but  in  the  middle  of 
the  following  centurr  ibe  celebrated  Neo-platonist 
convert,  Ammomns  Saccss,  undertook  a  new  Dia- 
Ifuaroa,  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  well-known 
Ten  lytdaxt,  or  canons,  of  the  Hormraiy  of  the 
Qoepels,  in  the  Greek  text,  by  Ensebius,  .which 
were  afterwards  adapted  to  the  Latin  text  by  St 
Jerome,  and  oontiuusi  to  be  used  as  a  key  to  the 
conoordanoe  of  the  gospels  by  readers  both  of  the 
Greek  and  of  the  Lstm  teiA,  down  to  tha  16th 
oentoiy.  The  canons  of  Eosebiua  consist  of  ten 
table&  Of  these,  the  first,  which  contains  four 
columns,  exhibits  all  the  passages  "which  are  oom- 
mon  to  the  four  gospels ;  the  second,  third,  and 
fonrtii  contain  three  columns,  and  shew  the  passages 
which  are  found  in  any  three  of  the  gospels ; 
the  fifth,  lirtli,  sevestli,  eighth,  and  ninth  are  in 
two  j^ltimnwj  and  tluw  the  pasaagea  which  occur 
in  any  two  of  tlM  goqwls ;  and  tha  tenth  eontains 


schema  are  at  once  i^ipareat,  and 
led  in  later  timea  to  the  numerous  and  useful  com- 
piiations,  Bomaa  Catholic  as  well  ss  Froteatant, 
known  under  tlie  name  of  Synones  of  the  Qoepels, 
tha  beat  and  moat  popular  of  which  are  ennmerated 
by  Tischendorf  in  uie  inta>duction  to  hia  own 
Staopmt  SvamgeUca,  p.  9,  and  folL 
HABHOKY  OF  THB  SPHSBSa    Huoy  ti 


plancta  to  ^  ._   __ 

called  the  harmony  of  the  spheres.  Th^  attributed 
this  music  to  the  various  proportionate  impresdona 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  on  one  another  acting  at 
proper  intervab.  KepUt  wrota  a  work  on  the 
nanoaniei  of  tbe  world,  and  partdcnlarly  of  the 
celestial  bodies. 

HABMS,  Cuus,  ft  distiugaUhed  German  divine, 
was  bom  23th  May  1778,  at  Eahratedt,  in  South 
Ditmarsoh.  In  1797  he  went  to  the  gymnasium 
at  Meldorf,  and  in  1799  to  tiie  univemty  of  Kiel 
The  rationalism  of  tho  time,  in  which  he  had 
been  to  some  extent  educated,  failed  to  give  liim 
satisfaction ;  and  Schleiermacber's  Sedm  Oier  dit 
RtHgion  at  last  settled  his  ftuth.  After  supporting 
himself  as  family  tutor  from  1802  till  1806,  he  was 
appointed  Dean  of  Lnnden,  in  Northern  Ditmarsch, 
whence  he  was  called,  in  1816,  to  Kiel,  as  arch- 
deacon and  oftemoon-preacher  in  the  Nicolai-Kirche. 
Next  year,  shortly  before  the  tticentenaty  of  the 
Hef  ormation  in  Qermany,  he  iaaoed,  in  defeno*  lA 
Froteatant  orthodoxy,  H  theses  nnder  the  title, 
Daa  aind  die  dS  That*  oder  StnktStie  Dr  LulUt'*. 
These  produced  a  deep  immeasion  throughout 
Oenuauy,  and  brought  him  a  oul  to  be  biahop  of  the 
consislory  about  to  be  instituted  for  Uka  Protestant 
Church  of  finsda.  This,  •«  well  as  »  caU  in  1834 
to  succeed  SeUeiermacber  in  Trinity Ghuroh,  B^lin, 
H.  refuaad.  In  18SS,  he  waa  nude  dtief  pastor  and 
provoat  in  Kiel,  bnt  waa  compelled  to  reaini,  in 
consequence  of  an  attack  of  almost  total  bliiuneas. 
The  rest  of  his  life  vras  spent  in  retirement,  devoted 
to  literary  aotivity.  He  died  1st  Febraaiy  18S6. 
H.'s  published  wons  are  chiefly  aermons,  which  may 
be  reckoned  Anoiig  the  best  specimens  of  modem 
pulpit  doqnenoe  in  Oennany.  Of  theee^  the  moat 
famona  anhls  WtnlmotlOk  (1808,  6t«  Aafl.  1846} 
and  So7m««rpo»taU  (ISIS,  ete  Anfl.  184S),  to  whioh 
a  new  aeries  waa  added— .yens  WimarpottaU  (1826) 
and  2fmt  jSomnurpMtOla  (1837).— On  H-'a  life  nuy 
be  consulted  Domer'a  Bl&Oer  der  Sriimertutg  on 
daa  JuMUtnn  «on  H.  (1842),  and  H.'t  LOau- 
barkreibunir,  vcrfaut  von  Am  idbit  (ISSl). 

HA'RO,  a  amsll  town  of  Spain,  in  the  provinoe  of 
LogroDo,  and  26  miles  west-north-west  of  tite  tovm 
of  Uiat  name,  ia  prettily  situated  in  s  fertile  plain  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ebro.  It  has  manufactures  of 
bats,  leather,  bmndy,  and  liqueurs.  Much  wine  ia 
grown  in  the  neighbourhood.    Pop.  6000. 

HAROEBIS,  the  elder  Horns,  son  of  SA,  the 
Egyptian  Satnrn,  and  Nil,  or  Khea,  said  to  have 
been  bom  on  the  second  day  of  the  epact.  He  was 
the  brother,  and  not  the  son,  of  Oaina,  from  whom 
he  is  to  be  distinguished.  In  the  inscriptions,  he 
is  said  to  be  the  son  of  Atum,  of  Ptah  or  Vulcan, 
and  Athor  or  Yenua,  according  to  different  legends. 
He  was  also  lord  of  the  South  and  Nubia,  and 
particularly  ruler  over  the  heaven,  illuminating  the 
world  with  the  brightneas  of  hia  eyes.  Aa  such,  he 
woe  identified  with  the  sun  and  Apollo,  and  repre- 
sented as  hawk-headed,  wearing  tlra  crovm  of  the 
upper  and  lower  world.  Hia  name  is  also  found 
in  the  Greek  dedications  to  him  of  tha  temples  of 
Omhos  and  Apollinopolis  Forva.  His  connection 
with  the  aun  is,  however,  undonbted,  as  he  is  made 


mythically  represented  the  sun  and  moon,  took 
place  on  the  SOtb  IMphi— Birch,  OaHen/ cf  Anii- 
ouififf,  L  p.  38  i  Wilkinson,  Maaneri  and  Vudonu, 
■-.p.  396. 

HAROiiD  I.  (1036— lOM),  (snmamed  Barefoot, 
probably  on  Booonnt  of  hia  awiftnesa  in  rwuiing). 
—  ths  jonngar  of  Oaunte'i  two  too*,  by  his  flitt 


hyGoogle 


RABOLD  IL— HABPOCOtATBa 


wife  Allgiv*.    Accotdiug  _.  . 
Hoond  nuurUga^  }ku  bod  br 

tlie  Eolith  M  wcU  at  the  D« 

HudioMMto,  waa,  however,  in  Deitfutk  at  the  time 
of  bii  btiw^a  death,  and  baiiu  very  wpopular 
with  the  Daniah  part  of  th«  popnUtioi)  r  ' 

loat  half  of  hia  kingdrai.    Letfric,  Earl  ..  __ , 

lad  the  cauae  of  H.,  while  the  powarfiU  Earl  Oodwin 
«ipoiiaed  that  ot  Ea»lic»Dute.  Civil  war  w> 
hapjuly  averted  b;  a  compromiBe,  and  the  kingdoi 
waa  divided  B-  took  Loudon,  wiUi  all  the  provmcea 
north  of  the  Thamea ;  while  the  poeseaaion  of  the 
■outh  waa  given  ap  to  Emma  for  Hardicanate,  who 
fixed  h«r  reaidence  at  Winebaater,  and  eatabliahed 


to  H.,  and  ha  waa  crowned  king  of  all  Ek^aod, 
tliougn  it  ia  lUtiad  that  the  AKhluihqi  of  Caa- 
terbnty,  ^yVintli,  at  flnt  nfnaed  to  pofoim  the 
ocremonr  mmMll  or  to  allow  anv  of  hia  brother- 
biaht^iD  doao.  He  died  at  Oxford,  Uarch  17,  lOW. 
HAKOIiD  II.  wa>  the  teoond  aon  of  the  powerful 
Oodwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  and  VM  bom  at  the  oloae  of 
the  loth  oentnry.  On  the  death  of  Edward  the 
Oonfeaaor,  the  WitenageinAta  (q.  v.),  in  the  exeroiee 
of  if*  righta,  aat  aaide  tiie  olainu  of  Ednr  Atbaling, 
and,  ignoring  tha  repotad  baqoMt  of  Qie  late  aore- 
reign  in  favoor  of  uie  Doka  of  Nontandy,  elected 
ELlo  ail  the  vaoant  throne.  Dak*  William  imne- 
diatelr  aawrted  bia  (daim,  wUeh  waa  nniported 
l^  H.\  bnthar  Toatig  and  Harold  Hardnde,  king 
of  Norway,  for  tJie  aake  id  obtaining  tha  dnkoMi 
aatiatanoe  to  rainstate  the  fomiar  in  the  gOTwnment 
of  NorUiamhiia.  Toatag  and  the  king  landed  om 
the  oiwat  of  Yorkahire,  and  iJtet  defertuu  Morcar 
and  Edwin,  Earla  of  Horthombrta  and  Mareia, 
advanced  to  York,  bat  were  met  by  H.  at  Stamfotd- 
bridges  and  totally  rooted.  Three  weelu  afterwarda, 
Wimam  landed  in  England ;  the  oontendi^  arauM 
met  at  Senlao,  about  nine  milea  from  Haatinga, 
when  H.'b  death  (Ootobff  14, 1006)  made  the  Duke 
of  Normandy  nndiapated  mkr  of  England. 

HABP,   a  mnaioal   rtringed  inabument,   much 


uea  in  many  different  foim^  abme  of  then 

wnpls.  Mid  othan  with   great   taste   and    

ment ;  tomeplayed  on  while  atanding,  othen  while 
kneduw.  Ilia  Oeltio  barda  held  the  harp  in  the 
greatan  hoaavr.  In  tho  Eigblands  of  ScotUnd  the 
Scfcrnment  baa  diaappeared,  but  it  ii  atill  in  use  in 
Wain,  and  to  aome  extent  it  Un^rs  in  Ireland. 
where,  from  ite  former  prevalenoe,  it  ia  adopted  ni 
a  natitmal  i^mboL  The  old  Franka  and  Qennans 
ptiniihcd  thoaa  aererely  who  iojured  a  harpist  in 
Uke  hand,  the  harp  was  uaed  ai  an  accompuiimeat 
to  the  paalma  inng  by  the  early  consregatiom  of 
Cbiiatiana.  There  are  three  kmda  m  'baipi  now 
known — the  ordinary  Italian  harp,  whioh  ia  atnmg 
with  two  Mwa  ot  wire-alzin^  iepanted  by  a  donUe 
■ounding-board;  Ihii  kind  h  no^  little  naed,  being 
very  impmfBOt.  The  donbia  harp,  or,  aa  it  ia  alao 
called,  David'*  haip,  ia  a  more  oaefol  inatrament, 
and  in  the  torra  of  a  triangle,  with  a  ■onndiiW' 
bawd  and  gut-itringa ;  it  ia  alwaya  timed  in  the 
principal  key  of  the  muaic^  while  the  atringa  are 
altered  to  luit  any  modnlationa  oot  of  the  key, 
by  preanre  of  the  thumb,  or  turning  the  tnuing- 
[uw  ol  certain  notea.  Theae  defect!  Ted  gradually 
to  the  invention  of  the  pedal  haip,  which  hai  aeven 
pedal*,  by  which  each  note  ot  the  diatonic  acale,  in 
all  tiie  diffment  ootavea,  cttt  be  made  a  aemitoue 
hitler.  Ths  immraw  of  the  pedal  harp  ia  from 
WDtoa  F  to  D  af  we  lixth  ootaye  aboriL    In  order 


to  have  the  B  fUt,  ft  n 


t  ba  tunad  in  fha  key  of 


E  flat  The  musio  for  the  harp  ia  written  in  the 
baaa  and  treble  clel,  the  aame  aa  pianoforte  muaio. 
A  celebrated  harpiit,  Hoohfaruckar,  in  DonauwJJrUi, 
invested  the  pedala  in  1720 ;  otiuna  aay  th^  wwa 
invented  by  JT  Paul  Velter,  in  NUmbeiK  in  1790; 
who  at  leaat  added  the  pano  and  forte  pMaL  After 
nuuerooa  attempts  at  further  improvementa.  His 
baip  at  length  reached  a  decree  of  perfadion  by 
the  invention  of  the  double-action  pedal  harp  by 
Enttd  in  Paril,  viincb  acarcely  leavea  anything  more 
to  be  detired.  By  meaua  ot  Braid's  invention, 
each  atring  can  be  ihupeued  twioe,  each  time  a 
aeniitoiie ;  ao  that  the  C  string  may  be  0  flat,  it* 
fall  laogth,  0  natonl  by  the  fint  movemnt  of  the 
pedal,  ud  C  ihaip  by  the  next  movement.  The 
doubla-action  harp  i*  tmud  with  all  the  pedal* 
half-dowtii,  and  in  the  key  of  0  natmaL 

HAKPE,  JzAir  Fkutcoib  sk  u,  waa  bom  at 
Pari*,  November  20,  1730,  itudied  at  the  Ooll^ 
d'Haroonrt,  and  led  for  aome  time  a  rather 
chequered  life.  In  17S2  he  publiahed  a  volume 
of  juvenile  poema,  and  in  the  following  year  hia 
tragedy  of  Warvnek  appeared ;  it  waa  very  ano- 
oeaaful  OS  the  etage,  and  placed  t«  hia  account  both 
fame  and  money.  Excepting  the  Lj/de,  thia  ia  by 
far  the  beet  of  hiB  worka,  though  the  writing  haa  but 
little  force.  Grimm  haa  admirably  ehanctariaed 
the  iday  a* '  la  oonp  d'eaaaiB  d'un  jenne  homme  da 
■(uxante  mu.'  La  H.'b  three  anbae^oent  plays, 
written  in  tiie  eame  vein,  TtnuUonyPhananond, 
and  Oudaee  Wata,  entirely  failed,  ^e  work  that 
preservea  hia  name,  and  ha*  given  bim  a  perma- 
nent poiition  among  the  litetoti  ot  France,  i*  his 
Ia/cU.  ou  Ooar*  de  LxUtrature,  wbioh,  in  default 


of  a  better,  baa  till  lately  been  their  only  idiable 
work  of  haute  eriliqut.    That  portion  which  r«]»l  ~ 
literature  ia  of  little  valuer  and  that 


IB  entirely  worthlesa,  owing  to 
pride  of  the  critio,  who  coold  ai 


imporaiy  writer* 
e  bittern 
e  nothing  neet  <* 
1  the  work*  ot  a  rival  ot  fallow-lAoarv. 
The  interreniiu  portion  ia,  however,  «t  gre*t  ralna 
to  the  Btodont,  nyinK  tat  the  time,  a  eompleta 
ditioal  hiatoiy  of  Trendi  literatme.  The  book  will 
alao  be  found  aerviceable  to  the  student  of  the  lan- 
guage. At  it*  oommenoement,  the  Bevdntion  found 
no  more  ardent  admirer  than  La  H, :  bat  when  ha 
waa  caet  into  P^taa — where  he  ia  said  to  have  been 
converted  to  Chnatianity  by  a  feUow-captiTe,  the 
Bishop  ot  St  Brieox — for  refuaing  to  coontenanee 
the  eitremea  to  which  democracy  was  loading,  his 
view*  entirely  changed,  and  he  became  a  firm  sup- 
porter of  church  and  crown.    Ia  H.  died  Fehruaty 


the  Blue  Ridge  (rf  the  Alle^ianiM, 

west  from  Washington.  lU  flue  toenery  has  Daen 
«elebi»ted  by  Jefienon  in  his  Jfoiei  on  Virginia. 
"Dm  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Bailway  here  oroaaea  the 
Potomac  It  ia  the  site  of  a  government  foundry, 
anaoniy,  and  aiacmal,  whioh  were  dMrtanyed  and 
abaBdiaied  by  the  United  State  troofa  at  the 
beginning  of  the  eivil  war;  and  hat  rino*  witiwMed 
"irious  stmug^    It  waa  also  the  WMoaot  John 

rown's  sbofitaoD  raid  in  Virginia,  1669.  Pop.  1339. 

HABPCKORATBB,  the  name  ^ven  by  QnA. 

ritera  to  the  younger  Honu^  the  hieronyiduaal 

Bcriptions  callmg  him  Harjpa  ttrvt,  <  H^na  the 
child,  the  aon  of  laia.  Bee  HoRDS.  Aooording  to 
the  legend,  he  vraa  a  younger  son  ot  Osiris  and  lafa, 
who,  having  placed  an  amulet  round  her  neck,  nve 
birth  to  him  at  the  winter  Bolstic&  He  ia  deaoribed 
by  Plntarch  aa  lame  fn  the  lower  limha  wl^  bean, 


t,Googl( 


_ 


EASfOOK— HABPT. 


Bxpel  evil  mflaeiiMt.  At  the  rigbt  tide  of  hii  head 
liii  likit  M  gatiiend  into  a  un^  look,  and  bia  finsei 
ia  placed  on  hia  month,  an  actoM  indioatiTe  ot  yonili, 
ana  mittaken  Y»y  the  Greek  and  Bonuu  woten 
tea  that  of  (ilenoe,  of  whiefa  tb^  made  H.  the 
dtrini^.  Sametimaa  ha  weata  m  amakt  in  ihape 
cf  a  TIM  Tonnd  hia  neek.  Hie  temple  at  Edf  on  or 
Apollinopolia  Uagna  waa  dedicated  to  him,  and  in 
the  lenli^nna  he  ij^lxdiaaa  the  ion  in  tha  earliest 
honn  of  the  da^.  He  haa  gNunl^  been  oonmdared 
to  be  tha  winto  MiB,  but  nther  npamaU  the 
faeble  and  "»»™^t  Kin  of  the  later  niTtludogj. 
lioBn  were  plaoad  niidaT  bia  thionei  ^nocephali 
an  aaU  to  oa  dedicated  to  him,  probably  bom 
confbnndinA  ^i™  with  the  lunar  goa  Khoni  j  and 
the  lotua,  on  which  he  ia  often  depicted  mtting,  and 
which  waa  thoDght  to  open  at  annriie  and  doae 
at  innaet,  waa  partiealirlf  aacred  to  him.  So  was 
the  Fenea,  or  Ciuria  A^uIorU.  Hia  wonhip  was 
introduced  aa  part  of  the  Iiiao  cult  into  Some, 
and  he  waa  mppoaed  to  be  very  efficaciooi  in  giving 


a  drivBD  from  the  Ca^tol;  bnt  he  wu  very 
popular  in  the  dayi  of  Fhny.  Althooxh  the  muna 
of  H.  is  not  mentioned  earlier  Qua  eavtottheoea, 
yet  M  he  mentiona  it  aa  part  of  that  of  aa  andent 
"■"Ttfi-b)  it  waa  nsdoobtedly  of  high  antjonity. 

Ki«lh,  OalUry  of  A.f^>^*»e*,  i  p.  37 j  Wilkinaon, 
Sir  Q.,  Maim,  and  Otut.,  iv.  p,  40D;  lablomki, 
PanihioB,  L  p.  241. 

HA£PO(yN,  the  weaptni  with  which  whales  and 
other  Iwge  oetaoeans  are  killed.    See  VfuAJ^E. 

HARP^SHELL  {ffarpa),  a  genua  of  gaatero- 
podoni  nuJlaacfl  of  the  whdk  funily  iBtteeittidt^, 
having  the  la«t  whorl  of  the  shell  very  large,  the 
Aell  ribbed  lougitadinally,  the  foot  of  the  »"imai 
very  Urge,  lie  speoica,  which  are  not  very  numar- 
ODB,  are  fonnd  in  the  seaa  of  warm  climatea,  and 
particnlariy  at  the  UauiitiuB.    The  ihella  are  much 


Usip'ilicU. 

prized  for  their  great  beauty,  but  mnit  be  kept  in 
drawen^and  not  exposed  to  light,  or  their  deCcate 
and  brimknt  colour*  will  fade. 

HA'BPSIOHORD,  a  ka^ed  musical  inatrument, 
formerly  in  extenaiva  nae,  but  now  little  known. 
In  ehi^  it  waa  oxaetly  like  a  gnnd  pianoforte,  to 
whiob  iIb  internal  airangementa  were  also  similar. 
Tha  aoond  from  the  atringt  was  prodooed  by  a  unall 
[Heoe  of  crow-quill,  or  a  piece  of  baid  leather,  which 
projeoled  oat  of  a  slip  of  wood,  called  the  jack,  that 
.stood  spright  between  the  stnuga,  and  waa  pushed 
npwatds  by  Itie  key,  till  the  quill,  or  leatlier, 
iwitehed  the  stnnjL  eansing  a  brilliant,  but  some- 
what hanh  loand,  entirely  deficient  of  any  meama 
«f  nodifioatieo,  in  leapaot  to  londneaa  or  ioftuea. 


Specuneu  of  the  harpsichord,  although  now  becoming 
ntore  rare,  are  still  to  be  found  io  good  preaerva- 
tioD,  but  rather  aa  artidea  of  vertu  or  curioeity, 
thaii  as  useful  musicaJ  instrutnects.  Many  Itili&n 
and  Dotch  harpsichords  were  highly  ornamented  by 
the  most  eminent  artiats  with  vsluable  oil-puntjngg 
on  the  inude  of  the  hd.  The  date  of  the  invention 
of  the  harpsichord  is  uncertain.  Before  the  IGth  c, 
there  is  no  trace  of  its  existence.  It  was  introduced 
into  England  early  is  the  17tb  century.  In  the 
ISth  o.,  KiAman^  uid  later, Broadwood  and  Bchndi, 
were  the  famous  makers  in  London.  After  the 
inventiiHi  of  the  piBnofart«s  the  harpsichord  and  aE 
enta  of  the  same  kind,  such  as  the  spinet, 
time  entirely  auperseded.  See  Pumoiobik 
HABPT,  a  fabulous  creators  in  Greek  myth- 
idogy,  oonsidered  as  a  minister  of  the  vengeance 
of  the  gods.  Various  acoaunta  are  givui  of  the 
nomben  and  parentage  of  the  Harpies.  Homer 
mentiona  but  one,  Hesiod  enumersl«a  two — AUlo 
and  Okypete,  daughters  of  Thaomaa  by  the  Ooaanid 
deotra,  fair-haired  and  winged  maidens,  very 
^wift  of  flight.  Three  are  sometimes  recognised 
by  later  writers,  who  call  them  variously  daughten 
of  PoeeidoD  or  of  Trphon,  and  describe  them  aa 
hideoni  montten  witn  winga,  of  fietee  and  loath- 
some aspect,  with  their  f  sees  pale  with  hunger, 
li^ng  in  an  atanosphete  of  filtS  and  stench,  and 
ctmtaminating  eve^thing  that  they  approached. 
The  most  celebrsted  tzadmon  regarding  the  Harplea 
is  connected  with  the  blind  Fhmeus,  .^ 

whose  meals  they  carried  o" 

as  they  were  spread  for  him . 
from  which  he  was  delivered  £y  the 
Argonauta,  on  his  engaging  to  join  in 
their  quest  The  Boreads  Zetes  and 
Cal&is  attacked  the  Harpies,  but  spared 
their  live*  on  their  promismg  to  cesse 

from  molesting  Fhiueus A  harpy  in   heraldry  is 

represented  as  a  vulture,  with  the  head  and  breast 
of  a  woman. 


HarpT  Eagle  (Sorpjna  dalmclor) : 
■paclman  In  lb*  Eojml  Zoolgalosl  Oudtn*,  Rennl'i 
Pirk,  IStl. 


times   t«  soms 


H.  haa  also  been  given  in  m 
IS  of  the  Fidconidie,  aa  the  ] 


tyCoogle 


HARQtJBBtJSS— HARHINOTON. 


Harrier  (Bee  UABlueB)  of  Europe,  tud  the  H. 
H.  Ea^e  of  Sonth  Ameiio  (jTarpgut 
or  Thramiliu  harpyia),  m  inhabitant  of  the  great 
tcopioal  foreetB,  where  it  prey*  chiefly  on  quad, 
mped^  and  to  a  large  extent  on  Blotha  and  young 
deer.  Of  all  birds,  it  haa  tiie  moit  terrific  beak 
and  talona.  It  ia  larger  than  the  common  eagle  -,  ia 
>hart-«inged  and  ihart-legged  ;  the  upper  mandible 
greatly  hooked ;  the  feathers  of  the  head  capable 
of  being  erected  into  a  great  ruff  and  crest.  It  has 
not  so  elegant  a  form  as  the  true  eagles,  but  is 
probably  equal  to  any  of  them  in  strenKth  and 
courage.  When  adult,  it  is  geoerally  of  a  blackish 
slate  colour,  with  gray  head,  and  white  breast  and 
belly.    It  makes  ite  neat  in  treea. 

HARQTJEBUSS.    See  Abqitzbitss. 

HA'BRIBK,  a  variety  of  dog  used  for  hare-hant- 


from  the  beagle.  It  does  not  exceed  18  inches 
in  height  at  the  shoolder,  but  otherwise  greatly 
resemUes  the  foxhound,  even  in  coloura.  It  is  not 
■o  swift  as  the  foxhound.  Its  scent,  however,  is 
extremely  keen,  which  enables  it  to  follow  sJl  the 
doublinga  of  the  hare. 

Persons  hunting  with  harriers  are  exempt  from 
taking  oat  a  game  licence.    See  IlARsa. 

HARRIER  (Ct'rais),  a  genus  of  Faleonula,  allied 


Hen  Hanler  [drau  q/anetu). 

to   Bqizardt  (a.  v.),   but  difTering  tttaa  them  in 
the  more  aleader  fonn  of  tlia  bodj,  longw  and 


wings  and  tail,  and  in 
haying  the  feauras  aiDoud  t^  eyea  plaoed  in  > 
rodiabng  manner,  komewhat  as  in  oms,  a  pecu- 
liarity which  distingnishe*  them  from  all  the  other 
Falconidffi.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  low 
flight,  skimming  along  the  ground  in  pursnit  of 
Bi^ll  quadmpeiAi,  reptiles,  A^  The  Mabsh  H.  (C. 
arvgxnoMu),  also  called  the  MooB  Bdzukd,  and 
sometimes  the  TTihvt  and  the  Duck  Hi.WE,  is  the 
largest  British  species,  beins  about  31 — 23  inches 
long.  The  head  of  the  adult  male  is  yellowish 
white.— The  Hen  H.  [C.  cgtmetu)  is  18  or  20  inches 
long,  the  adult  tnale  of  an  olioost  nnifonu  gray 
colour,  the  female  brown.  The  female  is  known 
oa  the  Bjnotah.,  from  a  mst-coloured  ring  formed 
by  the   tips  of   the   tail-feathaw.      The   Hen   H. 

derives  its  name  from  its  ft«         ' 

ponltty-yards.     The  male  of 
the  Blue  Hauk  in  Scotland. 


these  suicides  at       .    ,       .    

exclusive  of  suicides  by  hanging  or  drowning.  All 
military  men,  vid  persons  holding  civil  offices  nnd^ 
the  government,  are  bound,  when  they  have  com- 
mitted any  offenoe,  to  rip  themselves  up,  which 
they  do  by  two  gashes,  in  the  form  of  a  cross ;  but 
not  until  they  have  received  on  order  from  the 
court  to  that  effect ;  for,  if  they  were  to  aaticiiWite 
this  order,  their  heirs  wonld  run  Uie  risk  of  btdng 
deprived  of  their  place  and  property.    Not  unfre- 

Suently,  upon  the  death  of  superiors  or  masten, 
le  same  operation  is  self-inflicted  by  those  who 
desire  to  exhibit  devotion  and  attachment ;  some- 
times also,  in  consequence  of  a  disgrace  or  aSront, 
it  is  resorted  to,  when  no  other : 


HARRINGTON,   Jamk,   an  English   political 

writer,  was  bom  in  Northamptonshire,  of  a  good 
family,  in  1611,  studied  at  Oxford  under  tha 
celebrated  ChiUingworth,  and,  at  the  tenninalioD 
of  his  university  career,  proceeded  to  visit  the 
continent  Bis  travels  embraced  the  NethcrUods, 
Germany,  Denmoii:,  Prance,  and  Italy.  On  tiie 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  he  took  part  with 
the  jiorBameot  and  in  1646  was  appointed  by  the 
pfLrbomentary  commissioneis  one  oE  the  personal 
attendants  of  the  monarch.  After  the  execution 
of  Charle«,  he  withdrew  from  public  notice,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  elaboration  and  completion 
of  his  political  system.  The  result  was  his  famous 
Oceana,  a  kind  i^  poKtical  romance,  on  the  plan  of 
Plato's  AOautU.  The  work  was  first  published 
in  1656,  and  wsa  dedicated  to  Cromwell,  who  read 
it,  but  was  not  overwell  pleased  with  its  strsit- 
Is£ed  and  somewhat  finical  republicanism,  and  its 
animadversioDS  upon  usurpation.  'The  gentleman 
must  not  think,'  the  Protector  is  reported  to  have 
said, '  to  cheat  me  of  my  power  and  authori^ ;  for 
what  I  have  won  by  the  sword,  I  will  not  suffer 
lyself  to  be  scribbled  ont  of.'    Hums  allows  it  ' 


tura.'  Hallam'a  verdict  is  kas  favonralue ;  he  pro- 
nounoas  the  antlm  to  be  in  general  'prtdix,  doll, 
Mdantici,  ^  seldom  protoimd  p  but  he  admit*  that 
La 'sometmiet  redeems  himself  by  just  obscrvationB.' 
Afto'  the  pnlidication  of  Oetana,  H.  continued  to 
exert  himself  in  diOusing  his  repnUican  opinions, 
fouided  a  olnb  called  the  'Roto,'  fell  under  ans- 
~"'>n  after  the  Restoration,  and  was  imfaiaoned, 
afterwards  released.  Meanwhile,  however,  an 
~\  of  inasni^  had  supervened,  from  which  he 

perfectly  reooTwed.    Hediedat  Wesboinster, 

Septonbcr  11, 1877-    Aa  edition  of  his  writinga  waa 


^ 


hyGoogle 


HAMtia-HAEROW. 


pobluhed  kr  ToUnd  in  1700,  uid  a  n 


«  cotopletfl 


•bly  that  by  Hollia  (with  ToUnd's  Life), 

HARRIS,  Jamzs,  an  EngLbh  ^likHtyaxt  and 
l^ioian,  tho  eldeat  son  of  Janm  HarriB,  £Hq^  of 
Cbse,  SiJubary,  was  bom  Jolr  20,  1709.  Hii 
nothar  naa  tile  Iddy  Elizabeth  Aahley  Cooper, 
dster  of  Lord  Shafleabnry,  aathoT  of  the  Charae- 
teridio*.  Ha  vaa  educated  at  SaUobiuy,  and 
Wadbam  Oollego,  Oxford,  and  entered  opon  tho 
study  of  the  law ;  but  bia  father  having  died  in 
1734,  leaving  him  a  hacdaome  fortune,  be  aban- 
doned the  pnrsnit  of  his  profession,  and  gave  his 
whole  time,  for  a  period  of  fourteen  years,  to  the 
■tudy  of  his  favourite  Greek  and  Latin  anthora.  In 
174Siie  married  a  daughter  of  John  Clarke,  Esq.,  of 


ha   ret4^< __   ...    _ _    ,  __    

iqipointed  a  Lord  i^  the  Admiralty,  and  the  nait 
year,  Lord  of  tbe  Xteaaury,  and  in  1774,  Secretary 
and  Compboller  to  the  qneen.  He  died  in  17S0. 
Hs  is  chiefly  known  as  Uie  author  of  Harmet,  or 
a  PkUotcaiiieai  Inquiry  eoneemiry  Langnage  and 
Unherad  OrammaT,  a  work  of  great  erudition, 
published  in  1751.  '  It  is  written,"Bays  Coleridge, 
'  with  the  precijsion  of  Aristotle  and  the  elegance 
of  QnintiUan.'  He  had  previously  pnblisfaied  three 
treatitee — On  Art;  On  Mutie,  PaiiUtng,  Mtd  Foetrv; 
and  On  Hapmneu.  In  1776  appeared  hia  eeaay  On 
PAifotatiAlcai  ArrangemenlA,  part  <^  a  Im^  projected 
work  on  the  LodcbI  System  of  Arist«tle.  Hia  last 
work,  entitled  PhiUilo^cai  InquirUi  (1780],  coniistH 
of  a  seriee  of_  critidBins  and  comments  on  the  prin- 
cipal ancient,  medieval,  sod  modem  authors.  Hia 
works,  with  Life  by  hia  eon,  the  Earl  of  Malmes- 
Lury,  were  pablished  at  London  in  ISOl. 


HA'KRIS,  or  HEams,  a  district  or  parish  of 
Scotland,  in  the  Hebrides,  comprises  the  loutheni 
portion  of  the  island  of  Lewis  and  a  number  of 
adjacent  tstets.    See  Lcwia. 

HArRRISBTTRO,  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania, 
United  Statea,  America,  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  magnificent  scenery  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Snsqadianna  River,  107  miles  west-aorth-weit  of 
Philaddphia,  lat  40°  16'  N.,  Joi^  76°  60"  W.  It 
has  a  handsome  state-bouse,  a  coiut-house,  jail,  state 
arsenal,  state  lunatic  asylum,  nnmerous  churches, 
several  academies,  eight  or  ten  newspaper- offices, 
a  rulway  bridge,  2878  feet  in  length,  and  seven 
dive^ing  railways.  It  was  settled  in  1733  by  John 
Hanu,  an  Englishman,  under  a  giant  trwa  the 
Peons,  the  original  Europeaa  settlers  of  Pennsyl- 
vania.   Pop.  (1870)  23,104. 

HARRISOlf,  JooH,  a  celebrated  mechanician, 
was  born  at  Fsulby,  near  Ponte&act,  Yoriishire,  in 
1693.  ffis  meohaiuoal  genius,  which  early  i^played 
itaslf,  led  him  to  stody  the  oonstmotion  of  clocks 
and  watches,  with  a  view  to  iltmininliing  m  much  aa 

rnble  tbuT  errors  and  irregularities,  and  by  173C 
had  effected  considerable  improvemente  in  their 
structure.  In  1714,  the  government  had  offered 
prizes  of  £10,000,  £15,000,  and  £20,000  for  the  dis- 
covery of  a  method  for  determining  the  longitude 
within  60,  40,   or  30   miles   respectively.      After 


found  to  determine  the  loii^tnde  within  16  miles ; 
he  therefore  olumed  the  reward  of  £20,000,  which, 
after  a  delay  caused  by  another  voys^  to  Jamaica, 
and  farther  triaLt  was  awarded  to  hmi  in  176S — 
£1(^000  to  be  pud  on  H.'«  explaining  the  principle 


of  oonstruction  of  his  chronometer,  and  £1(^000 
whenever  it  was  OBcertained  that  tite  instrument 
could  be  made  b^  others.  The  success  of  H.'s 
chronometer  is  owing  to  his  appUcatioo  of  the  cont- 
pentalion  curb  to  the  balance  wheel,  and  on  the 
aame  prindple  he  invented  the  gridiron  pendulum 
for  clocks.  These,  along  with  his  other  inventions, 
the  going  fatte  and  the  remantoir  ueapeount,  were 
considered  to  be  tiie  most  remarkable  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  watches  of  the  last 
century  (see  HoROLOav).  H.  died  in  Red  Lion 
Sqnans  London,  in  1776- 

HARRISON,  WiLLiiM  HBttar,  ninth  preudsnt 
of  the  Doited  States,  bom  Febrna^  9,  1773,  in 
Virginia,  was  the  son  of  Benjamin  Harrison,  who 
sigiwd  the  declaration  of  independenoe.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  he  joined  in  1792,  as  ensign,  the 
army  which  Wayne  was  leading  agunst  the  nortb- 
weetem  Indians.  He  left  the  army  in  1797.  In 
ISOl,  he  became  governor  of  Indiana,  and  as  its 
representative  in  Congress,  sncceeded  in  paming 
a  law  relating  to  the  sale  of  the  fedecal  land  in 
small  parcels,  to  which  the  western  states  asoribe 


became  uso  a  war  against 


all  their  prosperit 

inl8U,andwhic._   „..___. 

the  English  in  Canada,  H,  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  American  orm^,  shewed  great  militaty  talent. 
He  defeated  the  Indiana  in  an  important  battle  at 
Tippecanoe,  and  by  the  victory  of  Peny  on  Lake 
Ene  was  enabled  to  pursue  tbe  Britiui  invaders 
into  Canada,  where,  on  October  S,  1813,  he  totally 
Tonted  them  in  the  battle  of  Thames.  In  1814  he 
resif^ed  his  commission.  In  1816  he  was  elected 
to  CoiiCTess,  and  in  1S24  became  a  member  of 
senate.  In  1S28  he  went  as  ambassador  to  Colombia, 
bnt  was  recalled  in  1829,  and  for  12years  was  clerk 
of  a  county  court  in  Ohio.  The  Wnin  party  tried 
in  vain  to  make  bim  president  of  the  United  States 
in  1S36,  but  succeeded  in  1840.  He  died  a  month 
after  his  inauguration,  in  April  1841. 

HA'RROGATB,  HARROWQATE,  or  HIGH 
HARHOGATB,  a  villam  in  ToAshira,  20  miles 
west  of  York  city,  is  celebrated  for  sulphureous  and 
chalybeate  springs.  The  ■ulphureons  spriogs  are 
also  saline,  and  of  laxative  and  diuretic  qnality, 
while  the  chalybeate  waters  are  tonia  H.  is  a  very 
ao'eeable  residence,  the  Eunounding  country  being 
f^  of  beauty  and  interest ;  it  is  largely  frequented 
by  visit«i«  m  summer,  and  ia  now  eamly  accessible 
by  the  railway  from  Leeds  to  Donourter.  The 
vaten  are  of  consideiable  aotivity,  and  should  only 
be  taken  under  medical  advice,  lliey  are  used  both 
externally  and  internally,  and  are  in  great  repute  in 
mai^  diaeasM  of  tin  skin,  and  in 


theiT  virtues,  with  analysea  in  detail,  by  Professor 
Hoffman,  was  pnUiahed  in  1S54  Pop.  in  1871, 
0843. 

HARROW,  on  agricultural  implement,  used  far 
smoothing  and  pnlverising  plonghed  land,  and  for 
covering  the  seeds  previously  eown.  It  consiBts  of  a 
frame  of  a  square  or  rhombic  form,  in  which  are 
fixed  rows  of  teeth,  or  tinet,  projecting  downwards. 
TTie  harrow  is  a  very  ancient  implement,  having 
been  in  use  beyond  the  dawn  of  history ;  but  as  in 
early  times  omy  the  lighter  soils  were  cultivated, 
it  often  consisted  of  biuhes,  or  branches  of  trees, 
which  merely  scratched  the  ground.  Subse^uenUy, 
we  find  a  wooden  frame  and  wooden  tines  m  use  ; 
next,  the  wooden  frame  with  iron  tiuec,  a  form  of 
the  instrument  very  much  used  at  the  present  day, 
and  ennoially  in  favour  for  light  soils.  For  heavy 
soils,  the  harrow  conatnoted  wholly  of  iron  is  most 
lued,  ai  it  is  heavier  and  does  more  exeention ;  and 


CglizodtyL-iOOgle 


HAEKOW^N-THE-HItL— HAETPOBD. 


of  Badford  U  pK&mi.  Tbe  Hovud  hwrow  lua 
the  tinei  w  nmoafii  that  no  ono  followi  in  the 
track  of  anotbar,  oat  each  ku  a  M[«n)t«  line  of 
aatiDOf  whioh  graatly  flimintahji  tbe  risk  of  any 


Homid'a  Hamnr. 


portjon  of  the  sorfaoa  Moaping  ptdrerintioi].  A 
'  bnJc*  *  is  a  large  tuuroir  nwd  for  breakmg  down 
rough  or  hard  umd.  The  '  chain-bartow,'  i^ch  ii 
a  congeries  of  iron  rmfla,  ii  mefnl  for  oorering  graea- 
■eedi,  and  eapeoially  tor  Beparatang  weeda  from  the 
earth  or  clodji  in  which  they  are  Miveloped. 

HABBOW-ON-THK-HILL,  a  TilUge  of 
MiildlnwiT.  WngiBmi,  Sg  fimnly  aitnateil  on  tbe  iwnmifc 
of  a  null  enunsBce  abont  twelve  milea  oMth-'west 
of  London,  oo  the  London  and  Birmindiam  Bidl- 
way.  P<^  (1871)  4M7.  TUm  Tillage  "ianit*  'Om 
oclebrity  uj^y  from  the  gnunmaT'achooI  foiuidad 
hcB^  in  lfi71.  By  John  Lyon,  a  weaUiy  yeoman  of 
the  pariah.  The  ichool  wui  ori^iiiaUy  intended  to 
afford  a  eratoitoai  education  to  poor  boyi  bang- 
ing to  the  pariah,  and  ia  «tiil  nominally  free  to 
alltJie  boya  of  the  pariah,  bnt,  ai  in  many  other 
caaea,  it  haa  iMon  diverted  from  its  primary  pur^ 
poee,  and  ia  now  ohiedy  attended  by  the  aona  of 
the  nobility  and  gentry,  and  poewsBea  a  verv  high 
repntation.  It  luw  several  exl^tiana  to  Oxford 
and  Cambiidj|e,  Among  the  eminent  men  who 
have  been  educated  at  H,  may  be  mentioned 
Sir  William  Jones,  Di  Parr,  Lwd  Byion,  0«oigB 
Canninf^  and  3ir  Robert  PeeL 

EUBBT,  Bund,  a  Seottaah  minsfavl  of  th«  IMh 
ocntniy.  Scaroetv  anythins  ia  known  of  faia  life 
beyond  what  ia  told  by  Dr  JMm  Major  (or  Hair)  in 
his  ifiriory  0/ j^MtfaMd,  P«l:diahed  in  1531.  'Wlien 
I  waa  a  child,'  he  aayi,  '  Henry,  a  man  Uind  frcon 
hia  birth,  who  lived  by  telliiw  tales  bdoivpriiioeB 
and  peen,  wioto  a  whole  book  of  William  Wallaos^ 
weavms  tbe  common  stories  (wbidi  I,  for  one,  only 
partly  believe)  into  vemacolar  poetay,  in  irtdoh  he 
was  skilled'  In  1490—1492,  raiod  Harry  ia  fond 
at  the  court  of  Kin^  Jamca  IV.,  receiviu  oeeaaiaaal 
gntnities  of  five,  nine,  and  iriahtmm  ahiUingab  lie 
poem  atthbnted  to  him,  Tim  Lj/k  <^  Oai  XoiU 
Olmmpimt  <if  Seolla»d,  ^  WiOian  WaUate,  Knight, 


wheal  it  waa  ooined  by  Jdiu  Bamaay.  1 
the  oUest  Ua  <rf  the  work  now  known 
doea  Bot  ascribe  it  to  Blind  Hany,  nor  is 
pven  to  it  in  tlie  earlier  printed  eriitiona.  xua 
poem,  whioh  ciaitNna  ll,Ml  linei,  erf  ten  ^llaUea 
each,  ia  wnttan  in  rhyming  ooa^etk  T^  '"y*B" 
ia  inaam,iij  obaonn,  and  wnkstiniea  oninteOigiUe, 
but  the  work  as  a  whole  ia  wiittwi  with  vigonr; 
in  ■ome  paas^ea,  it  kindles  into  poeby;  and  it  it 
attsgettwr  a  anrprising  parfonnanoa,  it  we  receive 
it  as  Ae  oootpontion  of  one  who  wb«  bom  blind. 
Hie  antlu»  seemt  to  have  been  familiar  with  the 


!ftSi[ 


which  were  the  popular  fitentoR  I 
of  the  time,  and  he  makes  repeated  ^ipeala  to  tn  ■ 
Latin  lives  of  Wallace,  one  by  his  sdtoolfdLnr, 
Msater  John  Blair,  another  by  Sir  Iliamaa  Onj, 
parson  of  Libarton.  But  the  poem  ha*  no  dsin 
to  be  regarded  aa  history;  it  is  tsll  rf  grtai 
—i-^''—  or  misrepnaantifaona  of  iaata  kaowi  to 
everyone,  and  it  can  ODly  bs  looked  opoa  ■  n 
embodimant  of  tbe  wild  and  ■sngninsty  Isgndi 
which  two  oortnriea  had  sathared  ronnd  the  dbim 
of  the  martyrad  hero  ut  a  fierce  strasile  firiatiiBil 
life.  "niewoTkiibdiersd  to  havs  bMKpnriadii 
thoSoottiakaapitalaa  evlyaa  10M),b«t  napafat 
oopy  Ii  known  io  be  {veawed  of  anyearfisiditiM 
than  that  U  Edinbnn4i  in  IITTO,  beuinc  tka  tiOi  <f  i 
TkiAilUaHdDMIaofAtMtMl 
yumd  Oanmumn  8eMi  "-'"■--  "■ 
MmiU.  llie  work  w 
UW4,  leoi,  Itaa.  1646, 16TS,'BDd  1768;  a 
in  ie«5  and  IBM;  at  AberdMB,i>  1630;  l_ 
Perth  in  1790.  The  beat  aditicm  to  Ai*  «f  Dr  '; 
Janieaon  (bvm  the  H8.  <4  148ef>,  paUiibad  at  | 
Edinbiiii^  in  ISSO^  in  1  t(4.  4to.  !%•  work  wm 
for  about  900  years  o«  of  the  Boat  popolsr  in  80^-  ' 
land,  bat  gia&atty  fell  into  n^eei  as  iU  lal^^i, 
nerw  T«ry  «a«y,  caaaad  to  ba  ukUartoed  eaifi  r 
by  scholars  Its  plaoe  waa  mp^Md  by  a  aeda*- 
ised  wrion  br  WiUiHn  HanuH<«  at  OiUHtt&U. 
pnbliahed  at  GHaagew  in  17%  with  tb»  tiOe  iJ  i  < 
Net)  BdmmarOm  10  tmd  Heroic  Atiiimt  tf  Ai 
Raitmiid  Bir  WiBian  WtOaiii.  13ua  ia  a  poor  pN-  , 
formmoe,  bnt  it  oontinwd  to  be  widely  einalati' 
among  the  Beottiah  peopl*  afanoat  to  our  own  iif.     I 

HABT.the  name  givan  to  the  St^  {q.  v.)  visda  | 
of  the  red  deer,  from  the  age  of  dx  yean,  when  1^ 
crown  or  iarroyal  ot  the  antler  b^ina  to  VP°^- 
Great  importanoe  was  formerly  attached  to  the  dil-  I 
tinction  m  names  proper  to  deer  at  diflblSBl  tfffi 
and  Qnillim,  in  hia  Heraldry,  defines  hart  ib  ttin,  \ 
rebntting  the  notion  'that  a  stBgg&  <rf  wliat  W  , 
soever  he  be,  shall  not  ba  osSed  a  hart  nntil  tii 
king  or  queen  have  hunted  him;'  bat  'if  tbekisl  I 
or  queen  do  chaae  or  bnnt  bin,  and  he  Moap  i 
away  alive,  than  after  such  hunting  or  chaliog  !»  «  1 
called  a  Aar(  rofolL' 

HABT,  SoLOHON  AuxurDSB,  B.A^aa  Bi^  I 


Loadon,  in  1823^  and  exhibited  hia  fiist  oil-pctD>A 
'  Instmotion,'  in  1828.  Since  then,  ho  has  punted, 
among  other  worki,  '  The  Elevatioii  of  the  I«* 
(18307;  'I»M  of  York  in  tbe  Donjon  of  FrontHle- 
Bffliif '  (1330)!  'aigbah  Nobility  pnvaUly  receiviDg 
tihe  Ca&olia  Commugion'  (1331) ;  '  Eleanor  mckii^ 
the  Poiaon  from  Edward's  Ann;'  ' Uilton  rmBif 
Galileo  in  PriiOQ'  (1847);  and 'The  Throe  Inventon 
of  Printing'  (1852  .  In  1835,  H.  became  »n  Abo- 
oiatoi  In  184(^  an  B.A. ;  in  18M,  VrAtmoi  ^ 
Painting  in,  and  in  1860  Librnrian  of,  tke  R^ 

powvare 


Hia  piotoreaqas 
ntremally  aAnow! 


HArBTFOBD,  a  city,  and  one  of  the  two  ospb^ 
of  Connecticut,  United  States,  Ajoeiica,  i>  Btastsd 
on  the  west  bank,  and  fifty  mOee  b<m  w 
moatb,  of  tbe  CoriDGoticnt  Rirer,  and  dirtsnt 
one  handred  and  eleven  milet  nortb-eut  fn"" 
New  YmIc  "Dm  Iwislatnre  meets  here  and  it 
New  Haven  aUematdy.  It  baa  a  handwiDe  ftat* 
hooa^  «tty  hsU,  aneaal,  deaf  and  dumb  tMjbaa, 
an  admirable  aqrlum  for  the  insane,  an  I!pi>i»P^ 
coH^  Dumeroua  ofaurchea,  a  free  bbniy,  »^ 
maay  bank*  and  ioturance  offices.  It  has  a  !>'£' 
trade  and  many  flourishing  mannAu>t«ies,  huobS 
wbioh  ia  the  laige  eatablialmient  for  the  nskisg  « 


TTtkrogte" 


HABTFORD  CONTENTION— HAKTIiET. 
It 


ite  ezpocti,  Hid  Hi  a 


■  of  oottm,  Iwokji, 


N«w  EogUnd,  _    __ 

moaa'BlmlAwaT    Fop.  ia  1871^  37,lSa     ItwM 

M  Uw  aeat  of  ttM  Hntfofd  Coursntion  (q.  t.). 

HABTTOBD  OOKTBNTIOIT,  in  the  polHieal 

bMcHToftlu  UBited  Slatw,  wu  an  WMnblus  of 

A.. — ...  g„^  ^^  jf^^  ^^imI  atateiL  >t  HwUonL 


'.ism 


whkli  ^qwmted  deleatM  from  that 

ait  of  the  United  8trt< 

Mr  IbdiKMi,  deehnd  „ 

jsima  m  181^  br  inlnriM  to  tuuiuimvi  growing 
ant  trf  the  war  wiSi  na&o«k  and  tlw  iiiij«i>iii>iiiiT 


u  pobtualpartiei, the  Dei 

.vBle  the  BUnUrte  took  the  part 

ofBaaUad.  A>  tiw  war  diMiared  eomnMne  asd 
the  fihoieB,  the  chief  intawta  ol  New  England, 
-wfakh  waa  alio  Fedenliat  in  pditiei^  then  waa  a 
liolant  opporitiai.  The  oonnen  of  theee  etatee 
WMiM  not  alkw  the  miEtia  to  leave  them,  and 
oouplained  that  iriiile  tiieir  peiiile  mn  taken  In 
oonacriptiona,  their  own  eoaata  wen  kA  andefended. 
Hm  oatnifak  objeet  of  the  ODBvention  wae  to  deriea 
mean*  of  aeonity  and  defema.  Oeoige  Cabot  <d 
MawiAniita  waa  ejected  pnaidol^  end  Theodoie 
Dwigbt  of  Oonnectiait,  lecretary.  It  aat  20  days 
with  doeed  dooi%  and  u  it  waa  nippcaed  to  be  of  a 
trcMcmablo  character,  it  waa  watched  by  a  militai? 
officer  of  the  gorennneat.  The  oonvention,  at  liaing, 
pn^oaed  oa&in  amendioeDti  to  the  corutitiitioD — 
tree  population  la  the  baiia  of  rcmeaentotioii,  a 
ringje  term  for  the  pcendency,  to  Biclnde  foreiffQerv 
from  office,  to  limit  embanoea  to  60  daya,  and  to 
raqnire  a  two-thirda  Tota  of  ooDgrcai  to  admit  new 
Btate%  make  war,  Ac  'Duragh  no  treaaonible  act 
waa  conunitted,  and  no  ttfiaeonaUe  intention  prored, 
the  Fedetalict  party  nem  woorewiJ  &om  the  odinm 
^  u w~  *.  ii. 1  and  'Hartford 


onweitiDQ  to  the  sa>TenuDen^  and  *  Her 
nbon  Fedendjat'  baa  be«a  to  thia  day  a 


of  reproach. 
HA'BTI^EPOOI^a 


icipal  andpartiameotary 


boioDgh,  aeapOT^  aod  market-town  of  England, 
ooim^  of  DmWm,  ia  litaated  on  a  sm^  penioaiila, 
nortli  of  the  eatoary  of  the  Teea,  9)  milea  E.S.E. 
of  Dnriiami  It  oonaista  of  one  principal  and  several 
amaller  ^rtraeti,  and  was  fMineriy  sQRODnded  by 


H.  fofinerlT  attfacted 


lien  earned  en  with  aiiocee&  H.  formerlT  a 
many  Tiaiton  for  sea-bathing  during  toe 
mootha;  bat  "Jft^*  i^  feeant  ommkereial 
owing  to  Qie  formation  of  railway!  ooDoeotin^  it 
with  the  coal-minea  of  Darham,  it  ii  no  loom:  viHited 
for  that  purpose.  In  1872  (inclnding  West  H.), 
SIH  Ttamia,  of  4SS,4S4  tons,  entered,  and  4M1,  of 
lS3fitS  toM,  cleared  the  port.  The  trade  n  ohiefly 
in  oobL  Am  one  of  the  Hartlepoola,  it  joins  in 
aending  one  membs  to  parliament.  Pop.  of  mnni- 
dpd  boraif^  (1871),  13,166. 

HABTLXPOOL,  Wbt,  a  modem  maricet-town 
~    '  "iport  in  the  county  of  Dnrham,  aitnatad  ofie 


It  h 


ista  of  ona  princqial  and  sereial  dirwging 
.  and  powMMB  •  Ittge  and  handKima  Qt^w 
chnrch,  seTeral  large  botete  and  daMUtins  chuela, 
a  theatt«^  Afltennnni,  and  IbohanioFlnsti&ite, 
Cnatom-hoa^  Market-honae,  and  other  pvblie 
bnildinga,  and  had  in  IS71  a  population  of  21,110. 
The  fint  harbonr  was  conatrnoted  here  in  1847,  of 
12  acres,  and  has  aince  beeo  enlarged  to  44  aorea, 
tile  first  dock  has  a  water  area  ol  8  acres;  the 
Jackson  Dock  baa  U  acres;  and  the  Swainson 
Dock,  10  acres.  There  are  also  large  graving- 
docks,  timber-ponds,  and  abont  3  miles  of  qnays. 
In  1867,  the  nnmber  of  vessels  entering  and  clear- 
ins  the  port  jincladiDg  Hartlepool)  was  9213,  of 
1,4)8,948  tons  burden.  The  eiport  of  coal  from  the 
united  port  is  about  1^00,000  tons  annnally.  In 
1866,  a  pooryc«rt  S7S.8KI  tons  were  exported  coast- 
wise, and  003,611  to  foreign  ports.  Bendes  ootd, 
the  fc^wing  are  the  piooipar  importa  :  Flax  and 
hemp,  gtnin,  timber,  butter,  cbeeee,  fmit,  cattle, 
tallow,  ycBB^  iron,  sno,  Jfco. ;  the  ez[>orte  consisting 
of  woofien,  cotton  goods,  copper,  cement  dni^, 
machioeiT,  earthenware,  yam,  ludes^  &o. ;  the  tri^e 
being  carried  on  for  the  most  part  with  the  Baltic 
ports,  Cronstadt,  St  Fetersbiu^  and  Danzig,  and 
with  Hamburg  and  Rotterdam.  Iron  ahip-bnilding 
is  carried  on  here  to  a  targe  extent :  in  1672,  11 
m-TSMda,  of  8199  tons,  were  turned  onb  There 
large  iron-fouodrieB,  cement-works,  locomotive 
endne  and  boiler  works,  mast  and  block  lofts,  saw- 
nuUs^  tile-worka,  and  brick-fields.  The  Hartlepool 
boTOodia  conaiat  of  Hartlepool,  Wert  H.,  Throston, 
Sttanfon,  and  Seaton  Carew,  and  send  one  repre- 
■SDtative  to  the  House  of  Commons. 

HABTIiET,  Davit,  a  celebrated  mental  philo- 
Bopher  of  last  centuly,  was  bom  Aognst  30,  1706. 
His  father  was  vicar  of  Armley,  in  Yorkshire.  AtlS, 
he  entered  Jeans'  College,  Cambridge,  and  became  a 
fellow  of  the  college.  He  studied  at  first  for  the 
church,  but  his  torn  for  original  and  independent 
thinking  led  him  to  diaiont  from  some  points  in 
the  Thirty-niae  ArtideB,  and  he,  in  conaeqnenee, 
'    '  to  abandon  his  ori^nal  intention.     What  ~ 


coincided  with  the 

....  .  continued  to  the  last 
a  member  of  lhe_  chnrch.  He  finally  ohoee  the 
profeasion  of  medioina,  in  which  ha  attained  con- 
siderable eminenca  He  practised  as  a  phyiioian 
sacceteiTely  at  Newark,  Boir  St  Edmnnds,  in 
London,  siid  at  Bath,  where  he  died  on  the  20th 
of  August  17177,  at  tlie  age  of  SS  ysus. 

His  work  on  the  mind,  entitled  ObtavaSmt  on 
Mint,  on  which  his  fame  rests,  was  began  when  he 
'     ■  "'  'his  thoughts  for  16 

_  _  174ft  The  Ibrt  part 
lelates  to  the  amstitiition  (4  the  human  mind,  and 
reaUr  buportaot  and  original  part  The 
part  treats  cd  nli^n  and  morals,  and  might 
have  been  written  by  any  ortJiodox  clergyman,  if 
we  Bieept  the  opinion  above  stated  with  reference 


His  handhng  of  the  mxnd  turns  throu^ont  upon 
two  theoris  or  hypotheses,  which  have  very  different 
merits,  and  are  by  no  means  uecaasarily  conjoined, 
atthough  they  are  never  separated  in  his  miiia.  Tlie 
first  is  called  the  Doctrine  of  Vibralions,  or  a  theory 
of  nervous  action  analogous  to  the  propamtion  m 
ind,  the  raggestion  ofwhioh.  he  owed  to  Newton, 
whose  wriffip  he  wa*  a  devoted  student  His 
second  and  moat  vahuiUa  innovatiaa  oonwsted  h) 
showing  tbrt  the  facnltie^  powcn,  and  fadingi  of 
the  mind  ni(^t  be  explained  to  •  nay  wide  extent 


bifjilizi^dbyCoO'^fe 


HAETMAMN  VON  DER  AUE— HARTZEKBUSCH. 


by  the  principle  of  the  Associatian  of  Ideaa  Cbm 
ABSOCtiTlON  OF  luEiS),  «  principle  far  from  new  in 
the  Btatcment  of  it,  tnit  nerer  before  appreciated  in 
anything  like  the  range  of  its   bearings  upon  the 


any  one  of  the  senaea 
object,  the  effect  waa  to  aet  the  particles  of  tb{ 
nerve  in  »  vibratoiy  motion,  which  ran  along  to  the 
brain,  sod  prodnced  corresponding  Tibrations  ia  the 
cerebnl  lubatance.  In  like  manner,  when  an  active 
impulse  proceeded  ontwarda  to  tbe  muacles,  the 
manner  of  conunnnication  along  the  norvea  was  of 
the  some  kind.  He  even  extended  Uiese  molecular 
vibrations  to  tiie  other  tissues.  An  a  hypothesia, 
this  assumption  was  bo  far  le^timste,  if  it  served  to 
explain  Ute  facts,  or  even  to  imagine  in  a  probable 
way  what  goes  on  in  the  Hubstance  of  Uie  nerves 
and  brain  miring  ^e  processes  of  sensation,  thought, 
and  vohtioo.  Tba  distaste  that  has  generally  been 
entertained  towards  this  port  of  H.'a  apeculations, 
arose  from  a  mistaken  notion  of  its  favouring  mate- 
rialism. Not  only  was  tlie  anthor  not  a  materialiat 
— being  most  express  in  affirming  a  spiritual  entity 
different  from  the  body — but  hia  viewa  had  nothing 
more  oF  materiolimn  in  them  than  the  views  that 
mankind  have  always  held  as  to  the  conoection  of 
mind  with  bodily  actions. 

As  regards  the  aeoond  doctrine  of  H.,  the  doctrine 
of  Association,  he  woa  certainly  the  first  to  do  jus. 
tice  to  the  applications  of  that  principle  to  explain 
the  phenomena  of  the  mind.  He  pointa  out  how  it 
is  involved  in  the  conversion  of  our  sensations  into 
Ideal,  throughout  all  the  senses,  and  also  in  the  first 
origin  of  voluntary  power,  which  he  truly  regards 
as  essentially  an  acquired  power.  He  then  treats 
of  the  commonly  recognised  intellectual  faculties^ 
Memory,  Imagination,  Reason,  tc — shewing  how 
widely  the  ^ocem  of  association  pervades  them  all. 
Lastly,  the  Emotions,  which  he  classifies  under  six 
heads — Imogiiiative  Emotions,  Ambition,  Self-inte- 
rest, Sympatny,  Theopathy  (the  rehgious  sentiment), 
and  the  Moral  Sense — may  be  readily  seen  to  be,  in 
a  great  many  instances,  the  products  of  association, 
there  being  certain  elementery  feelings  that  unite 
among  themselves,  and  pass  into  new  connections. 
And  give  birth  to  complex  feelings,  under  the  geaeral 
law.  Many  of  thaae  explanabona  would  be  con- 
sidered now  as  faulty  or  detective ;  but  at  the  time, 
H.'b  attempt  was  a  great  step  in  advance,  and  might 
have  been  mnch  more  fruitful  in  consequences  to 
mental  science,  but  for  the  unfortunate  and  mistaken 
prejudice*  excited  by  the  vibration  theory,  which  he 
carriea  out  into  every  part  of  his  exposition. 

HABTHAinr  VOK  DEB  AUE,  or  TON  AUE, 
one  of  the  old  GermanpoetH,  bors  about  1170,  was 
a  Swabian  kiught.  He  had  probably  begun  the 
study  of  erunmar,  kneir  French  when  he  joined 
the  Cntiods  in  119Ti  and,  aa  he  himself  says,  could 
obtain,  by  hia  own  reading,  material  for  hia  narra- 
tive poems.    Of  these  thelbit  was  Eree  (the  It 


(1839) ;  the  last  was  Itoein,  written  before  1204, 
and  edited  by  Benecke  and  Lachmann  (18Z7 ;  2d 
cd.  1843),  with  a  dictionary  bv  Benecka  (1833). 
Both  of  tjiesa  are  drawn  trcaa  the  Arthurian  cycle 
of  Iwends ;  and  their  natnral  development  of  events 
displays  a  completer  mastery  of  their  material  than 
the  more  incoherent  British  narratives  which  form 
their  basis.  Between  the  composition  of  these  two 
poems,  H.  wrote  the  religioas  legends,  Ortgor  ixaf 
rfem  SIMM  (ed.  by  lachmann,  1S3S),  which  was  ■naA 
in  churches  till  the  16th  c,  and  Drr  artM  ffemrich 
(Longfellow's  CMdai  Ltgmd),  whidi  has  been  edited 
by  W.  MuUer   (1842),   aud  also,  along  with   H.' 


German,  H.  was  known  among  his  contemporaries. 
Gottfried  von  Straaburg,  in  his  Tnsbm,  written 
about  1207,  praises  bim  as  still  olive  ;  and  his  death 
is  lamented  about  1220,  by  Heinrich  von  dem 
Tllrlein,  in  hia  Krimt. 

HARTO'GIA,  a  genoi  of  trees,  or  shrubs,  of  the 
natural  order  Cdutracta.  H.  Capemit,  a  native  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  only  ten  or  fifteen  feet 
high,  bnt  the  trunk  is  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
diameter.  The  wood  is  hard,  tine-grained,  dose, 
and  tough  ;  it  is  much  valued,  and  when  polished, 
is  superior  to  the  Snest  mahogany.  It  la  onen  used 
for  veneeriiu.  The  Dutch  colonista  call  It  LaiUe- 
VMod,  probably  from  one  of  the  first  uses  to  which 
they  found  it  coDvonient  to  apply  it. 

HART3HORH,  tlie  term  given  in  ^lannacy 
to  the  antlers  of  the  Cervu*  elaphtu.  Its  con- 
poeition  is  very  different  frwn  that  of  perasteot 
horns,  as  those  of  the  ox,  for  example,  and  is 
identical,  or  nearly  so,  with  that  of  bone.  The  pro- 
ducts of  its  distillation  were  formerly  mnch  used 
in  medicine,  under  the  titles  of  Oil  of  Hartehora, 
Volatile  Salt  of  Hartahom,  Spirits  of  Hartahom, 
ka. ;  bnt  they  are  now  replaced  by  simpler  prepara- 
tions of  the  octave  ingredients  of  these  sobatMices, 
namely,  ammonia  and  carbonate  of  ammonia.  See 
Atmoiiu. 

HAEra-TONGTJB  {ScolojMadHam),  a  genus  of 
ferns,  of  which  one  species,  8.  vulgare,  is  a  native 
of  Britain,  and  is  common  in  most  parts  of  tho 
country,  in  moist  woods,  shady  banks,  caves  on 
tho  sea-shore,  and  other  cold  and  damp  sitoations. 
It  is  also  found  on  tho  continent  of  Europe  and  in 


North  America.  It  is  veiy  different  in  appearance 
from  eveiy  other  British  fern,  its  fronds  being,  in 
geoeral,  quite  undivided — although  sometimes,  by 
monstrosity,  they  are  forked  and  even  mnltiputile 
^linear,  bom  a  few  inches  to  two  feet  in  fength, 
and  from  an  inch  to  two  or  three  inches  in  breadtb. 
The  sort  are  in  transverse  lines,  on  the  lateral  nerves. 
Fine  plants  of  this  fern  have  a  very  ornamental 
appearance,  and  are  in  their  greatest  lux 


ClizodtyC-iOOgle 


HiBthr— HARVEST  BUG. 


bom  at  Mkdrid,  Noreraiber  6,  1800,  itadied  nndcr 
the  Jnuita,  Bfid  prodnoed  hU  fint  work,  Amantea  de 
Tentd,  in  183S.  Eia  principiJ  works  eioce  theo,  all 
of  which  haTB  been  pnbluhed  at  Madrid,  are  I>oHa 
Meneia  (1838),  Xa  Redania  Encanlada  (1839).  Zo 
Kiaionaria  (1S40),  Ai/bruo  li  OoMo  {1841].  Frimero 
To  (1812),  ^moria  (18^),  El  .BuoUticr  Jfindarttu 
{1842),  £a  Cofa  y  el  Awoifida  <1S43),  and  La  Madre 
tie  Pdam  (1846).  He  hoi  alio  ooUeoted  and  repub- 
lished hia  fngit^ — — ' ''~ 


the  title  of  ^uagot'Poma)*  y  ArUa^ot  en  Prcta, 
LUerario*  y  de  Oodtimbrtt  (18i3 ;  J^u,  1860). 
Hia  wiitinga  are  chaiacteriaed  by  glowiDg  JmagiD- 
ation,  vJgtnoQi  dictioo,  and  •onorona  Temftoatian. 
H.  ii  oanaidered  ona  of  the  moat  original  of  the 
liring  poeta  of  Spain.  He  ia  alio  one  of  lh«  few  who 
pomeaa  any  solid  knowledge  of  Oenoan  literatore^ 

HABUK,  lunuuned  AL-BAacHto,  L  e,,  the 
Jnat,  the  moat  renowiied  of  the  Abbaaide  oalifi, 
Rncceeded  hia  eldar  Inotlier,  Handi,  in  the  oalifate, 
in  the  year  786,  not  haring  yet  attuned  hia  twenty- 
fiist  year.  Variona  inanneotioDa  in  the  interior  of 
the  tungdom  were  ipeedily  pot  down,  and  the  wan 
againat  IJie  Byzantinea  and  the  Chaaan  brooght  to 
an  end.  Thon^  the  bonndariea  of  the  vut  empire, 
which  extended  from  tho  Cancaana  to  Qie  toorcea 
of  the  Nile,  were  not  enlarpd,  the  empire  loat  none 
of  its  latjviacea.  H.  gave  himaelf  up  nnreeerredly  to 
the  pleanina  of  life,  leaviiig  the  eotuv  adminiatration 
uf  hia  eztenaive  kingdom  in  the  haoda  nt  Yahya 
the  Bannecida,  and  hia  fonr  aona;  and  tbs  energy  of 
their  adminiatiBtion,  the  enf  ixaeinmt  of  order,  and 
the  general  proapeiity  of  Uie  counter,  prored  that 
hia  oonfidenoe  waa  nrt  miaplaoed.    Mia  cajatal 


of  the  age.  He  naa  celelmtted  in  eoondew  sodki 
and  narratives ;  and  ia  the  hero  of  leversl  of  t£e 
stories  in  the  Arabian  Higlitt.  Towards  the  end  of 
his  reign,  he  conceived  a  rooted  hatred  towards  the 
BammcidcB  [aae  Baskectdes)  ;  yet  to  well  did  he 
know  thair  tned  fiddly,  that  lu  tnfFered  the  reins  of 
government  to  remain  m  their  hands  tor  aome  years 
afterwanU.  In  803,  he  caused  the  vizier,  hia  four 
tons,  and  all  their  descendanta,  one  only  excepted, 
to  be  execnted,  not  even  excepting  his  favonrite 
Jaafer,  who  had  been  hia  companion  m  hia  nocturnal 
rambles  through  the  atieeta  of  Bagdad.  On  the 
destruction  of  thia  family,  hia  alfaira  fell  imme- 
diately into  irretrievable  coofuaion ;  treason  and 
rebeUion,  no  longer  dreading  the  far-reaching  arm  of 
the  abla  vizier,  shewed  themaelves  in  every  comer 
of  the  empire ;  and  DOW,  when  it  was  too  late,  H 
thought  with  bitter  Tvgret  of  his  savage  cruelty  to 
that  abla  family.  The  most  fonuidable  of  these 
inaurrectioos  having  broken  out  in  Ehorassan,  in 
the  north-east  of  the  em[ure,  H.  marched  in  person 
Sfiuost  the  rebels.  But  an  attack  of  apoplexy 
obliged  him  to  remain  behind  in  TQs,  where  he  soon 
afterwards  died,  in  the  month  of  March  809.  The 
tales  of  the  Arabian  Nighlt  have  throi^  a  false  halo 
roond  his  memory,  for  though  he  was  undoubtedly 
the  most  enlightened  mooordi  of  the  age,  yet,  like 
the  most  of  the  Abbaaide  race,  he  coiud,  whjan  it 
tuited  him,  act  to  pecfeotion  the  part  of  the 
avarioious  uid  bloody  fyrant 

HABU'SPIOES.  The  word  harutpec,  or 
tenupec,  ia  probably  derived  from  an  old  Latin 
word,  Aarufro,  a  victim,  or  ftaro,  inteatines,  and  the 
TOot  »pte-,  to  tee  ot  look.  Tin  hanispices  seem 
to  have  come  origiiiaUy  from  £tniria,  whence  the 


Romana  derived  many  of  their  religioos  institntiona. 
Their  art,  hanapieina,  which  in  many  respects  waa 
like  that  of  the  Angma  (see  AnoDRira  and  Adb- 
Ficn),  coniiated  In  int^^vetinfftha  will  of  the  goda 
by  inspecting  the  entrails  of  the  animals  offerM  in 
sacriGce  (hence  they  are  also  colled  txliipieei],  and 
W  obeemng  other  circumatoncea  connected  with  the 
offerings,  such  oa  the  willingness  or  unwillingueaa  of 
the  victim  to  come  to  the  altar,  the  flame,  the  smoke, 
&c  They  took  indications  sjso  from  earthquakes, 
lifhtning,  and  all  other  extraordinary  phencmena 
of  nature  called  poHerUa.  The  hamspicea  did  not 
equal  the  oivura  in  dignity  and  respect ;  they  were 
regarded  rather  as  media  of  communication  with 
hMven,  than  as  possoesing  any  independent  religious 
authority.  Th^  had  no  oi^niaation,  like  the 
augurs ;  ther  did  not,  in  eanier  times  at  least, 
form  a  eoU^;*u>n,  nor  had  they  a  magitfer.  They 
were,  however,  at  one  time  considered  of  great 
importance ;  but  tatterlv  their  art  fell  into  dis- 
repute with  the  more  mtelligent  portion  of  the 
Soman  oitizenB.  Cato  ia  alleged  to  nave  said  that 
'he  wondered  that  one  haruspex  did  not  laugh 
when  he  saw  another.'  Some  of  the  later  emperon, 
especially  Alexander  Sererus,  endeavoured  to  revive 
and  encourage  the  art  of  the  haruapiees,  but  it  was 
finally  abolished  by  Constantino.  Th^  aaored 
books  were  called  tibri  Aortuptcmj,  falgimht,  and 
Umitmaia. 

HARVARD  COLLEQE,  the  oldest  coQege  in 
the  Ooited  States,  often  termed  a  univeraity,  was 
foiunded  at  Cambridge,  Masaachusetta,  three  miles 
from  Boston,  in  1636,  only  six  years  after  the  settle- 
ment of  the  colony,  £800  having  been  appropriated 
in  three  auma  for  the  support  of  '  a  achoale  or 
colledge.'  In  1636,  thia  '  schoala '  was  named  Har- 
vard College,  in  honour  of  the  Bev.  John  Harvard, 
who  gave  it  £700.  It  has  been  well  endowed  by 
private  liberality,  chiefly  that  of  the  merchanta  i^ 
Boston,  and  lias,  besides  its  valuable  landed  pro- 
perty, 1,000,000  doUara  of  invested  funds.  At  its 
first  establi^iment,  this  now  flourishing  college  waa 
little  more  than  on  Indian  schooL    Many  Indian 

Kith  were  received,  but  only  one  ever  graduated, 
ey  were  found  utterly  unfit  for  the  life,  puraaita, 
and  studies  of  civilisation,  and  those  partly  educated 
went  back  to  their  forests  and  wigwams.  The  first 
president  of  Harvard  was  tiie  Rev.  Henry  Dnnater, 


1S40.  In  1764,  the  library  was  destroved  by  fire; 
the  only  works  saved  being  an  Oriental  Collection, 
bequeathed  b^  Dr  Lightfoot,  and  the  Greek  and 


,  presented  by  Bishop  Berkel^. 
sntific  department  was  generoujuy 
ibott  Lawreooe,  for  the  oenefit  of 


Roman    claaaioa. 

In  IS4S,   a  scientific 

endowed  by  Abbott  '._ 

peraons  who  do  not  wish  to  pursue  the  full 

The  goTemment   ia  vested  m   the  president,  five 

fellows,  and  treasurer,  with  a  board  of   overaeera, 

formerly  composed  of  the  coDgregatioua]  ministers 

of  sixteen  adjoining  towns.    £i  religion,  it  la  ijni- 

torlan,  but  liable  to  change,  the  overaeera  being  now 

appointed  by  the  state  leglBlature.    Connected  with 

the  college  are  seven  profeSBional  aohools  of  law, 

theology,  medicine,  science,  mining,  dentistry,  and 

agricimnre.    There  are  66  profesaors,  14  tutors,  1161 

Htudenta,  and  libraries  of  187,000  volumes. 

HAEVEBT  (Ger.  Aerbti,  autumn ;  probably  allied 
to  Or.  JioTp;  I^t.  carp-,  to  snatch,  pluck,  gather), 
the  eeOBon  of  gatheriui  and  storing  the  chief  jao- 
ducts  of  the  njelds.  The  most  important  barvcat 
operations  are  thoaa  connected  with  the  cutting 
down  of  the  grain  ciopa,  in  which,  as  weU  as  in  the 
mowing  of  hay  (q.  v.),  machlneB  moved  by  honea 
are  m>w  extensively  need-    See  Kkapivo. 

HARVEST  BUG  {Lrptu*  auluTmialu),  Is  an 
animal  of  the  ^Donw  tribe,  which  dmvea  its  p«^Dlar 


.yi^oogle 


HABVEST  MOOM-BA£VBT. 


n  employad  in 


nune  from  iti  attacking  the 
tiiB  harreaL      Ai  t^  aoari 

are  niuallj  provided  with  eight  feet,  and  in  their 
larval  ■tage  -with  only  aix  feet,  and  a*  the  H,  B. 
has  onlf  the  latter  nnmbeT,  it  WM  ampeoted  by 
Siebold,  and  it  haa  been  nntw  proved,  that  thu 
animal  ia  the  larva  of  one  of  the  Trcnabidida,  a 
family  of  Acaritlaiki.  It  ii  so  minute,  that,  wete 
it  not  for  the  hrilliancy  of  ita  colour,  whioh  i* 
a  vivid  minuon,  it  vooid  be  quite  invinble.  It 
makea  ite  appeanuLoe,  or  rather  renders  ua  oon- 
acioua  of  ita  preaenoe,  about  the  middle  of  July,  and 
disappear*  towards  tb«  middle  of  S^tonbor;  and 
ia  moat  plentiful  in  hot  diy  seaaona.  It  oconra  on 
the  bladM  d  graai,  and  on  Tuious  planta  in  fields 
gardens,  and  woods,  and  attacks  not  raHy  man, 
but  the  do^,  cat,  Ac  Feoona  with  delicate  thins 
are  its  special  prey,  and  it  seems  to  prefer  the  1^, 
Uie  under  part  oF  the  thighs,  and  the  low«r  p«t 
of  the  abdomen.  The  wound  it  infliota — bow  pra- 
dneed  is  not  well  understood — ooeaaions  insuppMi- 
able  irritation,  which  usually  leads  Qm  viotuns  to 
scratch  themselves,  and  thus  to  increaae  the  inflam- 
mation. The  akin  beoonies  swollen  and  red,  and 
somstimaB   even   pnrple ;   and  the  minnta  renolea 

""  "  '  by 


HABTBBT  HOOK.  In  anr  latitadea,  at  the 
time  ot  full  moon  nearett  the  aatamnal  equinox, 
it  happens  that  the  moon  lises  for  serersl  daya 
nearly  at  sunset,  and  about  the  same  time  by 
the  clock,  instead  of  riung,  as  it  usually  doet^ 
6?  later  on  one  day  than  on  the  preceding.  This 
phoionenon  is  owing  to  the  fut  that  at  this 
time  the  moon  is  in  Aiiea,  when  tna  part  of  the 
aoliptio  below  the  horiion  makes  tile  leut  Mifle 
with  it^  as  shewn  in  the  following  figui^  whfire  AB 
njnaenta  a  portion  of  the  equator;  ffCH,  a  portion 
ofthe  horizon ;  OL,  a  portion  of  the  ecliptic  when  C 


nprsMnt*  tha  equinoctial  point  of  Aries ;  CL', 
portion  ot  the  same  if  0  were  the  equinootial  point 
of  Libra.  Hun  {supposins  the  moon  to  move  in  the 
eoliptia,  a  snppoaibon  n^  far  from  the  truth,  and 
one  which  greatly  simplifies  tha  expUaation  of  this 
{Amomenon),  if  the  moon  be  at  U  (point  of  Aries) 
on  OD»  night,  it  will  have  retrograded  to  L  by  the 
same  time  on  the  following  ni^t;  and,  by  the 
revolution  of  the  e«rth  in  tne  Erection  KM',  will 
qipesz  on  the  bmiion  at  H,  and  the  distance  LH 
reduced  to  time  will  give  the  moon's  retardation. 
If  0  be  the  equinocti^  point  of  Idbia,  tlieu  L'  will 
be  Hie  moan's  position  on  the  second  ni^t,  and  it 
will  rise  at  H'  after  the  earth  haa  revolvra  *o  at  to 
carry  the  whole  of  the  line  H'L'  above  the  horiioD  ; 
this  line,  when  reduced  to  time,  gives  the  retard- 
ation. Hence,  as  the  moon  when  at  the  full  is  in 
Aries  at  the  tun's  autumnal  equinox,  and  in  Libra 
at  the  ma'l  ipring  equinox,  the  retardation  is  least 
in  the  first  instance  and  greatest  in  the  aecoi  ' 
being  reapectively  CN  -  CU,  and  CN  +  CM' 
CN  +  CM.  In  the  hititnda  of  Edinburgh  (Bfi'  6S'), 
the  greatest  retardation  is  1  hoar  ff  24",  and  '■'-- 


b  lat.  M"  3T,  the  least  rMardation 
moon  rise*  at  the  sama  time  on 
eveninga,  while  at  tbe  arctic  circle 
H  *'  earlier  on  the  seoond  evening. 
...  .  nenon  occon  at  a  time  (abont  the 
33d  of  September)  when  the  farmer  is  busy  with 
hi*  harvest,  and  vvy  opportun^  supplies  him  tor 
several  evenings  wiUi  light  snflfcient  to  contiane 
hit  operatiouB  after  annaet,  the  moon  at  this  sta«« 
ha*  received  tiia  name  <rf  *  harvest  moon.'  A*  the 
ion's  orbit  is  '""''T"^  to  the  ecliptic,  this  irregu- 
itv  will  be  ineressed  w  diminished  aocoidmg 
as  t^  asoending  node  i*  between  Capricorn  and 
Cancer,  or  between  Cancer  and  Cnpriaom.  It  is 
nothing  at  the  equator,  increasing  a*  we  proceed 
Dorth.     At  oar  antipodes  the  greatest  retudation 

HABVBT,  SiB  Otoaa%,  P.B.&A.,  an  eminent 
tilt,  was  bom  at  St  Ninians,  near  Stirling  in  ISOS. 
Displaying  a  taste  for  drswing,  be  wat  at  tiia  age 
of  18  ^aced  in  the  school  of  the  Trustees'  Academy, 
Edinburgh,  «4iere  be  mad*  rwid  progress.  In  ISSSi, 
when  tlie  Rayal  Soottiah  Aoademy  waainstitatad^  he 
wmJanbid  Ml  AMnni»hi,»i»iin  l^.n  ^AB^tllri"l*n 
Since  his  anta«iice,l>e  has  beat  a  constant  exhibitor, 
and  many  of  hia  works  are  well  known  throngh  the 
medium  of  eogcavino.  The  principal  of  these  are — 
^reaching,'  'Battle of Dnunolog,'  'The 


Quittib^  the  Uause.'    H.  hi 

I  historioal  art,  untie  of  hia  nu 

ling  repreaentationt  of  Scotch  soensry.  His  land- 
soapei  are  remarkaUe  for  pastoral  peao^  and  soma 
of  the  more  imaginative  for  a  t'"g"i"  tolemni^  of 
atmospheric  ^eot.  He  wat  elected  president  of  the 
Boyal  Scottish  Academy  on  the  death  of  Sir  John 
Watson  Ooidon  in  1864,  and  knighted  in  1667- 


J  ..  London,  while  the  sixtb  sat  as  member  of 

parliament  for  Hytbe. 

After  dz  yeais  attendance  at  tiie  grammar-school 
at  Cuitarbuiy,  H.,  being  then  16  year*  of  age,  wa* 
entered  at  Cuus  College,  Cambridge.  He  took  his 
first  d^ree  in  arts  in  1G97,  and  having  selected 
physic  for  hia  profession,  left  Cambridge  about  the 
year  1590,  and  proceeded  to  the  univerm^  of  Padua, 
then  the  moat  celebrated  schoid  of  medicine  in  the 
world.  Having  passed  five  yean  at  that  school  in 
nttendance  on  the  lectures  of  Fabrlciua  de  Aqua- 
pendents,  Julius  Caaserius,  and  other  eniiqeot  men, 
who  then  adorned  that  university,  he  obtained  his 
diploma  as  doctor  of  medicine  in  1602.  He  returned 
to  England  in  the  same  ^ear ;  and  after  receiving 
hi*  doctor's  degree  from  hu  original  nniveraih,  Cam- 
bridge, settled  in  London  aa  a  phyaician.  In  1S09 
he  was  appointed  physician  to  St  BartholcHnow's 
Hospital,  uid  in  1610  Lumleian  Lecturer  at  the 
Col^e  of  Physicians — an  office  then  held  for  life ; 
and  it  is  genraally  supposed  that  in  hi*  first  course 
of  lectures  [in  the  spring  of  1S16J  he  expounded 
those  original  and  oomplrte  vievre  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  with  whicb  hb  name  it  indelibly  aaso- 
ciated.  It  was  not  till  the  Tear  1628  that  be  gave 
his  views  to  the  world  at  Uise,  in  his  celebnted 
treatise  entitled  Exa-dtatio  Analomica  de  Motn 
Cordit  ct  &ui;tu»M  (4to,  fVanci),  having  then,  at  he 
states  in  the  preface,  for  nine  years  or  more  gone 
on  demontb'atiDg  the  subject  in  his  ooU^a  lectaret, 
illustrating  it  t^  new  and  additional  areuments, 
and  freeing  it  fram  the  objectioni  laiaed  by  tbs 


hyCoogle 


HABWICH— HASDKUBAL. 


b  miuktoniittB.      Shortly   afbi    '. 

^^•»    ,.  .   y- ^ 

L,  and  in  tlia  beguming  of  1630  wm  eii^ed 
'to  aeoompany  the  young  I>uke  of  Leooox  mliui 
tnveb  beyond  mm'  In  1632,  he  ww  fomully 
sbo«en  phvmciui  to  Cluries  L;  Mid  in  1633 
find  tiiM  hii  absence,  'by  reason  o(  bit  iillriiiili 
on  the  kin^a  noAtitf,'  tma  8t  Bartholomew'a 
Hoapital  ma  compuuned  of,  and  that  Dr  Andrewi 
VM  i^pointed  M  hia  nibatitnte,  'but  withont  im- 
jodioe  to  him  in  hia  yeailv  fee  or  in  any  othei 
respect  '~~a  prooednie  which  ihewa  the  nteem  in 
which  H.  wu  held.  We  leani  from  Aubrey  that 
be  accomnuiiad  Thoma*  Howard,  Earl  of  Arundel, 
in  hia  «ml>aaay  to  the  emperor  in  1636;  and  during 
tfaia  jonmev  h«  pabhcly  demotutratod  to  Caapar 


VM  diatingDiahed  piofeawr  of  NUmbm^ 
f  the  chid  owoDonti  of  hia  -riewa,  the 

1  partiBulan  which  made  the  circulation 

of  the  blood  anooeaaaiyctmclnikMi — a  demonatration 
whiidi,  it  ia  npoited,  was  aatiataotory  to  all 
aave  Bofmaim  hiwmW^  who  (till  ooDtmoad  to  atve 
futile  objectd<nia.  He  attended  the  king  in  Iub 
Toriona  ezpeditiona,  and  waa  preeant  wit£  tiiTn  ^t 
the  battle  of  Edgehill  (October  23,  1642).  '  During 
the  fight,'  aaya  Aubrey,  '  the  Prince  and  Duke  d 
York  were  committed  to  hij  care.  He  told  me  that 
be  withdrew  with  them  under  a  hedge,  and  tooke 
out  of  hia  pockett  a  booke,  and  read,  Bnt  he  had 
not  read  very  long  before  a  bullet  of  n  great  eun 
grazed  on  the  ground  neare  him,  which  made  him 
remove  hia  station.'  He  accompanied  the  king 
after  the  battle  to  Oxford,  where,  accocdiag  to  the 
aame  authority,  'be  came  aeverij  times  to  our 
college  (Trinity),  to  George  BaihuiHt,  B.D.,  who  bad 
■  ben  to  hatch  eggs  in  hia  chamber,  which  they 
opened  dayly  to  see  tie  progress  oud  way  of  genera- 
tion ; '  aud  where  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Pby«io  was  oonferred  ou  him  in  the  December  ot 
that  year.  In  1645  be  waa,  by  the  king's  mandate, 
elected  warden  of  Merlon  College  ;  but  on  the 
Biurender  of  Oxford  to  the  parliament  in  July  1646, 
he  left  the  cniverBity,  and  returned  to  liondon. 
He  waa  now  68  vean  of  age,  and  aeema  to  have 
nitbdrawn  himaelf  from  practice,  and  from  all 
further  participation  in  the  fortunea  of  his  royal 
maater.  During  the  remainder  of  hia  life,  he  waa 
usually  the  gaeet  of  one  or  other  of  hia  brothers, 
□ow  men  of  wealth  and  high  standing  in  tbe  city  ; 
and  it  was  at  tbe  oountry-bouse  of  one  of  them  that 
Dr  Ent  viaited  h^  at  Christmas  1650,  and  after 
'  man^  difficulties '  (see  Dr  Ent's  Eplatle  Dedicatory, 
in  Willis's  tranalatiou  of  Harvey's  works)  obtainM 
from  hint  Che  US.  of  hia  work  on  the  generation 
of  animala,  which  waa  published  in  the  following 
year,  under  the  title  of  Bardtatiimt*  de  Oeneratione 
AttiTnaUam,  quSmt  aeetdunt  guadaja  ih  Partd,  da 
MenibranU  ae  T^mffrSnu  Uteri,  et  dt  Conc^tumt, 

From  fhia  period  to  the  time  of  bis  death,  the 
chief  object  which  occupied  his  mind  was  the 
welfare  and  improvement  of  tbe  CoUese  of  Physi- 
cians,  to  the  boildin^  of  which  he  erected  a  hand- 
some  addition  at  bis  own  coeL  In  1654  he  waa 
elected,  in  hia  absence,  president  of  the  college, 
but  he  declined  the  office,  on  account  of  hia  age 
and  inflrmitieB.  In  July  1656  be  resided  his 
Lumleian  lectureahip,  which  he  had  heldior  innn> 
than  forty  years ;  ana  in  taking  leave  of  the  col 
preeentedt-  '■  - " 


A  handsome  edition  of  Harvey's  works,  in  L*tin, 
reviaed  by  Drs  Lawrence  and  Hark  Afcaturi^n  iru 

C'  Uahed  by  the  Collie  of  Pbvaiciana  in  1766. 
best  edition,  in  Bnglwh,  is  that  of  Dr  Willia, 
published  by  the  SydanlADi  Socie^  in  1847. 

HAItWlOH,  a  municip^  and  pariiamentary 
borough,  seaport,  and  market-town  of  England,  in 
the  county  of  Etsez,  is  jdeasantly  sitnat^  on  an 
elevated  and  healthy  site  near  the  north-east 
extremi^  of  a  promontory  60  milee  north-east  of 
London.  Southward  from  tlie  town  extendi  an 
esplanade,  fnou  whi^  fine  views  of  the  hocboor 
and  the  Oenoan  Ocean  may  be  obtained.  The  chief 
brancbea  i£  indns^  are  the  manufacture  of  Boman 
cement,  and  of  artificial  manure  ^m  Coprolitea 
(q.T.),  fishing,  and  sh^building  Bteameis  run 
daily  to  Ipswich,  and  in  summer  thme  is  steam 
oonuuunication  with  Londim.  The  harbour  of  H., 
formed  by  the  jnnetioD  of  the  fitour  and  the 
Orwell,  is  said  to  be  the  beat  on  the  eaat  coaat  of 
Sngland.  It  ia  capacious,  safe,  and  commodious ; 
but  its  entrance  i*  rocky,  and,  althongh  there  are 
two  hfl^t-houaea  and  numerous  buoys,  cannot  be 
entered  without  eaieful  navintion.  H.  haa  been 
made  a  harbour  of  rafuffe^  Ilie  battery  I7  which 
elected  about  1620,  at 

"  '  mened  betireen 

great  have  been 
br  the  lea  on  t^  pro- 
which  H.  stands,  that  two  jettiea  or 
^ina,  1360  feet  and  1000  feet  long  respse- 
tively,  have  been  conrtraeted  to  prevent  its  nearer 
approach ;  and  these  have  proved  very  sncceeafal. 
In  1872,  S14  veasels  of  300,737  tons  ent^  and  789 
of  180.423  tons  cleared  the  port  Pop.  (1871)  6079. 
HABZ  MOUNTAINS,  a  broad  mountain-iange 

tbe  north  of  Oennany,  extends  SMt-soutb-eaat 

from  Goalar  and  Osterode  in  Hanover  to  Hettartlldt 
and  Manafeld  in  Pruasian  Saxony.     It  forma   an 


s,  and  situated 


He 


mainly  in  Hanover  and  Bmntwick.  The  range, 
which  is  divided  into  TTppet  and  Lower  Hai^  ia 
SO  mile*  in  length,  aboat  16  milEa  in  breadth,  and 
■  a  (uperficiM  of  npwarda  of  760  square  1  " 


^  aorvive,  but,  worn  down  by 

attacks  of   gout,  died    at  London  on   the   3d  of   , „  , ^  _  . 

June  1657,  and  was  buried  in.  a  vault  at  Hempatead,   neighbourhood  liob 

in  Fitvr^  whioh  bis  brother  i^^i^  ha/l  built,  I  wi&  a  splendid  '  luyal  p^aoo,'    Under  hia  diieotion« 


„  or  two  placea  by  gramte,  aa 

BroGken  (a- v.)  and  the  BammWg.    The  highest 

peak    ti    the    range    is    the    Brocken.      The   H. 

Silver,  iron,  leac^  copper,  eIdo,  ix.  are  mioed; 
marble,  alabaster,  and  granite  are  quarried.  Mining, 
stone-cuttiDg,  and  the  timber-tmae  afford  employ- 
ment to  tbe  inhabitants,  who  are  atioat  70,000  in 
lumber.  Tbe  H.  M.  are  the  scenes  of  many  of  the 
wild  legendary  tkUa  of  Oennau  literature. 

HABDRUBAL,  more  oorTeatly  ASDBUBAL  (one 
Aeiped  iy  BaaCi,  a  name  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
Csrthagmian  history,  there  being  nearly  twenty 
more  or  less  celebrated  individuals  so  calLed.  One 
of  the  beat  known  is  that  son-in-law  of  TTninili^T- 
^  HAnmitti  Baboa),  who  accompanied  hia  father- 
in-law  to  Spain  (236  ko.),  and  for  eight  years 
after  the  death  of  the  lalier,  continued  to  cany 

jimA    founded   was    eonaolidated    by    the    ekHful 

HaadrubaL      He    fonned    the 

south  and  eaat  ooaata  of  Spain  into  Carthagnjan 

and   founded    many    towns,   tbe   most 

whioh  waa  Carthago  Nova  (now  OarlOf 

gata),  poaseaaing  a  fine  harbour,  and  having  in  its 

■  ' "       '      ■     ■  '  This  city  he  adorned 


L.Cioogli 


HAS^HASLAK  HOSPITAL. 


■grioultnTe  flonruhed;  tniiuDf! 
pTOBeciit«d ;  tlie  tribes  u  far  north  as  t£e  Ebro 
beoms  subject  to  Carthage,  and  paid  tribute ; 
and  powerful  chiefs  were  attached  to  CarthagiiiiBji 
intenata  by  intermarriage  and  other  means.  H. 
was  at  length  (220  b.  c)  murdered  by  a  slave,  whose 
.  master  he  had  put  to  death.  He  was  a  leader  of  the 
popular  party  at  Carthage  after  the  conclusion  of 
the  first  Pumc  war,  and  waa  early  brought  oat  into 
pubhc  lif&  He  wu  a  skilful  general,  aod  sheved 
great  energy  and  pmdenos  in  a  war  with  tie 
Kumidian  tribes.  But  bis  talents  were  more  parti- 
cularly Bdministrative,  as  has  been  already  seen  in 
his  Spanish  government.  So  powerful  was  he  in 
Spain,  and  so  independent  of  the  home  govemmeot, 
that  the  Bomans  made  the  famous  treaty  in  regard 
to  tiie  Ibenu  as  the  common  frontier  not  'ndth  the 
Oarthaginians,  but  with  HasdrubaL 

AnoUier  H.,  brother  of  the  great  Hannibal,  and 
son  of  Hamilcar  Barca,  bore  a  conipicuouB  part  in 
the  second  Punic  war,  first  as  the  opponent  of  the 
Scipioa  and  the  conqueror  of  On.  Scipio  in  Spain, 
and  afterwards  as  the  commander  of  a  Pnnio  army 
in  Italy.  While  he  was  marching  lonthward  to 
join  Hannibal  in  Umbria,  he  enconntered  the  Koman 
consuls,  C.  Nero  and  M.  Eivius,  at  the  river 
Metanms.  The  Romans  gained  a  complete  victory; 
an  immense  nnmber  of  the  Cari^lu^nian  forces 
were  slain ;  Mid  H.  himself,  when  be  saw  that  all 
was  lost,  rushed  into  the  midst  of  tiie  enemy,  and 
fell  {207  B.  c.)  as  became  the  son  of  the  great 
Hamilcar.  In  generaUhip  and  io  miUtaiy  bravery 
he  seema  to  have  been  little  inferior  to  his  father 
and  brother. 

A  third  H.  w»»  one  of  Hannibal's  principal  officers 
in  his  Italian  campaigns,  and  largely  contributed,  by 
a  weU-timed  cliarge,  to  decide  the  victonr  on  the 
»e»t  day  of  Cannai.— A  fourth,  called  CalVus,  i  e., 
the  Bald,  led  an  eimdition  to  Sardinia  in  21G  D.C., 
during  the  aeccnd  runic  war.  He  waa  defeated  by 
the  Koman  geaersl,  and  carried  to  Home  as  a 
captive. — A  fifth,  son  of  Cisco,  co-opeiated  with 
H.,  SOD  of  Hamilcar,  in  Spain,  and  iilt«rwards,  in 
conjunction  with  Syphaz,  nnancceBsfully  opposed 
Scipio  in  Africa  (204  b.  c).— The  last  ws  shall 
mentiDn  i*  that  unfortunate  general  to  whom  fell 
the  hopeless  task  of  defending  Carthage  against  the 
Romans  in  the  third  Punic  war.  He  was  at  firat 
conunAtider  without  the  city  {another  H.,  grandson 
of  the  Numidian  Masinisas,  being  general  within 
the  city),  bat  he  ultimately  became  sole  leader,  and 
opposed  all  the  pisjis  and  movements  of  Scipio 
with  great  energy  and  skilL  Bnt  at  length  Carthage 
fell,  and  H.  was  carried  prisoner  to  Some,  to  adorn 
the  triumph  of  his  conqoeror. 

IBASi,  Kajil  Adoust,  an  eminent  living  theo- 
logian of  Germany,  was  bom  at  Steinbach,  in  Saxony, 
26th  August  1800,  and,  after  leaving  Altenbui^ 
gymnasium,  studied  theology  at  Leipac,  Brlangen, 
and  TabJQgen.  For  taking  part  in  the  Burtehm- 
tdutfUn,  he  was,  after  a  tedious  Mat,  confined  for 
Stb  months  in  tha  fortress  of  Hobenasperg.  In 
1829,  after  having  been  Privat-dcemt  for  a  year,  he 
was  made  eitraOTdinary  professor  of  philosophy  ~ 

Leipaic,  where  his  leetwei  ~  " '^""  ""■'  * 

'■'      •  "   ■  t  proT.  " 

first  I  „    .  , 

decidedly  rose  above  the  old  rationalistic  conceptioi. 
of  Him  as  merely  an  excellent  moral  teacher,  his 
IiOai  Juii  (1829, 5t«  Aufl.  1865),  which  appeared  six 
years  before  Stransi^s,  having  proposed  as  its  aim 
to  shew  '  bow  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  according  to  divine 
destination,  by  the  free  act  of  His  own  spirit, 
and  by  ^le  (niportonitieB  of  Hie  time,  became  the 
Saviour  of  the  world.'  Vindicating  eqiially  the 
rights  of  the  individual  relip< 


the  historioal  importanoe  of  the  church,  he  oT^osei 
moden  snpernatmmlism,  as  in  Die  Leipager  Hitpti- 
lalion  [1627),  equally  with  extreme  rationalism,  aa 
in  TheiA>guc/ie  StreUxhrifleii  (1834^1837),  and  Die 
Tiibingtr  SdmU  (1856).  Before  the  firet  year  of  his 
profeBsorsbip  in  Leipsic  was  over,  H.  was  called 
aa  professor  of  theology  to  Jena,  where  he  still 
represents    the    dejtartments     of    DogmatieB    and 


old  Lnthenn  Do^imatics  in  oontnut  with  modem 
systons,  l^  exhibiting  its  harmonious  completeness, 
and  is  in  extensive  use  among  German  tneological 
students.  Besides  his  Con^aidiwm  of  Univtrtal 
Church  Hidory  (183*,  8te  AufL  18M),  which  has 
been  translated  into  Ti"gH»>'i  and  is  unsntpaased 
for  its  ooncise  pictures  of  times,  men,  and  systems, 
H  has  treated  special  portions  of  chnrch  history  in 
Die  badtn  JSrsbacAO/e  {1839),  Neue  PropKelen  (ISSl), 
/Vans  von  Auiii  (18fi6),  and  Dai  gtiilHAt  Sduau- 
pi/i  (1858).  Several  works  of  his  on  eccleaisatical 
law,  and  hia  edition  of  the  Libri  SyntboUei  BeeUtia 
Snangdica,  are  highly  valued. 

HASHI'SH  is  the  Oriental  name  of  the  plant 
(or  rather  of  the  tops  and  tender  ports  of  the 
plant]  which  is  scientifically  known  as  Cannabia 
tndica,  and  which  we  term  Indian  Hemp.  The  medi- 
cinal value  of  the  preparations  of  Indian  Hemp  is 
described  in  another  article.    See  Hkhp,  IintlAS.    It 


Various  preparations  of  the  plant  are  employed 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  the  deured  eflect.  A 
favourite  mode  of  extracting  its  active  principle  ia 
by  boiling  the  tops  and  noweni  with  water,  to 
which  butter  or  od  has  been  added,  evaporating, 
and  thus  forming  an  oleaginous  solution  or  fatty 
extract.  This  fatty  extract  is  frequently  mixed. 
with  other  substances  which  are  reputed  to  poasess 
aphrodisiac  properties,  and  is  token  in  the  form 
of  electuary,  confection,  or  pastil.  The  laajooit 
used  at  Calcutta,  the  mapovcAari  employed  at  Cairo, 
and  the  dauama  or  datcamtac  of  the  Arabs,  are 
preparations  of  this  kind. 

Dr  MoTBBU  of  TouiH,  who  has  written  an  elaborate 
work  on  this  subject  (Da  Ifachiiich  et  de  VAtitKa- 
tion  ifeniale,  184G),  which  is  bssed  not  only  on 
general  observation  but  on  personal  experience,  thus 
describes  the  fantoMa,  which  is  the  t^m  emfjoyed 
in  the  X^evant  to  describe  the  excitement  produced 
by  this  agent ;  '  It  is  really  /lappinai  which  ia 
produced  by  the  haahiah ;  and  by  this  I  imply  an 
enjoyment  entirely  moiol,  and  hy  no  means  sensual, 
as  we  mi^t  be  induced  to  supxKise.  The  hashish- 
eater  is  nappy,  not  like  the  gourmand  or  the 
—  when  satisfying  his  appetite,  or  the 


roluptuary  in  the  gratifies 


1  of  his  desires,  but 


who  is  successful  at  play,  or  the  ambitions 
who  ia  intoxicated  with  euccesa.'  (P.  54) 

One  of  the  first  appreciable  effects  of  the  drug, 
is  the  gradual  weakening  of  the  power  of  con- 
trolling and  directing  the  thoughts.  Then  comes 
the  stage  already  described;  and  accompanying, 
and  in  part  following  it,  there  are  observed  errors 
of  sense,  false  conviction!,  and  the  predominance 
of  one  or  more  extcavagaiit  ideas.  These  ideas 
and  convictions  are  generally  not  altogether  of  an 
imaginary  character,  but  are  suggErted  by  extemal 
impiesaions  which  are  erroneonsly  interpreted  by 
the  perceptive  faculties.  Finally,  if  the  do«a  u 
sufflnently  powerful,  there  is  a  complete  withdrawal 
of  the  mind  from  external  thinga. 

HASI.AR  HOSPITAL..    See  Oospon. 


hyCOOylf 


HAHUNGDEN— HASTINQa 


HA'SLINODEN,  a  mnall  nutaufactnrms  uid 
mkrket-toim  of  Eogluid,  in  the  county  of  Lanco- 
■hire,  !■  litiuted  in  a,  monntunouB  district,  on  and 
around  an  uninence  18  miles  eBBt-aouth~east  of 
Prestos.  It  IiM  a  towD-tuUl  and  mechanice'  iiuti- 
tnte,  bnildinga  of  recent  erectioa,  and  a  parocliiiLl 
chapel,  a  handsome  edifice,  the  front  of  which  is 
300  yearn  old.  There  am  al«o  chapels  and  meeting- 
honsea  for  Baptists,  Methodists,  Independents,  and 
Primitave  Uethodista.  Cotton  and  noolten  maaa- 
facturea  an  extentlTely  CNiied  on.  In  the  vicinity 
are  coal-mines  and  stone-qiiarrie&  Fop.  in  1871, 
7698.  •"       .        ■ 

HASP  AMD  STAPLE,  in  Scotch  Law,  the  as 
form  of  enterins  an  heir  in  a  bonage  subject, 

property  idtaatea  in  a  burgh.    The  heir  waa  i 

to  bke  hold  of  the  hwp  ud  staple  of  the  door,  as 
a  syrabol  of  possession,  and  then  enter  and  bolt 
himself  in.    This  form  is  no  longer  neceaaary, 

HASSAN-BEN-SABAH,  the  'Old  Man  o: 

Monntaia'  of  Snropean  stoiy,  waa  founder  of  Oie 

Beet  of  the  Assassins  (q.  t.),  likewise  denominated 


HA'SSELT,  a  town  of  Belgiom,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Limbonrg,  is  sitoated  Dear  the  centre 
of  the  province,  ria  U>e  left  bank  of  the  Demer, 
17  milea  weat-nnrth-weat  of  Maastricht.  It  ia  well 
bnilt,  is  mmnmded  b^  walla,  and  carries  on  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  distilling,  and  in  the  mannfocture 
of  linen  fabrics,  lace,  and  tobacoa  Pop.  (1S70)  10,CO0: 

HASTINAPURA  i«  the  name  of  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Knnu  (see  KuBc),  fr^uently 
mentioned  in  the  Mabkbbtrata.  The  Viahnu- 
Puitna  relates  that  it  was  founded  by  Hastin, 
washed  away  b^  the  Ganges — under  the  reign  of 
Nichakra,  who,  m  consequence  of  thia  event,  bad  to 
remove  the  aeat  at  hia  government  to  Kuis'ltmbl 
' — and  at  a  later  period  it  was  nndermioed  bv 
Balarlma.  It  was  aitoated  on  the  Ganges, 
is  placed  by  Lassen,  in  bis  map  to  the  IndiacAe 
AUerlAunukioKte,  about  78'  long,  and  28'  SCf  Ut. 

HA'STINGS,  a  pariiamentary  and  municipal 
borough,  market-town,  and  famous  watering-place 
of  England,  in  tbe  connty  of  Sassex,  ii  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  shore,  and  aiuTounded  on  all  aides 
except  the  Boutb,  which  ia  open  to  the  sea,  by  high 
cliffs.  It  is  distant  about  35  miles  east  of  Chief  ' 
and  74  milea  sosth-eaat  of  London  by  rail  I 
aiated  formerly  of  only  two  streets,  interaocted 
by  a  small  stream  called  the  Bourne ;  bat  is  now  a 
considerable  town,  many  new  streeta  and  terraces 
having  been  erected  within  the  present  ceotnry. 
Stret^iing  westward  along  the  sea-front  of  the 
town   ia  the  Marine  Parade,   a  spacioua   teimce, 


insignideant  village,  aitnatod  a  mile  west 
Leonards  is  now  tiie  Belgravia  of  that  town,  is 
nnited  with  it  by  lines  of  handsome  houses,  and 
included  with  it  in  the  population  retnma.  The 
chief  point  of  interest  in  H.  is  the  ruin  of  an 
ancient  castle,  standing  on  the  summit  of  the  West 
Clifil  and  supposed  to  have  been  erected  previous 
to  the  Norman  invasion,  fishing  ia  the  chief  occu- 
pation— about  160  boats  are  employed.  Owing  to 
the  want  of  a  hazbour,  the  bosbi  bare  to  be  pulled 
up  on  the  beach  by  meana  of  a  rope  and  windlass 
wo^ed  by  horse-power.  H.  is  a  great  resort  of 
pulmonary  invalid*  during  tbe  cold  season  of  winter 
and  swing ;  and  in  sommer  has  fadlttieB  for  bathing, 
thou^  probably  less  desirable  as  a  residence 
this  MMon  than  many  oiher  towns  on  the  southi 


H.  in  the  b»inning  of  the  10th  c.  waa  of  sufficient 
importance  to  Have  a  mint.  Here,  as  ia  well  known, 
tbe  Conqueror  landed  in  1066,  and  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  are  traces  of  a  camp,  aaid  to  be  that 
occupied  by  tbe  Normans  on  the  night  ivevious 
to  their  march  against  the  Saxons.  See  BattIiB. 
Under  the  Confessor,  H  became  a  member  of  the 
Cinqne  Porta,  after  which  it  long  continued  in  great 
repute  for  its  abip-building.  u  has  returned  two 
members  to  the  imperial  parliament  since  the 
reign  of  Edward  IIL  Pop.  (1871)  of  parliiuiientary 
borough,  33,337. 

HASTINGS,  accotding  to  the  French  chKnioleis, 
the  name  of  a  viking  or  aea-rover  of  the  Mi  century. 
It  is  uncertain  whether  he  was  bom  in  Norway, 
Denmark,  or  France,  most  pTobabl^  in  the  second  of 
these  countriea.  The  story  of  his  devattationa  ia 
something  appalling.  From  his  youth  on  to  a  gray 
old  age  his  whole  delight  appears  to  have  been 
in  pillaee,  rapine,  and  bloodshed.  The  ^orea  and 
cities  of  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy  ars 
said  to  have  beeo  repeatedly  wasted  and  burned 
by  him  and  his  savage  oomradcs.  Aa  the  Scandi- 
navian fogai,  however,  speak  of  several  Hastings, 
the  Doniiit  historian  Suhin  oonaiders  that  l£s 
French  chroniclers — who  wrote  at  a  much  lates 
period — have  nthered  up  the  confused  fear-b^otten 
ttoditiona  of  the  south-west  of  Eurt^e,  relating  to 
all  the  pirai«s  of  this  name,  and  appued  them  to  a 
lingle  personage,  who  has  thus  beoome  in  their  hand* 
ather  a  t^pe  of  the  ferociaus  Norse  viking,  than  a 
historical  iivlividaaL 

HASTINGS  SAND,  the  lower  division  of  the 
Wealden  beds,  forming  a  portion  of  the  Lower 
Cretaceous  period.  It  consists  of  a  considerable 
thickness  [1000  feet)  of  aaod;  caloiferons  grit,  clay, 
and  abale ;  and  diffeni  very  little  from  toe  Weald 
Clay,  the  upper  division  of  the  series,  except  in 
being  a  little  more  arenaceous.  The  stiata  have 
been  deposited  in  shallow  fresh  water.  Tbe  sand 
often  euiibits  fine  specimens  of  ripfJe-morks,  and 
the  clay  which  separates  the  sand-l>edB  sometimes 
contains  cracks  that  have  been  produced  by  the 
drying  of  the  bed  on  ezpoenre.  The  strata 
highly  foBsiliferons.  There  are  nnmerous  sauj  .  _ 
roptiles,  including  tiie  huge  iguauodon  and  the  flying 
pterodactyls.  The  remaioa  of  several  chelonions 
also  occur.  The  fiah  belong  chiefly  to  the  ganoid 
or  placoid  orders,  the  most  remarkable  being  the 
lepidotuB,  whose  conical  palate  teeth  andthick 
square  enamelled  scales  are  very  frequent.  The 
shells  belong  to  genera  which  inhabit  fresh  water, 
such  as  Paludina,  Cyclas,  and  Unio. 

HASTINGS,  Wabkek,  governor-general  of 
India,  born  December  6,  1732,  was  descmded  from 
BO  ancient  family  long  settled  at  Dayleaford,  in 
Worcesteiabire.  He  was  early  left  an  orphan ;  but 
when  only  leven  yeaii  old,  he  resolved  to  recover 
the  manor  and  estate,  which  had  passed  out  of  liie 
possession  of  hia  family.  He  was  sent  to  West- 
minster School,  and  promised  to  be  one  of  the  first 
scholars  of  hia  age,  when,  at  17,  he  was  sent  out 
*"  India  as  a  writer  in  the  Eaat  India  Company's 
vice.  Having  realised  a  moderate  fortune,  he, 
1764,  returaed  to  England.  In  1760,  he  again 
visited  India,  on  his  appointment  as  member  of  the 
council  at  Madras,  and  in  1772  was  promoted  b 
be  president  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  Bengal.  JL 
year  later,  parliament  enacted  that  the  chief  of  the 
presidency  of  Bengal  should  be  styled  govern 
general  of  India,  and  that  H.  should  be  tiw  fl  ._ 
governor-general.  The  finsocea  of  his  government 
were  in  a  disordered  state,  yet  the  Amanda  of 
tbe  East  India  Company  for  money-were  inoeasant. 
Hia  first  step  was  to  wrest  certain  rich  fnTvincei 


^T   -"   '-""gl'' 


EUTmreS— HA.T. 


from  tha  Great  Uogol,  uiil  to  sell  them  to  Sojah 
DowUU,  Uie  Nabob  of  Onde.  The  RohillM  resented 
the  truufer  to  a  croal  muter,  and  H.,  for  a 
mooey  conaideratioii,  infunonsly  lent  the  tuSrab  tbe 
eervieea  of  the  CompooT'e  army  for  their  enb- 
jngatlon.  The  great  Brahman,  Nnncomar,  wae 
pat  to  death  by  liiB  influence,  in  order  to  itrike 
terrco'  into  Che  native  popnlation.  He  exacted  Taat 
■mm  from  Cheyt^  Sing,  the  Rajah  of  Benarea,  and 
finally  confracated  all  his  possesaionE.  He  formed 
a  treaty  with  ABaph-nl-Dowlab,  the  son  of  Suiah 
Dowlah,  under  which  the  mother  and  gtandmothf 
of  the  nabob,  known  iia  the  begnma  or  prlnc«8(w« 
cd  Onde,  were  to  be  trtri^qjed  of  their  domains  and 
tceamres  for  the  benefit  of  the  Compaav.    Thete 

tion;  but  aeainat  theae  are  undoubtedly  to  ba 

off  to'eat  publie  aerricea.     He  waa  oonatantly  bi 

mefled  by  ordara  from  home,  and  frequency  borne 
dom  by  an  able  and  fitctfoua  majority  in  oonncil ; 
_..  i . 1  !■._  -n^ij-i.   -..  jmjjj  from 


yet  be  prenrred  the  Sritiah  empire 
a  fbrmidabla  oombinatfon  of  foreun  and  dconeatia 
eniemjet.    Be  acted  with  Tuour  when  the  w^with 
Fiance  bn^  out;  he  broke  the 


All ;  be  ornniaed  a  ayaton  by  which  jnatice 
diapenaed,  the  revenue  collected,  and  peace  i 
tained.  He  anoonraged  Aaiatio  leamuis.  Whan 
he  left  India  in  the  apring  of  17S5,  tlxat  ereat 
empire  waa  tnnqniL  A  treaty  had  been  oonclnded 
witii  Tippoo  SabiD,  son  and  auoceeior  of  Hyder,  and 
the  Caiiiatio  had  been  evacuated  by  the  onniee  of 
Mysore.  On  hia  arriTal  in  EnKlaad,  be  waa  received 
with  diatinotion  by  George  nt.  and  tlie  court.  The 
diteotora  acknowledaed  ha  gerricee  by  a  nnanimonf 
vote  of  thanks,  Ine  Whig  opposition  were,  how- 
ever, loud  and  vehement  agninat  him,  and  succeeded 
in .  canying  in  the  Lower  Bouse  a  motion  for  hia 
impeaohment  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lorda. 
CRm  trial  began  in  Westminster  Hall,  Febmary 
12,  17SS,  the  managera  of  the  impeachment  being 
Burke,  Vox,  Sheridan,  Windham,  and  Mr  Charles 


the  article  relating 

to  the  princeaaea  of  Oude.  The  interest  taken  by 
the  pnblio  in  the  impeachment  began  to  decline 
after  theee  great  displays  of  rhetoric  The  trial, 
notwithatan&ig,  laneuisbed  for  upwaida  of  seven 
yeaw.  On  the  149th  day  (April  23,  17S5),  it  ter- 
mimi^  in  tha  acquittal  of  Eastings.  Oat  of  400 
peera,  only  29  voted.  The  laflt  24  years  ot  hia  lifs 
were  passed  at  Dayleaford,  where,  in  the  puisoits 
Ol  literature,  and  the  occnpationa  of  a  coontiy 
gentleman,  the  evening  of  his  eventful,  stormy,  and 
checkered  career  waa  serenely  passed.  Be  died 
Anxnst  22,  1S18,  in  his  86tii  year,  and  waa  buried 
behind  the  cbancel  of  the  pansh  choroh  lA  Dayka- 
fold.  Few  students  of  English  liteiatora  reqnire 
be  reminded  of  the  eloquence  with  whidi  the 
his  life  and  his  memorable  impeaoluneiit 


rtoiy  ot  hi 
haaMen  tc 


Lord  Maoaulay. 
HAT,  a  well-known  apecies  of  bead-^wrering, 
which  has  aaanmed  varioos  ihapea  and  ohaiactars. 
What  we  nnderstand  by  a  hat  ia  a  fabric  of  Fait 
(q.  v.),  or  a  silk  material  used  as  a  lubrtitute  for 
fdt.  Hata  are  only  a  variety  of  the  atill  more 
ancient  cap  and  bonnet,  and  were  at  fint  made  of 
yelve^  siUe,  and  other  rich  materials.  Formed  of 
felt,  and  asauming  a  certain  finnneas  of  fabric,  hata 
benn  to  be  maaufactnred  in  FnglM>d  about  IStO, 


iMctediw  em,  « 
MzabetG.    Hie  ft 


headgear,  in  the  _..„_ —    „ 

capa  la,  howew,   said  to  have  beso  lone  biown 
anterior  to  thia  period;  andUitfeiBatoadttion  that 


a  knowladfa  cf  felted  capa  or  hata  had  been  intro- 
duced by  the  Ornaadera.  Wool  waa  the  material 
firat  employed  in  forming  felt-bata ;  but  in  time, 
aa  trade  with  America  was  deTeloped,  the  fur  ot 
the  Beaver  (q.  t.],  aa  finer  and  setter,  came  into 
use  ;  hence,  the  t^m  beaver  waa  long  ayncnymons 
with  hat.  For  sbant  three  oentnriea,  fine  beaver- 
hata,  dyed  blaoh,  and  prepared  with  much  skill, 
fonned  the  head-coverine  of  tha  higher  classes  in 
Groat  Britain ;  the  midme  and  humbler  olaaaea, 
still  coutinning,  for  a  length  of  time,  to  uae  the  less 
expensive  caps  and  bonnets  according  to  the  fashions 
of  their  ancestors.    See  Bonkkt. 

The  growing  scarcity  of  beaver-fur  led  to  attempts 
to  aubrtitnte  a  cloth  formed  of  silk  plush,  drawn 
over  a  pasteboard  frame,  about  1810.  Theae  were 
not  very  sncoesaful ;  and  hata  of  wool  or  beaver-fdt 
were  ommnan  until  about  1840.  The  high  cost  of 
beaver  at  length  foroed  on  the  improvement  oC 
silk-hata,  and  now  the  beaver  is  almoit  entirely 
superseded ;  while  the  fabrication  of  silk-hata  has 
been  carried  to  great  perfection  not  only  in  Ekig- 
land,  but  in  continental  conntriee  and  the  United 
States.  The  ailk-hat  conaista  of  a  body  aud  rim, 
usually  made  of  two  or  three  layers  of  cotton  cloth 
saturated  with  vamiahea,  to  give  the  fabric  atiff- 
nes^  and  make  it  waterraxiof.  These  ai«  moulded 
on  vrooden  blocka  acoording  to  the  fashion  of  the 
day :  and  when  the  desired  shape  is  produced, 
the  whole  is  carefully  furnished  ever  viHb  lac  and 
^«.THTnar  vamish,  and,  before  dry,  the  fine  silk  plush 
is  appbed  with  great  nicety,  ac  aa  to  prevent  the 
seams  being  perceived:  it  is  then  trimmed  wiii 
silk  braid  on  the  edge  of  the  brim,  and  a  alkcn  band 
ronnd  the  junction  of  the  body  with  Uie  brim ;  and 
tha  lining  of  leather  and  thin  silk  being  put  in,  it 
is  complete.  Lightness,  glosa,  and  durability  are 
the  prune  qualities  of  the  ailk-hat ;  and  in  these 
respects  tha  nats  of  New- York  manufacture  deserve 
B  high  commendation,  ^en  excellent  hats  are 
made  in  London,  Paris,  and  Edinburgh ;  but  they 
are  heavier  than  those  of  America. 

Aa  suggested  by  the  whims  of  Fashion  (q.  v.],  hats 
have  undergone  a  vride  variety  of  changes  of  diape. 
The  raiaing  of  tha  top  part  in  which  the  head  ia 
inserted,  and  the  widening  or  diminiahing  of  the 
lirima,  have  constitnted  the  chi«t  differanoee.  Seme- 
times  the  bip  has  been  high  and  narrow,  sometimes 
liigh  and  widened ;  and  as  regards  tha  brim,  it 
lias  sometimes  been  so  broad  as  to  ba  looped  up. 
Political  and  religions  differences  have  been  marked 
by  the  form  of  hat  The  Puritan  of  the  reign  ot 
Charles  I.  adopted  the  steeple  hat  (fig.  3),  high  and 
narrow  with  a  broad  brim,  and  devoid  of  ornament, 
tha  badgs  of  his  party.  The  Cavalier,  durins  the 
same  era,  wore  a  lower  and  broader  crown,  with  a 
feather  stuck  on  one  aide  (fig.  4).  And  a  still 
lower-crowned  hat,  with  a  profusion  of  feathen, 
became  the  fashion  in  the  reign  of  Charlea  IL  The 
"~~'~.er  hat  low  in  the  crown,  with  a  broad  bi' 
jnite  plain,  dates  from  the  origin  of  tiie  sad 
HiB  middle  of  the  17th  centory.  A  growing  extra 
gance  in  breadth  of  brim,  led  to  the  device  of  looping 
up  tha  back  and  sides,  and  ao  was  fashioned  the 
cooked-hat  (figi  I),  wMoh  waa  worn  by  gentlemen 
duDughoDt  tha  18th  otntnry.  But  in  this  cocked- 
hat  a%  there  were  exceptions  to  the  fashion. 
Beaux,  by  way  of  aingularity,  wore  low-crowned 
hats  witlibrima(Sg.2),andauch  must  beconaidered 
the  praonrian  of  the  freeant  round-hat,  which 
finally  anparMded  every  variety  of  cocked-hat  at 
tba  bc^iuti^  of  tha  19th  century.  The  writer  of 
thia  o$ii  rMwlUet  lA  only  three  psraoni  wearing 
oockad-lurti  at  ordinary  attire  at  late  at  ISla 
While  oodud-hata  ceased  to  be  used  by  eommcu 
~-'-"in    at    the    reform     of    military     oottnma 


„(jOOglc.. 


HAT  HOmnr— HATOHHENT, 


oozkwqMot  OD  the  ww  wiUi  ths  Fmeb  lUpuMu^ 
oSmhi  in  the  anny  eontunud  till  n  tator  period 
to  Tear  that  vpecies  at  flattened  oooked-liat  known 


bit  mm  In  tli>  nttSat,  troa  Ki/i  BUhiaf  (Bdlnbnr|li| ; 
l,b>tft«m>iirtot<UWdlMt;  4,  hat  soplaS  ftora  HaIIiT-> 
taU-lcngtli  Hntnlt  at  •  Bobtrt  DtTcnni,  EhI>  ot  tma,  Ui 
EtgglUiieji  Lo'd  OrotnU  ot  tb«  Army.' 

M  Qie  Aaptav,  hrat—ihti  is,  the  hat  which,  by 
being  flattened  up,  could  be  carried  conveniently 
under  the  ann.  iW  kind  of  hat  waa  disoaed  by 
regunental  officen  about  1812 ;  but  with  alight 
variation  in  shapes  it  li  (till  continaed  by  field- 
offlcen  in  European  artniee. 

Light,  handy,  and,  in  eOect,  adding  height  to  the 
atatnre,  the  common  round-hat  ia  eaaily  damased, 
and  quite  Tmsnitable  for  rough  wear  in  travemng 
or  when  in  the  country.  These  inconvenience^  aa  is 
wen  known,  have  led  to  the  introduction  of  a  variety 
lA  Dndreaioate,  block  and  -gray,  and  nome  of  them 
of  felt  almoBt  aa  soft  aa  cIoUi.  Such  are  the  Wide- 
awakes, the  Tom-and'Jerries,  and  an  innumerable 
tribe  of  hats  worn  bv  aportamen,  toaiiita,  and  yoaths 
genoally.  With  thete  eiceptioni,  the  round-hat, 
with  (bght  chansea  of  form  froiu  time  to  time 
■a  mggeated  by  »«hion,  continnea  to  be  the  hat 
proper,  worn  by  all  when  in  ceremonial  dreae.  The 
only  pTotewional  hat  in  England  is  that  of  cler^mea 
of  the  eatablished  church.  It  is  a  ronnd-bat  3  fine 
beaver,  with  a  broad  brim,  which  is  looped  up  at 
tidea  and  bock,  ao  aa  to  form  a  kind  of  shoveL 
Tbia  IB  ordinarily  known  aa  the  ahovel'hat.  Daring 
the  18th  c,  it  waa  not  unumal  for  the  gentlemen 
to  wear  gold-tace  bondi  and  edgings  on  Uieir  bata. 
Thia,  like  >ome  other  fantaatic  decoratiooa  of  attire, 
ta  now  resigned  to  footmen  and  other  domeatio 
aervanta  in  Hvery,  wboae  hata  and  other  garmenta 
fur  (pecimen  of  the  dresa  of  oar  foppiah 


HAT  HOKET,  a  email  dtity  or  primage  paid  to 
the  master  of  a  ahip  for  hia  care  and  trouble  over 
and  above  the  freight.  The  right  to  it  il  regulated 
entirely  W  cuatom  of  particulu'  porta.  The  name 
ii  probabljr  derived  from  the  pavment  being  origin- 
ally natmtons,  and  given  to  the  maater  on  gomg 
roaad  with  the  bat  at  the  end  of  a  proapeiona 

HATCH,  HATCHWAY.  Hatches  are  aqnara 
or  oblong  opeoinga  in  the  dsok  of  a  ahip.  forming 
the  conannmoMioiM  between  one  deck  and  another. 
The  foi*-hstahw»r  ia  nanaUy  oIom  abaft  the  f  ore- 
maat,  the  after-hatehiray  between  Um  main  and 
ndnn  maat^  and  the  tnain-batobm^  immediatBly 
bdon  the  main-mMt  Tbia  laat  b  ordinarily  the 
laig^  and  tfaroa|^  it  gooda  are  hraated  to  and 
from  the  bold.  In  menfaant  vewali,  and  eapaoially 
bM|M,   then   ara    fiaqnantlj    other    hatohwqrt, 


aoouding  to  the  natnre  of  the  oaigo ;  indeed,  in 
Bome  oraft,  the  whole  deck  conaiita  of  hatchways. 
When  oaed  for  porpoaes  of  oommnnication,  a  oom- 
panion-ladder  ia  plajied  from  each  liatchway  to  the 
deck  below.  These  ladden  are,  however,  genenlly 
limited  to  the  fore  and  aftcrhatchea.  Aahenne^es 
tiirongh  tL«  latter,  in  aacending  to  the  npper  deck, 
every  officer  and  sailor  toochea  bis  hat  in  t<Aen  of 
'salnte  to  ths  qnarter-deck.'  When  not  ao  oaed, 
the  hatchway  is  covered  by  a  wooden  grating  which 
admits  air  and  aufficient  light  to  thoee  below,  wliile 
it  [o^itectB  men  operating  above  from  accident 
Dnrins  atormy  or  wet  weather,  theae  gratinga  are 
coverM  with  tarpaulinga,  aeourely  faatensd,  and  tiie 
ship  becomes  water-tight.  After  an  action  by  boaid- 
ing,  the  congnered  crew  are  often  battened  down  ' 


conqnerec 
•re  allowed  to  BBC 


1  through  the  hi 

r  which  rises  in  the  north- 


dolph,  about  2fl  miles  above  .,    

It  muB  throngb  a  fertile  cotton  region,  and  is  navi- 
gable by  smdl  ateam-boata  abont  lOO  miles  from 
its  month. 

HA'TCHMBNT,  ot  ACHIEVEMENT,  the 
funeral  escutcheon  placed  in  &oiit  of  the  house  of 
the  deoeased,  or  elsewhere,  setting  forth  his  rank 
and  circnmstanoes.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  loienge, 
and  in  its  oentre  are  depicted  the  anns  of  ^e 
deoeased,  single  or  quartered. 

The  afdiievement  of  a  bachtlor  represents  his  arms 
in  a  shield  ootnplete,  L  e.,  aooompamed  with  helmet, 
crest,  mantling,  motto,  and  any  other  ertemal  onia- 
menbi  to  whioE  he  may  be  entitlad,  on  a  black  ground. 

In  the  achievement  of  an  unmarried  Udy,  her  anna 
are  placed  in  a  lozenge  on  a  black  groon^  but  with- 
oat  external  heraldic  omamenta  exoept  ia  the  case 
of  a  peeress,  when  her  aappcnrters,  lobe  of  estate, 
and  coronet  are  added. 

The  achieivement  of  a  husband  whose  wife  sur- 
vives, impales  hia  arms  with  hia  wife's  in  a  shield 
with  the  external  omamenta  to  which  he  is  entitled, 
the  rronnd  of  the  hatchment  heiDA  nnder  his  side  of 
the  uiield,  black,  and  under  Ui  wue's,  white.    If  the 


Hatdimentot  Huihaod. 

wife  be  an  hdress,  her  aima  are  not  impaled,  but 
carried  in  an  escutcheon  of  pretence.  The  external 
oraamenta  are  appended,  except  the  taaignia  of  any 
order  of  knighthood  having  a  circle  or  coUar,  with 
which  beralda  do  not  oonsider  it  proper  for  a  knight 
to  encircle  hia  wife's  arms.  On  thia  account  the 
achievement  of  a  knight  has  two  ahielda  placed  side 
by  side,  one  oontainmg  the  huaband'a  arms  only, 
oorded  by  Hie  collar,  riblran,  ftc.,  of  the  oidcr, 
.i_    _.i_   ___!.:_; —  ■■•— le  of  husband  and  wife: 


L,Cooi;le 


HATriBfJi — HAUBEEK. 


»n  also  two 
Mxna  Ot  the  hiuband,  with  the  Ikdys  arms  on  an 
eacuteheon  of  pretence  enrngned  with  her  coronet ; 
die  oniAter  lozenge- shaped  with  the  lady's  alone, 
and  each  accompanied  with  iti  proper  eitemat 
deooiationa.  The  gronod  ii  divided  black  and 
white  in  the  toiddle  of  the  dexter  escutcheon. 

The  amu  of  a  wife  whose  hnibaiid  HurriTsi  are 
impaled  with  her  husband's  arms  in  a  ahield,  or, 
in  the  case  of  an  heiress,  borne  on  an  escutcheon 
of  pretence.  There  is  no  helmet,  creat,  or  mantling, 
bat  a  peeiees  i«  entitled  to  her  robe  of  estate.  The 
gronnd  under  the  dexter  tide  of  the  shield  is  white, 
and  under  the  simster  black. 

The  achievement  of  a  widower  differs  from  that 
of  a  bosbaod,  in  the  sround  being  entirelj  black. 

The  aehierement  m  a  widow  dmera  from  that  of 
a  wife,  both  in  bavins  the  ground  entirely  black, 
snd  in  the  form  of  ue  escutcheon,  which  (except 
in  the  case  of  an  escutcheon  of  pretence)  is  lozenge- 
sbaped.  The  arms  are  encircled  bj  a  silTer  cor£in 
or  cordBliire,  tbo  symbol  of  widowhood. 

On  liie  dei«as«  of  tbe  last  of  a  family,  a  deadi's 
head  surmonnts  tbe  shield  in  place  of  a  crest 

The  achievemeot  of  a  reigning  king  or  queen, 
whether  married  or  not,  represents  the  royal  arms 
complete  on  a  ground  entirely  black.  That  of  an 
archbishop  or  EiBliop  has  the  insignia  of  his  fee 
impaled  with  bis  paternal  anns,  the  whole  sur- 
mounted by  a  mitre,  and  the  ground  is  per  ^r 


Tbe  dean  of  a  cathedral  or  collegiate 


IS  of 


office  with  their  family  arms,  ta  the  achieveioeDt 
of  the  wife  of  a  pftilate,  there  are  two  shields — the 
first  containing  the  impaled  artns  of  the  see  and 
the  hishm  sormoonted  by  a  mitre ;  Mid  the  second, 
(be  fMuily  arms  of  the  bishop  with  those  of  his 
wife.  Tbe  ground  is  all  whits,  except  that  part 
whieb  is  aQt&r  the  arms  of  the  wife. 

The  funeral  eacuteheon  of  Scotland,  France,  and 
Qermany,  differs  considerably  from  that  in  use  in 
England  1  it  indicates  not  merely  the  deceased's 
ngKt  to  a  coat  of  ansa,  but  his  gentility  of  descent. 
The  hatchment  is  much  larger,  consisting  oE  a 
lozenge  above  six  feet  gqoare ;  and  the  arms  of  the 
deoeaaed,  which  occupy  the  centre,  are  surrounded 
by  those  of  the  eight  or  sixteen  families  from  whom 
be  deriTed  his  descent,  the  paternal  qnarterings  on 
tbe  right  side,  and  the  mstemal  on  the  left  The 
deceased  is  not  entitled  to  aa  achievement  unless 
all  theae  fatnilica  had  a  right  to  bear  arms.  On 
the  foor  comers  are  deatbr  beads  and  the  initials 
and  title  of  the  deceased,  tbe  black  intetstices  are 
powdered  with  tears. 

HA'TFIELD,  a  small  market-town  of  England, 
in  the  county  of  Hertford,  is  sitnated  on  tbe  alope 
of  a  bill,  7  miles  south-west  of  the  town  of  Hert- 
ford. It  coiudste  of  one  conaideiable  street,  crossed 
by  a  smaller  one;  its  trade  is  unimportant.  Tbe 
mlace  was  once  the  property  of  the  bishops  of 
Ely,  bat,  together  with  the  manor,  was  seized  by 
Henry  VIIL,  and  was  afterwards  soccessively  the 
naidence,  before  their  accession,  of  Edward  VL 
and  Queen  Elizabeth.  Hatfield  Hoose,  bnilt  by 
Sir  Robert  Cecil,  is  a  noble  stracture,  and  a  Sua 
specimen  of  EHzabethan*  architecture.  The  parish 
church  is  an  old  and  interesting  etiifice  of  the  13th 
century.    Fop.  (1871)  of  parish,  399S. 

HATRA'S,  a  town  of  mndostan  in  the  North- 
west  Provincea,  33  miles  to  the  north  of  Agra,  in 
lat  27°  36'  N.,  and  long.  78°  9"  E.  H,  contains 
(ISTl)  23,722  inhabitant^  and  has  a  ccnsiderable 
trader  more  particntarly  in  ths  cotton  of  the  neigh- 
bonriiood.    As  a  place  of  tome  strength,  it  was  at 


one  time  jnvminent  in  the  wars  of  the  Doab ;  but 
on  falling,  in  1817,  into  the  poBeamon.  of  the  British, 
it  was  immediately  diamantled. 

HA'TTEBAS,  Cafb.    See  Cais  HaTTi]u& 

HATTI  BHERIF,  sometimes  called  Eatti 
Hdiiatuk — L  e.,  exalted  writing  the  name  gifen 
by  the  Turks  to  every  rescript  trt  the  sultan.  The 
batti  sherffs  are  composed  in  the  Tuiklsh  language, 
and  written  in  the  Arabian  court-hand  Divf^ 
Above  the  text,  ss  a  token  of  the  authenticity  of 
the  rescript,  stands  the  intricate  flonrisb  or  mai^ 
of  the  saltan,  uBaaUj[  in  black,  but  sometimes  in  red 
or  gold.  This  flourish  it  called  Tngra  or  Biahlni 
Sberff — i.  e.,  exalted  sign;  and  the  fimctionary  who 
superscribes  it  is  called  Kiscblndschi,  or  the  signer. 
The  batti  sherlf  is  irrevocable.  That  of  Gnl&na, 
promulgated  by  Abdul  Medjid,  Novembsr  3,  18^ 
(renewed   February   Ig,    1856),    which 

life  and '    ' 

without 

obtained  the  widest  celebrity. 

HATTO,  the  name  of  two  archbiahopa  of  the 
see  of  Mainz,  who  have  a  somewhat  c<»uracaoas 
plaoe  in  the  history  of  Oermany.  The  first  t4 
theae  was  ehosen  Archbishop  of  Mainx  in  891, 
and  died  in  913.— The  second  archbishop  of  that 
name  was  a  monk  of  the  monastery  of  FuldsL, 
and  succeeded  the  celebrated  Babanus  Maurui, 
well  known  in  the  history  of  the  eucharistio  con- 
troveisiea,  as  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  St  Boni- 
face, about  the  year  942.  In  the  second  expedition 
of  the  emperor  Otho  I.  into  Italy,  in  961,  H. 
was  sent  as  his  ambassador  from  Pavia  to  Bome ; 
and  after  his  return,  on  tbe  death  of  Archbishop 
William,  he  was  raised  to  the  see  of  Mainz,  and 
continued  one  of  the  chief  directors  of  the  imperial 
counsels.  Of  his  after-life,  and  of  his  personal  char- 
acter, tbe  most  opposite  accotmts  have  been  given. 
By  some  be  is  represented  ss  a  zealous  i«fonner, 
and  an  upright  and  successful  administrator ;  by 
others,  aa  a  aelfish  and  hardhearted  opptetoor ;  and 
the  strange  legend  of  bis  being  devoured  hj  rata, 
which  Sonthey  baa  perpetuated  in  his  well-kDown 
ballad  of  BiAop  HaiUi,  a  represented  as  an  evidence 
of  the  estimate  which  was  popularly  formed  regard- 
ing him.  It  is  b^  no  means  improbable,  however, 
that  this  legend  is  of  a  much  lat«r  date,  and  that 
its  real  origin  is  to  be  traced  to  the  equivocal 
designation  of  the  tower  on  the  Bhine,  Uattsethurm, 
near  Bingen,  which  has  been  selected  as  the  scene 
of  ths  occurrence  Mallaethurm  may,  by  a  very 
slight  modification,  mean  either  Rat  Tovxr  or  Tal 
Tenner,  and  the  latter  name  would  naturally  arise 
from  tbe  use  to  which  the  tower  continued  erea 
down  to  a  late  period  to  be  devoted.  The  date  at 
which  the  MaUsethurm  was  built  is  unknown,  and 
it  is  far  from  certun  that  it  is  not  much  later  than 
the  time  of  Hatto.  It  was  stormed  by  the  Swedes 
in  1636.    Archbishop  H.  died  in  969  or  d7(L 

HA'TZFELD,  a  small  town  of  Austria,  in  the 
Temeser  Banat,  is  situated  24  miles  west  dt 
Temeavar,  on  the  railway  between  that  town  and 
Festh.  The  breeding  ofnorses  is  here  extensively 
carried  on.  and  there  is  a  large  trade  in  com.  Fop. 
in  1869,  7981. 

UAU'BERK,  a  twisted  coat  of  mail,  sometimea 
extending  onl^  as  high  as  the  nedc,  but  mora 
generally  continued  so  as  to  form  a  coif,  leaviog 
only  the  facs  of  tbe  kni^t  who  bore  it  expoiu£ 
In  early  times,  the  sleeve  of  the  banbei^  sometimes 
terminated  at  tbe  elbow,  but  in  the  13th  and  I4th 
centuries  it  came  down  to  the  wrist,  and  very 
generally  descended  over  the  hand  in  the  form  al 
aglove,Bitheroiie-fingBred<»divided.  Intbalttho, 


,db,CuU^[l^ 


HAUBEBT— HAUSEB. 


KATTBEBT,  an  <Ai  term   in   fcad«l  Uw,  U> 

denote  the  tenon  <^  mrd  uid  rdiei 

HAUCH,  Hass  Cabstxh,  one  of  the  beat  Daniafa 
poets  of  the  prewmt  day,  was  bom  at  Frederik- 
tliald,  in  NoTWtj,  in  17S1;  graduated  at  the 
imiveraity  of  Cluudania  in  1^1 ;  and  after  having 
tnTelled  throagh  Oermanj,  Italy,  and  Franca  at 
th«  coat  of  &B  Rovemment,  with  a  view  of 
proaecuting  the  study  of  natural  hiatorv,  came  to 
Copenhagen  in  1827,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  phymca  at  tho  Boyal  Academy  of  Sonw,  in 
Decmark.  This  poet  H.  exchanged  in  ISM  for  the 
chair  of  Northern  Literature  in  the  university  of 
Kiel,  but  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Scbleawig- 
Holstein  revolution,  two  years  ^terwards,  he  was 
compelled  to  return  to  Co[>euhagen,  where  the 
dowager-queen,  Maria  Sophia,  weicd  him  an 
aaylum  at  the  palace  of  Frederikaborg,  where  he  has 
mnce  then  resided;  and  on  the  death  of  hia  friend 
OehlenachUaer,  in  1850,  he  luoceeded  him  in  the 
chait  of  testhetics  at  the  unireraity  of  Copenhagen. 
H-'s  earlieat  attempts  at  dramatic  ooropoaition — 
ConfnutaiK  and  Bomura — which  appeared  ia  181S 
— 1B17.  attracted  very  little  attentioik,  but  his 
tragediea  of  Tiharnu  og  Bajaxa,  Qregory  VII.,  and 
Don  Jiua  (1829)  at  once  cciUblished  nia  repatation, 
which  be  has  fully  maintained  by  hia  subsequent 
dramaa  of  Kari  dm  Femtai,'*  DSd  (The  Death  ~' 


(18S0),  in  which  he  exhibit!  great  powers  of  indi- 
vidualiaing  character,  and  portraying  the  local 
colouring  of  the  scenes  which  ho  deacnbes.  Many 
of  hia  pieces  were  translated  by  himself  into 
German,  and  were  represented  with  success  at  the 
principal  theatres  of  Germany  and  Sweden.  H.'s 
dramatic  epic,  SartKtdryaderif  which  belongs  to  the 
ultra  romantic  school,  has  met  with  less  favour 
among  hia  own  countrymen  thttn  in  Germany, 
where  it  elicited  the  commendatory  notice  of  Tieck, 
Sclmbart,  and  other  critics  of  note;  but  hia  LyrUkt 
Digte,  1842  (Ljrrical  Poems|,  some  of  which  are 
extremely  beAutifol,  enjoy  an  nndiiipat«d  popularity 
in  Denmark.  Aa  a  writer  of  talea  and  romances, 
H.  has  shewn  considerable  divenity  of  talent ;  the 
pnndpal  an — Sn  PoUc  Famiiie  (A  Polish  Family), 
moOet  ved  iUinm  (The  Castle  on  the  lUiiae), 
and  QiMmagem  (The  Goldsmith,  1836— 184C),  Saga 
om  Thoneaa  Fi^wfe  (18*9),  Ifordixht  atythologk. 
WiMtmarSatraa62],tc  Bit  Soberl  FaOon  {IS53) 
is  regarded  as  the  mnrt)  perfect  of  his  works.  H. 
has  been  a  volaminous  contributor  to  onrrent  Danish 
and  German  literature,  and  in  hia  own  conntiy  his 
name  is  anooiated  wi-Qi  a  shvp  literary  contest,  in 
which  he  took  an  active  and 
not  alwa^  a  vary  dignified 
part  agMuit  hia  coontiy- 
man  ana  brother-poet,  J.  L. 

HAURIANT, 


t  fish 

placed  upright  as  if  to  refreah 
itidf  by  sucking  air,  as  in 
Uie  example.  Oulei,  three 
ludea     (the 


of  the  3Mi  May  182a      He  was  dressed  like  a 
pewant-boy,  and  had  with  him  a  letter  addrened 


captain  of  the  sixth  rsgiment  of  horse  a 
Nnrembei^  Being  conducted  to  this  officer  and 
interrogated,  it  aoon  became  evident  that  he  could 
speak  vary  little,  and  was  almost  totally  ignorant. 
To  all  qoMtions  he  replied, '  Von  Reaenibnig '  (from 
I,  or  '  Ich  wools  nit'  (1  don't  know). 
ler  hand,  hfa  wrote  hia  name  in  firm 
legible  characters  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  but  with- 
out adding  the  place  of  his  birth,  or  anytiung  else, 
though  requested  to  do  so.  H.  was  then,  to  judge 
from  his  appearance,  16  or  17  years  old.  Though 
short  and  broad  shonldered,  hi*  figure  was  perfecU^ 
jrtioned.  His  skin  was  very  white;  his 
icately  formed,  the  hands  and  feet  small 
and  beautiful,  tiie  latter,  however,  shewiag  no  marks 
of  his  having  ever  worn  shoes.  With  the  exception 
'  dry  bread  and  water,  he  shewed  a  violent  dislike 
all  kinds  of  meat  and  drink.  His  language  ms 
confined  to  a  few  wtuds  or  sentences  in  the  old 
Bavarian  dialect.  He  shewed  entire  ignorance 
the  moat  ordinary  objects,  and  great  inmBerenn 
the  conveniences  and  neceesariea  of  life.  Amons 
hia  scanty  articles  of  clothing  was  a  handkerchira 
marked  K.  H ;  he  had  likewise  about  him  some 
written  Catholic  prayers.  In  the  letter  which  he 
carried,  dated, '  I^om  the  confines  of  Bavaria,  place 
unknown,  1828,'  the  writer  stated  himself  to  be  a 
poor  day-Jabonrer,  the  father  of  tea  children,  and 
said  that  the  boy  bad  been  d^Kwited  before  his  door 
bj  his  mother,  a  person  unknown  to  the  writer. 
He  stated  further,  that  he  bad  brought  up  the  boy 
secretly,  without  allowing  him  to  leave  the  honse, 
but  had  instructed  him  in  reading,  writing,  and  the 


iclosed  a  line,  apparently  from  the  mother,  itotini 
that  she,  a  poor  girl,  hod  given  birth  to  the  hoy  oi 
the  30th  April  1812 ;  that  bis  name  was  Kaapv-;  anc 
that  his  father,  who  had  formerly  serrea  in  tbi 
sixth  regiment,  was  dead.  H.  was  treated  by  the 
magistrates  of  Nuremberg  as  a  deetitDte  boy,  and 
became  the  object  of  general  sympathy.  Binder,  a 
burgomaster,  exerted  himself,  in  piuticnlar,  to  thraw 
some  hght  on  the  obscurity  in  which  tJie  origin  of 
the  young  man  was  involved.  In  the  course  (rf 
many  conversations  with  him,  it  came  out  that  H, 
from  his  childhood,  had  worn  only  a  shirt  and 
trousers  ;  that  he  had  lived  in  a  daric  place  under- 
ground, where  he  was  unable  to  stretch  himself  out 
at  full  length  ;  that  he  had  been  fed  upon  bread  and 
water  by  a  man  who  did  not  shew  himself,  but  who 
cleaned  and  dressed  him,  and  provided  him  with 
food  and  drink  while  he  was  in  a  state  of  natural  or 
artifloial  sleep.  His  solo  occupation  was  playing 
with  two  wooden  horses.  For  some  time  b^re  he 
was  conveyed  to  Nuremberg,  the  man  had  come 
oftener  to  his  dungeon,  and  had  taught  him  to  write 
by  guiding  bis  hand,  and  to  lift  his  feet  and  walk. 
This  narrative  gave  rise  to  various  suppoaitionB  and 
rumours.  H.  was,  according  to  some,  the  natural 
son  of  a  priest,  or  of  a  yonng  lady  of  high  rank ; 
while  others  believed  him  to  be  of  princely  origin,  or 
the  victim  of  some  dark  plot  respecting  an  imierit- 
ance.  Some  incredulous  persons  believol  the  whole 
affair  to  be  an  impositioii.  On  the  18th  July  18S8, 
H.  was  handed  over  to  the  care  of  Professor  Daumer. 
The  history  of  his  education  is  remarkable  in  a 
pedagogio  point  of  view,  as  his  original  desire  for 
knowlMge,  his  extraordinary  memory,  and  acnte 
understanding  decreased  in  proportion  as  the  sphere 
of  his  knowledge  extended.  His  progreaa  was,  on 
the  whole,  sm^  On  the  17th  October  1829,  he 
was  found  bleeding  from  a  slight  wound  on  the 
brow,  which  he  sa^  had  been  inflietad  by  a  man 
with  a  black  head.  All  efforts  made  to  diaooTW  the 
peipetntor  were  ineffectnaL    Tha  incident  excited 


ff^oTF 


yGoogIc 


HAirrBOIfl— HA.TEL. 


gTMt  seojwtion 
one  of  the  ir'~~' 
two  Boldien. 

~  Loid 


wbo  b««ime  intemted 
uke  of  Iiis  sdnotioti, 
to  Anqwoh.  Hen  he  wm  employed  in  an  office  of 
the  oonit  of  ftppeaJ,  bnt  l^  no  moana  dktmgniahed 
hinueU  for  incraeby,  and  ma  gittioMj  forgotten 
till  hU  death  again  esdtcd  attention.  A  i' 
under  tho  pretext  of  bringing  him  a  meara 
Lord  8tanhop«,  and  informing  him  of  -Uie 
rtancM  of  hu  birth,  invited  E.  to  meet  bin 
palaoe  earden  at  three  o'clock  in  the  aftei 
the  14t£  December  1833,  and  stabbed  him  in  the 
left  side.  H.  had  enfficient  strength  left  to  return 
home  and  relate  the  circamatanccs  of  hia  uaaBain- 
ation,  bnt  died  on  the  17th  Deoember  1^33.  Com- 
pare Danmer,  MUtAeaimgen  vAer  Katper  Baiuer 
(2  vole.  NnreiTib.  1S32) ;  Feuerbach,  Karper  Htauer 
BeitpUl  EiiK*  Tetbrecheiu  tan  Sed^nieben  (Anibaoh, 
IS32). 

H  ATTTBOIS,  or  030E,  a  vindinatniment  of  the 
'  reed'  genua.  On  aoooont  of  its  pierciiig  sonnd,  it 
-waa  much  lued  in  military  bands,  in  the  ' '" 
the  ITth  c.  for  playiiiK  the  melody,  and  f 

whole  band  ujsed  in  Oermaii^  to  be 
called  Obouien.  The  hautbou,  at  ■'" 
early  date,  took  ita  place  as  o 
of  the  eaaential  instruments  of  the 
orchestra.  It  is  nu 
generally  of  box,  ebony,  cocoa,  or 
rosewood,  and  is  oonstruoted  ic  three 
pieces,  or  joints,  forming  a  continuous 
tapering  tube,  about  21  inches  ' 
the  bore  of  which  is  narrow  a 
amall  and,  and  widens  into 
shaped  opening,  1^  inch  in  di 
at  the  mouth.  In  the  nppel  and 
middle  piece  there  ore  holes,  by 
stopping  or  opeoiiu  which  with  ihe 
fingers,  the  player  forma  the  notes  of 
the  natoral  scale,  the  intermediate 
semitones  being  formed  by  the  keys. 
The  reed  is  fixed  upon  the  end  oE  a 
small  brass  tube  which  fits.  Socket- 
wise,  into  Bxe  small  end  of  tie  npper 
piece.  Xhe  sound  of  the  hau^is 
IS  rich ;  and  from  its  great  power  in 

it  ia  capable  of  every  varie^  of 
expresmon.  Ori^nally,  the  hautbois 
had  bnt  two  keys,  but  others  have 
from  time  to  tiioe  been  added,  till 
the  number  is  now  nsoally  fifteen, 
Bahm'i  airtsn.  and  sometimea  more.  Its  ordinary 
Bcals  is  that  of  C  natural,  but  l^ 
means  of  the  keys  it  can  be  played  in  every  key 
with  facilitrf .  Its  range  of  a^iilable  notes  is  from 
B  to  O  in  alt.  Triebert  of  Paris  is  now  the 
most  celebrated  maker. 

Hantbois  is  also  the  name  giren  by  organ-bnilders 
to  a  reed  stop  ot  eight  feet  tone,  which  is  made  of 
metal,  similar  in  shajM  to  the  real  hautbois,  and 
intoided  to  imitate  it  m  its  sound.  Ita  reed  is  made 
of  thin  brass.  In  aU  Gnglish  or{^uis  it  is  an  india- 
penaable  stop  in  the  swel^  where  it  is  most  effective. 
It  it  only  a  treble  stop,  of  which  tlie  bass  is  the 
bsaooD.  In  continental  ornns  it  i*  found  of 
various  aoals^  and  when  very  dne,  is  called  the  Oboe 
jamow. 

HAtlTB  OARONMB,  Ac.  See  Ouoim, 
UAnTB,  fee. 

HAUT,  Rnrt  Jtrtrr,  a  celebrated  French  miner- 
alcwist,  was  born  at  St  Jost,  in  Picardy.  S8th 
Fetonai;  1743,  studied  for  the  dnnoh,  and  took 


priealfi  orders.  Hii  attention  was  tamed  at  a 
oomfiaratively  early  period  of  his  life  to  botany, 
but  it  was  not  ontil  oe  was  38  years  of  ags  that, 
in  conseqoenoe  of  acddentally  Iiearing  Daubenton 
lecture  on  the  subject  in  the  Jardin  dw  Plantes, 
he  commenced  the  study  of  mineralogy.  Liniuens 
had  already  shewn  tliat  the  reguar  fons  of 
crystals  is  due  to  the  action  of  forc«e  which  obey 
definite  laws,  and  RomS  de  Lisle  had  aacertained 
that  tbe  angles  are  constant  in  difF^rent  crystals  of 
the  same  variety ;  but  the  true  laws  of  crystallisa- 
tion remained  ui^own  until  H.  was  1^  to  their 
disoovery  by  a  fortunate  aoddent  See  his  memoirs 
on  crysballography  and  niinersWy,  amountins  to 
■boat  100,  published  between  1TS2  and  1S21.  (For 
their  titles  and  dates,  see  Pojvendorff'B  Biog. 
Liter.  Handvmrterbadi,  pp.  1038-^1040.)  Els  most 
important  works  are  his  TVaiU  de  ilineralogia 
(Paris,  1801,  4  vols,  with  atlas),  of  which  a  second 
edition  appeared  in  1822—1823 ;  TraUt  £l^nmtatre 
de  PfijsigM  (Paris,  1804,  2  vols.),  of  which  a  third 
edition  appeared  in  1821;  Trtiitt  da  Caraetirei 
Phyiiqaei  de»  Fierru  PTieievMt,  1817 ;  and  Traiii 
de  CryilaSogrmihie,  in  2  vols.,  with  a  volume  of 
plato,  in  \S22.  He  was  also  a  oontribator  to 
the  Encydoptdie  MiOuxliqae,  and  the  Dietioiauan 
iHitL  ifoL  H.'s  narrow  escape  during  the  revolu- 
tion has  been  already  noticed  in  the  memoir  of 
OeoSroy  Sunt-Hil&ira  (q.  v.).  In  1703,  he  was 
appointed  on  the  Commission  of  Weights  and 
Measnree ;  in  1794,  conservator  of  the  Cabinet  des 
Mines ;  in  1795,  teacher  of  c^}rsica  at  the  Normal 
School ;  and  finally,  in  1802,  he  was  ^tpointed 
wpfessor  of  mineralogy  in  the  Museom  of  Natural 
History  and  in  the  Fiiculty  of  Sciences.  He  was 
an  Honorary  Canon  of  NStrB-Dajne,  and  ia,  in  con- 
sequence, generally  known  as  the  Abb£  Hatly. 
He  died  at  Paris,  3d  June  1622,  leaving  no  wealui 
beyond  the  collection  on  which  he  h^  baaed  his 
^nat  di«coverie«.  This  collection  is  now  preserved 
-I  the  Jaidin  dea  Flaotet. 

HATAITA,  or,  in  Ekig;lish,  lAe  Karbtmr,  by  far 
Jie  most  important  ci^  m  the  West  Indies,  n  the 
capital  of  Cuba  (q.v.)  It  stands  on  the  N.  shore  ot 
the  island,  in  lat.  23°  S*  N.,  and  long.  83>  33  W.  Pop. 
(1863)20G,676 ;  ot  60,781  coloured,  29,01 3  being  slaves : 
(1867)  202,48a  The  climate  is  tropical,  and  almost 
uniform.  In  Bommer,  tbe  aveiwe  mazimam  tem- 
perature is  87°  F.  ;  in  winter,  85''^?.  The  haven  ia 
one  of  the  nobleet  in  the  world,  and  ita  compara- 
tively narrow  entrance  is  secured  \rj  six  forts.  H. 
engrosses  neu'ly  the  whole  of  the  foreun  trade  of 
the  colony,  excepting,  perhaps,  the  ilueit  impor- 
tation of  Afrioans.  whioh  requires  more  secluded 
localities ;  and  it  ia  connected  by  railroads  and 
telemph  with  places  in  the  interior  and  on  the 
sonUt  coast.  Tntde  and  industry  have,  however, 
been  greatly  checked  by  the  insurrection  which 
began  in  1868  and  still  continues.  Most  of 
tbe  mercantile  nations  have  estabhshments  her& 
H,  is  famous  for  its  cigars,  and  it  baa  also  manu- 
faotnres  of  chocolate,  woollen  fabrics,  and  straw- 
hat*-  It  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  the  se^  of  govem- 
ineitt ;  and,  in  adrntaon  to  a  handsome  display  of 
reli^ns  uid  political  eatabliahmenta,  has  a  um- 
vemty,  a  botania  garden,  aeveral  theati^  and  one 
of  the  most  niagtuncent  opeia-bonses  in  ensteoce. 
The  bnildii^  are  not  very  remarkable,  and  the 
■trselB  are  m  general  narrow,  bat  the  promenade 
of  Itabel  Seguade,  running  ttuon^  the  centre  of 


latter  there  are  about  50  in  the  city. 


i!,Googlc 


EATELOCK— HATBIB8A.0E. 


in  *  nnftU  Uke  »  mile  vegi  of  tha  town  of  Now 
StrelitE,  in  Mecklenburg.  It  flowi  (onthward  fttaa 
its  Hmice  to  Potadun,  and  thenoe  WMt  and  north- 
Tist  to  ita  jnnctioQ  irith  tha  Elbe,  oppo«ite  the  town 
of  Wo'ben.  Ita  entire  length  i«  SIS  milee,  and  it  is 
narigable  to  Funtenbtr^  %  town  within  30  milu  of 
its  Bonroe.  The  H.,  which  thttmghont  ■  conBder- 
able  part  of  its  coone  terree  u  the  connectins  link 
to  a  long  ohain  of  lake*,  ia  of  gnat  importance  ea  the 
intonal  btAe  of  Fniiuia.  Of  its  afflaeiits,  the 
Sprea,  which  is  longer  than  the  H.,  ia  the  tmly  one 
worthy  of  mention. 

HATBLOOK,  Hajob-Qsnxbal  Sm  HsHKr, 
E.C.B.,  was  boro  April  6,  1T96,  at  Kabop-wear- 
month,  in  Dnrham,  where  hie  father  wm  a  uerchaat 
and  sfaip-bnilder.  He  entered  the  armf  a  month 
or  two  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  went  to 
India  in  1823,  and  hononrably  diatingniBhed  htm- 
■elf  in  the  Afghan  and  Sikh  ware.  In  1866,  he 
oommanded  a  division  of  the  army  that  inraded 
Penift.  While  abeent  in  that  country,  news 
arrired  of  the  Indian  matinv,  and  he  hastened  to 
Calcutta.      He  wa»  directed   ' 


He  made  a  Eoroed  iiuu«h  b>  Fatt^pllr,  where,  at 
the  head  of  3000  men,  he  engaged  and  brohe  the 
rebel*.  He  oontinned  biii  march  apon  Cawnpore, 
and  twice  defeated  the  enemy— first  at  Aeno,  and 
then  at  the  bridge  over  tiie  Fandu  Nuddi,  Stoilea 
from  Cawnpore.  Tbe  consequence  at  the  Utter 
victn?  was  the  massacre  of  all  the  European 
women  and  children  in  the  luuida  of  Nana  Sahib. 
H.  had  another  battle  to  Sgbt  at  Ahirwa,  where 
the  robeU  were  stronzly  entrenched.  He  turned 
their  left,  and  the  7nh  Hii^daadeFi  carried  the 
village  in  a  splendid  chuge.  He  now  entered  Cawn- 
pore, and  gaied  with  his  men  npon  the  mutilated 
bodiM  at  Uie  tmlu^ipy  ladies  and  children.  Ilia 
■idit  ateclcd  their  liearte,  and  the  avenging  oolnmn 
qmtted  OttWKDOtt  to  Mdrance  upon  Lacknow.  H. 
eramed  the  Qangec,  and  repulsed  the  rebebi  at 
Unao,  and  aftanrards  on  the  «ame  day  at  Busserut 
Qnnge.  After  fighting  eight  battles  with  the 
rebeu,  in  all  which  he  was  victoriotm,  his  little 
arm;  found  itself  so  thinned  b^  fatigue  and  sick- 
ness, that  it  was  obliged  to  retire  upon  Cawnpore. 
Early  in  Saptamber,  Oenerol  Outram  arriTed  with 
ndntorcemanta,  and  H.  ogwn  advanced  to  the  relief 
of  Luoknow ;  Outnuu,  with  chivolrons  geneioaity, 
refunng  to  take  the  oommand  oat  of  his  bauds. 
The  reUeving  force,  whiah  mustered  2600  men  and 
IT  guns,  rooted  the  enemy  at  Mimgalwar.  It 
next  en^4^  them  at  the  Alum  Baglk  an  isolated 
building,  aboat  three  miles  from  the  Beeidency  of 
Luoknow.  H.  and  his  column,  with  desperate 
bravery,  fought  Uieir  way  through  streets  of  houses, 
each  forming  a  sepamte  fortress,  until  thay  gained 
the  lUndenoy,  to  the  indescribable  joy  ca  the 
beleagMrad  ganiMm.  The  victorious  army  were 
now  in  torn  bcsierad,  but  held  their  own  until 
Norembffl',  when  Sir  Colin  Campbell  (now  Lord 
Clyde]  forced  his  iray  to  their  rescae.  After  the 
r^ef  of  Lncknow,  E.  was  attacked  by  dysentery, 
and  died  November  22,  1867.  Before  hu  deaUi, 
news  arrived  of  his  elevation  to  the  distinction  of 
K.C.B.  Other  hononn  were  in  store  for  liim,  bnt 
they  came  too  Ikte.  fie  was  mads  major-general: 
appointed  to  the  oolondi?  of  the  3d  Foot;  and 
reccovad  a  bmnietey,  with  a  proposed  pension  of 
iElOOOayeaz.  The  rank  and  the  pemdon  were  pven 
to  his  widow,  daughter  of  Dr  Manhman,  an  emment 
tninistar  uoong^ms  Baptists.  A  new  patent  of 
baitAstejr  WMlwned  in  favour  of  the  eldest  son, 
H.  having  died  the  day  before  the  patent  was  sealed. 
A  mstro^iHtMi  sbttne,  raiaed  by  pubLo  tabwriptdon, 


baa  been  ereotod  to  bis  memory  in  Trafalgar  SqnaiCh 

H.  was  a  strietly  religions  man  and  a  severe  dis- 
ciplinarian, somewhat  after  the  type  of  the  grave 
and  gallant  Puritans  irho  fought  and  conquered 
under  CromwelL  '  For  more  than  forty  years,'  he 
said  to  Sir  James  Outnuu  in  his  lost  moments,  '  I 
have  BO  raled  jny  life,  that  when  death  came,  I 
might  faoe  it  without  fear.'  His  death,  at  the 
moment  when  the  rebellion  had  been  crnsbed, 
excited  the  deepest  sympaUiy  and  legret,  not  only 
in  the  army  ot  India,  but  also  among  the  public 
at  home. 

BAVBKS.    See  Harbook. 

HAVEB,  a  term  used  in  Scotch  Law  to  denote 
the  penon  in  whose  custody  a  document  is.  It 
often  happens  that  in  the  ooniae  of  a  litigation  it  is 
essenHal  for  the  court  to  see,  or  for  one  party  to 
rely,  on  a  document  in  the  hsnda  of  a  thinl  party. 
In  order  to  get  at  the  haver  or  holder,  letters  of 
incident  diligence  are  issued,  which  have  the  effect 
of  compelling  him  to  produce  and  exhibit  the 
document,  or  state  on  oath  \rhj  he  refuses  to  do  so. 
The  term  is  not  used  in  EngUnd,  the  same  parly 
being  merely  summoned  as  a  witness  by  being  told 
in  his  tabjxcna  that  he  most  bring  i^e  document 
with  him ;  or,  if  there  is  no  trial,  he  may  be  examined 
by  commissiou  or  nnder  interrogatories. 

HATBBIfORDWBST  (Welsh,  Hv^orddi,  a 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  seaport,  aod 
market-town  of  Wake,  capital  of  the  county  of 
Pembroke,  and  a  eoonty  of  itself,  ooonpies  a  hwhly 
piotoresque  sitDBtion  on  the  aides  and  at  the  foot 
of  several  steep  hills  on  the  West  Cleddan  Hirer, 
8  miles  north-east  of  Milford,  and  about  £70  miles 
west-north-west  of  London.  It  is  well  built,  bat 
irragulaT.  and  is  surrounded  by  several  pictai«>que 
walks.  When  the  Flemings  settled  in  the  district  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  L,  H.  was  one  of  their  prineipal 
stations.  The  castle,  the  keep  of  which  is  now  used 
as  the  county  Jail,  was  erected  by  Qilbert  de  Clare, 
first  Earl  of  Pembroke,  in  the  Uth  century.  The 
nave  of  8t  Mary's  Church — one  of  the  nnast  in 
South  Wales — is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its 
roof-carving,  and  for  its  skilfol  construction  and 
'  "  In    conjunction   with   the 


parliament.  The  trade  of 
the  town  is  iDooDsiderable.     Fop.  (1871)  6022: 

HA'TERHILL,  a  town  in  Mnssachnsetts, 
United  States,  at  the  head  of  navujation  of  the 
Merrimac  Piver,  on  ita  north  bank,  12  miles  from 
its  month,  and  32  miles  north  of  Boston.  It  ia 
a  pretty  town,  connected  by  two  bridges  with 
Bradford,  and  the  seat  of  an  active  manufacturing 
industry  in  iron,  woollens,  bats  and  cape,  ruf 
way  carriages,  omcbeB,  soap  and  candies,  tinware, 
leather,  boots  and  aboea,  ftc.  In  the  colonial  times, 
it  was  a  frontier  town,  and  suffered  much  from  the 
Indiana.    Pop.  in  1870,  13,092. 

HAVERS,  Clofton',  M.D.,  an  eminent  anatomist 
and  physioian,  who,  after  studying  at  Cambridge 
and  Utrecht,  where  he  graduated,  settled  in  Londni 
in  1687.  Hia  Omeologia  Ifom,  or  8om«  Jfeur  Obtr- 
rattont  of  A»  Bontt  md  lt«  Part*  bdoiwng  io  than 
(Svo,  Lond.  1691),  was  long  a  Btaodaid  work,  and 
hia  name  is  indeliUy  recorded  in  the  annals  of 
anatomy  aa  the  diaoo^rerer  of  the  Havenian  canals 
in  bone.  Ha  edited  The  AwOomg  </  Jfon  and 
Fonan,  ffvm  Sfoditr  and  Bammdin  ^oUo,  Lond. 
1691),  and  was  a  oontributor  to  the  PhUonphicai 
TranaaeUoM,    Tim  axact  date  of  his  death  is  not 

HATEBSAOK,  a  baa  of  strong  coona  linen,  in 
which,  on  a  ""■*■'',  titai  soldier  oairies  hia  own 


( lOtiglr 


HAVEBSIAN  CAIfALS-HAWlCK. 


bread  and  pnmdonf.  It  is  boma  an  the  left  side 
by  a  strap  paaniis  crrer  the  right  thonldeF,  nod  u 
only  UBea  in  tha  tield  and  in  cantonments. 

HATEMWIAK  CASALa.    Sm  Bone. 

HATERSTRA.W.  a  riUage  b  Hew  York,  United 
Statea,  America,  aitnated  an  the  weit  bank  of  the 
Hudson  River,  37  miles  north  of  New  York  City. 
Stony  Point,  famous  in  the  history  o£  the  Amartcan 
BeT<Mution,  lies  in  this  townsbip.  3team-boats  and 
sloops  carry  on  an  active  trade  with  New  York, 
and  there  are  leveral  foundries  and  manufactures. 
Pop.  of  township  in  1870,  6112. 

HAVI'LDAB,  the  highest  rank  of  non-commis- 
sioned officer  among  native  troops  in  India  and 
Ceylon.  In  the  Honff-kong  Gun  Laacara,  the 
havildar  receives  1&  3d.  per  diem ;   but  in  India, 


,  tha  chief  commei 
of  that  county,  is  aitoated  on  the  oortb  side 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Seine,  in  lat.  49°  29*  16'  N., 
loEU.  0°  6'  37'  K,  and  108  miles  north-west  of  Paria, 
reckoning  in  a  straight  line.  E.  has  direct  com- 
munication with  G(reat  Britain,  Holland,  Hamburg, 
Portugal,  Mexico,  Brasil,  United  States,  India,  ix. 
It  is  via  port  of  Puis,  with  which  it  is  connected 
Inr  ■  railway  134  miles  long,  and  the  continuation 
of  ihii  hna  io  Straaburg  affords  luch  facility  of  com- 
mmtication  with  Oermany,  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  trade  of  that  oonntry  with  America  is  carried  on 
throogh  Havre.  For  fareigo  trade,  H.  is  the  Liver- 
pool o!  France ;  it  receives  annoslly  from  600,000 
to  600,000  bates  of  cotton,  nearly  three-foorUis  of 
the  whole  quantity  imported ;  it  also  shipa  most  of 
the  exports  to  America,  and,  generally  speaking, 
poateaaes  about  one-fiflJi  of  me  whole  trade  of 
the  oountty.  The  sum-total  of  its  imports  and 
exports  eioeeda  1,300,000,000  francs  (£52,000,000). 
The  imports  conaiat  cluefly  of  cotton,  spices,  coffee, 
tea,  sugar,  timber,  coal  {irota  England),  tx. ;  and 
tha  exports,  of  French  manufacttuai  eoods,  of  wine, 
brandy,  oil,  jewellery,  provisions,  £o.  In  1668, 
2781  vessels,  of  993,746  tons,  entered,  and  3677 
vessels,  of  952,672  tons,  cleared  the  port  About 
600  vessels  belong  to  Havre.  H.  also  pos- 
sesses maQufactoriee  of  paper,  sulphuric  acid,  to- 
bacco, cotton  goods,  starch,  lace,  oil,  machinery, 
ropes,  salt,  Ac,  also  sugar-refineries ;  the  annual 
value    of     the    manntactures    being    catiDiatfid 


t  to 
_  .,  .  ng  to  the  current,  requires 
little  dredging.  This  channel  leads  to  the  acarU- 
port  {outer  harbour),  wher«  the  various  passenger- 
steamers  lie,  and  within  thia  avant-port  are  capa- 
cious wet  docks,  capable  of  accommodating  600 
ships.  Tha  largest  of  these  is  L'Eure,  which  con- 
tains 700,000  square  feet  A^ong  the  dry  docks, 
one  recently  completed,  EI5  feet  long  and  112 
broad,  is  a  stupendous  work,  and  obviates  the 
necessity  for  sending  large  stumers  for  repairs  to 
Southampton.  A  new  basin  has  been  constructed 
in  the  plain  of  tlie  Leure,  measurina;  about  53 
acreL  U.  was,  till  lately,  smroimded  by  ramparts 
and  lofty  walls ;  bat  these  were  demdialwd,  to  admit 
of  ttw  axtensioD  of  the  town,  which  bM  now  absctbed 
the  ne^bouring  oominttne*  of  Ingonville  and  Gra- 
villa  rBeure,  and  nnmbera  (1872)  81,786  inhabit- 
ants. Ainong  the  public  buildings  may  bs  noticed 
tiie  churches  of  Notre  Dame  and  St  Franoia,  the 
new  City  Hall  (built  in  the  i^le  of  the  Tnileries), 
tha  towm  c^  Francis  L,  Exchange,  Mansion-house, 


Arsenal,  barracks,  and  a  nnmber  «(  elegant  villas 
which  clothe  the  ^pes  of  InsonviUch  Tha  principal 
institutions  are  a  Boyal  Scbool  of  Navigation,  a 
School  of  Applied  Geometry,  and  a  library  contain- 
ing 20,000  volumes.  The  greater  pait  of  the  town 
is  modem.  H.  was  founded  in  1609  by  Louis  XIL, 
on  the  site  of  a  fIsbiDz  village,  and  was  intended  as 
a  harbour  of  refuge  for  the  French  navy.  It  Was 
greatly  extended  and  improved  by  his  successor, 
Francis  L,  and  from  his  time  rapidly  rose  in  import- 
ance, especiallv  as  the  rival  haibour  of  Harfleur  was 
being  gradually  silted  vp  with  sand.  The  names 
of  Eichelieu,  Colbert,  Tanban,  Kapoleon,  to.,  are 
connected  with  the  improvements  and  additions 
made  to  the  original  harbour.  It  was  bombarded 
by  the  British  in  1694,  1769, 1794,  and  1796.  Under 
Louis  XIV.,  it  became  the  entrepAt  and  chief  seat 
of  operations  of  the  French  East  India  and  tha 
Senegal  and  Guinea  Companies.  It  is  celebrated 
as  the  birthplace  of  MademoiseUe  Scudery,  Ber- 
nardin  St  Pierre  (anther  of  Pmil  aad  Virffima),  and 
Casimir  Delavigne.  The  statues  of  the  last  two 
are  placed  in  frtuit  of  the  library  facing  the  harbour. 
HA  WAIT    See  Sandwich  laumM. 

HA'WASA,  or,  more  properly,  Ausa*,  tormerly 
an  important,  but  now  a  decayed  town  of  Eastern 
Africa,  capital  of  the  country  of  Adal  (q.  v.),  is 
situated  on  the  Hawash,  in  Ub  11°  30'  N.,  and  long. 
41°  4A'  £.  It  is  stiU  the  seat  of  some  traffic,  a 
perpetual  fair  or  market  being  held  here,  at  which 
salt,  blue  calico  clotJi,  and  the  produce  of  the  soil, 
ore  said  to  be  Uie  chief  artides  of  sale.  About 
H.,  however,  little  haa  yet  been  ascertained.  Fop. 
estimated  at  between  6000  and  60oa 

E A'WASH,  a  considerable  river  of  Abyssinia,  has 
its  origin  near  the  south-western  border  of  the  Shoa 
territory,  in  lab  about  90°  N.,  and  long,  about  38*  K 
It  dows  in  a  general  north-east  direction,  forming 
throughout  three-fourths  of  its  courae  the  aouthem 
and  eastern  boundary  of  Shoa,  and  aeparating  that 
country  from  the  districts  inhabited  by  the  Gallos 
tribes.  It  Uien  flows  through  the  tenitories  of 
the  Mudaito  tribes,  aikd  falls  into  Lake  Ansso,  in 
lab  11°  36'  N.,  and  long.  41*  SO'  K  The  name  of  the 
country  of  Abyssinia  (called  Habeah  by  the  Andw) 
probably  originated  in  that  of  the  river. 

HAWFINCH  {Coeeoliraiala  vulgarit),  a  bird  of 
the  Grosbeak  (q.  v.)  genua,  and  the  finch  family 
IFrinffiliida).  It  is  considerably  larger  than  the 
chaffinch ;  the  adult  male  has  Uie  crown  and  bock 
chestnut  brown,  the  neck  and  rump  gray,  the  wings 
partly  block,  the  larger  wm^-coveits  white.  l^raB. 
IS  a  very  shy  bird,  avoidmg  man,  and  therefore 
often  unobserved  in  districts  where  it  is  by  no 
means  rare.  It  is  gregarious.  It  lives  ehiefly  in 
forests,  builds  its  neat  on  the  highest  branches  <rf 
trees,  and  feeds  very  much  on  beechmast  and  the 
kernels  of  the  haw,  plum,  cherry,  Ao.  It  ia  not 
uncommon  in  some  parts  of  England,  but  is  rare  in 
Scotland.  It  is  widely  diffused  over  Europe  and 
the  temperate  parts  of  Asia. 

HA'WICK,  a  burgh  of  barony,  and  a  consider- 
able manufacturing  town  in  the  south  of  Scotland, 
in  the  county  of  Boiburgb,  is  situated  at  the  cou- 
flnence  of  the  Teviot  and  the  SUtrig,  10  miles 
south-west  of  J^edburgh,  and  53  milea  south-east  of 
Edinbul^  by  railway.  Some  of  the  churches  and 
bank-offices  an  elegant  modem  buildings  ;  many 
elegant  mansions  and  fine  villas  have  sprung  up 
wrUiin  recent  years ;  and  several  new  streets  are 
models  of  neatnesa.  The  town  contains  several 
relict  of  antiquity  worthy  of  mention.  Among 
these  are  the  Tower  Inn,  part  of  which 
Mtetent     fortreaa,     and     tl  '' 


tyCOOylli 


HAWIZA— HAWKINS. 


the  bBTODB  of  Dnunlanrig,  the  niperion  of  &a 
town;  and  the  Ho»t,  a  circular  moand,  mppoaed 
to  have  becD  used  in  remote  times  both  u  the 

yioce  of  anemblf  anil  deliberation  of  the  ndgh- 
boonng  cliieb,  and  aa  the  >eat  of  the  adminiaba- 
tion  of  justice.  H.  carnea  on  the  monnfactiiTe  of 
Tweeda  (q.  v.)  on  an  eztensire  acale,  and  haa  long 
been  known  as  a  principal  Mat  <^  the  ]]0Bier7 
nuumfaotore  in  Scotland.  The  Tweed-trade  haa 
greatly  increased  in  importance  of  late  years, 
and,  besides  the  maDafacturen,  resident  wholesale 
mercluuitB  ate  largely  engaged  in  it.  The  stocking 
manufacture  was  commenced  in  1780.  Plaids, 
Bbawls,  blankelB,  and  leather  are  also  mannfactnred 
in  the  town.  Aboat  300  power  and  100  hand  looms 
are  employed.  The  excnaoge  is  a  large  and  hand- 
some building  etected  in  1S6S,  in  which  year  the  for- 
merly defectare  water-supply  was  made  excellent 
by  the  introdnctioa  of  the  Allan,  a  mountain  burn, 
which  joina  the  Teviot  5  miles  aboTB  the  town.  The 
ndent  mnnicipal  constitntiDa  of  the  burgh,  founded 
_n  a  charter  granted  by  James  Douglas  of  Drum. 
lanrig,  and  confirmed  by  Queen  Mary,  was  reformed 
b^  special  act  of  parliament  in  1861.  The  corpora- 
tion now  consists  of  fifteen  councillors,  elected  by 
£4  householders.  The  council  elect  a  proTost  and 
'-ur  bailies  from  their  nnmber,  as  in  royal  burghs. 

.  now  forma  one  of  the  tl^ee  Border  burghs, 
which  together  return  a  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  (1871)  11,356. 

HAWI'ZA,  a  large  and  important  Arab  town  of 
Persia,  in  the  province  of  lt>inTi«t»n^  u  aituated  in 
lat  31'  16'  N.  and  long.  48*  K,  SO  miles  south- 
of  the  city  of  Shuater.  Previous  to  1S35,  the 
Kerkhah  flowed  through  tha  town  fiom  eoi 
west;  but  a  canal  having  been  made  to  irtigate  a 
tract  of  counby  on  the  lurth  ude  of  -the  river,  and 
whose  level  was  lower  than  ihxi  of  the  vicinity, 
the  waters  of  the  river  burst  through  the  new 
opening,  and  are  now  lost  in  a  marah,  IB  miles 
north  of  H&wfza.  The  inhabitanta  of  the  town  can 
now  obtain  water  only  by  digging  wells  in  tiie  old 
bed  of  the  river.    Pop.  estimated  at  12,00a 

HAWK,  a  term  often  applied  to  almost  all  the 
Faiamida,  except  the  largest  eagles,  but  also  used  in 
a  more  restricted  aense  to  desunate  a  section  of  the 
family,  reckoned  among  the  ignobU  birds  of  prey, 
having  the  wings  so  short  as  not  to  extend  to  the 
extremity  of  the  tail,  and  the  bill  short  and  curving 
from  the  base.  In  many  of  their  characters  and 
habits,  however,  th^malte  a  very  near  approach  to 
the  true  falcons.  The  species  are  numerous,  are 
arranged  in  several  genera,  and  are  distribated  over 
the  world.  Examples  of  two  of  the  most  important 
genera  are  the  Goshawk  (q.  v.)  and  Sparrowhawk 
(q.  V.)  of  Britain. 

Thb  Hawk  frequently 


Hawk. 


ccun  as  a  charge   in 

Heraldry,  and  may  be 

idied,  jetaed,  and  var- 

"   '       The     ]undi$ 


jesses.    The  havik'*  lurt,  also  a  heraldic  charge, 
luta  of  two  win(n  jmned  with  a  line,  to  the  end 


<r  PEDLARS,  or  PETTY  CHAP- 
HEN,  persons  who  go  from  toim  to  town,  or  door 
to  door,  telling  goods,  wans,  or  merchandise,  or 
eiercisiDg  their  Bull  in  handicrafL  -  A  considerable 


cbango  has  been  made  by  reoant  legislatian  in 
regard  to  this  class.  Those  pedlars  eierotsing 
their  calling  entirely  on  foot  have  been  separately 
dealt  with  from  hawkers  who  empW  one  or  more 
beast*  of  burden  in  their  business.  The  foot  pedlars 
are  placed  under  the  surveillance  of  the  police, 
and  are  exempt  from  excise  duty.  Since  January  1, 
1872,  any  person  whatever  who  can  satisfy  the  chief 
officer  of  police  of  the  police  district  in  which  he 
resides,  that  he  is  of  coed  character,  is  above  seven- 
teen years  of  age,  and  has  resided  during  the  pre- 
vious month  in  the  district,  will  receive,  on  due 
application,  a  certificate  valid  for  a  year,  on  payment 
of  five  shillings.  Such  certificate  entitles  the  holder 
to  exercise  his  calling  in  the  particalar  u^ice  district 
only ;  but  should  ha  desire  to  extend  nis  trafGc  to 
another  police  district,  he  can,  by  satisMng  the 
chief  ofiScer  of  that  district  of  his  good  (^iara<rter, 
receive  an  indorsatioQ  on  his  certificate,  rendering 
it  valid  for  that  particular  district  also,  on  payment 
of  sixpence.  The  police  have  power  at  any  time 
to  open  and  search  the  packs,  ka,  of  any  certili- 
oated  pedlar,  with  a  view  to  prevent  dishon«ty  and 
smuggling,  to.,  for  which  they  have  much  oppor- 
tunity. They  have  an  appeal  to  the  local  Justice  of 
Peace  and  other  courts  against  oppniasion  by  the 

Hawkers  or  pedlsrs  who  use  beasts  of  burden  are 
in  a  different  category.  Any  person  may  become 
such  by  merely  taking  out  an  annual  or  half-yearly 
license  from  the  excise,  and  there  is  no  limit  of  the 
locaU^,  the  license  being  valid  all  over  the  kingdom. 
These  licenses  are  at  the  rate  of  £4  per  annum  for 
each  beast  of  burden  used  in  the  trade.  Ha  is  in 
no  case  entitled  to  sell  spirits,  but  he  may  sell  tea 
and  ooffee.  He  must  not  sell  plated  good*  without 
taking  out  a  plato  license,  nor  must  he  sell  by 
auction  without  an  auctioneer's  license.  Any  per- 
son hawking  unprovided  with  a  license,  or  who 
refuses  to  produce  the  license  to  any  person  who 
calls  for  it,  is  liable  to  severe  penalties.  Commer- 
cial travellers,  book  aeents,  sellers  of  vegetables, 
fruit,  fish,  or  victuals,  aUo  sellers  in  fairs  or  markets 
legally  established,  do  not  require  either  licenses  or 
certificates,  thoa(^  it  nnst  De  sometimee  difficult 
to  define  whether  a  seller  comes  within  the  category 
of  a  pedlar  or  hawker  (3*  and  35  VicL  c  96 ;  29 
and  30  Vict  o.  64). 

The  reason  why  the  state  imposes  this  tax  on 
hawkers  is,  that  they  have  great  advantages  over 
regular  shopkeepers,  as  they  pay  no  rent,  and  often 
interfere  with  the  natural  course  of  dealing  at  shops. 

HA'WKESBURY,  a  river  of  New  South  Wales, 
in  East  Australia,  enters  the  Pacific  at  Broken  Bay, 
about  20  miles  to  the  north  of  3ydn^.  Ite  entdra 
course  does  not  exceed  50  miles,  the  dividing  ridge 
of  mountains  being  here  veiy  near  to  the  coast- 
Pitt  Town,  Wilbertoroe,  and  Windsor  are  situated 
on  ite  banks,  and  it  is  navigable  from  the  sea  to 
four  miles  above  the  last-mentioned  place.  The  H., 
even  in  this  land  of  floods,  is  remarkable  for  ite 
inundations.  In  1808,  the  water  rose  86  feet;  and 
in  1844,  it  rose  20  feet  in  a  few  hours. 

HAWKINS,  Sir  John,  an  Engliah  navigator, 
was  bom  at  Plymouth  about  1520.  He  hat  the 
infanu>us  distinction  of  being  the  first  Enolishman 
that  trafl^cked  in  slaves.  His  '  commercial '  career 
ended  in  1668.  after  which  we  find  him  more 
honourably  employed.  He  was  appointed  treasurer 
of  the  navy  in  1673,  knighted  for  his  services  against 
the  Spanish  Armada  in  1668,  and  for  the  rest  ^  hi* 
life  was  engaged  in  msking  havoc  of  the  Spanish 
West  Indiso  teade.  In  16^  along  with  hia  kins- 
Dtake,  he  oommanded  mi  ex^dition  directed 
....in       ...  1... ._  ...  a^tpjrt  of  the 


|ll..;.IL,GOOglC 


HAWK-MOTH— HAWTHOBN. 


boBcis.  They  ma 
their  wingi,  aod  ai  _ 
fill  flight    Their  a 


world,  but  died,  November  21,  in  the  auna  yew. 
H.  founded  a  hospital  at  Cbathun  for  the  relief  of 
disabled  and  tuck  Milore. 

HAWK-MOTH,  a  name  somelimea  neet 

prise  all  Uie  lepidopteroua  inaects  of  thi   

Ortputcvlaria,  tno  Linniean  genua  Sphinx.  They 
have  a  spine  or  stiff  bristle  on  the  anterior  edge  of 
each  of  the  bind-winga,  and  these  beiog  received  in 
oorreaponding  hooks  on  the  under-side  o£  the  fore- 
wings,  attacli  them  together.  Their  winga  are 
generally  coveced  with  a  looser  down  than  those 
of  butterflies.  The  body  is  rather  laige  and  thick. 
Kotwitbstanding  the  name  Crepusevtaria,  aigni^  ' 
that  their  period  of  activity  ^  that  of  twilight, 
which  is  timy  charactetistio  of  the  greater  number, 
msny  of  them  may  be  seen  darting  froi     " 

'        "   '  "- '-i   01 

.    „    _  their  long  pro- 
loud  hamming  noiae  with 
insecta  of  very  rapid  and  powt 
.    ..iterpiUara  have  always  16  feet 
A  peculiar  positian  trtuch  the   caterpillars  often 
assume  has  fed  to  t"  -  -        ' 

fancied  resemblance  ._   . ._ 

Egypt  Their  chrysalids  are  cyCndrical,  free  from 
pomts  and  angular  prominences,  blunt-headed,  with 
a  conical  abdomen,  and  are  lomeldmes  enclosed  in 
cocoons,  sometimes  concealed  in  the  earth.- — The 
name  Hawk -moth  is  sometimes  limited  to  a  division 
of  the  CrtpoKJilana,  of  wMcli  tlie  genns  Sphitix,  at 
now  restricted,  is  the  type,  and  of  which  tie  Deoth'j 
Head  Moth  (q.  v.)  is  on  example^  Their  caterpillars 
ore  smooth  and  elongated.  The  name  Hawk- 
moth  appears  to  be  derived  from  the  hovering 
motions  ol  these  insects,  resembling  those  of  hawlu 
looking  for  prey. — Many  bawk-moths  are  natives 
of  Britain ;  they  are  more  abundant  in  warmer 
climates.  Some  of  the  species  have  a  wide  geogra- 
phical range. 

HAWKSBEE,  or  HAUKSBEE,  Faiiiau,  a 
natural  philosopher  of  considerable  eminence,  was 
bom  in  tlie  latter  half  of  the  17th  c,  and  died  about 
1730.  He  was  admitted  a  Fellow  of  the  Soyal 
Society  in  1705,  and  was  appointed  to  the  office 
of  curator  of  eiperimenla  to  the  Society,  and  in 
1723  he  was  elected  asBistant-secretary.  He  contri- 
buted 43  memoirs  to  tlie  Philoeof&icoi  TVarwoffiDiw, 
chiefly  on  chemistry  and  electricity.  Of  his  experi- 
ments in  the  latter  department,  Dr  Thomson,  the 
historian  oF  the  Soyal  Society,  observes,  that  '  they 
constitute  the  beginning  of  the  science,  and  by 
drawing  the  attention  of  philosophers  to  that 
particumr  subject,  were  doubtless  of  considerable 
service  in  promoting  electrical  investigations.* 
All  these  memoirs  appeared  between  the  yean 
1704  and  1713.  His  chief  independent  work 
was  published  in  1709,  and  was  entitled,  Phytko- 
Meckanicai  ExpenmenU  on  various  SvJgeeLi ;  touch- 
ing Lighi  and  EUclriiMy  producibU  on  lAe  AUrili/m 


improvemait  of  the  earher   air-pumps   of   Boyle, 

.ip.  21S- ...    __._ 

the  fint  who   used  glass  in  the  electiical 


Papin,   and   Hooke   (a  subject  folly 


beiiu  the 


I  Sdigio  Chanid,  pp.  21&— 218),   and  for 


HAWKWEED  (HUraebim),  a  genns  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Compoiiia,  sub-order  CicWoMot. 
The  species  are  """'"Ij  or  more  generallv  perennial 
plants.  Borne  with  leafless  scapes,  one-flowered  or 
many-flowered,  and  some  with  leafy  stems ;  the 
leaves,  stems,  and  involucres  in  many  species  being 
hairy.  They  are  veiy  nomerons,  natives  of  the 
temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, particularly  abounding  in  Europe.  A  num- 
ber are  natives  of  Britain,  and  some  of  them  are 


veiy  common  plant*.  The  flowsrs  are  gmmDy 
yellow,  but  the  Orange  Hawkweed  (.ff.  auroMiaaim), 
a  native  of  the  sonth  of  Europe,  and  doubtful  nativs 


■Bilge  Hawkweed  [Bieracium  auranliaeuM). 


HAWSE,  the  aitoation  of  the  cables  in  front  of 
a  sliip's  bow,  when  she  is  moored  with  two  onebon 
out  forward — one  on  the  starboard,  the  other  on 
the  port  bow.  The  term  is  also  used  to  doioto  any 
small  distance  oliead  of  a  ahip,  or  between  her  bow 
andtheauohoraat  whidisheridea;  as,  for  instance. 


L  Hane  Holes.    2.  Hawser. 

when  it  is  ssid  of  another  vessel  'she  ssiled  athwart 
our  hawse,'  or  '  she  anchors  in  our  hawse.'  When 
the  two  cables  pan  directly  to  their  oncbois,  with- 
out crosong  or  chafing  at  the  luoPK-hola  by  which 
they  enter  the  ship,  uie  vessel  is  said  to  have  a 
'clean  hawse.* 

HAWSER.    See  Bofe. 

HAWTHORN  {CrvJagtu  axyaeaxlha;  see 
G&l.TxotB),  a  shmb  or  sm^  tree,  a  native  of 
Europe,  Siberia,  and  the  north  of  Airica,  common 
in  Britain,  and  much  planted  both  for  hedges  and 
for  ornament  It  vanee  in  height  from  six  or  eight 
to  twenty  or  twentv-five  feet  It  has  rouni£sh 
obovate  3 — E-lobed  i^dnoos  leaves,  and  corymbs, 
generally  of  white,  rose-ooloored,  or  sometimes  deep 
crimson  floweia,  succeeded  by  a  small  red  fniit 
(Aaios)   with  yellow  pnlp,  the  oenlnl  sfaoiy  part 


Itizodhyt^OO'^^IC 


HAWTHOK]ra~-HA.T. 


bMiiDg  k  Ytaj  large  pnpertion  to  the  pnlp.  Th* 
fruit  irauimi  on  tha  traa  after  tha  Uav«a  hava 
fallm,  amd  t^xit  winter-food  to  Inida.  Umi 
nuuqr  Tari«tiM  of  H.,  and  auioufy  eoon^ 
IwTe  only  one  etrle,  whilat  Mme  have  MVoraL 
nabitj  oalled  OLAnomimr  Thokv— Imcmim  nip- 
poaed  to  havo  origjnated  at  GlaahmWjr  Abbey— la 
remarkable  for  ita  eaily  flowBring,  which  often  takai 
place  in  tha  middle  <M  winter,  wbiU  the  coi 
kind  ii  not  in  flower  till  May  or  Jane.  "Iba  i 
flowcn  of  the  Glaatonbnry  mi«ty  are,  howevsr. 


not  KBoanmy  followed  by  fmit,  Mid  a  eeotrnd  flower- 
ing Stan  takeaplaoe  in  th«  mow  y««r.   Thi 
"  "  "      popularly  sailed  if iqr,  froBi  the 


The  OK  of  the  H.  fin  bediea  ia  alnuat  nnirerMl 
BriUiu.  It  ia  also  muutbnum  ttnjicjei  tw  »  itock 
on  which  to  graft  ipplm  and  other  PoMOoea.  It 
attain*  a  great  tM,  and  in  ita  mote  adnuoed 
•tegee,  ia  a  tree  M  alow  growth,  althonch,  whoa 
Toong  it  ahoota  up  r»^<fly.  The  wood  ia  vei-f 
hard,  eloae  pained,  and.  talua  a  fine  poliab,  but  la 
apt  to  warp.  A  fennented  liqnor,  wUoh  ia  Tei; 
intoxicating,  i*  made  from  the  fmit  io  nuu^  paria 
of  Stance. 

Ilie  K  ie  partjcnlarly  valuable  m  a  hedge-plant, 
in  conaaqnetiM  of  ite  atrong  and  plentiful  a[»nGB,  ita 
long  life,  and  ita  ready  adaptation  to  verv  tbeiodb 
Boila.  n>r  this  porpoaa,  it  la  prope^ited  oy  aeed ; 
the  hawa  ara  laid  in  a  hem  to  tot,  wiUi  a  mixture 
of  aiad  or  fine  moiUd,  ana  ia  a  year  or  aiitaak 
months  after,  the  aaeda  are  eown  ia  groDttd  oanfally 
prepared  by  digging  and  mtHiBring  witli  weU  rotted 
nunore.  ^Hu  seed-drilla  are  aboat  aixtaen  indiea 
apart  Tbe  yonng  pla&la  are  kept  dear  of  weeds, 
add  the  earth  about  them  oooaai<HiaUy  atirred  with 
the  hoe.  Tber  often  grow  to  the  height  of  a  foot  or 
two  feet  in  the  ftral  aeaaon.  lliey  are  oommonly 
once  tranaplanted  before  Uieir  final  pUntilig  to  form 
hedgeai.     See  Hhdgx.       H,  hedges  baM&in 

very  well,  and  the  natural  diipcntiou  of  tike  , 

to  a[«ead  o«t  above,  oan  be  wmntemoted,  ao  a*  to 
make  the  hedge  aa  it  on^  to  be,  widast  at  bottom ; 
but  nnleaa  the  soil  ia  veiy  favomrnUt^  Moae  of  the 
plants  are  apt  to  di^  and  fonn  guw,  which  it  fa  by 

no  ueama  easy  to  fill  up  witb  fnab  jdaut-     " 

H.  plants  are  called  qiOdtt  or  quidailM,  bi 
to  make  living  (jina^  feneea. 

BAWTHOBNB,  NiTHAHiB,  an 
author  of  distinction,  was  bom  at  Salem 
state  of  Hanachoaetita,  on  July  4,  ISM.  I  .  .  _. 
educated  at  Bowdoin  CoUem,  and  after  graduating 
there,  he  obtained  a  poat  in  the  Cuttom-honse  at  Boa- 
ton,  which  he  aoon,  nowever,  threw  up,  and  betook 
hitoaelf toliterarf workforasnbaistenoe.  Hewrote 
a  number  of  atonea  for  the  jonmsls,  which  he  after- 
words collected  in  1S37,  and  pnbliahed  nnder  the 
title  of  Twict-lold  TaUt ;  a  second  volume  of  which 
Appeared  in  ISCl.  In  1843  he  took  np  hie  nsi< 
dcnoe  at  the  charming  village  of  Concord,  in  a  manse 
which  had  fonna4y  been  the  dweUtng  of  Emeraon, 
and  which  snggerted  the  title  of  hia  next  work, 
Sfoua  fnm  on  Old  Manm  {Boston,  1846).  Thi* 
sketch,  in  which  he  gives  some  interesting  recollec- 
tiona  of  his  boyhood,  first  made  hia  name  known  in 
Eniope.  In  lS42he  pablished  The  LOtrty  Tra; 
and  m  lft4JS,  The  Jtmnud  of  on  Afiiem  Ouiaer. 
After  a  three  yeuV  reaideDoe  at  Coneord,  he  Main 
accepted  a  sitnation  in  the  Cnatom-bonae  at  Bomoil 
and  removed  to  that  town.  ^Rus,  however,  did  not 
atoD  his  literary  woA,  TA«j6!c(trM£e((era^ieared 
in  1861  and  was  rec«ved  wiUi  nnivenal  approb». 
tion,  aa  was  likewise  Tha  Houm  of  the  Bam 
Oables,  published  in  the  isme  year ;  and  their 
author  was  at  onoe  lecognised,  bofli  in  Boropa  and 


.  -  -  — -  f B  -  true  poetio  spirit^ 

luung  fine  feeling  with  a  oharming  rtyle, 
•nd  diaplaying  a  deep  knowledge  of  human  nature 
aooompaoied  by  genuine  humour.  His  Bmiiaii^ 
" (Boston,l8S21         


Aomanee(i 


I)  may  be  r^pird 


*  kind 


"-  L  B-*    »■*    "    v-WMt    uin.       jiu    i«M,  UB    riKHlVeU 

the  appointment  of  oonaul  at  Liverpool,  from  hia 
&iend  President  Pieroe,  who  had  been   a  fellow- 
atndent  ri  hia,  and  whose  life  he  had  written  (ii/i 
of  ^ranUm  Fierce,  Boston,  18B2).    He  resided  in 
Uvorpotd  disebaning  tha  duties  of  hia  office  few    I 
four  yeaia,  and  aftarwarda  went  to  Italy  to  reonit    j 
his  impaired  health;  a  Journey  which  fumiahed  him 
with  mateiialfor  his  fantastic  romanoa.  TVmn/brpia-    I 
Hon  (London,  1860),  which  ia  regarded  by  aome  as 
the  beat  of  his  works.     After  his  retom  to  America 
hspaUished  Our  OUifome  (Boeton,  1863),a  sketch 
of  England  and  the  English.    He  died  suddenly  at 
Plymouth  in  Massachusetts,  May  19,  ISM    Besides 
tie  work*  already  mentioned  may  be  noted,  Stp- 
Umiiu,  a  Romance  of  iTtmortality,  a  poathumous 

^rk,  Tniblished  in  London  in  1872. 

HAT  [Oer.  Aeu,  Butch,  hoy;  probsbly  from  tha 

ot  of  Ger.  hauen,  £ng.  hau,  to  cut),  the  atema  and 
leavea  ot  giuaaua  or  other  plants  dried  for  Fodder 
(q.  V.)  of  cattle.  Tlinnighont  the  KTanng  and  daiiy 
diafanela  of  En^and,  and  eapeonUy  in  toe  vieini^ 
of  large  towns,  the  hay-harvest  is  as  important  aa 
the  oom-barveat,  and  a  large  breadth  ot  «ld  paatnra 
is  annually  cut.  In  Sootlsod,  however,  little  of  thia 
old  natural  grass  ia  converted  into  hay,  and  the 
crop  coneiata  mainly  of  olover  and  nre-graaa.  Thia 
requires  leas  turning  &nd  labour  than  the  cloaar 
■nccnlait  natural  grass,  and  with  twice  turning,  and 
a  week  or  ten  day?  dtying,  will  generally  be  fit  for 
the  rick,  into  whkh  the  Bn^iah  farmer  at  onoe 
places  it  In  Sootland,  tbe  weather  ia  seldom  sofll- 
ciently  fine  to  fit  the  hay,  within  a  moderate  time, 
for  a  large  rick,  and  the  piuitioe  is  to  pot  it,  *ft«x  a 
few  daya,  in  oiatt,  containing  one  ta  two  hundred- 
weight, and  thence,  after  another  week,  intoirtiat 
technically  calliNl  tramp-ricks,  containing  from 
to  two  tons.  From  these  it  is  ta«nEferTed  at 
any  convenient  time  to  tbe  rick-j^ard.  This  ptac- 
*--**,  although  ajmoat  universal  m  the  uortJi,  ia 
nded  with  lose  of  time  and  laboor,  and,  moie- 
-,  bleaches  and  driee  up  tbe  bay,  giving  it  the 
appssraaoe  of  straw,  and  pteventu^  tJist  gentle 
heating  which  Ragliib  (artaen  desire  both  in  tbeii 
clover  and  grass  hay. 

*"  I  management  of  the  natural  grasses  tA  which 
En^b  hay  oonaiata  is  stMoewhat  different, 
he  procsH  i*  seta  in  perfeotiao  in  Uiddlo- 
—  -ind  variooa  (rf  tha  oonntiea  aboat  London. 
The  great  matter- -too  gnmallT  oreriooked  in 
Scotland— ia  to   pcesiTTO  the  oolonr  and  flavpor 

of  (he  grass  i  and  this  oan  « 

it  constaotJy  tamed,  and  li 

if  poaable,  without  the  di 

tvpeated  raina.  Artiflosl  drying  \ 
~~id,  but  ia  of  oourae  impraotioable  on  the  large 
_.ale.  In  the  beat  style  of  English  hay-making 
the    ^rasa,  after    being    out  wit£    the    aoytie   or 

and  ajRcad  out  by  meana  of  forka  or  of  a  iaddiag- 
machme  drawn  by  a  horae.  It  ia  not  allowed  to  lie 
long  e^Kaed  to  the  son,  but  before  evcsiing,  ia 
drawn  together  hj  rake*  into  vimd-rwM,  which,  if 
there  ia  anynoneet  of  iUB,a»niadei9int«BinaU 
he^s  or  cooks.  Itbagsinnreadoat  nut  morning, 
or  on  the  retnm  of  favouiable  weather ;  and  whui 
the  operation*  are  SKpeditad  by  wind  and  sun,  the 
ha^  will  be  ready  for  tiie  liok  by  the  second  or 
third  day.  Thne  io,  however,  much  differenoa  in 
the  time  dniing  whioh  tbah^rnqnina  to  lie  oiit( 


dby»^OOgll 


HATBOTB-HAYI>Oir. 


the  bulk  of  die  crop  and  the  quality  of  the  land 
most  be  eipecially  coniulered.  Wheo  the  grasea 
are  out,  u  thar  ihonld  be  when  in  bloom,  and 
befora  their  seed  ripeni  and  their  atema  get  tou^h 
and  hard,  they  contain  the  lareeat  amount  of  mois- 
ture, and  require  careful  makmg,  but  produce  then 
'  nutritive  and  palatable  hay.    Aa 


of  heatiiig  improves  the  flaTour,  and  renders 

the  hay  more  palatable  to  every  sort  of  itock. 
When,  aa  is  aometimes  tlie  case,  it  ia  imperfectly 
made,  or  picked  up  too  sooo,  it  gstA  overiieated,  and 
beoomea  diuk  bromi  or  bUck,  ita  nutritive  pro- 
perties are  diminiahed ;  it  ia,  znoreOTer,  apt  to  dis- 
agree with  both  hones  and  cattle,  and  can  only  be 
[foStablT  uaed  when  mixed  wiUi  straw  and  cut 
mto  chaSi  Hay  put  together  when  damp  from  rain 
or  dew  does  not  heat,  as  when  it  contains  an 
undne  amount  of  natural  moisture,  bat  speedily 
moulds.  When  hay  has  been  weathered  and  lajured 
by  repeated  rains,  it  may  be  rendered  more  pala- 
table by  scattering  a  little  common  salt  over  the 
rick  wtulst  it  is  beina  built.    Throughout  Scotland, 


eight  or  ten  pounds  a  salt  to  the  ton  is  very  geoe- 
ruly  used  alike  for  the  clover  and  pasa  hay.  In  tbe 
miiUand  and  southran  diatricta  of  En^and,  the  best 


hay  is  generally  got  np  in  Jnne ;  but  in  Scotiaad, 
little  is  oanied  until  Hie  middle  of  July.  Wheu  the 
crop  is  good,  and  everything  done  well,  the  cost  of 
hand  and  horse  labour  expended  upon  the  hay 
before  it  ii  safely  ricked  will  approach  20(.  per  ton. 
The  crop  averages  from  one  to  two  tona  per  acre. 
Hay  that  baa  atood  for  seed  is  tougher  and  less 
nutritive  than  that  cut  earlier,  for  the  sugar,  gum, 
and  gluten  of  the  matured  seed  have  been  abetiuted 
frtHn  the  stems,  which  are  then  apt  to  be  little 
better  than  straw.  For  milch  oows,  well-made 
ti>'^'itl'  hay  is  deservedly  prized ;  but  good  clover- 
hay  is  richer  in  albuminous  matters,  and  better 
adapted  for  horses  and  sheep. 


HAYDN,  JoaKPB,  a  German  composer,  was  bom 
at  the  villue  of  Rohrao,  on  the  confines  of  Hnngary 
and  Austria,  3lBt  March  1732.    " '       "      ' 


choir  of  the  cathedral  of  St  Stephen 
TT.. .   1.   ...  ,   ..■„  i.jg  15th  yea 

loretioal  kno ,^_ 

□  of  the  best  Ituian  and 
era.  In  that  year, 
broke,  and  he  lost  his  place 
chorister.  He  now  gave  lesaons  in  Vienna,  played 
in  tiie  orchestra,  occupied  himself  with  oompocibon, 
and  in  this  maimer  earned  a  maintenance.  At  Uie 
same  time,  he  studied  with  extreme  eai«  the  first 
six  aonata*  of  Emanuel  Bach,  whidi  had  accident- 
ally fallen  into  hit  hands.  Hii  position,  however, 
continued  very  critical,  and  he  was  on  the  verge  of 
starvation,  when  he  had  the  good-fortune  to  obtain 
as  a  pupil  a  little  ^1,  Signora  Martinez,  who  was 
being  educated  at  Vieima  under  the  care  af  the 
poet  Metaatasio.  H.  embraced  tiiia  opportunity  of 
— 1_- —  I. 1> !_j._i  ^yj  jjj^  Italian  Ian- 


8"W-  .         ,. 

to  the  celelnated  singer  Poipora,  who  employed 
him  to  accompany  him  on  toe  piano  during  his 
singing  leaaoni,  arid  from  whom  he  obtained  the 
insb^irtion  in  oompositioii  he  so  anzionaly  desirod 


and  needed.  In  the  latter  part  of  ITGO,  he  com- 
posed his  first  quartet  for  stringed  instruments,  and 
from  this  period  bis  pro«peots  rapidly  brightened. 
In  1759,  a  certun  Count  Mondn  engaged  him  as 
music  director  and  composer, '  with  a  salary  of  20O 
florins,  free  lodgings,  and  table  with  bis  secretariea 
and  other  officials.'  About  this  time.  H.  married 
the  daughter  of  a  hurdresser,  who  had  been  kind 
'his   days   of   penury.      This  naniage 


■It  i 


(to 


,  .  _  ..  ..  the  close  of  hia  life,  'wheuMT 
her  husband  be  a  cobbler  or  an  artist.'  Her  sola 
ambition  was  t«  squander  H.'a  earnings.  In 
1760,  Prince  Esterhsjy  placed  him  at  the  head 
of  bis  private  chapeL  For  him  H.  compos«d  bis 
beautiful  symphomes  (a  style  of  cmnpoaition  in 
which  he  excels  all  other  composer*),  and  the 
greater  number  of  his  magnificent  (joarteta.  While 
m  this  situation,  his  pa'^on  oonceiving  the  detign 
of  dismissing  the  band,  H.  composed  the  famoua 
symphony  luiowu  as  Haydn't  fxtreutll,  in  which 
one  instalment  after  another  becomes  mute,  and 
each  mumcian,  as  soon  as  he  has  ceased  to  play, 
puts  out  hia  light,  rolla  up  his  music,  and  departs 
with  his  instrument.  It  is  said  that  in  consequence 
the  prince  changed  his  mind,  and  did  not  ifiamiss 
the  baud.  After  ihe  death  of  Prince  Esterbazy, 
in  1790,  H  accompanied  Salomon  the  violinist  to 
England,  where,  in  1791—1792,  he  produced  six 
of  nis  Twdve  Orand  Symphoniet.  His  receptiaa 
was  brilliant  in  the  highest  degree.  In  17EH, 
he  made  a  second  engagement  with  Salomim  for 
England,  and  duriiur  this  period  brought  out  tlu: 
remaining  six  symphoniea.  In  England,  be  first 
obtained  that  recognition  which  afterwards  fell  to 
his  share  in  his  own  country.  On  his  return  to 
Austria,  he  purchaaed  a  small  house  with  a  ganlea 
in  one  of  the  suburbs  of  Vienna.  Here  he  oompoaed 
his  oratorios,  tlie  Creaiim  and  the  SeatonM.  The 
former  work,  the  harmonies  of  which  are  pervaded 
with  the  fire  of  youth,  was  written  in  his  sixty- 
fifth  year,  and  is  oonaideied  ^  many  to  be  equal 
to  the  finest  prodnctionB  of  Handel)  the  Seatotu 
(completed  in  eleveu  months)  was  almost  his  last 
work.    He  died  at  Vienna,  31st  May  1809. 

Although  H.  composed  slowly  and  very  carefully, 
bis  works  are  exceedingly  numerous,  comprising 
118  symphonies,  83  quartets,  24  trice,  19  operas, 
G  oratorios,  163  pieces  for  the  baritone,  24  concertos 
for  different  instruments,  15  masses,  10  smaller 
church-pieces,  44  sonatas  for  the  pianoforte,  with 
and  without  accompanunents ;  12  Qerman  and 
Italian  songs,  39  canzonets,  13  hymns  in  three  and 
four  parts,  the  harmony  and  accompaniment  i 

old  Scottish  songs,  besides  a  prodjgic— 

divertiasements  and  pieces  for  varioui 

— Compare  Qriesinger,  BiogravhiiAe  Notizai  fiier 

Haydn  (Leip.  ISIOT;   Vie  dt  Haydn  (Paria,  1817); 

Orosser,  Bit^raphiKM  Notiim  Hier  Hayda  (Hirschb. 

1826). 

HAYDON,   BrajAMnr    Robert,    an    En^ish 

Cter,  was  born  at  Plymouth,  January  26,  1786> 
exhibited  his  first  picture  at  the  Academy  in 
1807, '  Joaeph  and  Mary  Beating  with  our  Savwnr 
after  a  Day^s  Journey  on  the  Biwd  to  Egypt,'  which 
found  a  purtiiaaer  in  the  author  of  Amnbinut. 
T.   —     1.5  Yfj  'Dantatua.'      H.  quarrelled 


painting  and  controversy.  His  pictures  bron^t 
him  admiratiOQ,  and  his  wilful  temper  procured  him 
foM.  As  years  passed  on,  the  admiration  cooled, 
while  the  foes  remained  virulent  aa  ever.  At  this 
period,  he  had  many  pationa,  and  his  pictntea 
brought  large  prices ;  his  '  Judgment  of  Solomon,' 
'  '  ~    "  TOO  gninMi.   He  m^e  several  attampta 


s  number  of 


tyGOOt^le 


HATESINE— HAYTL 


to  be  Admitted  an  Anoci&te  of  the  Academy,  and 
when  he  wte  rafused,  he  chiTBoteriitiolly  impated 
the  lefnul  to  tiie  enTy  and  jealoiuy  of  the  acade- 
miciani,  and  railed  agaiaat  them  more  bitterly 
tiian  ever.  Hie  R«at  ■work,  '  Chnit's  Sntry  into 
Jenmlenk,'  waa  euibited  by  himself  in  1820,  but 
did  not  find  a  pm^shaaer.  Nothing  danoted,  H. 
painted  two  other  mbjecta  from  the  paadoa  of 
the  Saviour.  In  1821,  he  manied,  and  two  years 
thereafter  he  prodoced  the  '  Baiatng  of  LaiaiuB,' 
in  Bome  reapecta  the  meet  ponerfuT  of  hii  works. 
Thia  st^le  ot  eubject— «orenng  enonnoos  canvasta 
—not  hitting  the  poblio  taste,  he  became  inrolved 
in  peconiary  embarraMmeoti,  wid  was  finally  incar- 
cerated in  the  Eioj^g  Bench,  from  whicb,  after 
a  time,  he  was  relcikeed  threrngh  the  assistance 
at  his  friends.  While  in  prison  he  painted  the 
'  Mock  Election,'  which  George  IV.  porchased  for 
900  guineas.  Of  his  sncceeding  works,  'Napoleon 
Musing  at  St  Helena'  excited  admiration,  and  was 
frequently  reproduced.  In  1836,  he  waa  again 
imprisoned  for  debt,  and  was  releaaed  on  a  aettle- 
meat  being  effected  with  his  creditors.  At  this 
time  he  foiaook  the  bmah  for  the  platform,  and 
his  lectures  on  srt  in  Loudon  and  the  pTovincee 
brought  him  fame  and  money,  a  circumetaace 
whi<£  only  increased  his  rage  at  the  Academy 
and  the  aitistie  public.  When  government  deter. 
mined  to  decorate  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament 
with  picture*^  H.  considered  that  the  hour  of  his 
fortune  had  at  last  arrived.  He  migaged  in  the 
competition,  and  waa  nnvncceaafuL  l^is  defeat  he 
never  entirely  lecovered.  His  last  works  were 
'  Uriel  and  Satan,'  '  Cnitiut  Leaping  into  the 
Oalf,'  and  some  othere  of  a  kindred  nature.  He 
exhibited  two  of  his  lateet  productions  in  1S46 
Sit  the  f^yptUn  Halt,  but  the  exhibition  was 
coldly  ttgtt&i  by  the  public.  This  was  the  drop 
which  made  the  cup  overflow.  On  June  22  of  that 
year,  be  died  by  his  own  hand. 

As  a  painter,  H.  excited  much  temporary  admira- 
tion, but  he  does  not  now  rank  hi^  He  delighted 
in  classical  and  sacred  subject^  and  these  modem 
English  taste  doa  not  seem  to  affect.  In  18S3, 
Mr  Tom  Taylor  pabHshed  7^  L\/i  of  Se^'amui 
JIoAert  £i)|MW>i,  in  two  volumes,  containing  copious 
extracts  from  his  letters  and  journals. 

HATBSINE,  or  BORATE  OF  T.TMTl,  known 

aUo     as     BOROCU^CTTE,      Hn>B0B0BOClI£ITX,     TiZA, 

ftc,  was  named  after  the  mineialogiit  Hayes,  and 
i«mained  a  mineralogicat  curiosity  until  ISSl,  when 
a  specimea  was  fint  exhibited  as  a  commercial 
article  in  the  collection  of  imports  sent  to  the  Great 
Exhibilioa  in  Hyde  Park  by  the  town  of  liverpoc^ 
This  brought  it  into  notice;  and  it  is  now  occsaion- 
ally  imported  in  very  lai^  quantities  from  the 
ports  of^  Iquique  and  Pisagna  Bay,  in  Feru.  Owing 
to  the  abniid  love  of  the  Feruvian  government  for 
monopoliea,  vast  quantities  of  borate  of  lime  are 
comparatively  useless,  as  that  which  is  received  ia 
Euroije  is  almost  all  smuggled  out  of  the  oouDtry  in 
opposition  to  the  govemiuent  decrees.  About  WOO 
tons  have  been  exported  altogether,  and  ite  value  in 
this  country  is  about  £30  per  ton.  The  borate  of 
lime  is  found  in  rounded  nodule^  rarely  larger  than 
a  ^good^zed  oraose,  imbedded  in  the  soiTat  cer- 
tain spota  of  the  Pampas  of  I^mamgal,  and  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  desert  ot  Atacama,  It  is 
•Iwm  associated  with  the  nitntte  ot  soda,  which  ia 
BO  ammdant  in  that  locaH^.  Its  chemical  compo- 
sition is  Ca03,0,  -)-  6H,0  ffoiw);  or  bonoio  acid, 
4S-98;  Bum,  18-45;  water,  3S^(A!cA{].  Itiansed 
as  a  source  of  bomcic  acid  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
borate  of  soda,  so  extensively  employed  as  a  fiuxing 
material  for  glaaing  pottery ;  in  glass-making, 
metallio   soldenng,  3m.:   the    only   ^^    known 


springs,  and  u 

HATNAU,  Jduub  Jakob,  Babon  to»,  an 
Austrian  general,  was  bom  in  1TS6,  entered  the 
Austriau  service  in  1801,  and  gradu^y  advanced  In 
tank,  tji:  in  1844  he  was  appointed  field-manhaL 
During  the  Italian  ompainiB  of  1848—1849,  be 
signalised  himself  by  his  ruthless  rigour,  especially 
at  the  capture  of  Brescia.  H.  was  engaged  in  the 
siege  ot  Venice,  when  he  wss  sunnnoned  by  the 
emperor  to  Hungary,  in  Uay  1849,  to  take  the 
supreme  command  of  tlie  forces  in  tbat  oountn'. 
The  storming  of  Baab,  the  advance  souUiwwI,  the 
occuntion  of  Si«^^n,  and  the  engagements  on 
the  TheiBS,  were  all  the  work  of  Haynau.  But 
his  atrocious  leverity  towards  the  detested  Hnn- 

E'  Lna,  and  esjieciaUy  bis  all^^  floggiDS  of  women 
harge  denied  by  H.),  excited  ^e  hatred  and 
itatian  of  Europe.     In  1860,  he  was  dismissed 


from  the  public  service,  not  for  his  cruelty,  how- 
ever, bnt  for  the  intractability  of  bis  disposition. 
In  the  stuue  year,  he  wss  Drought  into  unen- 
viable notoriety  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  the 
brewery  of  Messrs  Barclay  and  Perkins  during  his 
stay  in  London,  when  he  was  assaulted  by  the 
draymeo,  and  barely  escaped  with  life.  For  this 
insult  Oie  British  government  declined  giving  uiy 
satiafaction.  On  subsequently  visiting  Belgiam  and 
fiance,  he  was  received  by  the  populsice  with  strong 
dislike  ;  but  by  the  vigilance  of  the  authorities  was 
3  t.  »rtnal  insult.  Baron  SohOnhals,  in 
"  "  d  H.  [Gritz,  1853],  tries  to 
accusation  of  being  either 
constitutionally  ot  intentionally  cruel,  and  asserts 
that  he  only  acted  in  obedience  to  the  ordeia  of  his 
masters.    H.  died  at  Vienna,  March  14,  1S53. 

HATTI,  otherwise  known  as  HiaPANiOLA  or  Si 
Domnao  is,  after  Cuba,  the  largest  ot  the  West 
Indian  Islands.  It  is  nearly  equidistant  from  Porto 
Rico  on  the  E,  and  from  Cuba  and  Jamaica  on 
the  W.,  with  tJie  Caribbean  Sea  on  tiie  S.,  and 
with  the  Bahamas  and  the  open  ocean  on  tbe  N. 
H.  lies  in  N.  lat  between  17*  37  and  20*.  and  in 
W.  long,  between  68*  20*  and  74*  28'.  It  belongs 
to  the  group  of  the  Greater  AntiUes,  or  Leeward 
Islands,  and,  like  all  the  principal  members  of  its 
series,  its  greatest  lencth  (about  400  miles)  is  in  tbe 
direction — from  west  to  east — of  the  chain  ot  which 
it  fomu  a  port ;  its  greatest  breadth  is  160  miles. 
Area,  including  the  ialands  of  Tortuga,  Oonaive,  tc, 
about  28,000  square  mites,  being  somewhat  smaller 
thui  Scotland ;  and  the  popnlajdon  about  760,000. 
The  oounby,  as  the  native  name  im^iee,  is  moun- 
tainous, being  traversed  longitudinally  t?  a  ridgc^ 
which  sends  out  lateral  vpm,  tenmnatiiK  in  hei^- 
lands  on  either  ooasi  The  range  is  of  voloanio 
origin — a  fact  still  coiroborsted  oy  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  terrible  earthquakes.  Oibao,  beheved 
(o  be  tbe  loftiest  summit,  is  said  to  be  about  7000 
feot  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  mountains, 
richly  and  heavily  timbered,  are  understood  to 
be  susceptible  of  cultivation  almost  to  their  tops. 
With  such  a  soil  weU  watered,  and  with  a  climate 
tempered  by  the  sea-breezes,  H.,  as  a  whole,  is 
perhaps  the  most  fertile  spot  in  the  West  Indiee; 


Auulitiea  to  foreign  trade— hunicaaes,  however,  yr^ 
vuUng  in  August  and  Sept«mb^.  The  riveiB  ai« 
iaconsideraUe,  and  nselea  for  navigation.  Beaides 
several  bodies  of  fresh  water,  the  salt  lake  of 
Henriquillo,  near  the  south  shore,  claims  particular 
notice,  as  indicating  by  ite  tidal  action  some  sub- 
terranewi  oommunioatioa  with  the  CMibbeao  Se*. 


tyCoogle 


HATWAED— HA21X. 


The  prodnctunu  ue  coSbe,  logwood,  mahoguiy, 
tobaoco,  eotton,  ooooa,  wu,  gin^,  wd  tngu ;  uid 
mine*  of  gold,  lilvei,  oopper,  tm,  tuid  iron,  thoogh 
not  now  worksd,  are  found  !□  nuny  plaots.  The 
inporta  for  the  vew  1871  were  valued  at  £1,040,850, 
•bont  half  of  which  were  from  Great  Britain  ;  the 
exports  in  the  tame  yaor  were  valued  at  £1,006,000. 
The  aninber  of  yeueli  which  entered  the  port  in 
the  yeat  1872  waa  B04,  and  the  niuaber  which 
cleared  it  wu  8fiO. 

Within  little  more  than  an  age  after  1492,  the 
•boT^inM  had  been  swept  away  by  the  remorselen 
omeUin  of  Om  Spanianis.  In  connection  with  thin 
deidorable  nvult,  H.,  already  tiie  teat  of  the  finb 
white  tettlemeiit  in  America,  became  one  of  the 
Mriiett  fields,  in  the  western  hemiiphere,  of  negro 
■ervitnde.  Next  came  the  buconeera,  during  the 
I7th  c,  to  avenge  the  red  man't  wrongl ;  and  at 
those  marandera  were  ohieBy  Aench,  Vto  western 

ertion  of  the  island,  which  was  their  favourite 
nnt,  was,  in  1097,  ceded  to  France  by  the  peace  ot 
Byswick,  tiins  presenting  the  first  important  break 
in  Uie  unity  of^Spanish  America.  For  nearly  100 
years,  the  intruders  imported  vast  reinforcements  of 
African! ;  while  the  mulattoes,  who  were  a  itatursl 
incident  of  the  concomitant  licence,  rapidly  grew, 
boUi  socially  and  politicallf,  into  an  intetmediate 
cacte,  being  at  once  uniformly  excluded  from  citixen- 
sbip,  and  generally  exempted  from  bondage.  In 
1791,  nndar  the  indaenoe  of  the  French  lUyolntion, 
th«  mntoal  antipathiet  of  the  three  ctanes— white, 
Uack,  and  miied — bant  forth  into  what  may  well 
be  ahancteriaed  as  the  moat  vindietiTe  ttrug^e  on 
record — a  stmsgle  which,  before  the  dote  «  the 
16Uk  c.,  led  te  Ue  eitermination  of  the  once  donu- 
naot  Eoropeans,  and  the  independence  of  the  ooloored 
inswvento.  That,  at  the  emancipated  bondmen 
moetfy  belonged,  at  least  in  form,  to  the  Church  ot 
B<mie,  H.  now  exhibited  the  only  Christian  oom- 
mnnity  <d  negro  blood  on  either  side  of  the  Atlantio. 
In  ISOI,  Fruce  sent  oat  a  powerful  armament 
to  reoorer  her  revolted  dependency,  treacheroutly 
seizing  and  deporting  tha  deliverer  of  his  brethrrai, 
Toussaint  rOnvotorcL  In  1803,  however,  the  was 
oonstivned  to  relinqniA  her  attempt ;  and  in  1804, 
Deasalioea  (q.  v.),  uong  the  example  ot  Napdeon, 
pioohumed  himsdf  Emperor  of  H.  j  thos  reviving 
ue  indigMUHH  name  of  the  island,  which  had  been 
in  dint*  for  upwards  of  SOO  yean. 

This  great  ehange  waa  fatal  to  the  oommercial 
piMpwi^  of  Frenui  H.,  decidedly  tiie  more  vain- 
able  leobon  of  the  island.  In  it*  progress,  it  had 
deattOTed  ea^tal  in  eve^  shape ;  sod  in  its  iiaue^ 
it  oonld  not  fail  to  panuyae  labour  under  eiicam- 
ttuioea  whna  oontannons  exertion  of  any  kind  wm 
eqaidly  irksome  and  (npeifinotu.  Nw  wm  the 
pelili^  experie&oe  of  the  lately  eerrile  population 
more  satisutotory  than  its  eoonomioal  cwiditian. 
Suaiddmes  consolidated  into  one  state,  and  e<niie- 
times  divided  iatc  tv/a,  the  ooantry  alternated, 
through  the  instnuueiitality  of  one  ravolution  after 


.         .  reputdioanism,  between  a  hiiwdom- 

•nd  aa  empire  Its  on^  tnuqnil  period  M  any 
duration  ooiBoided  with  the  rule  of  FreiideBt  Borer, 
-whioh  subsisted  from  1820  to  1843-ite  kit  21 
wiB  oompcMing  not  maidy  tliB  whcJe  of  Frtnoh  oi 
W»tam  E.,  hut  likawiaa  tiia  Spaniili  or  eattsn 
pertioii  of  the  iUand.    H.  thus  united,  bssidee  being 

1:.!.!-  noopised  by  th«  EuK^Mn  pomn  *" 

.  soon  acknowledged  ev«n  by  Aknoe,  I 
1  <d  paying  lMhOOO,Da}  tenos,  or  £6.000,000 
■teiiin^  as  a  nrnnrrTMatinn  to  Uie  former  pbuiten. 

About  the  year  1M3,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
•astern  or  Sp^iiah  portKin  of  H.,  rising  againi'^ 
tksir  Haytiaa  uppwaieimi  formed  thcmaelvaa  mto 


republic  called  tha  Dominican  Bepnblic  (q.  v.),  and 
in  May  IBfll  threw  itaelf  under  the  protection  erf 
Spaiit,  a  oonneotiim  which  waa  dissolved  in  180& 
llie  western  portum  of  the  island  had  becmrepubliiwa 
in  its  fcora  of  government  previons  to  1849,  wb«n 


compelled  to  abdicate,  and  a  r^blio  was 
n  proclaimed,  with  Oensral  Fabre  Qef&ard  as 
ident,  which  post  he  held  till  ei^ed  in  1867, 
whenanewoonstitntioDwatidi^ited.  The  president 
it  eleotod  for  four  yean.  The  area  ot  the  Haytinn 
republic  is  10,204  sqnsre  mile*,  and  the  pop.  ettj- 
mated  at  6T2;00a 

HATWARD,  die  name  sivan  in  EoAlaud  to  one 
who  keeps  the  common  herd  of  cattle  m  a  town,  or 
of  a  manor,  when  the  copyhold  or  other  tenanta 
have  the  right  of  sending  cattle  to  graze.  In  Scot- 
land, the  oorreaponding  term  is  *  shepherd'  in  rural 
burghs. 

~AZABB,  a  game  at  dice,  without  tables,  whiii 
be  played  by  any  number  ot  persons.  One 
~~  called  the  ea^er  (his  opponent  who  bets  with 
called  the  mttrr),  takes  the  box  and  dice, 
I  a  throw  (colled  a  main],  which  must  be 
above  4,  and  not  exceeding  9 ;  and  if  the  first  throw 
made  is  not  within  these  limits,  the  coster  must 
Ihrow  until  tuch  a  one  occur*.  After  the  caster  hat 
tiirown  the  main,  be  throwt  hit  own  chance.  The 
throwi  2,  3,  11,  12  are  colled  eroM,  and  are  losing 
throws  tor  tile  cotter,  except  io  the  following  cases, 
viz.,  12  when  6  is  the  main,  11  when  7  ia  the  main, 
or  12  when  8  it  the  main ;  in  these  cases,  and  also 
when  the  caiter'a  throw  it  the  10010  as  the  main, 
tha  throw  it  called  a  nkk,  and  the  caster  win&  If 
hit  throw  be  not  a  nick,  or  a  crab,  then,  if  he  can 
repeat  the  some  throw  before  the  main  turns  up, 
he  wins.  If  the  caster  throws  crabs,  not  nicks,  or  it 
he  foils  to  repeat  his  throw  before  the  main  turns 
UP,  Uie  tetter  wins  tha  stakes.  The  setter,  on  the 
whole,  bos  slightly  the  advantage  of  the  caster, 
especially  it  6  or  8  be  the  main,  when  his  cbacce  ia 
to  the  cotter's  in  tha  proportion  of  7295  to  6961,  or 
22  to  SI  nearly.  Hazard  it  exdntiTely  a  game  of 
colculation,  and  is  never  played  merely  with  a  view 
to  amuMKieiit,  Essentially  an  essov  ot  calculationa 
and  combinations,  requiring  o  cool  and  clear  head 
to  execnte  than,  it  has  Deen  an  incitement  to 
the  wildeet  schemes  under  the  name  of  'systems' 
that  ever  laughed  mathematics  to  soom.  Hazard 
hot  been  long  o  ttondins  game  at  all  the  houses  of 
play  in  Britom,  in  the  bee  of  a  fact,  that  owing  to 
the  intricacy  of  the  coloulatioat  ot  probabiHtie^tha 
odda  in  favour  ot  the  professional  player  over  the 
amatenr  are  100  per  cent.  '  In  spirit,  if  not  to  the 
letter,  it  is  the  arithmetic  of  dice. 

HA2  ARIB  A'OH,  the  copitU  of  the  distHct  of  the 
some  nome^  province  of  Choto  Nagpore,  presidency 
of  Bengal  it  titaated  239  m.  to  the  N.W.  of  Cal- 
cutta, and  189  to  the  a.B.  ot  Benares,  in  Ut.  24* 
N.,  and  lone.  Sir  24' E.  Pop.  (1871)  11,090.  On  the 
conquest  of  Scinde,  H.  was  selected  aa  tile  residence 
of  the  dethroned  Amiia. 

HAZEBBOn'CE,  a  amall  but  flourishing  town 
of  France  in  the  departoieut  of  Nord,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Colait  and  Dnnkerque  railwan,  2S  tnUee 
west-nortii-vreat  of  Lille.  The  panah  enuch,  built 
1493 — 1620,  is  aormoonted  by  a  spire  of  open  work, 
340  feat  huh.  Manafootuna  A  liMB-ololk  and 
twist,  so<^,  uriiher,  reflned  salt,  bear,  <nl,  and  lime, 
are  carritd  on.  A  great  linen-market  ia  held  hers 
every  Sotordoy.    Pop.  (187^  5962- 


hyiioo^lc 


T¥ACT.Trr — HEAD. 


not  in  ft  Infy  and  ladnlatod  onp,  the  ealarged  inro- 
lasn  ol  the  famEtle  flower.  The  male  flowan  tn  in 
<^lindiiol  catkiiu ;  the  fenuJe  £owan  appear  aa 
mare  ala>t«n  of  coloured  st7lel  at  the  eitremildei 
d  boda ;  tile  male  flowen  are  pntiy  eoamcuotit, 
the  famale  floweia  are  Tcry  mutU. — The  Oomkoh 
H.  ((7.  Avdbaia)  ia  a  lai^  ahrab  or  totr  tree,  vith 
a  bell-(hap«d  froit-oap,  -wfaidi  is  aomewliat  two- 
iMTed,  opcoit  and  Bpnadine-  It  ia  a  nativo  of 
Britain,     and    of     all 

JToith 

Hanl-Doti 

of  improrad  Taiietiaa 
are  grown  to  a  oon- 
aidenbla  extmt  in  the 
aouth  of  Eogl>'ult  P>r- 
tioolailyia  Keot ;  they 


large  qoantitiei  fnon 
the  Bontii  ol  E^in^e. 
Haiel-iinti  yield,  on 
pNwvie,  aoont  baU 
their  weight  of  ik  Uaud 
fixed  (ai,  often  called 
Britain,  the 
Iiaiel-nut  Ixdns  popu- 
luly  known  oj  the 
tenn  nut  alone  ;  bnt  in 
Oeimany  it  il  walnnt-oil  which  ia  niaaUf  called 
nut-oil  Eaael-nnt  tnl  baa  di-^n^  properbel,  and 
it  mndi  naed  by  painteiai  it  la  alaa  used  by 
perfnmara  at  a  baida  with  -which  to  mix  expensire 
frwtaut  mla ;  and  it  haa  been  empLored  medicinally 
in  ooD^u.  The  wood  (d  the  H.,  althoq^  seldom 
Iwg*  enov^  fix  the  pnrpoaM  of  the  carpenter,  i« 
very  too^  and  flesiUe,  and  haacl-roda  are  thersfu* 
uooh  uaed  foi  making  onkte^  hnrdlet,  hoopa  for 
tmall  bairelt,  to.  The  tiucker  rtama  of  H.  are  need 
fat  mi^™g  diarooat,  which  ia  in  great  reqneat  for 
loigee,  ia  mnch  esteemed  fM:  the  manafwAore  of 
gonpowder,  and  ia  the  kind  preferred  by  artitta  for 

ThB  Talne  of  tlie  haiel-not*  ammalty  imported 
iato  Britain  ia  aboot  £I00,00a  The  qoantity  used 
for  TiuMng  oil  ia  comparatively  incouaiderable. 

Uoat  of  the  cnltiTated  -ranetiea  of  tbs  h&zel-nnt 
ar«  known  1?  the  Munei  of  Gofr-miU  and  >fierf<  ;  the 
form*  genmally  of  «  nnmdiali  fwnn;  the  latter 
aharMtviaed  bj  Hit  i^eatar  dongatton  and  ladnia- 
tion  ol  the  Anit-ovpi  the  name  filbert  being 
indeed  i^^tded  «  a  coRuption  of  fnU-beard.  The 
Bed  Snbot,  or  Lambert'a  Nnt,  ia  rentarkable  for 
having  the  p^Ucle  which  amronnda  the  kernel  of 
a  crimioa-red  colour.  The  finer  kinda  of  H.  an 
propagated  by  grafting  and  by  layora.  Haael- 
nlanta  for  oopeee  are  obtained  from  teed. — The 
BsiKKD  H.  {d  TCifrata),  a  apeciee  baring  a  yery 
hairy  frnit-cnp  prolonged  into  a  long  brak,  »  a 
natiTB  of  the  northern  parte  of  America.  lie  k— *' 
ia  tweet— The  ConffrAi«ntOK«  H.  (O.  eolarna], 
ante  of  which  are  consideTably  larger  than  thcee 
of  the  common  H.,  is  a  natiTe  td  the  Lerant,  from 
which  the  fruit  ia  impwted  into  Britain.  It  m 
mncfa  nied  for  eroreeaing  oiL  but  ia  a  iMapleawnt 
many  kinda  ol  cob-nut  and  AlMrt-  A 
tpeciea  of  H.  lO.JiTae)  haa  a  apiny  frnit- 

,_^ a  exceMTely  l»art  nnl— Barcefaw  Mil* 

are  the  nntt  of  a  Twis^  of  the  common  H.,  kOn- 
diied  before  fhehr  exportatien  from  Spain.  Em^ 
nata  not  tubjeoted  to  thi«  proceas  cannot  be  kept 
bu  without  loBing  in  jprt^ifr  ^reeable  flaTonr, 
Mu  couttactdng  a  aenaiue  randili&f,  except  in  air- 
tiglitTWBk,  in  whidt  they  are  aaid  to  remain  &<A 
erenfmyean. 


The  Iwa  of  a  weevil  (Balanitttu  tataait  feed* 
1  the  kemelt  of  haad-natL  The  parent  female 
lakca  a  hole  into  the  nnt  by  meana  of  her  lou 
snont,  and  there  depoeita  an  egg.  Oreat  nnmbera  m 
ita  are  that  des&oyed. 

HAZLITT,  Wn.i.iiir,  a  dittingoithed  TJlwgtitih 
eeaayiit  and  miscHllaneoiu  writer,  the  ton  of  a 
Unitarian  derttyman,  waa  bom  t^  Maidrtone^  in 
Kant,  on  the  10th  April  1TT&  Hit  father  wMit  to 
America  with  hit  fwnily  when  H.  wat  abont  fire 
yeate  of  age,  bnt  returned  in  two  yeart,  and  became 
paitor  of  a  congregation  at  Wem,  in  Shropahire, 
In  ITBS^  H.  became  a  ttndent  in  the  Unitariaa 
**  Lt  Hackney,  bnt  did  not  take  kindly  to 
lalpnrenita.  In  179S,  he  left  the  oollwe,  and 
.  to  hit  fatho'B  home,  where  he  ^Toted 
himaelf  to  metaphymo*  and  painting ;  abont  thii 
it  CuendgcL  and  ^  the  conTerMtion  of 
the  poet  waa  awakened  to  a  keener  intelleotnal  life 
than  be  bad  before  known.  In  180%  he  T^ted 
Paiia,  and  ttndied  in  the  Lonvre,  and  on  hit  retmn  lie 
attempted  to  mpport  himself  by  porto«it.painting; 
bnt  at  ne  ooold  neither  please  himaelf  nor  hia  pataont, 
be  relinqniahed  the  easd,  and  tlu«w  himself  into 
Utetatnre,  for  which  he  was  mnch  better  adapted.  In 
180%  he  went  to  London,  and  abortly  aftor  pubUahed 
his  essay  On  the  Prineipla  of  Svman  Aelian.  In 
1808,  he  married,  and  retired  into  the  eonnt^.  In 
1811,  he  waa  again  in  London.  Id  1813,  he  deUTered 
a  comse  of  lectnret  on  the  Hiatory  of  English  Fhil- 
OBop^,  and  he  anbsequently  dehvered  oonrsea  on 
-10  ^^iah  Poeta,  He  wroto  essays  in  the  Exam- 
KT  in  ooiqnnctiim  with  Mr  Leigh  Himt,  which 
■ere  afterward*  repnbliahed  in  a  Tolnme  entitled 
le  Hound  TaiU.  Other  essays  he  collected  into 
Tolmnea,  entitled  TaiU4iiti,  and  the  Piaiit  ^)mittr. 
"  also  poblitbed  Chsoveten  6/ Shaktptar^t  Pl'ty*, 
_  H^SpirHttfAtAgt.  In  1S2%  he  waa  diroiMd 
fron  hs  wife,  and  two  yean  aftsrwardt  married  a 

-■  ^ —     He  died  on  the  ISth  Sept.  ItOO.    Hia 

theZf/^io/jrii;>eiem,ofwho»ihewaa 

mirer.  An  edition  of  hi*  principal 

worka  waa  edited  by  hit  ton ;  and  JTemoww  qr  If  iU^Si 

HaxUa  were  pnUiihed  by  hia  mndaon  in  1667. 

The  fanie  of  H.  rests  upon  hit  «aaaya,  whidi  are  r 


froit  t 


.    .     .  .-.  --„ —  of  jwetiT.     On 

the  whole,  1^  eseaye  are  inferior  to  LamVs  and 
Hunt's,  bnt  they  contain  pigee  qmto  a*  striking 
and  memorable  as  any  to  be  fonnd  m  theits. 
H£AI>.  See  BxAiN,Covcumoir,  Skull,  Cakotid 


imAD,  BlK  Edmukd  Waiaxb,  Bart,  for  some 

«ra  goremor-general  o(  Canada,  wat  bcnn  in  1805, 

_jar  Maidaton&  Knt;  edoeated  at  Oriel  College, 

Oxfn^  lAara  m  was  flrstdaaa  in  elaaaioa  in  1S77, 

and  heeame  TaDow  of  Iferton  i  (aaoeaded  his  faUier, 

ie>renth  bwoneti  i«  183S ;  waa  appointed  aaaisit- 

poor-law  eommistioBer,  tnd  in  IS41  became 

•law  oommiMBoner.  AftR  the  breaking  np  of  the 

poor-law  boaid,  he  waa,  in  1U7>  oominated  Benten- 

ant-tnremM  of  New  Bninawick.    Be  beU  tikia  poat 

unta  September  ISIM.  whsu  he  aaeceeded  the  Earl 

OfEI^M .      -.i^--l-  TT__.         ., 

anther  a<T 


EineoancillceiB  18S 
■  wffMdUipastin 
BEAD,  Sn  PxaHOis  Bom,  Bari,  an  aathoi,  and 
sz-gaiwi«orof  Upmar  Canada,  waa  ten  atHermitogS) 
near  Bochettev,  m  179&  He  •ttetoA  Oa  ooips 
of  Beyal  Ikigi]is(t%  and  had  attained  tke  tank  ol 
eaptain,  wksi^  in  laU^  he  aaesfted  an  i^igswirt 

— Dn~9d  hy  Googk- 


HEAD  BOEOTJGH— HEALTR 


Funpui  from  Bnenoa  Attm 
ntom  to  LoDiloii,  publulied 
Jmsnieg  aerot*  l/it  PampoM.    He  mw  made  a  DUkjor 


i  ilia  Soagh  Notet  of  a 


ntom  to  LoDiloii,  pul 
■    Pan 
in  the  •niiy  in  ISZB;  and  in  1S33,  while  holding 


in  the  kniiy 

Uie  poat  of  iMiiritftiit  r'inTiiinniry  of  the  anny, 
the  argent  leqnert  of  Loid  Olenelg,  then  ooloc 
•eerebuy,  h«  Merited  Uie  goTemonhip  of  Upper 
Canada.  He  declared,  in  pnTmanoe  of  iub  initruc- 
tiona,  that  an  electiTe  l^ialatire  oonndl  oould  not 
be  panted,  and  tb»t  the  orown  reaervea  woii]d  not 
be  abandoned,  except  on  condition  of  an  adequate 
and  parnument  oitU  lilt  being  voted.  The  Hooae 
of  AEsemblj  stopped  Uie  nipfdiee,  aa  a  means  of 
obtaining  Tediees  for  the  allied  orieranoea  of  the 
tvovinoe.  H.  thereupon  diiaolYea  the  Eouae,  and 
ue  leanlt  of  the  diniSution  was  in  hii  favour.  An 
insonectian,  which  had  ita  ongin,  aa  it  was  aaid,  in 
hi*  injudicioni  meaaoree,  bn)ke  out.  He  had,  with 
'well-fonnded  confidence  in  hia  own  rcsonicea,  aent 
away  frran  Upper  Canada  the  whole  of  the  Qnean'. 


JS3S,  he  nmgned  his  poat,  and  waa  created  a 

baranet  Ee  puUiahed  a  NarrtiSnt,  in  anawei  to 
'  irea  and  impatatioiu  of  taahneas 
igment,   to  which  hia  Canadian 

_._ givenriae.   Ha  ha*  aince  devoted 

hinuelf  to  literary  pniauita.  He  has  frequently 
appealed  to  the  public  upon  the  defeDoeleaa  atate  of 
the  oounby ;  he  haa  alao  written  SvMia  from  lAa 
Bnamau  of  Nauan^  A  Fagot  of  Frtnek  Slida,  A 
Vint  to  InUmd,  The  Smignvii,  Life  of  Bnux  Oe 
TraxMar,  fto. ;  he  haa  also  been  •  freouent  contri- 
butor to  the  Quarterly  Remsa,  aonte  oi  hJa  articlee 
in  which  have  neen  reprinted. 

HEAD  BOROUOH,  in  England,  ia  the  head  of 
a  bonragh,  or  high  oonatable,  the  latter  name  being 
now  eicluaively  oud.  In  Scotland,  the  worda 
'head  borough'^ are  tued  in  anoHier  aenae — via.,  aa 
the  httid  borough  in  the  ooun^  where  the  aheriff 
hotda  hia  court  and  eierdaea  hia  juriadiction. 

HEAD  COTTRTS,  in  Scotch  Law,  were  the 
aheriff  coorta  where  the  freemen  did  aoit  and 
service  aimnally,  now  aboliahed  by  the  act  20  Qeo. 
II.  c43. 

HEA'DACHE,  a  pain  teferred  to  the  front,  aide, 
or  back  of  the  head,  vaiying  in  intenaity  and  other 
characten  according  to  its  cauas  and  pathologicai 
rdationa.  The  moat  common  varietiee  of  headache 
are  thoae  which  are  dependent  on,  or  connected 
with,  deiMisements  of  the  digestion,  and  freqnentiy 


occur  after  meala. 

among  yoong  peraona,  and  eroecially  yram^  women 

leading  lives  of  mmatond  eounnemeot  within  doora 


^  ^  deUcate  and 

eamly  fioahed ;  they  are  often  addicted  either  to 
aedentory  oconpationa,  or  to  bulla,  theatres,  evening 
ooncerts,  and  oUier  diiiipationa  extending  far  into 
tlie  night  The  ctue  ia  ao  evident  that  it  need  not 
be  inaiated  on  as  a  matter  of  doctrine,  bnt  the 
practioal  application  of  the  lesMn  ia  often  difficult, 
owing  to  the  blind  devotion  with  whidi  pleaaore  ia 
often  billowed  to  the  obviona  detriment  <d  basltii. 
Very  different  ia  the  form  of  headache  canaed  in 
older  penons,  and  moatljr  in  men,  t>y  a  'flow  of 
blood  to  the  head,'  in  conneetion  with  Oreataned 
apo^exy.  In  Haa  caae,  the  habit  ia  nanally  foil,  the 
compledoD  florid ;  giddineaa  is  t^  to  come  on  in 
atooping,  and  the  pain  and  senaa  of  fnlnesa  and 
throbbing  chaivctenatio  of  the  emnplunC,  increase ; 
insomecaaea,  tiicre  ia  an  approach  to  inaensibililT  or 
double  vision,  aa  an  additional  warning.    In  Owe 


caaes,  gentle  purgatioa  and  twtrid«d  diet,  with  ez«- 
oiae,  inll  uaually  bring  about  a  cure,  unleaa  there  ia 
positive  organic  diaoase.  The  periodic  headache,  or 
■—  '"-  migraine,  from  Or.  and  iMt.  kemiemnia. 


malaria  (see  Aara),  and  recnis  at  more  m*  less 
r^ular  intervals,  affeotius  ezactiy  half  at  the  head 
up  to  the  middle  line.  iW  kind  is  vet^  acnte,  and 
ia  commonly  under  the  control  of  qnmine,  wltidi 
must,  however,  be  given  in  ooosideTable  dosea.  The 
aick  headache  described  by  FothergiU  ia  among 
the  moat  distressing  and  inti-actable  fonna,  inaa- 
mnoh  as  it  cannot  nanally  b«  referred  to  any  dis- 
tinct removable  cause,  and  is  but  little  under  the 
control  of  remedies.  It  ia  to  be  met,  however, 
like  the  other  fonna,  cluefljf  by  a  regulation  of  the 
whole  habits  of  life,  opecially  as  r^arda  habitnal 
exeroiBe,  which  may,  mdeed,  be  regarded  aa  the 
great  apedfic  for  all  lunda  of  headaohe. 

HEALDS,  or  EEDDLES,  and  HEALD 
MACHINES.  In  weaving,  ihe  threada  of  the 
warp  are  so  arranged,  that  at  each  psaaage  of  tiie 
shuttle  backwarda  and  forwards,  ■  certain  number 
of  the'  warp  threada  are  raised  np,  and  the  remainder 
drawn  down;  thia  ia  done  either  with  vertical 
threada,  or  lines,  with  a  small  loop  in  tiie  middle, 
through  which  the  warp  thread  la  paaaed,  there 
being  one  of  the  vertical  threads  for  each  horizontal 
or  warp  thread.  The  vertical  threads  are  called 
healda ;  and  aa  there  ia  continual  wear  npon  them,  it 
is  necessary  they  ehonld  be  of  conaiderable  strength. 
They  also  require  to  be  particularly  smooth  and 
round,  in  order  that  they  may  not,  by  their  friction 
in  moving  up  and  down,  chafe  the  tlireada  of  the 
WBTp.  ^nce  tie  manofactnie  of  heald  yama  ia  a 
peculiar  one,  and  employe  the  chief  attention  of 
aeveral  mannfacturers,  particularly  in  the  neighbonr- 


hood  of  Bradford,  in  Yoikahire,  where  they  have 
been  brought  to  great  perfection  by  Hesan  Townend 
Brotheia  and  others.  For  some  purposes,  the  healda 
are  made  of  metal,  and  thia  clasa  at  healda  is  also 
a  special  msnnfactare.  Machines  have  been  invented 
for  the  purpose  of  makine  thread  healda  witboat 
knoto,  H8  the  knot  made  by  the  loop  is  a  great 
impediment  to  the  free  action  of  the  heald-  Such  a 
machine  was  invented  by  Mr  Jndkina  of  Man- 
chester. It  ia  10  constructed  as  to  double  and 
twist  the  single  yam,  and  at  certain  points  braid 
and  plait  the  yarn  forming  the  eye  or  loop  of  ths 
heald  without  Wot  of  any  kind.  By  thia  machine  a 
aetiea  of  healds  can  be  made  in  a  continooua  cord, 
only  requiring  to  be  cat  into  lengtiia  for  nse.  The 
same  inventor  alao  prodnced  a  machine  which  fits 
metallio  eyes  or  loops  in  the  heald. 

HEALTH  (from  the  some  root  as  heal,  hale, 
whole),  the  state  of  body  or  mind  opposed  to  Diaease 
(q.  v.],  and  characterised  by  the  integrity  or  sonod- 
ness  (Lat  laiiut)  of  all  the  parte  and  functions 
which  conititute  a  living  being.  In  the  more 
reetricted  and  ordinary  sense,  health  ia  anderstood 
aa  referring  cbieflv  to  the  body,  and  as  indicating 
that  perfect  and  hannonious  play  of  all  the  func- 
tions which  permita  a  man  to  be  all  that  hia 
Creator  intended.  Even  in  this  aenae,  however,  it 
may  readily  be  admitted  that  abeolnte  bodily  health 
ia  one  of  the  rarest  of  endowmaitB ;  in  common 
laognay,  aociadingly,  the  term  is  accepted  with  an 
inoafiiute  UmHatJMi,  to  indicate  a  state  oonaiatait 
with  a  life  reaabing  ita  ordinary  phyaiological  limit 
without  any  mamfest  and  considUBble  departure 
from  the  ideal  standaid. 

As  the  absolute  and  extareme  duration  of  human 
life  is  uncertain,  it  is  nsual  to  regard  aa  a  healthy 
state   (rf  Uie  aystem  that  in   wUolt  a  modsnta 


tyCUUl^lL 


HEALTH— HEABT,' 


degiea  of  activity,  witlumt  pain  or  i  .  .      ._ 

uuinteined  berinid  tlia  limit  at  tbreescore-yean- 
Mld-tm,  u  indicated  by  ths  PiaJioiat.  In  point  of 
fact,  lioweTO',  no  considerable  oomintuiity  of  human 
hanffi  can  be  aaid  erea  to  approach  thii  term  of 
life  on  an  averse  of  caaea.  Even  where  the  adnlta 
are  more  tluui  oommonly  long-lired,  there  ia  alwaya 
a  conndei^e  moitali^  at  vwjr  Md7  tgtt,  -which 
tenda  to  rednoe  the  tiattiiical  vitott^,  ao  to  apeak,  of 
the  whole  oommnnity  below  the  pomt  lAioh  wonld 
be  indicated  by  mh  xveit^  of  70  yean  for  the 
population  at  luge.  Thna,  in  a  popolation  dying  at 
the  tate  of  01J7 15  in  1000  annually  (the  lowest  per- 
manent nte  in  the  tetanu  of  the  r^iatrar-geneial 
Icf  England),  the  average  ase  at  deaSh  of  tlu  oom- 
monity,  aappoaing  the  popiuation  to  be  abaolutely 
free  ftinn  dumgs,  would  be  only  66-9  ;  and  In  the 
case  of  a  death-rate  of  20  in  1000,  the  avenge  age  at 
death  «o«ld  be  60;  lAile  a  death-rate  of  £5inl000 
(Ute  aotnal  death-rate  of  Lnidon,  the  healthieEt  of 
the  gnat  Enropean  cqntali)  would  ocoTeapond  to  an 
aTarase  age  at  death  of  not  more  than  40.  Setting 
ande  nnctuatioiu  of  population,  which  iJwwa  ezer- 
tiae  a  certain  infinence  on  the  reanlt  <3t  mch  calcu- 
lationa,  it  may  be  aaid  that  tile  averwe  duratioD  of 
lije  in  Enf^and  and  Walea  ia  about  45  years,  and  in 
Scotland  lomawhat  Icoa  than  60  yean ;  and  to  the 
extent  ezpivaaed  by  theae  figures,  the  hralth  of  theae 
two  great  countries  &Ua  abort  of  the  ideal  itandard. 


be  giren  of  the  phenomena  of  the  death-rate,  aa 
affecting  tbe  oalcnlatiDa  of  premature  mortality,  witii 
a  Tiew  to  the  temoval  of  ito  canna  in  great  com- 
munitiea.  Thii  department  id  aoience  hu  aaanmed 
great  iimiortHkoe  of  late  yewn,  in  otmaaqnoice  of  tiie 
eflbrtatnat  have  been  made  to  improve  the  sanitary 
condition  of  oar-jTcat  towna  and  coantiy  disbicts 
by  improved  dnunage  and  aewerage,  a  regulated 
supply  of  pure  water,  and  the  inspection,  in  certain 
circumstances,  of  lodging-houses,  and  even  of  private 
dwellings,  so  as  to  prevent  ovarciowding,  and  the 
other  msjiifeBt  causes  of  the  spread  a  epidaiDic 
.disease.  These,  and  other  groat  practical  refonns, 
constitute  the  object  of  what  has  been  called  the 
'Public  Health'  movement  ia  this  coluitry,  some 
notice  of  the  history,  progress,  and  practical  remits 
of  which  ia  given  nnder  the  head  of  Suhtast 
ScUKCS  in  StTTp.,  Vol  X 

HBALTH,  Bill  of,  in  Scotch  Law,  mean 
application  by  a  pruoner  to  be  allowed  to  live  oat 
of  the  prison,  on  tha  ground  of  ill  health.  The 
applicabon  i*  now  m^  to  the  Coun^  Prison 
Burd,  and  it  allowed,  the  prisoner  is  taken  to  a 
neighbouring  house,  and  kept  under  surveillance. 
The  same  thing  is  done  in  Eaglsnd  under  the 
Prison  Regnlati^  Acts,  thongh  l£e  phrase  bill  of 
health  is  not  used  there. 


sitting  together.  The  only  oaae  in  which  it  occurs 
~~  where  the  Court  (rf  Criminal  Appeals  has  heard 
ease,  and  the  jodges  differ  considerably,  or  think 
a  very  important  case,  iriien  it  is  onlered  to  be 
argued  before  the  full  court,  which  conaiata  of  all 
the  Sfteen  common  law  judges.  It  is  then  called  a 
hearing  before  the  full  court. 

HEASINQ  OF  A  CAUSE  is  the  phrase  used  in 
the  Court  of  Cbancei;,  when  the  menta  of  the  case 
and  the  arsuments  on  both  sides  are  entered  upon. 
""  e  phrase  is  used  in  cases  before  magistrates. 


judges ;  if  before  the  jory, '  the  triaL' 

HEARBAT  EVIDENCE  is  the  name  given  by 
lawyera  to  evidenoe  given  in  a  court  of  justice  at 
second-hand,  where  &b  witneas  statee  not  what  he 
hi  mill  f  saw  or  heard,  bnt  what  somebody  elae  said. 
Thit  evidence  ia,  aa  a  general  rule,  inadmiasible, 
beoaose  the  axiom  is,  that  the  beat  evidenoe  that 
oau  be  had  must  be  produced,  and  therefore  each 
iritoess  must  be  confined  '  .    .  .     , 

of  his  own 
I  by  t 

to  the  tmth,  his  truthfulness  is  thus  ■ 
OS  far  as  human  testimony  can  be  ao.  If  evidence 
admitted  at  second-hand,  there  would 
....  ;  to  ita  uncertainty,  and  there  would  be 
thos  introduced  vague  statements  of  absent  peraons, 
who,  not  being  sworn  when  they  made  them,  are 
thetcfore  incapable  of  being  punished  if  theyipeak 
•  ■    '  '  ■    '  ■     '      Thoudi 


a  consul,  & 

.  eshipJuisc     

I  bill,  a  Bus^ecled  bill,  and  a  fool  . 

three  short  names  given  to  the  several  degrees  of 
health. 

HEARING.    See  Eu. 

HEABINO  IN  PRESENCE,  in  the  Law  of 
Scotland,  means  a  hearing  of  a  difficult  or  import- 
ant case  bcfor«  the  whole  of  the  thirteen  judges  of 
the  Court  of  Sesnon.  It  ia  competsnt  for  either 
diviaion  of  the  Court  of  Session,  when  equally 
divided  in  opiuiOD  on  a  case,  to  appmnt  a  hearing 
before  the  whole  judges^  which  is  m  fact  a  reargu- 
ment.  Ia  England,  it  is  cot  in  gsnaral  competent 
for  M^  court,  when  equally  divided,  to  t™* —  - 
casa   bo   be  argued   befooe   all   the   other 


lOSt  be  confined  to  stating  what  he  knowa 
la  personal  knowledge,  or  what  he  haa 
y  tne  aid  of  his  own  snnsrs ;  snd  as  he  ia 


falsely,  : 


:   be  cross-examined. 


is  admitted  Ui 


e  of  dying  d 


evidence  of  peraons  conne 

those  only,  is  '^"''•'*»^  in  li^glaml  ■  but  in  Scotland 
;.  :.  .A^.tt,^  fk^u^Uia  persons  were  not  ooniucted 
A  remarkable  eioeplaiHi  also  exists 
lying  declarations,  l  e.,  statements 
by  persons  mortally  wounded  and  in  the 
prospect  of  death;  but  in  England  such  evidence  is 
laly  admitted  in  criminal  cases,  on  a  charge  of  man- 
ilaughter  or  murder.  In  Scotland,  such  declarations 
ire  admitted  in  all  cases  of  violence,  and  thou^  the 
wrty  at  the  time  did  not  believe  he  waa  dying. 
jliere  is  another  exception  to  the  non-odmissibility 
of  hearsay  evidence  allowed  in  Scotland,  but  not  in 
England,  viz.,  where  the  person  who  made  the  state- 
ment is  dead,  and  therefore  cannot  be  produced  aa  a 
witneaa.  In  England,  there  ia  no  help  for  snch  a 
st^  of  tilings,  and  the  statemeuts  o(  the  dead 
person  cannot  be  admitted;  but  in  Scotlftod,  if 
there  waa  no  reason  to  suppose  the  contrarv,  it  is 
presumed  the  dead  witnCM  spoke  the  truth,  and 
what  he  said  may  be  given  in  evidence  for  what  it 
is  worth,  both  in  civil  and  ciiminal  cases.  A  few 
other  exceptions,  of  a  leas  important  description  to 
the  above  general  rule,  exist  in  both  countries, 
which  are  too  technical  to  be  here  noticed. 

HEART.    See  Cxbculatiok  of  teb  Buwd. 

HEABT, 


the  oirculstion,  the  accurate  knowledge  __   

may  be  dated  from  tha  application  of  AuscuItatiOD 
(q.  V.)  and  Percwsioa  to  the  porpoaee  of  diagnosis. 
IW  great  names  of  Corrisait  and  I^eimea  stand 
foremost  _in  the  modBm  inveatintiou  of  cardiac 
Eo^  of  London,  and  a  great  number 


]t,zod~Goog(c 


M  hy  Senac  *iid  Teita,  vitbont  the  adTaoti^  of 
tiu  mors  reoent  meMU  of  dUgnoau,  The  linuta  of 
tiiii  utiole  kdmit  <^  only  ft  Tei7  ^i^t  iketoli  of  m 
■nbjcot  of  vMt  extant,  wid  on  nhich  ths  literatim 
of  the  laat  fifty  yeani  ii  tmtuiully  oopouM  Bod 
■zhaiutiTS. 

DisaiMB  of  the  heart  may  be  laoAhly  dirided 
into  the  foQotional  and  □rganio — in  the  former  of 
which  no  appeannoea  adequate  to  Muonnt  for  the 
■ymptoma  are  fonnd  in  the  dead  body,  while  in  the 
latter  the  contraiy  ia  the  fact  To  the  fonaer  claaa 
heloDB  limple  palfdtation,  lymoiM,  and  the  pecoliar 
AianrrisF  tezmsd  an^na  pectoria  ;  to  the  l*t(a', 
hy  of  the  heart,  dilatation  of  the  oaTitiea, 

w  atmotnTal  diaeaaea  of  the  endoc«i:diiun 

and  p«ricarditiiii,  ot  the  nuucnlar  fibre,  and  of  iti 
nutrient  aiteiiea.  To  theae  may  be  added  the 
AiMa»e«  of  Uie  aorta,  and  eapeoially  anenriama  of 
ita  thoiacio  portion.  We  propoae  to  review  reiy 
brioSy  tli«ae  oiffmnt  morbid  oonditiona. 

PtUpilathn,  or  nndne  and  often  irr^nlar  action 
of  Uia  hMtrt^  attended  by  nneaay  aenaalionB  of 
morement,  ia  a  ditorder  eonunon  to  many  organic 
diawMM  1^  tb«  hurt,  and  not  nnfreqnentiy  alao 


, , dyipepbca, 

debilitated  1^  diMharm*  mm  the 
•uuuiiui  imuibraiiM,  a  degree  ol  palpitatioa  ii  qnite 
oonunon,  and  the  aymptom  aometinuM  aamnea  the 
apparent  form  of  an  imlependent  diaeaae^  eapedally 
wbco  aggravated  by  mental  anxiety  in  ceapeot 
to  ita  tme  «i'gii^H«»T»»  ^le  treatment  !■  entirely 
gnided  by  the  facta  of  the  individual  oaie  i  bat 

Q    apeakin^  the  negatiTs  nmlta  of  phyiical 

■n,  with  the  pcstire  knowledge  of  the  cauae, 
' —- »  both  pr- -""^ 1— ^— i  —J 


teaat-pan^  alao  called  ij/ncope 
a  peculiar  painntl  or  opprenve  Knaa- 
taon,  very  characteriatio  ot  cardiac  aiaeaaee,  leped- 
ally  of  luch  at  ate  apt  to  ptore  cnddanly  fatal  It 
ia  needleaa  to  add  uiat  thii  fona  of  disease  ia  of 
mat  importance,  and  at  very  di«adfnl  aignifioance. 
The  two  leading  elementa  in  the  aenaation  referred 
to,  acoording  te  Dr  Lothaw,  aie  tiie  pain  and  the 
Mnn  of  impending  death.  The  senaation  ia  entirely 
diflennt  from  breathl«inne«,  tJtbongb  (rften  mixed 
ttn  with  this  in  the  mind  of  the  patient.  Where 
the  sadden,  death-like  paroxynn  of  angiDa  cornea 
on  in  theabaence  of  a    "    '  "    ■-■  "- 


le  ihonld  be  lot  in  procuring  thi 


laidof  inl 


inttmcted 


powerfnl  remediea  mi^t  be  more  rapidly  fatal  than 
the  diiease  itself. 

Adbna,  and  difficulty  of  bnathing  depending 
upon  the  Innga,  especially  that  form  of  difBonlt 
Invatidng  called  orvimiKua,  when  the  patient  ia 
nnable  to  lie  dovm  in  bed,  are  symptomt  vei; 
charactoistie  of  lome  kinda  of  i"'~~  of  the  heart 
and  great  vcweli. 

Tm  organio  JiseMei  of  the  heart  are  Tery  numar- 
MJ ;  most  of  than  are  ktl^ded  hj  one  or  other  of 
til*  qnnptoms  alMV*  UMntiraMd,  and  almost  all  of 
thva  involve  danger  to  life  more  m  less  considerable. 
It  ia  nevertlieleH  true  that  pnblio  opinion,  now.a- 
daya,  ii  proiM  to  overrate  the  tendency  to  death, 
and  espeoal^to  •ndden  death,  i: 
dimiPi.    Stnotly  speaking,  a  aud 


a  death  quite  unexpected,  and  in  the  midat  of 
iqiparent  good  health — is  a  rare  and  exoeptiamal  fast 
in.  organic  ilinntsn  of  the  heart ;  the  most  freqnsnt 
iustancea  being  in  ovutedian  vrith  Anrari —  ' —  * 


matq.».) 
1   01   ths 


of  the  ooronary  Mteriea  of  the  heart,  often  prodoo. 
ing  marked  tymptoma  of  angiiM  pecfanis,  aa  abovs 
ruerred  to. 

The  mUvtilar  difSEMSt  qf  tit  heart  ate  ammg  the 
most  frequent  and  tin  most  easily  reMgniaable  of 
its  organic  diaordvL  lliey  depend  wiMitiallynpcw 
ehangca  in  the  endoaardiam,  or  internal  tining  men^ 
brane  (andoeMditia) ;  in  many  oast*  tiMMdMSgei 
oripnato  in  attacks  of  riwmnatio  farer  (Me  Bhxd- 
■UTiBf ),  iritich  is  therefore  to  be  viewed  with  sua. 
pidon  aa  a  diesHe  tsoding  to  ahortHi  lifts  especially 
when  dsveloped  daring  early  youth.  The  valra 
affiHted  an  asnaUy  thoM  of  tba  left  Bid%  and  th« 
couBequenoB  may  be  vther  impeifeot  doeui*  of 
the  *ilre,  leading  to  ragnintatiM)  of  blood,  or 
obsbnotioa  of  the  OTifice.  Ia  eitliMr  ease,  thcB« 
is  a  mechanical  impediment  to  tike  droulation,  (rf 
a  more  or  Ins  sericna  kind,  followed  by  dflstatinn 
of  tiie  cavities  of  the  heart  and  hyperttopliy  of  the 
wall^  eapedally  of  the  retitiioles.  For  a  nme  the 
drcnlatioa  ia  Kept  iqi  undv  Uum  unfavoorabU 
conditiona  by  inorsaasd  eflbrta  of  the  or;pn ;  but 
ultiaatdy  its  balance  is  fatally  diatoAad,  blood 
aooomnlates  in  the  liver,  the  lung^  or  fthsrt  of  tlia 
internal  oivana,  and  aeomdary  iliiiiissw  tak* 
rJace,  of  which  Dropsy  (q.  v.),  Albnminuiia,  and 
Hnmoptyaia,  or  spitting  of  blood,  sre  among  ths 
most  frequent  and  formidable. 

Pcriciviiitw,  or  inflammation  of  the  pericardium, 
i.  e.,  ths  heart-purse,  or  flbrons  sac  investing  the 
heart,  ia,  like  endooarditia,  a  freqnant  oonaeqaence  erf 
acute  riienmatiim.  In  numerous  instancea,  it  ends 
faTOurablr,  but  iu  sonis  oases  it  is  fatal  by  large 

dinsion  of  flDid,aiid  in  others  bj~    "     '  -  -'    ' 

tlie  external  membiaiM  and  the . 

The  treatment  of  all  theae  disc 
r^ulated  t^  medical  advice^ 

HEABT,  BouiTDB  or  TH>.  On  applying  the  ear  to 
the  cardiac  nsion  of  a  liTing  man  or  mammal,  in  a 
state  of  healtli,  two  snoeeeaivB  sounds  are  heaid, 
each  pair  of  which  oorreeponda  with  one  polsaUon. 
'niese  are  known  a*  thejirti  and  the  fcond  sound. 
There  is  scarcely  any  inteml  betwesD  theaa  two 
diSermt  sonnd*,  tbe  aeoond  oat  fellowii^  immedi- 
ately upcn  tlie  oonoluAon  of  the  flrit;  but  after  the 
aaotnid  sound  there  it  ft  percmtible  prase  before  ths 
first  toond  it  again  heaid.  Tbtjirit  •onnd  ia  dull 
and  prolOnnd,  while  the  MMMd  it  short  and  dLarfL 
and  the  dShrtstot  between  them  im  well  expretssd 
(«■  Dr  a  J.  B.  WiUiama  ha*  remariied)  by  articu- 
lating &i»  a^lables  Inbb,  dOpk 

The  cante  of  the  first  of^  these  sounds  has  besn 
a    subject    of    much    discnttioii,   at    least    thirty 
enlanation*  of  its  mode  of  production  having  been 
offered.     During  the   first   sound,  several  cuatinct 
actions  are  taking  place,  to  each  of  which  it  has 
been  ssciibed  b^  di&rent  [Jiynologitts.    Thus  we 
have   (1),   the  unpuUe  of  the  apex  of  the  heart    { 
Sfsinst  the  side  of  the  chest;  (2),  the  oontnwtion    ] 
of  the  muscular  walls  of  the  Ttotrictes;   (3),  the 
tennon  of  the  aaricalo-ventricular  (tricittind  and 
mitral)  valves  (see  Ciboui^tiok)  :  (4),  the  nub  of    ' 
Ucod  through  the  narrowed  opoiinn  of  the  SMta 
and  pnlnionaiy  •rtery;   and  (5),  a»  ooUiiBou    of 
tlie  particles  en  blood  with  ooe  another,  and  tlMir 
frictxm  against  the  sides  of  the  heart's  oavitiea. 

The  b^rta  of  TnMnTn»1»  being  constructed  like 
onr  own,  give  out  sounds  different  in  degree  but 
not  in  character,  from  the  sounds  heara  in  man. 
In  bitdi  <if  we  except  the  ostrioh  and  the  aptvi^ 


ttbettrioUy 


t.Google 


HEAETH-MONET— HEAT. 


ihe  KxA 


and  Hcond  Mnuid ;  and  Dr  Hftlford  hu  ingeiiioiuly 
aKplaiiMd  wh;  thii  sluHild  be  in  hii  cM&y  (m  3:;i« 
Aetiim  Mtd  Soiatdt  qfO*  Start  Tho  wtiaii  ot  the 
heart  in  Mptdle*  (tbe  aUJgfttor,  pjihon,  and  turtle) 
to  be  aeoonpMiied  *itii  no  definite  toimde. 


I  of  the 


When  tl>e  TtdTM  »«  chingBd  by  diM 
sonnda  ondeigo  opeoial  alteratioD^  wnloh  w 

hi^eSt  UnpNtMM*  hi  ■<i»gnnm> 


-.10. 
HBAT,  the  unknown  cuue  of  th 
'wumtb,  and  of  a  mnltitttde  of  comman  pbe 
hi    iiatiu>a  and  art.      In   <!omideruig  ^is  subject 
scientifically,  it  is  neocaaaiT,  at  the  oatie^  '     " 
card  tii«  idea*   oonrered  bj  the  pc^iUar 
inch  word*  m  beat  and  cold.    A  nnmber  of  bodiea, 


■me  (amxmOtK,  or  become  in  n  _.  , 
.  Yet  hi  pc^nlar  langnMet  MniM,  a« 
i,fta,,an  froaMinced  io  be  cold,  and 


•cqnin  the 

otimit,  m  Oaonel  and  fnr,  wann.    The  tcnuh, . 

is   not  a  means  by  whiish  we    ean    acquite  any 
definite  idea  of  the  temptratare  of  a  body. 

ITature  of  Htat^A.  herted  body  is  no  heaTier 
than  it  wm  hefon  it  was  healed ;  'O,  therefore,  heat 
be  a  material  snbatance,  m  it  WM  long  conmdered, 
it  ntnit  be  imponiltrable.  And,  in  tact,  under  the 
name  of  calorie  or  pUogiiton,  it  Is  dawed,  in  almoat 
all  but  modem  tnatim,  as  one  of  the  family  * 
impondenblea.    But  if  it  were  nutter,  in  any  "- 

of  the  word,  its  anantitv  wmkl  ha  nnij- *- 

hninan  ageaey. 


iHM  two  pleoea  of 
.  and^abo  eaaea  in 
which  a  qnanfitf  at  hMA  totally  dismiean.  TU> 
is  ntterly  inoonsistetit  with  the  idea  id  the  mate; 
rinlity  <tt  heat.  The  only  hypotheeiB  that  at 
accoids  with  the  phenomena  u,  that  htat  U  a  fa 
q/'moCioii,  and  witli  this  idea  we  eh^  itarb 

M«aturt  of  Heat—YThMim  it  be  a  Tibnitt 
«Bch  as  light  and  sonnd  {in  aome  oaeea,  it  certainly 
is),  or  consiit  in  a  (nouaaloti  of  tmpaeit  of  the 
paftieles  ef  bodies  <hi  eaoh  other  (as  In  some  i 
It  haa  been  considered  to  be),  it  ii  none  th« 
certain  that  the  amount  of  heat  in  a  bo^  ia  to  be 
measured  by  the  Tis-viva  (see  tmij^  3  moring 
putioIcB.  But  as  we  «umot  obserre  Uioae  parUelea 
■o  as  to  sacerbun  their  Tis-vira,  we  mnst  have  kidm 
means  ot  measnriiig  the  temparatnie  of  a  body, 
depending  upon  an  ^et  of  heat  Wbaterer  that 
efieot  may  be,  it  is  otmons  that,  aa  the  laws  of 
nature  an  nnif  orm,  it  will  affoid  ns  a  rtpnxfueiMi 
rtandard,  by  which  we  can  ertimate  its  amoont 
at  any  time  and  in  any  place,  and  compare  that 
amoimt  with  another  observed  somewhere  else ; 
JDst  as  the  French  MMre  (q.  v.)  is  reprodncibla  at 
any  time,  beicg  the  ten-millionth  part  of  a  qnadiaot 
ot  the  meridian. 

JfilataHon  or  Ea^MKuion.—'Saw,  the  most  general 
and  notable  effect  whkh  heat  prodoea  on  mattu' 
is  to  easpoKd  it.  The  length  td  a  metallla  baz  rariea 
with  arery  change  of  temperatore,  and  ia  erer  the 
same  at  tiie  same  tempeiatnrs.  The  fixing  of  the 
tire  of  a  oart-whael  is  a  toy  good  InstaiKM.  No 
hammerins  oonld  fit  an  inin  boopao  tddit^on  the 
wood-worE  of  the  whseL  m  tiie  limple  ankmng 
(rf  the  tire  by  hea^  Md  m  mbaeqttent  cimtraiSi^ 


thva  poMble  to  sl^  it  on,  and 
.    .   force  ia  secnred  to  bind  the  pleoB* 
together.    In  almoet  amy  -  -    -     - 
and  eoatnwiian  & 


atore  reqniie  to  be  guarded  asainst.  In  the  huge 
iron  tub^  of  the  Britannia  Bridge,  the  mere  change 
of  the  seasons  wonld  hare  produced  sufficient 
changes  of  length  to  teu  the  pien  asunder,  had 
eaoh  end  of  atubebeenflzedtomaaoniy.  W^hea 
and  docka,  when  not  compensated  (see  PxniD- 
ldm),  go  fagter  in  cold  weather,  and  slower  in 
hot,  an  immediate  oonaequence  ot  the  expansion  or 
coutracticn  of  their  balanoe-wheela  and  pendulums. 
If  a  flaak  fuU  of  water  or  alcohol  be  dipped  into 
hot  water  or  held  otht  a  lamp,  a  portion  of  the 
liquid  runs  over ;  a  glass  shell  whidi  floata  in  a 
Te«el  of  water,  sinka  to  the  bottom  when  the  water 
ia  heated ;  and  as  water  is  heated,  the  hotter  water 
continually  risee  to  the  surface.  Indeed,  if  the  latter 
were  npt  Uie  case,  it  would  be  impoaaible  to  prerent 
ezploaionB  arery  time  we  attempted  to  boil  water 
or  any  other  fluid.  It  a  bladder,  partly  filled  with 
air,  and  tightly  tied  at  the  Deck,  be  heated  before 
a  fire,  the  contained  air  will  expand,  and  the  bladder 
will  be  distended.    At  it  coola,  it  becomea  flaocid 


ns  that  In  geneni  all  bodies  eipand  by  heat  _ 
Older,  then,  to  prepare  a  reproducibla  means  of 
meaaoring  temperature,  all  we  hare  to  do  is  to  fix 
npoD  a  subetanoe  (mercury  is  that  most  commonly 
lUed)  by  whose  chansea  of  volume  it  is  to  be 
meaninid,  and  a  repro£cible  temperature,  or  lather 
two  reprodocible  temperatures,  at  which  to  measure 
the  volnme.  Those  usually  selected  ace— Uiat  at 
which  water  freeiea,  or  ice  melts,  and  that  at  which 
water  boil*.  In  both  of  tbeae  oases,  the  water 
must  be  pure,  as  any  addition  of  torei^  matter  in 
general  onaiigea  the  tampsratnre  at  which  freeiing 
or  bcdling  itS/n  place.  Another  importuit  drcmn- 
k  lAe  hti$aof  the  baromeltr.  See  Boiuhq. 
DOad  rei^odneible  temp«cata»  is  therefore 
1  a*  that  of  water  boihng  in  an  open  vtasel 
the  bacomat«r  alaoda  at  80  inchea.  In 
afaMtote  tfciotnMijtthii  sheoU  also  be  said  of 
the  Eresaing-point,  bnt  the  aflbot  on  the  latter 
'  '  )  of  baranetrio  prMsvra  is  practically 
The  praotical  oonstrsotion  ol  a  hea£- 
!  Thermometer  on  these  principleB,  the 
varionj  ways  of  gradnating  it,  and  liow  to  ooo- 
TBCt  the  readings  of  one  thermometer  into  Humb  of 
uiother,  are  described  in  the  artiola  TiOBMQxcrix, 
~  I  the  pieaent  artielei  we  mppoae  the  Centigrade 
lemunoeter  te  be  the  one  nsed. 
If  we  make  a  number  of  thennometac  tubes,  fill 
them  with  diSsnot  liqsida,  and  gcadnate  at  in  the 
Centinadc^  we  shall  find  that,  tbongh  they  all 


CI  ft*  in  freedng,  and  100°  ij 
in  gttieral  agree  when  phMe 
those  statu.    Henca  eA<  mte  of  a 


mnenlly  vti^orm  for  tquai  _ _  ,    ... 

has  beoi  found,  however,  by  vary  delicate  enwti- 
menta,  whioh  oannct  be  mora  thsm  alluded  to  hsre^. 
tliat  EMffcory  expanda  martj/  nnifonnly  for  equal 
inorcmaitB  of  t«onpnatiire>  However,  what  we 
sought  was  not  an  t^talmle  standard,  bat  a  rwro- 
duMla  one :  and  meronr;,  in  addition  to  fnmiahiiig 
lis,  may  be  assumed  also  to  give  at  the  ratioa 

diffbrant  ineremsots  of  temparature. 

We  mnst  nozt  look  a  littU  more  closely  into 
the  nature  of  dilatation  by  heat.  And  first,  of  iii 
meaturt.  A  metallic  rod  OF  length  I  at  0*,  increaaea 
at  r  In'  a  quantity  which  is  proporiaMial  to  i 
and  to  C  Hence  k  being  some  nnmmical  Qoanti^, 
the  new  length  F- 1(1 -ft*).     "~  '  ■-  "-"-' 


Hgi«  k  IB  called 


Tar 

rod  of  length  I  toot  at  0*, 
at  r,  (I  +  -OCKWOOlSTt)  tttb;  and  hme  it,  or  the 
ooefflcient  of  linear  dilatation  (or  oue  degree  (Cen- 
tigntde),  w   ■000000187;  or  a  Ymm  rod  has   its 


hyCuO^lL' 


loigtli 


1 


|rth  put  for  each 


B,0O0,i 
degree  of  temperatare. 

If  we  coniider  &  bar  [of  bnn,  for  inatance)  wIumb 

length,  breadili,  and  depth  are  1,  ft,  d — then,  wbea 

heated,  Qkeae  increaie  proportionally.    Hence, 

r  -  i(l  +  to. 

6'  =  6(1  +  hi), 

d!  =  d{l-^-  kl) ; 


K  V(l  +  ail)  nearly,  diUM  k  i>  very  miaU. 
Therefore  ire  may  write  T  «  V^l  +  EQ,  where  we 
shall  have  as  before  K,  the  coeffldeni  of  cubical 
dilatation  for  1*  of  temperatureL  And,  a>  K  ~  % 
we  aee  that,  for  the  same  sabstanoa,  Uie  eo^tdatt 
qf  eahieal  diiatatioa  it  Ome  lima  that  of  Untar 
dilalation. 

la  the  followicti  table,  these  coefficjenta  are 
inoreased  a  hnndraflold,  as  it  gives  tbe  proportional 
iocreaee  of  volume  for  a  riee  of  teMperatnra  froin 
0°  to  100"  CsEtigrade,  It  most  aim  be  remarked, 
that  while  the  linear  diiatatioa  of  solids  is  given,  it 
is  the  cabical  dilatation  of  liquids  and  gases  which 
is  always  observed.  Moreover,  as  the  latter  are 
always  measured  in  glass,  wUch  itaelf  dilates,  the 


We  cannot  here 


Hennrj,       .       .    'DIMS     I  Hydrogen,       .  '3ESB 

There  ia  one  remarkable  ezoeption  to  the  law 
that  bodies  exnand  by  heat — viz.,  that  of  water, 
under  certain  mrcuniatancea.  From  0'  (Centigrade), 
at  which   it    melts,    it    eonimeU    as    " 

enter  into  specnlatii 
veiy  singular  phenomenon,  bnt  we  will  say  a  few 
words  about  its  practieal  utility.  Wat«x,  then, 
is  dental  or  hta^ial  at  4*  C.  Hence,  in  cold 
weather,  as  the  surface-water  of  a  lake  cools  to 
neat  4°,  it  becomes  heavier  than  the  hotter  water 
below,  and  sinks  to  the  bottom.  This  goea  on 
till  the  whole  lake  has  the  temperature  4'.  As 
the  coolinE  proceeds  further,  the  water  becomes 
Ughler,  aniTtherefore  remains  on  the  surface  till  it  ia 
fnizen.  Did  water  not  possess  this  property,  a 
•BTem  \rintar  vould  freeze  a  lake  to  the  boUom,  and 
the  heat  of  aununer  might  be  insufficient  to  remelt 
itaU. 

Sp«e^  ffeai, — The  thermometer  indicates  the 
l«mpgraiur«  of  a  body,  but  zivea  us  no  direct  infor- 
mation as  to  the  amount  of  heat  it  contains.  Yet 
thia  is  measurable,  for  we  may  take  as  our  Uhit  the 
amonnt  of  heat  required  to  raise  a  pound  of  wat«r 
from  0*  to  1°,  which  ia  of  coutae  a  d^inite  standard. 
As  an  instance  of  tiie  question  now  ruaed — Is  more 
heat  (and  if  ao,  how  nuuA  more)  required  to  heat  a 
povnd  of  water  from  aero  to  ICC,  than  to  heat  a 

Saond  of  mercury  between  the  same  limits  T  We 
nd  by  experiment  that  bodies  differ  extensively  in 
the  amount  of  heat  (measured  in  the  unita  buore 
mentioned)  required  to  produce  equal  ohangea  of 
temperature  in  them. 

It  is  a  reeolt  of  eiperiment  [snffiaiently  aocnrate 
tor  all  ordinaiy  pnrpoaes)  that  if  equal  weights  of 
water  at  difFerent  temperaturea  be  mixed,  the  tem- 
petwture  of  the  n^ure  will  be  the  arithmetic  mean 
of  the  origiual  tetDperatnres.  From  this  it  follows, 
with  die  same  degixa  of  approximation,  that  equal 


iinti  of  heat  are  ntquirod  to  raise  tht  ; 

water  through  suaoeBaiTe  dc^rM*  d  ' 
^ .     .  .        Aa  an  instance,  suppoae  one  pooad 
of  water  at'W  to  he  mixed  with  two  pooiida  st 
20*,  the  resulting  temperature  of  the  mixture  is  ', 
30°;  for  the  pound  at  fiO°  has  lort  20',  whila  eadi 
of  the  other  two  pounds  has  gained  10*.    CSeae-   ' 
tallv,  if  m  pounds  (A  vatei  at  1  degieca  be  mixed   - 
with  M  pounds  at   T   degrees   (the   latter  being   I 
the  colder),  and  if  <  be  the  temperatura  of  the 
mixture — tha  number  of  units  loat  by  the   tint 
is  m{t  —  /),  since  one  is  lost  for  toA  pound  which 
cools   by  one   d^ree ;    and   that  gained    Inr  the   | 
second  is  M(/—T),and  these  must  be  equal    Hesfs 
»i(l  -  /)  _  M(f  -  T),  whence,  at  ono^  ' 

mt  +  MT 
"    m  +  M  ■  _  I 

Bnt  if  we  mix  water  and  mercury  at  different 
tempetatntea,  the  resulting  tempentura  is  ftnind  nel  | 
to  a^«a  with  the  above  law.  Hence  it  amiesn  tiiat 
to  ratM  equal  leeighU  of  dxjirent  bodiet  Utrottgk  lAc 
■atnd  tuaubo-  of  deprta  of  tanperatvre,  tafiuTa 
difftraU  antounW  <!f  neat.  And  we  may  thien  define  I 
tile  ipecific  heat  of  a  aubatance  as  the  nnmbo'  of 
units  of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  at   I 


be  expressed  as  proper  fnctian*.    j 
For  example,  if  equal  weights  of  water  and  mer- 
cury be  mixed,  the  first  at  ff",  the  seoond  at  100°,  the 
resulting  tonperatwe  will  not  be  S(t  (as  it  vooU    I 
have  been  had  botit  bodies  been  water),  but  3''23    i 
nearly— in  other  words,  the  amount  of  heat  which 
laiaes  the  temperature  of  1  pound  of  water  3**2,  is   ' 
that  which  would  raise  that  of  1  pound  of  mercury 
gO°7T,ortheapecificheBtof  mercuryisj^of  that   ' 
of  water.    The  following  may  be  given  aa  instances 
'"     great  differences  which  experimmt  haa  shewn 


114;  mercury,  -033. 

It  is  mainly  to  the  great  I 
that  we  are  mdebted  for  thi 


r, -QOSiiraa, 

..  specific  heat  of  water 
the  comparatively  small 
required  to  cool  a  hot  body  dropped 
into  it ;  for  its  comparatively  small  losa  of  tem- 
perature when  it  is  poured  into  a  cold  veasel,  and 
the  enormous  effeota  of  the  water  of  the  ocean  in 
modifying  climate. 

It  has  been  found  generally,  with  a  few  exccn- 
tiona,  that  the  apeolfic  he^s  of  bodies  are  nearly 
iaveraeif/  as  their  Atomic  Weights  (q.  t.).  Saiee  <dl 
aiomt  require  Oie  *amt  amouM  of  heat  to  pndaetlln 
aanie  Amge  in  thar  ItmrpenUuTe.  Thus,  for  nmpla 
bodies,  ws  have  atomic  weight  of  mercnir,  IW; 
its  specific  heat,  -033 ;  product,  3'3 ;  atonie  wei^t 
of  iron,  28;  its  spemfic  heat,  '114;  ^odtiet,  %^ 
A  similar  remaik  may  be  made,  it  ajqwan,  witi 
referenoe  to  oompound  bodtea  of  Oie  same  tvpe; 
but,  in  general,  the  loMluat  of  the  speoifio  bMt 
and  the  atomic  weight  diffcca  from  one  ^pe  to 
another. 

LaleM  Heat,  Ftunon,  Solution,  and  Vaporieation. 
—We  are  now  prepared  to  oonsider  the  aomewhat 
oomplex  effects  produced  by  heat  on  the  molecular 
conatitntian  of  bodiea;  and,  conversely,  the  rela- 
tions of  solidity,  fluidity,  ki,,  to  heat.  All  bodica 
(except  carbon,  which  haa  becii  t^ftened  only)  have 
been  m^Jted,  by  the  application  of  a  proper  amcoat 
of  heat.    The  laws  of  Una  fusion  are  : 

1.  Seerg  body  ha>  a  definite  meltiag-point,  OMi'jra- 
<J)U  on  iJtetiermoiaelrieecale,  tf  tie  pretture  to  wlnA 
it  it  tulneeied  be  liie  some. 

2,  Whea  a  body  it  mtliiag,  it  retaint  Aat  fixei 
teniperaiure,houKiitTmtichit«atma^b«Oijafliti,m^ 


hyGoogle 


beat  mpplied  does  not  raise  the 
tempermtiue,  but  prodvat  Ihe  change  of  ataie. 
Hence  it  aeemed  to  diuppeu',  aa  far  m  ibe  ther- 
niometer  is  oonoerned,  and  'waa  Qierefinv  called 
lolcnf  heat. 

A  pound  of  water  at  79°  C.  added  to  a  ponnd  of 
(eats-  At  0°  C,  prodacee,  of  coanre,  2  ponndi  of  water 
atar-e.  B«(,apoimdof  w»ter»t7Vc.  addedtoa 
pound  of  to!  at  0°  C,  produces  2  pouiidB  of  water 
■t  0*.  Heat,  then,  has  ditapptand  in  the  produc- 
tion of  a  change  from  solidi^  to  flnidity.  ^d  this 
we  mig^t  Bipe«t  from  the  oonierratitni  of  energy 
(aes  FoitcE),  for  actual  eneTg?  in  tiie  shape  tiH  heat 
mnat  be  conanmed  in  producing  the  potential 
energT'  of  the  molecnlar  actioni  in  the  flnid.  For 
erei;  pound  d  ioe  melted,  without  ehaoge  of 
tempentoT^  79  units  of  heat  are  thus  converted 


We  gire  a  few  inatanoes  of  latent  heat  of  foiion : 
Water  (as  above),  79-0 ;  zinc,  281 ;  snlphDr,  »-4 ; 
lead,  S"* ;  mercnry,  2-8. 

la  law  ] ,  it  is  mentioned  that  constancy  of  pres- 
nm  is  necessary.  In  fact,  the  freezing  (or  melting] 
point  of  water  ia  Imnend  by  increase  of  preeonre. 


wmalL  Most  bodies  contract  on  solidiffing  , 
bowerer,  aa  water,  cast  iwm,  tjrpe-metal,  Ac.,  erpatuL 
Ihps,  a  aerere  fniat  aetting  m  after  oapiona  rain 
splita  Toeka,  Ac,  by  the  expansioa  of  freezmg  water; 
and  thna  stao  we  obtain  in  iron  the  most  delicate 
and  faithful  copy  of  a  mould,  and  in  the  fnsible 
alloy  a  clear-cat  copy  of  a  type.  The  modem 
dynamioal  the^  of  oeat  enablea  na  to  see  tiiat  a 
perpetoal  motion  wonld  be  pcocnrable,  if  bodies 
which  contnot  on  solidifying  had  not  Oiai  mnHJng 
pMnt  nised  hj  praanre,  and  vice  vend. 

Analosona  to  the  fnaion  of  a  solid  is  its  tohtiioit 
in  a  liqaid,  or  the  mntoal  convenion  into  liquids  of 
two  Hriida  which  are  intiniately  mixed  in  powder. 
Hne,  alao,  we  should  expect  actual  eneiRy  in  the 
shape  of  heat,  to  be  need  up  in  prodncing  ue  poten- 
lul  ener0  of  the  floid  state ;  and,  indeed,  Nch  ia 


T  pTodnce  cold ;  but  tllia  in  many 
e  oSbet  obacrred,  as  heat  ia  gene- 


itaocoL  Henc^  in  general,  the  observed  effect  will 
be  the  ^fferenoe  of  the  heat  gaieraled  by  chemical 
action,  and  that  abtorbed  in  change  of  state. 


nnr  soFnble  salt]  be  iJaoed  in  a  vessel,  an  equal 
wo^it  of  water  adde^  and  the  whole  stiired  for  a 
miunte  or  two  with  a  test-tnbe  containing  water, 
the  best  required  tor  the  solntion  of  the  aalt  will 
be  abatnwt^  from  aQ  bodies  in  coi^aet  with  the 
•olntion,  and  the  water  in  the  test-tabe  will  be 
froicn.  In  thia  sense,  tlie  ecmpoiind  ia  o^led  a 
For  additional  iUnstrattoni  of 
it,  aee  Frkieino  HiZTUBn. 
convene  i^  this  may  be  eipeoted 
to  bold,  and  latent  heat  to  beoone  sensible  when 
a  liqnid  becomes  sidid.  As  an  example,  when  a 
ntarated  solntitm  of  snlidiate  of  soda  b^jns  to 
deposit  cnitala  of  the  aalt,  the  temperature  riaes 
very  connderably ;  and  it  is  the  disengagement  of 
latent  luat  that  renders  the  freezing  of  a  pond  a 
■low  proceM,  even  after  the  whole  of  the  water 
bu  been  reduced  nearly  to  the  freezing'point. 

VapoTitaSon. — Almost  all  that  haa  been  said  on 
the  mbject  of  fnaion  ia  true  of  vaporisation,  with 
tlis  duuige  of  a  word  or  two.  THins,  however 
much  beat  we  ap{dy  to  a  liquid,  the  tonperatnre 
does  not  lise  above  the  boiling-point.    Heat^  tlien. 


becomes  latent  in  the  act  ot  vaporisation,  or  rather 
is  eoauened  inCo  change  of  state.     It  is  found  by 

: ^  y^  JJ4Q  „^jjg  ^£  hj_jj  jgjj^^  sufficient 

pound  of  water  1°  C.)  disappear  in  the 
of  a  pound  of  water  into  steam.  Hence 
a  puuiiu  m  steam  at  100°  C.  ia  sufficient  to  nuse  5-4 
pounds  of  water  from  zero  to  the  boiling-point. 

Communkation  o/HeaL — Ther«  ai«  at  least  three 
distinct  ways  in  which  this  occurs,  and  these  we 
will  take  in  order. 

Condw^iion. — Why  is  it  that  if  one  end  of  a  poker 
and  of  a  riass  or  wooden  rod  be  pnt  into  a  fire,  we 
can  keep  nold  of  the  other  end  ^  the  latter  much 
longer  Uian  we  can  of  the  former  I  The  reason  is, 
that  heat  is  more  readily  transniitted  in  the  iron 
from  particle  to  particle,  than  it  is  in  ^asa  or 
wood.  This  is  conduction.  It  is  to  be  noticed, 
however,  that  in  this  experiment  a  great  porlitat 
~  the  heat  which  passes  iJong  eadi  rod  is  given 


r  by  the  a 


The 


reatigated  by  Fourier,  and  after  him    ,  . ._, 

but  on  the  supposition  that  the  rate  at  whidi 
heat  passes  from  a  wanner  to  a  colder  portion  of 
a  body  is  proportional  to  the  difertnet  of  tem- 
perature. As  moat  of  the  experiments  whiah 
have  been  made  with  the  object  of  ascertaining  the 
etmduelitUy  (net  cxindnotibLlity.  the  erroneous  wonl 
in  common  use)  of  different  bodies  have  been  made 
in  this  way,  it  is  not  surprising  that  our  knowledge 
on  this  iKiint  is  very  meaoe  indeed.  We  know 
that  silver  conducts  better  than  most  other  metall^ 
and  that  the  metaU  in  general  oonduct  better  than 
other  solids  ;  but  here  our  present  information  ends. 
It  ia  satiafoiltory  to  know,  however,  that  the  ddeoti 
of  the  old  meuiods  are  now  fulfy  acknowledged, 
and  that  the  important  element  of   conductivity 


oondnddvity  of  iron  diminiahes  .  .     .       .    ^ 

inoreases ;  and  the  same  ia  crobably  tme  of  other 
bodies.  This  invalidates  the  oonansionB  of  tlie 
mathematical  theories  above  menldoned,  but  the 
necessary  cart«ctions  will  be  easily  apiJied  when 
the  experimental  data  are  ooinplete^  determined. 

In  conjunction  with  their  radiating  power  (see 
next  section),  the  oondnctivity  of  bodies  is  inost 
important  as  r^ards  their  snitdileness  as  articles  of 
clothing  for  hot  or  cold  climates,  or  aa  materiala  for 

but  refer  to  the  difference  between  linen  and  woollen 
clothing,  or  to  the  difference  (in  cold  weather)  of 
sensation  between  a  carpet  and  a  bare  floor,  in  order 
to  shew  how  essential  the  greater  or  less  oondneting 
power  of  bodies  is  to  our  eveiyday  comfort. 

StuIiaiion.—Bj  this  is  understood  the  pssssge 
of  heat,  not  from  particle  to  particle  <^  one  boi^, 
but  through  air  or  vacuum,  and  even  through  solid 
bodies  (in  a  manner,  and  with  a  velocity  quite 
different  from  those  of  conduction)  from  one  body 
to  another.  There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  aa 
to  radiant  heat  being  identieai  with  light,  differing 
from  i^  light,  foe  instance,  aa  red  lif^  differ*  from 
blue ;  i  e.,  having  (see  Liort)  Ioiukt  waves  than 
those  oorteapoiding  to  red  light.  This  idea  might 
easily  have  arisen  during  the  oonteoiplAtion  u  a 
body  gradnaUv  heated.  At  first,  it  temaina  daik, 
giving  off  only  ray*  of  heat ;  as  its  tempoataie 
increases,  it  rave*  us,  along  with  the  heat,  a  low  red 
li^t,  which,  ny  the  increase  of  the  temperature,  ia 
giadually  accompanied  by  yellow,  bine,  ftc.  rays, 
and  the  incandescent  body  (a  lime-ball,  for  instance) 
finally  gives  off  a  light  as  white  aa  that  cd  die 
sun,  and  which,  therSore,  contains  ail  the  oolonn 
of  son-light  in  their  usujal  proportions.  In  fact 
(sea  Fowa),  there  is  gtwt  reason  to  bsheve  that 


"L'nigj^ 


y  Google 


tin  Sim.  ii  mars^  ■ 

mftttar,  and  that  thi. 

oiled  heat  or  lights  ueraly  difier  in  quaiitf, 

Icind.    Taking  thia  tiew  of  the  sabject  at  the  outset, 

it  vill  be  initrsetlT*  to  conmre  the  propertiea  of 

ladiant  heat  with  thoM  of  light  thronghont. 

lA^hl,  then,  »■«««  (generally)  in  th^ht  linet. 
This  i«  eaailf  renfied  in  tlie  case  of  heat  1^  the  use 
of  the  Thenno-cleotrio  Pile  (q.  t.)  and  it*  galrano- 
meter.  Placing  the  pile  out  otVba  line  from  a  aoorce 
of  beat  to  an  km^qts  in  a  xreen,  n 
obaerred ;  tmt  deflection  of  the  needle  at  < 


A  DODcaTe  miiror,  which  would  bring  rays  of 
li^t  iHnoeeding  frun  a  given  point  to  a  focua  at 
anoUur  given  pcnnt*  doei  the  nine  with  heat,  the 
hot  body  being  anhstitnted  for  the  luminoaa  one, 
and  tlie  pile  maoed  at  the  foooi.  Heat,  then,  ia 
r^betef  amciraing  to  the  tama  laat  u  light.  A 
burning  lens  giraa  a  oapital  proof  of  the  eon's  heat 
and  light  beins  aubject  to  the  auae  lawa  of  r^raa- 
tion.  Whan  the  Solaz  Spectnun  {q.  v.)  i>  formed  hy 
meani  of  a  priam  of  nick-ult  (tile  leasona  for  the 
choice  of  thia  material  will  afterwards  appeu},  the 
thenno-eleotrio  nle  prorea  the  •xictenoe  of  beat  " 
all  the  ookmrM  n«    "  '  '"      »  -       -    '-- 


J,  howerer,  down 
id  end  of  tlw  ipMtniBL  and  attiumng  ita 
1  kypwl  the  viubla  light,  just  »•  if  heat 
« <aa  it  nnut  be)  light  with  longer  watol 
lome  bodies  ■•  gl^^  watc^  &c^  transmit,  when 
thin  plates,  most  at  Uie  Ught  which  falls  on 
;  othen,  as  wood,  metal,  ooloured  glass,  fte., 
mit  nraie  or  littla.  A  plate  «f  rook-salt,  half 
an  mob  thick,  bansmit*  96  per  cant  of  the  rays  of 
heat  which  fall  on  it)  while  glass,  btw  of  aUitck- 
ness  of  on»-teBth  of  an  moh.  tranamita  verj  litUe. 
Id  thia  ssnie,  rook-salt  is  said  to  be  diatAennanout, 
iriule  gUsa  la  aaid  to  be  adiafliermanona,  or  onlj 
partially  diathvmanmiB.  Moat  of  the  ain^  gaaea, 
wwhaaogygen,  hydrogen,  Aop  and  piwfcifMdine**^ 
■noh  M  air,  opp«M  toj  little  naiatance  to  the 


inwHgv  in  nwuanfc  ^lo^vi  '"**'  ""v  rvi 

with  ooMpoand  gaasa.  Soma  neant 
l^mdall  seam  to  ib«w  that  the  vaponr  of  water  .. 
MMoedingly  adiathermanons.  The  qnestion,  bow- 
•nr,  eamiot  be  oonndered  as  final]?  settled,  --" 


Bnt  there  ars  other  remarkable  pht 

rkdiatit  hMt  easily  observed,  which  hare  their 
analogy  in  the  case  of  light.  1.  Unetained  k1»* 
seems  equally  tnnapaioit  to  all  hind*  of  lizht  Buch 
is  the  <«*•  with  rock-salt  aod  be«tt  2.  Light  which 
has  passed  thnnigh  a  bine  glaa*  (fbr  instanoe)  Icae* 
Imi  Urn  Mr  otal  wlwn  it  paaM*  through  »  second 
plate  erf  bhie^gbM*.  Sinulariy,  heat  losos  sa;  75  p«r 
otaL  In  pawing  throng  on*  plate  of  crown-glass, 
and  onljt  10  per  cent  <a  tha  rnnaindar  (say)  in  pass- 
ing thm(^  a  ■eeond  &  Bhu  light  Tjasnns  ooily 
throoA  a  Nm  glsM,  which  almost  enfiiily  arrests 
ndlight.  So  dark  haatpames  far  less  ewdly  throng 
^asa  than  brioht  hsat  dosa.  ^Hiese  analogiea, 
mosUy  dna  to  Mdloni,  are  to^  ramaikaMe. 

Again,  light  on  be  i>Dii&^  A^mctai,  Plmu  Polar. 
Itett,  CIvoMHr  Palaniad.  AU  these  prc^mties 
hars  been  found  in  heat  by  Frinoipal  PoTM  (q.T.). 

Tha  beaotifal  inrealintions  of  Stokn  and  Eir- 
choff  OD  the  m^Mx  speuuum  have  shewn  na  that 
bodiea,  whkh  moat  eanly  abterb  hAt  of  a  naitieDlar 
ctdonr,  when  heated,  nre  off  moat  truly  light  of  that 
colour;  and  it  is  eamly  shewn  by  sjperiSient,  tlut 
thooe  snrfaeea  which  ataorb  heat  mcst  nadilr,  alio 
radiate  it  moat  raadily.  Thm^itwaalcnmdbyLedia, 
that  whm  a  tlansd-iron  onbe  fan  «f  boilinswster  had 
Md,  a  Hard  ocnrwad 


with  lampblack,  &a,  the  polished  side  radiated 
little  heat,  the  ronghsiied,  more,  while  the  Uaokenad 
side  radiated  a  very  great  quantity  indeed.     And 


with  Tou^ened  metal,  (3)  amok^  and  ^be  etpoaed 
to  the  same  radiation  of  heat,  their  aenMbility  will 
be  in  the  order  3,  %  L  A  practical  iUnsbabon  of 
this  ia  seen  in  tha  faot,  that  a  hladcaiad  kettle  ia 
tbat  in  which  water  i*  tnost  speedify  biuled,  whila 
a  poliBhed  one  keeps  the  water  longest  warm  what 
remored  from  the  fire.  Again,  if  a  willow-pattem 
plate  be  heated  white-hot  in  tiie  fire,  and  than 
eiunined  in  a  dark  room,  the  pattern  will  ba 
F^rersed — >  wbit«  pattern  being  seen  on  a  darit 
ground.  Thia  experiment  of  Stewarl^a  is  t«7 
remarkable,  and  TirtDally  eonatitntea  an 
tjon  of  Kirchoff'a  reaults  leading  to  tha 
tion  of  U""  "— '  '- —  '-  '^-  " '——  '- 


law  of  radiation  and  absorption  thu  mainly 

gives  rise  to  the  soperior  ctmifort  of  idiite  clothing 
to  black  in  winter  as  well  as  in  sonuner ;  radiating 
leas  in  winter,  it  absorbs  lees  in  summer. 

Much  has  been  argued  about  the  separate  eiiat- 
ence  of  eoid,  from  such  facts  as  these :  A  peoe  of 
ioe  held  before  the  tbermo-eleotric  pile,  prodncca  an 
oppoaito  defleotion  of  the  galranometer  to  that  doe 
to  a  hot  baU.  If  a  freeiing  mixture  be  placed  at 
one  foam  of  a  spheroidal  mirror,  and  a  thermo- 
meter with  a  blackened  bulb  at  the  conjugate 
focDJ,  the  latter  will  fall  speedily,  thon^  very  far 
oET  fnHD  the  miztura.  Now,  the  real  ei^anatioa  of 
inch  observationa  i>  to  be  found  in  wlut  is  oaOcd 
the  'Thso:7  of  Exchanges,'  first  ennnoiated  by 
Preroat,  and  since  greatly  ext«nded  and  carefully 
Tsrified  by  Stewart,  which  i«  to  this  «ffect :  '  Ereiy 
body  is  oontinually  radiating  heat  in  all  direotiona^ 
the  amount  radiated  being  (nearly)  proportiouU  to 
ita  own  temperature,'  Henoe  the  apparent  radia- 
tion of  cold  in  the  enwrimanta  above  mentioned 
ia  dne  to  the  fact  of  Ot»  pile  or  thernuimeta 
rtKfMriiiV  q^  *>w*«  ^tat  IJbn  it  rteeist*,  a*  ita  tem- 
perature it  hunter  than  that  of  the  menog  nix- 
tor*  to  which  ft  ia  oppoced.  From  this  it  ii  evident 
that  any  number  of  bodies  left  near  each  other,  taid 
f^adnally  to  aanune  a  common  tempentnre.  By 
wis  theory  of  exchangee,  ws  explain  the  oold  f«t 
in  aittiikg  opposite  a  window  in  a  froaty  d^,  even 
when  there  la  no  draught. 

CAmescfian. — A  hot  body  oools  faster  in  a  oorreot 
of  air  than  in  a  atill 
atmoephare  of  the  same 
temperatnre,  evidentiy 
becMise  fresh  luppliM  <d 
the  colder  air  are  oon- 
tinnally  brought  into  oon- 
'    ■    -  ""     '■       It  i«  by 


Uquids  an 


mainly'  i 
onveyad   £ 


particle    in 

uuiuuB  iHiu  gases.    Thoa,  /. 

irtwn  a  lamp  is  tqipliad  f; 

to  the  bottom  of  a  vessel  i,V 


ronld    <by 

metal,  bnt  the  expansion 
of  the  heated  wator  at 
tile  bottom  rendering  it 
lighter,    bnlk    for    bulk, 

fluid,    canssa   it    to    rise 
to  the  surface ;  and  thua, 
by  orarveotion,  the  heat  is 
msos.    Coaduirtion,  ^operly 


tyCOtigll? 


HEATH — HEATEN. 


■cooont.  The  tramoloBi  app«*nuioa 
object,  u  KCD  hj  light  vlooh  pMM*  ii««r  %  Itot 
mrfmce,  u  thmt  M  •  boilar  or  a  red-hi>t  poker,  ia 
daa  to  Uie  ooDreotioii  <rf  Itett  in  th«  til,  ui«  vaim 
cmrent  lefraotiiig  light  Uta  Uum  the  cold  mir.  See 
VnmLAnoa'. 

For   the   mechanioal    »pplicaticiiui  of   heat,  lae 

STKAM-TnaiSt,  CALORIO-KMaini,  fto. 

£ourou  qf  HeaL — Ther  may  be,  lo  fir  ■■  we 
know,  nltdmatelj  redaoed  to  two— -ohemioal  oom- 
bination,  and  Tii«r}i«iiii-»1  force ;  and,  iitdeed,  in  all 
probability,  the  former  ia  only  a  rariety  of  the 
unmenaely  different  forma  in  which  the  latter  ii 
nuuiferted.  A  more  full  examination  of  tbi* 
point;,  and  a  general  itatement  of  tins  nltiinaf* 
nature  of  the  vsriooa  aonrcea  of  be»t^  will  be 
found  in  the  uticle  Fosci  above  reCetred  to. 
See  alio  CouBUBnoN,  Fukl. 

HEATH  (£rfca),  a  genua  of  imall  ihmbe  of  the 


Tentricoae — corolla,  and  a  4-called,  4-ralTed  capaula, 
with  diuepimantii  from  the  middle  of  the  valvei. 
The  ]«•*«■  oM  imaU,  linear,  and  evergreen.  The 
genu,  M  thai  defined,  baa  been  broken  down  by 


acnne  botaniata  into  a  nnmber  of  genera,  but  the  old 
name.  Erica,  ia  atill  more  commonly  retained.  The 
name  H.,  however,  ii,  in  popular  langmwe,  ariended 
to  many  planta  of  ganei>  nearly  ulied  to  Sriea; 
aod  the  little  ahnib  which  ohie^  cover*  the  large 
tracta  named  moon  or  htoAt  (Gir.  Baldt)  in  Britun 
and  on  the  contiDent  of  Europe  it  CalUtna  9ulgmi» 
(fig.  3].  The  ^M  CoUufM  hM  been  aapanted 
frran  Brka,  chiefly  on  aooount  of  diffemoea  in 
the  oapanle,  and  of  the  preaenoe  of  four  btaota 
reeembling  an  outer  calyx.  O.  vtdgan*,  the  oom- 
uon  Lino  ,or  HuTsnt,  ia  the  only  apaeita  known. 
It  ia  found  on  arid  plaoei,  and  uao  in  boga. 
The  flowera  have  much  the  iqipearanoa  of  bemg 
in  Bpikea ;  they  are  of  a  lilao  roae  colour,  rarely 
white.  The  varioua  depth  of  colour  in  the  flowera 
of  different  planta  adda  mnch  to  llie  beantv  of  a 
Mllaide  oovraed  with  H.  in  the  end  of  Anguab 
The  flowera  afford  atnmdance  of  honey,  and  Dee- 
hives  are  tkercEoi*  tranaported  to  the  moora  whan 
the  beaUtef  ia  in  bloom.  In  bo^  it  oontribntea 
uneh  to  tlw  tbrmatioii  ol  pe*t  In  aome  of  the 
Hebridoe,  a  deooctioii  of  H.  ia  oaed  for  tanning 
leather.    The  plant  la  a^illad  to  varioai  othv 


uaea  in  the  TTigliUn,<.  of  SooUand.  Cottagea  are 
often  thatched  with  it,  and  aome  of  Uie  pooreet 
Bra  moatly  built  of  it,  in  layeri  with  the  roota 
inward,  and  mixed  with  earUi  and  atraw.  Beda 
are  alao  made  of  it,  placed  in  a  alopiu  direotion, 
with  the  tope  upwards,  and  are  said  to  be  very  soft 
and  elastic.  Beacons  and  lorubbing-bruihea  are 
made  of  it.  In  the  island  of  Inlay,  ue  is  made  by 
brewing  one  part  of  malt  and  two  of  the  young  top* 
of  heauier ;  and  this  is  supposed  to  be  Uie  same 
beverage  which  wh  anoiently  used  by  the  Picta, — 
Of  tiie  genus  JSrita,  aboat  600  apeciea  are  known ; 
and  these,  with  few  eioeplions,  are  nativea  of  tha 
sooth  of  Africa.  None  are  foond  in  America.  The 
Briliah  lalea  prodooa  (even  apeoiM,  of  whioh  soma 
have  only  been  found  in  Ireland,  and  some  in  tha 
south-weat  of  Enaland.  CBoaB-LKS.VKD  H.  (£, 
tttndvL)  |6g.  S)  and  Ftinc-LU.VK[>  K  {E.  eitiata) 
{tiK  1)  are  common  planta  in  most  parts  of  Britain, 
aiM  like  most  of  the  genus,  are  very  beantifnl 
when  in  flower.  The  htatiier-bfUt  of  Soottiih  song 
are  the  flowera  of  one  or  both  of  these  apeoie*. 
A  sprig  of  B.  dntrta  was  the  badge  of  the  Mao- 
donalda  at  liie  tiine  when  they  existed  aa  a  distinot 
dan.  E.  MtdilerrtaKa  and  £.  camta,  oommon 
in  the  soDthem  parts  of  Europe,  are  very  ~ 


its  of  Bntish  flowei^bordras,  hiuily  pi 
Lg  tiieir  flowers  in  great  profusion  id  j 

Uanv  speoiM,  remsikable  for  the  aiie  and  b , 

of   tAoir   flower*,  ara  mnch  cnltivated  in  graen- 


produdng  U 
Many  speoii 


hovaea ;  and  heath-hoBaea  are  sometiiM*  erected  for 
tha  speoial  pnipoaa  of  tbetr  cuHivatdoD.  Some  of 
tha  Soath  *f-i~"  of  Cape  heath*  attain  in  their 
native  tegion  a  mndi  greater  die  than  any  Eoropean 
H.  exoepi  E.  arimrta,  whioh  in  tha  Pyieneea  soma- 
time*  growB  to  the  height  of  twenty  feet. 

HBATH.  The  burning  or  setting  flre  malidonsly 
to  a  heath  in  England  is  felony,  ana  is  punished  b^ 
impriaonment  tor  three  yean  or  lees.  "Hie  offence  is 
tecnnjcally  called  Araon,  bdog  one  of  ita  varietica. 
In  Scotland,  the  offence  la  called  Muirbnm  (q.  v.). 

HEAVEN,  in  popular  Physical  Soicaioe,  msau 
the  expanse  which  aorronndB  uie  earth,  and  whioh  to 
a  mA»tor  cm  the  eartb'a  nrfaoa  appear*  a*  a  vaal 
arch  or  vanlt,  in  iriiich  are  seen  the  ann,  moon,  and 
atar*.  The  earlieat  idea  entartained  of  thi*  espana* 
waa  of  a  solid  nnh  or  hemiaphere  withita  eoncavity 
turned  downwarda  ^ee  Vomamekt). — In  Tbealc«y, 
the  word  'heaven'  may  be  explained  to  mess  that 
portion  (rf  ilia  infinite  apace  m  which  the  Lord  «f 
all  thin^  althongh  present  thronghoat  all,  is  sup- 
posed to  give  more  immediate  manifsatatioiia  o( 
His  glory.  Of  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  aom* 
auch  apecial  acene  of  the  preaeuce  of  the  Deity, 
moat  ot  the  known  religion*  of  the  world,  ancient 
and  modem,  present  abnndant  evidence.  Aristotle 
declarea  that  all  men,  whether  Greeks  (t  barbarian*, 
have  a  oonoaptian  of  gods ;  and  all  agree  in  plaoios 
the  habitation  of  Qa  goda  in  the  moat  elevated 
regicm  of  tha  nnivena.  Plato  ia  eqoal^  explicit. 
£t«n  Epionma  teanho*  Uie  *ame  doctrine ;  and  one 
of  the  treatise*  dedphered  from  the  papyri  of 
Harcnlauenm  i*  a  trastise  by  him,  in  which  tha 
position  and  the  other  charaoteristtcs  of  the  habi- 
tation of  Uie  god*  are  minutely  dismissed.  Tha 
same  may  be  said  of  tha  Peisisii,  the  Egyptian,  the 
Qeiman,  the  Scandinavian,  and  in  general  of  all 
the  ancient  reli^on*  in  which  the  nelief  of  tbe 
existence  of  a  supreme  being  asnmea  any  oUier 
form  than  tha  pantheistic ;  and  even  in  tne  pan- 
theiatio  religiona,  although  the  philosopher*  may 
have  adhered  to  the  sinct  panueistia  view,  and 
may  have  denied  that  any  apecial  localil?  oonld  be 
rded  aa  the  peonliar  aesA  of  the  Ddty,^ws 
tba  papula*  baliaf  and  tbapopnlar  wcohiparan 

LintizodhyGOO'^l 


of  sodl  religionl  plainly  founded  upon  the  contrary 
nippoaition.  In  addition,  however,  to  the  idea  a( 
its  being  tiie  special  Boene  of  Ood's  glot 
heaven  alio  desienates  the  place,  or  ' 
conditioD,  of  the  blessed  spinta,  and  of 
just  men  who  are  admitted  into  the  pot .  , 
the  contemplation  of  the  divine  beatitade^  In  the 
religious  system  of  the  Oreeka  and  Romaoa,  none 
v«re  supposed  to  be  admitted  to  the  heaven  of  the 
gods  except  the  deified  herooi  or  demigods  ;  bat 
with  them  the  Elt^iaii  Fields  of  the  lover  world 
held,  morally  speakltig.  the  same  place  in  relation 
to  the  great  doctrine  of  the  divine  retribution  for 
the  ^ood  and  evil  addons  of  human  life.  The 
Elynnm  of  the  dasaic  mythology  is  in  all  essential 
respects  the  natural  equivalent  of  the  heaven  of  the 
juit.  The  Pythagorean  doctrine  of  metempaychoua 
approached  nearer  to  it  in  form,  for  it  soppoaed 
that  the   soul,  after  the  purificatioii  of 


kto  was  still  more  explicit.  JJthoogh 
was  rather  the  rule  than  the  eiceptian,  it  may  be 
said  in  genera]  that  all  the  iihilogophical  aystema 
which  inclnded  the  belief  of  the  immortality  o!  the 
soul,  also  involved,  at  least  in  anbstance,  the  idea  of 
a  state  of  happineas  as  the  reword  of  a  virtnons  life. 
The  happineas,  however,  of  the  heaven  of  theae 
vBTious  creeds  differed  widely  from  the  apiritoal 
delists  of  the  heaven  of  revelation,  each  nabon  and 
each  class  forming  to  itKU  its  own  ideal  of  enj(^- 


wanior  had  his  war-horse  and  his  annour  laid  in 
his  grave,  that  he  mii^t  be  able  to  pursue,  after 
death,  the   fierce   enjoyments   in  which   he    had 


'uieaei  om  even  me  more  grovelling  conceptions 
of  the  paradise  rA  other  race*,  must  be  regarded 
aa  »  natural  mamlestatioD  of  the  same  instinct, 
or  aa  a  remnant,  however  oveHaid  by  error  and 
siR)erstition,  tX  the  sants  primeval  revelation  npon 
wni<di  tiie  scriptural  notion  of  heaven  is  founded. 
Accommodating  itself  to  the  popular  conceptions 
of  the  Jews,  Uie  biblical  phnseology  frequently 
implies  the  idea  of  the  Kuid  firmament  already 
described  ;  bnt  the  word,  according  to  tiie  common 
acceptation  among  Christiana,  is  generally  used 
simply  to  signiff  the  abode  of  the  Most  Hi^  and 
the  special  seat  of  His  glory,  in  which  the  anoels 
minister  to  Him,  and  the  Uessed  s^irita  abide 
in  perpetual  pruae  and  adoration.  Thia  abode  of 
penect  bliss  is  believed  to  have  been  tqwned  to 
the  just  after  the  passion  of  our  Lord  and  his 
ascension  into  heaven.  Out  of  the  just  of  the  old 
dispensation,  only  Enoch  and  Eliss  were  direct^ 
admitted  to  heaven ;  the  patriaroha,  the  prophets, 
and  in  genoBl  the  just,  before  tho  now  dispensatioii, 
were  detained  in  a  preparatory  abode,  which  tbe 
Fathers  call  by  the  name  Limbtit  Paimm,  awaiting 
the  oomina  of  the  oommoa  Bedeemer.  The  com- 
mon belief  of  Chriatdana  has  been,  that,  since  the 
comins  of  Christ,  the  jost  who  ore  free  from  sin 
are  a£aitted  into  heaven  immediately  after  death. 
More  than  one  oontroveny,  however,  haa  ariaen  on 
the  anhject ;  the  moat  important  of  which  are  the 
Milleuarian  controversy  (see  Milukbhtji),  the 
Origenistic  (see  OKiaED),  and  that  on  the 
queatian  whether  the  jolt  are  admitted  to  the 
beatific  vision  of  Ood  immediately  after  death,  or 
only  after  the  general  recnrrectioa.  The  latter 
conbovei^  aroae  oat  of  the  question  aa  to  the 
nature  of  the  happinen  of  heaven,  a  diacusBon 
which  would  be  oat  of  plooe  here.    The  Ktma 


a  building ;  and  it  places  the  happineas  of  heaven 
in  the  enjoyments  ofsense.    The  Cabbalistic  writer* 

sive  degrees  of  slory  which  they  im^y.  The  sermth 
is  the  abode  ol  God  and  of  the  highest  class  of 
angels ;  the  sixth,  fifth,  fourth,  and  third,  are  the 
tva  abodes  of  the  various  grades  of  *"gj"- 
d  according  to  the  degrees  of  dignity.    J%« 


Tttlammt   of  tht    Tvxlve  Fainardu,    i 
very  curious  expositian  of  the  same  noaon. 
Fabrioins,  Oodd.  PteiuUp.  VA  TaL  L  p.  6iG. 

HEBBEI4  Frudbich,  a  modem  lyrical  1 
dramatio  poet  of  Qetmany,  was  bom  afWesselburen, 
in  Ditmaiah,  duchy  of  Holstein,  Denmark,  18th 
March  1813;  studied  at  Eeidelberg  and  Munich; 
and  after  travelling  in  Franoe  and  Italy,  settled  at 
Vienna,  where  he  married  the  actress  Christine 
Bnghaus  in  1846.  Be  died  in  1863.  His  principal 
are  his  GedidUe  (2  vols.  Bomb.  IS^ ;  Leip. 
, .  remarkable  both  for  their  melody  and  beauty ; 
and  several  dramas.  H.  had  a  rich  imagination, 
great  power  of  thought,  and  an  energetic  andoriginal 
style,  but  too  great  a  predilection  for  the  horrible 
and  the  exaggerated.  — Compare  Henneberger'H  Dot 
DaiCaeke  JMtma  der  QegeaumTl  (1853). 

HB'Bfi,  the  goddess  of  youth,  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  and  Here — according  to  oth^s,  of  Here  alone — 
the  wife  of  Hercules  after  he  had  been  deified. 
She  wu  the  ciHibearer  in  Olympus,  before  Zeus 
oonf^red  that  office  upon  Oanymede  (q.  v.);  but  she 
always  retained  the  power  of  restoring  the  aged  to 
the  bloom  of  youth  and  beauty.  According  to 
Apollodorua,  she  became  the  mother  of  two  sons  by 
Hercules — AJexiares  and  Aniketos.  In  Eomer,  she 
always  ^>pean  as  a  virgin.  In  Athens,  oltarn  wer 
'  to  her  conjointly  with  Hercoleo.  In  Rome, 
._.  ...I  worshipped  under  the  name  of  Juventas, 
and  a  temple  in  Her  honour  existed  on  the  Capitoline 
Hill  at  the  time  of  Servius  Tnllins.  Statnes  of 
H.  are  extremely  rare ;  she  is  to  be  recognised 
only  by  the  ddnking-oup. 

HEBER^Reoihald,  an  English  poef^  and  second 


College,  Oxford ;  and  three  years  after  produced  hi* 
prile-poem  PaU  -       ■'         ■         ■ 
which  holds  a  p 


prite-poem  Paialme,  the  only  prize-poem  perhapa 
which  holds  a  place  in  English  Lteratnre.  ia  ISM, 
he  became  a  Fellow  of  All  Soul*.    In  1807,  he  w 


inducted  into  the  family-living  at  Hodnel^  aad 
ei>te>«d  upon  his  parochial  doties  with  great  xeoL 
He  WM  B  freqnent  contributor  to  the  QuarUiif 
JteeioB,  hi*  poUtieal  views  being  those  of  a  T017 
and  High  ChDichman.  In  the  ooune  of  1818,  tie 
publiahed  a  volume  of  Hymn*.  He  was  appointed 
Bampton  lecturer  in  I81S,  and  two  years  after  he 
received  a  stall  in  St  Asaph  Cathedral  He  edited 
the  works  of  Jeremy  Taylor  in  1319,  and  in  1322  he 
was  elected  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Tnn.  Shortly 
afterwards,  the  vacant  see  of  Calcutta  was  offered  to 
him,  and  after  much  hesitatiiHi  on  account  of  hia 
wife  and  child,  it  was  accepted,  and  he  embailced 
for  India  on  the  16th  June  182%  On  his  arrival,  he 
entered  upon  his  duties  with  exemplary  seal;  and 

June  18S4,  he  began  the  vimtaldon  ot  his  diooesa. 

9  spent  about  eleven  months  visitilkg  stataons  in 
Upper  Bengal  and  the  north  of  Bombay.  From 
April  to  August  1825,  he  remained  at  Bomliay,  and 
sailed  from  thence  to  Calcutta,  where  he  arrived  on 
the  21st  October.  In  February  1826^  he  prooeeded 
adnuonavisittotJaeaouihenipnmnoca.    He 


t.Google 


LArary. 


NMhed  IViduiioTMdy  on  the  1st  April,  and 
3d,  after  confliming  fifteen  natiTes,  and  bestowins 
on  tbam  tie  epiaecrpal  benediction,  he  entered  a  cold 
bath,  in  which,  hialf  an  honr  afterwarde,  he  vu 
bond  dead.  The  Journal  which  he  kept  dnring 
lua  tonr  of  vimtation  wai  originally  pnbliihed  in 
three  octavo  Trilnnini  and  waa  aftenraraa  reprinted 
■  in  oLnzTKfs  Home  aitd  Cobninl 
Hia  life  was  pnUiahed  bj  hia  widow  in 
inmea  (Lond.  1830). 

Aa  a  poet,  hia  fame  nati  npon  Pi^etUne  and  hit 
Bymat,  the  latest  edition  of  which  waa  pnblifihed 
in  18Cfi.  They  haTe  not  much  foice  or  ^pth,  but 
tiiqr  are  pleaimgly  Teraified,  and  are  illuminated  by 
gracefnl  fancy.  Aa  a  poet,  he  will  be  remembered ; 
but  ■■  the  moat  learned  and  fealooi  of  ladiao 
biahopa,  he  ia  mainly  enthiiued  in  the  affectioiui 
of  his  cooatnrmen,— KiCHiBD  Hibwr,  half-brother 
of  the  precAUnE,  waa  bom  in  WeetmituAer  in  1773, 
and  died  in  1833.  Ea  waa  a  famoni  bibliomaniao. 
Having  (ucceeded  to  large  eetatea  by  the  death  of 
hia  faUier  in  1604,  he  waa  enabled  to  indulge  hia 
elcfptnt  hobby^  to  the  otmoat.  Dr  Dibdin  ealimated 
his  eolleolaon  iu  England  at  106,000  vola.,  in  addition 
to  which  he  poMeaeed  many  thomtande  of  booka  on 
the  contineDt,  the  whole  having  coat  him  £18O,OO0l 

HUBERT,  JAoguxB  R^ti^  etmuconh^  known  aa 
Pire  DioAeme,  one  of  the  mort  promgate  char- 
aoters  of  the  Frendl  Kevolntdon,  waa  bom  at 
Alenjon,  in  the  year  1TS6.  At  an  early  age,  he 
went  to  Paria,  and  became  a  eervant  in  one  of  the 
■mall  theatres,  but  waa  diEmisaed  for  embezzling 
He  then  entered  the  aervioe  of  a  ph  jeician, 
led  for  the  same  fault.  At  the 
the  Itevolutioii,  a  person  of  the 
name  of  LemJure,  nnder  the  title  of  i^i'^rei>ucA«n«, 
published  a  small  popular  paper  for  the  difiudon  of 
oonstitnlional  rainciples  among  the  people.  The 
■ncceaa  of  thia  paper  induced  the  Jacobtna  to 
eatabliah  another  of  the  same  name,  and  H.  was 
appointed  editor ;   and  knowing  the  tastea  of  the 


as  mined  the  enterjn^  of  tus  honest  rivaL  In 
consequence  of  the  events  of  the  10th  August,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  revolutionary  couiicil,  and 
played  a  consjncuous  port  in  the  horrors  of  Sep- 
tember. He  and  his  associatee,  called  Eebertiats 
or  Enraglt,  were  likenrise  mainlr  instnunental  in 
converting  the  drnmh  of  Notoe  Dame  into  a  temple 
of  Beaaon.  He  was  at  Icoigth  ohlised  to  give  way 
before  the  par^  of  BobeapieiTe,  and  perished  on  the 
Bcaffold  on  the  24di  Mai^  17H. 

HE^BKWS  [Helx  Tbr^—either  from  Abraham, 
who  came  'from  the  other  aide'  of  £upliist«a  {Eber, 
Ibr),  or  from  Gber,  the  great-grandson  of  Shem, 
and  one  of  Abraham's  ancestors]  is  the  distinctive 
name  of  that  branch  of  the  Semitia  family  which 
migrated  from  Meaopotamia  into  Falectine,  tbenoe 
went  to  Bgrp^  uid,  after  a  long  period  of  bondage, 
reconquered  Palestine,  and  finilly  settled  there. 
Divided,  at  a  later  period,  into  two  distinct  states, 
that  of  Jndah  and  of  Israel,  they  were  singly 
overoome,  and  led  into  eiSe.  A  portion,  chiefly 
constating  of  descendants  of  Jndah  (Jehudab), 
returned,  and  founded  a  new  empire.  From  that 
time  forward,  all  the  members  oi  the  Mosaio  oom- 
monwealth  were  known  by  the  name  of  Jehodim, 
corrupted  into  Jews.  A  continuous  sketch  of  their 
entire  history  from  the  days  of  Abraham  to  our 
own,  as  well  as  a  briel  outline  of  ilieir  language  and 
literature,  will  be  found  under  Jbwb. 

HEBREWS,  Efibilx  to  THi^  one  of  the  Ejurtles 
of  the  New  Testament.  Much  discoasion  haa  arisen 
bo^  as  to  ito  ODM^iuatji  and  authorMp,  the  ahMnce 


of  the  customary  mpencription  rendering  it  impos- 
sible to  attain  oertwnt:^  in  regard  to  the  latter,  and 
natorally  enough  tending  to  tiirow  doubt  on  '*— 
former  also.  ^  reference  to  tiie  first  and  m 
important  of  tiieee  points,  the  canonicity,  the  case 
ituida  «a  follows  :  Theearlieetpost-apoatolicwrif" 
Clement  Bomaaos,  quotes  from  it  in  the  same  way 
aa  from  the  other  books  admittedly  canonicaL 
Jnstiii  Martyr,  Pinytns  (T),  the  Cretan  bishcnt,  th 
predeceMort  of  Clemens  Alexandrinos  and  Oiuen, 
and  the  framen  of  the  Peshito  version  of  the  New 
Testament,  acoept  it  as  authoritative ;  while  tiie 
Qnoetic  h^^cs,  Basilidea  and  Marcion,  are  spoken 
of  as  distinctly  rejecting  it.  No  disbelief  of  it* 
canonicity  is  eipessed  by  any  section  of  the  ortho- 
dox diurch  until  after  the  middle  of  the  2d  c — 
though  many  writers  are  silent  altogether  aboat  it 
— after  whidi  period,  for  lis  neit  two  centoriei 
the  Boman  and  NorUi  African  churches  reject  il 
aathority.  TertuUisn  speaks  of  it  as  a  good  sort  of 
apocryphal  book;  Cyprian  does  not  include  it  in 
Paul's  epistles ;  Irenieus,  even  while  defending  the 
divinity  of  Chnst,  declines  to  strengthen  his  argu- 
ment, which  he  could  very  effectively  have  done,  Oy 
IxoTOwing  armour  from  its  ttorea  ;  while  the  Mora- 
torian  Jra^eut  on  the  Canon,  Cains,  Hippolvtus, 
and  Victormus  of  Fannonia,  alto  leave  it  out  of  the 
Paolins  epistles.  During  the  4th  c,  however,  iti 
anthority  anin  began  t«  revive,  and  it  was  received 
1^  Hila^  <»  Poitiera,  Ambroee  of  Milan,  and  later 
by  Jerome,  who,  though  frequently  too  haaty  in  ' ' 
Oonclnsions,  waa  cei^itily  the  most  learned  ■ 
acconiplished  of  the  Latin  Fathers.  The  immense 
authority  of  Aogustine  waa  thrown  into  the  same 
scale;  others  soon  followed,  and  in  410  A.n,,  a 
decnrtal  of  Pope  Innocent  UL  placed  its  canonicity 
beyond  caviL  In  modem  times,  Cardinal  Cajetan, 
the  opponent  of  Luther,  reopened  the  ancient  con- 
troversy. He  rejected  the  authority  of  the  epistle. 
The  gnat  reformer  did  the  same,  affirming  that  it 
was  Uie  work  of  some  disciple  of  Paul's,  who  had 
not  been  thoronghly  gronnded  in  his  master's  teach- 
ing, and  had  bout  bis  own  '  wood,  hay,  and  stubble ' 
upon  the  apostle's  '  gold,  silver,  and  predoos  stones.' 
This  opinion,  however,  met  with  sniall  approval, 
and  has  never  been  adapted  by  any  Protestant 
church. — A  MorAip.  As  we  have  already  said,  the 
author  of  the  ejristte  is  unknown,  bnt  ia  commoiJy 
inppoaed  to  be  8t  Panl  This  appears  to  have 
been  the  opinion  of  the  Kastent  ohnrch  from  the 
first ;  but  the  Alexandrian  Fathers — the  most 
critical  and  scholarly  of  the  early  Christian  theolo- 
gians— struck  with  the  entire  dissimilarity  of  style, 
phraaeology,  and  mode  of  thought  which  it  presents 
to  the  Pauline  epistles,  and  which  is  abundantly 
manifest  even  in  the  '>'i"gi"*'  version,  sought  to  fix 
.  antlionMp  on  some  o&er  person,  Luke  being  the 
ronrite.  Tertnllian,  a^in,  states  that,  according 
the  tiiiditional  belief  <S  the  North  African  scho^ 
Bamabas  was  the  author.  The  Boman  Chnrdi,  down 
'  .B  middle  of  tlie  4th  c,  contented  itself  with  a 

n_live  position,  denying  its  Pauline  authorship. 

The  opinion  of  the  Al^andrian  school  may  be 
said  to  have  prevailed,  viz.,  that  thoagh  Panllne  in 
esaence,  the  epistie  was  not  Pauline  in  form.  Tlins 
the  matter  remained  idll  the  time  of  Lather,  who 
suggested  Apollos  at  the  likeUeet  author.  Since 
then,  many  scholars  have  inclined  to  the  tame 
opinion,  among  others,  Le  Clerc,  Bleek,  De  Wett<^ 
[ntolock,  Bunsen,  and  Alford. 
Who  were  the  '  Hebrews '  to  whom  the  epistle 
u  sent,  ia  alao  a  matter  of  doubt ;  bnt  the  pre- 
ponderance of  probability  it  very  tlirongly  on  the 
side  of  the  church  at  Jemsalem,  composed  of 
those  who  ware  'Hebrews  of  the  Hebrews.'  The 
date  4^  the  epistle  can  cmly  be  inferred  from  its 


TTtkrogte 


ocmtenta.  It  tnort  have  beea  bffyre  the  dcatrnotion 
of  Jenualem  (70  A.D.),  becvite  the  overthrow  of  the 
templa  U  not  ftlladcd  to,  which  would  hAve  been 
one  of  the  rtrongest  hnka  m  the  chain  of  ■rgmnent 
to  prove  the  ttaafOTtiy  sktore  of  the  old  n&tioiial 
faith. 

The  pnrpow  of  the  writer  ol  the  epieUe  i« 
opparentl;  to  enooiuwe  the  Jewiah  Chriatiniui  of 
Jenualem— perhape  of  all  Palertine — to  peteevBte 
in  the  profenion  of  their  faith.  Id  their  own  '  H0I7 
Land,'  and  in  the  perpetoal  preaenM  of  terrioM  that 
time  had  hallowed,  and  which  were  MMoiated  with 
•11  that  was  gloiiooa  and  dear  ia  their  national 
hiatoTj,  they  were  apt  at  timee  to  look  back  with 
a  melanchofy  Teaming  on  tiie  pMt,  and  tbna  wa« 
often  tempted  to  apoatatiie  from  motiTel  which  thejr 

h&rdly  dued  to  condemn.    The  w— ''— ' —  ■' 

would  leem,  of  the  eziitence  of  1 
up  with  bold  nnflinching  eloqi 
qnestion  of  Jndunn  vernu  Chrutiani^ ;    eihibita 


attractions,  and  ahewa  that  what  ia 
leollj  deep  and  valuable  in  it  ii  its  proptitHe  ehar- 
acter ;  it  la  but  the  shadow  of  a  '  better  hope,'  nL, 
'the  hopeid  the  goniel ;'  and  the  great  father*  and 
heroei  of  judaiim,  Dom  Ahel  downward,  ilhutiate 
the  truth  of  thia,  for  'then  all  died  in  futh,  not 
havingreceived  Uie  promiaee,  but  having  Hen  them 
afar  (%'  Bat  ao  vital  and  strong  wai  th«r  &udi, 
that  it  may  altnort  he  aaid  to  nave  put  them  in 
■piritnal  poneesion  of  the  realities  to  which  they 
looked  forward,  for  '  faith  a  the  nJulcmee  of  thing! 
hoped  for,  the  nidetKt  of  things  not  seen.'  Thus 
they  were  '  Chriatiana  before  Chrittianity,'  and  now 
that  the  things  which  they  hoped  (or  had  cone, 
the  Jewish  believem  ought  ncA  to  be  grieved  at 
parting  with  the  old  national  worship,  however 
dear,  lor  Ihe  new  woiship  really  emoraoed  the 
mb«t«nc«  of  the  old,  and  thus  bestowed  upon  it  its 
own  immortality.  Suoh  is,  in  the  inain,  the  eonioe 
of  thought.  The  style  ol  the  epistle  in  Mvval 
pel  III  ml*  if  richly  rhetorical 

HB'BBIDEa,  the  name  applied  in  a  general  eenae 
to  all  the  idaodi  on  the  w^  coast  of  Scotland. 
They  have  been  Tarionsly  classified ;  but  the  most 
natwal  division  seem*  to  be  into  the  Onter  and 
Inner  Hebrides.  To  the  Outer  belong  Lewis,  with 
Eanii,  Korth  Oist,  Benbeenla,  South  Uiit,  Bam, 
CoU,  and  Tiree.  Ihe  rtmote  iil«  of  St  Kilda  might 
be  BBMdated  with  titis  eitamal  miIm.  Ha  pnn- 
cipal  ol  tike  Inner  ulanda  an  Sh;^  ^St  Unll,  lona, 
StaS^  Ulva,  Livnor^  Kerren,  £aa^«,  Colonaay, 
Jnra,  and  lali^.  Bate,  the  Onmbraea,  and  Airan, 
though  Ifins  n  the  Firth  of  Clyd^  are  usually 
olassed  with  the  Hebridesi  The  whole  are  pranUatly 
spoken  ot  «•  the  Western  Isles,  the  twm  H,  being 
confined  ohiefly  to  literature. 

The  total  amnbei'  of  the  K  i«  about  490 
(which  number  includes  every  islet  that  affords 
sufGcuut  pasturage  to  (niiw>rt  one  aheep),  but  of 
these  not  more  than  120  ar«  inhabited.  Hie 
entire  ate*  i*  not  accurately  known,  but  haa  been 
estimated  at  upwards  of  3000  sqnan  nulea,  and  the 
population,  whichia  not  increatin|^  wat  in  1871  about 
loOiOOa  Ot  the  whole  surface,  only  about  200,000 
marta  are  aiaU^  Uie  rest  ia  in  partore-land  ot 
little  «kln^  and  in  moiaMeB,  peat-mo«cs,  lakes, 
and  banea  sands  and  rocka.  The  aoeneiy  of 
akys  is  nand  and  pietuiesque;  Unll  is  noted 
for  its  Itfty  moonUina,  Jon  for  its  peak^  and 
Airan  for  its  hidi  mgRsd  hilla.  Iilay  and  Bote 
are  cotnpsntivsl^  level  and  arable.  Staffa  is 
lemaAaua  tea  its  basaltie  lyilnmuM  and  {creat 
osvwn.  Ions  derives  interest  from  its  ruins  and 
historical  sirHnfi —    Fohtioally,  all  the  Hebridean 


ms  <^  which  thn  partidpst«b 
ig  whieh  they  an  cUsvihotM  arc 


Boss,  Inverness,  Aigylc^  and  Buta^  Hm 
mineipsl  Hebiidess  towns  araStoniowav  in  Lewia, 
Portree  in  Skye,  Tobermory  in  Mull,  and  BothcMjr 


Bute.     Though  situated  on  the  mainland   of 

Argyle,  Obsn  is  usually  oonvdered  a  town  ol  tb* 

H.,  and,  next  to  Bothesay.is  best  known  to  tomista. 

Enjoying  the  benefit  cit  the  Onlf  Stnsm  (q.  v.), 

.^     ■s. of  the  H.  in  peotiUarl;  mild.      "'- 


seldom  lies  long  o 
and  in  sheltereif  sp 


>w0mind^ 
,  not  nipped 

by  winttf  frosts.  But  if  genial,  the  olinMts  is  also 
humid.  DiissUng  nina  w*  freqaeat<  and  mista 
(Aot  eovelop  the  idands,  or  at  least  shroud  the 
higher  monutains   bum  slj^t.    With  these  draw- 


bwki,  the  elimate  is  pleMant  and  healthful,  and 
it  reoommended  Cw  certain  rlsnsrs  of  invalids. 
Partshing  of  the  old  OtUie  character,  the  humbler 
class  ot  nstives  for  the  most  psrt  speak  Oaelie,  but 
latteriv,  through  edncatiDBal  efforts  and  otherwise^ 
Bnglisli  has  made  extensive  progress.  As  in  tlM 
mamlasd  portion  of  the  T«g)j;itiul^  soany  largs 
estates  have  passed  from  <M  Jainilies  of  ntrte  into 
the  hands  of  opuloot  modem  proprieton^  by  whMtt 
sstaasiTe  improvements  liavs  been  eSectea  lie 
greatest  imraovemsnt  of  lUl,  however,  and  which 
dosorvcs  to  OS  spoken  of  as  the  pannt  of  all  othtts, 
has  been  the  work  of  a  Ql«ifowfin>L  David  Hatcbe- 
son  k  Coh  by  whom  has  bem  estabushed  an  eib>- 
ocdinaiy  systsni  t£  steam-navigation  in  oonnection 
with  theH.  oatonlated  to  develap  the  TMoorcca  of 
the  idandi,  and  bring  them,  with  the  neighbouring 
ooast,  witlun  the  sphm  of  trade  and  the  nach  ol 
toorista.  Originated  by  David  Hntoheaon,  a  person 
ot  siagdar  tuem  and  cspaoioas  view%  the  qratega 
of  Heuidean  msnMrs 


opaung  up  »■»!»■  I  tfw»i  lonDcnj  nwcoea  oniy 
with  ezb<ane  diffioul^,  may  be  said  to  be  gradually 
alteri^  the  charaetsr  o^  *^  giving  a  new  value  tOi 
the  Weston  Highlands  ud  Idaada. 


u  Highlaiula 
are  HMtOud 


Sbtida  U  Ptolemy,  the  Bdiid^ 
B  iiue  name  H.  is  merely  a  corruption, 
be  the  oonsequenoe  <tf  a  misprint  in  a 
Parisian  rainting.office)  of  I^iny,  and  Ihe  Siuir*f- 
jar  (Southern  '*U^'i  as  distinguished  from 
OrJMqiwr,  Northern  Idsnds)  of  the  Korwe|panh 
The  latter  ^thet  was  I^itinised  into  SodorMMi, 
and  ia  still.retainsd  is  the  title  'Bsdiopirf  Sodor 
and  Man.'  The  history  of  these  islands  fonna  an 
intoesting  eiosode  ia  that  <rf  Sootland.  Aoo«d- 
ing  to  ue  seneral  account,  the  H.  were  first 
colonised  in  toe  b<^nning  <j  the  9th  o.  by  emi- 
grants from  Norwmr,  who  had  fled  from  the  11 


rule  of  Hw^Id  „     .  1-       - 

settled  in  the  gnstest  numbers  on  the  flnt  land  that 
wsa  reached,  viz.,  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  Isles 
and  Outer  Hebrides ;  but  (oms  wandered  as  tMi 
south  ai  the  Isle  of  Man,  coloniBng  as  they  went. 
I  oonaequence  of  this  was  the  total  absorption  of 
Cdtio  mti>  the  Noise  element  in  the  northern 
islsnds,  nMa  loathward  the  Celtic  element  asserted 
'  iisao&  lliis  odony  sfter  a  time  threw 
.  which  settled  on  the  north  and  west 
ooasta  ot  Sootland,  Cumberland,  and  Westmors- 
land,  and  in  all  pobability  founded  the  Norwe^iu) 
hingrtoma  lit  Dublin,  Wsterford,  and  Limerick;  it 
also  salt  a  oolony  to  lodand  in  874  At  last  the 
settleta  beEsme  so  powsrful  as  to  be  a  sooks 
of  annonnoe  to  the  motber-cauntry,  whereupon 
Harald  Haarfagtr,  about  STO  A.D.,  fitted    out    a 


tyCiooi^lf 


tnuufened  to  Scotland.  In  1346,  one  of  the  chiefi, 
nuned  U&cdoDald,  rednoed  tlie  whole  nnder  hu 
•uthority,  and  took  Uie  title  at '  Lord  of  the  Iilee ; ' 
but  in  1540  they  were  finalh;  annexed  ,to  the 
Soottiih  crown  by  Jamei  V.  The  H.  were  eccle- 
■iuticallv  dependent  on  Norway  ai  late  aa  1374, 
and  Proleaaor  Munch  argnea  that  thia  relation  lasted 
tiU  1478,  when  St  Andrew*  wm  made  the  leat  of 
a  metropolitan.  The  inflnx  of  the  Ktaaenian  hM 
bad  bM«,  a«  elaewbcre,  great  inflnence  orer  tbe 
wuttttclatim ;  nuuty  plaoei  and  wlfwidg  having  l<ivt 
tbof  ongijud  Celtio  dMignfttiona* 

Tbs  H.  ha-re,  fran  tuM  to  tine^  been  vwted  by 
karoed  inquirer*,  among  wbMn  may  be  BMned 
Uutin,  Sir  Joseph  T*ankt,  Peniuiit;  Dt  Samnel 
Johnson,  and  Di  John  Maocnlloeh,  who  wrote  a 
geoltwioal  aooonnt  ol  the  ialandi  (2  Tola.  Sto,  with 
a  Tolmne  of  plates,  4tat  1S19).  Scotia  Lord  of  Aa 
Itttt  ooDtribnted  matoially  to  attach  a  popular 
Intveat  to  these  ialand^  which,  by  the  aid  of 
Hutoheson's  steam-fleet,  are  now  withiQ  the  onnpau 
of  nmuDw  plaaanie  baTelHng.  The  more  inpoiiant 
ialanda  ci  the  H.  an  desaiibd  in  sc^Mwte  artiolea. 
— ?or  the  early  history  of  the  H.,  ocsunlt  CAitmtea 
Rtgum  Miauti9  tt  Intnlamm,  edited  iron  tlte  H8. . 
in  the  British  Hntenm,  by  P.  A.  MuiMlk,  professor 
of  histny  in  the  iudT«ndty  of  CDuistiaiu*  (Chria- 
tiania,  I860). 

HEBBIDES,  Kzw.    Sea  Nzw  HiDsmm. 

HETBBON,  one  of  the  oldest  oities  in  Falertine, 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Jodah,  21  miles  lonth-south- 
west  of  Jemaalam ;  it  may  even  be  regarded 
of  the  iddeat  in  the  world,  for  ■■  -    -  = ^-'- 


the  spot  wbera  A 


Arba,  from  the  progejiitoi  of  the  Anaiita  (q, 
a  later  period,  it  wu  the  rendenoe  of  King  David, 
before  ho  oonquered  Jenitalem ;  its  ■Dtaeqoent 
■  Doimportant. — The  modam  town  is  a 
poor  idaca,  inhabitedbjrabont  G000pe(^)l^of  wham 
,  .»  .  ',.  e  Jews,  It  lies  low  down  in  a 
uTsU^— the  VsUe];of  Escbol, 
L  for  its  thick  dnitering  oiues, 
it*  ^Tca,  and  other  fruits,  The  ohnrcb  erased  by 
"  -  "  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine,  on 

re  AbiMiam  is  said  to  have  been  bnried, 
irerted  into  a  mosqne  called  EA-BamnL. 
The  alleged  tnnba  of  the  pttriarch  and  of  scTeral 
mranben  of  his  family  are  stiU  shewn.  They  are  all 
riohl;  hong  with  pslls  of  green  or  red  silk,  which 
are  renewed  from  time  to  time ;  but  it  is  belieTed 
that  the  real  tombs  are  in  a  '  cave'  below  the  build- 
ing The  modem  name  of  the  town  ii  El-KhM 
C  Uie  friend,'  L  e,,  of  God),  in  allnsion  to  Abraham. 
Abont  a  mile  from  H.,  rising  solitarily  in  the  midst 
of  vineyards,  beaida  a  well  of  pure  water,  is  one  of 
the  largest  oak-trees  in  Falerttne.  It  is  23  feet  in 
girth,  and  its  foliage  covos  a  space  of  sbont  M  feet : 
m  diameter.  Some  say  that  tbis  is  the  very  tree 
beneath  which  Abrshsm  pitched  his  teot;  but  tins ' 
notioa  is  mitccuble,  for  tlie  tree  itoeU  gives  no 
eridenee  of  sneh  enormous  antiqni^ ;  andbesides, 
Jerome  speaks  of  Abrabam't  oak  banng  disappeared 


about  the  tt 


a  erf  Constantine. 


HB0AT.£1TB,  the  son  of  E^eaandar,  famed 
as  an  historian  and  a  georaspbar,  flourished  most 
probably  abont  000  b.0.  TUow  is  grnC  di&renoe 
of  opinion  aa  to  the  time  of  his  birth  and  of 
hi*  oaat^  bot  the  beet  crities  coooiade  that  he 
was  bom  sbont  OOO  b.  a,  and  that  he  died  abont 
47S  n.0>  He  belonged  to  an  ancient  snd  wealthy 
f«mily  of  Uiletna,  and  was  that  enabled  to  grabh 
his  lurtuntl  pasoon  for  knowledge  and  traTel  He 
seems  to  have  visited  Qre«ce,  Thrace,  the  cMuntrks 
bordering  on  the  Esxiue,  and  muy  of  the  proTinoes 


of  the  Persian  empire,  with  parts  of  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Africa.  The  results  of  his  fore^  trevets  and  of 
hii  private  studies  were  embodied  in  two  great 
works—his  Tour  of  Vu  World,  and  his  Hitlona  or 
Oentalogia.  His  Reogiaphical  work  was  divided 
into  two  great  porbons,  one  tresting  of  Europe  the 
otiieT  of  Asia,  Egypt,  and  Libya.  He  improved  the 
m^  of  the  worM  which  had  bean  made  Dy  AntJd- 
numder.  His  ffittariei  was  little  more  than  a  prose 
version  of  the  poetioal  legends  of  tiie  Greeks — about 
Dencalion  and  his  descendants— Heradee  and  the 
HerBc]id»~the  Feloponneeiaii  traditioni — and  those 
of  Asia.  Herodotos  eeema  to  have  let  oonsidentble 
value  on  the  writing*  of  fiecatnu*.  The  fragments 
of  the  work*  of  H.  have  been  edited  by  (Seuier, 
Klansen,  and  others. 

But  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  life  of  H.  is 
that  which  succeeded  his  travels.  In  the  revolt  of 
the  louians  against  Persia,  his  extensive  knowledge 
of  the  Persian  emjnTe  and  ito  resources  enabled  bim 
to  give  Bonnd  advice  to  Aristagoras,  the  rindeader 
of  the  insonection,  which,  however,  wsa  isjeoted. 

despised,  he  nrged  the  formation  of  a  fleet,  but 
witluHit  effeoL      After    defeat  h^  humbled    the 


>  fortify  the  isli 


Ha 


b  tbeoe  tite 


■ador  to  the  Persian  satiap  Artaphemea,  and  induced 
him  to  treat  the  loniaiu  with  leniency. 

HE'CATA,  an  ancient  Thraotan  ooddttM,  after- 
wards adopted  into  the  Greek  Pantheon,  i*  first 
mentioned  by  Hedod,  who  call*  her  the  dau^ter  of 
the  Titan  P^ee,  and  ot  Arteria,  or  Night.  She  was 
the  only  one  ot  the  Titans,  usder  the  rule  of  Zen^ 
who  retained  her  former  povrer.  She  appeazt  on 
■ome  occasions  as  the  bestower  (d  wealth,  victory, 
wisdom,  good-luck  to  sailors  and  hunters,  and  pros- 
feritj  to  youth,  but  able  also  to  frithhold  these 
bleagiDg*.  In  connection  with  Persephcoe,  she  i* 
descril^  as  a  powerful  infeiiial  and  orud  6eitj, 


the  myi' 


wherever  she  was  worshipped  along  vrith  the  Cabiri, 
'      ' — '  ' — placed  near  a  cave.    As  the  bestower 
_  veiter  ot  evil,  her  image  was  plaead 

befwe  the  houses  of 


of  good^and.  a 

befwe  the  hou —  —  , — ,—  , 

popular  awembly,  and  at  eroMw^^  whne  at  every 
new  moon  oOmngi  of  food  were  ■sweated  to  heik 
whidtwweeoosnmed  by  poor  petals.  AsaainfanMl 
BoddsM,  she  iraean  in  •  hideeaB  kmm.  Samot* 
uaaa  bom  bar  leett  Hipenta  sN  twlssd  in  her  aair^ 


she  heart  a  limited  toioh  and  a  swerd  in  her  htnd 
and  two  bUcc  th*ggy  dogs  are  her  attendantt. 
and  aoaittiaea  dw  it  t^tamted  with  thna  headi^ 
vix,  tluMS  of  a  hoiM^  a  lion,  and  *  do^  In  this 
last  foEB^  the  ^^esrs  at  the  eroww^B.  There  it 
another  important  featuie,  which  tfoae  from  tb* 
notion  of  ho  bai^  an  intonal  divinity,  vii,,  the 
belief  in  her  beii^  a  qieetml  beinft  who  at  nigU 
semt  frun  the  lower  wccid  all  kind*  of  dsmeiH  and 
terrible  phsstoma,  t^  taught  mbosit  aad  witok- 
crafl^  and  dwelt  at  aMW-io*dii,  tomM,  and  near 
plaoet  when  mnrdei  had  haw  ooHmitted. 

BB'CATOMB   (Gr.  JiMOton  and  iotu),  in  the 
worship  of  the  Greeka,  and  in  other  ancient  religions. 


t.Googli 


Originsll]r,  it  would  Baem  that  the  practice  wi 
banitb«eDtii«Tietimi  but  even  Me»dvu  the  time 
of  Homer,  it  wu  usual  only  to  bum  the  legs  wrapped 
up  in  the  fat  and  certain  parls  of  the  inteetmea. 
!tne  re«t  of  the  victim  was  cnuauiaed  at  the  festive 
meal  which  aucceeded  the  sacriSce.  Besides,  there- 
fore, that  the  gods  were  believed  to  be  propitiated 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  victinm,  tlie  ujcrease 
of  the  number  was  also  entifjriug,  not  alone  to 
the  prieets  and  servants  of  the  temple,  but  also 
to  the  pnblic,  who  were  admitted  to  the  saciificia] 
banquet.  Hence  in  Athens  the  hecatomb  was  a 
most  popular  form  of  sacrifice  (Athen»u«,  L  p,  3). 
On  the  contrarv,  the  thrifty  Spartans  limited  the 
number  both  of  the  victims  and  of  the  socriGces ; 
and  while  the  other  Greek  states  required  that  the 
Tictim  shonld  bo  of  the  most  perfect  kind, 
Spartan*  were  content  with  animals  of  a  very  inferior 
character.  In  the  hecatomb,  strictly  so  called,  the 
sacrifice  was  supposed  to  conaiat  of  One  hundred 
bulls ;  but  other  «" '"<»>«  were  frequently  substituted. 

HEGKEB,  Fkikdbtch  Kakl  Fraiiz,  a  leader  of 
the  democratic  pait^  in  the  German  revolntiou  of 
184S,  was  bom  at  i^chtenheim,  Bsden,  September 
28,   1811,   and  after  itadyina  law  in  Heidelberg, 

became   in  1838    advocate    of  the  supreme  f ' 

in  Manheim.  Though  rising  to  emmence  ,  .  . 
pleader,  when  elected  in  1m2  a  member  of  the 
second  chamber  in  Baden,  he  abandoned  bis  profea- 
don  for  political  life,  and  soon  grew  popular  among 
the  mora  advanced  sectioDi  of  the  opposition.  In 
IS46  he  b^an  to  dde  actively  witli  the  pniely  demo- 
aratic  and  sodaliatia  party  ontaide  of  the  ohunber, 
and  on  the  revolution  breaking  out  in  1848,  imme- 
diately bepm  to  wnploy  his  eloquence  in  revolu- 
tionanr  agitation.  Wben  the  preliminary  convention 
IDat  Pa>pirlam«)i()  met,  he  endeaTonred,  with  the 
inflnenoe  of  his  whole  party,  to  constitute  it  into  a 
penoanent  repubUcan  assembly.  The  frustration 
of  this  eCToit  led  him  to  think  of  snrpriaing.  tbe 
■mailer  governments  of  9oathem  Germany  with 
the  artisan  bands  which  had  been  sent  to  tbe 
Rhine.  Defeated  at  Kandeni,  April  20,  1849,  he 
fled  into  the  canton  of  Basel,  where  he  condncted  a 
newspaper  i^ainst  the  constitatioiial  party.  Onb^a 
niuaed  admission  into  the  parliament,  though  elected 
to  roproaent  Thiengen,  he  emisrated  to  America, 
where  ho  had  bonght  a  farm.  The  Baden  revolution 
(1S49)  brought  lum  back  to  Europe,  but  finding  the 
revolution  over  on  arrival,  he  retiimed  to  America. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  War  of  Secession. 

HKCKLEB,  or  HACKLES,  and  GILLS.  These 
are  vei^  important  parts  of  various  machines,  em- 

Sloyed  in  the  preparation  of  animal  and  vegetable 
bna  for  spiniung.  They  consist  of  a  series  of  long 
metallic  teeth,  through  which  the  material  is  drawn, 
so  that  tlie  fibres  may  he  combed  out  straight,  snd 
•0  fitted  for  the  anbaequent  operations.  The  manu- 
botare  of  heckles  and  gills  inviolveB  great  care  and 
nios^,  as  any  imperf  ecSon  may  canse  great  loss,  by 
damwing  the  fibre  iriucli  passes  throuA  them.  For 
flax,  hemp,  jute,  and  sinmar  large  and  coarse  fibr^ 
tiis  teeth  of  the  heckles  are  Ur^  being  abont  eight 
inchte  lon^  and  made  of  steel  wire  one-fourth  of  an 
indi  in  dAmeter.  This  is  gradually  reduced  From 
the  base  upwards,  nnlal  it  ends  in  a  fine  point.  Ilie 
whole  is  beantifally  polished,  so  as  to  prevent  iniu- 
rioQl  friction.  They  are  flied  in  a  wooden  or  metallic 
base,  in  several  rows,  alternating  with  each  other  at 
short  distancea  apart,  in  hecklee ;  but  in  gills  tbe 
teeth  are  much  finer,  naemblinff  needlta,  and  fewer 
in  nnmber,  bong  placed  naualfy  in  two  rows ;  they 
oonatitnte  a  part  of  the  sranning  machineiT.  The 
mannfacture  of  these  articles  is  a  special  bade ; 
tiie  mannfactaren  an  called  Eeck-mkketa. 


intained  a  large  quantity 
There  are  many  nuau 


owering  c 
ictionol  tb 


HE'CKMONDWIEB,  a  thrivii^  mannfactumig 

villBge  of  England,  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
is  sitoated  on  tiia  I^ncashire  and  Yorkshire  Rail- 
way,  tiiree  miles  north-west  of  Dewibuiy,  and  ten 
nules  sonth-weet  of  Leeda.  It  is  the  chief  seat  of 
tilt  carpet  and  blanket  trades  in  the  West  Riding. 
Pop.  (1871)  8300. 

HE'OIiA,  or  HPKT>A,  a  volcanic  mountain  in 
Iceland,  is  of  a  oonical  shape,  and  stands  isolated 
abont  20  miles  from  the  sonth-weet  cosat,  Ita 
snow-dad  summit  is  £110  feet  hi^    The  principal 

crater,  when  visited  by  Sir  George  Ha^^enme, 

about  100  feet  deep,  and  — '----»  -  ' 

of  snow  in  tJie  bottom, 
seoondaiy  craters  Dear  tl 
the  mountain  are  broken  by  numerous  deep  ravijiea, 
forming  channels  for  mountain  torrents  that  are 
produced  by  the  melting  of  the  snow.  The  principal 
rocks  ara  htva  and  bault,  covered  with  tiie  loooe 
stones,  flccriie,  snd  aahee  ejected  from  the  volcaoot. 
The  view  from  the  snmimt  is  very  desolate  and  wild. 
'  Fantastic  Rronps  of  hills,  craten,  and  hiva,  leadinK 
the  eye  to  distsnt  snow-covered  jokuls ;  the  mira 
rising  from  a  waterfall ;  lakes  embosomed  amid  bare 
bleak  mountains  ;  an  awful  and  profound  slumber  i 

' '~~  clouds;  marks  all  around  of  the  fnrioiiB 

it  deatrudiTe  of  the  elements,  give 

.. character  of  deeolation  scarcely  to 

be  parallded.' 

A.  record  of  the  eraption;  has  been  kept  nnoe  the 
tenth  century.  They  are  few  in  number,  ooly  43, 
but  they  have  been  uways  very  violent,  and  gener- 
ally continuing  for  a  considerable  time.  One  of  the 
most  tremendous  oocuTTod  in  1783,  when  the  immense 
quantity  of  lava  and  ashes  ejected  lud  waste  a 
Ur^  extent  of  country.  The  internal  flre 
as  if  exhausted,  in  a  quiescent  state  till  ( 
1845,  when  witji  terrific  energy  it  agsin  bant  forth, 
and  continnod  active  for  more  tfaan  a  year.  At  this 
time,  it  poured  out  a  ton«nt  of  lava,  which  at  the 
distance  of  two  miles  from  the  crater  was  oee  mile 
wide,  and  from  40  to  CO  feet  deep.  A  fine  dust  from 
this  eruption  was  scattered  over  the  Orkney  T.l^.l1.^^^ 
a  distance  of  400  mile«  from  Heola. 

HECTARE.    See  Am. 

HE-CTIC  FEVER  (Or.  Mttihu,  habitual),  [see 
Fevsk),  a  peculiar  Wpe  of  feverish  disease,  usually 
found  associated  wiUL  orgaoio  diaesoe  of  the  chest  or 
abdomen,  and  above  all  with  tubercular  diaeaae,  ot 
Consumption  (q.  v,].  It  can  scarcely  be  called  an 
independent  form  of  disease,  although  cai^nlly 
described  as  such  by  most  of  the  older  anthora,  and 
distinguished  as  a  fever  with  morning  and  evening 
paroi^^sma,  and  intermediate  remissions.  Geoendly 
speaking  1^  evening  paroxysm  is  tbe  more  marked ; 
the  patient  becomes  flushed  after  eating,  or  in  the 
excitement  of  conversation ;  there  is  a  pratematnTal 
vividness  of  expression,  which,  wilii  the  heightened 
colour,  sometimes  gires  a  very  fallacious  imprenioik 
of  health.  The  patient  retires  to  bed,  hsa  tosnog 
and  uneasy  sleep,  and  wakens  in  the  middle  of  the 
night,  or  towards  early  morning,  bathed  in  cold 
perspiration,  and  in  a  state  of  extreme  languor. 
Next  day,  the  whole  <d  these  changee  are  repeated, 
and  under  the  slow  but  too  eiu-e  progress  of  the 
fever,  the  patient  gradually  emaciates,  and  in  the 
end  dies  exhausted.  The  treatment  i^  heddc  fever 
is  substantially  that  of  Consumption  (q.  v.). 

HE'CTOB,  tbe  bravent  hero  in  the  Trojan  army, 
was  the  son  of  King  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  married 
Andromache,  the  dan^ter  of  Estion,  king  of  Thebes, 
in  Cilicia,  Inr  whom  he  became  the  father  of  Aatyanax 
or  Scamsjidriua,  and,  as  some  say,  likewise  of  bsoda. 
mss.  His  exploits  sro  subk  by  Homer  in  tbe  lUad. 
E.  having  slam  Pntroclus,  the  friend  of  Achilles,  the 


tyCoogle 


HBOUfiA— HEDaEHOa. 


Litter,  forRBttmg  hii  qnAirel  with  Agamenmon,  took 
up  iznm  xo  avenge  his  bclared  companion,  Knd  H. 
tul  by  bu  tuuui.  Eii  body  iraa  draped  in  triumph 
by  the  conqueror  round  the  tomb  uFatrodiu,  but 
iTM  ofberwards  nmsomod  by  Fri&m,  who  caused  it 
to  be  buried  with  great  pomp.  In  Ilium,  H.  wai 
honoured  at  a  hero,  and  BacnGcea  were  <^ered  to 
him.  In  compliance  with  an  oiacle,  hia  bonea  are 
■aid  to  have  been  tnbaeqnently  oonTeyed  to  Thebea, 
in  BcEotia.  H.  m  incouteotab^  the  greateat  heio  in 
the  Iliad.  Yielding  in  valoiir  to  none,  he  ii  defeated 
'     Achilles,  not  be^uae  the  latter  inrpaBseB  him  '~ 


ibat,  tmsting  to  (he  aid  of  D^phobus.  Minerva 
asBumefl  the  form  of  the  latter,  and  H.  is  deceived 
aud  tonaken.  In  humanity,  be  is  mperior  to  all 
One  of  the  moat  beautiful  episodes  in  the  Iliad  ia 
that  in  which  H.  takes  leave  of  his  wife  Andromacho, 
and  eipresaea  hia  feelings  aa  a  husband,  a  father, 
and  a  prince. 

HJB'CUBA  (Or.  ffehSii:),  the  second  wife  of  Priam, 
king  of  Tioy.  Durinf  the  Trojan  war,  ahe  witneased 
the  deotnicticin  of  sfi  her  lona,  with  the  exceptioQ 
of  Helenus,  and  at  last  saw  her  husband  murdered 
before  her  eyea  by  the  savage  Fyrrbus.  After  the 
deatructioD  of  Troy,  she  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Qreeka  u  a  slave,  and,  according  to  one  form  of 
the  legend,  threw '  herself  in  despair  into  the  sea. 
Butipidea  (in  his  tragedy  of  Haabe)  and  other 
ancient  tragedians  describe  her  as  a  tender  mother, 
a  noble  princess,  and  a  virtuous  wife,  exposed  by 
(ate  to  the  moat  cruel  suSerings.  In  Sculpture,  she 
is  tepreaented  aa  a  matron,  whose  face,  furrowed 
by  gnef,  betrayi  a  character  naturally  ardent  and 
passionate. 

HEDGE  (Sax.  hege,  Oer.  hag,  Fr.  haU;  in 
Oer.,  htgen  is  to  fence,  protect,  dierish),  a  fence 
formed  generally  of  growing  ahruba.  Hedges  are 
vei;  mnah  used  in  some  parts  of  the  world,  whilst 
otbeiB,  ecnially  cultivated,  are  almost  destitute  of 
them.  ^u>,  whilst  tfaey  are  very  common  in  many 
parts  of  Britain  and  of  Italy,  th^  are  comiuratively 
rare  in  France  and  Qermany.  For  many  situations, 
they  are  paTticularly  adopted,  owing  to  the  protec- 
tion which  they  aflord  &om  high  winds ;  and  the 
height  to  which  they  are  permitted  to  grow  ought 
to  be  accommodated  to  the  requirementa  of  the 
locality  in  this  respect.  They  are  also  much  mora 
pleBSSint  to  the  eye  than  dry  stone  walls  or  coaise 
palings;  but  tbere  can  be  no  donbt  that  where 
neither  shelter  nor  ornament  i*  intended,  they  cause 
meat  waste  ot  land ;  as  even  when  very  trimlv  kept, 
they  occupy  a  muoh  more  oDnsiderable  hreadui  than 
other  fences,  and  their  roots  draw  nutriment  from 
the  soil  on  each  side  to  a  very  considerable  distance. 
It  haa  been  n».lmil«tjJ  that  even  such  reduction  of 
the  braadUi  occupied  by  hedge*  aa  might  be  accom- 
pliihed  by  moderate  care  in  trimming,  would  add 
to  the  extent  of  Imd  available  for  crops  in  Eng- 
land as  ranch  as  a  middling-mzed  oounty. 

Hedges  in  Britain  are  nnerally  forined  of  haw- 
thorn (q,  v.).  The  unm^tly  blwks  in  hawthorn- 
hedges,  which  are  alio  injoriont  to  thdr  nsehUneaa, 
are  not  easily  filled  up  with  hawthom-planta,  bnt 
in  such  circumstances,  the  barberry  grows  welt,  and 
is  sometimes  used  with  neat  advantage. — Hedges 
are  also  aometimea  tonnM  of  barberry  itsalf.  See 
Babbebsy. — Beech-hedgea  are  very  common  around 
gaidens  and  pleasure-grounds,  and  a  hedge  of  beech 
and  hawthorn  mixed  is  common  in  many  places. 
Beeoh-hed^,  closely  trimmed,  can  be  made  almost 
as  impemons  as  anv  kind  of  hedge  known  in 
Britain  ;  and  where  shelter  is  needed,  oan  easily  he 
tn^ted  to  a  bei^t  of  twenty  feet  or  upwarda.- 
22T 


5& 


HoUt  makes  an  excellent  and  ornamental  hedge, 
muoh  in  use  for  gardens  and  pleasDre-nounds.— 
Ornamental  hedgea  are  sometime*  tormra  of  yew, 
homI>eam,  lime,  and  other  tree*,  which  can  scarcely, 
however,  be  reckoned  among  hedffe-plants.  Privet 
is  much  used  for  omamentu  he^iea,  but  they  are 
of  little  use  aa  fenoea. 

Hedgea  were  in  nae  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
chiefly  for  the  encloanre  of  Ttneyarda  and  ordena. 
'**  ~~  probable  that  tfa^  hava  existed  in  ^^land 
the  times  of  the  Romans,  although  not  very 
ion  till  the  end  of  the  ITth  c  ;  but  they  an 
supposed  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  Scotland 
and  Ireland  by  the  ofBceis  of  Cromwell's  armies. 
The  first  hedge*  planted  in  Scotland  ore  said  to 
have  been  at  Inch  Buckling  Brae,  in  East  Lothian, 
and  at  the  head  of  Loch  Tay,  and  that  at  the  former 
ilace  existed  as  a  row  of  old  hawthorns  in  the 
•eginning  of  the  present  cent<iry.^(London.) 

'HE'DGBBOTE,  ia  English  Law,  meauB  the  right 
if  a  tenant  to  cut  wood  on  the  tana  or  land,  to 
repair  the  hedgea  or  fences. 

HEDGEHOO  [Britiacttu),  a  genus  of  inaeotivor- 

IE  quadrupeds,  the  type  of  the  family  Sriaaetida, 

The  muzzle  ia  tsther  elongated,  the  net^  short, 

the    limbs    short,    the   feet   five-toed,    the   clawa 

-^■"vg,  the  tail  short,  tie   body  covered  on  the 

r  parte  with  sharp  spins*,  and  with  hair  below, 

capable  of   being  rolled   up  into  a   ball  by 

means  of  a  powerful  muscle  extended  under  Uie 

skin.     The  teeth  are  36   in  number,  20   in  the 

jaw,  and  16  in  the  lower,  but  conaiderable 

ace  of  opinion  has  existed  among  naturalists 

to  the  chaiBcter  of  some  of  them.    The  m^dle 

aaot*  an  very  long,  and  stand  forward ;  those 

of  the  upper  jaw  are  widely  separated ;  the  lateral 

M  smaiL    l2ke  many  other  ImetHiiora,  hedgebogi 

a  by  no  means  limited  to  inseot  food,  but  prey 

larger  animals,   as  reptilea,  imaU  quadrupeds, 

and  buds;   they  are  fond  of  eggs  and  of  milk, 

and  in  confinement  will  readily  eat  soaked  bread, 

cooked  vegetables,  or  porridge.      Their  power  of 

rolling  thamaelvea  into  a  ball,  from  whioh  the  spines 


Hedgehog  iBrinactUM  Smnpaiu). 

projeot  on  every  nde,  is  their  raeani  of  proteotion 
m>m  enemies.  The  spines  are  cnrionaly  bent  near 
the  root,  and  so  set,  that  on  the  contraction  of  the 
muscle  by  which  the  animal  rolls  itself  up,  they  an 
held  firmly  in  their  position,  their  points  towards 
the  adveraary.  They  are  very  strong  and  sharp ; 
their  elasticity  is  also  so  very  ^reat,  tbat  the  oniinal 
can  sustain  taila  from  great  heights  without  apparent 

The  Common  H.  (S.  Europaus)  is  a  native  of 
Britain  and  of  moat  parts  of  Europe.  A  particnlar 
description  is  unneceesary.  Its  snort  ean  are  one 
of  its  distinctive  speoifio  characters.  It  is  seldom 
above  9^  inches  in  length.  Its  spinee  are  about 
an  ineh  long.     It  readily  kills  snakes,  and  «vai 


divGoogi' 


vipei^  which  it  eata,  be^mung  >lmya  at  the  tail. 
It  ia  Bud  to  be  oapable  of  raiBting  in  an  extrS' 
otdiliaiT  dm«e  not  only  ths  venom  ot  wrpeota, 
but  othar  kmda  of  poiioii,  however  admisiBtered. 
A  H.  has  been  known  to  eat  great  nniaben  of 
oaothaiidea  (Spanish  fliea)  withoat  injuiy,  althoo^ 
one  would  have  caused  Ki*eat  agony  to  a  dog.  It 
biings  forth  from  two  to  lour  young  at  a  biith,  and 
provides  for  the  occaiioa  a  curiously  constructed 
nea^  of  which  the  roof  is  capable  of  throwing  o£F 


_  oDusual  as  Uie  fonoer  is 
— their  bodies  are  covered  with  soft  incipient  spines. 
Id  winter,  the  H.  beoomefl  torpid,  retiring  to  some 
hole  at  the  base  of  a  tree,  beneatli  roots,  or  in  aoma 
such  situation.  It  provides  do  wiater  store,  and 
DO  other  British  animal  hybemate*  so  completely. 
— liiB  H.  is  easily  tamed,  beoomes  very  familiar, 
and  is  veiy  useful  in  houses  where  l^act  heeda  ate 
tronbltaome.  Night  is  its  period  ot  activity — The 
flesh  of  the  H.  ia  oaten  in  some  parts  of  Europe 
but  in  Britain  only  by  gypsies,  who  roll  it  up  in  a 
ball  of  olay,  and  so  roaat  it.— Other  species  ot  H. 
are  found  in  different  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

HEDGE -HUBTABD  {Siajfrnbriam),  a  genus  ot 
planta  of  the  natural  order  Cradfcra,  mostly  annual 
or  perennial  herbaoeons  plants,  with  very  varioos 
foliase,  small  yellow  or  white  flowers,  and  a  long 
roondiah  or  6-angled  pod  (silique).  Several  species 
are  natives  of  Britain,  ot  which  one,  the  CoMUOH  H. 
(8.  affi^naU),  was  once  empWed  in  medicine  for 
catajrhs  and  other  ulment&    it  is  said  to  be  dia- 

'loretic  and  expectorant.    It  bos  a  mild  poDgeocy. 
cultivated  as  a  pot-herb.    It  is  on 


ciuat«  or  deeply  lobed  leaves,  atom  and  leaves  hairy, 
floweia  very  small  and  yellow.  The  poda  are  erect, 
and  closely  pressed  to  the  stalk. — Bboad-lxavxd 
H.,  or  LouDOM  RoQiET  (8.  trio),  is  said  to  have 
■pranc  np  in  great  abundance  on  the  around  dsso- 
lataoW  the  fire  of  London  in  1666. — Fihe.i.»4tkd 
H-,  or  Pux-wEED  [8.  Boptua),  is  common  in  many 
part*  of  EneUnd  and  Scotland,  growing  in  waste 
plaoes.  Italeavea  are  doubly  or  trebly  pinuatifid. 
itia  abont  two  feet  high,  branohed,  with  yellow 
flowen.  It  was  formerly  administered  in  dysentaiy 
and  hysteria,  and  the  saeda  as  a  vermifuge. 

HEDGE -SPARROW,  HEDGE -WARBLER, 
HEDOE-AOOBNTOB,  or  DONNOCK  [Aectnlor 
modviaiu),  a  little  bird  ol  the  family  Sj/lviada,  a 


Alpina  Aooentor  {AeeetUor  Alpiuiui. 

o  native  of  Britain  and  ot  most   parte  of 
"'  is  not  quite  so  la»e  as  the  bouse-spar- 


name,  in  little  else ;  tU  ilendemeM  ot  bill,  and  its 
whole  form,  prooUuning  it  at  once  to  be  of  a  difler- 
ent  family.  It  feeds  priocipolly  od  insecta.  It  is 
one  of  ike  earliest  sprmg  songsters,  having  a  sweet 
plaintive  song ;  and  the  nest  is  one  of  the  first  that 
the  school-boy  finds  ia  spring.  The  nest,  of  green 
moss,  roots,  and  wool,  lined  with  hair,  is  nauaUy 
placed  rather  low  in  a  bnsb  or  hedge.  The  ^SK* 
are  four  or  five  in  number,  <i  a  delicate  and  spotues 
bluish  jjreen.    The  cuckoo  ver^  often  lays  its  egg  in 


00  very  often  lays  its  egg  in 
sb  The  hedga-spMrcnr  is 
r,  in  the  nortliamlsDQ>a>te 


ohiefly  fmrnd 

parts  of  Eoti^Hsmignitiiigsonthwatd  in  winter;  bnt 
m  Britain  it  rsmaiDi  all  tfie  year. — Another  spedes  of 
the  same  genus,  the  Aifm  Wasblkr,  or  Alput* 
AooBMTOR  (A-Alpimu),  a  rather  larger  bird,  lighter 
and  nther  more  varied  in  colour,  has  in  a  few 
instances  been  found  in  Britain,  It  is  oommon  in 
the  Alps,  and  other  monntains  of  Franoe,  Germany, 
and  Italy.— Other  species  of  Accentor  an  found 
both  in  the  Old  and  New  World.  They  are  all  of 
dull  plumage  In  this  gentu  the  bill  is  more  conical 
than  in  the  other  Bglvioda. 


KEDJA'Z  (the  land  of  pUgrimage],  a  _ 
provinoe  of  Arabia,  ertanding  along  the 
shore  of  the  Bed  Sea,  and  bounded  on  the  N.  tnr 
the  Syrian  desert  and  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  on  the  S. 
by  the  provinoe  ot  Nedjod,  and  on  the  S.  fay  that 
of  Yemen.  It  ia  almost  entirely  nnproductlTe, 
being  chiefly  sandy  or  stony.  Ccotainiog  the  two 
sacral  cities,  Mecca  and  Medina— the  former  the 
birthplace  of  Mohanuned,  the  latter  the  plaoe  in 
which  be  ia  interred- H.  is  the  'Holy  Land'  of 
Arabia.  It  is  travelled  anDoally  by  vast  numbers 
of  pilgrims. 

HEDJRAH  (ffepirah),  ot,  more  fully,  T¥»i>j|.«t 
AicNiai,  Arab.  Emigmtion  {ikotjiighl,  as  commonly 
translated)  ot  Mohammed  (q.  v.).  The  tribe  of  this 
Koreieh  havinz  reedved  to  slav  the  new  prophet, 
their  kinsman,  he  secretly  left  Mecca  on  Uie  13th 
of  September  622  a.ii.,  and  repaired  to  Medina, 
where,  partly  from  a  feeling  of  jealousy  towards 
Mecca,  pariJy  because  his  new  doctrine  bad  already 
found  here  many  new  adherents,  he  was  so  well 
received  and  so  vigorously  supported  in  the  wars 
which  he  now  began  towage  against  his  adveraaries, 
that  the  rise  and  progress  of  Mn^*mmAf^fc^l fp  wsa 
said  to  date  in  reality  from  the  time  of  Moham- 
med's leaving  Mecca.  The  Hedjroh,  therefore^  was 
made  the  sbuting-point  of  a  new  era— the  Moham- 
medan (Tarikh  l£iijrah}— by  Calif  Omar,  who,  in 
639  OF  640,  with  the  aid  of  a  Persian,  Hartm^an, 
instituted  the  new  Moeli>m  calendar.  It  does  not, 
however,  as  is  generally  supposed,  begin  tKBX  the 
day  ot  the  flight  itself  but  from  Uie  first  of  the 


The  Mohammedan  year,  as  a  lunar  year,  is  shorter 
than  ouiB  by  10  days,  21  hours,  and  14}  seconds ; 
and  this  ctrcnmstance  renders  the  exoot  tranater  of 
Mohammedan  dates  into  dates  of  our  own  calendar 
a  very  difficult  task.  An  elaborate  method  ha* 
been  invented  for  that  purpose  by  Ideler ;  an  ean', 
although  not  minutely  accurate  way  of  finding  the 
year,  but  not  the  month  and  the  day,  is  bv  the 
deduction  of  3  per  cent  from  the  given  Moham- 
medan year,  and  the  addition  of  622  to  the  sum  sn 
obtained  ;  e.  g.,  the  year  of  the  H^jrah  correspond- 
ing to  1662  A.D.  bemg  1279,  deduct  3  per  cent,  w 
aboot  39  =  1240,  add  622  =.  1862. 

HEEM,  Jas  David  at,  the  meet  oalefanted 
pamter  of  what  is  called  <  still-hfe '  that  the  Dntch 
school  has  produoed,  wm  ban  st  UtncM  in 
16(K^  stodiedT  nnder  hi*  bther,  and  aoon  lAWnsd 


I,  Google 


W,  TING,  AND  TOO— HEaEL. 


u  for   liu  idctuTB*.     TomidB  the 

doBe  of  bil  life,  he  remoTcd  to  Antwerp,  where 
he  died  in  16T4.  H.'b  pictorei  repreeeut,  for  the 
moot  part,  splendid  vaeee  of  fnuta  and  flowen, 
niiuicu  inetromentB,  and  ornaments  of  vario — 
kinds.  He  Tiainted  a  garland  of  flowers  for 
certain  Jan  Vander  Heer,  who  refnaed  2000  gnilde 
for  it,  bat  afterwardi  gave  it  to  ^le  Fnnoe_of 
Orange,  who  brought  it  with  hii 
oolonring  ia  ezqnuite,  and  hia 
unsurpaoaable. 

HBEK,  CHOW,  TnfO,  asd  FOO,  Chinese 
goosraphical  terms,  nsed  to  dedgnate  the  relative 
rank  of  dtiea  and  districta.  Been  mdicutes  Uis 
snumcat  dmdon,  altbon^  it*  cit^  may  be  an 
important  one;  thns,  Sbnogbu-heen  »  a  larce  atj 
and  district,  wlul«  the  derparbneot  in  which  it  u 
aitnated,  Siuigki>ng-/'o,  to  irtiieh  it  i«  snboidinate, 
ia  a  smaller  ^lace.  Oeoerally  ipealdng,  however, 
tbe  terms  dengiiAte  the  nuik  of  crtiea,  from  /oo, 
tiie  diief,  to  hta%,  the  least  in  sze. 

HEEHEIT,  Abkold  HxRaum'  Lddwio,  oq 
eminent  German  scholar,  was  bom  2St!i  October 
1760,  at  Arbergeo,  near  Bremen,  where  hia  father 
waa  at  that  time  pastor,  and  received  hia  education 
Bb  the  cathedral  school  of  Bremen,  and  at  the 
nuiveiBity  of  GSttingen.  He  flrst  made  himself 
known  to  the  literary  world  by  two  philological 
works — viz.,  an  edition  of  Memuider's  £>e  En/x/miU 
(GKittingmi,  17S5],  and  the  Ecloga  Phytkre  et 
EOiiaa  of  Stobaeus  (4  vols.  QOttingeii,  1792— 
1801).  In  praparing  materials  for  the  latter  of 
theso  works,  he  vuited  Italy,  the  Netherlands, 
and  Franca,  and  by  intercourse  with  variooi 
learned  men  of  these  coontries,  expanded  and 
enriched  his  mind.  In  1764,  he  was  appointed 
Processor  of  Philoiiqihy,  and  in  1801,  Prrfessor  of 
Hist^ory  at  Q^ttingen.  He  married  in  17^  a 
daoghbn  of  Heyne,  and  died  7th  March  1842.  His 
leotnreB  in  the  oniTersit?  referred,  from  the  very 
first,  more  to  Greek  and  Roman  aatiquities,  and 
to  tile  histoiT  of  the  fine  arts,  than  to  philolo^, 
striotlj  Bo-caUed.  The  latter,  indeed,  was  finally 
quite  thrown  into  the  backgronnd.  In  1793 — I7w, 
a^Ksared  at  GOttingen  his  Ideea  €ber  PoKtA,  den 
VerMr  vnd  dm  HanM  der  vornehDuten  FWter  do- 
allm  WtU  (4th  edit  B  voU.  1824—1826).  This  worit 
has  aeenFed  hiin  a  plaoe  among  the  most  eminent 
modem  histca^ans.  It  his  OetMJUe  da  Studiamu 
der  doMtcAen  LiUralur  »eU  dan  Wiederm{ffAai  dtr 
WitteniMim  <2  vols.  OOtt  1797—1802}  proved 
less  Mtii&otory  to  soholot*,  his  OaiMelae  der 
8laaU»  dta  AUertAmM  {QUO.  1799 ;  Cth  edit  182S}, 
and  hia  CfnehidUe  da  Evrop.  StaaieoKatani  unil 
HiiMr  Cblonioi  (Qlitt.  1800 1  4tlt  edit  182$  abounded 
in  new  views  and  acute  expoaitioiw  Eor  his  CTola-- 
raahtHMVB  <Uo'  dit  Kreumage,  be  leocived  the  prize 
&om  Uia  National  Institnte  of  SWioe.  His  Klaat 
AUotikAs  Btir^flai  (3  vols.  QStb  1803—1808)  con- 
tain some  TOiy  interesting  tfeatjses.  In  1821 — 
1S2S,  he  published  an  edibon  of  all  his  histoiiool 
w<«ka  {HitUritAai  WerU)  in  15  vols.  H.  was  a 
member  of  the  academiea  of  St  Petersburg,  Berlin, 
Uonioh,  Stoekholm,  Dnblin,  and  Copenhagen,  and 
of  the  Asiirtu  Sodatie*  of  London  and  Calcatta. 

HEGEL,  Gbobo  Wilhuji  PsissBiaH,  one  of 
the  greatest  German  philosophers,  w»  born  27th 
August  1770,  at  Stuttgart,  and  liecame,  in  1788,  a 
student  in  tJle  Tubingen  theological  institote,  where 
his  speculative  abilities,  however,  were  outshone  by 
his  younger  companion.  Schilling.  After  leaving 
the  muversi^  in  1793,  he  was  a  family  tutor  at 
Bern  and  Frankfnrt-oa-the-Maine  for  six  years, 
;  iriiich  period  he  devoted  himself  chi^y  to 
dy  of  Uhriafs  life  and  th«  philoaophy  of 


religion.  In  the  beginning  of  1801,  he  left  lisnk- 
fort  for  JeD%  where  he  pnbliahad  his  flnt  work, 
Dtbtr  d.  iNArSBx  ±  J%Atf«a&e»  u.  StMkndniim 
SyMmu  nmi),  and  entwed  th«  nnirenity  u  Primd- 
doooii.  N«rt  year,  he  jcsned  SeheDiiig,  to  whose 
philoBophv  he  seams  at  this  time  to  have  adhered, 
m  the  editorship  of  X>eM  KtilUAa  Jovmai  f&T 
Pkilotaphie.  Hia  leotnrea  in  Jena  did  not  attract 
mnoh  notiee,  bat  it  waa  at  this  plooe,  while  the  din 
"  »  batUa  '-   '""• "       ■'         '    ■' 


of  the  b 


1  1606  1 


I  sounding  through  the 


Shortly  before  the  battle,  he 
ordinary  profeasot  of  philoaophyj  but  the  disaster 
whioh  that  event  brooght  upon  Jena  oampalled 
him  to  seek  maans  of  subsistence  elsewhere,  and 
he  went  aooordin^y,  at  Niethammer's  request, 
to  Bamberg,  where  1^  edited  a  pohtioal  paper  for 
two  yeus.  In  1808,  he  was  appointed  rector  of 
the  gymnasium  at  Kuremborg,  and  there  he  had 
just  completed  hia  WiMtaudm/l  d.  Logik  (3  Bda, 
181£— ISIS),  when  he  waa   caUed   in  1816  to  a 


liere  that  he  first  began  to  gather  aroand  him 
w  philoBOiliiaal  schooL  Wa  lectures,  wbidi 
ddivaed  in  a  stammering  vmoe,  and  without 
nod  onuunant,  yet  with  tna  impraasiveiMss  of 
being  the  ai^rasaion  of  laborions  thonghtattiMted 
haawrs  fawn  all  rsnks  and  profcamnna  Beroaeto 
conaidwablo  political  inBniwco  through  his  official 
oonnection  with  the  PrnasiBn  goranunentt  and  his 
ihiloBoph;  in  some  reapecta  £ist  credit  bom  the 
^eraliy  conservative  tendencie*  of  his  adminis- 
ration.  Still,  in  his  iitcbnAiloMpAK  (1821),  he 
Jemanda  repreaeatation  of  the  pet^ile,  freedom  of 
the  "pten,  puUidty  of  jodicial  prooe«diDgs,  trial  by 

porations.  In  the  midst  of  on  active  life,  he  was 
Buddenljr  cut  off  by  cholera,  14th  November  1831, 
and  buried  beside  Fichte.  A  oomplete  oolleotion 
of  hia  worka  waa  pobliahed  in  IS  vols.  [Beriin, 
1832—1841),  and  his  Ms  mitten  by  Boaoiknuu 
(1844). 

At  flist,  as  has  beat  intimated,  H.'a  philoB(^hy 
started  from  the  ssma  ponticm  as  Schelling'a — the 
princtpla  of  the  identilT  of  knowing  and  being;  bnt 
'   ~~   early  period  he  departed  m>m  SohSlin^a 


intuition,  of  whioh  the 
'  no  account  Carrying 
ont  rigoronslytha  principle  from  which  both  starte<C 
as  embodied  in  the  propositicm  of  Spinoza,  tiiat  the 
orda  and  connection  of  thonc^itz  are  the  same  aa  the 
order  and  connection  of  thm^  H.  sondit  t«  find 
the  universal  form  which  characterises  uie  prooeas 
both  of  existence  aud  thon^tk  This  tmlTcntl  form 
hereoognised  as  the  prooeea  of  beoominK  (Wtrdtn). 
Bnt  the  prooesa  of  beocomas  is  tmly  the  anion  at 
poaitiaa  and  negatioa ;  for  aU  diat  becomea  at  (moe 
poaHs,  and,  by  passins  into  eametlun(^  die,  nmovea 
itselL  Identiial  with  this  ptooeaa  is  the  prooesa 
of  thought;  for  avray  thou^  involvM  ita  ocmtra- 
dictory.  But  the  contradictory  is  not  a  mere 
negation;  it  is  in  itaelf  positive;  the  oonception  of 
muty,  e.s,,  is  not  more  positive  than  its  contra- 
dictory, the  conception  of  pluraUty.  Every  thought 
thra«rara,  aa  it  involves  ita  contradictory,  adds  to 
own  oontents,  and  by  the  combination  of  the 


ie^  wa  nse  to  absdnte  knowledge. 

This  prooeas,  involving  in  it  the  three  stages  of 
posttioD,  negalaon,  aud  ue  mint  of  both,  determines 

i.CooijI 


HEGESIPPUS— HEIDELBBRG. 


the  method  of  H. ;  for  aocordisg  to  thia  method, 
hi*  entire  ayatem  is  oreuiicsllji  neceaait&ted  in 
til  ita  parts  to  a  threeMd  diviaion  oomapondiiiK 
to  the  three  itagea  in  the  procesa  of  thought  and 
eziatence.  The  point  from  which  all  knowledge 
mnat  etirt  is  thought  aimply  and  in  itself,  tns 
■ctence  of  which,  logic,  forms,  therefore,  the  first 
put  of  this  system.  But  tlioaght  paaaes  into  aome- 
thing  other  than  itself,  exists  out  of  itself  in  nators, 
and  the  philoaophy  of  natore  accordingly  ranks  aa 
the  second  part.  Betoming  again  from  its  estrange- 
ment in  nature,  thought  becomes  conscions  of  itself 
in  mind,  and  conaequently  the  phUosophy  of  mind 
fonna  the  third  part      It  woiUd  he  profitless  to 

e'  ve  a  mere  enumeration — and  nothing  more  could 
attempted  here — of  tlie  vahoua  aabdivisionB,  in 
their  de^«es  of  sobordinatioii,  into  which  these 
three  grand  diviatoDB  are  separated.  For  aa  account 
of  the  system,  consult,  beeides  the  ordioa^  hiatoriea 
of  philosophy,  Vera's  Introduiii/>a  d  la  PhUotophie 
de  Hegd  (Paris,  1855),  and  Hapn's  Hegd  u.  teine 
ZtU.  VorUmngai  tUer  EaigiAting  u.  EntairJc^iaig, 
Wool  u.  WerA  d.  Higtltrkm  PhOotopliit  (Berlin, 


fftjfdia 


n  ia  commonly  employed  to  denote  the 


Dnring  H.'a  hfe,  and  on  tall  lUl,  when  Sohellmg 
came  to  Berlin,  H^eliaoism  fomid  a  Ttty  efficient 
oivan  in  the  JakrbOehar  J^  teinouA^fOi^  Kritik 
(I§37— 1847,  ed.  by  Henning) ;  and  throngh  the 
influence  of  the  Pruaaian  minister,  Von  Altenstein, 
a  laize  amnber  of  the  philosophical  chairs  in  the 
Fnuaian  tmiTersitiea  were  aecored  for  Hegelian 
protesson.  In  the  second  grand  department  into 
which  H.  had  divided  bia  astern,  the  philosophy  of 
nature,  his  speculations  did  not  give  the  same 
impetus  to  inquiry  as  those  of  Schelbne  bad  given; 
but  this  may  t>e  accounted  for  from  the  oonaider- 
atioD  tiiat  the  enthusiasm  lor  physical  investigations, 
which  was  riaing  when  Schdling'a  early  qwuilations 
appeared,  had  reached  tta  enEninatuin  before  H. 
besan  to  atlzaat  notice.  In  lo(^  also,  owins  to 
H.  a  own  ezhauatiTe  treatment,  kttle  has  been  done 
by  his  disoiples,  except  in  the  way  of  explication 
and  apology,  of  which  Soballer's,  Erdniann'a,  and 
Hinricfas'  works  on  the  science  are  specimens.  But 
in  psychology  we  find  developments  of  the  Hegelian 
prinoiples  by  Boaenkranz,  Michelet,  and  Erdmaiia  ; 
m  junsjo^dence,  by  Gaos  ;  in  ethics,  by  Michelet ; 
in  Ksthetic*,  by  Tiscber,  Hinrichs,  Hotho,  Bosen- 
kran%  Rug«i  and  Schiuase ;  in  the  history  of 
r^oaophy,  notwithatanding  H.'s  own  work,  by 
Erdmann,  Michelet,  Bosenkranz,  Schwegler.  Zeller, 
Ac  In  the  philoaopl^  of  religion,  however,  Hegelian 
speculation  has  beeo  more  widely  and  powerfully 
influential  than  in  any  oUiel  d^Ntrtmeot ;  Daub, 
Marheineke,  Bosenknuu,  Conradl,  Ooschel,  Vatke, 
and  a  host  of  other  more  or  lea*  known  writers, 
joining  with  H.  in  seeking  to  elidt  the  eternal 
meaning  embodied  in  the  historical  and  symbolical 
forms  of  Christianity.  But  aa  soon  aa  Hegelianism 
reached  this  sphere  of  speculation,  it  began  to  shew 
antagonistic  tendencies.  These  became  especially 
apparent  four  years  after  H.'s  death,  in  the  contro- 
versy raised  by  Strauss'  LAett  Jaa  (1835),  and 
coDtmned  by  his  dtTvOiAs  QhuibaiMat  (1840). 
The  Hegelians  then  split  into  three  sections,  called 
severally  the  right,  left,  and  centre,  according  as 
thev  represent  stipenuitanliim,  ratiotialism,  or  a 
mediating  myst)eiii&  Among  those  of  tlie  extreme 
left,  known  also  u  the  YoangHeartian*,  and  duhbed 
by  I«o  with  the  felicitous  bat  untranslatable 
diminutive  ffeg^ingm,  ths  Hegelian  nhilosoplw, 
which  had  before  been  ecclesiastically  and  poUtical^ 
conservative,  became  thoionghly  radical    la  1838, 


among  the  youth  of  (Jermany,  bat  was  prohibited 
in  I^7i  after  havii^  been  tranafeired  to  Leipsic 
undm  the  title  of  Die  DeaUchen  Jairbikeha: 
Weiaae,  Fichte  (the  younge^,  Ulrici,  Fiacher,  and 
Carriere,  are  considered  paeudo-Hegdiaos,  because, 
though  retaining  the  terminology  and  general  prin- 
ciples of  Hegdunism,  they  intiDduca  at  times  an 
ezbaneona  method  and  results.  Beyond  Germany, 
Hegalianiam  is  represented  in  France  by  Vera,  m 
Denmark  fay  Eeibor^  and  in  Sweden  by  Snellmann, 
TengstrSm,  Bring,  and  othera,  and  baa  not  fuled  to 
exert  an  important  influence  on  British  and  American 
tliought. 

HBQESI'PPUS,  the  earliest  of  the  Christian 
Church  hiatoriana.  He  was  horn  of  a  Jewish  fstnily 
in  Palestine  about  the  beginning  of  the  2d  o.,  bat 
became  a  Christian  at  an  early  age,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem.  He  went  to 
Rome  in  the  pontificate  of  Anicetos,  visiting  upon 
his  jotimey  many  churches,  and  especially  that  of 
Corinth,  where  Primos  was  bishop.  He  remained 
in  Borne  till  the  death  of  Soter  (176),  and  is  sap- 
posed  to  have  died  in  the  year  180.  It  was  daring 
his  sojourn  in  Home  that  he  composed  his  hisbxy, 
in  five  books,  entitled  Ifemorial*  of  Seclema^ieat 
Again,  which,  however,  appew  not  to  have  Icmted 
a  complete  and  oontinuous  history,  althongb  th^ 
extend  from  the  death  cA  Christ  down  to  the  writer's 
Unhappily,  the  wtnk,  as  a  whole,  has 


and  the  moat  important  of  which  are  his  account  of 
the  martyrdom  of  St  James  and  also  of  St  ~ 
Eusebiuf 

Another  work  ou  the  Wars  of 
tbe  Jews  (also  in  live  books),  ascribed  to  H.,  ia 
confessedly  spnrioua.  The  moat  complete  collec- 
tion of  the  fragments  of  his  writings  is  that  of 
GaUaudua  in  tbe  second  volume  of  his  great  ooUec- 
tion.  See  also  Giabe,  SpicUxifiuTTt,  torn.  iL ;  and 
Fabridua,  BM.  Qnrm,  vii.  156. 

HEOI'BA.    See  Hedjua 

HEIDE.  a  small  town  of  Fruasia,  in  the  provinca 
of  Slesvig-Holstein,  is  situated  in  NorUiwn  Dit- 
marsh,  32  miles  north-north-west  of  Olockstadt  It 
is  a  pleasant,  well-built  town,  with  a  large  maiket- 
plaoe.  The  inhabitants  ai«  employed  diiefly  in 
agriculture  and  general  trade.    Poi^  (1871]  682a 

HEI'DBLBBRO,  an  ancient  city  of  Oennany,  in 
the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  ia  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  Neckar,  in  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  districts  in  the  country,  on  a  narrow 
strip  of  ground  between  the  river  on  the  north, 
and  tbe  northern  extremity  of  the  Oeisbeiv  Moun- 
tains on  the  south.  It  ia  13  milea  south-east  of 
Manheim,  and  about  64  miles  south  of  Frankfart- 
on-the-Mune.  The  town  ooniistB  munly  of  one 
street  about  three  miles  in  length.  Among  rta 
moot  important  buildingi  are  the  Chureh  m  tlie 
Holy  Ghost,  through  which  a  partition-wall  haa 
been  run,  and  in  which  service  accatding  to  the 
Catholic  and  Protestant  rituals  is  simoltaneoosly 
carried  on ;  the  Church  of  St  Peter's,  on  the  door 
of  which  Jerome  of  Prague,  the  companim  of 
Huss,  nailed  hia  celebrated  tl>e»e»,  at  the  tatne  time 
publicly  expounding  his  doctrines  before  a  mnlti- 
tade  assembled  in  the  churchyard;  and  the  ruins 
of  t^e  castle,  which  was  formerly  ^e  residenoe  of 
the  Electors  Falatbe,  and  which,  in  1764,  «h  set 
on  fire  by  lightoing,  and  totally  oonaumed.  In  the 
cellar  under  the  cutte  ia  the  famona  Heidelberg 
Tun,  3G  feet  long  and  24  feet  high,  and  cspaUe 


hyGoogle 


tog  800  

nniTcmtj,  which,  after  thow  of  Frtigae  uid  Vienna, 
ii  the  oldest  in  Geimuiy.  It  wna  foundal  by  the 
Elector  EnprecM  L  in  1386,  and  continue^  to 
flonriah  until  tha  period  of  the  Thirty  Yeara'  War, 
whan  it  began  to  decline.  In  1802,  however,  when 
the  town,  witJi  the  Banounding  i«rntory,  WM 
anigned  to  tbe  <^snd  Dnke  of  Badan,  a  new 
era  commeoced  for  the  uniTenity,  and  it  rwodly 
became  famoiu.  It  compriBes  faculties  of  theoltMQr. 
law,  medicine,  and  philoaophy.  In  1S6S,  it  StA 
more  than  800  studenta  in  its  clasBea.  Xta  library, 
to  which  additions  are  always  being  made,  cmd- 
mated  in  the  same  year  of  175,000  volumea  and 
2000  manuocripta.  At  an  edifice,  it  ii  a  plain, 
and  not  very  large  building  near  the  cantra 
of  the  town.  Tha  Libraiy,  the  Anatomical  and 
Zoological  Mnmoma,  and  the  Huaeum  Ctnb,  are 
separate  buildings.  Connected  with  the  nniversity 
are  numetoot  sdentifio  collecdons,  a  ohamical 
laboratory,  a  botiuuo  garden,  &c  The  taads  and 
nuunfaotiirBa  of  th«  town  an  inoonsidanbla.  He 
elu^men  of  living,  howarer,  and  the  baanty  of  the 
eBvirnns,  which  are  coltivated  like  a  garden,  have 
caused  a  gnat  many  forragnera  to  settle  here. 
Pop.  (1871)  19,988. 

As  Uie  re«idenoe  of  the  rulers  of  the  Palatinate, 
H.  nndmrwent  all  the  vicistitudea  of  that  much- 
Buffering  electorate.    See  Pai^tinatk. 

HBIGHTS,  MBABUKniKNT  OT,  may  be  performed 
in  any  one  of  Ibiir  wayi  i  by  the  aid  of  trigonometry ; 
hy  leVelling;  by  aacertaining  the  atmapherio  prea- 
■nre  at  the  top  sad  bottom  of  the  height  by  the 
barometer;  or  by  asiwrtaining  the  boiling-point  of 
water  at  tha  top  and  bottom  hj  the  thermometer. 
As  tbe  seoond  and  third  methods  are  treated  of 
elsewhere  (see  Livcuuito  and  BABOHvrut),  the 
flnt  and  fourth  alone  are  here  considered.  Zlie 
fbit  method  is  often  more  conTenient  than  any  of 
the  othera,  as  it  does  not  require  tha  aaoent  of 
the  height,  nor  even  a  near  approach  to  it.  There 
an  two  cases  of  the  problem : — Cass  I  (when  there 
is  level  ground  in  fnmt).  Let  ACD  be  a  height 
of  iiT^utai  form,  take  O  and  M,  two  stations  on 
tlie  level  gronnd  in  front,  find  tha  anglea  A0£, 


AMB,  and  measure  OUi  then  as  AOM,  AUO 
(which  is  AMB  subtracted  from  180°),  and  OU 
are  known,  AO  can  be  found ;  and  since  now  AO 
and  the  uigle  AOM  are  known,  AB  can  be  found. 
If  the  height  is  regular  in  form,  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  be  done  is  to  measore  OC,  calculate  CB, 
find  AOB;  then  AB  can  at  once  be  calculated 
by  the  ordinan  rales. — Caee  2  (when  there  is 
no  level  ground  in  front).  Suppose  the  height 
of  A  above  O  (fig.  2)  is  to  be  found.  Take  ano£er 
■tatioQ  M,  from  which  A  and  0  are  visible,  measure 
the  angles  AOM,  OMA,  and  find  OM  by  Levelliag 
(q.  v.),  then  OA  can  be  found ;  at  O  take  the  anete 
AOB  (the  aiwolu-  altitude  of  A),  then  from  OA 
and  AOB,  AB  can  be  known.  If  the  height  of 
one  point  above  another — tha  latter  not  being  the 


observcz's  station — 


's  station — be  reqniied,  then  the  height  or 
m  of  the  first,  and  the  hei^t  or  deprewioD 
of  the  Dtlier  above  or  below  tlis  ooaerver's  statuxi, 


rig.  2. 

mart  be  tomtd  •epaiately  as  before,  then  the  differ- 
eoce  (if  both  are  above  or  both  below  the  observer's 
level)  cr  sum  (if  one  is  behiw  it)  of  these  results 
gives  the  nmnber  required.  For  instance  (fig.  1), 
the  height  of  A  or  AB  is  first  found,  CE  or  the 
heif^t  3  E  is  next  calculated,  and  their  diSerence^ 
AB— CE,  or  AF.ia  the  height  of  A  above  E 

Besides  this  rigorous  tegonometrical  method, 
there  are  niany  ways  of  eatmiating  pret^  nearly 
the  height  of  abjet:^  with  little  or  no  calculation. 
For  instance,  if  the  height  is  perpendicular,  and  the 
gnnmd  in  front  on  a  level  with  the  base,  take  two 
pieces  of  wood,  hinged  or  jointed  togeUior  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  or  a  large  pair  of  compasses  opened  to 
that  angle ;  place  one  leg  horizontal  and  directed  to 
the  iwae  of  the  object,  and  move  the  instrument 
towards  it,  or  from  it,  ontil  the  oUier  leg  point  to 
the  top;  then  the  distance  of  the  angle  from  the 
bottom  givee  the  height 

The  lonrtb  method  is  often  used  in  measoring 
the  height  of  mountains  when  great  accoiaoy  is 
not  required,  or  when  the  apparatus  requisite  in 
applying  the  other  methods  is  not  at  band ;  all  the 
apparatoB  required  in  this  method  being  two  ther- 
mometers, a  tin  pot  to  boil  the  water,  and  a  book 
of  tables  sach  as  those  given  by  Colonel  Sykes  in 
Hinit  to  Trnvdler*. '  The  method  depends  npon  the 
fact,  that  vapoor  of  watw  or  steam  haa  a  certain 
tension  or  elutic  fores  acccodiiw  to  its  temperature, 
thtu:  at  32°  it  can  support O-Sof  on tnohof  meRory; 
at  80°  it  can  support  1  inch ;  at  1S0°,  7-42  inchei ; 
at  180°.  IS'6  inches ;  at  212°  (the  ordinary  boiling- 

Snnt),  30  inches,  or  the  whole  pressure  of  the  air. 
y  observing,  therefore,  the  temperatore  at  which 
water  boils,  wa  can  find,  by  means  of  a  table  of  tha 
elastic  force  of  vapoar  at  different  temperatuns,  tha 
preaaure,  in  inches  of  mermu^,  to  which  it  is  subject 
at  the  time.  Now,  beginnmg  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  it  is  found  by  experiment  that  a  fall  of  1°  in 
the  boiling-point  corresponds  to  an  elevation  of  SIO 
feet ;  at  an  elevation  of  2600  feet,  the  differenoa 
for  a  degree  U  520  feet  j  at  6000,  it  is  G30  feet; 
at  17,000,  it  is  E90  feetL  An  ^ptoiimation  for 
medium  elevations  maj 
on  an  average  for  the  i 
then  530  muiHplied  by  the  nwm&er  (ff  i 
Iht  boilmg-poi^  aad  212°  toiU  ^ire,  apprtoAniatdy, 
VvihaghL 

HEIJN,  or  HEYN,  Ptrm  PiTDisn',  a  famous 
Dntch  admiral,  was  bom  in  1577,  at  Detftahaven, 
near  Hotterdiun.  Of  low  origin,  he  gradually 
advanced  himself  by  his  bravery  to  tbe  highest 
dignitiea.  As  vice-admiral  of  the  fleet  of  the  Datch 
Wert    India   Company,  he  in   1626  engaged  and 


Ui^ii5MP;v 


Cioogli 


ntterif  deleated  tha  Spamudi  in  AH  SoIntB'  Sty, 
caphind  45  of  their  ihips,  and  retnmed  to  EaUand 
inith  an  inuneiiBe  booty.  In  consequence  of  thia 
aplendid  Tictory,  the  dompanjr  nuied  bun  to  the 
nnk  of  adminL  Only  two  yean  after  this,  he 
capttued,  almost  without,  reqairme  to  Btrike  a  blow, 
the  grand  Spanish  mlver  flotilla,  &g  value  of  which 
waa  otimated  at  12,000,000  Dutch  gnildere.  Aa 
a  rewaid  of  this  unparalleled  (ocoesi,  he  was,  in 
1029,  named  Admitol  of  Holland.  Shortly  after, 
he  ntet  hia  death  in  a  fight  with  two  sUpa  off 
ZHinkerqne.  A  marblo  moaument  i«  eiected  to  hia 
memory  in  the  old  church  at  Delft 

HEI'IiBBOIfN  (formerly,  SeiUgbrona,  Jiol]/ 
ueCI),  an  important  trading  and  manufactming  town 
of  Uie  kingdom  of  WUrtembeig,  in  the  cinile  of 
Keckar,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  tha  river 
Neckar,  in  a  beautiful  and  futile  valley,  2S  miles 
north  of  Stuttgart.  The  church  of  8t  IfitUi, 
built  from  1013  to  1629,  a  noble  edifice,  partly 
Qotbic  and  partly  Benaissanoe ;  the  old  town-hall, 
da-  i>uMAHr>n— the  Thiaf a  Towor^n  which  OStz 
von  Berlichingen  waa  confined ;  and  the  houoe 
of  the  Tentomo  kntghia,  now  a  barrack,  are  the 
ohisf  buildinga.  Though  wine  and  field  and  garden 
prodnce  are  still  cultivated  by  many  of  the  inha- 
bitants, trade  and  monnfactarea  are  the  chief 
bianchea  of  industry  now  earned  on  here.  Paper, 
chemical  prodncts,  ailk,  dye-stuSs,  gold,  ^ver,  and 
iron  •warm,  tobacco,  vinegar,  Jux,  are  manufactured 
for  export.  OypBom  and  saodgtone  are  quarried  in 
the  vicinity.    Pop.  (1871)  18,0M. 

HEIXIGENSTADT.ar^nlarly  built  and  walled 
town  of  Fnusian  Saxony,  ia  situated  on  the  Leine, 
near  the  Hanoverian  frontier,  CO  miles  north-west 
of  Erfurt  It  woa  the  capital  ij  the  department  of 
the  Harz,  in  the  kingdom  of  Weat^Wia,  from  1807 


HEI'LSBEHG  a  stnoU  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  province  of  Pmsma,  is  very  beautifully  situ- 
ated 00  the  A.Ue,  43  miles  south  of  Konigiberg. 
It  was  origiDally  the  ohief  town  of  £rmelaud,  one 
of  the  old  diviaions  of  Poland.  Pop.  (1871)  6839, 
who  mMiafactuie  doth,  leather,  fto. 

HBITiSBROHN,  a  small  town  in  the  Bavarian 
oirole  of  MiddJe  Fraooonia  (pop.  890J,  worthy  of 
note  as  the  ancient  baiial-place  of  the  Hohenzollem 
Bnrg^rafs  of  NUmb^  The  convent  of  Heilsbronn 
owea  its  origin  in  11;;b  to  Bishop  Otho  □[  Bunberg, 
and  its  snbaequent  rich  endowment  to  the  Counts  of 
Ahenberg,  frran  whom  it  passed  in  heritage  to  the 
Number^  princea,  who  thenoeforward  retuned  the 
lay-pn^metorahip  oi  the  institution.  Nearly  all  the 
memb^  of  their  Houae  were  buried  here  till  the 
and  of  the  ISth  c,  w4i«n  it  beoame  the  burtal-plaoe 
of  Um  FnuLOonian  branch  of  the  Hohenzolleina,  till 
th<dt  smrender  of  their  Fnuiconian  hereditary  Iwdi. 
Since  the  cappteMion  of  the  motiastcriea  in  IBB5, 
litti«  hoa  been  dime  to  k«ep  np  tlie  splendour  of 
H. :  bnt  the  church  still  letains  a  large  nomber  ol 
hifplly  inter««ting  monuments,  at  once  commemor- 
abve  of  anciait  German  history,  and  illusttative 
of  the  progreas  of  art  in  Oennsny  daring  the 
middle  MSB.  The  village  of  HeilBbronn,  which  Ues 
on  the  Schwabach,  posBeatee  mineral  springs,  and 
haa  mannfactories  of  wax-cloth  and  woollen  goods. 
The  history  and  antiquities  of  Eeilsbrottn  convent 
have  been  made  the  subject  of  several  interesting 
treatisee,  of  which  the  most  complete  is  Hocker'a 
StiltbnmiaAei  AnlipiilStaitcltais^  and  Stillfried's 
■eqnel  to  the  same  work. 

HBIMBKBINOIiA.    See  Shobbi  SrcKLnsoH. 

HEINE,   HxEBBIca^   *    modnn   Oerman   poet 


and  wit,  waa  bom  at  DOaaddor^  of  Jewish  pannti ; 
the  date  of  his  tnrth  is  voriottdy  stated  as  1797, 
1799,  and  (by  himself)  1800.  In  1819,  he  proceeded 
to  the  nniversity  of  Bonn  for  the  pnrposa  o( 
studying  law ;  biib  he  devoted  himself  with  greater 
anlonr  to  the  stody  of  modem  and  ancient  Ocnnan 
Uteratnre,  nnder  the  anspioea  of  his  matter  and 
friend  Aogust  Wilhelm  ScM^eL  He  sulwequantly 
studied  at  Beriin  and  at  OtftSngen,  at  which  latter 

Claoe  he  took  his  degree  aa  Doctor  of  Law  in 
92fi.  Abont  this  time,  he  abandoned  Jnd^sm,  Mid 
was  baptized  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Haliffen- 
stadt.  A  visit  to  the  Haiti  and  to  Its^  aop^ied 
him  with  materiali  for  hi*  RatAOder  (Kchnea  ol 
Travel,  Eamb.  4  vols.  1820—1831).  "Oam  book 
obtained,  on  it*  first  appeaianca,  an  «xta«<N:dinaiily 
brilliant  success.  'Young  Germany,'  in  particnlar, 
became  drunk  with  entbudaam.  Sa  B«A  <far 
Litdtr  (Book  of  Bonn,  Hamb.  16iE7;  10th  edit. 
1SS2)— a  portion  of  which  had  first  appeared  h 
Tovihfid  BornnM  in  Berlin,  18S2— was  no  IcM 
fortonate.  Many  of  these  ■oDgi  >re  of  the  most 
ezqnisita  and  etoBieal  botnty.  Tliey  are  nnmatidted 
in  German  literature,  ezoept  by  the  lyrics  which 
Qoethe  wrote  in  his  youth.  He  revolntion  ai  Joly 
threw  H.  into  a  violent  fit  of  democracy,  and  in 
1831  appeared  his  KaMdor/  Itbrr  dot  Adel,  at 
Sri^en  on  da-  Grafm  M.  von  ifoldx  (Kahldorf 
on  Uie  Aristocracy,  in  Letten  addressed  to  Count 
M.  von  Moltke).  He  now  found  it  adviaahle  to 
leave  Oermany,  and  at  once  prooeeded  to  Fari^ 
where  he  reaided  for  the  reM  of  hi*  life^  culti- 
vating belles-latbe*,  both  with  a  Mlliani^  and 
a  miLice  hitherto  olmoet  nnheard  of.  In  ISSS, 
he  married  a  certain  '  Uathilde,'  who  fignrea 
much  in  his  writing*,  and  in  1S43— 1844  visited 
his  native  country,  to  aee  hia  mother.  On 
liis  return,  he  pubhshed  DwUMand;  tin  WtmUt' 
■inSrduM  (Qomany;  a  Winter's  l^le),  in  irtudt 
he  reooimta  imaginary  adventures  and  bnrieeqiM 
epiaodes,  and  in  which  a  great  nnmber  of  his 
oountrymen,  king*,  statesmen,  pnrfnson,  mthora, 
artasts,  Ac,  are  mercilessly  safarised  and  abused. 
In  1847,  B.  was  attacked  by  diaeaae  of  the  Bj^na, 
and  was  almost  constantly  bedriddsn.  He  mi&red 
the  mutt  acute  pain,  together  with  the  loss  of 
eyesi^t,  with  the  most  remarkable  eqaanimity  and 
even  good-humoor,  till  the  day  of  hia  death,  which 
took  place  at  Paris,  February  17,  18S6.  Hia  wiQ 
expressed  a  desire  that  no  religious  ceremoniee 
should  be  celebrated  at  his  funeraL  '  This,'  how- 
ever, he  adds,  'is  not  the  weak  fant^  of  a  free- 
thinker. For  the  last  four  yaora,  I  have  cast 
oaide  all  pbiloaophical  pride,  and  have  agun  felt 
the  power  of  religious;  truth."  What  faith  is  to  be 
nloMd  in  this  aasertion,  niay  easily  be  concluded 
from  hi*  Bubse^uently  dengnating  the  Deity  aa 
the  >  mighty  Ansto^ianea  of  Beaven,'  who  luigha 
at  his  calamities.  Besides  the  woriu  already  men- 
tioned, "B.  wrote  FrcuaaMtche  Zuamnde,  Dtr  Salon, 
BhaJupviT^t  MadAen  uiuf  Fra»tu,  Xeua  Oediekte, 
Alia  Troti,  Somtaaero,  ka.  A  complete  editaon 
of  his  works  was  published  at  Philadelidiia,  bv 
John  Weik,  in  1856  i  another  was  published,  bv 
HofTmann  Compe,  in  Hamburff  1(1861—1863).  A 
Frfnch  edition  of  his  works  (Uich^  Levy,  Fans) 
was  prepared,  with  his  co-opetation,  by  Loewe- 
Weiman,  Gareid  de  Nerval,  and  St  Bfoe-'nul- 
landier.  English  versions  of  some  of  thus  an 
Inland'*  translation  of  The  Picture*  of  Traml 
(Philad.  1866),  The  Boot  <^  Song$,  by  J.  £.  Wallia 
(Lond.  IBM),  and  the  Poemt  cS  Heine,  cotnnlet*, 
translated  in  the  original  metres  by  £dinr  £&ed 
Bowring  (Lond.  18B9). 

HEINBOOIUS,   JoKunr   QoTTLm,  a   learned 
Jurist  of  Oermany,  bora  11th  Septeniw  1481  at 


v.Cuui^Il 


Halle, 

phSowphy,  and  ia  1720  profetBor  of  law.  In  the 
lattsr  oapaoit;,  htwBiit  in  1123  to  FranA^.in  1727 
to  Tnckfort-on-tlw-Oder ;  bnt  in  1733  retiiined,  ai 
profenor  of  law  and  philoaor^T,  to  Halle,  -wliera 


,  ice  with   all  the  departmenti 

of  JDTi>[andanoey  but  eepecially  with  Koman  and 
Oennan  law;  and  their  varied  learning,  loracal 
airanBement,  and  elegant  Latin,  long  maintained 
foi  t£ein  a  claaeical  Suuacter.  Hii  Aniiqwitaluta 
Jtu  Eoautmim  lUutiranliam  Byiiaama,  lu*  been 
re-edited  so  ktel^  as  1841  by  MlUikiibrneli,  and 
his  EUmenia  Jvru  CiviUa  tecundmn  OnUnan  IntU- 
tntionum  (edited  br  Biener,  1816);  hie  SiemaOa 
Jurii  CivUia  Mcuiubim  Ordinem  Pandedanaa,  kiO., 
aro  etill  atodied  by  iuriata.— K'e  eon,  JoKAmr 
Chbisiuii  OorruxB  H.,  bom  1718  at  Halli^  died 
17S1  atSagan,  was  for  a  long  time  profeosor  in  tbe 
academy  for  yoatw  Doblemen  at  lu^nitB,  and  edited 
beaidea  wventl  of  hia  father's  wocka  aepamtely,  a 
complete collectioa of  Utem  {H.Opva  Om«*a,9injs. 
Oenera,  1771)^— H.'s  brother,  JoHAini  Miohaxlb 
H.,  bora  at  Sisenberg  167^  died  llth  September 
1722,  was  a  celebrated,  pulpit  otstor  in  Halle,  and 
also  the  first  who  studied  seals  scientifically.  His 
theologioal  mitinfrB  are  foigotteti,  bat  he  is  remem- 
bered by  hie  De  VetaHnu  Oenaanoram  aiiarmnjw 
Jfationim  SigSlit  (Leip.  1710;  2d  edit  1719),  and 
by  the  work  edited  in  conjunddoa  with  Leookfeld, 
Saiftoret  Saian  Qermamcarum  (Fnmkl  1707). 

HEIB,  or  HEIK-AT-LAW,  in  En^idi  Law, 
means  the  person  who,  in  the  event  of  no  will 
being  left  by  a  deceased  person  which  indicates  a 
different  person,  is  entitled  by  law  to  succeed  to 
the  real  estate  of  such  deceased  person.  The  term 
is  never  used  in  the  loMe  seose  which  prevaQi  ia 
Scotland,  as  including  both  heirs,  woperly  so  called, 
and  executon  or  nrart  of  kin.    When  a  person  in 

the  undoubted  right  which  belongs  to  him  of  leaving 
his  real  property  by  will  to  whomsoever  he  pleases, 
to  be  enjoyed  after  his  own  death,  the  law  steps  in, 
and  appoints  such  a  person  for  1* '  -  ■  '^'-  - 
ia  the  heii<«t-law.  The  law,  in : 
proceeds  on  oertvn  fi^d  rules 

eldest  son  is  prefrared  to  all  the  rest  of  the  family, 
and  hia  deaomidanii ;  then  the  next  eldest  son  and 
his  descendants;  and  so  on  to  the  youngest  son, 
after  whom  the  danj^ters  soooeed  equally  or  all 
together,  and  are  then  nlled  ooparceneis.     After 
the  desc«ada&ts  <^  the  deceased  poaon,  who  may  bt 
called  A,  are  exhausted,  tJust  A'a  fsther  succeeds: 
after  whom  follow  A'l  eldest  brothm  and  deecend- 
ante;  then  A's  ned  eldest  btothw;  snd  so  on  to  tht 
youngest  brother;  after  failnre  <rf  whom  and  his 
deac^dsnts,  then  sll  A's  naters  "bj  As  full  blood 
succeed   eqoslly   sa   ooparoanen;  then  .A's   hi" 
broUier  t^  the  fathes's  aide,  and  deaoen^uiia,  & 
then  A's  half-osters  by  the  fstiier's  side,  all 
coparaeners;  afterit^iom  succeed A'a  paternal unc 
and  aunts  ia  a  nndlar  order.     Where  there  i 
DO  heiis  whose  lelaticnahip  can  be  traced  to   I... 
deceased  pets^  Iben  the  real  estste  goes  to  the 


Ebglsiid,  saiHi  real  estate  vi 

it-law,  whoever  that  mayK, , 

yr  formality  being  required.    The  heir-at-law,  how- 
iver.  tjies  the  nroperlr  snbject  to  the  debte  lA  the 
re  pay  off  all  t^ese,  provided  there 


debts  in  the  first  iostance,  by  auy  of  the 

credittns,  but  he  may  afterwards   have  the  real 

--^-'■i  exonerated,  thereby  shiftily  tbe  liabilitv  to 

ersonal  estate.     When  the  deceased  had  land 

1  was  mbject  to  a  mortgage  debt,  then  that 

debt  ia  a  burden  on  the  land,  uid  must  be  borne 

by  the  hdr ;  but  the  law  was  otherwise  before  1851, 

Tbe  law  of  suocession  in  Iceland  is  entirely  the 

jue  ■•  in  £kigland.    See  ScocntasiOH. 

HEIB,  in  Scotch  Law.  is  often  used  in  a  loose 

use  to  denote  the  petsoDS  entdtied  to  succeed  to 

the  heritable  as  well  as  to  the  movahle  estate.     In 

Soothmd,  the  same  rale  eziBts  as  in  Bogknd,  that 

pemon  do  not  by  deed  norUt  oauea  {which 

tea  like  an  Saglish  will)  dispone  or  conv^  his 

..    >  to  some  other  p«»oiL  the  law  pointe  out  who 

is  to  take  such  estat&  and  that  person  is  the  heir-aV 

law.    ^leralesbyindch  the  heir  to  heritable  est^ 


the  Kigliih 

the  descendsjrte  of  the  deceased  person  A,  But 
after  A'a  descendants  are  exhausted,  differences 
bcsin,  for  then  it  is  not  the  father,  nor  yet  the 
eldest  brother  of  A,  but  the  next  younger  brother 
of  A,  who  next  succeeds ;  then  the  next  younger 
again,  until  the  youngest  brother ;  after  whom  uid 
*"-  ''"-loendante  comes  A'a  next  elder  brother ;  and 
upwards  to  the  eldest  brother  of  aD.  In 
Paterson  s  Gompaidnan  of  EngliA  and  Scotch  Lam, 
the  different  order  of  snooession  in  both  countries 
is  shewn  in  a  man  There  yn»  a  difference  in  Soot- 
land  as  raaids  aeritable  estate  which  had  been 
robaaed  vj  a  person  (in  whioh  case  it  was  called 
_  juqunt),  and  who  died  leaving;  to'others  both  elder 
and  yoonger  :  in  such  case,  contnuy  to  the  general 
rul^  the  estate  went  first  to  tJie  next  elder  brother. 
Bnt  after  1874  this  distdndion  waa  abolished.  In 
Scotland,  when  fentales  succeed  equally,  they  are 
called  Heirs-Portioners  {q.  v.).  In  Scotluid,  thou^ 
not  in  England,  the  mother  never  auooeeds  in  any 
event,  or  any  relatdvee,  except  brothers  and  sisters 
gennau,  who  ttooe  through  her. 

There  was  an  important  difference  in  Scotland  sa 
to  the  vesting  of  ^  hwitable  estate  of  a  deceased 
— -  —   At  tbi  death  of  tiie  owiier,hiB  heritable  estate 
immediately  vest  in  the  heir,  bat  lay  in  an 

stete,  then  called  the  hareditat  jaeetu, 

and  the  person  entitled  to  be  tlie  heir  had  to  be 
served  heir,  or  make  up  his  titlee,  and  enter  to  the 
Mate.  This  waa  altered  in  1S74,  and  the  estate 
lit  once  upon  the  death  of  the  last  owner, 
Vict  0.  9^  B.  9.  The  general  rule  also 
exists  ia  Scotland,  that  the  heir-at-law  takes  the 
estates  subject  to  his  ancestor's  debte ;  indeed,  he 
used  te  be  liable  for  all  the  debts,  though  far  ex- 
ceeding the  property  left,  provided  tliat  he  did  not 
take  certain  precautions  to  escape  this  passive 
repreMutatioD^  as  it  was  called,  for  tiie  barbarona 
maxim  prevailed,  hara  a*(  tadma  psrsonn  eum 
d^meto.  The  st«p8  to  be  taken  to  giurd  against 
liabOi^  in  snt^  asses  are  motten  of  detail  whidi 
do  not  require  to  be  described,  smd  are  no  longer 
neoBSMiT  since  the  aot  of  1S74.  Another  import- 
ant distmotion  exists  in  Scotluid,  vis.,  that  on  hedr 
need  not  be  bora  in  lawful  wedlock,  as  in  anglond, 
but  it  is  enoudilif  the  father  monies  tiie  mother 
afterwards,  and  so  legitimates  him. 

The  word '  heir '  is  often  distingaished : 
kinds,  lims,  aa  Mr  &y  deatuudon  is  a 
is  pointed  out  by  a  certain  deed  to  succeed  m_  • 
certain  order.  So  is  an  Mr  of  provuion.  An  heir- 
at-law  is  akio  often  called  an  Adr  <>/'&«,  because  be 
succeeds  aooording  to  a  oertwn  line  or  order;  and 
an  hdr-gmtivl,  because  h«  is  the  general  representa- 
tive of  the  aooestor,  in  eontrsdistmotion  to  an  heir- 
apecdsl,  who  ia  pointed  out  by  deed.    An  htir  nf 


dintoseverd 


y,G00g|l 


HEIR  AND  EZBCUTOB— HELDER. 


«nteil  ia  the  penon  who  saeceeda  to  an  enti 

estata  hy  Tutue  of  the  deed  of  entail,  which 

■cribea  toe  order  of  sncceuioa.    An  Aar  tjf  ami, 

mBant,  u  above  stated,  the  heir  of  m.  anoeator  who 
acquired  the  estate  in  queation  by  purchaae,  and 
not  by  anoceaaioa.    See  SucoEasiox. 

HEIR  AND  EXECtrrOB,  a  short  phtua  to 
denote  that  branch  of  the  law  in  which  a  teodine 
distinction  ia  made  betwaen  the  two  kinda  tS 
pTopertr  left  by  a  deceased  person,  viz.,  real  and 
personal.  All  a  mac'a  property  falls  under  one  or 
other  of  these  heads.  If  real,  it  goes  to  the  heir-at- 
law  ;  if  personal,  it  goe*  to  the  eiecutoia  or  adminia- 
trators,  often  called  the  personal  repreaentativeB 
In  Scotland,  the  aama  leading  diatinction  eiiata 
under  Uie  head  of  heritable  and  movable,  but  in 
Scotland  some  things  are  claaaed  among  heritable, 
vhich  in  England  would  not  be  claaeed  among  real 
property.  Timn,  in  Scotland,  a  leue  is  heritable 
and  goes  to  the  heir-at-law,  while  in 
it  is  personal,  and  goes  to  the  executor 

peiaonalty,  and  in  Scotland  are  heritable  subjeota, 
and  there  are  MxDe  other  differencea  not  easily  to 
be  explained  popnlarty. 

HEIB-APPABENI,  in  English  Law,  means  the 
person  who  ia  certain  to  aucceed  if  he  outlive  hia 
ancestor;  thus  the  eldest  son  ia  so,  becaaaa  no  other 
person  can  ever  come  between  and  obtain  preced- 
ence. In  Scotland,  the  pbraae  is  eometimea  used  abo 
popnlariy  in  this  sense,  but  the  worda  '  apparent 
heir,'  when  used  technically  there,  mean  qnite  a 
different  tiling,  viz.,  the  person  who,  after  hia 
anceator's  deaUi,  ia  entitled  to  ancceed,  provided  he 
make  up  hia  titles,  but  who  has  not  yet  actually 
done  BO.  The  apparent  heir  has  a  year  to  deliberate, 
called  Uis  atmui  dtliberandi,  wheUier  he  will  enter 
upon  the  property,  beoanse  the  responsibility  ia  ao 
much  greyer  in  Scotland  than  in  England. 

HEIRESS  meana  a  female  heir  when  there  are 
no  male  heiia  to  aucoeed.  Where  there  are  Beveial 
femalea,  all  ataten,  who  are  in  that  case  eqnally 
entitled,  they  are  sometimes  called  co-heiressea,  but 
more  prop^ly  copareeneri  in  En^and,  and  A«irf- 
porlioneri  in  Scotland. 

HEIRESS.  In  Heraldry,  a  lady  ia  accounted  an 
heiress  if  ahe  has  no  brothers  who  leave  issue.  The 
husband  of  an  heiress  Is  entitled  to  bear  her  anna  in 
an  escutcheon  of  pretence,  i.  e.,  a  small  escutcheon 
in  the  centre  of  his  paternal  shield,  and  the  children 
of  an  heiress  may  quarter  her  arms  with  their 
paternal  coat  Neither  practice  is  of  very  early 
introduction  in  heialdry.      See  UARSHAixma  o> 

HEIR-FESIALE  meana  the  female  heir  con- 
nected through  a  female. 

HEIRLOOM,  in  Engliah  Law,  meana  certain 
chattela  which  go  to  ue  heir-at-law  by  apecial 
custom,  and  have  already  oome  throush  sevend 
deaceotB.  The  chattels  included  are  t&  beat  of 
everything,  as  pots,  pans,  tables,  &a.  But  the  right 
ia  obaeuTe.  The  word  ia  more  frequently  used  now 
to  desiniate  aome  chattel  which  a  testator  haa 
bequeathed  to  the  person,  whoever  he  may  be,  who 
is  to  take  the  real  eatate.  In  Scotland,  a  somewhat 
similar,  but  by  no  means  identical  phrase  ia  used, 
viz.,  Aarthip  mooaitai,  which  ia  a  wider  right,  and 
includes  the  beet  articles  of  funuture  in  the  houae 
of  a  person  who  left  heritable  property.  The  extent 
of  this  right  is  also  not  clearly  settled. 

HEIB-HALB  meana  the  male  heit  connected 
through  a  male. 

HBIB-PBESn'MPTIVE,  in  Bngliah  I«w,  means 
who  would  aucceed  if  ue  ancestor  were 


e  p^toD  w 


to  die  immediately,  but  who  may  ultimately  be 

displaced  if  the  ancestor  live  longer.  Thus,  as 
only  dau^ter  is  the  hair-preaumptive  until  a  Km 
is  bora,  who  thereupon  displaces  her.  In  Scotland, 
though  the  phrase  is  also  used  popularly  in  tfaia 
sense,  yet  in  its  technical  sense  it  meana  the  psnaa 
who  is  certain  to  be  heir  if  he  outlive  his  ancatoc 
In  abort,  a  mesumptive  heir  in  Scotland  would  be 
called  an  heir-appareut  in  England. 

HEIRS-PORTIONERS,  in  Scotch  Iaw,  meu 
either  two  or  more  females,  being  sisters,  or  listan 
and  the  children,  male  and  female,  of  dnrnanfii 
sisters,  who  ara  entitled  to  succeed  to  hsiitBUa 
eatate.  Thua,  if  A  diea  leaving  three  dan^iteiB, 
all  three  succeed  equally  if  alive ;  or  if  lome  had 
already  died  leaving  children,  then  the  oluldnn 
represent  the  parent,  and  sucoeed  to  the  pumt^ 
share  along  with  the  aurviving  aiat«ra,  aQ  beang 
called  heire-portionera.  In  anch  oasei,  the  ddett 
heir-portioner  is  entitled  to  the  manaian-hoase  over 
and  above  her  equal  ahare  of  the  reat  She  alone 
also  takes  a  peerage  or  dignity,  if  there  ia  any  ld 
Hie  famil}'.  In  En^bnd,  coparc^iera,  Uioo^  resem- 
bling hein-portioneia,  have  not  identicid  ri^t& 
See  Paterson's  Comp.  of  E.  and  S.  Law,  a.  777. 

HEIRSHIP  MOVABLES.    See  EsnaooM. 

HEL,  the  northern  goddess  of  the  dead,  who 
dwelt  beneath  one  of  the  three  roots  of  the  aacred 
ash  Yggdrasil,  was  the  daughter  of  the  evil-hearted 
Lohi  (q.  v.),  by  the  giantesa  Angurboda.  Hel, 
together  with  her  brother^  the  wotf  Fenrtr,  and  the 
serpent  Jormundgand,  was  bred  np  in  the  pant's 
home  of  Jittunheim,  where  she  remained,  till  at  the 


calamity,  he  r 

after  casting  th  ,  .  .  .  . 
anrrounds  all  lands,  and  where 
large  that  it  encircles  the  whale  world,  and  bites 
ita  own  tail,  he  hurled  Hel  into  Niflhaim  (q.  v.),  ovor 
which  he  gave  her  authority,  and  in  which  she 
was  to  oaaign  places  to  all  who  die  of  aicknesa  and 
age.  Her  vast  abode  is  surrounded  by  a  hi^ 
enclosure  with  maaaive  gatea  Her  dwelling  u 
EUtuMt,  dark '  clouda  ;  her  dish,  Hiagr,  huneer ; 
her  knife,  Sidit,  starvation  ;  her  servant  OanffAli, 
alow-moving ;  her  bed,  K6r,  sickness ;  and  her 
ourtaina,  MH^iidabSl,  splendid  misery.  She  is 
saily  recognised  by  her  nerce  aspect,  and  her  half- 
ilack,  half  fleah-coloured  skin.  Hel  was  inexOTable, 
and  would  release  no  one  who  had  once  entered  her 

After  tiie  introduction  and  diffiiaon  of  Christi- 
aoity,  the  ideaa  personified  in  Hel  gradually  merged, 

long  al!  t3ie  races  of  northern  and  German  descent^ 
the  local  oonception  of  a  Hell,  or  daik  abode 
of  the  dead.  See  Thorpe's  Northern  MylMogt, 
Grimm's  iS^eb>gie, 

EBTDEB,  a  thriving  seaport  and  strongly 
fortified  town  in  the  provmce  of  Holland,  Nethei^ 
lands,  stands  on  the  Maradiep,  which  unites  the 
Zuider  Zee  and  the  German  Ocean,  and  separate* 
Korth  Holland  from  TeieL  It  ia  4a  miles  north- 
nort^i-west  of  Amsterdam,  with  which  it  ia  con- 
nected by  the  Grand  Ship  Canal  See  AiOTEBJ>aJL 
E.  is  protected  from  the  inroads  of  the  sea  by  an 
enormous  dyke,  eix  milea  in  lengUi,  40  feet  broad 
at  the  top,  on  which  there  is  a  good  road,  and 
which  presents  to  the  sea  a  sltntinff  aide  □{  200 
feet,  inclined  at  an  angle  of  40\  This  dyke  is 
built  entirely  of  huge  blocka  of  Norwegian  granite. 
Here  alone,  along  the  whole  ooaat,  ia  deep  water 
found  close  to  the  shore,  a  fact  accounted  for  by 
•L -v  _  < .  _.  .L.  jjj^  jjjg  Tiolence  trf 


the  ruah  ( 


tyCUUl^lf 


HELEOT-^KELICIDA 


■0  gceat  faoe  that 

uilate.     Fort  E;kdiiiii 
town  and  ligikt-botuo.    Iti  huboor,  which  ia  well 
■haltend  hj  the  dyke,  obd  eanly  oont^ 
itmOM.    Pqfc  (1878)  20,10*. 

HELEN,  t)ie_daiif;hter  of  Zeos  and  Ledo,  wife 
of  '^rodaiviu,  Idng  of  9puta.  Aocordiag  to  the 
ADcietit  legend,  ihe  was  lo  exc«edingl]r  beantiful, 
OM  at  the  Age  of  ten  she  wu  carried  off  by 
1   Firithous,  but   wm  Tecovered   gab- 


DiMea*   and   ] 


about  30,  by  a  aidemn  oath,  to  nnite  togetber 

to  aid  the  hnnband  whom  H.  shonld  ohooae,  in 

of  any  attempts  bein^  again  made  to  carry 
oS.  In  aooordance  inth  thia  oath,  her  hosband, 
Menelam,  when  she  wsb  afterwards  carried  off  by 
Paiia,  ion  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  Bommoned  all 
tliB  }>riiicea  of  Greene  to  avenge  the  ifjurj  he  had 
nutuned,  and  thna  gave  rise  to  the  Trojan  war. 
The  itoriea  conceniing  the  fate  of  H.  are  inexhaust- 
ible. The  ordinary  legend  Etstea  that  after  the 
deatli  of  Paris,  ahe  volontaiHv'  married  hia  brother 
Deiphobna,  and  that  on  the  taking  of  Troy,  in  order 
to  recover  the  taTonr  of  Menelaas,  ihe  betrayed 
Deiphobna  into  faia  haada.  On  Qm  fall  of  Troy, 
ahe  retnrcad  with  Menelaus  to  Sparta;  but  after 
hia  deatii  was  driven  from  the  country,  and  having 
gone  to  Rhodea,  waa  ^erc  muidercd  by  the  queen 
of  the  ialand.  By  her  husband  Menelaua,  ahe  had 
one  daughter,  Hermione.  Greek  ortiats  have  repre- 
aented  her  in  their  works  as  the  prototype  of  female 
beauty,  and  ahe  has  fraqaently  been  celebrated  by 


their  driunatic  works. 
HBTjEN A,  the  name  of  aaverol  female  aamta  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  the  moat  celebrated  of  whon 
ia  the  Empren  Helena,  wife  of  ConatantiuB  Chlonis, 
and  mother  of  Constautine  the  Oreat  The  place  of 
her  birth  ia  a  anbject  of  oontrover^ ;  according  to 
cue  aoeoont,  ahe  was  bom  in  Bithynia;  but  the 
Engliab  Cbnrch  histoiianB  commonly  cl^n  her  oa 
a  native  of  Britain,  to  which  opinion  some  proba- 
bili^  it  added  from  the  fact,  that  her  fitat-bom 
—    n — L__.^__ hixa  in  that  country.    "' 


became  aChtiatiBa  during  the  youth  of  Conatantine, 
and  it  ia  thought  not  unlikdy  tliat  her  example 
and  her  teaoliing  co-operated  with  public  motivea  in 
dBtennining  Conatantme  to  embrace  the  Chriatian 
ivligion.  It  was  not.  however,  till  after  the  defeat 
of  Maxeutins  that  H.  formally  received  baptiam. 
She  waa  at  thia  time  far  advanced  in  years ;  but  ahe 
■nrvired  her  baptiam  for  a  considerable  t^e,  and 
deaerved  the  gratitude  of  the  Christian  community 
by  bet  Mai  for  the  advancement  of  religion,  and  her 
many  acta  of  pietv  and  manificeno&  Among  the 
pablio  ertot*  oE  ner  Christian  life,  recorded  by 
Cathi^  hiatoriooa,  the  most  remarkable  ia  the 
diacovery  {according  to  the  belief  of  the  time)  of 
the  croaa  of  Our  Lord  (see  Holt  Fucbs).  She 
died  in  the  year  328,  or,  according  to  another 
accooBt,  in  326. — Two  other  royal  or  princely  ladies 
of  the  same  name  are  honoured  aa  saints.  The  first, 
whose  honoun  are  confined  to  the  Russian  Church, 
was  the  wife  of  the  Grand  Duke  Igor,  and  at  her 
baptiam  in  Conatantinople  (SS6),  changed  her 
onginal  name,  Olga,  into  HeWo.  She  is  held  in 
the  hifihsat  reputation  for  sanctity  in  the  Russian 
Church.  The  other  was  a  native  of  Skofde,  in 
West  Gothland,  and  lived  in  the  12th  century. 

HELB'NA,  St,  perhaps  the  best  known  of  all 
the  lonely  islands  in  tiie  world,  ia  aituated  in 
the  Atlantio,  in  lab  16*  C7  S.,  and  long.  6*  44'  W. 
Oreateet  length  of  the  island,  lOj  mile* ;  breadth,  7 

-^'   i;awa,47 '-     ■"      -."-".».,     ,. 

0  miles  fi 


Atoension,  and  about  a  half  more  from  the  neareat 
point  of  the  African  continent  The  ialand  waa 
disoovered  in  1502,  on  8t  Hdoia'a  Day  {22d  May), 
whence  its  name,  by  the  Portngneae  navigator  Juan 
de  Nova  CaiteUa.  It  ofterwwda  beoama  a  I^irtoh 
poaseaaion,  was  ceded  by  Holland  about  the  middle 
of  tJte  nth  0.  to  the  English  East  India  Company, 
and  made  over  by  them  to  the  BritLsh  crown  in 
1833.  Its  value  oonaiated  in  its  being  a  oonvenient 
halting-place  on  the  homeward  voyage  from  India 
—a  value  enhanced  by  the  fact,  that  the  Cape  of 
Qood  Hope  had,  ten  years  previously,  been  coloniBBd 
by  the  Dutoh.  On  the  outward  voyage,  however, 
it  waa  not  available  for  sailing- vessels,  which,  under 
the  infiuenoe  of  the  eaaterly  trade-winda,  oould 
reach  it  at  last  only  after  overshooting  it  far  both 
to  the  west  and  to  the  aonth ;  and  this  difficulty 
of  access  peculiarly  fitted  it  to  be  the  residence  of 
Napfjeon  Bonaparte,  who  here  Imsered  in  hopeleaa 
captivity  from  181S  to  1821.  The  nature  of  the 
coaat,  too,  would  remder  a  hoa^a  landing  next  to 
impracticable,  preaenting,  as  it  does,  either  a  natur- 
ally scarped  face  of  clioi  ranging  from  600  to  1200' 
feet  high,  or  the  moutha  of  ravines  protected  by  forta 
and  other  military  worka.    There  is  ooe  good  inlet, 


About  6000  acres — one-fifth  of  the  entire  aorfoce 
^are  available  for  cultivation,  but  not  more  than 
500  are  actually  under  cultivation ;  while  uplands 
of  volcanic  origin,  riaing  in  Diana's  Peak,  m  the 
centre  of  the  isUnd,  to  &.e  height  of  2700  feet,  feed 
large  numbers  of  goata.  There  ore  several  plains, 
the  largest  of  which  is  Longwood,  where  stands 
the  house  in  which  Napoleon  lived.  Supphes  of 
provisions,  properly  so  caUed,  are  moaUy  imported, 
more  especially  for  the  resident  populatton. 

HB'LENSBTJBOH,  a  rising  town  and  favonrito 
watering-place  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Ihun* 
barton,  u  pleasantly  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Pirth  of  Clyde,  opposite  Greenock,  from  which 
it  ia  four  miles  distant,  and  23  milea  west-north- 
west of  Gla^;ow  by  railway.  It  waa  founded  in 
1777  by  Sir  James  Colquhoun,  and  named  after  hia 


In  1858,  direct  railway  c 


opened  up  between  H.  and  Dumbarton  and 
Gloagow,  and  since  that  time  the  town  has  greatly 
incr^ksed.  Pop.  (1S71)  6975 ;  but  in  summer,  ljie 
numbers  are  nearly  doubled. 

HBLFACAL  RISING  (from  Or.  hrim,  the  sun). 
A  star  ia  said  to  rise  heliocalty  when  it  rises  just 
before  the  sun.  When  the  sun  approaches  a  star 
whioh  ia  near  the  ediptic,  the  star  becomes  for  a 
season  invixible — the  heavens  being  too  bright  in 
the  quartera  ef  aunriae  and  mnaet,  at  the  times  of 
ita  ruing  and  setting,  to  allow  it  to  be  ~ 

when  OiB  aim,  prorrening  in  its  orbil 
from  the  ator,  and  Uia  latSer  begins  to 
in  time  rises  ao  much  earlier  than  the  sun,  as  just 
to  be  viaibie  before  daylight    It  is  then  aoid  to  riae 
heliacally. 

HELIA'NTHUS.  See  Jerubuzu  Abttcboki, 
and  ScNrLOwm. 


_, „        ,  ^tba 

mantle  cavity  formed  into  an  air-sac  or  long.  The 
B.  are  land  molluscs.  They  have  a  ipirJ  shell, 
into  which  the  body  of  the  animal  can  be  with- 
drawn. Most  of  the  species  pretty  much  resemble 
the  common  snails  in  Uieir  habits,  feeding  on  vege- 
table substances  of  variona  kinds,  and  often  proving 
ttonbleaome  to  the  farmer  and  gardener. 


iTizsiTg 


y  Google 


HBUOOW— Hiuoa 


in  Greece,  niBV  be  regirded  as 
the  range  of  FmnuiBiu.      It  i 


D  feet  Jiigt*  At  the  bottom  of  E.  stood  the 
villsgs  of  Aiicra,  the  reeidence  of  Heaiod,  and  tin 
Met  of  the  earlieat  echool  of  poetry  in  Qreece.     In 

ending  the  monQtain  from  Ascra  (now  PyrgUi], 


.  The  Qrova  of  the  Moses  is  mippoaed  to  bare 
1  mtnatfld  in  a  hollow  &t  the  foot  of  Mount 
Mirandili,  one  ol  the  summita  of  Helicon.  Leake 
ooniidera  that  its  aite  is  now  occopiod  by  the  church 
and  convent  of  St  NichoUa.  Twenty  itadia  above 
thii  waa  the  foonbun  oC  Hippoenmcs  probably  the 
Dudem  Hokariotina,  where  then  ia  still  a  fine 

HETLIGOLAND,  or  HELGOLATO  (Holy 
Land),  a  mull  inland  in  the  North  Sea,  belonging 
to  Oreat  Britain,  is  litnatcd  about  30  or  40  mQes 
north-west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  in  Ut  6*°  11' 
N.,  and  long-  7*  SS*  E.  It  is  Kbont  a  mile  long 
bom  north  la  aonth,  and  one-third  of  a  mile  from 
a  west,  one-fiftb  of  a  iqaare  mile  in  superficial 
area,  and  about  2)  miles  in  circumference.  The 
'  '     '  islB  of  an  upper  and  a  lower  quarter  ; 

'The  Oberland,'  ia  a  rock  200  feet  in 

„ ^00  paces  in  circumference,  on  which 

(tand*  a  town  of  360  houses,  and  1913  inhabitants ; 
the  Iatt«r, '  Sandy  Island,'  is  a  patch  of  shore  with 
60  houses  south-east  of  the  aiS,  and  commnni- 
cating  with  it  by  a  Sight  of  173  (te^  The  lurgina 
of  the  sea,  which  has  already  greatly  diminiuied 
the  size  of  the  island,  is  fast  consuming  iti  ahoKS, 
and  will  probabl;,  at  no  great  distance  d  time, 
reduce  it  to  a  mere  sand-Imnk.  H.  has  two  good 
ports,  one  on  its  north,  and  another  on  its  sonth 
dde.  The  inhabitants  are  supported  chiefly  by 
flahing  and  commerce,  t^  (ervmK  as  pilots,  and 
by  the  strauets  who  visit  H.  bir  the  excelleat 
■ea-bathing  Sandy  Island  affords.  A  ligbt-honse 
stands  on  the  cliff  near  the  villa^  There  is  also 
a  prison,  bat  it  ia  never  occnpied.  The  aunual 
valne  of  the  fisheries  is  about  £6000,  (ud  the 
chief  products  are  lobster*  and  haddocks.  H.  is  an 
important  plaoe  in  time  of  war,  and  oommands  the 
German  trade  in  the  North  Sea.  The  island,  which 
WM  taken  by  the  Bndiah  from  the  Danes  in  1807, 
and  WM  foimslly  ceded  to  them  in  1614,  has  an 
English  govmnor,  but  the  internal  afEuis  aremanued 
by  a  council  of  the  isUnder*.  Four  b&ttenes, 
Dianned  by  a  garrison  of  British  soldiers,  are  mounted 
on  the  clift  The  British  ettablishment  maintained 
on  H.  costa  about  £1000  a  year.  Steam-boats  ran 
between  Uiia  and  Hamburg. — H.  was  anciently 
aaored  to  the  goddess  Hertha,  and  was  the  island  to 
which  the  tnbe  of  the  Angli,  who  inhabited  the 
mainlaiid  opposite,  went  to  perform  reli^us  rites 
in  her  honour.  On  a  map  discovered  by  Sir  William 
Gell,  the  situation  of  many  temples,  villages,  and 
lor^  tracts  of  country,  are  delineated,  iJl  of 
which  were  swallowed  np  by  the  sea,  between  700 
«.D.  and  1200  XD.,  according  to  B'Anville.  The 
sea  continued  its  encroachments,  and,  before  tite 
end  of  the  17th  c.,  had  submeived  several  churches 
and  monastic  establishments.  Christianity  was  first 
preached  here  by_  St  Willihrod  in  the  7th  a,  after 
whose  time  the  island  received  its  present  name. 
Before  this,  it  was  called  Fosetisland,  from  the 
FriMSD  eoddess,  Foaeto,  who  had  a  temple  here. 
The  inhantants  of  H.  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
(Ikffraing  both  in  race  and  occupation — the  one  being 
fishsn,  tba  other  nerdisnta^  cultivatraa,  &a    The 


first  are  !£^i£ana,  and,  true  to  ths  habtta  of  tluir 
ancestors,  the  8ea-kinira  of  dd,  hold  land-labour 
in  utter  oontempt:  they  are  bold  and  hardy 
sailors,  and  display  sreat  patiemce  and  enduianca 
under  privation.  The  merchant  class  consislB  al 
immigrants  from  Hamburg  and  oUier  places  on 
the  mainland,  or  their  descendants.  The  Frisian 
delights  to  call  himself  'sn  T^ngHfthTnim,'  but  will 
by  no  meant  allow  that  title  to  his  neighbour  the 


primitii 

HELIOCB'imuO,  a  term  in  Astronomy,  signi^- 
ing  that  the  sun  (Gr.  htiiot),  ia  taken  aa  ttu  centiv 
of  reference  or  view.  It  is  opposed  to  geocentric, 
which  meau  that  the  earth  is  taken  ar  centre. 
ThaiL,  the  heliocentric  plaoe  of  a  planet  is  its 
plaoe  as  seen  from  the  sun :  it*  geocenbrii^  its 
plooe  OS  seen  from  the  earth. 

HBLIOIxyBUB,  the  ou-liett  and  best  of  tha 
Greek  romance  writers,  was  bom  at  Emesa,  in  Syria, 
in  the  4th  c  A.  s.  He  saya  that  be  belonged  to  a 
family  who  were  priests  of  the  son,  but  he  was 
himself  a  Christian,  and  became  Bishop  of  Trikka,  in 
Thessidy.  The  time  and  place  of  his  deatii  are  not 
known.  The  work  by  which  he  ia  known  ia  entitiod 
^CUqpioi.  It  waa  written  in  his  yonth,  and 
extends  to  ten  books.  It  narrates  in  poeUo  prose, 
at  times  with  almost  epic  beauty  and  simplicity,  ths 
loves  of  Theagenea  and  Charideia.  The  work  ia 
led  from  the  later  Greek 


his  ScripCort*  Onxa.  BroUd  (1799),  and  the  Greek 
CoHles  (Parts,  1804).  The  jfCOiiopiea  has  been 
translated  into  most  modem  languages. 

HELIOGA'BALTia.     See  ELiOAKiiDB. 

HELICVMETER,  'sun-measuier'  (from  ItMoa, 

invented  by  M.  Bougner  in  1747,  by  means  oC 
which  the  mameten  of  the  heavenly  bodies  can  be 
measured  with  great  accuracy.  As  improved  by 
Dolland,  the  object-lens  of  the  instnimeot  is  in  two 
halvea,  each  of  which  will  forma  p«af«ot  inu^  m  ttw 
focus  tA  the  «ye-jneae;  and  toe  imagea  may  b« 


distance  between  the  centre* 

of  the  two  object-gUsaes  measored  in  seconds  giw 
the  diameter  of  tiie  sun.  Hie  merit  of  the  discOToy 
of  this  inatonment  wm  oonterted  by  Mr  Servingtoa 
Savery,  who  Iiad  ■obmitted  a  similiir  insbumeot  to 
the  Koysl  Soole^  oi  London  in  174a  Frannbate 
has  made  many  ranuAaUs  improvBoienta  Mt  thia 


BELIO'FOLtS  S7BLE.    See  Huukk. 

HE-LIOS,  the  Greek  name  of  the  sun  (ixwn. 
spending  to  the  Roman  Sol),  who  waa  looked  t^en 
and  wonhipped  ■•  a  god.  He  was,  aooordins 
to  Homer,  a  son  of  the  Titan  HyperitMi,  Kid  cZ 
Theia  or  EuryphaHssa,  and  is  described  ^  the 
same  poet  ■•  giving  light  both  to  gods  ana  mvi. 
He  rises  in  the  east,  from  the  marshy  border* 
of  Oceanua,  into  whose  dark  abvsses  he  also  sinks 
at  evening  The  later  poeta,  however,  give  him 
a  splendid  palace  in  the  east,  somewhere  below 
Colchis,  and  describe  him  as  being  conveyed,  after 
the  termination  of  tiie  burning  labours  of  the  day,  in 
a  winged  boat  of  gold,  along  l.he  northern  coast*  of 
the  sea  back  to  Culohis.  After  the  time  of  .iSechylaa, 
he  b^an  to  be  identified  with  Apollo  or  Phoebu*, 
loQy  carried  oat 


hyCuU^lL 


HKLI01X0PB-— HMl^ 


Eia  wonhip  was  -widely  IF^ad.  He  had  tampUi  in 
Coriat)],  A^oo,  TKBMme,  Elia,  and  many  atlierciti«i, 
but  hiB  principBl  «eat  wbb  Bliodes,  where  a  four- 
team  -WBB  anniuJl7  aMrificed  to  him.  In  odditioD,  it 
wu  oiutomu7  to  dfer  up  white  lamb*  or  boua  on 
hia  altan.  The  aaimals  sacr^  to  him  were  hoiw, 
wolves,  cocka,  and  ea^sa.  Sculptnie  reprewnts  him, 
for  Hie  moat  par^  u  riding  in  hu  chariot,  drawn  1^ 
fcmrhoneo. 

HEliIOTROPE  ^Jiotropium),  a  genne  of  planti 
of  the  natnial  order  Bvrt^pnea  {a.  v.) ;  of  the  section, 
BometimeB  made  a  diitiact  order,  E^etiaeea,  the 
fmit  eeparating  onlj  when  ripe  into  fonr  carp^ 
Many  irf  the  ipeoies  hare  fragrant  flowers.  The 
PcBimur  S.   {M.   Paiteiamim),  a   amall   slimb, 


•eldom  more  than  two  feet  hi^  with  ohlang-lanee- 
olate  wrinkled  leavei,  and  tia3l  lilac-Une  flowen,  ia 
in  almoat  nniTeraal  onltivatioti  for  it«  fragranoe, 
which  reaemblee  that  of  vuiilhk  The  Ecxopuir 
or  CoUHOlr  H.  (ff.  BuTOpaum),  a  native  of  the 
■onth  and  weit  of  Eoiope.  ia  an  annnal  with  imaD 
white,  or  nrely  pale  red,  flowen.  Imnntant  heal- 
ing povran  *en  once  eiTOneonily  aacnbed  to  it  in 
oaeea  of  oanoerona  and  acrofiiloaa  imea ;  it  ia,  how- 
astringent  and  mncilaginoiia.  Many  hybrid 
aopes  are  now  to  be  lean  in  flower-gameoa  and 
green-honaee,  ezhibitiiig  great  variety  in  the  aiza 
and  colonr  of  their  flowera.  They  delight  in  ■  rich, 
light  aoiL  The  ahrnbby  kinds  are  generaU 
gated  by  cuttings.  Large  qmuititiea  of  the  ._.  . .. 
are  oied  by  penomen  for  ""'l"'"g  acenta. — Claaaicnl 
fabls  accoonts  for  the  name  H.  (Or.  Adiat,  the  - — 

..    .      .      anting  Clyti *"" 

a  thjodgh  gozizig  at  Apollc 

HELIOTEOPH  JJn)  HBLI03TAT, 
applied  to  inrtnanenta  need  by  anrveyo 
rendering  distant  stationa  dittiuotly  visiUe.  This 
ia  managed  by  placing  a  minor  at  Uie  distant 
station,  and  adjnsting  it  ao  that  at  a  particular 
hour  of  the  day  (arruiged  beforehand],  the  light 
of  the  inn  shall  be  reflected  from  the  minor 
directly  to  the  sorveytnr'B  station.  The  surveyor 
mart  make  his  obasrvation  almost  at  the  instant 
he  seea  the  g*w"""g  of  the  mirror, 
ifcant  ohange  of  the  nn'a  poaitioD  in  the  heavens 
prodooea  a  coneaponding  ohanee  in  the 
of  the  rayi  reflected  by  the  mirror.  Qi 
invented  auch  an  inatroment  abont  1821i 
naed  abroad,  especiaUy  in  America,  for  geodetic 
aurvoya,  and  i«  a*id  l»  poaaeaa  auch  power,  Oiat 
a  mimv  one  inch  tqoare  is  visible  eight  milea 
off,  in  average  sanny  ireather,  and  apnaats  ia  a 
brilliant  star  at  a  distance  of  tm>  milea ;  vtihi 
Bome  heliotropea  have  been  naed  to  powerful  aa 
to  be  visible  nearly  80  mileB  oS.  The  term 
Helioatat,  applied  by  Captain  Drummond  to  an 
inatrument  mvented  by  him  for  the  aame  purpose, 
more  property  belongs  to  an  instrument  invented 
by  S%tr«vemade,  eonsittuig  of  an  eqnatorial 
revolving  on  ita  polar  axil,  ao  that  the  tun,  when 
once  accnratdy  in  tba  focna  of  the  teles 
tinuea  iltadUu  fixed  there.  Dnunmond'l 
is  chiefly  naed  in  Britain. 

HELIOTROPE,  or  BLOODSTONE,  a  variety  of 
chalced^y  or  of  jasper,  of  a  green  colour  with  red 
Bpola.  The  finest  heliobopea  conaiat  d  ohalcedcmy, 
and  are  tranalnoen^  at  leaat  at  the  e^ea ;  the  jBq>er 
bloodstones  are  opaqnc  H.  ia  foona  in  many  parts 
of  the  world,  aa  in  Scotland,  bat  the  finest  apedmena 
of  this  mineral  are  broo^t  from  the  southern  parts 
of  Asia,  It  was  wdl  known  to  the  andents,  who 
obtalued  it  chiefly  from  Ethiopia  and  Cyprus.  It 
is  muoh  naed  iot  boxes,  eeaJs,  Ac ;  and  those 
specimens  are  most  valued  in  which  the  ground 
colooi  is  beautiful,  and  the  spots  bright  and  well 


accoimts  are  given  of  the  origin  of  the 

none  of  them  satisfactoiy. 

HELL  (Heb.  Sheot,  Or.  Hada,  Sat  HtO,  Ger. 
Haa^,  originally  a  cavern  or  deep  and  dark  abvss, 
and  aometmieB  applied  (as  Gen.  mviL  36 ;  Job 
xiv,  13)  to  the  grave,  is  commonly  used  to  signi^ 
the  place,  or  the  condition  after  death,  of  the  aoujs 
of  uioao  who,  having  failed  during  life  to  fulfil 
the  eaaential  obligations  impoted  by  the  natural  or 
the  positive  diTine  law,  are  conaiAied  to  a  state  of 
pomabnent  or  punation.  With  tbe same  nnauimi^ 
which  has  existed  aa  to  a  state  of  reward  aftor 
death  (aee  Hxatxh),  almost  all  the  various  religions, 
whether  ancient  or  modern,  nnmber  aroong  their 
most  prominent  doctrines  the  belief  of  a  atate  of 
pamamnent  after  death — the  nature  of  whk^  ia 
vsrionaly  modified  aocording  to  the  peculiar  tenets 
of  each  religion — for  nnexpiated  guilt  Amtmg 
uiIt  Ohristian  writers,  the  word  hell  is  variously 
emt^Dyed,  lometiiuas  to  signify  a  fjaoe  of  tem- 
poral purgation,  in  which  aenae  it  oomprehenda 
the  Somaa  Cathcdio  Fnrgatorr  (q. v.);  aometimu 
the  place  {Limbia  Palnim)  m  whidk  the  souls 
of  the  joat  of  the  old  law  awaited  the  coming  of 
Christy  who  was  to  complete  their  fsUoiW;  Bome- 
times  tha  [Jaoe  in  which  nnbaptizad  chitdren  are 
believed  to  b«  detained,  on  acconnt  of  the  stain 
of  unremitted  original  ain;  and  lastly,  the  prison 
of  those  who  die  a&ined  with  the  personal  guilt  of 
grievous  ain.  Many  oontroversiei,  which  would  be 
entirely  out  of  place  here,  have  ariaen  about  the 
details  of  thia  doctrine,  as  to  the  place,  the  nature, 
and  the  duration  of  the  punishment  of  helL  It  will 
be  enough  to  say  that,  altiiough  according  to  the 
literal  senae  of  more  than  one  passage  of  Scripture, 
and  the  popolar  notiona  of  the  varioos  Cbnstian 
conununitiea,  the  place  lA  hall  would  seeru  to  be 
assigned  to  the  interior  abyeaes  of  the  eiuih,  or  to 
the  deptha  of  the  intermundaoe  ipaoea,  yet  even 
the  fonnulariee  of  the  Bonum  Catholic  Chun^ 
Trifh  all  their  rigorous  precision  of  detail,  and  atill 
more  those  of  other  communioDS,  have  abstained 
from  any  formal  declaration  as  to  the  locality  of  the 
punishment  of  the  daioned.  Aa  to  the  nature  of  the 
punishment  to  which  they  are  snbjecled,  whether 
it  ia  confined  to  the  'pain  of  loss' — that  is,  to 
the  lemoraefol  conacioosneaa  of  having  ferfdted  the 
presence  of  Qod,  and  the  happiness  of  heaven — or 
whether  and  to  what  degree  it  farther  includes  the 
'pun  of  aenae,'  then  is  some  difference  between  the 
Eutara  and  Uie  Western  ohmches,  and  it  ia  some- 
times alleged  that  the  Eastern  Churoh  altogether 
rejects  the  idea  of  pimishmant  of  sense.  This, 
however,  is  a  mistake ;  both  churches  agr«e  that 
the  punishment  of  hell  inoladea  tiie  '  paio  of  seoae,' 
the  contaiversy  between  them  having  r^arded  n<^ 
the  existence  of  the  pun  of  sense,  Imt  cotain 
qneations  as  to  its  natttre^  and  especially  whether 
it  coosiElB  in  material  firis,  a  point  whioh,  in  the 
decree  for  the  nnion  of  Vbe  Greek  and  Latin 
Churches  at  tlie  council  -  of  Florence,  was  left 
nndecided.  TltiB  controveray  on  the  aubject  o£  the 
eternity  lA  t^e  Tmniahment  of  hell  dates  from  an 
early  period,  Ongen  and  his  sdiocd  having  tan^^ 
that  Uie  punishment  of  hell  was  bnt  purgatcnal 

''»  object;  that  its  purifying  eSeot  having  < 

1  attained,  the  pnniahment  would  oeaae  va 
1  for  the  devila  themaalveB ;  and  that  ita  don 


I,-''"'" 


#■ 


TTTT.T,  GATE— HELLEBORE. 


which  BO  numy  of  the  early  vriteri  refer.  It 
■  rejected,  however,  by  toe  conmion  judgment 
of  (Uitiquity,  and  wu  foriDAlly  condemned  by  the 
■econd  conncil  of  Conitantinople— a  condemnation 
founded  on  the  hteral  sense  of  many  passages  of 
the  Scriptnre  (see  Matt  xviii.  8 ;  xxv.  41  and  46 ; 
Uark  ii.  43  ;  Luke  iii.  7 ;  2  Thesa.  i.  B ;  Apoc  xx.  10, 
&c)  ]  and  in  the  controversies  between  the  Eastern 
•iid  Western  churches,  on  tho  subject  of  the  punish- 
f  hell,  the  btjief  of  their  etemitj',  in  the 
moat  strict  sense  of  the  word,  was  always  recog- 
nised as  a  common  doctrine  of  both.  In  the  New 
Testament,  the  name  Qtliertna  is  frequently  used  to 
designate  the  place  of  punishment  of  the  damned 
(see  Matt.  T.  22,  29,  30 ;  i.  28 ;  iviiL  fl;  xxiL  13; 
Mark  ix.  43;  Lake  xil  fi;  James  iii.  6).  The 
latter  wind,  indeed,  unlike  the  Hebrew  Sheol  and 
the  Greek  Hade»,  is  never  found  in  any  other  signi- 
fication Uian  that  of  the  plaoe  of  pnnidunent  of  the 
sinner  after  deat^ 

"SEIA,  GATE,  or  HURL  GATE,  named  by  the 
Ihitch  settlers  of  New  York  Brtit  Oat,  is  a  dan- 

Erous  pass  in  the  East  River,  between  Great  Bam 
Und  and  Long  Island,  east  of  tile  centre  of  Ne— 
York  Island,  XfniUd  States,  America.  At  certa 
stages  of  the  tide,  there  are  whirlpools  which  used 
throw  becalmed  vessels  on  pointed  rocks,  bat  these 
rocks  have  lately  been  removed,  and  the  navigation 
rendered  safe,  by  a  new  method  of  blasting  which 
consists  in  merely  sinking  the  powder  on  to  the 
rock,  and  exploding  it  by  an  electric 
HE'LLAS,  the  original  home  of 
according  to  the  received  opinion,  was  first  a  town, 
4ad  afterwards,  under  the  name  (^  Phtbiotis,  a  well- 
known  district  of  Thessaly.  The  ancients  also  some- 
times applied  this  name  to  the  whole  of  Thessa|y. 
With  the  spread  of  the  Hellenic  people  soathwards, 
tiie  term  embraced  a  gtadusllv  increasing  territory, 
until  it  came  to  denote  the  whole  of  Middle  Greece 
or  Greece  Proper  (modem  Livadia).  At  a  still 
later  period,  the  Peloponnesus  itaelf  was  included 
under  the  designatian ;  and  finally,  H.  came  to  be 
used  in  the  broadest  sense,  as  comprehending  the 
whole  of  Greece,  with  its  islands  and  colonies.— The 
Hellenzs,  or  Greeks,  as  distinj^uished  from  the  more 
ancient  PelasgJans,  received  una  name  in  the  belief 
that  they  were  descended  from  a  certain  Hellen. 
This  mythical  personage,  a  son  of  Deucalion  and 
Pyrrba,  or,  according  to  others,  of  Zeus  and  Dorippe, 


and  the  father  of  Moiaa,  Doras,  and  Xuthus, 
said  to  have  been  king  of  Fhthia,  and  to  have  ruled 
over  all  the  country  between  tho  rirecH  Peneius 
and  AsopuB. 

HE'LIiBBORE,  a  name  implied  to  two  retv 
different  genera  of  plants.  The  genua  to  which 
it  more  properly  belongs,  and  to  which  it  has 
belonged,  since  very  ancient  times,  IT^i^fitruSf  is  of 
the  natural  order  Aanunculocox,  uid  is  characterised 
by  a  calyx  of  B  persistent  sepals,  often  resembling 
petals ;  a  corolla  of  S  or  10  very  short,  tubular, 
honey  -  secretiDg  petals;  numerous  stamens  and 
3 — 10  pistils  ;  a  leathery  capsule,  and  seeds  arranged 
in  two  rows.  The  species  are  perennial  herbaceous 
plants,  mostly  European,  generally  with  a  short 
root-stock ;  the  stem  mostly  leafless,  or  nearly  so, 
but  sometimes  very  leafy ;  the  leaves  more  or  less 
evergreen,  tobed,  Uio  flowers  teiminaL  A  familiar 
example  of  this  genus  is  the  Bi.a.ck  H. — so 
called  from  the  colour  of  its  roots — or  CaRiariLis 
Kosi  IH.  niger),  a  favourite  in  our  flower-gardens, 
beeanse  its  large  white  flowers  are  produced  in 
winter.  The  leaves  are  all  radical;  the  stalks 
genenJIy  one-flowered ;  the  flowers  white  or  tinecd 
with  red.  Black  H.  formerly  enjoyed  a  _  hi^er 
nipDtation   as    a   tnediciiial    agent    than    it   now 


ponesses.  Melampua  is  represented  as  employing 
it  in  the  treatment  of  madness  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era.  The  root  is  the  part  used  in 
medicine,  and  it  is  imported  into  this  country  from 
Hamburg,    and    sometimes    from    HaneillcL      It 


Christmas  Bose  (fitUetorui  nigtr). 

consists  of  two  parts^-the  rhizome  or  root-stock, 
and  the  fibres  arising  from  it.  The  former  is  neariy 
half  an  inch  thick,  several  inches  long,  and  knotty, 
with  transverse  ridges  and  slicht  longitudinal  stein ; 


eroui^  cyiint 
internajly. 


nally,  and  whitish 

at  fint.  then  bitter  and  acrid.  The  chemical 
position  of  the  root  is  not  very  accurately  known. 
It  is  not  much  employed  at  the  present  day,  but 
it  has  been  found  of  service  (1)  m  mania,  nielaa- 
choUo,  and  epilepsy ;  (2)  as  an  emmenagogne ;  (3) 
in  dropsy — its  action  as  a  diastia  purgative,  and  its 
stjmiilatang  effect  on  the  vessels  of  the  liver,  render- 
ing it  nsefnl ;  (4)  in  chrenic  skin  diseases  ;  and  (5) 
as  an  anthelmintic.  Ten  or  fifteen  grains  of  tiie 
powdered  root  act  as  a  sharp  purgative.  The  tinc- 
ture, which  is  obtained  by  maceration  in  spirit,  ii 
uBoolly  given  when  its  action  as  On  emmeDI^ogae 
is  required.  In  an  excessive  dose,  it  acta  aa  a 
nareotic  acrid  poison,  and  causes  vomiting,  purging, 
burning  pain  in  the  stomach  and  iutcBtmea,  faint- 
ness,  paralysis,  and  death. — SnHKlHa  H.  {H. 
fatidvt)  grows  on  bills  and  moui^tains  in  the 
south  and  west  of  Europe,  in  some  of  the  chalk 
districts  of  England,  and  m  several  places  in  Scot- 
land. It  has  a  very  disagreeable  smell,  and  green 
fiowers  somewhat  tinged  with  purple.  The  stem  ia 
many-flowered  and  leafy. — Gbkem  H  {U.  n'ruAi), 
also  found  in  the  chalk  districts  of  England,  has 
a  leafy  stem,  with  a  few  large  greenish-yellow 
flowers.  The  celebrated  H.  of  the  ancients  was 
probably  a  species  peculiar  to  Greece  and  the 
Levant,  H.  orientalu  or  H.  o^daalia. ;  all  the 
species,  however,  have  similar  roedicinol  qnahtics. 
From  the  abundance  of  tho  plant  araond  tbe  city 
of  Anticyra,  hypochondriacal  persons  were  said  to 
need  a  visit  to  Anticyra.^ — Closely  allied  to  the 
genus  HdlAorva  is  Etantlut,  in  which  the  flowen 
are  Borrounded  with  an  involucre,  and  have  a 
deciduous  calyx.  A  well-known  species  is  the 
WiNTZR  H.,  or  Winter  AcoinTE  {E.  hyandUt),  of 
our  gardens,  whose  yellow  flowers,  raised  only  a 
few  mches  above  the  ground,  deck  the  Qomrst- 
border  about  tbe  same  time  with  snowdrop*.  Jt 
is  a  native  of  the  midland  parti  o(   Europe,  but 


TiT 


hyCOOgI' 


HELLENIST— HELMET. 


Whitk  H  [Vrrulrum  aibum)  bolonga  to  the  Data- 
nd  order  JIfeliuiliiacea.  The  genaa  his  palyic»aiouB 
flowers,  with  6-leaTed  perianth,  f  -* 


oohering  at  the  boae,  a  3-honied  oapsule  Mpanting 
into  3  m&ny-Beeded  follicles,  and  comprened  weds 
winged  kt  the  apex.  White  H  has  a  lea^  atem, 
BometilQes  4  feet  high,  ovate-oblong  leaves,  a  long 
tennuuJ  compound  panicle,  and  yellowiah-white 
flowers.  It  abonnds  in  the  mouatoina  of  the  centre 
and  south  of  Europe,  but  is  not  found  in  Britwn. 
The  root  was  once  much  used  in  medicine,  but 
now  rarely,  althou^  it  leema  to  act  powerfviUy 
in  some  dtseasea.  It  is  a  very  acrid  and  active 
puiHOn.  Its  powder  is  used  to  destroy  lice,  and 
by  gordeneiB  for  killing  caterpillars.  A  decoction 
'    '  "        ■    '  ■■  •■         aaed  in  itch  and 


the   powder 

effects  ensue  irom.  its  getting  into  the  eyes  or  nose. 
— Ambbicas  H.,  or  Swamp  H.  [K.  vinde),  known 
also  as  Indian  Poke  or  Itch  Weed,  is  frequent  in 
damp  grounds  from  Canada  to  Carolina.  Its  root 
hsa  properties  similaj  to  those  of  white  hellebore. 
Tfaeae  propertieB  seem  to  depend  chiefly  on  an 
alkaloid  caSed  Veralria. 

UFLLESIBT  (Gr.  SdUnula),  the  name  given 
to  those  among  the  Jews,  and  afterwards  in  the 
Chrisliian  Church  of  Judea,  who,  either  by  birth 
or  by  remdoice,  and  by  the  adoption  of  the  Greek 
iongnaga. 


k  parentage  or  descent ;  bnt  like 


Theiu  _  . 

topsnon*  of  Gieek 

oOier  0«ntile  names  of  the  same  form,  it  m 
a  <daM  diatnigaithed  by  tiie  peculiar  halnts  and 
langDoge  of  Greece  rather  than  bv  Greek  deeoent. 
Hie  Hdlenirts,  in  this  sense,  formed  a  distinct  body, 
and  stood  in  a  relation  of  rivaliy,  if  not  of  antas- 
onism  to  the  Hebrews  (see  Acta  vL  1,  and  iz.  US). 
There  ia  also  a  clear  distinction  between  Hellene* 
(Qreeka— from  Hellas,  q.  v.)  and  Helleniato.  The 
latter  might,  it  is  true,  be  Hellenei  by  birth,  but  the 
prominent  idea  conveyed  by  the  name  was  rather 
the  adoption  or  affeotaldon  of  Greek  manners  and 
loDSUBKe  than  Greek  parentage  or  blood. 

At  Uie  time  of  our  Lord's  crucifixion,  the  Jews 
of  the  Dispersion  were  to  be  found  in  almost  every 
put  of  the  B<nnan  empire  ;  but  it  was  among  the 
Jews  settled  in  Alexandria  that  the  HeUenisir^ 
tendency  found  its  freest  development ;  and  it  is 
to  that  city  that  we  must  refer  the  formation  as 
well  of  that  peonjiar  dialect  of  the  Greek  language 
which  is  known  as  the  Hellenistic,  as  of  that 
singularly  acute  and  speculative  philosophy  which 
ezereiBed  so  large  on  influence  on  those  early 
Christian  schools,  of  which  Origen  is  the  most 
famous  exponent. 

The  reeJly  choracteristio  element  of  the  Hellen- 
istic Greek  oonnsts  in  its  foie^n,  and  especially  its 
Hebrew  and  Aramaic  words  and  idioms.  Althoooh 
ita  oriffin  a  purely  papular  form  of  the 
yet  its  being  empli^ed  in  the  Alexandrian 
gtot  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  has 
given  to  it  all  theflzedneas  and  definite  character 
of  •  written  language.  The  Hellenisms  of  the 
Septnagint  difler  m  many  respects  from  those  of 
the  New  Testament,  wMch   agun   present    some 

S lints  of  discrepancy  with  those  of  the  Alexandriao 
athen;  but  there  ore  certain  leading  character- 
istics common  to  them  all,  which  constitute  the 
distinctive  forms  of  the  dialect,  and  which  may  also 
be  described  as  peculiarities  of  structure  aod  forma 
of  thought  derived  from  thoae  Hebrew  or  Anunoic 


idioms  which  were  the  native  modes  ol  speech  of  tiie 
Greek  .speaking  Hebrews. 

The  infiuenoa  of  the  Hellenistic  modes  of  though, 
on  the  philosophy  of  the  Alexandrian  schools  will 
t>e  traced  under  the  head  of  the  Ht/o-tLATQUia 
FHlLOSOPKif.— Sea  Fraakel,  MonaUc/^  (1856); 
also  Winer,  Grammaiii:  de*  Jf.  TaL  Spraehidionu 
(2d  edition). 

HE'LLESPOHT.    See  DAKPANiLLBa. 

HELLEVOETSLTTI'S,  or  HELVOETSLUr'S, 
a  well-known  fortified  seaport  of  tbe  NetJierlaads, 
in  the  province  of  South  Holland,  is  situated  c 
the  Hanng  VlJet,  an  arm  of  the  Maas,  on  the  islan- 
of  Voome,  17  nules  sonUi-weat  of  Itotterdam.  It 
has  an  excellent  harbour,  as  well  as  an  arsenal, 
docks,  and  a  naval  school,  and  is  one  of  tbe  prin* 
oipal  Butch  naval  stotious.  By  means  ol  the  Wow 
Canal  of  Voorden,  leading  from  tlie  Maa*  to  H.,  and 
Boouttoaea,large  vesseJs  avi»d  the  shallow  bx 
the  month  of  the  Haas.  H  is  to  Bottetdam 
the  mouth  of  the  Moas  what  the  Heldet  ii 
Amsterdam  and  the  Zuider  Ze&  Here  William 
nL  embarked  for  liigland,  November  11,  If" 
Pop.  3000. 

HELLI'N,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Albacete,  and  40  milee  south-south-east  of  the  town 
of  that  name,  ia  sitoated  in  a  hilly  district  near  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Uundo,  a  tributoiy  of  the 
Segun.  Ita  housee  are  for  the  most  part  neatly 
pamted,  and,  unlike  most  Spaniah  towns,  it  has  a 
air  of  comfort  and  cleanliness.  In  tbe  vicinity  oi 
productive  royal  solphnr  mines.    Pop.  10,200. 

HELM,  in  Nautical  Affairs,  denotes  the  entire 
steering  apparatus  □(  a  ship.  This  apparatu: 
consists  of  tJu-ee  distinct  portions — tlie  rudder,  the 
tiller,  and  the  wheel ;  although  in  boats  and  small 
vessels  the  whed  is  ordinarily  dispensed  with.  The 
rudder  is  tbe  instrument  actjng  directly  npon  the 
water,  and  its  mode  of  action  and  form  will  be 
described  under  Kitddkr  (q.  v.).  The  tiller  is  a 
lever,  formed  into  a  handle,  by  means  of  nhich  tbe 
ateeiBman  can  ereatly  multiply  on  the  rudder  (the 
position  of  which  is  almost  identical  with  the  f  ulcnuu, 
the  hiDgee]  Uie  power  he  eierta  againet  the  long 
end  of  the  tiller.  The  wheel  is  an  ordinoiy  whe3 
and  axle,  moving  the  long  end  of  the  tiller  from 
side  to  ride  by  tke  acenoy  of  ropes,  again  multi- 
plying the  power,  and  being  otherwise  convenient  la 

ipying  a  enmller  space  on  the  upper  deck  thji 

lon^  tiller  (in  this  case  below)  would  have  taken. 

The  prmciplee  of  Stecrina  (q.  v.)  will  be  given  under 

that  bead.    To  '  put  up  t£e  nelin,'  is  to  let  the  ship 

nore  fully  from  the  wind ;  while  to  '  put  down 

helm,'  is  to  exercise  a  contraiy  eflect^  and  to 

bring  up  the  ship's  head  to  the  wini 

HELMET,  iu  Heraldry.    From  the  early  simple 

form  known  as  the  Nonnan,  lie  helmet,  at  a  later 

-iod,  came  to  vary  in  shape  acoordiuK  to  the 

ree  of  the  penou  who  won  it,  and  helmeta 

Hblxets. 


coats  of  arms  to  bear  the  creat,  and 
iicate  by  their  form  the  rank  of  the  bearer.    The 

rt  of  the  helmet  which  opens  to  shew  the  face 
_  called  the  vitor  or  beaver  (to  allow  of  drinking). 
The  foUowing  forms  oC  helmet  are  in  too  in  Enjjiati 


h.Google 


HBLMBTT— KELMONT. 


htniAry :  1.  The  Itelioet  udgned  ti 


^  .   _.  .     .  „  the  kins  and 

fTuuxa  of  the  blood-royil,  "whioh  in  fnll-taced, 
oompoaed  of  Kold  lined  with  crinuon,  and  has  the 
visor  divided  h;  biz  projeotin^  ban.  2.  The  helmet 
of  the  Dobilitf,  of  iteel,  with  five  bars  of  gold. 
When  placed  on  the  diield,  it  is  exhibited  in 
profils.  3.  Enighta  and  baronets  have  the  fnll- 
bced  steel  helmet  with  the  visor  thrown  back  and 
withoat  bora.  i.  The  helmet  of  esqairel,  alwajra 
'    '  '    profile,  of  ateel  with  tbo  visor  cloaed. 


y  of  heb 


I  placed  over 


npretent 

These  dit 

A  mnoh  greater  i 

tinental  hentldiy.     A  lielmet 

the  arm*  of  an;  woman  except 

HELICET,  a  ooTering  ot  mcHxl  or  leather  to 
protect  tiia  head  in  wwfaie.  The  eadier  Greek 
and  Bonum  helmets,  as  shewn  hj  many  extant 
•oulptorea,  were  snrmoiinted  by  pmmM,  bat  unlike 
kheir  modem  snccowori^  did  nirt  protect  the  face. 
During  the  middle  ages,  helmelB  were  made  <rf  the 


finert  steel,  often  inlaid  wiUi  gold,  and  provided 
with  ban  and  flaps,  to  cover  the  face  in  action, 
and  to  allow  of  being  opened  at  other  times.  As 
the  emploTment  of  nreanns  became  more  general, 
helmets  natorBlly  lost  their  utility,  espectally  as 
regarded  the  face.  Those  still  remaining  are  in 
muitaiy  matters  limited  for  the  most  part  to  heavy 
cavalry,  aflbrd  no  protection  to  the  face,  and  most 
be  considered  as  nthei  for  ornament  than  ose. 
Firemen  wear  a  heavy  head-piece  of  leather  and 
brass,  to  protect  them  as  far  as  poavble  from  falling 
rains  at  conflagnttioiuk  In  India  and  other  hot 
climates,  helmets  of  white  felt,  with  Uie  additional 
screen  ot  rolls  of  linen,  are  constantly  worn  by 
military  men,  to  protect  them  from  the  lays  of  the 

HELHHOLTZ,  HkbuaijK,  one  ot  the  most 
distinguished  scientific  men  of  the  present  day,  was 
bom  at  Potsdam,  in  Aueust  1821.  He  was  at  first 
a  soigeon  in  the  army,  then  assistant  in  the  Berlin 
Anatomical  Hnsenm,  and  was  a  professor  ot  i^ysi- 
oloey,  frran  1849  at  Kiinigsberg,  from  18B6  at  Bonn, 
and&om  1S5S  at  Heidelberg.  la  1S71,  he  became 
pnfeooT  ot  phyaic*  in  BerKn.  H.  is  equally  dis- 
tinenished  in  physiology  and  in  experimental  and 
mwhematical  physics.  His  physiological  works  are 
prininpallyoonnected  with  the  eye  and  the  narvous 
system.    Thns,  we  have  bis  exhaustive  trealsse 


and  TaiioDs  papers  on  Uie  means  of  measaring  small 
periods  of  time,  and  their  application  to  mid  the 
rate  of  propagation  of  nervc-diBturbances,  Of  a 
aemi-physiciu  natnre  we  have  his  Analysis  of  the 
Speotrom,  his  expknation  ot  Vowel  Somids  IKlang- 
firbt  dec  VoaUea,  see  Sookd)  ;  and  his  papers  on 


:  Energy  with  rafereoce  to  Hns- 
cular  Action.  In  physical  science,  he  is  best  known 
bybispMieT  on  Conservation  of  Energy  (tTeberif.  Er- 
haUvng  d.  Krc^  1S47,  tranaUted  [badlyl  in  Taylor's 
Seieatijic  Memoirs,  New  Sariee) ;  a  popular  lecture 
on  the  same  subject  (13M) ;  and  by  two  memoirs  in 
Crelle's  Journal,  on  Vortex-motion  in  Fluids,  and 
on  the  Vibrations  of  Air  in  open  pipea.  Bis  Popt- 
lOre  vngMtudiaflliehe  VortrSge  app^rod  in  1871. 

HELMINTHO'LOQY  (Qr.  hdmini,  a  wram,  and 
logot,  a  disotmrse)  is  a  teim  formerly  used  to  denote 
the  sdenoe  of  the  natural  history  of  worms  genar- 
ally,  bnt  now  restricted  to  the  red-blooded  womu^ 
such  as  the  medioinal  leeoh  and  earth-worm. 

HELMOBTT,  J  Air  BiptibtjI  Va«,  Lord  of 
Merode,  Royenborch,  Oorschot,  and  Felline*.  an 
emioent  Belgian  chemist,  was  bom  at  Brnstds  in 
1577,  and  died  near  Yilvorde  in  1674.  He  went 
through  the  regplar  contse  of  study  at  tlie  university 
of  Louvain,  and  on  tlie  completion  of  his  education, 
he  was  offered  and  accepted  the  diair 
of  surgery  in  that  nnivrauly,  the  dnties 
of  which  he  discharged  for  two  years. 
The  study  of  the  works  of  Paraodnia 
seems  to  have  tnmed  his  special  atten- 
tion to  chemistry  and  natnral  phO- 
osophy,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  tbeae 
sciences  ha  spent  several  years  in  tiie 
different  umverntiea  of  Italy  artd 
France ;  tHa;  which  he  returned  home, 
married  Mai^jaret  van  Ranst,  a  noble 
lady  ot  Brabant,  and  settled  down  aX 
his  estate  near  Vilvtnds,  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  phDo- 
■ophio  inrestigatioM  d  varions  kinda. 
It  woold  be  impossible,  in  the  limit*  cf 
this  articles  to  aketoh  even  aa  ovttbu 
of  his  ohemieat  diseoTerieB.  Writon 
of  the  history  of  chemistay  ngH<d 
him  u  the  greatest  ehamist  irtio 
OTeoeded  Lavoisier ;  and  it  is  mnch  to  be  r^retted 
that  his  language  is  often  so  obacure,  that  it  ia 
not  always  easy  to  ascertain  Ms  meaning.  Ha  wb» 
the  first  to  point  ont  the  imperative  usuiwiLj  for 
emplo^g  the  balance  in  chemistry.  He  paid  mncfa 
attention  to  the  study  ot  the  gases,  and  ia  snppoasd 
by  some  aatboritiea  to  have  been  the  first  to  Kiply 
the  term  goKt  to  elastic  aeriform  flnida.  Of  fliess 
gasea  he  distingaished  several  kinda.  Ha  was  also 
the  flist  to  take  the  meltang-poiiit  of  ioa  aid  t^ 
bdling-point  of  water  as  studaida  far  the  meaaino- 
ment  of  temperatnre.  "Bij  meaiks  of  the  balance  ba 
shewed,  in  manv  instancee,  tlie  indestooctibility  (rf 
matter  among  chemical  channa.  For  example,  he 
demonstratea  that  a  sslt  dissolved  in  water,  or 
diver  dissolved  in  aquafortis,  could  be  teoovoed 
unchanged  in  quantity.    It  ia  in  his  works  that  tba 


o«mibiiiation  of  an  acid  with  a  base. 

one  ot  the  earliest  inveetigators  of  the  "*■-■  ■■■■'■■j  el 
the  flnids  of  the  hnman  body. 

Along  with  other  physiologists  ot  his  day,  be 
specnlated  much  on  the  seat  (u  the  soul,  which  he 
IMaced  in  the  sti^Mdi.  Hia  reasons  are  «hi«Sy 
theae  two  t  I.  It  aaanot  codst  in  the  brain,  beoaoM 
that  organ  oontuns  (according  to  EL)  no  blood;  & 
It  does  exist  in  the  stomaoh,  became  when  we  heat 


know  the  foil  value  o_ 

knowledge  ot  chemisby,  may  cmundt  the  ffirtorisa 
of  Chemistry  written  by  Kow  and  HOfer. 
The  moat  impiatant  of  lua  works  ia  hia  Orfaa 


bmgamj  which  waa  pvUished  by 
after  his  deatb,  passed  thtongh  a 


death,  passed  timmgh  a  very  laip  » 


|IL,;lfl]vGOO*^IC- 


HELUBTEDT— HEUINGFOBS. 


of  adilioM,  and  ma  baiulitod  Into  Dntah,  ¥ieaiA, 
OcoBum,  Mid  F^gt'i**  A  rery  ooiiooB  TohiiDa,  oon- 
Ubing  tnuwlktioiu  <rf  lom*  of  his  irorkM,  m*  alio 
pnbliihaa  by  W.  C3uritoit,  in  16Sa  nndor  tk«  title 
of  nt  Ttnuirg  ofParadoat;  Ot  Magjulk  Oitn  of 
Wimmd*:  li«  JfaUttlgofTtirtir  in  Wlat;  <md  A* 
Imagt  tifOcdin  Man. 

HETLHSTEDT,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Gannanv, 
in  fha  dadiy  ol  Bnmawick,  22  milea  eaEt-sonth- 
«Mt  of  the  oity  of  that  nuns,  1*U  formerlT  famous 
for  ita  murenity,  founded  here  by  Jolina  Duke 
of  Bnuuwiok  in  1S7S,  and  Bnppraqed  bv  Jerome 
Bow^aite  in  1S09;  The  nniTsrdty  btuldioss  noir 
Mrre  a*  oomt-honMa.  Manofactorea  of  flannel, 
■Mpi  hata,  and  grain-apiiita  uie  carried  on.  Hare 
the  brt  8«xoiw  irere  baptized  br  St  Luds^fos. 
Pop.  (1871)  7ft71.  H.  wae  fomwriy  a,  member  of 
the  HMMBBtie  LeagnvL 

HELIfD'inD,  a  rirer  of  Af shuiiatan,  riaai  35  miles 
to'tha  welt  of  Cafanl,  at  an  deration  <a  11,900  feet 
Aft^  m  ■onth-veaterfy  course  of  abont  6S0  milca,  it 
keea  itulf  En  the  aalt  lake  of  Sedatan  or  Hamoon  by 
MTeT^maiitiM,abaat3r30'N.,andlong.C2°E.  The 
immediate  bai^a,  genarally  boidered  by  deaerta  on 
either  nde,  abound  almoat  ereiTwhere  -with  traoee 
of  formar  cnlliTatJon  and  wealth.  like  tatipioal 
rirera  in  general,  tiie  H.  Tariea  largely  in  volume 
according  to  the  leaaon,  being,  in  many  placea, 
tinioa  aa  deq;>  and  broad  in  the  rainy  eeason  aa  it  ii 
at  other  timea. 

KELOISEL    See  ABSLUts. 

BKXOTS.  The  popolation  of  ancient  Sparta 
laaa  divided  into  four  daaaea,  the  lowest  of  which 
WMfomadofaeifBorBlaTea,  called  HelotB  (probab^ 
"'""""C  "T**"""!  from  Or.  Adnn,  to  oaptarej. 
ThMaHeloti  aia  generally  aamioaed  to  have 
foimaj  tti*  origiQal  popolation  of  the  GonntrVt  and 
to  have  b«en  lednoed  to  bondage  by  tb^  Dorian 
oonqoann,  the  oumbeia,  however,  being  twelled 
from  *»■"«  to  tbna  by  the  conqneat  of  enemiea. 
They  bdonged  to  the  state,  which  had  tile  power 
to  aet  them  at  liberty;  bnt  they  toiled  far  indi- 
vidnal  [atniiietoia,  and  were  bowui  io  the  to^  i.  a., 
thej  oodd  not  be  sold  away  from  4^  phuM  of 
thm  laboor.  Thf?  were  the  tillera  of  the  land  (for 
which  they  paid  a  rant  to  their  masters),  thsy 
■erved  at  the  pablic  meala,  and  were  oeeap/eA  on 
the  poblio  woA*.  In  war,  they  aerred  aa  li^t 
troops  eai^  freabom  Spwtan  who  bore  haavy 
^-- ipamed  to  battlo  by  a  nnmber 


of  doabt  whether -, 

th^  ooBld  avar  enjoy  all  ths  privil<«ea  of  Spartan 
dtiiMia.  TiMfj  were  treated  with  mnch  aeventy  W 
thair  maetera,  and  wtre  sabiectad  to  degradation  aid 
indigoiliea.  Viey  wa«  whipped  eveiT  year,  to  keep 
tham  in  miod  of  their  aenila  ataie;  thsv  were 
obhgad  to  wear  a  distinotiva  dreai  (ololhca  of  sheep, 
akin,  and  acapof  dog'addnj.aodtointoiicatethem- 
aatva,  a>  a  warning  to  the  Spartan  yoath;  and 
wlwn  mnltiidied  to  an  »i»nwing  «Ktan^  they  were 
often  nuMacied  with  tiha  moat  barbarona  <mat^. 
On  one  oocavon,  2000  of  Qmii,  who  had  bdiavad 
bravi^y  in  wx,  we»  enoonraged  to  acme  forwaid 
for  eman^atiini,  and  were  then  meat  twaaharonaly 
pot  to  dwth.  Ihe  ^aitana  organiaed,  aa  often 
aa  neoeadty 

and  day  sMaaainated  ^e^if <^tbnate  Helotiii  aalecrt- 
mg  aa  tiiar  apecial  victima  the  strongest  and  moat 
vigoroDa  of  the  oppreaaed  raoe. 

HELPS,  Sir  Akthvb,  E.C.B.,  an  Ei^liah  eaiayiat , 
and  hia(oriaii,waa  bora  about  1617;  ana  waa  entered  | 


at  IVinity  Oollqe,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  B.A.  in  183S.  On  teaving  the  nuivartify, 
he  obtained  a  poat  in  the  civil  aervioe,  and  on 
bia  raaignation,  ha  retired  to  Biahop'a  Waltham, 
in  Hampahire,  where,  in  the  poweanon  of  ample 
means,  ha  enjoysd  lettered  eaae.  lUa  flratwork  lA 
eonaeqnenoa,  entitled  Buam  tFriOen  in  tU  Inttrvak 
qfBuiaim,  ^leaied  in  IML  It  waa  followed  by 
two  dramaa,  OiMeHM  DougUu,  and  Kittg  Bmry 
the  Second  (phblialied  in  1643),  by  an  eaaay  on  the 
OIoinH  (/£^oitr  (1844),  and  %  A-iMtb  At  axmetl 
(1847— 1S49).  TUalaat  work  has  been,  and  still  i^ 
much  admired  by  the  seleoter  elaaa  of  reader*,  and 
haa  nine  thrcnd  many  aditiona.  Sia  Congverort  ^ 
the  iftu  Wotia  and  Iheir  Bondtmtit  ttpptuti  in 
1843,  and  CampanUmt  qf  my  Solitude  in  1361. 
Among  hia  anbasqaent  works  are — Oulila,  a  play ; 
The  SxinuA  Conmiett  in  America  (18S5— 1807) ; 
Friendi  in  Coiaieii,  2d  series  (ISfiS);  St»ay  on 
Orffanitalion;  L\fe  <^  Ptairro  (18S9);  Caeimit 
Maremaa,  and  Br^nia  (ISTO) ;  L^e  <j  Hernando 
Carta;  TlunmJite  upon  Govemmeat  (1871) ;  ijfe  and 
LabourtitfThonuuBTaiKy  [1370);  naA  8o<Hal  Pre*. 
ntre  (1874).  He  waa  clerk  to  the  Privy  Oonndl, 
and  beoame  a  K.C.B.  in  1872.    He  died  in  187& 

H.  is  the  moat  ddigiitfnl  essayiat  aince  Lamb  and 
Hunt.  He  everywhin  exhibita  aonteneia,  hmnonr, 
a  satire  wliich  gjrea  no  wan,  and  a  quiet  depth 
of  moral  feeling  maniteattng  itaeU  mainly  in  an 
earneit  recwnibon  of  man'a  social  reaponmbilitiea ; 


while  hia  st^e,  in  qnalitiEa  of  purity  and  clearness, 

-  m  hardly  be  matched  amongst  his  contemporariea. 

HEXSINGFOBS,  a  fottiBed  aeaport  of  Rnnia, 


capital  of  the  govemmeat  of  Finland,  and  after 
Oronatadt,  the  moat  important  naval  station  on 
the  Baltic,  ia  beaatifally  sitoated  on  a  peninsula, 
anrronndad  t^  islaoda  and  rocky  diffa,  in  the  Golf 
of  Xinland,  191  milea  west  from  St  Petersburg  by 
aea.  A  seriea  of  formidable  batteriea,  called  the 
fcitificatioiis  of  Sveaborg,  and  eonaiatii^  of  seven 
stron^y  fortified  islands  and  nnniaroua  lalets,  pro- 
tectee entrance  to  the  harbonr,  and  are  of  sucA 
atrength,  and  so  well  appointed,  oa  to  warrant  the 
.(^plication  to  them  of  the  name  of  the  Northern 
ffibraltar.  The  whole  front  preeented  by  the  snc< 
ceadve  works  is  abont  a  mile  in  length,  and,  beeidea 
the  caaematei  for  amaU-annB,  the  nnited  fortressea 


hooaea  punted  eztemally  yellow  and  green,  mine- 
aeet  at  ri^tt  anglea,  and  there  are  aevand  fine 
pnMio  iqnarea.  Of  the  pvhlio  bnildingi,  the 
^  atarudng  are  the  rcaidtooa  of 


the  aenate-hoQse,  and  the  nnivei^ty  bwiMinm. 
The  nniversitv,  removed  hither  bom  Abo  in  1829, 
where  it  bad  been  fonnded  in  1640,  oompriaea  five 
facultiea,  haa  60  profeaSMa,  and  genarally  about 
600  atudanta.  In  connootion  with  it  are  a  library 
of  80,000  Tolnme^  a  boaptal,  a  botanic  'nrden, 
and  a  valnsUe  obaervaton.  Since  1840,  E.  haa 
be«Q  a  favourite  bathin^plaoe,  and  attraota  many 
visitoTa  during  snnunea  nnan  8t  Feterabtug.  ^le 
town  csrriea  on  a  oonaideiBble  trade  in  Baltio 
tovdnee ;  it  eirparta  ohieflv  oora,  fiah,  deala,  and 
uon ;  and  manntaotnrea  aaildoth  and  linen.  Pop> 
0867)  26,53^  indnding  the  garrison. 

B.  waa  founded  bj  Qostavus  L  of  Sweden  in  the 
16th  a,  but  tiie  nta  of  the  town  WM  removed  nearer 
the  ahore  in  1639.  In  1819,  it  became  the  capital 
of  Finland.  During  Uw  late  Roaaian  war,  Sveabois 
was  bombarded  for  two  days  and  niahta  (9th  and 
10th  August  ISfiS)  Ire  a  section  of  t£e  allied  fleet, 
without  any  mat^ial  iitirrrminn  being  made  upon 
theforta. 


yCoOgiC 


HBL8T— HE1IAN3. 


HELST,   Baetholombw  tah    dke,   ft    Dutch 

pftioter,  was  bom  at  EsArlem  in  1613,  uid  died  At 
Anutenlam  in  1870.  He  attuned  great  oelebrit^ 
aa  A  portrait-psinter,  and  faui  worlu  are  numeroiu 
in  Holland ;  one  in  particular  (in  the  Chamber 
of  Justice  st  AmatenUun),  representing  thirty  fviU- 


JoahoA  Bevnolds  to  be  '  the  fint  [ucture  of  portntito 
in  the  world.' 

HEXSTONB,  an  old  market-town  andmunieipal 
and  parliamentaiy  bora  ash  in  the  count;  of  Corn- 
wall, E^j^land,  is  pleasuitiy  situated  on  an  elevation, 
at  the  head  of  a  pretty  ™lley  opening  to  the  sea, 
ibont  10  miles  weat-tonth-west  of  Falmouth.    It 
wu    mode    a    borongh 
by  King  John  in  1201, 
and  frtnn  the  reign  of 
Edwatd  I.  to  the  passiDg 
of   the  Keform  Act,  it 
.  sent    two   members   to 
1  parliament ;  since  that, 
,'  one  only.     May-games, 
r  or  Floi^lia,  once  com- 
mon  thronghoDt   Eng- 
land, are  still  kept  up 
here.   Pop.  (1871)8760. 
HELVB-LLA,    a 
genus  of   fungi,   of   the 


morela,      but     differing 

from   them    in   having 

tOie  piUaa  torned  down- 

woras,  lobed  and  folded, 

HelTelUE«nlentfc         "d  the  sorface  of  the 

hgmenivm  even.     Home 

of   the  Helvelln  are  edible,  and   much   nied  in 

Germany. 

HELVBXIiTir,  one  of  llie  hi^eit  moonUins  of 
England,  in  the  lake  district,  Ciuaberland,  between 
Eeawick  and  Ambleside.  It  is  305S  feet  high,  is 
easy  of  ascent,  and  commands  magmficeiit  views  of 
the  surrounding  country. 

HBLVE'TIC    CONFESSIONS.      See    Cbekw 

AtJS  COH  FISSIONS. 

HELVE'TII,  a  Celtio  people  inhabiting  accord- 
ing to  Cssar,  the  region  between  the  mountains  of 
Jura  on  the  west,  tlie  Rhone  on  the  touth,  and  the 
Rhine  on  the  east  and  north,  the  region  corres- 
ponding pretty  closely  with  modem  Switzerland. 
They  had  12  towns  and  400  villages.  The  great 
and  fatal  event  in  their  history  is  their  attempted 
irraption  into  and  conquest  of  Southern  Gaiit,  in 
which  they  were  repulsed  by  CEesar  with  frightful 
•Uu^ter.  The  story  of  this  expedition  is  ciiciun- 
stantiijly  narrated  by  the  Roman  commander. 
They  collected  iliree  months'  provisions,  burned 
tiieir  twelve  cities,  400  vilhwea,  and  all  isolated 
dwellingt,  and  made  a  general  rendezvous  by  Ijike 
Lemon  m  the  spring  of  68  B.  a  C^sar  hastened 
to  Geneva,  deetroyed  the  bridge,  Tused  two  legions 
in  Cisalpine  Gau^  and  when  the  Helvetians  sent 
deWates  to  demand  a  passage,  delayed  them  until 
be  hod  built  a  wall  along  the  Rhone,  16  feet 
hidi  and  about  19  Roman  miles  in  length,  flanked 
wiS  redoubta.  Having  vainly  attempted  to  pass 
this  barrier,  the  H.  took  another  route,  but  were 
fdlowed  and  dijeated  with  a  terrible  slaughter  at 
Bilnw^  (modem  Autnn,  in  Burf[undy),  and  the 
remnant  obliged  to  return  to  their  own  county, 
where  they  became  subject  to  the  Romans.  Of 
368,000  who  left  their  homea,  including  92,000  fight- 
ing-men, only  110,000  returned.  In  the  commotions 
which  followed  the  death  of  Nero,  the  Helvetians 


met  with  another  terrible  catssbophe.  JUoMining 
faithful  to  Oalba,  they  were  fallen  upon  by  Cadna, 
a  general  of  Vitelliua,  who  gave  them  to  the  rapacity 
of  his  ltu;ioiis.  They  were  massacred  by  thoosanda, 
multituius  were  sold  to  slavery,  and  their  towna 
pillaged  and  bomed,  their  capital  deabi^ed,  and. 
their  governor  ezecated.  From  this  time  they 
scarce^  appear  as  a  distinct  people. 

HBIjVE'TIUS,  Clapdk-Adribs,  Bpnms  from 
a  family  of  Swiss  origin,  as  the  name  Hdvetins 
implies,  was  bom  at  Paris  in  171G,  and  reeeired 
a  careful  education.  Intended  for  a  finaacial  careo; 
he  was  sent,  after  the  conclusiou  of  his  studies,  to 
his  uncle,  D'Armancourt,  Dircetettr  da  ftrmtx,  tX 
Caen,  to  obtain  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  was  appointed  ' 
the  lucrative  ofSce  of  Frrmier-Qtntral ;  but 
oppressive  nature  of  the  dnties  which  it  innlved 
was  Dot  at  all  to  the  liking  of  H.,  who  was  of  a  very 
homane  and  easy  disposition,  and  he  quickly  reaigned 
it  for  the  situation  of  chamberlain  to  the  qner  ' 
household.  He  now  led,  like  every  other  coot 
of  his  time,  a  life  of  mere  gallanlry,  which  lo 
odious  enough  at  this  distance  of  tame ;  but  hapjalj 
ho  soon  grew  tired  of  it,  and  after  marrying  in  1701 
the  beautiful  and  accomplished  daughter  ot  Can  ' 
de  Ligneville,  he  withdrew  to  a  small  estate 
Vor£,  where  he  spent  the  most  of  his  life  in 
education  of  his  family,  iJie  im^^vement  of 
peasantry,  and  literary  labours.  In  17&S  appeared 
his  celebrated  work,  De  lEiprit,  in  which  he  enc' 

vours  to  prove  feeling  [aeaiUnlUfi  to  be  the  tm- 

of  all  inullectual  a^vity,  and  that  the  gnnd 
lever  of  all  human  conduct  is  self-satiafaciiou.  Bttt 
ho  admits,  at  the  same  time,  that  self-satisfaction 
assumes  different  forms  ;  e,g,,  the  self^atiafactioB  <i 
a  good  man  consists  in  the  subordination  of  privkte 
to  more  genu«l  iutereats— first,  to  the  drde  among 
which  he  lives ;  then  io  the  commnnity ;  and,  finallr, 
to  the  world  at  large.  The  philosophy  of  the  book 
is,  of  course,  materialistic  It  was  denounced  by 
the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne,  and  condemned  by  the 
parliament  of  Paris  to  be  publiclv  burned.  ^  wi 
much  disgusted,  and  in  1764  left  Prauoe  to  vis.. 
England  and  Germany,  where  Frederick  IL  received 
him  with  distinction.  He  died  at  Paris,  fi6th 
December  1771,  leaving  behind  him  a  woik,  De 
H  Homme,  de  k»  FacuMi,  et  de  ton  Education,  which 
was  published  by  Prince  Qalyzin  (2  vols.  Londoo, 
1772).  Among  Uie  editions  of  his  collected  woAa, 
two  deserve  special  notice,  both  published  st  Fuia 
in  1795,  the  one  in  Sve  and  the  other  in  thirteea 
volumes.  His  wife,  who  survived  him  many  yeara, 
resided  at  Autenil,  near  Pari*,  where  she  waa 
visited  by  the  moat  distinguished  peraonagea,  and  ia 
often  mentioned  in  the  memoirs  of  that  brilliailt 

HEMANS,  FcuciA  Bobothsa,  an  English 
poeteas,  was  born  at  Liverpool,  25th  Septemba 
1794.  At  an  early  age  she  manifested  a  teste  iat 
poetry,  in  which  she  was  encouraged  by  her  mother. 
Her  first  volume  was  published  m  1808,  when  aha 
was  only  14  yeais  of  age,  and  contained  •  few 
pieces  written  about  four  years  eoriiar ;  her  aeeond, 
entitled  The  DoToettie  Affectiont,  appeiied  in  1812. 
In  the  same  year  she  married  Captain  Hemaaa  of 
the  4th  R^ment,  whose  health  had  suSered  in  the 
retreat  on  Conmna,  and  afterwardi  intho  Waleherai 
expedition,  and  wlu  found  it  neoeasary  a  few  yean 
after  to  remove  to  Iti^.  After  that  period  they 
never  met.  Although  five  sons  were  born  Ot  thia 
marriage,  it  waa  not  undeiatood  to  have  been 
hopoy.  Mia  H.  spent  the  rest  of  her  lif«  in  North 
Wol^  Lancashire,  and  latterly  at  Dublin,  wWa 
sha  died,  2etb  April  1S35.    Har  principal  wrarka  «i« 


UiqlizodhyGoO'^IC 


HEMEROCALLIS — HEHLOOE. 


■  0/  Valmia,  The  iojt  Coiulaniint.  and  oika- 
Poenu  (1823);  The  Fonitt  finneftfary  (1827);  The 
Songs  of  the  JJecHom  (1830) ;  ■nd  Mymnt  for 
Childhood,  Nattonai  Lyrics  tad  8mgt  for  Matin, 
and  Bcenet  and  Hymnt  of  JAfe.  A  volmna  of 
PoeLieal  Remaini  yn»  published  after  h«?  de»th, 

Blackwood. 

Mn  H.,  vithont  great  daring  or  foroe,  ii  iweet, 
natural,  and  pleading.  But  h1i«  vaa  too  floent,  and 
wrote  much  and  haiitily;  her  lyrics  are  lier  best 
productiaiia ;  her  mora  ambltiouE  poema,  eapeciallj 
hei  tragedies,  beiiig,  in  fact,  quite  insipid.  Still,  she 
waa  a  woman  oE  trae  ffeiiim,  and  one  or  two  of 
her  little  pieces,  Tht  Oractt  of  a  Hovaehotd,  The 
Treamara  of  the  Deep,  The  Hornet  of  Sngland,  and 
some  others,  are  perfect  in  pathos  and  sentiment, 
tmd  will  live  aa  long  as  tlie  Engl'  '  ' 

HEMEROCA'LLia    See  Day- Lily. 

HBMICRA'NIA  (Gr.  kemi,  one-half,  and  tninioa, 
the  sknll;  Fr.  migraine,'  Eng;  mejfrinu],  a  variety  of 
Headache  (q.  v.),  distingoiabed  by  its  Meeting  only 
one  side  at  a  time,  and  also  freqaeotly  by  its  inter- 
mittent character ;  whence  it  has  been  termed,  not 
very  aocnrately,  Brow^agnt 

BEMIDE'SMUS,  a  RMitis  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Atd^/iadacece.     The  root  of  if.  Jndicut 
used  in  medicine,  chiefly  in  TnHia^  and  is  koowu  j 
Indian  sarsaparillB.     It  is  in  Home  cases  a  goc 
substitute  for  sarsapariUa,  and  apoeais  to  dem . 
its    properties   from    a    crystallisable   and   volatile 
principle  called  Hemidemiin  or  MoAidefiaic  Acid- 
The  plant  ia  a  climbing  thruh,  with  leatiiery  leaves 
and  axillary  umbels  of  flowi         "   ' 
almost  all  parts  of  India. 

HEMIO'PIA  (Gr.  hemi,  one-half,  and  opa,  the 
eye),  vision  limitid  to  one-half  of  an  object— a 
peculiar  and  rar^  form  of  disease,  very  imperfectly 
understood. 

HEMIPLEGIA  (Gr.  Aont,  one-hal^  and  pMuS, 
I  atrike),  ParalysiB  (q.  v.)  limited  to  one  side  of  the 
face  and  body,  and  usually  depending  apon  disease 
of  Uie  brain.  Opposed  in  ligmfioation  to  Par^Jegia 
(q.  v.). 

HE'MIPODE  {Hemipoditu),  a  |eDat  of  galli- 
naceous birds,  nearly  aUied  to  quaila,  bat  distin- 
gnished  by  a  more  slender  beak,  and  by  the  want 
of  a  hind-toe.    They  are  the  smallest  of  gatlinaceons 


Andalniiaa  Hemipode  (Hauipodiu*  taehndivnmt). 

birds,  and  inhabit  cultivated  grounds  and  sterile 
sandy  plains  in  warm  conntries.  One  species,  the 
AmALinLur  H.  UT.  taekgdromiu),  is  foond  in  Spain, 
Italy,  Sicily,  Africa,  and  Australia.  Its  whole 
leoRth  ia  about  six  inches. 
228 


BBHI'PTERA  (Gr.  half-winged),  an  order  i^ 
insects,  with  four  wings,  a  mouUi  formed  for 
sucking,  undergoing  impeifect  metamorphoses,  and 
having  the  first  pair  of  wings  either  of  a  firm 
membranous  substance  without  scales,  or  leathery 
at  their  base,  and  membraaons  at  their  tips.  Those 
with  the  first  pair  of  wings  of  the  former  character 
are  the  order  Homoptera  (q.  v.)  of  numy  ento- 
mologists; the  latter  are  the  Hemiptera  proper, 
the  section  or  sab-ordei  Stteroptera  of  Cuvier  and 
others.  The  wings  of  the  K.  proper  in  general 
partly  overlap  each  other,  and  are  horizontal  or 
slightly  inclined  when  at  rest.  Some  kinds  are 
wingless,  which,  however,  otherwise  exhibit  the 
characters  of  tiiis  order.  Some  of  the  H.  feed 
on  vegetable,  and  some  on  animal  juicea.  The 
principal  changes  which  .they  undergo  in  their 
metamorphoses  are  increase  of  size  and  development 
of  wings.  They  are  active  in  all  stages.  Some  of 
them  are  aquatic  They  are  most  sbnudant  in 
tropical  countries,  and  some  of  the  tropical  kinds 
are  very  splendid.  Examples  of  this  order  are  bu^ 
water-bugs,  boat-fliea,  and  water  scorpions. 


HE'MIiOGK  (Cotuuni),  a  genns  of  plants  of  tlie 
natural  order  Umb^Ufer^,  having  compound  umbels 
of  small  white  flowers,  small  general  and  partial 
involucres,  the  limb  of  the  calyx  merely  rudiment. 
ary,  and  a  compreased  ovate  fruit  with  five  promi. 
nent  wavy  ridges  and  no  villa.  The  best  known 
and  only  important  species  is  the  Comhoh  H.  {C. 
macidattim),  which  grows  by  wayaid«a,  on  heaps  of 


rubbish,  and  ii 


Asia,  and  now  also 

America  and  in  ChilL     It  has  a  root  somewhat 

resembling  a  small  parsnip;  a  round,  branched, 
hollow,  brisbt-green  stem,  2 — ^  feet  high,  gener- 
ally spotted  with  dork  purple ;  the  leaves  large, 
tripinuate,  of  a  dark  Buiuiiig  green  colour;  the 
let^eta  lanceolate,  pinnatifid  AH  parts  of  the 
plant  are  perfectly  destitute  of  hairs,  and  it  is  the 
only  British  spedes  of  the  order  UmbeUi/tra  which 
has  the  stem  smooth  and  spotted  with  purple. 
Both  the  general  and  partial  umbels  have  many 
raya  The  general  involucres  consist  of  several 
ttnall  leaflets;  the  partial  invDlucres  of  three  small 
leaflets,  all  on  one  aide.  The  whole  pUnt  has  a 
"    particularly  if  rubbed  or  bruised. 


-.Gooi^l 


HEUXOCE  8PEVGE — HEUF. 


nie  leares  (u«  the  only  pait  of  ths  [dant  emplOTed 
n  medicine.     They  shoiila  be  gathered  jiut  before 


be  qoicklT  dried  by  a  heat  not  exceeding  120°. 
They  ahomd  thea  be  pragcrrad  in  perfectly  closed 
tin  oonisten.  Ab,  howeTsr,  the  dnsd  leave*  some- 
timea  yield  no  conio,  con^lia,  ta  eoniiat  (a  volatile 
idkiJMd,  which  is  the  ftotiTe  principlB  in  Qi«  plant), 
the  traah  leavea  are  ma<ih  more  certain  in  their 

The  moit  important  ingredient  in  H.  ia  the  c 
which  ia  more  abundant  in  the  fmit  (teed*)  than 
in  the  leaves.  Ftom  40  Ibt.  of  ths  lipe  but  green 
«eeda,  Dr  Chriititon  obtained  two  ounoeeaud  a  half 
of  hydnted  conia.  Aa  it  ia  volatile,  it  ia  obtained 
by  tlwtilling  the  seed*  with  water  which  contains 
a  little  potash  in  solution  ;  conia,  then,  paaaea  over 
witli  the  water  in  the  form  at  a  yellowish  oil,  •■"•' 
when  purified  by  reditrtiUatiou,  it  is  obtained  i 
coIoutIcm,  transparent,  oily_  liquid,  having  a  ipa  .. . 
gravity  of  O'S,  a  penetn^iiig,  hemlock-like  odour, 
oommnnioating  a  tmmin^  aenaatdon  when  applied 
to  the  tongo^  and  acting  a*  a  very  energalio 
poisoo.  It  einiblta  a  powerful  alkaline  reaction, 
and  precipitate*  many  metallio  oxides  from  tiieir 
■alts.  Strong  fulphnrio  acid  oanaei  iti  componnda  to 
aBome  firat  a  pofvU-red  and  then  an  oUve-green 
colour;  while  nitno  add  eina  a  blood-red  ootonr, 
fading  into .  an  onnffs.  Its  oompoeitioD  is  repre- 
sente^  by  the  fonuda  C,,H,,Kt  Werthum  lu* 
recently  discovered  a  aecoud  alkaloid  in  H-,  which 
oontaina  the  elements  of  two  equivalenta  more  of 
vrater  tiian  oonia.  This  anbstanoe,  whoas  formula 
ia  C,,H,,NO,,  he  names  conidrvi.  It  may  be 
anblimed  m  beantifnl  colourleia  needles,  and  ii 
mach  leas  paisoDona  thaji  conia. 

Conia  hu  been  introduced  into  the  Pharmaeopaia 


jf  a  grain,  liie  following  illaatmtions  will  ^ve  an 
idea  <^  it*  activitr  a*  a  poiaon :  One  dr«p  placed  in 
the  eye  of  a  rabbit  killed  it  in  nine  minnte*;  three 
drops  employed  in  the  same  way  killed  a  strong 
cat  in  a  minute  and  a  half;  whib  five  drops  poured 
into  the  throat  of  a  small  dog  began  to  act  in 
thirty  seconds,  and  ia  aa  many  mora,  motion  and 
r»piration  had  ceased.  It  aeems  to  exhaust  the 
energy  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  thus  to  cause  muacniac 
paiW^sis. 

The  naea  of  H.  in  medioine  may  b»  arranged 
nnder  two  diatinet  heads:  1.  Those  which  depend 
npon  it*  reaolvent  and  alter»tive  powen;  and,  2. 
llio*e  whioh  have  reference  to  it*  influence  over 
the  nervous  system.    1.  It  ha*  been  found  useful 


muMin  and  profuse  secretion  of  milk, 
in  enlarnmenta  of  the  liver,  spleen, 
in  acrofmoua  aflbotdons,  Ic,  md  at 


and  pancreas, .— .- 

one  time  had  a  high  le^tanon  u  -. .- 

2,  It  i>  usefol  aa  an  antiapasmodio  and  anodyne  in 
hooping-cough,  spasntodio  coogh  generally,  asthma, 
neunJgia,  Ac. 

In  large  or  pmaouons  doaea  it  sometimes  fpvm 
rise  to  ooma  (such  as  opium  do«*),  and  aometamea 
to  convolsionB  or  violent  delirium.  Kercher  nlatca 
the  following  aingnlar  instance  of  delirium  from  its 
oae:  Two  priest*  ate  hemlock-root  by  miat>ks; 
they  became  raving  inad,  and  fancying  that  tiiey 
were  geese,  plunged  into  the  water.  For  three 
yeais  they  were  afOtoted  with  partial  palay  and 
violent  pam. 

It  may  be  adminiatered  internally  in  the  form  of 
powder  (ot  the  leavea),  tincture,  or  eitraot,  while 
externally  it  may  be  applied  aa  a  soothing  applica- 
tion to  ulcers,  painful  l^as,  &0.,  in  the  form  of 
ointment  or  poultice.      The  conia  being  volatile, 


often  esospcB  from  the  powdered  leaves  lod  frcoD 
the  extract  and  of  the  three  preparationa  ntmed, 
the  tincture  is  the  beat.  The  wceus  coiui^  or 
Pnaervtd  Jviet  of  Benihiik,  pn^Mred  by  Bentley 

and  other  pharmsceutical  ohemiata,  is  more  oertain 

preparations. 

In  caaes  of  pcnsoning  by  H,,  ths  evacoatioa  at 
the  stomach  ia  the  flrat  thing  to  be  attended  to. 


and  thus  it  was  that  Socrates  died ;  but  whether  it 
waa  the  juice  of  the  Common  H.  or  the  Water  H. 
that  waa  used,  ia  nnhnowm^WlTBR  H.,  or  CowBAxe 
(ffleiUa  rmifa),  is  alao  an  umbelliferous  jJant^  of  a 
genua  havins  much  vaulted  umbels,  a  S-toothed 
oalyx,  and  dmost  ^obose  fruit,  each  carpel  with 
Ave  broad  flattenea  ribs  and  evident  ainme  mtta. 
Water  H.  growa  in  ditchea,  the  margina  3  ponds, 
and  wet  grounds  in  Europe  and  the  nortll  of  Asi*. 
It  is  more  common  in  Scotiand  than  iu  ^^gll^^^ 
It  has  a  large  fieshy  white  root,  covered  eitemsUy 
with  fibres;  aa  erect  much  branched  stem,  2 — 6 
feet  high;  tripinnate  leaves,  witli  linear-Ianceolata 
regularly  and  aharply  serrated  leaflets,  no  general 
involucre  or  only  a  aingle  small  leaflet,  partial 
involncree  ot  many  short  narrow  leaflets,  aiid  white 
flowers.  It  is  a  virulent  narcotic  atnid  poison. 
Serious  accidents  have  occurred  from  eating  tho 
root.  Another  apeciea,  O.  maculala,  is  cMsmon  ia 
North  America,  nvwing  in  marshyplaees.  It  has 
a  ^tted  stem,  like  tlut  of  tzua  R,,  the  name  (rf 
which  it  very  generally  receive*  in  Horth  America. 
The  leave*  are  tri-temate,  tbe  leaflBta  ternate.  It 
ery  poisonous  plant,  and  is  the  cause  of  many 
L — Cteula,  in  Latiu,  seems  to  have  been  th« 
of  the  aame  plant  colled  Consiaii  by  Uw 
Qreeks,  but  it  is  not  known  whether  this  or  the 
previous  plant  was  so  denominated. 

HEMLOCK  SPRUCE.    SeeFuL 

HEMP  {Oan'nabU),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  0<amaMnat*a  (q.  v.),  having  the  male 
and  female  flowers  on  different  plants ;  the  mala 
flowers  with  5-partite  oalyx  and  S  statuena ;  tlw 
fonala  flower*  with  a  spatiie-like  calyx  ot  < 


one  known  species  [C,  taUva),  votjing  oonaidsrably, 


t.CoogIc 


hawvna,  from  woU,  dinuit^  and  onHmtion.  It  U 
an  uiniul  pluit,  »  native  of  th«  warmer  puti  of 
Asia,  bat  us  been  eoltiTated  in  Bnrope  from  the 
Mrlieat  hiatorio  times,  and  ia  now  natonUxMd  in 
man?  parts  of  ISarope  and  America.  Like  fiai,  it 
wonaennllv  adapti  itaelf  to  diTenilaei  of  oUmate, 
and  ia  cultivated  eqiuUj  under  the  bnming  nui  of 
(ha  tr^oci,  and  in  Ui«  northern  pnta  of  B^una.  It 
ia,  however,  readily  Injmed  by  froet,  paitiaalarlj 
when  yoong-  — '  ' *— ' "■ —  ■*  — 


niffldent  for  iti  whole  life. 

in  hemh^  acoordiiig  to  the  toil  and  climate,  being 

■ometimei  only  thrae  or  four  teat,  and  lometime* 

fifteen  or  twenty  feet^  or  oren  more.     Tfotwlth- 

■tanding  the  nettle-like  coarseneaa  of  ita  learea, 

it  ii   an   elegant   plant,   and  ia 

on  tiiia  aoconnt  in  ihmbberiea  t.^..  ..^ 

bordora.    Tho  item  i»  erect,  more  or  lesi  .    , 

tile  leavu   are   S — 0-fingered.      The    flowei*    are 

Sallowiah  green,  nnall,  and  nnmeroM;  the  male 
awere  in  axUlarf  racemea  on  the  npper  parta  of 
the  plant;  the  female  flowna  in  ahort  axillary, 
and  rather  crowded  tpiut.  The  female  |)lants  an 
higher  and  ftronger  than  tiie  male,  for  which  rearcn 
the  female  planta  are  popularly  known  in  Germany 
aa  MattdAopfat,  and  the  male  ea  FemdAcpfen,  the 
namea  being  derived  from  the  Latin  nuu  and /aW^ 
and  perpetoating  an  error  wUchprobably  is  as  old 
ae  the  time  of  the  Bcmana.  The  stem  of  H.  ia 
hollow,  or  only  filled  with  a  soft  pith.  This  pith 
ia  nimnmded  by  a  tender,  brittle  anbetanoe,  ooa- 
tJatdog  cliic^y  of  cellalar  tlasue,  witii  aome  woody 
fibre,  which  is  called  the  reed,  boon,  or  ^tove  ot  hemp. 
Over  this  ia  the  thin  balk,  compoaed  chiefly  of 
fibrea  extending  in  a  parallel  direction  along  the 
at^k,  wiUi  an  outer  membrane  or  cutiole. 

1.  ia  cnltivated  for  ita  fibre  in  almoat  all  ooontriea 
..  Europe,  and  in  man^  other  temperate  pvta  of 
the  worM ;  moat  OKtennvety  in  Pol^^  and  in  the 
centre  and  aouth  of  European  Bnaaia,  which  are 
the  chief  hemp-azporting  countries.  French  H. 
is  muoh  cateemed  in  the  market,  •■  ia  alao  that 
of  T!ngl«T»T  and  Ireland,  of  which,  however,  the 

Juantity  ia  comparatively  inoonaiderable.  Bdlogntu 
T.  and  BheniA  B.  are  varietiea  i«iiiarkat>le  for  their 
height ;  and  a  fibre  of  very  fine  quality,  eight  or 


ofU-iaalmoat  c< 


l^then 


and  a  few  oliiar  diafariola  of  England,  of  which 
the  moiat  alluvial  soil  ia  partioularly  suited  to  it. 
In  cultivating  H.,  it  is  very  neceasary  to  have  the 
soil  so  rich,  and  to  sow  the  seed  at  such  a  season, 
that  the  plants  ahall  grow  rapid^  at  first,  as  th^ 
Uina  form  long  fibres.  A.  crop  of  short  scrubby  E. 
is  almcat  worthless.  The  finer  kinda  of  E.  are 
used  for  making  doth ;  the  coarser,  for  aail-oloth 
and  Topea.  H.  aown  thin  produoee  a  coaraer  fibre 
thaa  H.  sown  thick.  Something  also  dependa  on 
the  time  of  pnlling,  for  the  crop  ia  polled  by  the 
hand.  When  a  ralher  fine  fibre  ia  wanted,  ana  the 
seed  ia  not  regarded,  the  whde  wp  ia  polled  at 
once,  aoon  after  flowming;  otherwise,  it  ia  omal  to 
pnll  tiie  male  plania  as  soon  at  thgy  have  ahed  their 
polleD,  and  to  leave  the  female  duiti  to  ripen  their 
eeed,  in  which  case  the  fibre  of  the  female  planta  w 
much  coaner.  The  treatment  of  H.,  by  reMno,  kc, 
is  similar  to  that  of  Flu  (q.v.).  The  fibre  of  H.  ia 
generally  need  for  coaner  punioaea  than  that  of  fiax, 
particularly  for  awldoth,  pack-aheet,  lopea,  and  &M 
exaUdug  oi  tbigt. 

Ibe  aaed  of  H.  Ia  produoed  in  great  abnndanoeh 
It  is  commonly  Bold  aa  food  for  cage-blrda ;  and 
Inrda  are  ao  fond  of  it,  that  not  only  the  ripening 
flelda,  bnt  the  newly  aown  fielda,  must  be  oare- 
'nlly  guarded  against  their  depredationa.  A  fixed 
>il,  otT  (^  hai^Meed,  ia  obtained  from  it  by  ezprea- 
ai(m,  which  is  at  firat  greenish  yellow  and  afterwatda 

C"  iw,  and  has  an  acrid  odcor,  but  a  mild  taate. 
oil  ia  oaed  in  lUiaaia  for  bnming  in  lamps, 
tdthongh  the  wiek  ia  apt  to  get  oltwged;  alio  tor 

H.  ia  cultivated  in  warm  oonntriea,  not  ao  muoh 
for  iti  fibre  ••  for  a  reainoua  aecretioii,  which  baa 
narcotic  or  intoxioating  qnalitiea.    See  TTtinmr 

H.  ia  alao  iiaed  aa  a  tnerapeutic  agwt  under  the 
name  of  Iin>uir  E.,  cr  Bsumq.  In  this  country,  it 
ia  administaed  in  the  f  onn  of  retinona  extract  or 
of  tincture ;  and  it  ia  nanally  preacribed  (like  opium) 
for  ita  hyrmotic^  anodyne,  ud  antiapaimodia  mo- 
pertiea.  Althongh  lea*  ootain  in  itt  action  toui 
opium,  it  poaaowca  these  advantMM  ever  that  dmg 
— tJiat  it  doea  not  oonatapate  uie  bowela,  create 
nausea,  or  oheok  the  seorations,  and  that  it  ia  leea 
likely  to  oooadOD  headache. 

The  name  Hemp  (Qer.  Rta\f)  ia  probably  derived, 
along  with  the  Qreek  and  lAtin  Oatmabu,  from  an 
oriental  name,  of  which  one  form  ia  the  Arabic 
Kiimuh.  The  name  H.  ia  often  extended  with  aome 
diatinotive  prefix  to  many  of  the  fibrea  used  for 
BB  and  ooane  fabrics,  a  practice  which  prodaces 
a  little  confoaton.  Thus  the  fibre  of  Apoq/nunt 
eaitnabimim  (aee  AtooYViCKMi  is  called  Canasum 
H.,  a*  well  aa  the  plant  itaalf;  BowaiSDia  H. 
(q.  V.)  is  the  fibi«  of  ua  apedea  of  Saataitnt;  Sunn 
(q.  V.)  ia  often  called  Suiw  H. ;  it  is  also  known  aa 
EsNOij.  H.,  BoKBAT  H.,  'UtToita  H.,  and  Bbowh 
"  JuBSVLPona  H.  ia  the  produce  of  another 
a  of  Orolalaria  (q.  v.) ;  ttie  fibre  of  Bibitau 
cannabbmt  {aee  EiBiscnTB)  la  called  Bbowx  H.  aiul 
DiGKAKZl  a,  at  Bombay ;  Mum.i.i  H.  or  Abaoa 
{q.  V.)  ia  the  fibre  of  a  Mtua, 

HEMS,  HOH8,  or  HUMS  (Lat.  Eaum),  a  abj 
.-  Bjri^  ia  aitaated  about  a  mile  eaat  of  the  right 
bank  of  the  Oroatea,  in  kt  about  34-  4i'  N.,  long. 
36*  ti*  K  It  ia  ee  milea  north-east  of  Baalbek  ^ 
1 10  milca  w«at-north-weet  of  Tadmor  (Pahnvra).  It 
.  Dompaotly  built,  and  sairounded  iij  old 
walla ;  and  although  there  an  now  no  ancient 
buildinga  ranaining,  the  aotiqnify  of  the  ait;  ia 
atteated  by  numsroua  fiagmenta  of  iwilitpunf^  t>y 
aevenJ  Greek  inacriptiona,  and  the  foundationB  of 
ancient  hatha  with  specimens 
In  ancient  times,  it  was  chi' 


whicli,  E3u;^)aliu  or  Seliogabalns,  ma  raised  to  the 

imper^  t&one  ol  Enme.  Under  the  waUi  of  H., 
ZenobU  -wu  defeated  by  the  Emperor  Aoreluut  in 
272  A.  D.  In  636.  the  ci^  wm  tikea  by  the  Sara- 
ceoB,  when  itt  old  Seniitio  name  H.  wu  revived ; 
and  in  1099  the  Cmuders  lode  throneh  its  opened 
gates.  Since  then,  B^  has  eneriBnoed  numy  vicis- 
■itudes  of  fortune,  all  of  vrhich,  however,  it  hu 
survived,  and  is  now  the  seat  of  a  flonrishing  trade, 
and  of  aeTeial  manufactuna.  Fop.  between  80,000 
and30,00a 

EEHSTEREUIS,  TiSExroa,  a  celebrated  Datch 
philologist,  was  bom  at  Qroningen,  Stk  January 
168S.  He  became  piofesBur  of  O-reek  and  of 
hiatory  at  Leyden  in  1740,  where  he  died  7th 
April  1766.  One  of  the  greatest  Greek  scholara  of 
his  time,  H.  may  be  aajd  to  have  created  a  new 
school  of  Greek  philcdogy,  to  which  belong  hia 
distinguished  pupila  Ruhuen  and  YalkeDaer.  Hie 
editions  of  the  {homaslKon  of  Pollux  {1706),  of  the 
SeUel  Dialoguaoi  Lucian  (170S  and  1732),  and  of  the 
PltOtu  of  Aristophanes  (17U,  by  SctAfer  ISll),  are 
his  principal  literur  works.  A  beautiful  picture  of 
his  ufe  ii  given  is  Blthnken's  Etogiiim  HaiuUrkiuii 
(L«rd.  17^  and  1789),  republished  in  Lindetnaon's 
Vila  ifuuninrorunt  T.  HenuUrhuai  tt  D.  SiJaiimii 
(Lei;).  1S22).  From  K's  MS9.,  Antedota  Henuter- 
hunana  (182S)  liave  been  edited  by  Oeel,  and 
OraiioM*  et  Epulola  {1639}  by  Friedemaui. 

HB'NBANB  {Syoiq/amut),  a  genua  of  plant*  of 
the  natural  order  Soiaitacect,  having  a  five-toothed 
calyx,  an  irregular  fonnel-Bhaped  corolla,  and  a 
capsule  opening  by  a  lid,  and  enclosed ,  ,in  the 
hnrdeaed  calyx.  The  species  are  mostly  annual 
and  biennial  herbaceous  plants,  and  notivea  of  the 


are  often  fi 


.    the  MediterraDean   Ses.    The  only 

specie*  found  in   Britaia  is  the  Commoit  H.  (if, 
niger),  which  is  not  unconunon  in  waste  places,  and 


Henbane  {Hfotcgamui  niger), 

in  the  nughbourliood  of  towna  and  villages,  parti- 
culaily  in  oolcareoui  aoils,  and  on  tile  sandy  diorei 
of  Sootland.  It  is  an  annual  or  biennial  plant, 
somewhat  bushy,  about  two  feot  high;  with  large 
siouated  or  sharply-lobed  leaves  without  leaf-stalks, 
and  large  dingy-yellow  flowers,  wi^  biowniah-twl 
or  purple  veins.  The  whole  plant  is  covered  with 
unctuous  hairs,  and  haa  a  jianseous  smell,  which 
gives  waruing  of  its  strong  narcotic  poiaoiioaa 
quaU^.  Cases  of  poisoning  by  H.  are,  however, 
not  rare ;  but  are  more  frequently  owing  to  the 
prooeedings  of  quacks,  than  to  any  mistake  of  the 


The  seeds  contain  in  largest  qoantily  the  poo- 
liar  alkaloid  on  which  the  properties  of  the  plul 
chiefly  depend,  SyoKyaTnia  or  Syoiq/inniKC,  vhiik 
ciystallisM  in  stellated  ocicular  ciyatals  of  a  alt; 
lustre.  The  symptoms  of  poiaooing  by  H.  in 
similar  to  those  prodnced  by  t^er  narcotic  poixiLi, 
and  the  proper  treatanent  is  ttie  same  as  ia  atet 
of  poisoning  by  opium.  In  medicine,  H.  is  emplocal 
both  extemaUy  and  internally.  The  leaves  m 
the  part  commonly  used :  they  are  gathered  and 
quickly  dried  when  the  plant  ia  in  full  flonr. 
Fomentationa  of  H.  are  applied  to  painful  daodnlir 
affected  with  neuralgia,  Ac,  ud 
to  afford  relief.  An  extract  of  R 
[ployed  instead  of  heUadoma  to 
dilate  the  pupil  of  uie  eye.  Tincture  and  extnet 
of  H.  are  often  admimsterad  in  cases  of  uauj' 
ing  cough,  spasmodic  aathma,  and  other  diKiat 
requiring  sedatives  and  antispasmodics.  H.  ii  >1» 
employM  te  calm  mental  irritation,  and  to  iniua 
sleep.  For  man^  cases,  it  haa  one  great  adviiiUn 
over  laudanum,  m  not  producing  constipatiai].  1h 
■moke  from  the  burning  seeds  of  H.  la  sometiiiM 
introduced  into  a  carious  tooth,  to  relieve  toatlueht. 
The  other  species  of  H.  possess  similar  propertiea 
The  dried  stotka  of  if.  <Miu  ore  naed  l^  smokiog 
in  Greece  to  allay  toothache. 

HORaA.    See  Abolo-Saxoso. 


HEIfOST 

HENGSTENBBRO,  Ersst  Wi 
brated  modem  German  theologian,  was  boi 


October  1802,  at  Ft«tidenbe 
his  father  was  clergyman, 
for   the   university,  he  de' 


ode 

_^ , aoui 

in  Weatnihalii^  ^ihtn 
Ted  by  his  latLa 
himself  at  Bomi 
»1  studies,  wiiiW 


SuTtcheiuAaJlm.  Though  Bympithising  thus  in  lii> 
early  yeara  with  liberal  and  ration^iatic  move- 
ments in  Germany,  soon  after  going  to  Baael,  ia 
1823,  he  came  unifer  the  influence  of  tlie  miaiiviai; 
institution  there,  and,  bef<ne  ha  had  b^na  li" 
profeeuonol  study  of  Uieology,  was  drawn  mte  tbe 
theolt^eal  tendency  which  he  afterwardi  refiS' 
sented.  Going  to  Berlin,  in  1824,  as  theolocal 
Privat-dotenl,   he  put  himself  at   the  head  of  ~ 


prindples  the  aim  of  his  labours  in  the  univeitily. 
and  through  tlie  press.  Though  known  as  a  thn- 
Itwical  autoor  oafy  by  two  little  treatises—  Udir  d. 
VerAOlMti  d.  bmtm  Worta  turn  duutm  (1S25I. 
and  Uder  Myiticumtu,  PieUsmiu  and  Separa^i"" 
(1826)— he  was  made,  in  1826  extraoidinsir,  i> 
1828  ordinaiy  professor;  and  in  1829,  doctor  of  Hii- 
d<Ky.  Through  the  ;M«n,  hit  infloence  was  exerted 
chiefly  M  editor  of  the  Smmgdiiehe  SirdtaBtitiKij, 
which  was  began  in  1827,  and  atill  combats  ntjoo' 
alism  even  in  its  mildest  forms,  seeking  to  itslon 
the  orthodoxy  and  <^urch-disciiJine  Si  the  1SU> 
and  17th  centuries.  With  the  same  viev  >^ 
written  ail  his  principal  works ;  his  Cla^Mleg«  ^ 
A.  T.  (3  Bde.  1829—1835;  2ta  Aufl.  185H857); 
BalrageaiTEinlatuaginiA.  T.  (SBde.  1831— IS39)' 
Commaiiar  Hber  d,  Pmdmfn  (4  Bde.  1842—1^4^ 
2to  Aufl.  1850} ;  Die  OadiichU  Bileanu  v.  Sa-^ 
Weittagtato  [1^43);  Dot  ffoMitd  Soiomonif  ou^^ 
(1853) ;  and  othera  ore  devoted  to  the  defence  of 
the  old  interpretation  and  criticism  of  the  ScriptufS 
sgainst  the  results  of  modem  biblical  sciena  m 
G«nnaa^.  H-'s  influence  in  ecclesiastical  m»ttu> 
also,  which  was  reiy  great  during  the  reign  of  ll* 
late  king  of  Frussio,  was  emplo^  in  the  can?^ 
out  of  Uie  high  Lutheran  dogmaa  of  the  cinrcli, 
of  chun^-office*,  and  of  the  saci*ments.  by  J^ 
secntion  of  sectaries,  by  opposition  te  the  natm 
of  Lutheimns  and  lUfoimed,  ood  by  attenift)  1*1 


t.GoogIc 


HENKA— HBNBT  n. 


depcM  froin  their  duin  OcMmoa,  W^Kiheidw, 
De  Wett^  and  other  tationatliBtic  teBahert  in  the 
onirenitim.  His  Utwt  worlu  were  BoangtUvm  da 
keiL  JoAamus  (1S69) ;  OachidUe  da  Btichu  Gotta 
mtrr  dan  AUra.  BiauU;  Dot  5i«A  Hiob  erlaulerl 
(1S70).  A  nnmber  of  lui  work*  Iutb  bean  truu- 
kted.    H.  died  Mar  SB,  1869. 

BESSA,  OT  HINNA,  a  name  originally  Ambio, 
and  Mnnetimea  found  with  the  Arabic  article  incor- 
pmated  in  the  form  ARaina  or  Alkmna,  belonn 
equally  to  Zawaowa  {rwrnti*  and  L.  tpaiota,  ibrabe 
of  the  natoral  order  l/^hraeta.  They  differ  in 
Uttk,  bat  that  -Uie  one  ia  anamied  and  the  other 
thamf,  the  latter  being  aUoihelaiger  plant.  Many 
botanwta  nnite  them  into  one  ipeeiea.  nndcr  the 
name  h,  oOm,  H.  growi  in  moiat  ntnationa  thnmrii' 
oat  the  north  trf  Airioa,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  th& 
£ait  Indieai  It  ia  cnltiTated  in  many  plaoei  for 
the  nke  tA  itm  flowers,  whinh  are  mooh  prized  for 
thnr  fragranoe,  particiilar^  l^the  Egyptian  ladiea ; 
bat  (till  more  for  the  Mkn  of  the  leaves,  which 
ibo«nd  in  colouring  matter,  and  which,  being  dried, 
powdered,  and  made  into  a  paata  with  hot  water 
ande*(echn,  aieTerygmerallyemidoyed  by  women 
thnmi^ioiit  the  eaat  to  rtain  the  naila  and  tipe  of 
the  flagan  of  an  orange  colour ;  also  by  men  to  dye 
their  beards,  the  orange  oolonr  bein^  converted  into 
aderai  black  by  indigo;  and  for  dyemg  of  the  manei 
ud  boob  of  horaes,  end  to  dye  skins  and  leather 
reddieh-yellow.  Pewdend  H.  leaves  fonn  a  huge 
srtiel*  of  «Kport  from  E^ypt  to  Persia,  and  to 
vaiiou  parts  of  liuby,  from  which  they  find  their 
way  to  more  nrathern  conntries,  and  even  to  Ger- 
many, to  be  nnployed  in  dyeinct  fois  and  some  kinds 
of  l«ith«.     TfiTnSB  of  '^^ 


HE'SKBOAU.    See  HAiK^m,  or  Hunaitlt. 

HERBT  L,  King  of  Oi^and,  the  yomigBst  son 
of  wniism  tlte  Oonqneror,  was  bom  in  106&  When 
tu  brother,  William  IL,  was  fonnd  dead  in  the 
Kbv  Ftfeat,  where  they  had  both  been  hunting,  on 
Aiigust  2,  1100,  with  a  broken  arrow  in  his  breast, 
Pimce  Heniy  at  once  seised  Uie  reins  of  goreni- 
nent,  which,  according  to  tlie  then  but  impmectly 
iiideittood  law  of  primweniture,  should  hare  passed 
mto  the  hands  of  his  ekbr  brother,  Robert,  Duke  of 
KimnsBdy,  who  was  at  the  time  in  Italy,  on  his 
*>7  borne  from  cmssding  in  Palestine.  H.  was 
wWped  «t  Weataninster,  the  third  day  after  his 
o'otiMl'B  violent  death  Bearding  it  he  iDstitnted 
110  inquiry,  possibly  becsnae  he  waa  privy  to 
tt;  sod  he  suoceasfnlly  held  the  ciown  aninst  his 
""itber  Bobert,  at  first  negotiatina  with  nim,  and 
—"  g  htai  .  .       .-^  a 


resign  his  pretensions, 
mn  Dually  making  war  upon  bis  badly-governed 
Aocby.  Bobert  wss  defeated  in  a  blmxfy  battle 
wfm  the  walls  of  Tenehebray,  on  September  28, 
n06,  taken  prieouer,  and  shut  up  in  Cardiff  Cartle 
wing  the  Rmsining  twen^-eiEht  yvfin  of  hi*  life, 
ne  acqinsition  of  I^nman^,  ue  anoient  patrimouT 
m  hit  fsmily,  had  been  a  pant  ti  ambrtion  with 
^,  u  he  desidsed  £ngland  and  the  l^glinl*  •  but 
^  hid  (onie  tronble  m  keemng  it,  as  l£e  French 
^  Loois  TL,  and  the  Comrts  of  Anjon  and 
'Iwni,  took  part  with  William,  Boberfs  youthful 
■°>t.  whole  virtaee  and  misfortonee  aecnred  him 
™o*«-  H,  however,  brought  over  to  himself  the 
^""'t  of  Anjon,  by  betrothing  his  only  son  to  the 
°>Wi  daughter  ;  he  rendered  neutett  by  his  elo- 
7><>we  and  fsir  raomises,  Pope  Callitus  H.,  whose 
!°]^^tdoQ  in  the  intereatB  of  justice  had  been 
"'^'■^ti  and  be  defeated  the  French  king  and  his 
™W  knights  in  the  almost  Woodless  battle  of 


Bmmeville,  in  1119.    Next  year  his  snocewes  in 

anus  and  intrifue  w-ere  darkened  for  life  by  the 
death  of  hi*  only  son  William,  who  was  drowned  at 
wa  on  his  passage  from  Normandy  to  England, 
uuregretted  by  the  Kngljjhj  who  knew  of  his  hatred 
towuds  them,  his  arrogance,  and  his  gross  vioea. 
H.  himself  died  from  a  surfeit  of  lamiBeys,  on 
let  December  1135,  as  he  was  preparing  to  Isavs 
Konnaady,  to  repress  an  inonimon  of  t£e  Welsh. 
He  was  very  aoxions  that  his  daughter  Matilda,  who 
had  married  Qeofirey  Kantagenet,  the  bov  Connt 
of  Anjou,  on  the  deatn  of  her  first  hnsband,  HentT 
v.,  emperor  of  Germany,  should  suooeed  him  on  tu 
throne,  and  had  twice  made  the  Tii"gl'»b  noble* 
swear  fealty  to  her ;  bnt  en  bis  death  tlio  crown 
waa  scdzed  by  Stephen  of  Blois,  the  Km  of  Adda, 
the  Conqn:eior'i  youngest  danghter. 

Henry  I.  wis  styled  Beanclero,  or  the  Scholar,  In 
honour  of  his  lear□iD(^  which,  for  a  king  in  his 
age,  waa  not  nndeeervuig  of  distinction.  Ob  had 
great  natural  ability,  eaiiedally  in  the  line  of  state 
lutrigae.  Law  was  adininiatered  with  ooiyiderable 
fairam,  and  not  a  little  rigour,  during  his  reign,  and 
his  admioistntiTe  ability  restrained  the  spirit  of 
rebellion  which  had  been  seething  inocssantfy  nnce 
the  Conquest  The  punishment  lA  orimea  during 
his  reign  was  capricious  and  barbarous  ;  death,  the 
loas  of  eyesight  (which  be  ia  aUeged  to  hav«  inflicted 
on  more  than  one  of  hia  relatives),  and  perpstosl 
imprisonment,  being  the  most  nsnal  penaltws  of 

HENRT  II.  of  England  was  the  pandaon  of 
Henry  L  hv  his  dau^tar  M^wiila^  and.  her  second 
husband  Geo&ey  nantaganet,  and  was  bom  in 
1133.  His  mother,  assisted  by  her  illegitimato 
brothcx  the  Eari  of  (Honceatsr,  in  tiw  early  part  of 
Stephen's  reign,  and  towaida  ita  close  by  H.  hinuelf, 
had  mada  war  againtt  Stephen,  as  a  nanrper,  trtio 
had  no  good  titte  to  the  tiirane.  In  1IS3,  wben  the 
rival  anniea  were  drawing  near  each  other,  a  treaty 
iat  *.  waaptDinito  waa  set  on  foot,  and  in  the  course 
of  it  the  only  son  of  Stephen  having  died,  it  was 
sgieed  that  Stephen  should  reign  during  his  life, 
and  that  H.  shoold  snooeed  him,  which  he  did  on 
Stephen's  death  next  year.  Ha  was  crowned  IMh 
December  1154,  along  with  his  Queen  Eleanor, 
whom,  at  the  age  id  eighteen,  he  bad  married 
within  six  weeks  aftw  she  was  divorced  by  Louis 
VIL  of  France.  She  was  Countess  of  Foiton,  and 
DucheB  of  Aqnitaine,  in  her  own  ri^b  H. 
inherited  from  nis  father  Anjou,  Tonraine,  and 
Maine,  and  his  father  and  mother  snooeeded  by 
foToe  of  arms,  in  keeping  and  taking  posaeeaion 
of  Nonnandy  for  themselves  snd  him ;  so  that,  by 
one  method  and  another,  he  oame  to  be  poeseased  of 
B  larae  portion  of  France  as  well  as  England.  His 
ohiei  rivala  in  power  wero  the  clergy,, who  could 
use  their  weapon  of  excommunication  with  terrible 
efTee^  and  who  being  tried  by  their  own  oourts  were 
not  amenable  to  the  oommon  laws  of  the  raalm,  and 


To  tud  bim  in  reducii^  the  church  to  snbiectiou  to 
the  eivil  power,  he  appointed  his  troated  ottanoeUor, 
Thomaa-t-Becket,  to  the  see  of  Csnterbnry,  and 
compelled  bim  and  the  other  ecclesiastics  to  uree 
to  the  '  conatitations  of  Clarendon ; '  a  set  of  Uws 
enacted  by  a  aort  of  prototype  of  a  parliament^  or 
council  of  the  borons,  and  havins  for  their  object 
to  render  the  crown  and  the  civu  law  (such  as  it 
had  grown  to  be)  auperior  to  the  ehuroh.  Beoket, 
however,  proved  to  be  a  tme  churchman,  and  the 
long  and  obatinate  struggle  between  him  and  hia 
monarch  waa  only  teiminated  by  hia  murder.  See 
Bbceet,  Thomas  1.  H.  did  penance  at  his  grave, 
allowing  himself  to  be  acoui^ged  by  monks ;   ' 

"  ty 


ale 


HENBT  nL_H£NST  T. 


maUj  npealad,  the  kfau  m*  nltmiatalf 
in  ndnenw  we  duuMi  to  nbgrdiBation  tn  dnl 
niittjii  Dttriikff  hii  MgHj  ocoQmd  the  a>iiQiiMfc 
ol  btlead.  Hut  eonntry  wm  than  the  home  of 
>  Bombar  of  toibee  or  dImu  of  the  tn&axj  fandml 
type,  andPopeAdiualV.,  iullSS,  b7abD]l,BaTe 
E.  Hitharity  orei  the  entire  idand,  end  oraei^ 
Hut  inhkbitiiita  to  obev  him.  He  had  not  leunre  kt 
Um  tilM  to  conqqer  tiiem,  bnt  afterfrarda, 


aid  being  Mlkited  by  one  of  the  Irieh  petty  kinn, 
Ztennot  of  Lnutv,  H.  gave  leave  to  any  of  hia 
mbjeote  to  aid  himi  rad  Bob«at  Fit&rtephena, 
oonateUe  of  AlbertiTi,  Manrioe  SltigtnU,  and 
Biehecd  de  Olue,  (ontamed  Strong-bow,  Eeri  of 
Strignl,  irent  over  with  %  voy  few  hundred  ttained 


__B  year  oouqoeied  Irdaud. 

TtiSj  mcoeeded  eo  well,  that  H.  became  jeahmi,  and 
iMuled  them ;  and  neirt  year  (1172)  he  went  over 
him— jf^  to  oonqner  in  a  n^al  way,  and  waa  evny- 
whera  loyally  raceiTed,  except  in  UlBter.  Thia  was 
the  nominal  couqneat  of  Ireland,  bnt  the  majority 
of  the  Iriih  toibe*  and  ohieftaiiis  oontinDed  to  be 
independent  baifiariani  for  eentniiei. 
During  thii  reicn,  abo,  the  flnl 
Moendenoy  of  Endmd  oror  Bcotiana  waa  gameo. 
&.'■  aoBM,  Inrited  Dy  thdr  Jealoni  nuAiMr,  Qnem 
Eleuior,  rebelled  t^tinst  him,  and  their  canae  waa 
eeponeed  hj  the  Unn  of  fiance  and  Sootland.  The 
'  "      *""  '     .  the  Lim,  waa  laraging  tiie  ntnUk  of 


latter,  WilUam  the! 


obtain  hii  liberty,  he  itipnlateil  to  do  homage  to  H. 
tm  Scotland,  to  cede  for  erei  to  him  tha  fnrtrnairn  of 
Boibnrgh  and  Berwick,  and  the  oaatle  of  Bdin- 
bnrdi  for  a  1'""*°^  time.  In  the  oouise  of  thii  filial 
rebdlion,  Henry,  the  eldest  aon,  died  of  a  fever, 
axhitHlin^  great  reounee,  and  OeoSrey  waa  killed  in 
a  Ummamtnt  at  Farti.  Biohard,  mniaiDed  Cmnr  d« 
Lion,  with  King  Phihp  li  FnJice,  obtained  Mine 
adruttgee  over  hie  fauer.  A  ttea^  of  pea«e  waa 
eonolod^  between  them,  of  which  aua  of  the  atq^- 
lationn  waa  for  an  indemnity  for  all  tiw  followen  of 
Btebwd.  The  lighC  of  the  name  of  hia  faroiirite 
ton  John  in  the  list,  acting  npon  a  oonatitntion 
weakened  hy  many  cane,  Urew  the  king  into  a 
terer,  of  which  he  died,  eth  Jnly  11S9. 

Upon  the  whole,  H.  was  an  able  and  enlightened 
Borereign.  The  baroni  wen  indeed  oranwed,  but 
the  mimarch  did  not  uae  hi*  power  deepotioally. 
I^w  made  -nry  great  ptognm  in  his  reign ;  dtcmt 
ooarti  were  eetabliihed,  and  other 


Ttnglifli      Jaw, 

I  chief  inatiaiaiY. 
In  intellect  end  character,  he  resemUed  bi*  grand- 
fatter,  Hetoy  L,  but  hia  Tiolatitma  of  the  moral  law 
wen  fewer,  and  lea*  hainoaa.  Still  h«  had  some 
iUegtUmate  children,  hii  mistreaa,  Oe  fair  Hoea- 
mond,  hang  the  motlwr  vt  two  that  are  tonem- 
bcnd :  miliam  longiword,  EhI  of  Bahibury,  and 
Qa^rey,  who  beoame  Anhbidtop  of  Torl^  Mid 
who  was  faithful  to  him  when  hia  four  legitimata 
■om  took  up  arms  against  him. 

HENRT  III.  of  Bnf^aod,  grandion  of  Henir  H, 
■nd  eldest  aon  of  King  John,  waa  bom  Irt  October 
eded  to  the  throne  on  hia  lather's 
„)  of  ten.  He  inherited  hit  father's 
weaknea.  Mid  h«  managed  cTeryUiing  ill  both  at 
home  and  abroad  A  war  with  France  cost  him 
Bntcni,  and  mlg^t  have  bem  more  disastavn 
for  the  lirtuoaB  di^oeitaon  of  the  Frendi 


12IW,  ai 
deatta 


itavu^but 
Lncih  king, 


ha  k(^  noTowa.    Ha  i 


tiia  part  ct  the  «lMgy  and  the  jope-  Sa  miamle 
nnued  th*  pecjde  and  tha  batoni  in  pariiament, 
headed  by  hia  tnthar4n-law,  Simon  da  Hoadfort, 
Earl  d  Leiceater,  who  lc*oed  him  to  toanifer  hia 
power  temporarily  to  a  eommiasiim  of  baraia.    He 

The  banna  were  aomawhat  tardy  in  itiaaiaag  the 
■tata,  and  tha  k^  deaiiad  to  iqpin  a  powo'  lAkA 
he  alleged,  with  truth,  hadbaen  takanfrranhimby 
conqiulaiimt  the    ^  ■      ..         .  >  •. 

will.   Hie  quart 
wumbmittedl 


will.  TteyiertMaetth»T»Mdi^cifthoiopw 

~  b^  boUi  paitiw  to  8t  Lonia  of  nuDea^ 

.—ntwQsnaM  was  eueh  that  fcnifliatv 

oould  tmst  ^tn  He  mTinllwl  the  pnnMoii& 
Lnoestec  and  his  vurty  diaregardad  their  agramesk 
to  be  bound  by  £ii  indgmeat,  and  bx^  W  anna 
against  the  Ung.  Tbey  deftatad  him,  and  took 
lum  prisonar  in  Um  batue  <d  Lewea,  on  lllh  Mm^ 
laOi  The  battk  waa  followed  hy  an  agravDHrt 
called  the  Miia  of  Lewe^  mMra  hnmiliatir^  to  tho 
Ung  than  the  proviaioiM  of  Oxford.  Leioaatar,  b«ing 
Tirtaally  king,  aummonad  a  aort  ot  paiiiaiMait;  and 
to  extend  hit  Dopulari^,  which  waa  alrMdy  pekt, 
lat  bom^  thonldba  laiaeeaiiW. 
ana  "■■  inn  of  iMiteainiitUi^i  waa  naUiad  in 
ambiyo  for  the  flnt  £ie  in  Bng^  hiitwy.  fink 
hia  Bii|Teniaiv  did  not  last  long.  Within  a  y<iar,th« 
powerlnl  Earl  of  Qloncester  deeerted  his  party,  sod 
enabled  Prince  Edward,  the  talsnted  acn  <d  the 
kin^  who  had  been  taken  priaonar  at  Lewei^  to 
captiTlty.  "Btey  led  an  orarwhalimng 
.i  LoioMtw,  who  waa  defeated  nnd  data 
■am,  on  4th  Anguvt  1266.  Tha  king  died 
16th  November  1272,  and  waa  anoeeaded  by  hit 
son  Edward.  The  weakness  of  H.  and  hia  bdier 
had  allowed  the  derdopment  of  the  power  of  the 
baroni,  and  the  oount^poiae  ot  these  two  forces, 
regal  And  atistocratao,  waa  qnoaohed  in  theae 
rmgni  by  a  method  which  haa  dwrdoped  into  the 
British  puliament.  Statute  law  dates  from  the 
time  of  Henry  IIL ;  the  *  Proriaions  of  Hatton,' 
paaud  in.the  SOth  year  of  H.'b  reign,  being  the  fint 
enactment  on  the  T&igliah  statute-book. 

HENBY  IV.,  of  the  Honte  of  Lancaster,  on  the 

it,  osorped  the  crown  in  1399,  in  the  begmning 
of  wliich  year  he  had  suooeedsd  his  fathaiy  John 


lomsmed  Bolingbroke,  from  the  plaoe  (in  Lineolii- 
shire]  where  he  was  bora  in  1366,  and  lukd  no 
Tahd  title  to  the  crown,  or  the  pratenoa  of  iL 
except  that  he  was  th*  aon  of  the  foaith  won  oc 
Edward  IIL  The  peace  of  hia  laisn  waa  djatmbed 
by  the  WeUij  under  Owen  Gleudowac  (q.T.),  and 


'aebit  Motv  on  22d  Jnna^  and  at  Homildeii  h5ii 
on  14th  September  1402.  Henir  Pargy  (avnanad 
Hotacnr),  um  oonqnaror  in  the  latter  MwageBm^ 
and  nit  family  aliwtly  after  Iwoke  witii  th*  Udk 
and  leagned  with  the  Scotch  Bad  Dou^  mm 
Qlandower  against  bim;  bat  ttit  eoalwcm  waa 
destroyed  by  tha  battle  of  Shrswibnry  on  Slat  Jn^y 
1403.  Other  two  inanneotioiu  followad,  whidi  wef« 
ekrily  inppwtaed.  The  king  gr«w  to  be  ^Bioted 
with  Iffinw  and  apilepay,  tai  died  <rf  a  fit  ia 
Weatmintter  Abbey  <ni  .30&  March  141%  in  tha 
47th  year  ot  hia  am  having  found  a  usurped  erown 
to  be  a  heaTy  burden,  even  for  a  stnmg  head. 

HENBT  T.,  who  mcceeded  hit  father  Hsnrv 
IT.,  waa  born  at  hfonimnith  (whence  hit  lumamej, 
in  13SS.  In  hit  youth  he  had  acquired  great 
military  distinctitHi  in  operationi  egainat  Gl«ndoww, 


BBK&T  Vt'-'HKSSY  YTL 


_  _  diitnut  of  him, 

baMine  Blmaat  vqtuUy  a«lete»tad  for  dtMipation. 
Bnt  Than  ha  becaiB*  king  (21it  April  1413),  he  Bhook 
hiotlaUiD  gTMt  iiMMDMliM<rflNidluibita  Mideotn- 
pMnocM,  KuA  in  mi  eadawToor  rt  the  ontoet  of  hi* 
raign  to  b«  both  jut  and  hmtou,  he  libented 
tttmi  tlMoonflnemeiitiiiwUeiihiiMbahad  plued 
him  the  yooiig  B*rl  of  Muefa,  iriio  mi  the  tone 
hcdr  to  the  orown,  aad'netored  the  wn  of  HotnftiT 
to  the  land*  and  hMMtm  vUeh  Urn  fatlwr  bad  Met 
by  Mbellion.  He  paid  a  tribitU  to  leligim  alco,  or 
rather  fa> tii«  orthodoxy  ol  the  age^by  perMontiDS 
the  LoUwda  Irr  fire  and  halter.    The  gnat  effiirt 


and  right -was  practiaall|f  identioal,  he  eaema  to  have 
heliered  uncerelT  that  he  bad  a  ri^t  In  his  first 
eMapdgn  to  Tindioate  it,  he  beeieged  and  took  the 
town  M  Harfleor,  and  guned  the  battle  of  Aidnooart  , 
(q.  T.),  October  2G,  Ul^  againat  moh  enormoos  odds 
M  to  meko  his  victoiT  one  of  the  meat  notable  in 
hiitory.  Two  y«*n  Mtei,  be  i^^ain  invaded  France, 
and  mado  Kocmaa^  oao«  men  anlAJeot  to  the 
Endiih  orawn.  An  ineapabl*  king  and  dril  discord 
aided  him  gtsatly.  On  the  2l>th  Hay  1^0,  tiiere 
ma  ratified  at  Troyea'perpetnalpeaoe' between  H. 
and  the  French.  H.  demanded  and  had  conceded 
to  him  the  regency  of  France,  the  eld««t  danghter 
of  the  king  and  qneen  to  be  hie  qtieen,  and  the 
■ncoMcian  to  the  IVenoh  crown  on  the  death  of 
the  kj^g.  H«  had  budly  returned  to  Bof^and, 
and  been  married  to  thia  Fnitah  princeaa,  Oatherine, 
when  the  defeat  at  Bangt,  in  Han^  1«!1,  of  hii 
brothtf  the  Doke  of  Clarence,  irtiom  he  had  left 


which  only  foroe  coud  lappiat  or  jnatify,  gradually 
crambled  down.  In  I42B,  they  laid  atege  to  Orleana, 
hut  the  (lege  was  r^aed  next  year  by  the  Frencb, 
inajHred  by  Joan  of  Aio  (q.  t.)  ;  and  altboogh  ahe 
waa  bunied  a«  a  witch  bv  the  W"glU''  in  1431, 
their  power  oontinaed  to  aeoline.  Nortnandy  wai 
completely  loat  by  the  Ul  of  Oherbonrg  in  1400) 
and  oWmatdy,  in  1408,  they  were  eijwllad  from 

'"  " 1  (Oalaia  eioepted),  gnatly  to  the  true 

of  both  that  ooontij  and  England. 
I  between  Oloaoeeter,  the  n^nt,  and  hia 
uncle,  the  mweifnl  Biahop  of  TVInclieeter,  aa  wdl  •■ 
war  wiUt  nance,  prevailed  during  the  minority  of 
the  king.  Aa  he  grew  up.  he  manifested  no  ten- 
deno^  to  either  tiaooa  or  inteUectnal  aotivi^.  He 
inhoited,  in  fact,  the  imbecility  of  his  granoFather, 
Charles  YL  of  Franoe,  In  1445,  the  weak  king 
fonnd  a  wife  in  the  etrong-ntinded  Margaret  en 
AnioQ;andinl447theT"-^     ■  ■ 

by  her,  tucoeeded  in  hav 
for  high-l 


dTantageof 
DiBptrieabi 


and  in  1447  the  Wini^eater  party,  anpported 
dead  in  his  Md,  withoat  extarnal  mark  of  violeace, 


.  who  killed  the  dnke  with  bis  own  hand, 
rekindled  the  hoTNa  of  the  Frenoh,  who  aapported 
the  contention  of  Chariea  the  dauphin  against  the 
toeaty  of  TiOTes,  to  which  he  had  not  agreed  H. 
returned  to  nance  for  a  Hiird  campugn,  and  his 
wonted  saccees  in  arms  was  following  him,  when  he 
waa  s^sed  witb  illness,  and  died  in  a  month  on 
the  31st  Angnst  1422;  in  the  34th  year  of  his  age, 
leaTing  an  mfant  to  anoceed  Mm,  and  a  splendid 
repntaliMi  tor  all  those  qoalitiea  that  constatate  a 
magnanimons  monarch. 


HENRY  TL,  the  o 
Catherine  of  Fnuce,  w» 
December  1421.  As  he  ^ 
old  when  hii  lather  di 
~  Bedford, 


tA  appointed  I^  parliament  to  aid  and 
the  pariiameait  declining  to  appoint  him 
A  UM  late  king  had  desired  it.    The 


r  child  of  Henry  V.  and 
bora  at  Windsor  on  6th 
as  not  qnite  nine  months 
S,  his  uncle  John,  Doke 

, _^^ si  to  govern  France,  and 

anobhor  nnde,  Humphrey,  Dnke  of  Qloocester,  to 
be  'Protector  (d  the  realm  and  Chnrch  of  England,' 
with  a  coua^^  *.-^.:..*-j  v—  *».i.-*.v.«*+  4-^  ani  m^A 
contrtd  bim, 

regent  thou^  Qm  late  king 

incapable  Cbules  TL  ol  IVauce  having  died,  bis  _ . 
tiie  dauphin  aatnmed  the  title  ol  Chulea  TIL,  and 
went  on  fighting  with  tiie  ^''"g"*''  Bii  army,  com- 
manded  t^  the  Sootoh  Eari  of  Buduui,  who  had 
been  appomted  constable  of  Trance  tut  nis  victory 
orer  the  l>nke  of  Clarence  in  the  prerions  reign,  and 
consisting  of  14,000,  half  Sootch  and  half  French, 
was  ahnost  umUiilated  by  Ihe  T^glinh  und^  Bed- 
ford, at  Tamanil,  on  Augnst  27,  142*.  The  Sootch 
auiiWies  ought  not  to  hare  been  there,  aa  peace 
had  been  made  with  the  Soots  a  year  before^  and 
IheiT  young  king,  Jamea  L,  had  beui  set  at  liber^, 
after  a  nsefol  captivity  of  twentr  yean,  and  h»d 
returned  to  bis  kiogdom  with  Lady  Jane  Beanfrat, 
•      -  ■       .-'«■.      ■  aomewrt,  and  Mlati<m  of 


adao^iter  of  the  Diike  of  8i 
ft*  nyal  family,  as  bis  qoeca 


bnt  meet  likely  mntdered,  as  Bdward  IL  had  been, 
by  thrustdng  a  red-hot  iron  through  his  bowels. 
Winchester  did  not  long  survive  his  nephew  and 
rival;  and  in  I4C0  the  Duke  of  aoffolk,  the  queen's 
favourite  minister,  being  impeached  by  the  Com- 
mons, was  condemned  to  be  banished  from  the 
kingdom,  but  was  shortly  after  taken,  and  executed 
on  board  one  of  the  ung's  ships.  The  want  ol 
strength  in  the  king,  as  well  as  m  his  title  to  the 
crown,  WM  an  invitation  to  every  form  of  faction 
to  disfday  itself.  Js<^  Cade,  an  Irish  adventursr, 
wbo  pretended  to  be  a  Mortimer,  obtained  a  tem> 
potary  pomesBon  of  London;  Imt  Hm  dtizens  over- 
came Mm  and  his  irillagiag  fdlowets,  and  he  was 
taken  and  beheaded  in  a  garden  bv  the  sheriff  of 
Kent.  The  true  representative  of  the  Mortimer* 
was  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  and  he  was  one  of 
the  unquiet  spirits  of  the  reign.  As  a  descen- 
dant of  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  the  third  son  of 
Edward  HL,  his  title  to  the  crown  was  superior 
to  that  of  the  king,  who  vras  descended  from 
the  Dnke  of  lAncaster,  the  fourth  son  of  that 
monarch,  and  ha  laid  claim  to  the  orown  with  more 
or  leas  openness,  according  to  circumstances.  His 
influence  and  addieaa  wss  so  great  that  in  1^S4, 
on  tile  occssioQ  of  the  king's  weak  mind  bung 
entirely  eclipsed,  he  was  appointed  protector  by 
parliament  On  the  king's  recovery,  he  was  indis- 
posed to  give  up  his  power,  and  levied  an  army  to 
maintain  it  On  Hay  22,  14G5,  the  batUa  of  St 
Albans  was  fought,  and  the  Yorkists  were  victors  ; 
GOOO  of  the  suppOTtars  of  the  House  of  Lancaster 
be^  killed,  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  the  queen's 
favourite  minister  for  the  time,  being  uaong  them ; 
and  the  king  himself  bring  taken  prisoner.  This 
was  the  fitvt  battle  of  twdve  that  was  foudit 
between  the  Honsee  of  York  and  Lancaster,  in  the 
wars  commonly  called  the  Wars  of  the  Rcaes,  from 
ihe  emblem  <a  Yock  being  a  white  rose,  and  tA 
'  r  a  red  rose.  (For  a  brief  account  of  the 
see  Edwasd  IT.)    B.,  after 

iad  May  22,  1471.     In  his  cradle,  he 

prcel«med  king  of  both  Fraooe  and  England ; 


amiable  andpioua. 

,   . Pembroke  Caatle,  the 

seat  of  Us  father,  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  on  Jannaiy 
21,  14Sa.  His  father,  Edmund  Tndor,  was  the  son 
of  Owen  Tudor,  and  of  his  wife,  Queen  Catherine,  the 
widowof  fibmyT.  His  mother  was  a  granddaiuhter 


HENBT  VH— HENSr  VHt 


:    the    Eouae 

derived  hi*  rigl 
(tach  u  it  was)  to  the  ctowq.  He  wu,  indeed, 
the  nearest  heir,  kfter  Bichard  III.  hiul  mordered 
hia  ne^iewB,  the  Kma  of  Edwajd  lY.,  except  tJieir 
■iiter  ElizabeUi,  and  Riohaid  hima^lf  The  popolar 
detestation  against  Richard's  crimes  vaa  so  great 
in  England,  that  H.,  while  redding  abroad  and 
hearing  the  title  of  Earl  of  Richmond,  was  invited 
to  invade  England,  and  rescue  it  from  the  ^rant. 
On  the  7th  of  Augngt  14SS,  he  landed  at  Milford 
TT __^  rowiied  across   the  *■ —  '■-  "— 


hj  several  impostors  claiming  the  crown ;  first, 
Lambert  SimneL  a  joiner's  son,  who  proSesaed  to  be 
Barl  ol  Warwick,  was  proclaimed  kins  in  Ireland, 
but  was  defested  at  Stoke  in  1487,  t^en  prisoner, 
and  ttmed  into  a  scnllioa  in  the  king's  kitchen  by 
H,,  who  had  a  talent  for  turnine  evetything  to  the 
most  profitable  purpose ;  ■econi^  Perkia  Warbeok, 
who  pretended  to  be  the  boy  Duke  of  York,  who 
hod  not  been  murdered  in  the  Tower  by  Richard  IIL, 
and  was  patronised  by  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy, 
and  lapported  by  James  IV.  of  Scotland,  but  was 
finally  captnred ;  and  third,  Ralph  Wulfnrd,  who 
also  protoided  to  be  Earl  of  Warwick,  but  did  not 
succeed  in  carrying  his  enterprise  far,  being  almost 
at  once  taken  and  hanged  in  1499.  In  this  year  H., 
apparently  to  free  hinuelf  from  further  trouble  from 
pretenders,  hod  Warbeck,  whom  he  had  pardoned, 
and  the  true  Earl  of  Warwick,  a  youth  who  had 
known  captivity  only  all  hia  days,  convicted  of  a  plot 
to  recover  their  liberty,  and  executed.  The  execution 
of  the  httter  is  the  chief  blot  in  H.'a  conduct,  but 
his  execution  of  Lord  Stanley,  who  had  helped  him 
to  the  throne,  also  shewed  a  callous  bearL  Indeed 
this  king  was  cunning  and  selfiah,  but  prudent  and 
not  intemperate  in  revenge  or  in  any  vice  except 
avarice,  which  led  him  to  sell  offices  and  pardons, 
commntinK  tentences  psssed  by  his  corrupt  and 
infamous  Exchequer  judges,  Empeon  and  Dudley. 
His  avarice  kept  him  from  engaguu  in  foreign  war, 
a  very  amall  quarrel  with  France  being  all  that  he 
attempted  in  that  war.  It  also  kept  him  from 
retnrnlng  the  dowry  of  Catharine  of  Aragon,  who 
had  married  hia  son  Arthur,  Prince  of  W^es,  a 
boy  of  14,  just  before  he  died,  and  ted  him  to 
betrotii  her  to  his  next  son,  who  became  Eemy 
TIIL,  a  betrothal  from  which  flowed  most  important 
oonseqnenceo.  He  married  his  eldest  dau^ter, 
Margaret,  to  James  IV.  of  Scotland,  forceeeing  that 
it  might  bring  about  a  nnion  of  the  crowns,  and 
this  was  one  of  the  most  fortunate  and  prudent 
schemes  of  his  reign.  His  wife  having  died,  he 
was  engaged  looking  out  for  another  for  himself, 
with  a  large  dowry,  when  he  died  of  consumption, 
on  April  ^  1S09.  Bacon  wrote  a  history  of  his 
reign,  in  which  he  represents  him  aa  a  wise  king, 
but  does  not  conceal  his  avarice,  explaining  it  rather 
by  obeerviag  that  the  neceaaities  and  shiftn  of  other 
great  ^nces  abroad  set  off  to  him  the  felicity  of 
mil  coffers.  Home  reckons  his  reupi  '  the  dawn  of 
civility  and  acience '  in  En^and.  Bacon  says,  that 
in  it  '  justice  was  well  adnuniitered,  save  when  the 
king  was  paride.'  Some  freah  light  is  thrown  upon 
this  and  the  preceding  Toga  by  a  volume  of  state- 
papers,  recenUy  publiuied  by  liongman. 

HEXRY  YIII.,  KiuK  of  England,  second  son  of 
Henry  VIL  and  Elizabeth  of  York,  was  bom  in 
1491.  On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  Arthur  in 
ISOS,  he  became  heir-apparent  to  the  throne.  In 
hia  twelfth  year,  he  waa  betrothed  to  his  brother's 
widow,  Catharine  of  Aragon,  sister  of  Philip  L  of 
Spain,  thus  early  commencing  a  union  afterward* 


floe  to  popular  indignatirat, 
r  hia  trcMOjea  to  uia  own 


so  fertile  in  eml-foitune.  On  hia  fadter'i  d««tk, 
in  IBM,  H.  wu  foond  to  noaaess  maov  aocomolisll- 

ments  wiUi  no  pisotical 

and  l^paon,  the  f — ' 

extortiona,  to  fall 

he  proceeded  to  squander _  . 

high  aatiafaotion,  and  to  the  great  content  of  hia 
people^  Be  indolently  alloired  his  ministers  to 
manage  everytiiing  for  him,  even  to  bis  marriage 
with  Cathaime.  But  if  he  knew  nothing  td  ne 
foreigu  relatiooa  of  the  kingdom,  he  txinld  apeak 
several  langiMgea  with  ease ;  and  if  he  detpised 
domMtio  b^iueM,  never  waa  there  a  monarch  who 
presided  more  gracefully  in  the  court;,  or  behaved 
more  gallantly  at  the  jousts  or  in  the  hnntJng-fiold. 
Hia  tutes  were  otherwise  innocent  enongh.  He  wsa 
pasaionately  fond  of  music  and  of  diaplay,  and  be 
indolged  in  no  other  excess  than  that  <a  physical 
eiercise,  sometimes,  it  is  said,  exhausting  four  or 
five  horiea  in  the  field  in  one  day.    It  is  eqieciaUy 


For  tiie  first  twenty  yean  of  his  reign,  fkiriaad 

had  no  reason  to  be  dusatiBfied.  The  period,  indeed, 
was  not  an  eventful  one.  Xn  the  beginning  of  it 
(1613)  there  were  two  short  ware— one  with  Pnnce, 
in  which  Terouenne  and  Toumay  were  taken,  and 
one  with  Scotland,  in  which  the  victory  of  Elodden 
vraa  won.  The  following  years  were  of  that  calm 
which  comes  before  the  storm.  Wolsey  waa  then 
minister ;  and  from  1616,  when  he  was  made  Aich- 
bishop  of  Yoil:  and  chancellor,  till  his  fall  in  ISSSk 
he  ia  wholly  reeponaible  for  the  government,  and  it 
waa  the  heat  governed  portion  of  E.'s  reign,  "tba 
foreign  policy,  it  ia  true,  waa  somewhat  ttKtDovs, 
guided  to  some  extent,  perhaps,  by  the  aapiratioDa 
of  the  cardinal  to  t^e  triple  crown ;  and  it  may 
be  that,  in  his  home-government,  Wolaey  lAen 
exhibited  a  jeauitioal  prefe  '  i.t!-.. 

honest   ends  by    "'  ' 
'"standing, 

its,  and  at  home  ]i 

Of  the  king,  it  cannot  be  . 

period  he  did  anything  of   < 


onaequeuoe.      When 
I   had   checked   the 


those  well-known  theological  studies  which  earned 
for  bim  (1621)  the  honour  of  Defender  of  the  Faith. 
His  book,  in  defence  of  the  seven  aacraments, 
against  Luther,  although  a  work  of  some  eniditi<Hi, 
contributed  nothing  to   the   solution  of  the  qnea- 


midity  L 


inu^  r 


opinions  waa  accompanied  by  corresponding  vigour 
in  deuouncins  those  who,  possessed  of  more  courage, 
had  proceeded  from  examination  to  dissent. 

It  is  impossible  not  to  connect  these  theological 
studies  with  the  origin  of  the  suit  between  H.  and 
Catharine.  The  joyous  temperament  of  H.  had 
passed  away,  and  in  its  place  had  come  disccmtented 
uloom.  In  his  now  supentitioiu  mind  the  fancy 
dwelt,  that  the  early  deaths  of  all  his  male  childrea 
had  been  t^e  judgment  of  Proridence  on  some  sin. 
From  these  dark  thoughts  the  queen  had  not  the 
power  of  weaning  him.  Older  by  six  years  than 
he  was,  her  beauty  had  faded,  and,  haughty  in  her 
manners,  she  exacted  all  the  stately  etiquette  of 
the  Spanish  conrt  from  one  who  had  at  no  tune 
felt  for  her  mora  affectioD  than  waa  due  to  a  bride 
selected  for  him  by  ethei*.  The  nation,  too,  had 
grown  dLBBatisfied  with  the  union.  ITie  proaped  of 
a  succession  left  to  be  disputed  around  the  person  of 
a  girl — the  Princeas  Mary,  who  was  the  immediate 
heireaa  to  the  tliTone— waa  viewed  with  anxiety. 
Men  remembered  the  horrors  of  the  wars  of  the 
Rosea,  and  feared  that  their  children  might  aee 
them  repeated.    The  doubt  as  to  tlia  validity  "t 


Google 


H.-a 


mairuce 
stmrted  i 


with  hii  bnitItM''>  iridow,  which  hmd 


one  oertuD  to  be  TeviTed  on  the  lli^litert 
A   etraii^  miztore  of  pablio  apint,  religioi 
supentaluMu  feeling,  uid  lelfish  desiie,  now  deter- 
muied  H.  to  aeek  a  divorce. 

In  loiDg  for  the  divorce,  the  king  unexpectedly 
fonnd  a  lealoni  aaaictuit.  Woleey  saw  in  it  a. 
meana  of  detachine  GngUnd  from  toe  alliance  with 
Spain,  odiouB  to  hun  aa  the  power  that  thwarted 
hu  ambitioo,  and  ruled  the  papacy  while  ^setending 
to  ob^  it  Already  hia  acute  mind  saw  that  the 
influence  «f  tha  prieethood  wai  decaying.  Entim- 
■iaat  aa  he  wai,  he  believed  be  could  reetore  it. 
While  aoanda  of  reformalion  were  eohmoA  frcon 
Osnnany  from  beyond  the  w&lla  of  the  cbaicb, 
Wolsey,  almost  alone  in  England,  saw  the  danger ; 
but  he  believed  there  was  strength  euouj^  within 
the  oburch  to  accomplish  her  own  uneudmeDt,  and 
he  trusted  now  that  the  lost  afiectioDa  of  the  people 
might  be  brought  back  by  a  gracious  eiennse 
of  the  dinenaing  power,  freeing  them  from  a  felt 
danger.  Already  the  active  scl^mer  hod  amuiged 
that  whrai  the  work  was  done,  the  king  sboold  many 
a  daoghter  of  France,  ooDVerdiie  an  old  eoei^  into 
a  atroDg  ally.  With  aooh  tnda  in  view,  Wolsey 
(1527)  proseented  the  divorce  before  Clement. 

The  pope  found  himself  in  difficulty.  On  the 
one  hand,  Francia  L  SDpported  En^iand;  on  the 
other,  Charles  V.  thieatoied.  Clement  punned  the 
traditional  policy  of  Borne,  and  temporised.  To  gain 
tiroe,  he  issued  a  commission  to  Cardinal  Campegsio 
and  to  Wolsey  to  try  the  qoeation.  MeanwEQe, 
Wolaey's  fair  project*  were  rendered  impossible. 
Anne  Boleyn  had  been  for  many  yean  aboat  court, 
and  when  E-'a  conscience  grew  too  acrupnlous 
to  permit  hia  cohabiting  longer  with  Catharine, 
Anne  lived  constantly  with  him.  When  the  king 
announced  his  intention  of  maiTying  her,  Wolaey's 
deaire  for  the  divorce  wss  at  an  md.  The  con- 
nectioo  promiaed  little  to  the  natiMi,  attd  he  himself 
had  every  reason  to  dislike  her,  as  hes*  relatavas 
belonged  to  thoaa  reformera  who  songbt  reform 
from  without,  and  aa  such  reli^us  sympathies  as 
could  find  a  place  in  her  frivcjous  mind  l^Jied  alao 
to  the  new  learning.  Ha  was  now  as  auiona  to 
procraatinate  as  Client.  The  legates'  court  had 
been  opened,  argument  bad  been  neaid;  but  on 
one  excuse  or  another,  judgment  waa  delayed,  till 
the  changeable  Clement  revoked  the  commission, 
and  (1629  A.a,)  advocated  the  canae  to  Kome. 

The  revocation  of  the  papal  commiatioa  to  try 
the  divrace  qneition,  virtually  ended  the  pap^ 
power  in  England,  sod  the  atepa  that  follow  are 
merely  the  working  oat  of  mevitable  resolt*. 
Woleqr,  aoapected  on  the  best  of  noonds  of  having 
thwarted  the  divorce,  was  deprived  of  power,  and  a 
new  ministry  waa  formed  {October  1529),  in  which, 
for  the  first  time,  laymen  held  the  higheat  places- 
Sir  Thomas  More  was  chancellor.  The  chief  adviser 
of  the  king  was  Wolsey's  old  servant,  CromwelL 
Parliament  was  called,  and  the  membien,  finding 
that  royal  approbatiou  was  now  given  to  tbeir 
complaintu,  made  out  a  formal  list  of  grievances 
agamst  the  clergy.  Their  humble  petition  to  his 
inaj^ty  set  forth  how  the  bishops  cared  for 
nouiing  but  the  episcopal  revenues,  and  how  they 
converted  everythmg,  from  the  powers  of  the  dio- 
cesan courts  downwards,  into  a  means  of  extorting 
money.  The  kiog  solemnly  sent  the  document 
to  convocation,  and  while  the  reply  waa  under 
consideratioD,  the  Commons  proceeded-  Bills  were 
passed,  with  tittle  opposition,  dealing  with  what 
were  wont  to  be  thought  purely  ecclesiastical 
matters,  such  aa  fixing  the  feea  to  be  exacted  in 
the  probate  courts,  and  abating  some  peculiarly 


ts  made  in  perfomung  the  last 
the  dead.  Fai^iament  touched 
the  clergy  more  doaely  still  when  they  forbade 
them  to  follow  wcnlar  employmeuta,  or  to  hold 
plnralitiea,  and  enjoined  tJiem  to  live  in  th^ 
parishes  smd  perform  their  duties.  These  bills 
paased  the  Lower  Hooae  with  little  opposition  j  in 
the  Ulster  HooM,  where  the  apiritual  lords  were 
they  passed  with  diiSculty.    The  king 


save  his  aawnt  willingly.    When  the  bills 

law,  th^  were  received  by  the  people  with  great 

e  significant  enongh 
vfusal,  the  pope  still 
wear  on,  and  nothing 

.iTogreas  except  the  unpopularity  of  the  clergy. 

Rome  still  shewing  no  symptoms  of  yielding,  ^e 
kine'a  political  neoeasilies  agam  made  him  a  reformer, 
and  tbat  of  a  very  unacru[mlous  kind.  He  impoaed 
a  heavy  fine  on  the  deigy,  under  an  old  statute, 
for  having  recognised  the  legatine  authority  of 
Wolsey  without  expieBa  rajtl  sanction.  Qoine  still 
further,  the  Defeiuur  of  the  Faith  declared  biTn»°lf 
the  head  of  the  church,  and  induced  the  clergy  to 
rect^iae  the  title  in  oonaideration  of  his  gracioosly 
remitting  a  portion  of  their  fine  (22  Hen.  TIIL  a  15). 
Farlisjment  having  again  met  (1630).  advantsfje 
was  taken  of  the  kin^  disposition  stall  more  to 
limit  the  olerical  power.  The  clergy  had  long  ago 
forced  the  stato  to  give  op  to  them  uie  right  to  by 
their  brethren  when  accused  of  crime*.  Their  theory 
was,  that  he  on  whom  consecration  had  wrought 
ita  mnitic  office,  waa  too  hi^  for  the  aecmar 
arm.  The  practice  was,  that  every  ooe  who  claimed 
the  character  of  clerk,  from  the  higheat  dignitaries 
of  the  church  to  the  crowda  of  mendicant  friars, 
escaped  with  small  fines  after  committing  the  graveat 
Crimea.  Parliament  waa  thought  to  have  gone  far 
whan  it  enacted  that  all  below  the  rank  of  priest 
should  be  dealt  with  by  the  ordinary  conrta  oi  the 
realm.  The  same  parliament  passed  other  acta, 
r^nlatinffthe  juiisdiction  of  the  ecdeuastdcal  courts. 


ig  stiictor  provii 


.  a^inst  bequests  tt 


the  church. 

These  measures,  bold  and  unusual  as  they  were, 
affected  Eome  only  indirectly.     Aa  it  waa  evident 

that  something  to  be  more  closely  felt  was 
requisite,  one  of  the  pope's  highest  and  moat 
lucrative  privileges  was  attacked.  The  pcpe  had 
long  mwnt^ned  that  no  high  ecclesiastical  dignity 
coiud  be  conferred  without  his  approval,  and  in 
retom  for  granting  it,  he  received  the  first  year's 
fruits  of  &e  be^fice.  These  payments,  called 
annates,  amounted  to  a  large  sum,  incieased  even 
beyond  its  legitimate  amount  by  the  dishonourable 
eipedieut  of  sanctioning  the  appointment  of  none 
but  very  old  men.  A  bill  passed  both  Houses 
abolishmg  these  payments  (23  Hen.  THL,  c  20). 
To  make  the  measure  serve  its  purpose  more 
effectually,  power  was  given  to  the  king  to  call  it 
into  effect  at  any  future  time,  while  the  hope  waa 
privately  held  out  that  this  power  would  not  be 
exercised  if  the  divorce  ware  granted. 

While  anch  measures  were  being  pasaed,  it  may 
be  believed  that  Sir  Thomas  Uore  held  ofSce  witn 
pain  and  reluctance.  Finding  at  last  bia  influence 
poweclesa  to  restrain  the  advancing  tide  of  (ecu- 
larism,  ha  resigned,  and  a  miniatey  Was  formed 
(1532)  of  which  Cromwell  waa  now  tBe  nominal  aa 
well  OB  real  head.  The  new  ministty  were  prepared 
to  push  measures  of  reform  as  fax  as  the  temper  of 
theidng  aod  the  nation  would  permit.  Thev  desired 
nothiog  better  than  an  open  rupture  with  Home. 
H.,  on  the  othet  hand,  exhausted  every  efibrt  of 
diplomacy  to  preserve  tjie  alliance  with  the  church. 
Embassies,  intrigues,  (ilats  of  all  kind,  in  Paris  and 


tiOO'?,  It 


ttom^  ftbotmded  in  endleM  eonitwioa  &t  thl«  time, 
making  it  tanpowible  to  dotermiua  the  Immediate 
OHue  oE  the  Mpentioa,  long  sinM  oertain  to  maan. 

In  the  beniming  of  1B33,  H.,  either  impatient  at 
the  long  daikj,  or  ■■  otiien  lay,  and  aa  the  date* 
Tender  not  improbable,  'diaooyering  that  an  illicit 
iDtenxniTae  he  carried  on  with  Anne  Boleyn  had 
reflolted  in  her  pregnancT;  waa  priratelj  married 
to  her.  Within  three  montha  afterwardo,  the  mar- 
riage wai  made  public ;  and  to  con^ete  matters, 
Ciwmier,  reoently  appointed  Archbishop  of  Oanter- 
L —    L.ii  ^  court,  «■  the  highest  eeeleaa«tica] 


authori^  in  England,  and  pronoaoced  aentaNe  <^ 
divorce,  deolarins  the  marriage  of  H.  and  Oatharine 

theee  dmna  were  accomponira.  by  mnch  rqoiain|^ 

and  the  kmc^i  former  taite  for  pageantry  reviTed 


the  magnificent  ceremonial  of  crowning  his  new 

The  newiprodnced  other  effecti  in  Italy  and 
Oeimany.  inien  the  news  of  the  maTTia(;e  reaidied 
the  Vatican,  H.  was  cited  to  appear  before  the 
papal  court.  He  refused,  and  appealed  to  a  general 
connciL  When  Cranmer's  sentence  reached  Some, 
the  pope  »t  onee  declared  it  lUenl,  and  won  KFter, 
•bnoet  elowd  tihe  door  for  fortuer  negotiation  by 
lejectjng  the  apped  to  the  «ounoiL  The  next  atepa 
on  eaeb  ride  wera  taken  almost  ainniltaneouily. 
^e  TJwfll"!'  parliament  met,  and  nnder  Cromweira 
gdidanoe,  far  ontdid  Its  predecessore.  It  passed  an 
act  entirely  abolishing  the  papal  authority  within 
tbe  nalm  (24  Hen.  Tm.  c  12),  giTing  the  Icing,  as 
on  a  foimer  oecssiOD,  power  to  call  the  act  into 
opentiou  when  ha  pleased.  It  then  settled  the 
succenloQ  on  the  luue  of  Anne  Boleyn,  to  the 
eiclnsioD  of  that  of  Catharine.  Scared?  had  these 
meamres  pawed,  when  news  came  from  Rome 
t^t  the  pope  had  pronounced  judgment  in  the 
lone  pending  divorce  caae,  finding  H.%  maniage  to 
Ca&arine  to  have  been  valid.  On  the  dav  fdlow- 
ing,  H.  called  into  operation  Qie  act  alwllshing  the 
pope's  anthority. 

H.  having  aa  yet  done  comparatiiely  little  to 
forfeit  hia  early  ^pularity,  the  synipathT  of  moat 
was  with  htm  m  the  tiep»  taken  gainst  those 
of  his  gnbfects  who  were  disaffected  with  these 
changes.  Among  these  steps,  however,  were  some 
not  easily  defeni&l,  even  accordins  to  tiie  standard 
of  the  times.  MmOT  victims  fdl  nnheeded,  but 
all  Europe  waa  shocked  when  More  and  Fisher 
(Bishop  of  !Bocheateri  were  put  to  death  lor 
refusing  to  ackncwle^e  the  new  snccesaion,  and 
to  adnut  the  king's  nsht  to  tlie  headship  of  the 
diuTch.  Even  Heniy^  ally,  IVanina  L,  remon- 
rtnted.  The  worst  efibct  li  the  cruelty  wis  the 
alienation  of  the  Qenaan  Protestants,  who  ever 
afterwards  held  sloof  from  H.  in  spite  of  all  Crom- 
well's eSbtts  to  cement  an  alliance.  After  this  and 
other  similar  acts,  which  were  not  imfieqnent,  it 
may  be  said  that  S.  never  again  received  hnman 
sympathy.  He  panned  hi*  oonrse,  however,  aided 
by  vwaa  from  whom  the  dnst  of  the  conflict  con- 
cealed hia  «melty. 

The  state  of  ue  monasteries  having  long  been  a 
pnUie  ecandal,  Oiranwell  (1630)  nnt  a  oommiasion 
to  wM»tn«  tiiem.  Acting  on  the  reports  of  the 
commission,  pariiament  abdiahed  the  smaller  monas- 
teries, whidi  happened  to  be  at  onoe  the  wetkeet 
and  the  wotst  (27  Hen.  TIH  &  28).  The  disbanded 
monks  made  a  large  additink,  boSt  direct^  and 
Indireetlf,  to  the  luks  of  the  disaffected;  and  to 
enate  tnrther  discontent,  the  swaxnii  of  vagabonds 


The 


ir  snpport  on  the  yeomen- 
_  bnim  out  in  the  rebellion  known 
of  Qraoe  (1030).  Crowds  who  had 


oolleoted  in  linadnahire  with  hardly  a  definite  aim, 
dispersed  on  the  prmnisa  of  redress  in  a  pariiament 
to  M  held  at  York.  Redresa,  however,  oame  not^ 
and  Vba  erowds  again  gatliered,  this  tisie  mdtr 
mMv  skilfnl  leaders,  and  with  more  definite  par- 
poees.  The  kia^s  foroes  sent  apunat  tiiem  woe 
insufficient.  The  whole  of  the  north  of  Hnglixl 
vu  in  the  hands  of  the  rebala.  Tbrn  grieranos* 
were  a  stnmge  medley.  Complaints  «  tlie  law 
r^arding  the  tenure  of  land  were  mixed  with 
oom^plaints  that  low-bran  men  (snch  aa  Cronnrdl) 
advised  the  kins,  that  the  monasteries  were  bong 
dissolved,  and  nuat  the  old  faith  was  bdog  aUoreC 

TT.,  fhwHipti  nflrtam  conur~ — ' "" 

wiOi  this  msnrgents,  and  _. 

meet  Important  of  which 

the  bencBt  of  which,  howe 

leaders  did  not  receive.     The  supraeoion  td 

rebcUioo  was  followed  l:^  tiie  dinotution  (in  1S37) 

of  the  larger  monasteries  (31  Hen.  VUL  c.  13). 

In  the  midst  of  theee  civil  commotiona,  two 
events  took  place  both  bearing  on  the  Beformataon, 
but  of  very  different  import.  An  order  in  oowtoO 
(1S37)  aiipinnted  the  English  translation  of  the  Khde 
to  be  plooed  in  every  churoh,  that  all  mijjit  read 
"  Bat  as  if  to  correct  the  ide*  that  even  one 
thus  to  have  the  ri^t  of  jodglng  tor  hisiBdf 


e  agreed  ^  the 


which,  however,  Aske  and  the  oUier 


broken  with  many  old 


to  be  enforced  by  penalties,  if 
shonld  fail  to  commend  it  to  the  nation.  Certain 
articles  of  religion  were  drawn  np,  and  after  some 
modifications,  were  framed  into  those  known  aa  the 
'bloody  siz  articles.'  The  statute  (31  Hen.  Vm 
c  I4|  containing  these  articles — named,  with  mnch 
simplicity,  *  An  act  for  abolishing  diveni^  of 
Opinions — is  very  brief,  but  very  formidabla  The 
doctrines  were  substantially  those  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Churoh.  The  artidea  made  no  pretensions 
to  form  a  compete  or  systematio  creed ;  they 
embodied  the  pomts  aa  to  which  most  oonJBict  M 
opinion  prevailed  ;  and  fcnnidsble,  indeed,  woe  the 
sanctions  enforcing  them.  Whoever  denied  the 
first  article  (that  embodying  (he  doctrine  of  tran- 
Eubstantiation)  was  to  be  declared  a  heietia,  sod 
burned  withont  opportunity  of  abjuration ;  whoao 


refused  to  abjure  his  first  offence,  i 
second,  was  to  die  like  a  felon.  To  this  act  Cnm- 
well  himself  Idl  a  victim.  He  hod  been  silent  in 
face  of  the  combination  which  carried  it ;  hot 
having  secietly  used  all  his  infinence  as  a  member 
of  gDvemment  to  thwart  its  ezeeation,  by  staving 

J,: „j      _:_^_- . u,     ..^     -JgL*; 


he    loet 


pmceedings    and    giving    paitlons, 
oonJidence,  and  waa  pnt  to  dea^ 

The  last  years  of  the  reigu  of  E.  were  disturbed 
with  small  wars  with  Scotland  and  Fiance,  inimim] 
to  progress.  He  died  on  28th  January  1M7, 
unhoncmred,  luuuoumed ;  and  yet  few  rejoiced,  fbr 
his  poUov  bad  left  En^ond  so  divided  at  hom^ 
so  fnendiess  abroad,  that  no  man  could  look  with 
confidence  to  the  future. 

Hie  charaoter  of  H.  has  of  late  been  discussed  at 
greater  lengOi  thaa  the  subject  deserved.  Tbt 
mere  redtol  of  the  oconrrences  of  his  private  life 
Is  sufficient  to  justify  most  of  the  infimy  whidi 
tradition  haa  attached  to  his  name.  Tha  divorce  of 
Catharine  and  the  marriage  of  Anne  Boleyn  have 
already  been  told.  Within  a  short  time  afto'  the 
birth  of  the  Princess  (afterwards  Queen)  Hiiabeth, 
H.'s  afFection  for  Anne  ceased.  He  suspected  htr — 
not,  it  mutt  be  admitted,  without  groond — of  adnl- 

S,  and.  after  a  hurried  trial,  had  her  oc    ' 
executed  (1636).   On  the  day  after  thee 


BfiHBT  H— sstntT  nt 


Anne  of  Clevw  fbllowi.    The  maiiiage,  a  PdUI 

one,  ammged  by  CiomwBll  to  connect  H.  with 
the  Oemuin  FntiMtBnla,  wai  nnfortimate  from  the 
H.  TM   deesiTed  ai  to  her  peramal 


(IHl)  intbin  a  few  montiu  diroroed  and  executed 
lor  Ml  adultery  well-anoti^  ertabluhed.  Hii  lizth 
wife,  OatHarine  Parr,  ivriTed  hin,  and  eo  tiie 
MbJogiw  eoda.  Paasing  frcm  the  dmsertio  elrde 
to  that  □{  hie  immediate  aaaodatea,  H.  u  foond 
aa  incapable  of  friendship  aa  he  wae  either  of 
fedinff  or  of  evoking  lore.  Ha  had  three  great 
mimafen— Wolsej,  More,  and  Cromirell — all  men 
of  hu^  talent  and  worth,  and  all  on  teima  of 
the  <&aaBt  intimacy  with  the  king,  yet  all  in  the 
honr  of  need  throirn  aiide.  Diaaaae  and  a  broken 
■inrit  aared  Wqliey  from  s  wonw  fate ;  bnt  it  la 
little  wonder  that  evsty  Catliolio  ilionld  detest  the 
memory  of  him  who  seat  More  to  the  HafTold  far 
adheriiw  to  iqiinunia  iriiioh  he  Umwlt  bad  held 
ahorUy  DefoiB,  or  that  Proteatanta  ahonld  execrate 
the  XBtmorf  of  the  man  wbo  violated  Jortiee  and 
ootuiatNMy  to  put  to  deaOt  the  tint  great  Iftotertant 
miniitra.  If  mch  were  Hu  morale*  ha  voncb- 
■afed  to  those  who  were  with  him,  it  ma;  eaaily  be 
imagined  how  he  dealt  with  those  who  were  agiiiiiit 
him.  CHainis  of  political  necessity  cannot  eieoie 
Sm  cmd^  with  which  he  persecn^d  erery  reUtiTe 
of  Oardinal  Pole,  from  the  aged  Countess  of  Salia- 
bnry  to  Inurr  Tictims.  It  may,  howsrer,  be  safely 
admitted,  that  tradition  haa  exaggerated  H.'b  cracl- 
ties — that  there  is  no  tenth,  for  axarople,  in  the 
tale  whioh  gives  78,000  as  the  unmber  <n  execntions 
in  hia  reign;  and  it  maybe  futher admitted, tiiat 
he  did  bot  wantonly  commit  mnrden— that  he  had 
always  bcAne  him  m  his  erhnes  some  object,  dtiier 
of  misooDceiTed  joatio^  or  ol  policy;  bat  aftv 
allowiog  for  evetything,  enough  remaiiu  to  explain 
lb*  onrrertal  dewstation  in  whioh  Protsstaot  and 
Catholic  have  oombined  to  hold  hia  name, 

HEHET  II.,  King  of  France,  was  bom  in  1618: 
married  CatJvarine  de'  Medici  in  1C33;  succeeded 
his  father,  Francis  L,  in  1M7,  The  money  which 
hia  father  left  was  nq^dly  squandered  amo;^  his 
favonritei  and  mislressea.  A  revidt  in  Qnieune, 
where  the  pecnde  had  risen  againat  Qte  gt^dairi,  or 
ooUeeton  «  u«  sslt-da^,  was  the  fiiat  event  wat 
roused  the  king  and  comt  from  their  alothfol  e 


Qniiea,  wlioae  sister,  the  dowag«M}neen  of  Ja 
■ought  the  aid  of  France  to  snppcot  hec  _ 
the  vnbitions  deaigixs  of  the  y.ngliali  aorenuaent, 
a  F>«ncli  altiaDce  was  cemented  viA  Scotland, 
and  war  declared  agUDst  Fiigland,  which  benn 
in  1C50  with  the  recovery  of  Boulogne,  and  ended 
in  1568  with  the  taking  of  Cslaii,  after  that  mty 
had  been  210  yeara  in  the  hands  of  the  Ffiglish. 
Ooiionaly  enouob,  while  Out  king  tried  to  pnt 
down  hmesy  woh  fire  and  sword  at  home,  be  nude 
treaties  of  alliance  with  tlie  Oannan  rrformya, 
and  sent  an  army  of  38,000  men  to  aid  Manrica 
□f  Saxony  againit  tlie  emperor ;  and  taking  the 
command  in  peraon,  made  himsdf  master  of  Ton] 
and  Verdim,  while  Montmorency,  throngh  the 
*  "  inison,  seized  upon  Ueta.  After 
harlee  Y.  (1666),  and  the  division 
vast  empire  between  his  brother  Ferdinand 
I  son  Philip  IL,  H.  aeiied  the  opportune 
1  of  attacking  the  Netherlands  and  Italy 
Philip  n.  had  time  to  consolidate  his  newly 


aoqnlred  powers,  bnt  tiie  resnlta  of  tbia  step  were 
disastrous  to  France  at  every  point.  In  Italy,  the 
attack  on  Naples,  made  by  Ouise  at  the  head 
of  21^000  men,  utterly  failed  throngh  the  pusillan- 
imity of  the  pope,  and  the  enorgetio  advance  of 
Alva ;  whUe  in  the  Low  Countries,  the  French  undw 
Montmorency  soitaiMd  a  total  defeat,  in  1667,  at 
8t  Qumrtin,  where  the  flower  of  the  Froidh  chivaliy 
were  either  slain  or  taken  oaptire  bj  the  froopa  m 
Philip,  who  were  commanded  by  Philibert-Bnnnsnnel, 
Dnke  of  Savoy. 

niese  rererM*  were  followed  by  the  trea^  of 
Cbttean-Oambreeis  (1669),  in  which  H.  aRreed,  in 
erohanga  for  ths  reatoiatiDn  of  Ham,  St  (Jnentin, 
and  Castelet,  and  the  liberation  of  Montanorency, 
*"  tesisn  nearly  all  hia  oonqnesta  in  the  Lcnr 
minea.  Piedmont^  aitd  Sontham'  Ita^,  ineloding 
190  forbcaaes  and  atron^lda.     Short^  after,  ha 

mortally  bnt  aoddentaUy  wounded  in  a  tour- 

snt  by  Count  Montaomery,  a  Soottiah  nohle- 
,  and  oHitain  of  ha  guud.  He  died  10th 
Jnly  1609. 

HENBT  Itl.,  the  third  son  of  Henry  IL  and 
Oatfaarine  dt/  Medici,  was  bom  in  1661,  and 
meoeeded  Mi  brother  Oharlea  DL  in  1674  On  the 
death  of  the  Cmistable  Hontmorency,  be  received 
tile  chief  command  of  Ihe  army,  and  hia  flrat 
oampajgn,  fouf^t  in  bii  ISth  year,  was  nKoaliaed 
"-y  two  decisire  victories,  gamed  over  the  Pro- 
Mtonta  at  Jamao  and  Moncontour.  In  1673,  tbe 
..itriginea  of  the  qneen-regent  secured  to  him  the 
election  to  the  vacant  throne  of  Poland,  He  failed, 
however,  to  aeeim  the  attachment  of  the  Polish 
noblu ;  and  on  receivms  Hm  tidinn  of  hia  brotiter'B 
death,  he  fled  by  ui^t  from  Craoow,  and  on 
his  rctujm  to  Franee,  was  proclaimed  kins  of  that 
cotmtry.  Wia  mother  *"^  the  Gniiea  bad  nttle  di£Q- 
cnl^  in  persuading  him  to  oontinne  the  religious 
civil  vrar.  The  nnion  of  the  Proteetanta  with  the 
of  discontented  nobles,  headed  by  the  king's 


ion,  and  variom  other  rights.  This  exas- 
perated &e  Catholic  party,  who,  headed  by  Heniy 
of  QuiB&  formed  the  confederation  known  as  the 


bnt  aUo  to  seoore  the  revetaioii  of  the  tiirone  to 
Guise,  and  civil  war  again  and  again  bnrst  .out 
with  renewed  violence. 

H.  avuled  himself  of  bis  intervals  of  quiet  to 
indulge  his  own  vidous  propenntiea ;  and  wnile  his 
motha  mled  tbe  stat«^  and  the  Ouisea  ware  nnder* 
mining  hi*  throue,  bis  days  and  niKbts  were  speot 
in  an  alternation  ra  the  moat  dissolute  exoa*se^  and 
tbe  wildest  outbreaks  of  fonatidtm.    One  day  be 

"  ' ipainng,tothe*onndof  mnsiCithrmii^ 

Puis,  accompanied  by  a  band  of  young 
Date  as  hunsdf,  known  as  the  Mignons, 


while  the  next  day  n 


mssks^  and  carryine  in  their  hands  sconraee,  with 
whiob  titer  fluelloted  one  anotiier  as  tbey  laog 
alond  penitential  psalm*. 

nation  of  the  Duke  of  Gtdse  in  ISSS 


of  the  duty  of   obedience  to  the  k^g, 
Leaguen  dissolved  the  parliament.     H^ 

now,  for  the  first  time,  thrown  on  his  own 

— bis  mother  bod  just  died— was  distcaeted  by  the 
diffioultie*  of  his  position ;  and  in  bll  peanlexi^  at 
hearing  that  Oois^s  brother,  the  Ihike  of  Mi^enne^ 
had  been  declared  lieutenant-general  of  the  king- 
dom, tbrew  himself  under  the  protection  ef  H«oty 

/  •"       I  J 


at  the  head  of  40,000  Hngneuota  o 
Klthoush  salluitly  defeoded  by  Mwenoe,  would 
prDbaUy  hsYe  had  to  capitulate,  had  not  the 
onrrent  of  eventi  been  rnddenly  checked  throogh 
the  ifiency  of  a  fanatical  young  dominican-brother, 
named  iTacqnea  Clement,  who,  on  l*t  August  1S89, 
on  pretence  of  bavins  important  tidinga  to  com- 
municate to  H.,  killed  him  by  plunging  a  knife 
into'  hie  body.  The  murderer  waa  alam  on  the 
■pot  by  the  royal  guard,  and  hii  victim  died  the 
foUowing  day,  after  having  declared  hia  biTi«TT»aTi, 
Henry  Bourbon  of  Navarre,  hia  auocesaor. 

HENRT  IV.,  King  of  France  and  Navarra, 
lurDamed '  The  Q-reat,'  and  '  The  Qood,'  waa  bom  in 
Beam  in  15S3.  H.  ivaa  the  third  son  of  Autoine 
de  Bourbon  and  Jeanne  d'Albret,  daoghter  and 
heireaa  of  Henry,  king  of  Navarre  and  Beam.  Hia 
father's  death  placed  him  under  the  sole  control  of 
hia  moUier  and  grandfatiier,  at  whose  coort  he  woe 
trained  to  the  practice  of  knightly  and  athletic 
azerciMa,  and  inured  to  the  active  habits  and  rude 
fare  common  to  the  Bemais  mountaineera.  TTi^ 
mother,  who  was  a  zealous  Calvimst,  was  careful 
to  select  learned  men  holding  her  own  tenetd  for 
his  instnictora ;  and  having  discovered  that  a  plot 
wns  brooding  to  remove  hmi  to  Spain  by  force,  to 
train  him  in  the  Cathoho  faith,  ehe  condncted  him, 
in  1569,  to  La  Bochelle,  and  presented  bim  to  the 
anembled  Huguenot  army,  with  whom  he  partici- 
pated iu  the  tattle  of  Jomac  B.  was  now  ohoseD 
chief  of  the  Protectant  ^arty,  although,  on  account 
of  hia  youth,  tiie  principal  command  waa  vested 
in  Coligny  (q.  v.).  Notwithstanding  the  defeats 
which  the  Huguenots  had  experienced  in  this  cam- 
paign, the  peace  of  St  Qermain  which  followed 
was  apparently  most  advautageoua  to  their  cause, 
Mid  was  speedily  followed  by  a  conli-Bct  of  mar- 
riage between  H.  and  Margaret  of  Valois,  the 
sister  of  Charles  IX.  After  much  apposition  on 
the  part  both  of  Catholics  and  Prot^tants,  the 
mamage  was  celebrated  with  great  pomp  in  IST2, 
two  months  after  the  sudden  ocath  of  the  Queett 
Jeanne,  which  was  probably  due  to  poison,  uid 
within  less  than  a  week  of  the  massacre  of  St 


e  the 

vigilanee  of  the  queen-mother,  and  escaped  to  the 
camp  of  the  Huguenots  in  Alen;on,  where,  having 
revoked  his  compulsory  conversion,  he  resumed  the 
command  of  the  army,  and  hj  his  address  gained 
several  signal  advantages,  which  constraint  tlie 
king  to  consent  to  a  peace  highly  favourable  to  the 
caoBfl  of  the  reformers.  The  death  of  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  (late  Alenfon)  gave  H.  the  rank  as  firat 
prince  of  the  blood-roya^  of  preanmptive  heir  to 
the  crown,  while  the  murder  of  Henry  IIL,  in 
1GS9,  mode  him,  in  right  of  the  Salic  law,  and  as 
tiie  Dearest  hneal  male  desoendont  of  the  royal 
house  of  France,  rightful  king  of  France.  As  a 
Protestant,  lying  under  the  ban  of  papal  excom- 
munication, he  waa  obnoxious  to  the  greater  port  of 
the  nation ;  and  fini^'ng  that  the  Dukes  of  Lorraine 
and  Savoy,  and  Philip  IL  of  Spain,  were  prepared, 
each  on  his  own  account,  to  dispute  his  doima,  he 
retdred  to  the  south  until  he  could  collect  more 
troops  tmd  obtain  reinforcements  from  England 
and  (lerauui)'.  Hia  nearly  hopeless  cause,  however, 
9  _i .1  ii 1.  "lo  weakness  and 

IS  which 


of  Heniy  III.),  aotwithitariding  her  exoliuaon  hf 
the  Salic  law,  proclaimed  tiw  agM  Cardinal  Boncboa 
kins,  with  thie  Duke  of  Mayenne  UentenMit-geiietal 
of  the  kingdom,  and  tbo*  (till  fort)  ^'    '   ' 


assembly  of  the  Statea-genmU,  by  rejecting 
LUD  preteoaioiu  of  Philip  II.,  and  in»i»^i)g  on  th* 
intenity  of  t^e  Salic  law,  amoothed  H,'s  way 
to  the  succession,  although  it  is  probable  Uiat  hie 
would  never  have  been  senerslly  acknowledged  had 
he  not,  by  the  advice  of  nil  friend  and  loiniMer,  De 
Bosny,  afterwards  Duke  de  Solly  Jq.  v.),  fmnully 

C  Based  hinuelf  a  member  of  the  Church  of  lUone. 
ceremony  of  hia  recantatiou  of  Frotestantjam, 
which  was  c^ebrated  with  great  pomp  at  St  Denis 
in  July  1693,  filled  tbo  Catholics  with  joy,  and  waa 
followed  by  the  speedy  surrender  of  the  moat 
important  cities  of  the  kingdom,  including  even 
Paris,  which  Opened  its  gates  to  bim  in  IfiM.  The 
civil  woe  was  not,  however,  wholly  put  down  till 
four  years  later.  In  the  same  year,  1S98,  peace  waa 
coucluded  between  Spain  and  France  by  the  treaty 
of  Vervins,  which  restored  to  the  latter  many  import- 
ant places  in  Pioardy,  and  was  otherwise  favourable 
to  Uie  Frenoh  king;  but  important  as  was  this 
event,  it  was  preceded  by  a  still  man  memorable 
act,  for  on  the  ISth  April,  H.  had  signed  on  edict  at 
Nautca,  by  which  he  secured  to  Protestants  perfect 
liberty  of  conscience,  and  the  admiuistratioa  of 
impartial  justioe.  H.  waa  now  left  at  liberty  b> 
direct  his  attention  to  the  internal  improvementa 


_.  .   .   minded  polii^  that  had  been 

followed  during  the  preceding  reigos  had  left  the 
provinces  remote  from  the  coital  veiy  mn^  at 
the  mercy  of  the  civic  governors  aud  luge  landed 
pro^oietors,  who,  in  the  absoice  of  a  gmeral 
adminislTative  vigilance,  arrogated  almost  sovereign 
power  to  themselves,  roiuDg  taxes,  and  »T.fting 
compulsory  services.     These  abuses  H.  oompletely 


commerce,  he  established  i 


irgonisation  of  the  Guanoes  under  Sully,  who, 
m  uiu  course  of  ten  years,  reduced  the  national 
debt  from  330  millions  to  50  millions  of  livres, 
although   arrears   of   taxes  to   the  amount  of   SO 


remitted  by  the  king  during  t 
e  14th  May,  the  day  after  the  coroua- 
3on  of  his  second  wife,  Mary  de'  Medici,  and  when 


about  to  set  out  to  commence  war  in  Germany, 
E.  was  assassinated  by  a  fanatic  named  Bavaillao. 
Nineteen  tunes  before  attempts  had  been  made 
on  his  life,  most  of  which  hod  been  traced  to  the 
sfency  of  the  papal  and  imperial  courts,  and  hence 
the  people,  in  their  grief  and  consternation,  laid 
Ravadlac's  crime  to  the  charge  of  the  same  influ. 
encei.  The  grief  of  the  Poruiaas  was  well-nigh 
delirious,  and  in  their  fory  they  wreaked  the  mMt 
horrible  vengeance  on  the  murderer,  who,  however, 
hod  been  a  mere  tool  in  the  huids  of  Uie  Jesuita, 
H.'b  implacable  foes,  notwithstanding  the  many 
concMuiona  which  he  made  to  their  order. 

"Hme  has  sCreugthened  the  high  estimate  winch 
the  lower  classea  Std  formed  of  their  favourite  king, 
for  although  <his  faults  were  numerous,  &ej  were 
eclipsed  by  his  great  qualities.  Inordinate  love  of 
women  was  his  wont  fault,  and  the  cause  of  much 
evO  in  his  own  and  succeeding  reigns,  for  his 
prodig^ty  and  weak  indulgence  to  his  favourite 
misbessea,  Qabrtelle  d>EBtrie*  and  Henrietta 
d'Entragoes,  and   his  affection   lor  the  natunl 


hyGoogIc 


HENET  m,— HENET  IV. 


diildren  vbieh  tliCT  bore  him,  were  >  icuidBl  to  the 
tuitioii,  and  k  sonioe  of  imporeruhm^  emban-au- 
meat  to  the  mremment.  Aa  authoritiea  in  regard 
to  Haary  H-.TIL,  and  IV.,  in  addition  to  the  general 
hiitoriM  of  Pnnce,  the  foUowing  works  ma^  be 


BloU;  Doeumattt  it  FHM.  de  Frano!;  Matthien, 
Hid.  cU  Hmri  tV. ;  Hemoin  uid  Lett«n  of  De 
Tboo,  D'Avbignfi,  Paaqiiier,  Duplesaia-Momaj ; 
Capefigne,  SiA  d«  la  Jt^onne  tl  dt  la  Ligue; 
Fer«flxe,  HitL  de  HenH  I V. 

HENRY  III.,  Emperor  of  Gtermaay,  of  the 
Salo-Franconian  line,  and  the  aon  of  the  Emperor 
Conrad  IL,  was  bom  in  1017,  elected  king  of  the 
Gemuwa  in  1026,  Duke  of  Bavaria  in  1027,  Duke  of 
Swabia  and  Burgundj  in  1037,  locceeded  his  faUier 
as  emperor  in  1039,  and  diodin  lOSC  H.,  who 
was  poaaesaed  of  Datmral  abilities,  which  bad  been 
cultLiated  as  far  as  the  age  permitted,  was  one  of 
the  most  energetic  and  efficient  nileia  of  Gtermany. 
By  hi(  Tigoor  he  maintained  his  ascendency  not- 
withitandiDg  the  encroochmenta  of  the  church  and 
the  subordination  of  the  prinoea  of  the  empire 
Haviiis  ■ommoned  a  council  at  Satri  in  1046, 
he  aTukd  himself  of  the  influence  which  ha  had 
acquired  in  Italjr,  by  his  judidoua  reconciliatiaii  of 
antagonist  partiee,  to  secure  tiie  recognition  of  a 
new  pope,  Clement  IL,  and  thus  brought  to  an  end 
the  aeandalooa  dia>eDsi<nia  which  were  disturbing 
Chiiatiamty  throu^  the  intrudes  of  three  riv^ 
popes,  Benedict  IX.,  Sylveater  III.,  and  Gregory  IV. 
By  hia  eneigetic  maintenance  of  the  integrity  of  the 
empire,  be  guned  oppoitnmtiea  of  adding  new  terri- 
tonea  to  the  imperial  states,  for  havlt^  retaliated 
on  the  Duke  of  Bohemia  for  the  hoatilitiee  which  he 
had  carried  on  against  the  Poles  during  the  intestine 
disorden  of  Folaad,  his  decinve  succeases  com- 
pelled the  Bohemian  doke  to  acknowledge  himself 
vaaaal  of  the  empire ;  while  H-'s  campaign  against 
Hungaiy  had  a  siniilar  revolt,  terminating  in  1017 
in  the  recognition  of  the  supreme  power  of  the 
emperor  over  the  kings  of  Hmigary.  He  also  saoured 
powerful  vasaals  in  Italy,  in  the  Norman  conquerors 
of  Apolia  and  Calabria. 

H.  devoted  the  short  intervals  of  peace  which  he 
enjoyed  to  tba  eradication  of  nnmerona  abuses  in 
tbe  church,  but  his  schemea  of  eocteaias<acaL  reform 


H,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  poisoned,  the 
papal  chair  was  found  to  have  already  entered 
upon  decisive  measures  for  its  emancipation  from 
imperial  influence.  H.  distinguished  himself  as 
the  iealon«  prtsnoter  of  learning  and  the  arts, 
eapeciBlly  muBC  Ha  also  founded  numerous  mon- 
astio  tahools,  over  which  he  placed  learned  monks 
of  Brittany,  and  built  seversl  churches,  and  the 
catbedrala  i^  Worms,  Hayence,  and  Spires,  in  the 
la«t  of  whidi  he  was  interred. 

HEIfRY  IV.,  Emperor  of  Gennany,  the  son  and 
•ncceaaor  of  the  former,  was  bom  in  1050,  elected 
king  of  the  Geimanl  in  1064,  during  the  lifetime  of 
his  father,  crowned  emperor  1084,  and  died  1106. 
As  he  was  only  Sva  years  old  at  the  death  of  his 
father,  the  resenoy  was,  in  accordance  with  tbe 
wishes  of  the  utter,  confided  to  the  child's  mother, 
Agne*  of  PoitieiB.  E.'s  perpetual  quarrels  with 
the  Saxon  princes  and  peers  occupied  his  best 
yean,  and  were  the  principal  cause  of  the  subse- 
quent taoublea  and  mortifications  which  have  given 
a  memtoable  interest  to  hta  history.  Unhappily 
for  him,  he  was  indnoed  in  1074,  after  having 
■nflerad  defeat  and  variooi  in«alt*  at  the  handa 
of  hi*  Saxon  vasaals,  to  ^rpeal  to  the  pope  for 


his  intervention;  and  Oregory  VII.,  who  was  only 
too  happy  to  have  an  opportunity  of  interfering  in 
the  matter,  despatched  plenipotentiaries  to  settle 
the  difierences  m  Saxooy,  and  availing  himself  of 
the  occasion  to  prosecute  his  own  plans,  cominanded 
the  king  to  abstain  from  the  sale  and  granting  of 
beoefices  while  this  qu&rrel  was  pending.  B^ore 
these  directions  reached  Qermany,  H.  had,  however, 
settled  his  own  aSain  by  defeating  the  Saxon  insur- 
gent* in  a  great  battle  at  Hohenbujg,  taken  thur 
princes  captive,  and  rebuilt  all  tbe  strongholds 
which  they  had  dismantled ;  while  his  coundllora 
had  prosecuted  a  vigorous  business  in  the  inter- 
dicted sale  of  beuefices.  H.  not  only  approved  their 
couduct,  but  responded  to  the  pope  s  remonstrances 
on  the  subject,  and  his  summons  for  his  appearance 
at  Bome,  by  declaring,  through  an  assembly  of 
German  bishops  and  abbots  wMch  mat  at  Worms 
in  1076,  that  the  poniiff  waa  deposed.  Gregory  VIL 
retaliated  by  excommunicating  and  deposing  H., 
and  absolving  his  subjects  from  all  future  obecuence 
towards  bim.  The  kms  at  first  made  light  of  the 
sentence,  but  when  he  found  his  vassals  and 
princes  sradualty  falling  away  from  their  alle- 
giance, while  the  electors  held  a  diet  in  which  they 
declared  that  unless  the  ban  were  removed  within 
a  twelvemonth,  they  would  deprive  )ii"i  of  the 
crown,  he  submitted ;  and  accompanied  only  by  Hs 
faithful  consort  and  their  eldest  son.  he  hastened, 
under  grievous  difGculiJes,  in  midwinter,  to  Italy, 
where  ne  sought  the  pope.  For  three  day*  in 
Jaauaiy  1077,  H.,  barefooted,  and  clothed  only 
in  tiie  haircloth  shirt  of  a  penitent,  was  com- 
pelled to  st^id  without  the  castle  gate*  of  Canossa, 
exposed  to  tlie  inclemency  of  the  weather,  before 
the  pontiff  consented  to  remove  the  ban  of  eicom- 


After  this  event,  H.'i 
■peedily  revived ;  and  having  found  adherents  among 
the  Lombards,  be  began  a  confiict  against  the 
papal  power,  chiefly  m  regard  to  the  right  ~' 
mveslituje,  in  which  he  was  generally  i  ' 

Gregory  again  excommunicated  H.,  who, 
reti^ated  by  elactina  a  new  pope.  Cle: 
Hastening  over  the  Alps,  he  laid 


finding  thst  Hermann  of 
king  of  Germany,  he  haatily  left  Rome 


g  Sad/ 


Luxemburg  had,  during  his  absence,  been  elected 
king  of  Germany,  he  haatily  left  " 
his  lost  power.  For  the  third 
the  Alps  m  1090,  and  he  had  already  snoceeded  in 
raising  the  fortunes  of  his  friend,  Clement  HL, 
taken  Mantua,  and  galaed  many  victories  over  the 
Ouelphic  princes  and  tbeir  favourite  pope,  Crbsn 
IL,  when  be  suddenly  learned  that  his  sou  Cont>d 
had  joined  his  enemies,  and  been  crowned  king  at 
Monsa.  H-'s  despair  on  hearing  of  these  acta  of 
rebellion  nearly  nnsettied  his  reason,  and  having 
retired  to  one  of  bis  Lombard  castles,  he  remained 
for  several  yean  in  seclusion ;  but  at  length  rousing 
liiinilf  iztmx  Lis  lethargy,  he  returned  m  1096  to 
Qermaoy,  where  the  prmoes  and  people  now  vied 
with  one  another  to  Bhew  him  their  sympathy  and 
good-win.  By  his  own  request,  his  sscond  son, 
Hamy,  was  elected  king  of  the  Germans,  and  his 
luooessoT  in  the  empire,  lliis  prinos,  howsver, 
haviitg  been  induced  to  rise  against  his  father  by 
Pope  Paacal  IL,  took  him  prisoner,  and  forcibly 
compelled  him  to  abdicate.  The  empsror  escaped 
from  his  [oison,  and  found  friends  and  safety 
at  Li^,  where  he  died,  August  7,  1106,  while 
preparmg  another  ar^^  to  oontinne  the  struggla. 
See,  for  the  lives  of  Heni^  UL  and  IV.,  Adamoa 


t.CoogIc 


Selmidt,  Hittair^  da  ABmaad*;  8)fld,  S.  IV. 
Kai*er  und  KiMig  dtr  DtuUOa. 

HENBT,  ranuuned  Thx  Natiojltoil  »  btaooM 
PortngiUM  prinoe,  the  fourth  son  of  Jotin  L,  king 
of  Portugal,  WM  btwn  at  Oporto  in  1394,  and  fint 
diitingaiBbed  himnlf  at  tlia  conqneat  of  Ceutft  in 
141S.  After  the  death  of  hii  father,  he  took  ap  tua 
nBidenoe  ti  the  town  of  Sures,  in  AJgarre,  not  £ar 
from  Cape  St  Yincent ;  aad  while  proaecutiog  the 
waz  agamst  tllB  Moon  of  Africa,  hii  Boilora  reached 
rarti  of  the  ocean  which  the  navigation  of  the 
time  had  long  «uppo«ed  to  be  inaoceuible.  The 
grand  ambitioD  of  H.  wu  the  discovery  of  nnknown 
Kgiona  of  the  world.  At  Sagrea  he  erected  an 
obwrratoiy,  to  which  he  attached  a  school  for  the 
faub^otion  of  yonthfnl  soiotia  of  the  nobility  in  the 
adenoea  necenary  to  navigation.  Subaequeni^,  ha 
detpid»hed  aoma  of  hia  implla  on  voyafica  of  dia- 
eovwy,  whioh  resulted  at  last  In  the  diacovery  of 
the  Hadmra  lalanda  in  1418.  H.'«  thoughts  were 
now  directed  towards  the  auriferooaooaata  of  Guinea, 
of  which  he  had  heard  from  the  Moon;  and  in  1433, 
one  of  hia  marineis  sailed  round  Cape  Nan,  nntil 
then  Tu;uiled  aa  the  furthest  point  of  the  eartli, 
and  took  poveasion  of  the  coasts  as  far  loatJi  aa 
Cape  Bojador.  Next  year,  E.  sent  oat  a  larger  abip, 
which  reached  a  point  130  miles  beyood  Cape 
Bojador;  and  at  last,  in  1440,  Cape  Blanco  was 
reached.  Up  to  thia  period,  H.  haa  borne  all  the 
expeoae  o(  these  voyages  hiznaelf ;  henceforth,  self- 
rapporting  aodetdei  were  formed  onder  hia  patroa- 
afce  aod  guidance,  and  what  had  fomudy  boen  the 
mtii  of  a  nsflile  individual,  now  became  the  passion 
of  a  lAole  ns£on.  But  H.  did  not  alack  p«nonally 
in  hia  efforts.  In  1446,  hia  captain,  Nunc  Tristao, 
doubled  Cape  Verd  in  Senegambia,  and  in  14^ 
Gonzalez  Yallo  discovered  three  of  Uie  Azores,  H. 
died  in  1483,  after  he  had  the  aatiafaotioD  of  learn- 
ing tliat  his  marihers  had  reached  aa  far  south  aa 
Sierra  Leone.  See  WapjAna,  UntenadOMgeii  aber 
die  Oeogr.  Bntdectujtffm  der  Portagtatn  tinfer  EL 
don  SetfaJirtr  (QStt  1842].  See  also  Barroa  and 
Candido  LoaitBDo,  whose  Vtda  do  Infante  don 
Benrito  was  translated  into  French  by  the  Abbt 
Coumand  (Paris,  2  vols.  17S1). 


[  Thi  Lioir,  Doke  of  Saxony, 
ia  the  most  notkble  German  prinoe  ol  the  12ui 
century.  Ha  waa  the  son  of  Benry  tite  Frond, 
and  was  bom  in  1129.  When  only  tan  yaua  of 
age,  ha  lost  his  father  by  poiami,  and  for  tha  oart 
Boven  yaaiB,  his  mother,  Oarbnda,  and  Ua  p«nd< 
mother,  BirhfmBa,  roled  hia  patenal  domnkma, 
while  hia  nnde,  Welf  {Gnalf),  admiuiBtaed  the 
hereditary  fiefa  M  Bavaria.  In  1146,  Henry  himself 
took  the  reins  of  sovamment,  and  at  tha  diet  td 
Frankfurt,  in  the  following  year,  he  demanded  of 


bthv.  Tbia  waa  refoaed,  and  Hemy  at  o 
oonoartwtth  hia  imele,had  noonna  to  — 
hia  eflorla  wara  crushed  by  tiia  energetio  I 
Omrad.  After  tha  death  «[  this  fmpam,  t 
Bavaria  was  given  np  to  him  Iv  his  oon 
"Emofitac  nedvick  L  His  pcsae^Mma  nowazta 
troin  the  Horth  Sea  and  the  BaUio  to  tlw  a] 
of  the  Adriatio.  EasMialia  and  Vaa^thalia,  with 
Eogem,  and  the  dd  dsohy  of  Saxony  froaa  Ota 
Bhina  to  the  Elbe,  aeknowlednd  Ua  authority. 
Tlka  neater  part  «f  Bavaria  bsIuiMd  to  him  bb  a 
ban&ary  Sk,  iriule  hia  Italian  vassab  in  the 
Gndfio  Anni^ona  bcyimd  the  Alpa  tnA  the  oaUi 
of  ailagiaiioe  to  him  in  11S7.  In  1166,  vndar 
tha  diMction  of  Hartwig  JutXMAm  of  BmiMii, 
a  la^os,  aoaa[aising  the  Ushopa  of  Mi^dabnrfc 
Halbvatadl,  and  H1l<ijnh««i|i,  and  tha  madtgrtfa 


of  Thnringia  and  Brandanhnrg^  was  formed  against 
him ;  bnt  the  oaptnra  of  Brameo,  and  the  stOTming 
of  Oldenbnrs  I?  H.i  paralvaed  its  dcaign&  About 
^StiM  time  ha  aspai^ed  from  his  flm  wife,  and 
mairied  Matilda,  danghtsr  of  Hamy  JL  of  Brigaiid, 
soon  after  irtiieh  event  ha  nndertook  an  a^edition 
to  PdeatuMk  Daring  his  absoioe,  his  entsniea  wera 
not  idle,  and  even  tha  EWaror  Fredariok  di^ilayad 
a  decided  want  of  good  nith,  eondnet  which  H., 
some  time  aftor  hia  retaro,  ahewed  he  had  not  for- 
sotteo,  by  quitting  the  ic^erial  ann  dnriaa  an 
Italian  campugn,  and  theretry  eKwiag  PrederieK  to 
lose  the  banle  of  Legnaao,  and  fonang  him  to  con- 
clnde  a  disadvantweona  treaty.  Th»  emperor  waa 
indignant,  and  at  the  diet  of  sidrci^  in  II78,  vftlka 
strongly  sounat  the  doke.  He  nnmeroos  cDemiea 
of  the  latttc  again  combined  agtunst  him ;  he  waa 
summoned  to  appear  at  three  different  diets,  and 
refusiii^  was  put  nnder  the  ban  of  the  em;rira. 
By  11^  his  fortunes  were  at  so  low  an  ebb,  that 
he  was  forced  to  ask  mercy  of  the  emperor  at 
Erfort ;  but  all  that  ha  coald  get  was  permiaian  to 
retain  his  heredttary  territories  of  Bmnawiti  and 
Lunebnrg,  and  even  this  waa  on  the  conditiim  of 


goin^  into  exile  for  three  years.    H.,  in  cooae 

moe,  betook  tiinmW  with  his  family  to  ^|^*™*i 

Ent  returned  to  Brunswick  in  1184,  where  beVlived 


quietly.  On  the  departure  of  ^ederick  for  Pklea- 
tme  in  1188,  H.  was  a^in  neceautatad  to  witlkdraw 
to  England,  but  returned  in  11S9,  and  after  a  year'a 
fitting  a  peace  was  conclnded  between  tiim  and 
his  enemies,  by  which  a  portion  of  his  former  terri- 
tariea  was  restored  to  him.  He  died  at  Brunswick 
in  119S.  H.  was  a  brave  and  generous  prince,  of 
indefatigable  activity,  bnt  obstinate  aod^pasrionato. 
What  raised  him  above  the  princea  of  hi*  tdms  waa 
his  effiirts  to  advance  the  conuneroe,  indostry,  and 
comfort  of  his  people,  and  to  f  cater  literatuK  and 
science.  Compare  BOttiger's  HehaiA  dtr  LOat 
ffenog  dtr  Sadnen  und  Saiem  (Hannov.  1S19). 

HENRY,  Manonr,  an  eminent  NutooDfocniist 
divine,  tha  aeoond  son  of  Hiilip  Hnuy,  one  of  tha 
2000  mini*t«n  who  left  theChnrch  of  Bof^and  «n 
the  passing  of  the*  Act  of  Unifonmty,' waa  bom  at 
Broad  Oak  Farmhouse  in  Flintshire,  October  IS, 
1662.  Having  qnaliSad  hJTWflf  for  tbe  miniaby, 
ha  boon  to  preaoh  in  Jmw  1686,  sad  in  1687  waa 
settled  aa  pastor  of  a  oongreoatiDn  of  itiasrintiri 
at  Chester,  wham  he  oontiraed  for  2S  yeaia.  In 
M^  171%  he  ranoved  to  a  ohatge  at  Hackney, 
near  London,  having  mfosed  two  previoos  invita- 
tions bom  tiie  same  ooneegabon.  He  died  of 
^opleo^,  June  22, 1714,  while  oa  his  ratam  fnxn 
a  viMt  to  his  old  friaiids  at  Chester.  He  waa  twioe 
married,  and  had  a  laisa  family  by  hia  second 
wife.  Hia  prmdpal  woml  ia  an  Jiii»o«>iio«  q/  the 
Old  tmd  Nao  Tatamtnt,  in  5  voIsl  folio,  1710,  whieh 
waa  flowmtned  in  Noreoiber  1704,  and  haa  been  oftas 
nprinted.  He  lived  to  flniah  only  tha  Acta  ef  ^ 
A^KMtlos.    Tba  rwnaindar  ~"  — -j-^-j  > = — 


edltifnu.  His  fint  pohtioation,  entitled  A  DUeourte 
toneaiting  A*  SatareofSMm.  84^tges  duodecinu^ 
^tpeated  auonymonsly  in  1689.  He  was  alao  the 
wdhor  of  a  bi«rsphlaa]  Aeteh  of  his  father,  1696 ; 
A  SeripHtrt  OattMtm,  1702,  8ro;  Communicanf* 
(hnpmiiiM,  1704, 8vo ;  IHteaurmt  aguinsl  Viet  aad 
/MtNontfHu,  1706;  .4  JTefbuf  </fV(ver,  1710,8voi 

Famif   Symaa;   -  ■" 

laligioiis  tracts. 

r^ntdished  at  London  in  1639,  8vo. 

HBNKT,  PxTUCK,  I , 

was  bom  IS  Hanover  oovnty,  Yirginia,  ia  17M. 
His  father  was  a  nstive  of  Seotlaod,  and  a  asfibaw 


U£»,  B.  ^-ma  pMnotutalf  addioted  to  Bii^mg  and 
hnnfcii^.  Mid  MUMd  too  mdoknt  to  uq^rl&mU 
to  M17  T^pilar  oeeaiatian.  ^  muugai  lunrarBF, 
to  piok:  im  *  good  doal  «f  gatwal  InfonutMU,  and 
beaaMnedtopoMMBbyintiiitica  a  prafoond  Imow 
I«ga  of  *"■"*"  natim  in  all  ita  Tarioiu  rliiaiw 
EUving  fMl«d  nooaMmfy  in  ■  akm-kM^ug '  and 
m  CKTBoiiig,  ha  at  It^th  ma  indnoad  to  by  tbe 
profMnon  «<  law.  Vor  a  iaw  yean  thla  aatmod 
to  praaniae  no  better  looeaM  than  hia  fotmer  oaeu- 
p»tioiw  lk*d  doiM^  bat  having  bem  amidned  in 
1755  to  plaad  the  oanaa  of  oie  paopk  aguwt  an 
impopalar  tax,  hii  peonliar  talent  aaemed  nddealy 
to  aerolop  ttaiilf ;  Ina  sloqnenoe,  nuteoj^it  ezotpt  1^ 
the  inspBTstiai  of  nativa  genin*^  thiiUaduw  wviiflmw, 
aad  Iield.  it  in  lapt  aUantirai  nore  thaa  two  hiran. 
Trout  thmt  nmMot  to  tim  pitMit  day  ha  haa  be«n 
muTcmMllj  regaidad  ai  the  greateat  of  *iT»*n<«Bn 
ontora.  Ha  wh  a  Maloiia  patriot  in  the  war  of 
ih*  T«<nJuUon,  and  waa  one  n  tho  moat  prominent 
and  JnHiMBtial  maiuLaia  <rf  the  Tirpnia  lepalatore, 
-"- — ""-- whether     -       ■ 


heann.    In  1776,  he 
ri  Vinriiua,  and  irai  aAerw 

In  1796,  WMhinrton  app<rinted 

bim  Mcntaty  ct  atata.    He  died  in  1799. 


HBHBT,  BOBEBT,  D.Dt  a  3«    

divina,  waa  bom  at  St  Ifiniana,  in  Stiilinahire, 
Febniaiy  18,  171S.  He  ihidied  at  the  uuTeniiy 
of  EdiiBbaigh ;  and  from  1768  till  hii  death  in  1790, 
waa  ooa  of  tha  miniitcra  of  the  £atabliihed  Chnrob 
inthatcily.  ^a  Sittory^OnatBrUamottalftlii 
Plam — the  fint  Tolnme  of  which  waa  publiahad  in 
1771,  and  tite  nxth  in  1793,  after  hia  death—ia  a 


vdueh    it 


ttiiiB  teatdng  the  progreaa  of  civftiaation  _ 
Oteat  Britain — waa  onqneationBhlj  an  iniat>vement 
OQ  anything  that  had  been  done  before ;  but  the 
wink  haa  no  pretencioiu  to  critical  actunen  or 
even  afariot  aooniacy,  and  conae^nentty  ii  now  of 
little  TBlDia. 

HHJJKT,  WiLLUM,  F-RS.,  an  eminent  ebamiEt, 
waa  bom  in  17T4  in  Uanohtrtor,  and  died  in  1836 
at  PandlrinirT  near  that  citf.  After  ttndTing 
niediciAe  in  the  Manoheetw  ufimuuy,  tinder  tiie 
gnidMioe  ot  Dn  Ptraral  and  Ferriar,  H.  attended 
uie  lectnrea  of  Black,  OregMy,  Ac,  In  Edinburgh. 
in  tho  aoMion  1796—1796.  After  an  interral  of 
■etsral  jreara,  in  whioh  ha  waa  ohieSy  engued 
in  ■■  ■  I —rinfanwHwg  a  chonio^  bnaineaa  whioh  "'A 
bean  establidied  try  hia  father,  ha  ntomed  to 
EdhAvigh  in  IBOB,  and  noeired  the  dwM  of 
Ddotor  of  Modleine  from  that  vnivwii^  ml807. 
Prom  that  tima  tiQ  ahortilr  before  Ui  death,  he 
derotod  himaelf  to  the  alUad  nt^eoti  of  diemittry 
and  mediaiue.  He  waa  tiie  anuor  of  nina  papera 
in  the  FMIotcfMeal  TVmMetioM  (chSeOy  on  tiie 
chauiiafay  of  t£e  gaan) ;  and  hia  ElemeaU  tf  Bmpt- 
rbuHiol  CKtaiiky,  in  two  Tolnmea,  whioh  waa 
pabbahed  in  1799,  reaohad  an  elereiith  edition  in 
1S29,  an  almoat  nnparalleled  tnooaaa  for  a  pumty 
•cientifio  woric  H.,  like  Di  WoUaatoo,  made  the 
naoHi  of  adanoe,  obtidned  by  the  moat  original  Nad 
difflenU  leaewdm  tiie  fmindation  of  a  aplcndid 
fntona^  and  few  paiMBa  have  eontriboted  more 
Aetaalfy  by  tba  apptioatrai  of  their  diaoorcriesto 


Uemoin  of  tho  Manchester  Society  an  oliiefe 
indebted  to  him  and  to  Dalton  for  theirhi^ 
•oientifio  aharaoter. 

HETAB  {Or.  Juvar,  the  liver)  it  the  name 
givoL  by  the  older  onconiata  to  variooa  oomponnda 
of  anlphor,  frran  their  brown,  liver-like  colonr ;  of 
tlieae,  fftpar  m^pAuria,  whioh  it  in  realitj  a  mix- 
tme  of  t^ndphide  of  potnaaium  and  aome  ozyaalta 
of  potaab,  ia  the  beat  luiown. — Hcf^Tio,  belonging 
to  the  liver;  ai,  hapaiie  artery,  vein,  duct,  4a— 
HxFATicu.  Thi«  term  haa  been  given  by  writen 
on  ntateria  mtdka  to  medioinea  whioh  aChot  1^ 
liver  and  ita  appenduea.  Tbe  hepatica  may  ba 
an^oyad  (1}  to  modi^  the  aeeiation  of  bile ;  (2) 
to  remove  pain  of  the  Ever  or  gall-bladder,  or  pain 
and  apann  of  the  galtduota;  or  (3)  to  laCeve 
anlaigemenls  and  other  a&otiona  of  tho  liver. 
HBPATiqa,  w  LIVBBWOBTS,  anatnialoidw 

generally  a  leafy 
nrelv  they  an  oroanded  into 
a  Utf>lika  form.  Thenprodno- 
tire  omna  uo  of  two  kinda, 
authtridia  and  pitUUidia,  *a  in 

aulee,  matored  piitillidia)  have 
no  oparenlum ;  op«D  when  ripe 
by  4--8  valvee,  more  nraly  by 
teeth ;  and  genetally  contain, 
along  with  tae  apore^  ^"^ 
filamenta  called  culcn.  Each 
elater  oooaista  of  two  spiral 
fibrei,  which,  whilat  the  ^lore- 
ca«e  ia  oobroken,  remain  coiled 
np  toorthw  within  an  oval  oall; 
bat  men,  by  the  tweaking  of 
the  mature  apore-eaae,  the  onter 
preararn  ia  removed,  their  alaa- 
tidty  bnrsti  their  cella,  and  as 
they  cnddenl^  extend  them- 
aelvee,  they  aid  in  tha  diaper- 
lion  of  the  ipoiea.  The  H.  an 
'"and  in   ntuationi    generally 

tnilar  to  thoee  of  moseea;  end 

«  widely  distribnted  over  the 

obe ;  bat  tha  greater  nninber 

ilongto  worm  climatea,  where 

ley  often  grow  on  the  bark, 

id  even  on  the  leavea  of  tioea. 
Some  botoniata  divide  H.  into 
three  orders  Jaagermatuiaeas, 
XariAaiiUaeea,  aixA  Bleeiactx. 

HEPATITIS  (O'.  Sgx^,  the  Hater  «,d  Spore,  cf 
liver),  inflammatiOQ  of  dtehver.  Marohantia : 
Hepatitia  ia  a  rare  diteaae  in  g,  Blatcr)  (,  gpona. 
tempentto  latitndea,  and  in 
tropcsl  elimatea  ia  often  ao  acnte  ami  ao  rapidly 
fatal  aa  to  admit  hot  little  of  medioal  treatment 
It  ii  indieated  by  pun  in  the  right  aids  and 
■hoolder,  tend«moBa  on  preaanre  in  the  right  l»po- 
chondrimn  (tee  Aidohxr),  witii  eulamment  (d&a 
liver  a*  deteoied  by  the  hud  and  by  nrmurion, 
often  vomiting  alwi^  fever,  with  more  or  lew  kaa 
of  appetite  and  a  fool  tragu;  Not  niA«qiieutly 
there  ia  Jaondloa  (q.  v.).  llie  diaeaaa  ametimM 
audi  io  abecease^  which  may  reqnire  to  be  opened 
externally.  Tha  treatment  ia  complicated,  and 
cannot  be  ventured  upon  withont  profeaaional  aoiist- 
"ice.    The  other  diB«wea  (^  the  kver  win  be  traated 

!  under  LivxB,  DnsKAsn  or. 

HBPH^STUS.    SeeVuLtuir. 

HB'PTAGON,  a  plana  flgnre  of  kmi  aidM  and 
-  MN  »t>f^;  when  bbe  ride*  and  anglai  are  equal, 
tha  flgim  ia  a  rtgntar  /uplagon.  ^ixneten  have 


.Cooq] 


HEPTAECHY— HEEACLElrna, 


bitlierto  ftuled  to  ducover  i,  mettiod  □!  inacribmg 
tha  heptawon  in,  or  of  circimucribiiig  it  about  » 
cirdB,  and  the  problem  u  believed  by  invty  to  be, 
like  '  the  triaeotioa  of  an  angle,'  unpossible  of 
■olatiDn  by  the  ancient  geometry. 

HB'PTARCHY,  Teb,  ii  the  name  ^ren  to 
■even  kingdom!  said  to  have  been  eetabluhed  by 
the  Sazooa  ia  England.    See  Avolo-Saxomb.    The 


IB,  that  England,  in  the  time  of  the  Sazoni,  wm 
peopled  by  virtona  tribes,  of  which  the  leading 
DccupatioQ  iraa  war ;  and  that  lometimci  one  was 
conquered,  Mtaetimes  another.  At  no  time  was 
thew  a  oonnterpoise  of  power  among  leTen  of  them, 
«o  that  they  could  be  taid  to  huva  a  separate, 
much  le«B  an  independent  exiitenoe.  Still,  aeren 
names  do  mrviTe  (some  aathorities  adding  an 
eighth).  The  king  of  the  one  that  had  the  (or- 
tone  to  be  moat  powerfol  for  the  time  being,  waa 
styled  Brvtwolda  or  ruler  of  Britun,  bat  in  moat 
iaatancea  tiie  power  of  thia  auppoaed  ruler  beyond 
the  limits  of  hia  own  territory  moat  have  been  tery 
■malL  Under  £^bert,  Weoaez  roM  to  be  aai 
BndvirtuallyawJlowedaptheotherB.  Thetollowing 
ia  a  brief  account  of  the  aevoi  kingdoma  commouly 
aaid  to  have  formed  the  Heptarchy : 

1.  Kent,  after  the  battle  of  Creocanfonl,  in  which 
4000  Britooa  were  alun,  waa  abandoned  by  the 
Britona,  and  became  the  kingdom  of  their  con- 
querors, a  band  of  Jutes,  who  had  oome  ia  446  A.11. 
to  serre  Tortigran,  king  of  the  Picta,  m  mercenaries, 
under  the  leadership  ol  Eengist  and  Eotsa,  who 
were  little  other  than  pirates.  Hen^t  become 
king  of  Kent,  and  his  son  Eiio  or  Aesc  succeeded 
him,  and  from  him  bis  descendants,  the  kings  of 
Kent,  were  called  Aescingaa.  In  796,  Kent  waa  con- 
quered by  Cenwulf,  king  of  Merda ;  oud  about  823 
both  were  conquered  by  Egbert,  king  of  Wesaex, 
who  appointed  hia  aon  Euielwulf  kmg  of  Kent, 
which  nereafter,  though  aeparate  in  name,  was 
really  nobordinate  to 

2.  Snasez,  partial], 
whoBv,  before  491,  hv  Ella 
tint  bretwalda  of  Britain.  Suaaei  submitted  to 
Egbert  of  Weaaez  in  828,  and  hia  aon  Athelatana 
governed  it  under  him. 

3.  Weaaex,  though  fiuctnattn^  in  extent,  as  all 
the  kingdoma  did,  mcloded  Surrey.  Hants,  the  lale 
of  Wight,  Berks,  Wilts,  Dorset,  Someraet,  Devon, 
and  part  of  Cornwall.  It  waa  fonnded  about  494 
by  Oeidio  and  Cyniic  his  aan,  'Ealdarmea'  or 
leaders  of  the  'old  Saxons.'  King  Egbert,  who 
returned  from  a  flight  to  Oaul  ia  800,  and  ruled 
fram  that  year  tiU  hia  death  in  836,  was,  as  a 
conqueror,  the  moat  saocessful  of  all  theae  Saxon 
kings.  Whm  he  died,  his  dominions  were  divided 
between  hia  sons,  EUwIwdU  and  Athektane,  the 
lonnsr  taking  Weassz  Proper,  and  the  latter  Kent, 
Ewex,  Soasax,  and  Bamm.  Another  Athelstooe, 
who  siuweedwl  in  92S  to  Mercia  and  Wassex,  con- 
qnerad  Ezster,  and  aaanmed  Northnmbria,  exacted 
tribnte  from  the  Welsh,  and  some  foimal  snbmianon 
from  the  Britons  of  the  west,  as  weU  as  the  Danea 
and  Seats.  He  appMrs  oceaaionally  to  have  held 
witenaranUaa  or  Saxon  parliamenta  of  snbordi- 
note  Qhie&  itvbrtgntii,  and  at  one  of  these,  Constao- 
tijM,  king  of  Scotland,  appeared  as  a  tnbngului. 
Bat  Athetatane  and  hjis  tucceasora,  aa  welt  a*  hia 
predeoeaHT,  Alfred  the  Great,  bekma  to  the  historv 
of  Bngbad,  as  indeed  do  ail  the  Saxon  atates  and 
king^  afterEKbert 

4  Pal  ST.  which  oomptTsed  alio  Middleaex,  it  ever 
indspendest,  was  so  about  £30  A.D.;  but  earlv 
in  tha  7th  o,  it  became  subject  to  Mercia,  and  feU 
with  it  to  WcMCZ  ia  S2a    This  state  and  Sussex 


and  Weases  were  founded  fay  ihe  old  Saxons ;  ths 
remaining  three  by  the  Aisles  who  come  frooi 
Eolstein,  and  gave  their  name  to  Enf^ond. 

S^  Northnmbria  consisted  of  Bermda  and  Deira, 
whieh  were  at  first  separate  and  independent  statea. 
The  former  comprised  Northumberland  and  all 
Scotland  sonth  of  the  forth,  and  waa  fonnded  W 
Ida  about  660.  The  latter  comprised  CumbeilaDd, 
Dnrham,  York,  and  Lancaster,  and  waa  founded  faj 
&Ua  the  Angle  aboot  the  same  date,  Theae  two 
were  united  about  665,  and  aa  Northumbiia,  they 
submitted  to  Egbert  in  820. 

6.  East  AngCa,  oornDriaing  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and 
Cambridge,  waa  fouruud  annit  S71  by  USa,  and 
from  him  its  kinga  were  named  Uffingaa.  Ia  8S3,  it 
waa  conquered  by  the  Danea,  and  was  only  reatored 
to  Saxon  rule  by  Athelatane  in  925. 

7.  Mercia  induded  the  counties  in  the  centre  of 
the  kingdom,  and  ia  aaid  to  have  beui  fouikded 
by  Crida  or  Creoda  in  585.  Tbree-qoarten  of  a 
century  lat«r,  it  was  conquered  for  a  tima  by 
Northumbria,  bat  it  recovered  its  independence,  and 
retained  it  uitil  Egbert  subdaed  it.  Canute  the 
Dane  hod  it  and  Nwthmnbria  ceded  to  tiij"  in  1016, 
iust  before  Ednnnd  Ironside's  death  allowed  him  to 
become  king  of  England,  and  the  Danes  to  obtoia 
the  aacmdenc^  over  the  Soxoaa,  for  wUcfa  tiley 
had  been  atriving,  at  intervals,  for  five  cenerationa 
Compare  Palgnve'a  Rite  and  Prognm  qflke  SngHtk 
ContiuMitiiailh  (2  vols.  Load.  1832). 

HERA.    See  luvo. 

HERACLEI'A,  an  ancient  city  of  Magna  Gr»cia, 
aitiiated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aciria  (the  modem 
Agri),  about  three  miles  above  the  mouth  of  that 
river  in  the  Gulf  of  Tarentnm.  It  waa  fonaded 
about  432  B.C.,  and  although  under  the  Bonona 
it  became  a  prosperous,  important,  and  refined 
city,  it  never  acquired  any  hiatotical  prmnincaoe. 
When  it  fell  into  decay,  is  not  known,  but  at  the 
present  day  little  more  remaina  to  mark  its  sit« 
than  heaps  of  rubbish.  In  the  iMuJiboailiood, 
besides  a  large  number  of  coins,  lacking  ■""«*£ 
the  very  finest  relics  of  antiquity,  then  luve  beea 
discovered  certain  bronze  tables,  known  aa  the 
Tabula  Htrwieaua,  oontainiiu;  a  copy  of  the  Lex 
Jvlia  Mvnieipalit  (45  b.  c.),  and  fonnmg  one  of  the 
principal  auuioritiea  for  a  knowledge  of  the  fnnnj- 
cipal  law  of  ancient  Italy.  This  inaoriptaDn  hoa 
been  publiihed  by  Muiaton,  Savigny,  and  othera. 

HERAOLEIDA  This  term  meau,  in  its  wjdcat 
■ease,  all  'the  deooendanta  of  Heradea'  (Hercolca), 
of  whatever  time,  and  in  whatever  diabiot  of  Giceo^ 
but  is  specially  ap^ed  to  those  adventnreis  who, 
foonding  their  claims  on  their  anppoasd  deacent 
from  the  great  hero  (to  whom  Zeui  had  promiaed 
a  portion  of  the  land),  joined  the  Doriana  in  the 
Gouqneat  of  the  Pelimonnceua.  There  were  five 
different  eipeditiooi,  the  last  and  gr«s(eat  ooeurring 
ti^iy  years  after  the  Trtnan  war.  The  lewlera  d 
thia  last  w«re  Temenn*,  Creepbontes,  and  Aiisto- 
demns,  sons  of  Aristomachua.  lliey  defeated  Tisa- 
menos,  son  of  Oreatea,  and  j^wodson  of  Ay^nwum. 
and  thtit  0aned  poaseanMi  of  Ai:gOB,  ^arta,  aad 
MvoMiM  The  other  parts  of  the  oonntzy  quickly 
snbmitted  to  them,  and  they  then  prooeded  to 
divide  the  spoiL  ArgosfelltaTeDienus;  IdcedamoD 
to  Prodes  and  Earyatheni,  the  sons  of  AriatodEmos ; 
and  Mesaania  to  Creephontee.  This  story  of  the 
rEtom  of  the  Heraclidn  touches  on  the  historioal 
period,  and  though  there  is  much  of  fable  and 
tr*ditu>n,  yet  thcfe  seems  to  be  alao  a  larm  sob- 
stratum  of  truth  in  the  reooida_8ee  UttUer^ 
DoriaM,  Thirlwall'a  and  Orote's  Onxa, 

HBRACLBITUB,  a  Ore« 
i  Ephean*,  in  Ana  Hinar,  a 


I,  Google 


EGBACLinS — HEKALD. 


B.C.  He  ia  Mid  to  hare  timTelled  mnoh,  and  to 
bxTs Iiiiirrnij)  iiiiiiiinriillji  iiiniiimiiil  iiillillm  miiiiIi 
Brmtu  of  hia  fellow-craatairaa,  wlkence,  aoooiding  til 


<  60.  The  teaim  of  S's  resflKrchea  and  meditai 
I  »M  &  wr»k  on  the  DAtiire  of  tiunES.  uid  to  have 
,  be«D  eotiUed  Feri  PkyaeSt  (On  Nature).  Such 
fngmenta  of  it  as  raiauii  were  coUacted  and 
elucidated  hy  SchleienDacher  in  WoU  and  Butt- 
manii'i  Jfi(«eitn»  der  AUertiumtiBiueiueAc^fltn  (voL  i. 
pait  3,  Berlin,  I80S).  From  these,  it  appeals  tliat 
be  coiuidercd  fire  to  be  the  first  principle  of  all 
phoiomena,  and  the  origiiial  nibatance  out  of 
which  thejr  hare  all  been  evolved.  H.  was  neither 
a  ven  ori^nal  nor  a  veiy  coherent  thinker,  and  hii 
■pecmationa  deaerva  little  attention. 

HEBA'CLIUS,  a  Bynuitine  emperor  (610—6*1), 
nf  Bplendid  bnt  fitful  geniiu,  was  deacended  from  a 
line  of  brave  aaceston,  and  waa  bom  in  C^nipadocia 
alioat  675  A.  s.  Bia  father,  also  named  Hmadiua, 
•na  exarch  or  goveiiior-general  of  Afiiaa.  Hoarding 
H.'a  youth  wa  know  almoit  notbing ;  but  when 
upwards  of  thirty,  he  took  part  in  a  cona[n»cf 
(which  proved  aiioceuful)  aeainit  the  emperor 
Phocai,  whose  horrible  crucmes  had  made  him 
univenaDy  detested.  In  610,  H.,  at  the  head  of  a 
fleet,  ammred  at  Constantinople  :  the  dtiiena  roae 
in  rebellion,  Phocaa  was  beheaded,  and  H.  sainted 
emperor  in  hi*  ttead.  His  fellov-conspiraton  were 
lichlj  rewarded.  The  condition  of  the  Byzantine 
(Dunre  at  this  time  woa  deplorable.  Faotiooi  within 
ana  the  barfaariaiu  without  bad  abnost  reduced  it 
to  nun,  so  that  yeaua  elapsed  before  H.  could  put 
fmth  any  vigorous  efforts  for  its  reorganisabon. 
Hia  most  powerful  enemies  in  the  north  were  the 
AvBii,  who,  in  819,  plundered  the  country 


very  cates  ol 

himsd^  and  i 

their  homes  bcTond  the  Danube  260,000  prisoners. 
The  whole  western  empire  had  by  tiiia  hme  been 
wind  by  OkeSUvo,  Lombards,  Tiaigotha,  and  other 
bibcs;  bnt  1^  far  the  most  alanai^  conquesla 
were  those  made  in  the  East  hy  the  nrsiatt  king, 
Cbosrob  n.  In  6IS,  Sarbar,  Qie  Peraian  genrai3, 
^onned  and  plnndered  Jemsalem.  Tba  same  taie 
betdl  Alezan^ia  iu  the  following  year,  after  iriuch 
•11  Egypt  yielded  to  the  victoriotia  ^bar,  who  pene- 
tatcd  as  ur  *■  Abyronia.  By  stopping  the  export 
of  com  from  itopt  to  Canstintini^le,  he  likewise 
"unid  a  severe  famine  in  the  Utter  city.  Ju  the 
"iM  year  (616),  the  Peisiani  besieged  and  captured 
Chaloedn,  opposite  Constantinople.  B.  at  first 
tried  to  n^otiate  witJl  bis  eneudes,  but  flushed 
»ith  their  triumphs,  they  refused,  and  even  put  hia 
unhmmdors  to  death.  Probably,  the  emperor,  who 
vu  now  laying  >iwt  plans  for  taking  a  maguificent 
■**<Bga  on  th^eniaDs,  was  not  greatly  displeased 
■^^or  rehisaL      Having  afta  a  whue  ycAr  of 

I  •*  Oieeks  andbarbanans,  he,  in  62%  ahipped 
k)  trwma  at  the  Bcaptons,  and  sailed  for  Citicia. 
a*lmg  landed,  he  encamped  in  the  ^ain  of  Issna, 
oxaplstet^  routed  a  Fenian  army  despatched 
!?^  '""'■  ""^  '°">°<'  ^  ^"'7  throu^  the  paasw 
«  Bie  Tnuui  and  Anti-Taurus,  into  the  province 
«  PoDtut,  where  his  soldieiB  wintered.  In  624,  he 
I  ?J»*d  Anneiiia,  conquered  several  of  tiie  Perao- 
Uncuiu]  counbies,  and  reached  the  Caspian  Sea. 
I  Kv"  ^'  formed  an  alliance  with  the  kluu)  of  the 
I  Khuui,  who  rrdad  over  the  sterile  r«iotti  north 
,  oitlieC«ucisns,as  br  as  the  liver  VraL  By  the 
Miatinc*  of  these  and  other  barbarianiL  he  attacked 
!  ^'ioi  and  eairied  hia  aims  as  far  soath  as  Ispahan. 
i  ™'^Bniig  into  winter-qnartei*,  ha  agun  utterly 


K, 


defeated  the  main  body  of  the  Persians,  commanded 
by  ChosroSs  tiimjoif  Id  625,  H.  deecended  from 
the  Caucasus  into  Mesopotamia,  and  thence  proceeded 
into  Cilicia,  whfre  a  sanguinary  engagement  took 
plaoe  between  him  snd  Sarbar;  the  I^imaos  were 
routed  with  immense  slaughter,  and  Sarbar  Sed  to 
Persia.  During  the  next  two  yeais  (620—628),  the 
of  H.  cidminat«d.  He  coirisd  the  war  into 
xt  of  the  Pennon  empire,  and  in  December 
,  to  pieces  the  forces  of  Rh^atee,  the  Persian 

Saeral,  near  t^o  junction  of  the  Little  Zab  and  t^e 
gria.  An  iuunense  booty  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  victor*.  A  few  days  after,  H.  took  Artemita 
or  Dastagerd,  the  favourite  residence  of  ChoaroSs, 
and  here  the  Arabic  historiana  exhaust  hyperbole 
ID  attempting  to  state  the  enormous  tresBore  wluch 
the  Byzantine  emperor  captured  Choerotis  fled 
into  the  interior  of  Persia,  and  was  soon  afterwards 
seized,  imprisoned,  and  starved  to  death  by  orders 
of  his  son  and  socceesot  Siroes,  who  was  glad  to 
conclude  a  peace  wiUt  H.,  by  which  the  Anions 
gave  Dp  all  their  former  conqnesta.  The  fame  of  H. 
now  ipead  over  tJie  whole  world,  and  ambasssdon 
come  to  him  froni  the  reidotest  kingdoms  ot  the  Bast 
and  West ;  but  a  new  and  terrible  eneqiy  suddenly 
arose  in  the  South.  The  Arabs,  filled  with  the 
ardour  of  a  new  and  fierce  faith,  had  just  set  out  on 
their  career  of  sanguinary  proselytism.  The  war 
bt^un  duriug  the  life  of  the  Prophet  himMlf,  was 
continued  byhia  successora,  Abubekr and  Oniar.  H. 
uo  longer  commanded  the  Byzantine  forces  him—lf, 
but  wasted  hia  days  in  his  palace  at  Constantinople, 
partly  in  «»"""«-i  {deasuies,  and  partly  in  wretched 
theological  disputwons.  His  migh^  energies  were 
quite  relaxed;  and  before  the  close  of  his  life, 
Syria,  Palestine,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt  were  in 
the  hand*  of  the  califs.    K  died  io  641. 

HES'RALD  (derivation  nnoertain),  an  officer  whose 
duty  consists  in  the  regulation  of  armorial  bearings, 
the  marshalling  of  proceasions,  and  the  supeiintend- 
enoe  of  public  ceremonies.  In  the  middle  agea, 
heralds  were  hidily  honoured,  and  enjoyed  importent 
privilegea ;  their  functions  also  inclnded  the  hear- 
me  of  messages,  whether  of  courtesy  or  defiance, 
b^ween  royal  or  kni^tly  persanagee;  the  supcrin- 
totding  and  registermg  of  trials  1^  battle,  touma- 
ments,  jousts,  a^  all  chivalric  ezerciBeB;  the  eom- 
pntation  of  the  oloin  after  battle;  and  the  recording 
of  the  valiant  acts  of  the  falling  or  surviving  combat- 
anfa.  The  office  of  heiold  is  probably  as  old  as  the 
origin  of  eoat^rmour.  The  principal  heraldio  officer* 
are  dBaig;ned  kiugs-of-arms  or  kings-at-arms,  and 
the  novitiates  or  learner*  are  s^led  pursuivant*. 
Heralds  were  orifpoally  greated  with  much  cere- 
moOT ;  they  ate  now  apnointed  by  the  £ari  Mar.>^ni 
in  Englopg,  and  by  the  Lyon  King-of-Arms  in 
Scotland.  There  ore  now  in  En^and  three  king*- 
of-arma,  named  Ire  their  offices  &irta\  Claraaoieuz, 
and  Nonoy;  dz  hsralds— Somerset,  (Aester,  Wind- 
sor, Bichmoud^lAncastar,  and  Ymk;  andfonrpurani- 
vantl^  Bon^  Dragon,  Fortcnllis,  Bine  Mautb,  and 
Booge  Cioix.  There  have  been  at  diflbwit  period* 
other  httalds,  whoae  titka  an  now  laid  aside ; 
henlda  eztraoidinary  have  also  sometiines  been 
created,  aa  Edmonson,  by  the  title  of  Mowbray,  in 
1764.  In  Bootland,  the  principal  heraldic  officer  is 
I^on  Eing-ot-arms;  and  there  were  till  lately  six 
herald* — %iowdoan,  Albany,  Rces,  Kotheeay,  March- 
mout,   and  Hay ;    and  six   pursuivants — Unicorn, 


and  pursuivants  in  Sootland  is  reduced  to  three  ef 
each,  Ireland  haa  one  king.of-anns,  Ulster ;  two 
hTB^'i  CoA  and  Dublin ;  and  two  puisoivanti,  of 
whwn  the  aenior  bears  Uia  title  of  AthIoiie,1uid  the 
■  ia  called  the  punuivaat  of  St  Patrick. 

'■ bifjiiizi^dbyCoogle 


nie  offloiil  oortnmB  of  &  barald  aon«l«U  of 
embroidved  utia  tftbud  ar  inroost  of  the  royal 
umi,    and    »    colUr    of    88.    See   Knro-JLT-uuo, 

PUHBUIVAMT,  HZHAUl^  CoiiLBQC 

HE'RALDRT  i*  properly  the  knowledge  of  the 
whole  multifaiioiu  dnUea  derotvin^  on  a  hcntld 
[lee  HxRUJi):    in  the  more  reatneted  senai 

which  we  slukU  hen  coneider  it,  it  ii  the  soieB 

umoiial  bearings.  After  oocnpTing  for  aget  the 
attention  of  the  learned,  and  forming  an  importurl 
branch  of  a  priaecly  edncatlon,  the  itndf  of  luraldlT 
fell,  in  later  timea,  into  neglect  and  dulepute,  and 
waa  abandoned  to  coaob-paintera  and  undertakers,  a 
degradation  owing  in  put  to  the  endleaa  tiaaue  of 
fomea  and  myatificationa  that  had  been  intraworen 
with  it.  Modem  criticiam  baa  reacoed  heraldij 
from  the  pedantries  and  follies  of  the  heralds,  and 
to  it  a  new  intereat,  as  a  Taluable  aid  to 


imparted  i 
hinuncal  i 


\>f  partienlar  emUoas  or  enaignt,  nothing  that  can 
properir  be  called  armorial  beai^n  exicted  before 
Ibe  middle  irf  the  12th  centai7.  The  ihields  of  the 
French  knighte  in  the  first  enisade  preeented  a 
plain  (ace  of  pobabed  metal,  nor  is  there  any 
BTldsnoe  o(  benldic  derioee  hating  been  in  nae  in 
the  second  emude  in  1 147-  But  the  Anglo-Nonnan 
poet  Waee,  who  flourished  in  tile  lattar  part  of  the 
IStb  e.,  mentions  derioee  or  cognteanoes  as  beins  in 
nie  among  the  Kormans,  'that  no  Norman  might 
perish  by  the  band  of  another,  nor  one  Frenehman 
fcJTI  anoUier ; '  and  Wace  ii  curiously  con-oborated 
bj  the  Bayeni  tapestry  of  the  12th  c,  where  there 
are  figures  of  »nimnl«  qd  the  shields  of  the  invaders, 
while  the  Saion  shields  have  only  bcoden  or  crosaea. 
The  mde  derices  on  tbeae  ahielda  have  nothtog 
Rppcoaobing  to  an  armorial  form  or  disposition,  yet 
it  Ii  prob^la  tiiat  inatsmatio  ba^ldrr  sprang  —'■ 
of  tbMB,  bat  it  is  dimenltto  sarwhea  uiey  assm 
that  hereditary  character  whioh  ia  easeoti^  to  vm 
idea  of  amtonal  bearings.  Some  sort  of  armorial 
inpyii.  were  depicted  on  the  ahielda  osed  in  the 
third  cmisde,  which  took  plaae  in  1186 ;  and  in  the 
aame  half  centory  ori^^ated  the  fleurs-de-lis  of 
Fnnos  and  tJrie  lions  of  England.  The  transmission 
of  arms  from  father  to  too  teems  to  hare  been  fully 
recognised  in  the  ISth  a,  and  in  the  pracdoe  then 
introdnoed  <d  embroidering  the  family  insignia  on 
the  snrooat  wora  over  the  Eanberk  or  ooat  of  mail, 
orinnated  the  ekprsasion  eoat  ijf  omiK  -Arms  ware 
similarly  onbRridared  on  the  jopon,  i^olai^  uul 
tabard,  iriiich  anoceeded  the  anrooa^  arnctioe 
wbiob  torvived  till  the  time  of  Henry  VUL,  when 
the  tabard  came  to  be  entirely  disnaad  azoept  by 
henldj,  <<i4ie  atill  coatinne  to  wear  on  their  tabards 
the  royidann*. 

It  waa  by  slow  degraas  that  the  tusj^  of  anas 
grew  up  Into  the  sntematiaed  form  whiah  it  aaeuniea 
m  the  works  of  the  established  writers  on  heraldry. 
The  prinoipal  existing  data  for  tnctng  its  pro^piaa 
are  Bngbah  rolls  of  arms  yet  ei:tant  of  the  tunes 
of  Heniy  UL,  Edward  L,  and  Edward  ILL  The 
earliest  formal  treatiaea  ^te  no  farther  back  than 
the  end  of  the  14th  e.,  beftwe  whidi  time  the  whole 
historical  part  of  the  aubjaot  had  been  obaonied  by 
a  tisane  of  gratoitons  fictions,  whioh  has  mitlad 
meet  snhaeqnant  writara  np  to  a  voy  raoent  period. 
The  pnrfesson  of  the  aoienoe  repreatnt  the  heraldry 
of  ue  10th  and  11th  ocmtoriea  aa  aonallv  shanlv 
defined  with  tiiat  (^  tba  ISdi  and  Iffl 
of  William  the  Oonqneror  and  Ua  aoni 
with  all  their  diffeiwioea ;  arms  are  ascribed  to  the 
Sazon  kings  of  Bngland,  to  Charlemagne,  and  even 
to  half-mythioal    penons   and  heroca  of   classical 


in  Weabninster  Abbey  in  the  reign  oi 

In  the  infancy  ti  bMaldiy,  aroy  koi^t  ei 
what  1 —   ^-    -'----■    — ="    -■^    - "■- 


rogn  or  king-ftt-arina.  Aniwialn^  planta,  imaginaiy 
monaters,  tlungi  artificial,  and  objeota  ^■"■h**'  to 
pilgrims,  were  all  fixed  «d;  and  iriienaw  it  waa 
poaaiUa,  the  object  ohcaea  was  one  vboaa  name  bMS 
tnffleient  reaenutlaBce  in  sonnd  to  suggest  the  nam* 
or  title  tH  the  bearer  A  it.  There  ia  rsason  to  believB 
that  early  arms  were  generally  imnas  paiaiim, 
tiiOQgb  the  allusion  ^**  in  many  risos  rriasml 
to  be  intelligible  from  tiie  old  nama  of  the  object 
baioA  forpanen.  The  charge  fixed  on  wm  oaed  witit 
great  latatode,  singly  or  repeated,  or  in  any  way 
which  the  bearer  (£oae,  or  the  form  of  his  shield 
suggested.  But  aa  coats  of  anne  became  mora  nnme- 
roua,  confusion  often  arose  from  difierent  knigfata 
adopting  the  same  Sjnnbol  j  and  tbia  confositni  was 
iooreaaed  by  a  practice  which  crept  in  of  severeigDa 
or  feudal  chiefs  allowing  their  arma,  or  part  of  them, 
to  be  bome  as  a  mark  of  honour  l^  their  farourita 
followen  in  battle.  Hence  different  ooats  of  anna 
came  in  many  instancea  so  cloaely  to  leaemble  each 
other,  that  it  waa  imperative,  for  distinotioii'a  aak^ 
Uiat  the  &noy  of  the  bearer  abould  be  reatniaeda 
and  regulations  laid  down  leoaiding  the  number  ft-T^ij 
poaition  of  the  cbacgea,  andthe  attitodM  of  the 
-  -  ' ited.     This  


animals  represented. 


r.led,  in 


proosis  whieb  the  rolls  ai 

on  gradnally  throndiant  the  IStb  and  14tb  ci 

B^  the  tuna  that  heraldry  waa  oonsdidated  ii^  a 
•menoe,  its  toue  (dEin  had  bean  lost  ei^t  of,  and 
the  erednlitv  and  lotililT  ti.  ima^n^ca  A  the 
heralds'led  tnam  to  invest  the  moat  common  ohaigea 
with  n^stioal  meanings  and  to  tnoe  their  oiwinBl 
adoptian  to  the  desire  of  oommamotating  the  a»a^ 
ture*  or  wshierement*  of  the  foundaia  of  the  ^""^■■i 
who  bore  then.  Hie  legtnda  aacribing  an  on^ 
of  this  tivt  to  the  eaiiy  anutial  bewin^  bav^  in 
nearly  all  instanoei  wbine  it  haa  bavi  pcasililB  to 
inveatigata  tbon,  turned  out  to  be  bbriMtions.  It 
vaa  only  when  beraldiy  began  to  asBuma  the  digni^ 
of  a  soieuoe,  that  angmentsraons  of  a  eonunemMBtiT* 
obaracter  were  granted,  one  of  the  eadieat  known 
instauoet  being  the  haart  added  to  the  ooat  of 
Doo^aa,  in  commemoration  of  the  good  Sir  Jamea'a 
pUgrunage  with  the  heart  of  King  Bobert.    Aiter 

mentations  ud  new  oo^  were  (ttt^  granted  wjui 
a  t^erenoe  to  the  snppoaed  symbolical  """"'"tF  of 
tbechargei. 

In  England,  the  assumption  of  amu  by  private 
persons  wa«  Gist  reabMned  by  %  proclamation  of 
Henry  V.,  whioh  iffohilated  every  one  who  hail  not 
borne  arm*  at  A^inoonrt  to  asume  Hiem,  except 
in  virtoe  of  inbentance  or  a  grant  from  (he  erown. 
To  enforce  Uia  obaervanoe  of  this  rule,  beraJda'  visit- 
ations  or  prooeasiona  through  the  oountiea  were  insti- 
tuted, and  continued  from  time  to  time  till  the  reign 
of  William  and  Uary.    Sea  ViuT4:noM8,  Hkralus'. 

Juiiadioiiou  in  qoeetions  of  arms  is  executed  by 
the  Heralda'  Ccllwe  in  England,  the  I^yon  Court 
in  Sootland,  and  we  College  of  Anns  m  Irdand. 
No  one  within  the  D^ted  Kingdom  ia  entitled  to 
hew  ainu  without  a  hereditary  claim  1^  deaoent,  or 
a  grant  from  tiie  competent  authority ;  and  the 
wrongful  aatumption  <a  arms  is  an  act  bm  which 
the  aarumer  may  be  subjected  to  penaltica.  See 
Hzraum'  Collnk,  and  Lton  Coubt.  The  use 
of  arms,  whether  rightfully  or  wrongfully,  subjects 

to  use  without  author)^  not  only  a  ao»t  of  Mms, 


ItizodhyCiUUylC 


HERAIJIRY. 


but  ereo  k  ereat  Any  figura  or  dsriee  plued 
k  faosJdie  wi«»th  (wa  Wbba.th}  is  oonn^md  a 
oreat  in  qneatioiia  vith  the  Hemldi'  College  or  Lyon 
Court,  »■  weU  m  in  qimtioiu  with  the  Commii- 
ot  Inland  Bereuue.  It  sheini  how  deeply 
for  oatwud  diltinction  ii  implanted  i 
hanuui  natore,  when  we  Sod  people  in  ooaittri(_ 
•uclt  as  the  Dnited  States,  whma  all  differenoea  ol 
rank  are  theoretaDally  repudiated,  aaniming  henldie 
devicoB,  eadi  man  at  hi*  own  hand. 

Bemdea  individnala,  conunimitiee  and  •tatea  are 
actdtled.  to  the  uae  of  arms,  and  hertJdi  have  claaei' 
fied   afms,  in  reepeet  of  tlie  right  to   bear  them, 
under  the  following  ten  heada  :  L  Anni  of  dominion ; 
the  mnoE  borne  bj  HivereigDE  ae  annexed  to  their 
territoriea.   2,  Anns  of  pretenaion,  which  aovereigna 
have  borne,  who,  though  not  in  poeieoaion,  claim  a 
right  to  the  temtoiiea  to  iriiieh  the  arm*  belong, 
l^na,  England  bore  the  arou  of  France  from  the 
tinv6  of  Bdward  IIL  till  1801.  3,  Anna  of  oommtmity ; 
the  anna  of  bishop*'  aees,  abbeys,  univenitiea,  towna, 
and   corpontions.     4.  Arms  of  asBamption;  aims 
irtiich  one  hu  »  right  to  ssinme  with  the  ^iproba' 
tioQ  of  the  sovereign.    Thtu,  it  is  said,  Uie  anna  of 
a  priaoner  at  war  may  bo  boma  by  his  captor,  and 
tranamitted  by  him  to  his  heiis.    5.  Ann^  of  patron- 
age ;  added  ty  govemors  of  proTinces,  lords  of  the 
maiuK',  pabvna  of  benefices,  tc,  to  their  family 
ann^  aa  a  token  of  laperiority,  right,  or  joriadiction. 
6>  Arm*  of  raccesaion,  borne  qoarCered  with  the 
family  anna  by  thoaa  who  inherit  fiefs  or  manors, 
either  by  will,  enUil,  or  donation.    Thna,  the  Duke* 
of  Athol^  M  hanng  been  lords  of  fhe  I«le  of  Han, 
iX  that  isUnil,  and  the  I>aka  of 
IB  of  the  lordship  of  Lorn. 
I  Qp  by  the  iiaue  of  heireasea, 
to  ahew  th^  nutmnal  deaoent.  8.  Anns  of  adoption, 
bonie  by  a  sbanger  in  blood,  to  fulfil  the  will  ti  a 
teatator.    The  Uit  of  a  family  may  adopt  a  stranger 
to  bear  hit  name  and  arms  and  pobbbbS  bia  eatate. 
Anna  of  adoption  con  only  be  borne  with  permissiOD 
of  a  sorereign  or  king-at-aima.    9.   Anns  of  con- 
ctasion ;  aogmentatioos   granted  by  a  aavereign  of 
part  of  his  royal  anns;  as  a  mark  of  distinction,  a 
nsam  which,  we  already  obaerved,  obtainad  in  the 
BarUeat  flays  of  heraldry  ;  and  hence  the  prevalence 
among  annorial  bearings  of  the  lion,  tba  oeor-de.lis, 
and  Um  eaole,  the  bearings  of  the  sovereigns  of 
KngKnd  ana  Scotland,  of  fiance,  and  of  Oermauj 
10.  Paternal  or  hereditary  arms,  ti 
I    firrt  -     -    •-'-  ' = --'- 


of  chanea  depi 
le  old  luiightly 


krmauy. 
d  by  the 


*a  eacntehaon  tenwMDtiiiit  the  old  juiightly  shield. 
'  The  word  esentcluoD  is  derived  from  the  French 
I  tousoa,  which  sigiufiad  a  shield  with  armorial 
I  bearing  in  oontndiatinction  from  ten,  a  shield 
om^nUy  Tho  ■^it^iHw  jQ  uc  jQ  Ti^ngliwil  and  Franoe 
I  in  the  lltb  and  12th  centuriee  were  in  shape  not 
'  <mlik«  a  boy's  kite,  a  form  whioh  seem*  to  have 
:  been  bomnrad  from  the  Sicilians ;  but  when  they 
became  the  recipienta  of  armorial  bearing*,  they 
were  gradually  flattened  aod 
,  shortened.  From  the  time  of 
Heniy  IIL,  the  escutcheon  hat 
beat  meat  frequently  re  we. 
aeoted  on  aeals  as  of  aometning 
approaching  to  a  triangular  form, 
willi  the  point  downwards,  the 
chief  exoeptiona  being  that  the 
shitJd  of  a  lady  la  lozenge- 
shaped,  and  of  a  knight-banneret 
Hf.  L  s<iaare.      To   facilitate   descrip- 

tioo,  the  «urface  or  Geld  of  the 
Moatohem  has  been  divided  into  nine  paints  (fig  1], 
tnhnically  distinguished  by  the  following  name*: 
1,  tk  dexter  ohuf  pointi  B,  the  middl*  chief;  0, 


the  siniatar  chief;  D,  the  honour  or  collar  point; 
E,  the  feas  point ;  F,  the  nombtil  or  navel  point ; 
G,  thi  dexter  base  point ;  H,  the  middle  bate ;  and  I, 
the  sinister  bate  point.  It  will  be  obt^ed  tiiat  the 
dexter  and  sinister  side*  of  the  shield  are  so  called 
fnan  their  position  In  relation  not  to  the  eye  of  the 
qMotator,  iMit  of  the  fuppaaed  bearer  of  the  ahietd. 
Coats  of  arm*  are  diAnguiihed  from  one  another. 


on  which  they  are  placed.    The  field  may  be  of 

colour,  or  of  more  tban  one,  divided  by  a  partiuoa 
line  or  line*  varying  in  form.  The  first  thine,  thm, 
to  be  mentioned  m  blaioning  a  shield—^at  it, 
deacribing  it  in  technical  language — is  the  colour,  or, 
>a  it  ia  neraldically  calleiC  fuufura  of  the  field. 
Tinctarea  are  either  of  metal,  colour  strictly  so 
called,  or  fur.  The  metals  used  iu  heraldry  are  two 
— '■■  termed  or,  and  silver,  arjwjrf— represented  h 


ting  by  yellow  and  white.     The  colours  are  five 
d,  tdue,  black,  gn 

^labU,  vert,  and  pur^      _.    

indicated  in  uncotoured  heraldic  engravinga  by 


neure.  tabU,  vert,  and  purpura-    Metals  and  ci 


¥ig.Z 

for  argtnt,  the  Seld  i*  left  pUin.  Quiet  it  denoted 
by  perpendionlar,  and  ocvn^  by  horiamtal  linw ; 
table,  by  lines  perpendienlat'  and  horiiontal  crossing 

chief  to  sinister  base ;  purpure,  by  diagonal  iinet 
from  sinister  chief  to  dexter  base.  The  JUrt  were 
originally  bat  two,  gmuns  and  voir.    The  former  is 

laented  by  black  spota  reaembling  those  of  the 

if  the  animal  called  the  ermine,  on  a  white 
ground.  Voir,  said  to  have  been  taken  from  the  fiit 
of  a  squirrel,  bluish-gray  on  the  bac^  and  white  on 
the  belly,  is  expressed  by  blue  and  while  shield*,  m 
bells  in  horizontal  rows,  the  bases  of  the  white  lest- 

Xm  the  bases  of  the  blue.  If  the  vair  is  of  any 
r  ooloura  than  white  and  blue,  they  must  M 
apedfied.  Various  modifications  of  these  fur*  WMa 
atterward*  introduced,  among  others,  smunM^  ot 
ermine  with  the  field  sable  and  the  spot*  argent; 
trtnmila,  with  a  red  hair  on  each  side  of  the  blaok 


placed  base  to  base ;  and  poltni  anialer-polaU,  vair 
with  DTUtch-ihaped  figures  instead  of  belle. 

It  ia  an  eatabliehed  mle  of  heraldry  that  metal 
shonld  not  be  plooed  on  metal,  nor  colour  on  colour ; 
a  rule  more  rigidly  adhered  to  in  English  than  in 
foreiga  henddjy.  We  have  one  remarkable  tran*- 
gresaion  of  it  in  the  arms  of  the  kiiigdom  of  Jeruta- 
lem  founded  by  (he  CrUHadeia,  whuh  are  argent,  a 
cross  potent  between  four  orotse*  or.  A  recog- 
nised exception  exists  wherever  a  charge  lies  over  a 
field  {lartly  of  metal  and  portly  of  colour,  or  where 
an  Bjumal  is  (see  infra)  attired,  armed,  unguled, 
crowned,  or  chained  witii  a  tincture  different  from 
that  of  his  body.  Uarks  of  cadency,  chiefs,  canton*, 
and  barduM  ate  alto  oooiiioiially  exempted  from 


,dbyC00gl 


lebertOd*, 

to  it 

ETerythine  contained  in  the  tJcldoC  an  cticiitclieoti 
is  ctUied  a  eaargt.  Charges  are  divided  by  liecalds 
into  the  three  claisea  of  nocourable  ordioarieB,  ■ub' 
ordinariea,  and  common  charj^  Under  the  name 
of  ordinaries  or  AonouroUc  ordiaaria  are  included 
certain  old  and  very  freqaent  bearings,  whoee  true 
pecnliarit;  seemt  to  be  that,  instead  of  being  taken 
from  extnneDUt  objects,  they  are  cepresentations  of 
tho  wooden  or  meUl  etreagtheninga  of  the  ancient 
ahieldf.  They  are  tea  in  number ;  1.  The  Chi^ 
(Sg.  3),  the  nppei:  part  <A  the  shield  separated  from 
the  rest  by  a  horizontal  line,  and  conipruin^,  aocord- 
ing  to  the  Tequiremeot*  of  heralds,  one-tbird  of  it, 
though  this  proportion  is  seldom  rigidly  adhered  to. 


Kg*  3-14. 

Ita  diminutive  is  the  fillet,  supposed  to  take  np 
one-fourth  the  space  of  a  chief,  in  irhciee  Icnvest 
part  it  stands. 

2.  The  PaU  (tig.  4),  a  band  or  stripe  from  top  to 
bottom,  said,  lilie  the  chief,  to  occupy  one-third  of 
the  shield.  It  has  two  diminutiveB,  the  Pallet, 
one-half  in  breadth  of  the  pale,  and  the  Sndort, 
cme-half  of  the  pallet 


its  dlminotives  are  the  Bendlrt  or  Oarter,    

of  its  breadth;  the  Coit  or  CoHh,  one-half  of  the 
bendlet ;  and  the  Siband,  one-half  of  the  cotise. 
The  bend  is  sometimes  borne  between  two  cotises, 
in  which  case  it  is  said  to  be  Cotited,  a  term  some- 
times appLed  with  doubtful  propriety  to  the  other 
ordinanea  when  accompanied  with  their  dinmiutives. 
4.  The  Bend  Sinitler,  a  diagonal  band  from 
""'"*"  chief  to  dexter  base.  It)  diminnlJTes  ara 
the  Beam,  one-half  oE  the  bend  sinister ;  and  the 
Beam  (fig.  6),  one-half  of  the  scarpe.  The  baton 
■tops  short  of  the  eitremity  of  the  field  at  both 
ends,  and  has  been  considettd  a  mark  of  illegitimacy. 
See  Basta^  Bab. 

...  1  horisontal  band  in  the 
i,  said,  like  the  ordinaries  already 
.e-third  of  it  Ita  principal 
,  containing  the  fifth  part 
of  the  field ;  and  thet«  are  also  the  CloKt,  oneOialf 
of  the  bar,  and  the  Bamlet,  one-half  of  the  closet, 
the  latter  seldom  borne  singly. 

6.  l^e  Chevnm  (fig.  6),  compceed  of  two  stripes 
desoending  from  the  oenbe  of  the  shiehl  in  diagonal 
directions  like  the  rafters  of  a  root  Ita  diminutivea 
are  the  Chevrmd,  ol  half,  and  the  Coupk-cloie,  one- 
fonrth  its  nridtb,  the  latter  borne,  as  its  name 
implies,  in  pairs,  and  generally  aocompanying  the 
chevron — on  each  side  of  it 

7.  The  Crot*  (llg.  9),  aniting  the  pale  and  fees. 


5.  The  Fea  (fig. 
middle  of  the  shii  ^^ 
•oumerated,  to  oi 
diminutive  i     " 


an   ordinary  whi<^  wis  ori^nally  like  the  reot. 
composed  of  the  clamps  necessary  to  tlie  strengtli  of 
the  shield,  but  had  also  the  deeper  meaning  ol  tke    , 
symbol  of  the   Christian  faith.    Besides  its  plain 
form,  the  cross  was  varied  in  nnmeroos  ways,  most 
of   these  varieties   being,  howBTer,  rather  oommon 
charges  than  ordinaries.      Of  the  39  lesser  crosBca 
mentioned  by  Quillim,  and  109  by  Edmonson,  a  few    ' 
of  the  most  jrequently  occurring  ore  the  following :    ^ 
the  Cnm  tnoltne  (fig.   10),  wiui  the  ends  tnmed    I 


patonee  (fig.  12),  each  limb  of  which  has  three  pointa;  . 
the  Orott  patent  (fig,  13),  crutch-shaped  at  the  ends  ; 
the  Oroa  patlie  (fig.  14),  small  in  the  centre,  hut 
widening  towards  tSe  ends;  and  the  CVow  enwiM 
(fig.  16),  crossed  at  the  ends.  The  latter  is  the 
most  fiequent  of  all,  and  bome  oftener  in  nombers 
than  sbgly.  Any  of  these  croeses  is  said  to  be  | 
fitchfie,  when  the  lower  limb  tenninat«s  in  a  sharp 
point,  as  in  fig.  16.  There  is  also  the  Orot*  llallete, 
whoeelimbs  have  each  two  points,  and  converge  t/ 


a  point  in  the  c 


:  tbou^  I 


Fin.  IB— a 

freqnent  as  a  heraldio  ebai^  it  derives  an  import- 
ance &om  being  the  Iwdge  of  the  Kiughta  of  Malta 
and  of  many  o^er  orders. 

8.  The  SaUirr,  or  St  Andrew's  Cross  (fig.  17), 
formed  by  a  junction  of  the  Ijend  dexter  and  bend 

9.  ThePifa(fig.]e),awedgewiththepointdown- 
wards.  A  single  uncharged  pile  should,  at  its  npper 
part  occupir  one-third  the  breadtii  of  the  shield,  but 

if  charged!^  it  may  be  double  that  width. 

10.  The  Quaiier,  coasisting  of  the  upper  right- 
hand  fourth  part  of  the  shield  cut  (^  by  a  horizcot>l 
and  a  perpendicular  line.  It*  diminutive  is  tha 
CaTtlon  (fig.  19). 

Armorial  figures  may  be  de[ncted  on  any  of  these 
ordinaries,  but  not  on  their  diminutivea,  with  the 
exception  of  the  canton. 

We  olwerved  that  tha  field  of  an  «AoutcheoD  may 
be  of  two  different  tinctures,  divided  by  a  partitiou- 
line,  which  line  may  vary  in  direction.  When 
divided  by  a  partition-line  in  tha  direction  of  one 
of  the  ordinaries,  the  shield  is  said  to  be  Patiji  per 
that  ordinary;  thus  we  may  have  (figs.  20)  a  shield 
party  per  pale,  bend,  fess,  chevron,  or  saltire.  An 
escutcheon  divided  as  by  a  cress  is  said  to  be 
quartered.  A  shield  divided  into  any  number  of 
nuts  by  lines  in  the  direction  of  a  p^le,  bend,  or 
bar,  is  said  to  be  Paly,  Bendy,  Barry,  the  number  of 
pieces  being  specified,  as  iu  the  example  fig.  31, 
bany  of  six,  argent  and  galea.  Whan  the  field  is 
of  a  metal  and  colour  sepsrated  by  any  of  the  lines 
of  partition,  and  the  charge  placed  on  it  is  said 

CglizodtyL-iOOgle 


to  be  OotuOeT'tiumgtd:  Uiia  meaiu  ti>*t  tbe  part  of 
the  obuce  which  a  on  the  metU  is  of  Qm  coloor,  uid 
Otoe  vtrM,  w  in  fig.  22,  the  umi  borne  bv  Ch&ucer 
the  poet,  per  pale  argent  Hkd  gnlta,  a  bend  connt«r- 
changed. 

The  partition-line  wUoh  boimda  the  field, 
bonndMy-liue  of  an  ordinary,  ii  not  alwaya  even. 
Fig.  23  represenia  the  oommonest  forou  of  uregnlar 
partition-nnea  in  nw,  Tii,  the  engraUtd,  itimct^ 
UKivy,  ndmU,  rmbaUied,  indemrd,  aod  daneetti.  An 
ordinary  enf^railed  haa  the  paints  of  the  engrailed 
Una  toined  ontwardo,  and  an  ordinary  invented, 
inwwda.     DancettC  diffen  from  the  indented  by 

^„„,__.  the  partition-liQe  beini 
-'ENGRAILED  marked  with  only  threi 

'"^~'' .-~-v~.-%  INVCCTED     indentataoos. 

„,___^,,__^„^_^,_^  The  8vhor6inaria,  ._ 

'  subordinate    ordinariea, 

"P'TTTPTPO  Km  III  c'      "^'  gens^Uj.  onumer- 

C5  0  0  0C1EBULE        j^j^  ^    j^^  following, 

TJ-U-I_n_n_  EMBATTLED  tliongh  there  ia  no  Yery 
broad  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  them  and 
the  common  chargei. 

1.  The  OjffTm.— Whei 
a  ihield  ia  at  ono 
qouteied  and  party  per 
■altire,  aa  in  fig.  24,  the  diruion  ia  called  Oyroimy 
t(f_  tight  {fnna  ognu,  a  drcte),  and  one  of  the 
trian^ea,  or  at  l^t  the  tnangle  in  dexter  chief, 
ia  a  ^fTon.  Oyronny  of  six,  ten,  or  twelve  ali 
occasianally  occnr,  so  called  aocording  to  tl 
number  of  the  triaiiKles. 

S.  The  Fret  (fig.  26}  ia  a  cogniMQoe  derired  fro 
the  banding  or  omamentins  of  the  shield,  and 
shield  oovered  with  this   Mttice-work   decoration 
<fig.  26)  ia  said  to  be  FnUg. 

3.  The  Bordure,  or  border  (fig.  27],  is  a  rtripe 

encircling   the   ghiald.     "■ "■  — '   ■"-   ■"— 

tingniah  diffe 


/VWWW\ 

/VW  -^ 

Kb- 2a 


Figs.  21— 36. 

charged  witii  amall  dericea,  on  which  accoont  it  has 
someBmes  been  reckoned  an  honourable  ordinary. 

4.  The  Orie  (tig.  28)  differs  from  a  bordure  in  not 
teaching  the  eztremily  of  the  shield. 

5.  The  Tratvre,  r^arded  as  a  diminutiTe  of  the 
orle,  is  generally  borne  double,  and  flory  o 


0.  The  PaU  (fig.  30),  the  archiepiwwpal 
of  that  name,  sent  from  Borne  to  metropolitans, 
and  resembling  in  form  the  letter  T. 

7.  The  Flanda  (fig.  31),  the  dexter  and  sinister 
^dea  of  the  shield  cnt  off  by  a  carved  line.  FUnohes 
are  always  home  in  puis,  and  BOmetvmet  charged. 

8.  The  X,<aeHga,  a  Sgnre  of  four  equal  aides,  with 


the  upper  and  lower  an 
obtoae. 

9.  The  Fanl  {fig.  32),  L 
the  lozenge. 

10.  The  Slum  (fi{t  33] 


ger  and  more  acute  than 
1  lounge  pierced  lonnd 


B  probably 


of  diffe 


11.  The  ifoKfe  (fig.  34), 

shewing  a  narrow  Ixtrder. 

onginaDy  links  of  chun.armoi4r. 

A  field  ie  nid  to  be  Lcatngy  (fig.  35),  FvtOly  or 

MatcaUy,  when  divided  by  diagocal  lines  in  the 

direction  of  these  lubordinaries.    A  field  divided 

horizontal  and  perpendicular  lines  into  squares 

different  tuiotarea,  u  said  to  be  CKeciy  /  m  the 

le  of  a  i'esi  chtrky  there  are  three  sooh  rows 
of  squares. 

Among  snbordinaries   are    sometimes   reckoned 

rtain  cinmlar  charg^  caBed  RowndeU  or  Btmnd- 
leta,  diatingniahed  ia  Bngliah  heraldry  by  different 
names  according  to  their  tincturea.  When  of  or, 
they  are  called  Beianti;  of  argent,  Plata;  of  gnlea, 
Toriema:;  of  azarc,  Huria;  of  pnrpure,  Qoipa; 
and  of  uble,  Ograta  or  PtUett. 

We  now  come  to  the  third  class  of  figures  occnning 
in  armorial  bearings.  We  have  seen  that  the  ordin- 
aries and  anbordinaries  are  for  the  most  part  purely 
heraldio  figures,  connected  in  their  origm  with  the 
shield  itsdf ;  the  common  diarga,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  repreeeotatioas  more  or  less  conrentionsl  of 
familiar  objects,  which  have  no  neoeoBan  relation 
to  the  shield  ;  but  are  in  some  way  embiamatic  aa 

Tia  kmdits,  m  the  esrly  dan  of  hsnldry,  ran- 
sacked the  animal,  the  vegetable,  and  the  mineral 
'"      '  "  IS  the  range  of  thiiWB  natural  and 

^  zances  which wouldbe diatinctiTe, 
and  at  the  same  time  suggestive,  of  the  name  or 
title  of  the  bearer  of  thenL  We  can  only  ennmerate 
few  of  the  charges  of  most  fieqnent  occnrrenoe. 
Of  beaeta,  the  lion  reqnirea  special  mention, 
he  king  of  beasts  is  one  of  the  moat  frequent 
of  heraldic  devices,  end  ia  made  to  assume  a 
I  varied  of  attitudes,  for  which  see  IjIon. 
t  and  other  beasts  of  prey  are  said  to  be 
armed  or  languid  of  any  tincture  when  their  teeth 
and  daws,  or  their  tongue,  is  of  that  tincture. 
With  some  change  of  colour  or  position,  the  royal 
beast  came  to  be  used  by  all  who  could  clum 
kindred,  however  remote,  with  royalty,  and  lions 

' further  tnultipUed  by  augmentatioas  granted 

D  sovereign  to  favourite  foUowers.   The  heraldic 
leopard,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  much  con- 
troversy, was  originally  but  another  designation  for 
"~  ~  lion  possant-gardant.    Bears,  boars,  bulls,  stags, 
favourite  heraldic  beasts.     A  stag  wolldng  ia 
:  to  be  a-ippanl ;  he  is  o^  gaze  when  a  hon  would 
tatant-gsj'dant ;  he  is  aUired  of  any  tinctore  when 
hia  horns  are  of  Uiat  tincture.    The  »"'""!"  that 
possess  homa  and  hoob  are  said  to  be  armeif  and 
tmffuled  in  respect  of  them.    The  heada  and  limbs  of 
»"""«W  are  often  boma  as  charges,  and  they  may  be 
either  covptd,  cut  off  in  a  atrtugbt  line,  or  traced, 
it  off  with  a  jagged  edge. 

Of  birds,  we  have  fiiat  tiie  tagU.  The  sorereign 
of  birds,  and  symbol  of  imperial  Jove,  waa,  next  to 
the  lion,  the  most  favourite  oogniiance  of  royal 
parsonagea,  and  was  adopted  oy  the  German 
emperors,  who  claimed  to  bo  auccesBora  of  the 
Csaan  of  Rome.  The  imperial  eagle  had  at  first 
bnt  one  head ;  'Uie  monsttoaity  of  a  second  head 
seema  to  have  arisen  from  a  dimidiatlon  of  two 
eagles,  to  represent  the  eastern  and  western  empire 
(see  Mabshalunq  or  Akmb].  The  eagle  of  henMry 
ia  most  generally  diepiayed,  i.  e.,  its  wioga  are 
expanded ;  sometimes  it  is  preying,  or  standing 
devouring  its  prey.    The  alaton,  the  cognizance  01 


,  Li  001^  I 


a  apedei  of  nrallovr,  which  has 
tima  been  deimTed.  hj  hetaldi  of  iia  legs  uad  beak. 
The  pelican,  tha  swui,  the  cock,  the  f&lcon,  the 
nvea,  the  purnt  or  popinjaj,  and  the  peocook,  are 
kll  of  tolenbly  freqnant  occmrecce.  The  pdioan 
hu  generolly  her  wingB  indorted,  or  plaoed  back  to 
back,  and  ie  depicted  pecking  her  breart.  Wlen  in 
hra  nest  feeding  her  young,  >he  in  called  >  pelican  in 
htr  piety.  A  peaoodc  bonie  affronts  nith  hin  tail 
fopanded,  is  said  to  be  in  Au  pride.  Birds  of  prey 
•le  armed  of  tha  colour  of  vMoh  their  beak  and 
talonl  are  reprsaented.  Hnoh  aa  have  no  talona  are 
btaitd  and  membtnd.    Tha  eodi  is  said  to  be  armtd. 


are  laid  lo  benaiant, 

toiruiHf, if  drawniii aparpendi[ndarpo«itic>>>,  auu luiD 
dobihin,  in  nality  atnight,  ii  oonvantunullj  bome 
ffKOOiMEt  Dt  bent  Tha  mcaUop  Adl  ii  of  ttequeut 
occnrreiKM,  and  aaid  to  be  the  badoe  of  a  jnlgrim. 
SonMlinMa  tha  conventional  henl£o  form  <n  an 
animal  diffen  from  its  trae  fonn,  aa  in 
tha  oaie  of  tha  tattetapt  of  heraldry 
)■  which  hag  the  head  of  a 
unicom'i  tail, 


Flg.3& 

ire  hare  amooK  othert  tha  «7phon, 
wyreni,  draHi»>  uoicom,  ba^iak,  haTpy.  We  have 
tlia  hninaD  body  in  whole  or  part,  a  naked  moo,  a 
MvagB  or  wild  man  of  the  woods,  abo  anna,  lege, 
hearts.  Moon'  heada,  Svaocne'  heada,  and  that 
•traiige  heraldic  freak,  tha  three  legs  conjoined, 
oarried  in  the  eacatdkeoa  of  the  island  of  Uan. 

Of  ^anta,  we  have  tmu,  Ir^oOt,  cinfTif^ib,  Uavtt, 
fforb*  (L  e.,  akeaTea  of  com),  trea,  often  audiMUd  or 
fnietiial«d  of  tome  other  (»loar,  and  above  all,  the 
celebrated /E«ur-((f-lH,  used  aa  a  badge  by  Lonis  VTL 
of  Francs  before  heraldry  bad  an  eiistancs.  When 
a  plant,  animal,  or  ether  ohai^  is  blaioned  proper, 
what  is  meant  1>  that  it  Is  of  its  natural  oolonr. 
bodies,  the  .sun,  moon,  and 
into  the  service  of  heraldry, 
>te  and  artificial  withont  number, 
particularly  sack  aa  were  tamlHar  to  the  warriorB 
and  pilgrims  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  oentniiai. 
Helmete,  buokles,  shields,  hatchaa,  horaahoei, 
sworda,  arrows,  battering-rams,  pilgrims'  staves, 
mullet*  (CT  spar-rowels),  and  water-bongats,  or 
bags,  in  which  in  oroladins  times  water  was  carried 
long  distanoea  across  the  deeert,  also  Uie  clarion  or 
war-trump,  generally  and  erroneously  called  a  reiL 
Even  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  have  bean  used  as 

Charges  may  be  plaoed  eiiher  nmply  on  the  Held 
or  on  one  of  the  orainariea ;  in  some  instanoes,  one 
of  the  oidinariea  is  placed  ovm  a  cbaree,  in  which 
case  tha  charge  is  aaid  to  be  dArvued  by  the 
o'dinary.  Three  chargea  of  one  kind  are  placed 
two  above  and  one  below,  nnleas  blazoned  in  jftm  or 
in  pale.  In  tite  fonrteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries, 
the  simplicity  of  early  heraldry  began  to  be  departed 
from  by  accomulating  a  variety  of  charges  on  ons 
shield,  and  in  later  times  we  have  aometiineB  a  oharoe 
recriving  another  ohtu^  like  an  ordinary.     The 


■rowing  oomplexi^  of  shields  arose 
tations  granted  to  distinguish  the  y{ 


coat  by  tha 

of  the  last,  and 

a  practice 


s  matters-fact  li 


bearing*  mat 

■  of  saa^ghta, 
worn  by  the  bearer,  aettine  all  hei 
alitiee  at  defiance,  and  dealing  in  details  not  diaceni- 


rounger  brendM* 

heiress.  In  tiia  and 
ie  present  oattnrr, 
e  of  m'bodncing  into 
'  '  -'loapta,  reps' 
id  deooratiao* 


ibie  on  tb«  minntaat  inspection.    Snch  chargta  a 
frequent  in  the  arm*  of  the  heroes  of  the  old  wai  . 

as,  for  example,  in  the  augmentation  granted  to  Sir 
Alezander  Campbell,  Bart,  in  addition  to  his  paternal 
anns — viz.,  *a  chief  argent  charged  with  a  rotk. 
proper,  sobsoribed  OibrStar,  between  two  medals  ; 
that  on  the  dexter  representiDg  the  silver  medal 
presented  to  9ir  A.  Campbell  by 
ment  of  India,  for  his  services 
Saringapatam,  in  ITQOi  that  on  the  sinister  repre- 
santi^  the  gold  medal  presented  to  him  for  hia 
aervioea  in  the  battle  of  Talavera.'  The  grants  pro. 
mwiinjt  from  the  present  kings  of  arms  are  mere 
conformable  to  the  usages  of  heraldry,  and  do  not 
stand  in  need  of  such  lengthened  eiplanataaia  to 
make  them  intelli^ble. 

The  arms  of  the  different  memben  of  a  family 
have  been  distinguished  from  one  another,  somatinMa 
by  the  nse  of  a  bordur«  or  other  difEerenoe;  and 
sometimes,  especially  by  English  heralds,  by  the 
use  of  certain  figores  called  maris  c/aufeney,  the 
labei,  craceni,  muiia,  martUi,  annuls^  lIsur-^K^  to 
designate  the  eldest,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifUi,  or 
sixth  son  and  his  descendanto — an  invention  <aimi- 
ating  about  the  time  of  Beniy  VIL,  bnt  Wuch 
cannot  consistently  be  carried  throogh  aU  the  ratnt- 
fications  of  a  family  for  a  snceeasion  oE  generatJMa. 
See  Caskhot. 

Blaxomy  is  an  essential  part  of  the  aciaice  of 
arm*.  To  blaion  a  coat  la  so  to  describe  it  that  any 
one  with  an  ordinary  knowledge  of  heraldry  will 
be  able  to  depict  it  correctly..  In  the  langnan 
of  blazonry,  nS  toatology  must  be  avoided.  Toe 
tincture  of  the  field  is  flrat  mentioned ;  the  ordinary, 
if  any,  follows,  unless  it  be  a  chief;  thai  tha 
charges  between  whioh  the  ordinary  is  placed.  Tha 
ohai^  on  the  ordinary  follow,  and  lastly  wa  have 
a  canton  or  chief,  and  mariu  of  cadency.  The  roka 
of  blazoniy  are  given  in  the  article  Bi-ixoxma  or 

Beddea  the  heraldic  dsvioe*  depicted  on  the 
shield,  there  are  the  following  bome  external  to 
it — the  helmet,  the  mantling,  We  wreath,  the  create 
the  motto  uid  acroll,  tha  mpporten,  and  the 
coronet. 

The  hetmei,  originally  a  pieee  of  defensive  armour, 
became  in  Uie  coum  of  time  one  of  the  usual 
accompaniments  of  the  shield  ;  and  plaoed  ov«r  the 
arms,  it  came  by  its  form  to  mark  the  rank  of  the 
wearer.  For  these  diatiuotioas,  which  are  of  com- 
paratively recent  date,  and  applicable  only  to  Britilh 
heraldry,  see  Hiuarr. 

The  mantling  is  an  embellishment  of  scroll-work 
flowing  down  on  both  sidca  of  tha  shield,  and 
originating  in  the  toialmae,  or  scarf,  wrapped  rannd 
the  body  in  the  days  of  coat-armour. 

From  the  centra  of  the  hcdmet,  within  a  teraoA  of 
two  piecea  of  silk  of  the  two  first  oolonr*  of  tha 
armraial  bearings,  isanes  the  crut,  oiiginaUy  a  apecial 
mark  of  hononr  worn  only  by  heroea  of  great  valonr, 
or  advanced  to  a  high  military  command ;  now  an 
inseparable  adjunct  of  the  coat  of  arma  in  ""''rgHT*'. 
thou^  not  in  continental  heraldrr,  and  often 
assumed  or  changed  arbitrarily  witjiont  propor 
authority. 

The  sffvS,  plwwd  over  the  eraat  or  below  tlw 


hyCiOO^If 


HERALDS'  COLLEGE— ESRBARIDM. 


shidd  conteuu  »  fiuMo,  btariag  in  buiBJ  omm  ta 
allnmoQ  to  tlw  family  luitn  or  anr' 

Sujrportert  ai«  fignna  •»  uiii 
Moh  nde  ot  tb«  eHmtoheon,  and  • ^ 

device*,  whidi  onlr  gi*dii^<r  Monind  »  hantldie 
obwaater.  In  En^Mid,  the  nght  to  we  tupportar* 
n  cMi&iBd  to  iHm  f>J»i  lamilf,  pnn,  p««tMS««,  kod 
p«aT«  by  coortMy,  Sni^t*  <rf  the  Owter,  Kni^ta 
tbiad  Cnm  of  the  Bath,  >nd  ft  Tsry  f«w  fMulki 
wboas  BDOMton  bore  mpportni  baf  ore  Uieir  geuenl 
IMS  ma  reafarkited.  In  Scotland,  rappocten  are 
alio  need  by  tiie  baroneta  of  Nova  ScoliB  and  the 
chiefs  of  TaiioQi  familiea. 

The  croim  of  Oui  lOTeTeign,  the  mitre  of  the 
Uahop,  and  tb*  ooronet  ot  the  nobility,  are  adjntida 
Impended  to  the  thield  of  thou  whose  dignity 
tUid  offlce  entitle  tiiem  to  that  dirtinction.  For 
*  dcMripthm  ot  the  erown  ot  Great  Britain  and 
the  cotoneti  of  the  royal  family,  lee  article 
Okowk.  Under  the  artlclee  DnEi,  Mabquis,  Eikl, 
VracotntT,  and  Baaos,  the  coronets  appropriated  to 
the  difTerent  Tanks  of  the  aobili^  are  described. 

The  subject  of  mar^iaiting  arm»,  or  arranging 
Tarlons  coata  in  one  eacntcbeon,  is  eiplainud  m  a 
•eparate  article.  Here  it  may  snffloe  to  l&jf  donn 
a  tew  cnnenil  roles.  A  husband  is  entitled  to 
impaU  me  arms  of  hia  wife,  L  a,  to  place  them  on 
the  same  shield  side  by  side  wiUi  hJs  own.  When 
the  wifs  la  an  heiress,  the  husband  bears  her  arms 
in  an  eseutelUDn  of  pretata,  or  small  escutcheon  in 
the  centre  of  his  own  shield,  and  the  descendants  of 
the  heiress  may  qnarter  her  arms  with  their  paternal 
coat.  A  tOTercdgn  also  quarters  the  arms  of  his 
•everal  states,  uid  fendll  arms  are  sometdinca 
qnarto«d  by  subjects  An  elective  king,  it  is  said, 
may  place  his  heredituy  SJ™s  on  an  eecntcheon  of 
tntenoe  ov^  the  ^"■"g"'*  of  his  dotainions. 

For  information  on  the  details  of  heroldiy,  refo- 
•nce  is  made  to  the  standard  works  of  Ouillim, 
EdmotMon,  and  Nisbet)  and  for  a  mora  discrimin- 
ating view  of  the  anbject,  to  such  reoent  treatises  as 
U ontagoe's  ReraUrg,  and  PUnohCa  Purmivant  of 

HERALDS^  COLLEOB,  or  OOLLEQE  OF 
ARMS,  a  ooQwiate  body,  fonnded  by  Richaid  IIL 
ia  14B3,  oonsiMfiig  of  the  benJdio  offiosr*  of  England, 
who  were  sssigned  a  habitatarai  in  the  pansh  of 
AU-hallow«-tha-Lesa,  in  London.    Tariona  charters 


and  it  was  rMnocrpMated  by  Philip  and  Hai:^, 
who  bestowed  on  it  Derby  House,  on  wiwee  site  m 
DootoT^  CaamiaDs  the  present  ooliege  wa*  built  by 
Sir  Ohristopher  Wren. 

The  vresidsocy  ot  the  oollece  is  Tested  in  the  earl 
marshal,  an  ofiice  now  hera£tary  in  the  tamilv  of 
Howsrd  Dnke  of  Norfolk;  he  nominates  the  t^ree 
kings  of  anns,  sic  hecftlds,  and  foor  uuisuiTanta,  who 
are  the  members  of  tti*  ooll^iats  chapter.  Persons 
bavins  a  hereditary  claim  to  arms,  which  has  bean 
diSBSwl  for  cow  or  more  gsnanUdons,  are  empowered 
by  the  HcnOda'  Collnn  to  rwoma  them,  on  proof 
«nd  ra^stratlan  of  peiBgraa.  A  jMSSon  who  has  no 
hereditary  claim,  and  WMhe*  «  grtoA  of  arms,  mot 
"  ",  and  eliew  that  ha 


An  iBip<ntnl  dapvtiMot  of  the  Herald^  College  i 
the  laoocdiiig  of  pedigrees.  Any  padigtea  ahawiiw 
tbe  existiaa  stste  or  desoant  m  a  family,  kmt,  a 
MOOiapMiied  with  m£ld«Dt  evidenee,  be  entsMd  «i 
Ibe  hooka  of  tbe  collega.  "nieiDemberaol  thseoUega 
have  atdarlai^  but  dettra  their  principal  i-~— ^  *— 
feea  charged  fOr  asnstance  in  tracing  pi 
tiUea,  and  for  the  granting  and  regiatratii 
In  Scotland,  the  OMsesptmding  fnnotiona  belong  to 
the  Lton  Coukt  (q.  r.). 


BmtA.y,  capital  of  the  moat  westerly  erf  tU 


at  onoe  of  **gh— 1«*—  Fnsia,  and  Independent 
Tortary,  H.  is  one  of  the  principsl  marts  of  Central 
Asia,   osrrying   on  at  the   same   time   aztensiTe 

Cnfactarea  of  iii  own  in  wool  and  leather, 
tidnity,  natnrally  fertile  has  been  artificially 
rendered  much  more  ao  by  means  of  irrigation. 
But  the  ci^  olaima  notice  mainly  on  politicM  and 
nilitaiT  sronDda.  Long  tbe  T^ol  seat  of  the 
dceceDoaMs  of  Timor,  Mid  often  a  bene  of  ooo- 
tentim  between  tiie  wariihe  tribea  oU  ronnd,  it  ia 
fortified  by  a  ditch  and  wall,  and  ii  commanded  on 
its  north  side  by  a  strong  citadel.  In  more  modsm 
times,  the  place  has  acquired  a  kind  of  Eoropsan 
importanoe,  beins,  towards  Persia,  tbe  key  of 
^  Tghf,Tii«t»ii  irlii^  sgain,  in  turn  affords  ths  onl^ 
ip]ffo*ch  by  land  to  Weetem  India.  In  this 
lonueetion,  E.  hss  bean  v 


[enoB,  it  has  been  alike  the 

snbjeot  <4  tnaties  and  the  occasion  of  ware  between 
Great  Britain,  aa  the  nuctrasa  ot  Hindustan,  and 
Faraa,  aa  virtDally  a  vassal  of  Bnana.  TbiM  featore 
of  the  history  of  ths  citr  was  more  Bpscially 
developed  in  ommaetion  with  the  last  oonflict 
between  Persia  and  Ekiglond.  In  Novembm  ]^56| 
the  Shah,  r^aided  by  tbe  British  goTemmant 
'Ji«  vaeaal  sad  sgent  of  the  Caz,  captured 
while  aotnally  otmducting  negotistfoas  lor  sa 
-"  adjustmoit  at  Coostuitina^e;  l>nth«  was 
few  roontha,  oonsbsined  to  relinqnisli  his 
ps^  and  isaonnce  hia  daims  I7  a  Kitish  an*- 
ditaon  ditvcted  aaainat  the  oppoaita  extremity  of  his 
empire.  Aoeordmg  to  different  estimstss,  refuiing, 
however,  to  difierent  apoeb*^  the  popnlatiim  hM 
varied  from  30,000  to  70,00a 

BERAUXT,  a  maritime  department  in  the  south 
of  France,  boonded  on  the  south-east  by  the  Quit 


within  a 


of  Lyo 


1,  IS  ovdl  ia  form,  and  is  84  miles  u 
from  east  to  west  Area,  243a  square 
miles  i  pop.  (1872)  4Z9,87&  It  is  occupied  in  the 
north  and  north-weat  by  tiie  Lower  Cevennea, 
from  which  several  branches  of  moderate  devation 
run  toward  the  south,  gradually  subsiding  as  they 

aproach  the  sea.  T&  printnpal  rivers  ore  tl 
Biault  (from  which  the  depaitmaut  derives  i 
name},  the  Orb,  and  tOie  Lez,  which,  rising  in  tl 
Cevennsa,  pursue  a  generally  southward  coune  to 
the  Mediterranean.  The  coast-ltne  is  about  06 
miles  in  length ;  and  along  the  shore,  from  Agde 
to  the  Vidourle,  are  numerouB  llangt,  or  marshy 
lakes,  united  by  Che  Canal-des-Etai^  and  com- 
municating  with  the  sea.  In  the  nei^bomhood 
of  the  ttatigi,  the  olimste  ia  unhealthy,  especially  in 
summer,  when  agues  and  fever*  prevail ;  but  else- 
where thionghont  the  depaittnent  it  is  unususlly 
fine.  About  a  fourth  of  the  entire  area  eonsiats  A 
arsible  land,  and  about  a  mzth  ia  imdel  vineyards 
The  department  of  E.  stands,  for  quantity  at  least, 
st  the  head  of  the  wine-srowinff  deportmenta  <rf 
France,  4^562,000  gallons  being  the  average  annnal 
produce.  From  the  shore-Iskea  and  the  ssa,  immaoss 
qnontities  of  fish  are  obt^ned.  WooDen,  silk,  and 
cotton  fabrics,  in  great  variety,  are  lorgely  mann- 
foctured.  Coal  and  copper  nantm,  as  well  aa  qnarriea 
yielding  variously  vcdned  marbles,  building-at 

gTMiite,  4o, '--'■      ~  ■    - 

a  great  qua 


HSSBAraTOH,  ths  i 


>  asoally  ^v«b  to  a 
t.zodhyGoOgle 


HEHBAltT-^HERBEET. 


collectaoa  of  dried  pluits,  inteDded  for  the  Intttre 
study  and  exuninatiioa  of  botaniits.  For  coUectmg 
pluita,  a  box  of  tinaed  inm,  called  s  vateulum,  U 
generally  nsed.  whiofa  pieserreB  most  plants  from 
witberijig  for  at  leaat  lome  hwin.  Plants  intended 
for  the  herbarimn  shonld  be  collected  on  a  dry  day ; 
jdanta  which  when  gathered  have  moisture  on  their 
leaTes,  Bhoald,  when  brooght  home,  be  placed  in  a 
venel  of  water,  and  there  allowed  ta  dry.  Plants 
with  thick.  BQCcalent  atenu  or  leaves  are  immersed 
for  a  few  eecoada  in  hot  water  to  kill  tliem. 


■pecimena  are  then  laid  between  layen  o(  blotting- 
paper,  or  of  a  thick  bibulous  kind  of  paoer  called 
botanical  drying-pi^ier,  not  iprend  out  with  anxious 
minuteness,  dot  so  placed  as  to  distort  their  parts. 
The  number  of  sheeta  of  paper  in  each  layer  is  accom- 
modated to  the  nature  of  the  plants,  and  preesnie 
il  applied  ty  means  of  weights,  lorewi,  or  straps, 
themiole  being  enclosed  in  boards,  and  the  layers 
ot  paper,  when  vary  aumerous,  having  alao  brarda 
oooasioaally  interpcoed.  Can  must  be  taken  that 
too  mnch  presBnre  be  not  ^>plied  at  first,  lest  the 
parts  of  the  plank  be  nnlittad  for  futnre  examina- 
tioii.  For  a  short  time,  the  paper  ia  changed  every 
day,  or  eveiy  second  day,  dry  paper  being  supplied. 
Specimens  have  the  beat  appearance  which  are 
qniokly  dried.  Some  plants  which,  in  apite  of  >U 
care,  lose  their  natunl  colours  in  the  ordinary 
method  of  drying,  and  baoome  black,  as  orchids, 
may,  be  besntiful^  dried  by  enclosing  the  layers  of 
paper  in  a  network  wire-frame,  and  hanging  the 
package  before  a  fire,  where  it  is  turned  round  like 
meat  roasting.  Specimens  are  thus  dried  in  a  few 
hours,  which  otherwise  would  have  required  eight 
or  ten  days. — When  the  specimens  are  fully  dried, 
they  are  laid  within  sheets  of  wrttins-paper,  or 
they  are  gummed  or  glued  to  sheetii  of  paAer,  the 
name  of  the  ipecies,  w^  the  locality,  date  of  o^ec- 


[dant  ia  preaerved  in  the  herbarium,  but  the  Uower 
and  leaf  must  always  be  exhibited.  Some  parts 
of  plants,  as  succulent  roots,  fruits,  &&,  are  other- 
wise  preserved.  The  herbarium  is  arranged  accord- 
ing to  a  botanical  system.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
preaerve  it  from  the  raragee  of  moths  and  beetles 
by  frequent  inspection,  by  the  aid  of  camphor,  and 
by  the  occaaional  a^jication  of  a  little  corrosive 
sablimate.  There  are  herbaria  in  existence  which 
are  now  some  centuries  old,  and  which  are  atill 
consulted  for  the  identification  of  species.  The 
herbuiom  enables  na  ta  compare  planti  which 
flower  at  different  seasons,  and  those  of  different 
countries.  The  herbaria  formed  by  travellers  have 
been  of  gre*t  importance  to  the  progresa  O!  botany. 

HERBABT,  JoHum  Fkikdbjch,  a  German  pbil- 
osopber,  WM  bom  at  Oldenburg,  May  4,  1TT6.  He 
was  editcated  at  Jena.  At  a  very  earl;  age,  he  was 
familiar  witli  religious  and  metaphysuad  doctrines 
and  disoosdons,  and  at  twelve  yean  had  read 
the  systems  of  Wolff  and  Kant  He  became  the 
pwU  of  Fichte,  and  received  his  philosophy  with 
enuinsiasm ;  but  after  mora  reflection,  he  fouod 
hinMelf  obliged  to  reject  mnch  of  his  system,  and 
to  form  one  <^  hit  own.  In  1805,  be  was  appointed 
extraordinary  profeaacr  at  OOttingen  ;  in  1S09,  he 
obtained  the  chair  of  phikaophy  at  Kdnigsberg, 
where  he  remained  until  1833,  when  he  returned  to 
QOttingen,  and  enjoyed  the  dignities  ot  titular  pro- 
fesaor  and  aolic  councillor  until  his  deatb,  August 
14,  1841.  The  school  of  pbikwophy  he  promulgated 
has  (or  had)  ita  centres  at  QSttiiwen  and  Leipeic. 
His  collected  works  were  published,  in  12  volumes, 
at  Leipeic  in  1830—1862. 

The  philosophical  sjrstem  of  H.  is  neither  very 
profound  nor  very  original,  but  it  haa,  what  in 


the  eyei  ot  many  i*  no  small  anit,  the  qnali^ 
of  extreme  obeourity.    The  total  resolt  of  his  mat«-   { 
physical  invrstigationB  maybe  tb 
that  tlie  variety  and  change  of  til 


worid  are  not  to  be  e^lained  irr  tl 
of  a  ain^e  reality,  but  of  a  plurality 
Vidial  dtt  Beaiat  o 


fruitful  application  of  his  metaphyaical  doctrines  to 
psychology,  through  the  help  especially  of  his  great 
mathematical  knowledge,  and  has  endettvoured  to 
shew  the  nntenableness  of  the  onlinaiy  views  rwaid- 
ing  the  soul,  but  his  own  spBcalations  on  the  subject 
are  anything  but  intelligible. 

HERBELOT,  BarteiIlxky  d',  a  celebrated 
orientalist,  was  bom  in  Paris,  December  4, 1625,  and 
finally  became  professor  of  Syriac  in  tha  Cijlefte 
of  France.  He  died  at  Paris,  December  6,  169& 
His  celebrated  work,  the  BiblioOigue  OriatltUe,  was 
published  after  his  death  by  Galland  (Paris,  1697), 
and  afterwards  with  k  suppiement  (Maestricht,  1776 
— 17S1) ;  but  the  beat  edition  is  tiut  published  at 
the  H^  (1777—1782, 4  vols.).  It  is  unfortunate 
that  HTwoa  nnable  to  give  the  finishing  toock  to 
a  work  which  had  Cost  him  so  much  ktbour  and 
research,  and  which,  in  spite  of  the  errors,  repeti- 
tions, eontnuliotionB,  and  omissions  whick  one  meets 
with,  still  bean  a  deservedly  higk  chantoter.  In  it 
we  find  an  abridgment  of  the  innnonm  Tn^isk 
literary  biograpky  of  Haji  Khalef^  and  numerous 
extracts  from  a  multitude  of  Arabic,  Tuikiah,  uid 
Persiui  authors,  who  have  written  oa  history, 
geography,  religion,  and  the  manners  and  cuatomi 
of  oriental  nations,  especially  those  who  profess 
Islam;  and  the  enormous  labour  the  author  muat 
undergone  may  be  imamned  when  we  consider 
that  at  least  160  of  these  wo^  were  in  HS. 

HERBERT.  This  name,  which  stands  forth  pro- 
minentiy  upon  the  records  of  British  history,  has 
been  ennobled  at  various  times,  in  ao  many  of  ila 
branches,  by  so  many  ancient  and  renewed  creations, 
that  it  has  become  a  matter  of  difficulty  to  aacertain 
with  certainty  which  is  the  parent  stem;  tkough 
Sir  Bernard  Burke  is  inclined  to  give  &»  represen- 
tation of  the  House  to  the  Right  Honourable  H.  A. 
H,  M.P.,  of  Muckross,  co.  Kerry.  It  is  certain 
that  the  Heri>erts  came  over  to  En^and  in  tbe  train 
ot  William  the  Conqueror,  tor  H,  Count  ot  Vemutn- 
dois,  who  afterwards  filled  the  post  of  chambo-lain 


mentioned  m  the  BoU 
Abbey,  ud  received  from  his  sovetdgn  a  giaot  of 
lands  in  Hampshire  His  wife  Emma,  daughter  of 
Stephen,  Count  of  Blois,  was  a  graaddau^ter  of 
the  Conqueror,  and  his  son  H.  (oalled  in  histoiy 
H.  of  Winchester)  was  cbamberiain  and  beasorer 
to  Kins  Seiay  L  Seven  or  eight  generations  later, 
we  find  the  Herberts  diverging  into  sevoal  distinct 
branches,  including  the  lines  of  the  Earis  of  Powis 
(DOW  extinct  in  the  male  linej,  of  the  Lorda  H.  of 
Cherbury  (also  extonct),  the  Herberts  of  Mockross 
(anceston  of  the  gentknnan  mentioned  above),  and 
also  several  untiti^  branches  which  have  floaiiahed 
upon  their  ancestral  lands  in  England,  Wales,  and 
Ireland.  In  the  reim  of  Hmuy  V.,  Sir  WiUiam  H., 
of  Ra^  Castie,  oo^onmona^  reoeived  tiie  hMUwr 
of  knighthood  in  reward  of  his  valour  in  tke  French 
wars.  His  eldest  son,  a  stanch  adherent  of  the 
House  of  York,  was  created  Earl  of  Pembroke*  by 
Edward  IV.  in  1469.  but  feU  into  the  hands  of  the 
lAucasbians  after  the  battie  of  Banes  Moor,  K^A 
was  beheaded  the  fallowing  day,  vhea.  Uie  title 
became  extinct.    It  was,  however,  revived  in  1S5I, 


*  The  earldom  at  Pembroke  was  __ 
I  Biohud  da  Clan,  the  oslabrated 
ded  Heniy  IL  in  the  ecmquett  «f  Ireland. 


tyCocyle 


H.,K.I  . 

his  (ge,  wnd  one  who  took  an  Mtive  put  in  pnUio 
•ffiun,  both  M  »  >tate«iiuui  uid  u  a  soldier.     It  ii 
recorded  by  Sir  B.  Burke,  tbat  'be  rode  on  Pebroary 
IT,  1^62—1653,  to  hia  msngion  of  B»;iiud'«  Cattle, 
-with  300  hone  in  his  retinue,  100  of  then  beiu« 
gentlemen  in  pbun  blue  cloth,  with  chtiui  of  gold, 
and  badges  of   a  dragon   on  their   aleeveo.'      He 
I   'wta  buned  in  Old  St  Paul's,  and  his  funetsl  was 
conducted  on  such  a  scale  of  maguiSccDce  that, 
accoiding  to  Stowe,  the  moumijig  given  away  on 
that  occasion  cost  £2000 — a  very  large  sum  iu  those 
I    days.    By  his  wife,  who  was  a  sister  of  Catharine 
I    Pan-  {the  List  qneen  of  Henry  VIIL],  he  had  a  son 
I    Henrr,  second  earl,  K.O.,  to  whose  countess,  Maiy, 
I    dan^ter  of   Sir   Henry  Sydney,  K.O.,  Sir  Philip 
Sydney  dedicated  his  Aivadia.     She  is  celebrated 
by  Ben  Jon»n  in  ihe  well-known  lines — 
Uhdemeath  this  Tnarble  hearw 
Lias  the  subject  of  all  verse— 
Sfdnej's  sister,  Pembroke's  mother. 
The  fonrth  sari,  some  time  Lord  ChamberlaiD  to 
,'    Charles  L,  and    Chancellor  of   the  university   of 
I    Oxford,  waa  the  founder  of  Jesus  College  in  that 
I    seat  of  learning.    The  eighth  earl  held  several  high 
officea  nnder  Qneen  Anne,  inclnding  that  of  Lord 
High  AdmiraL      From   hirn   the  present  Earl   of 
Penibroke    (George    Bobert    Charles   H.,   bom  in 
1860)  is  directly  descended.     The  late  Lord  Her- 
bert (q.  v.)  of  Lea — better  known  as  Mr  Sidney 
Herbert — was  the  yonnfcer  brother  of  the  late,  and 
father  of  the  present  eaiL    The  Earls  of  Carnarvon, 
more  than  one  of  whom  have  gained  celebrity  in 
the  fidd  of  literature,  descend  from  the  eighth  Eari 
of  Pembroke  mentioned  above.    The  present  Earls 
of  Powis  are  descended  from  the  same  stock  mater- 
nally, the  only  child  and  heiress  of  the  last  Earl 
of  Powis  of   a  previous   creation  having  married 
the  eldest  son  of  the  illnstrious  Robert  dive,  the 
foonder  of  our  Indian   Empire,  in   whose   favool 
that  title  waa  renewed  in  1801. 

HEBBEBT,  Edwaxd,  Baron  H.  of  Cherbujy, 
who  is  commonly  reckoned  the  first  of  the  t'jngl'" 
deistkaJ  writers,  was  bom  of  a  noble  family  in 
the  year  1681,  at  Kontgomaiy  Castle,  in  North 
Wales.  In  hu  Antobiographv,  he  has  described 
his  early  love  for  inquiry  and  uis  scmpulous  truth- 
Mneos.  He  waa,  tent  to  Oxford  in  his  twelfth 
vear,  and  before  he  had  quite  quitted  his  studies, 
he  married  an  heireas.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
coronation  of  James  L,  he  was  made  a  knight, 
and  invested  with  varions  ofhces.  Although  his 
marriage  was  happy  enonsh,  there  appears  to  have 
been  httle  warmth  of  afiection  between  him  and 
his  wife,  who  waa  considerably  older  than  himself. 
He  left  home,  accordingly,  for  travel  in  France  in 
1B08,  and  from  this  time  resided  very  much  abroad. 
In  Paris,  he  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy  with  the 
Oonstatble  Montmorentr^,  Jean  Casaabon,  and  other 
distinguished  men.  After  a  brief  return  to  his 
native  country,  he  let  out  again  in  1610  for  the  Low 
Conntnea,  where  he  joined  Uie  arms  of  the  brave 
Maorica  of  Orange.  For  this  prince  he  contracted 
a  great  affection,  and  again  offered  him  his  services 
In  1614.  After  a  campaign,  he  travelled  throueh 
Germany  and  Italy  on  noneback.  and  went  as  ira 
as  Venice,  Florence,  and  Rome.  On  his  return,  he 
got  into  trouble  from  an  attempt  which  he  made 
to  raise  a  troop  of  Protestant  soldien  in  IianRuedoo 
for  the  Duke  of  Savoy.  Shortiy  after,  he  returned 
to  England,  and  proposed  to  devote  himself  to  study 
and  philosophical  inquiry ;  but  high  and  importai  * 
diphunatic  duties  awaited  him.  He  was  made 
member  of  tho  Privy  Counol,  and  sent  to  Pranoe 


ixtraordinary  ambassador.  His  aim  waa  to 
promote  the  alliance  between  France  and  England, 
and  ha  was  so  far  sncoesaful  that  he  was  appointed 
ordinary  ombaasador,  and  continued  to  rraide  at 
Paris.  He  tried,  bat  without  much  suceeas,  the 
difBcult  task  of  negotiation  between  Louis  XIIL 
and  his  Protestant  subjecbi.  He  was  elevated  first 
to  be  a  peer  of  Ireland,  and  then  in  1630,  five  yean 
after  the  scconioa  of  Chaiiea  I.,  to  be  a  peer  of 
England,  with  the  title  of  Baron  H.  of  Cherbnry. 
When  the  civil  war  broke  out,  he  appears  to  have 
aijted  with  hesitation,  at  first  siding  with  the  parlia- 
ment, and  then  joining  the  king.  His  hereditary 
seat,  Montgomery  Castle,  waa  attacked  and  burned. 
He  died  in  Loudon  in  the  year  1648. 

The  charaoter  of  H.,  as  depicted  in  his  Auto- 
biography, is  in  the  main  that  of  a  gallant  adven- 
turer, equally  fired  with  the  love  of  arms  and  of 
arts,  at  once  a  soldier  and  a  scholar.  He  is  the  gay 
man  of  the  world,  always  buthful,  honourable,  and 
high-spirited;  yet  he  has  thou^ta  above  those  of 
the  worid ;  he  ponders  deeply  the  great  queations 
of  truth  and  rehgion,  and  has  left  us  the  result  of 
his  specolationB  in  his  two  treatises,  De  Veritata  and 
De  Sdigione  OentUiwui.  The  reader  will  find  an 
admirable  analysis  of  the  first  and  most  important 
of  these  treatuea  in  Hallam's  Literary  History, 
They  are  only  interesting  to  the  [dulosophieal 
student,  or  to  the  inquiter  into  the  histoiy  of 
religions  opinion  in  England.  H.'s  position  at  the 
fountain-bead  lA  English  deiam  gives  them  a  pecu- 
liar signiflcanCB.  He  is  far,  however,  from  being 
Kepd'caZ,  in  the  modem  sense  of  the  term.  His 
ipeeulatioos  are  those  of  a  pMosophical  dogmatist 
rather  than  of  a  critical  inqoirer.  His  argumsnts 
abstract  and  deductive,  and  not  anal^ical  or 
ative.  He  offers  solutions,  rather  than  starts 
Lculties  or  obtrudes  negationB ;  and  in  this 
respect  H.  is  ri^tly  reckoned  the  first  of  English 
deists,  the  writings  of  all  of  whom  partake  more  or 
H  of  the  same  waraoter )  althou^  it  is  not  easy 
trace  any  link*  of  direct  oonneo&on  between  him 
and  the  outbimt  of  deistioal  literaturo  in  1^  end 
of  Oie  llih  and  bt^tnning  of  the  18th  century. 


',  GBOBdB,  an    Englisb    poet,   and 

nnn  brother  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbary  (q.  v.), 
was  bom  in  Uontgomeiy  Castle,  Walet,  on  the  3il 
April  1593.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster, 
and  was  sent  to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  ahont 
1608.  In  161S,  he  was  elected  fellow  ;  and  in  1619, 
he  was  promoted  to  the  office  of  public  orator.  At 
the  university,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Lord 


the  hope   of  p^eiment, 
riderable  portion  of 
about  the  court      On  the  death  of  James  L, 


induced  to  spend  a 


studied  divinity,  and  finally  took  holy  orders.  He 
was  made  prebendary  of  Lcighton  Bromswold  in 
1626.  He  married  in  1630;  and  in  the  same  year, 
received  the  rectory  of  Bemerton.  Two  years  after, 
at  the  early  age  of  3S,  he  died  of  the  effects  of  a 
quotidian  agoe.  His  principal  poetical  production, 
^nted  in  1633,  a  year  after  his  death,  is  entitled 
The  TempU,  or  Soared  Poaat  and  Prieait  Macula- 
tiont,  and,  although  disfigured  by  fantastic  conceits, 
contikins  several  passages  of  the  purest  pious  vetse 
which  the  language  possesaes.  He  wrote  a  prose 
work.  The  Coiaitry  Paraon,  which  lays  down  fuIeb 
for  the  guidance  of  a  clergyman's  life,  and  which 
may  be  considered  a  pendant  to  The  Teazle.  His  life 
was  written  by  Izaak  Walton,  and  to  that  qu^nt 
and  loving  pen,  even  more  than  to  his  own  Temple 
Son^  he  owes  bis  immortality. 

HEBBBRT,  Lord,  or  Lu  (Sisiir'  Hkrbert), 
minister  and  statesman,  son  of  tiie  eleventh  Earl  of 
Pembroke  by  his  second  wife,  was  bom  at  BichuMiid 


"tTGsogle 


in  IBia  Ednottcd  it  Harrow  uid  >t  Oriel  CoUega, 
Oxford,  he  dsvot«d  hinifelf  to  pahlio  life,  uid  entered 
the  EooM  of  ConuDong  in  1832  kb  member  for 
South  Wilti,  which  he  repreaented  until  hi»  elew 
tioD  to  the  peerage  in  1861.  He  Wan  hia  political 
career  aa  a  CooaerratiTe,  and  was  Seorataty  to  the 
Admiralty  in  Sir  B.  Ped's  adnilnirtnition  from  1841 
to  184S,  when  he  became  Secretaiy-at-war.  Ai 
a  member  of  thil  adminiatrsition,  it  fell  to  him  to 
oppoie  Mr  Cobden'a  motion  for  a  aelect  conunittee 
to  mqnire  into  the  effect  of  the  coro-lawa  on  farmen, 
and  afterw&rd«,  to  argue  in  gopport  of  fraa  tnd« 
fn  com.  He  went  out  of  ofBoe  with  hi*  Qartr 
in  1S40.  In  lSfi2  he  wM  agaiD  Secretaij-at-war, 
under  the  Aberdeen  niiuistry,  and,  in  conaeqnanoe, 
the  '  horrible  and  heart-rending  aufferingB '  of  the 
•mf  before  Sebaitopol  were  kid  in  ft  great  degree 
at  bu  door.  He  wai  for  a  few  weeks  Coloiual  Sear*- 
tan  in  the  flnt  adminittration  of  Lord  Palmentan 
in  ISSS,  and  Searetarr-at-war  in  hia  eecond  adminia- 
tetioD  in  lSfi9,  Great  inproremeati  in  the  Knitaiy 
oondition  and  ediioatioii  of  the  army,  Uie  amal- 
gamation of  the  Indian  with  the  royal  aiiD7,  and 
the  ol;ganiaation  of  the  volunteer  force,  dgnalised 


bis  HU?  admin istratioD.  He  lately  reformed  the 
War-oni3e,  and  wm  derotin^  hinudf  with  equal 
ml  and  intelligence  to  hia  inmiBterial  dutiea,  when, 
owing  to  failing  health,  he  reonied  hi*  smt  in  the 
Houae  of  Commona,  and  in  1861  waa  called  to  the 
Dpper  Hooae,  nnder  the  title  of  Baron  Herbert  of 
Lea.  But  releaie  from  labour  came  too  late,  for 
he  died  August  2,  1861.  He  was  heic-prelnmptiTe 
to  the  tweUth  Earl  of  Pembroke.  He  had  gnat 
aptitude  for  huirinfi,  winning  and  genial  nuimere, 
great  readineas  and  fiuency  in  debate,  and  a  boand- 
lesB  philanthropy.  He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the 
arts ;  and  his  Lombardian  church  at  Wilton,  near 
his  splendid  abbey-seat  in  Wiltshire,  will  remain  a 
lasting  monument  of  his  taste  and  muDidcance.  Ha 
married,  in  IMS,  the  daughter  of  Maior-gener«] 
A'Court,  niece  of  the  first  Xonl  HeytesOnry;  and 
his  eldest  son,  bom  in  1860,  is  now  Earl  of  Pembroke 
and  Montgomery. 

HERBS,  or  HERBA'CEOUS  PLANTS,  in  BoUny, 
are  those  in  which  no  peraetent  wood]^  stem  is 
formed  abore  groond.  Id  some,  the  stem  is  woody, 
but  still  annual.  There  is,  bowerer,  in  many  a 
permanent  woody  rAtsoms  or  root-stock. — la  books 
of  gardening,  plants  used  only  for  flavouring  are 
sometimes  distanguished  as  noeet  herti,  a*  mint, 
basil,  Jfcc ;  whilat  those  valued  for  thair  nulzitire 
qnahtiae  are  known  as  pol  litrbt. 

HEECULA'NETJM,  au  ancient  city  of  Italy, 
WBB  situated  at  the  north-wertem  luMe  of  Mount 
VesuriuB,  about  Ave  mile*  eart  of  Naplas.  Con- 
■iderable  obscurity  envelops  its  early  hi«tory;  it 
is  supposed,  however,  to  have  been  of  Phamidon 
origin,  and  to  have  been  occupied  afterward*  by 
Fda*«ciu  and  Oscan*.  It  •ubsequeutly  wo*  ccn- 
querM,  with  all  the  rest  of  Campania,  by  the 
Bamnitee,  and  later  it  fell  into  the  baud*  of  the 
Romans.  In  63  A-S.,  the  city  was  seriously 
injored  by  a  violent  earthquake ;  and  in  79  it 
was  boried,  along  with  FompeU  and  Stabies, 
by  the  memorable  eruption  ot  Vesuvius  (q.v.) 
wliich  took  place  in  tl^t  year.  It  now  lies  at 
a  depth  of  from  TO  to  120  feet  below  the  nirface, 
and  la  filled  up  and  covered  with  volcanic  tufa, 
composed  of  sand  and  oihes,  and  consolidated  to 
•ome  extent  by  water,  which  i*  often  thrown  up 
in  great  quantities  during  volcanic  eruption*.  Above 
it,  on  the  modem  surface,  are  the  two  large  village* 
Fortid  And  Beoina.  In  the  latter,  in  1706,  on  Qie 
oeeasioa  of  deepening  a  well,  fragments  of  mosaina 
WW*  fint  brought  up ;  bnt  little  wsa  done  in  the 


u  diaoorered  that  the  building   near   1 
it  the  well,  from  which  the  first  relics  w> 


ObI«  at  Ueranlanenui. 

obtained,  was  the  theatre.    This  bnilili'i 
with  explored  and  cleared,  and  aeveral  st 
in  bronze   and   marble,    were  extracted  from   it. 
Excavation*  were  carried  on  but  to  a  limited  extent, 
not  only  in  consequence  of  the  haidnesa  of  the  tufa, 
but  from  the  fear  of  undermining  the  dwelling*  on 
the  lurface.      Hence  visitor*  con  *ee  oi^  a  vety 
small  portioQ  of  thi*  entombed  city.     "Oie  chief 
edifice  shewn  is  the  theatre,  which  had  bean  very 
loi^e,  uid  was  built  but  a  short  time  liefore  tlie 
fatal   eruption.      It  ha*   18   rows  of   stone  leate, 
and  conld  aoconunodate  8000  persons.    A  bamlica, 
two   EouUl   temples,   and  a  vuta,  have   also  bam 
discovered ;  and  from  these  buildings,  many  boM- 
tiful  statues  and  remarkable  paintii^  have  been 
obtained.     Among   the  art-rehcs  of  H.,  which  far 
exoeed   in    value    and    interest    those    found   at 
Pompeii,  may  be  mentioned  tiie  itatue*  of  ^Ji-hinj^ 
Agrippina,  the  Sleeping  Faun,  the  Six  Aotresae^    I 
li^rcury,  the  group  of  the  Salyr  and  the  Goat,  the 
busts  (rf  Plato,  Scipio,  Africanus,  Auguitu*,  Seneca,    I 
Demosthenes,  Ac.     These  trea*nr«B,  together  wiUi    . 
such  vases  and  domestic  implementa  a*  have  been    I 
found,   have  been    conveyed  to   tiie   Husenm   at    I 
Kaplee.     latterly,  the  portion  of  M.  toward*  Ott    j 
sea,  which  had  been  covered  only  by  looaa  a«he*t    ' 
haa  been  Uid  open,  and  ancient  bnildiag*  are  now    ! 
aeen  there  to  adrantage  a*  at  Pompeii    See  Some-    I 
thing  of  Italy,  by  W.  Chambew,  1862.  ' 

HE'BCULES   (Qr.  HtroBtt),   called  likewiM    1 
AlcidtM,  after  hia  grandfather  Alcffiu*,  wm  the  son 
of  Zeus  and  Alcmene,  and  the  moat  celebmted  hoo    1 
of  the  Oreek  legend*,  the  ideal  of  human  perfedimi.    i 
a*  conceived  in  the  heroic  agn;  L  e.,  the  greatait 
physical  stfenirth,  connected  with  every  high  qnali^    , 
of  mind  and  tmaracter  which  these  ^ffet  recognisol 
He  had  a  bitter  eeemy  in  Heia,  who,  knowing  Uiat 
the  child  who  should  bo  bom  that  day  was  fated  to 
rule  over  all  the  descendauts  of  Peneus,  contrived 
to  prolong   the  travail  of  Alcmene,  who  was   the 
dauohter  of  AIcKua,  sou  of  Perseus,  and  hasten  that 
of  tne  wife  of  Sthenelus,  another  son  of  Perseus, 
who,  after  a  pregnancy  of  seven  months,  gave  birtii 
to  a  sou,  named  Sniyitheus.    Eurystheus  thus,  by   , 
decreeof  Fate,  became  chief  of  the  Perseidm.    Pindar   , 
and  other   anbeequent  writers   relate,  that,  while 
yet  in  hi*  cradle,  H.  shewed  his  divine  orioiu  by   | 
strangling  two  serpenU   sent  by  Hera  to  daatroy   . 
him.    By  Amphitryon'*  carc^  he  was  inatmcted  in   { 
all  arts  bjr  the  first  masters.      Amphitryon  now   i 
sent  lum  mto  the  country,  where  he  tended  0»   , 
fiocks  till   he  waa  18  yean  of  age.     During  Uu*   ' 


tyCOOglC 


J 


r'od,  as  tile  Sopliut  Fndiko*  reUtai  in  lu>  poam, 
mattiiig  tha  ooddiMn  of  FlMsota  and  Viitae  at 
,  (£mb  the  latl 


D  be  the  otmatant 


oampamon  «  hi*  life. 

Hii  flnt  eK|4oit  -wai  the  ilaTioj  of  a  lion,  which 
haunted  Honnt  Cithjuoo,  and  nr^ed  the  donuniona 
at  King  llMapiiN.  H.  w»«  kindlr  neoiTed  by  tin 
kins,  wd  at  lowth  wwoxded  in  deatiOTing  the  lion. 
On  nil  ntam  to  In*  natiTa  a.tr<d  tiMbM,h«  not 
(olj  fnad  it  frran  the  diMtaoa  of  hanna  to  p^  tribnta 
to  the  Onhommian^  Mt  msbimUm  tlKm  to  pay 
doable  the  taibnte  iriueh  thcgrhsd  formarlj'reoRTed 
I,  king  of  Thehea, 


him,  and  wdered  bim  to  perf  or 


a  appeal  b«( 
le  laboon  whi( 


U^  that  he 

'    perform  tan  labonn  impoMd  by  Enyatbaoi,  after 

I   vhioh  b«  ahould  attain  m>  inun^tah^.    Thia  i^T 

I    tdnnged  H.  into  the   deepeat   mslansholT,   which 

Hen  incnaaed  to  madoeaa,  *o  that  he  lulled  hij 

I    own    diildien  by  Menra.     Wlien   he   reooreted 

'    hi*  lenaea,  he  ratonml,  labnutted  to  EuTTitheiu, 

and  addrused  himaelf  to  the  paifomiance  of  the 

labonn  impoaad  upon  him. — The  fint  labour  WM 

to  desboy  the  lion  which  haunted  the  foieatt  of 

Nemea  ud   Cleona,  and  oonld   not  be  wounded 

by  the   airowi  of  a  mortaL     H.  boldly  attacked 

him  with  hia  olnb,  bnt  in  raia  [  and  1m  wm  finally 

obliged  to  itnngle  him  whh  hi*  hands.     From 

thi*  time,  he  won  the  li(»'*  *kin  m  annoar.— The 

ieeond  w«a  to  deatooy  tha  Lenumn  hydn,  which 

h*  aaocan^i*hed  with  the  aaairtance  of  hi*  fiiend 

lolaoa;  Imt  beoanae  'H.  obtained  aaaiitanoe  ~  "-" 


ne**,  it*  fdden  hnn*,  and  bnien  feet — The  fourth 
wa*  to  biu^  alive  to  Enryithen*  a  wild  boar,  which 
MTi^ed  the  lui^boaihood  <ii  EirmaBthoa. — The 
fifth  waa  to  eleauM  the  (table*  ci  Angaae,  king  of 
Qia,  wImco  SOOO  oxen  had  be«n  oonflnad  tor  many 
jrean,  which  he  aooonn^iahed  in  one  day,  by  taming 
Um  tinn  Alpheni  ana  P^«a*  thmngh  the  itablea. 
Bat  aa  H.  had  gone  to  Angaaa,  and  o&«d  to  perfonn 
'"  -    -  -       -'ofa  tenth  od  the  cattle,  and 


t,  that  ha  had  been  oi 


aded 


psfoim  it  by  Eniyitkena,  the  latter,  bearing  of  thi*, 

iudged  that  it  mmrb  not  be  counted  ■*  one  of  the 
abours. — Hi*  lizth  was  to  destroy  the  oamiTorooB 
biidi,  with  braien  wing*,  beak*,  and  claws,  whioh 
traged   the  ooontry   near   the   lake   8Cymphali*, 


in  *'«™^'» — The  sereDth  wa*  to  biina  ahre  to 
Feloponnenu  a  boll,  remaAable  for  hi*  beanty  and 
atnoigth,  which  Foaaidon,  at  the  prayer  of  Hinoa, 


_  ftorward*  refD*ins 

fa>  do,  FoeddoQ  made  Uu  bnll  mad,  and  it  laid 
waata  «b«  idand.  B.  bron^  the  bolt  on  hi* 
ahoolden  to  Eoryattiaa*,  who  *et  it  at  liberty.  It 
wpMn  again  aa  the  HMathoniao  bnU  in  the  (tory 
<J  Theaaoa-rThe  elahth  labou  waa  to  obtain  the 
marea  of  Dionudea,  king  of  the  Hatona*  in  Thraoe, 
which  fed  npoo  human  flaah. — The  ninth  waa  to 
brms  the  girdle  at  Hippdyta,  qoean  of  the  Amaiona, 
— The  tenth  labonr  wa*  to  kill  the  monater  Oeryon, 
and  bring  hi*  herd*  to  Araoa.  Thcas  were  oil  the 
labour*  which  were  originally  impoaed  on  H.,  bnt  » 
Euryatheu*  dedand  tite  second  and  Sfth  nnlawfolly 
performed,  H.  waa  codared  to  perform  two  more. — 
The  eleventh  wu  to  obtain  the  golden  ^>pl*e  Eram 
the  garden  of  the  Heeperidei.  Atlas,  who  knew 
wha«  to  find  the  applea,  bnra^  than  to  H.,  who 
meanwhile  anpportea  the  Taut  ri  heaven;  bnt 
aeooiding  to  otherii  &.  went  himieU  and  atola  tiia 


fimn  Ulb  infernal  r^pona  the  thne-headad  dog 
Ccobenu.  Floto  promiaed  him  Cerberos  on  oondt 
tion  that  he  shonla  not  employ  anna,  bnt  only  foro& 


from  his  ante  of  aerritoda. 

To  tbaas  wall-known  'twelve  labonrt,'  mnit  ba 
added  many  other  aohievement*,  such  ■*  hi*  battle* 
with  the  centann  and  wi^i  the  giants ;  hi*  parti- 
cipation in  the  expedition  of  tlte  AifEonaiita ;  the 
libenUion  of  FrraMthent  and  Theseus,  fto.     After 

ipliahing  all  tiieee  ezploila,  H.,  while  in  » 

..  _.     ..,   .t.  iarder«d  hi*  taithtol 

■  afterward*  purified  from 
compelled  to  adl  Bfin*^ 
for  three  yean  into  alavary.  When  his  pniod  of 
slavery  had  expired,  he  retorned  to  Fdoponneana, 
and  *ome  time  afterward*  became  a  suitor  for 
the  hand  of  Dejinira,  the  daoghter  of  CEneus, 
king  of  Calydon,  whom  he  mamed,  after  having 
overoome  hu  riv^  Acheloua.  With  her  he  now 
repaired  to  Trsohinia.  Having  arrived  at  the  river 
Erenoa,  he  enoonntered  tbe  oentaur  Neeaus.  H. 
paoaed  throng  on  foot;  bnt  Nesms,  nnder  pretence 
of  carrying  Bejanira  over,  attempted  to  aSer  her 
violence;  whereupon  H.  idew  him  with  an  arrow 
dipped  in  the  poison  of  tbe  Leraiean  hydra,  Nasnu, 
before  expiring,  inotruated  Dejanlra  how  to  pre- 
pare a  love-potion  for  Eercules.  The  hero  now 
made  war  against  Euryioa  (king  of  Oechalia,  who 
bad  defrauded  bim),  slew  him  and  hi*  sons,  and 
carried  off  his  daughter  lole.  Thence  he  went  to 
KenEBOn  in  Bubcea,  and  erected  on  altar  to  Zan* 
KeiuEOB.  In  order  to  celebrate  the  rite  With  dn* 
solemnity,  he  sent  Lichas  to  Trachis  for  a  white 
garment.  Dejanira,beingjealousof IoIe,anaintedthe 
robe  with  tbe  philter  she  had  received  from  Ifesaua. 
H.  rut  it  on,  and  immediately  tbe  poison  penetrated 
hisbonea.  Maddened  by  the  terrible  pain,  he  •oiied 
Lichas  by  the  feet,  and  filing  him  into  the  aea.  He 
tore  off  the  dress,  bnt  it  stuck  to  hi*  flesh,  which 
was  tiiui  torn  from  his  bonee.  In  this  condition,  H, 
WOB  conveyed  by  aea  to  Trochinia ;  and  Dejiuura 
being  informed  of  what  hod  occurred,  destroyed 
herselL  H.  himself  rejiaired  to  Hount  (Eu,  where 
he  erected  a  funeral-pile,  and  asoending  it^  com- 
manded that  it  should  be  set  oa  fire,  l^e  burning 
pile  was  soddenly  snrrounded  W  a  dark  olood,  in 
which,  amid  thondar  and  lightn&ig,  H.  wa*  ouried 
up  to  heaven.  There  ha  becwune  raooneiled  to  Hera, 
and  married  Hebe. 

According  to  most  mytbologists,  there  were  eeveral 
heroes  of  the  name  of  Hercules.  Among  theee  are 
an  Indian,  an  Egyptian,  a  Tyrian  ot  Fhcenician,  and 
a  Theban  Hercules.  The  last  ia  the  moat  cele- 
brated, and  to  him  the  actions  of  the  othen  have 
possibly  been  attributed.  Others,  who  wonld  explmn 
the  itocy  oi  H.  lymbolioally,  pretend  that  it  oon- 
ceal*  an  astronomical  idea ;  while  oUUu*  diacovu 
in  this  myth  the  history  of  the  early  devcdopinent 
of  Qreece-  On  the  st^ronomical  hypothcai*,  the 
twelve  labours  of  H.  are  simply  the  coarse  of  the 
son  through  tbe  twelve  nsns  of  the  zodiac,  which 
t^e  plsatio  poetry  of  the  Greeks  has  converted  into 
a  legend.  Acconling  to  Max  Milller,  H.  ws*  the 
Snn-god,  and  the  legend  of  liia  death  symboliae*  the 
■unset :  ■  In  his  last  journey,  H  [»i>ceedi  from  east 
to  waat.  He  prooeed*  from  the  Keneon  promontory 
to  Trachis,  and  then  to  Mount  (Eta,  when  hia  pila 
ia  railed.  The  ooat  whioh  Dejanira  aend*  to  the 
Bolar  hezo  ia  an  expraaaion  frequently  need  in  other 
mytiiologies,  it  is  ...  ■  the  olonda  which  rise  from 


CglizodtyL-iOOgle 


<hs  mtett,  and  (urnnuid  the  mm  like  a  dark 
Tument  E.  Iriea  to  tear  it  of^  L  e.,  Ma  fierce 
splendoiu'  break*  through  ths  thiekenine  gloom,  but 
&ry  mitts  embrace  him,  and  are  mtng^  with  the 
parting  nja  of  the  son,  and  the  dying  hero  ia  seen 
thtonKn  the  scattered  clouda  of  the  sky  tearing  hi* 
own  bodr  to  pieces,  till  at  last  it  is  coniumed  in 
a  8«Dend  eonflagratioD.'  Companttive  Uythology, 
iutiie  Ou/ord  Sttayi,  1856. 

Feativids  were  celebtated  in  honour  of  H.,  at 
which  his  erploitfl  were  gnng.  In  thia  manner  arose 
the  ITemd^a,  lone  poenia 
celebrating  the  ufe 
BCtions  of  Bercolea. 
is  represented  in  plastio 
art  aa  the  ideal  of  a  hero. 
Strength  ia  the  charac- 
teristic  idea,  which  has 
been  dereloped  by  the 
acnlptora  Myron  and 
LyuppuB  in  a  form  not  to 
be  Hurpaased.  A  complete 
aeriea  of  repreHentations 
of  the  twelve  labours  may 
be  seen  in  ibe  vases  of 
Ti    J  J  n       1  'Voice.    The  conflict  with 

oldest  style ;  the  one  on  the  casket  of  Cypaelos 
is  particularly  worthy  of  notice.  H,'a  figure  ia 
generally  yoothf uL 

HEBOULES,  FiLU£S  OT,  the  ustDe  given  by 
the  ancients  to  IJie  two  rocks  forming  the  entrance 
to  tbe  Mediterranean  at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar. 
Their  erection  wae  ascribed  by  the  Qreeka  to  Her- 
cules, on  the  occasion  of  his  journey  to  the  kingdom 
of  Qeryon.  According  to  one  veniion  of  the  stoiy, 
they  had  once  been  united,  but  Hercules  tore  Uiem 
asunder,  to  admit  the  flow  of  tjie  ocean  into  the 
Mediteiranean ;  another  veraion  represents  ^>iTn  a^ 
causing  them  to  unite  temporarily,  m  order  to  form 
*  bridge.  The  piUars  are  not  mentioned  in  Homer, 
thongh  he  speaks  of  Ulysses'  psssage  out  of  the 
Mediterranean  into  the  ocean  ancl  bade,  shewing  an 
amiarent  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  the  strait 
The  first  author  who  mentions  them  ia  Pindar,  who 
places  them  at  Oadea  (Cadiz),  and  his  opinion  had 
many  foUowers  in  later  times.  The  moat  general 
opinion,  however,  identified  them  with  Calpe  (now 
Gfibraltar)  and  Abyla  (now  Ceuta). 

HBECULE8  BEETLE  {Scambcetu  Hertala, 
or  Dyniula  Heraila),  a  coleoptenms  insect  of  the 
family  LameUiconut  and  tribe  Scarabmda,  remark- 
able not  only  for  its  great  size — it  being  five  indies 


Heicnlea  Beetle  {Dyiiatta  Herada). 

long — bat  for  the  singnlar  appearance  of  the  male ; 
an  enormon*  horn  projecting  from  the  head,  and 
being  oppowd  by  a  limilar  but  smaller  projectioa 
of  the  thorax,  the  whole  reaembli^g  a  naii*  of 
great  but  aomewhat  unequal  pincers,  M  which  the 
body  of  the  insect  is  the  handle.  It  ia  a  native  of 
Bnza 


HERCVNIAN  FOREST  (Lat  Hemma  tOvt;    I 
^^.  Herbynia  kyil,  or  Ha-kgnion  orot),  &e  general 


Caipathian  Mountains.     Different  andent  writers, 

however,  apply  the  name  sometimes  to  ime  part,  I 

sometimes  to  another  of  the  range.    Aristotle  nutea  I 

the  Ister  (or  Danube]  take  it*  rise  in  it    Caaar,who  ' 

eetimates  it  at  nine  days'  journey  in  breadth,  and  [ 

whole  of  the  niountMn-rangea  in  Germany  north  I 
of  the  Danube ;  while  some  identify  it  witli  the 
Bohranian  Foreat,  and  others  with  the  Thmingian  i 
Forest.    Modem  geographers  apply  the  term,  for  , 
the  moat  part,  in  a  very  arbitrary  manner. 
HERD  GRASS.    See  Bznt  Grass.  : 
HBBOEB,  JoKAKH  OoTTVBiKD  TON,  au  illni- 
tcious  German  thinker,  was  bom  at  Momngen,  in  i 
Eaat  Russia,  in  1744,  and  studied  philosophy  at  ' 
KSnigsberg  under  Kant,  for  whom  he  conceived  an  i 
entliusiBatic  admiration,  although  subaequenUy  he  I 
became  one  of  his  moat  resolute  opponents.    Hctb, 
also,  he  node  the  acquaintance  of  Hamann  (q.  v.],  ' 
who   firat    introduced   him   to    the  Oriental   Ian-  | 
guages  aud  literatures,  and  mode  bim  oppreciats 
the  poetic  beauty    of   the   primitive  civiliBationB.  | 
In  1T64,  he  was  appointed  assistant  professor  and 
1__  _.  ,^.   r..t,..,..,   o_u__,  ot^Higa,whew  < 


Ushed  his  first  works. 


ly  admired. 
rragmeatt  G 


and  fiery  vehemence,  he   attacked   the  vretohed 
pueiilities  and    errors    of   ths   national  literature 
of  the  day,  and  the  Kriti»ehe   WOUer  (lit.  Critical 
Forests,    1769),    once,    but    no    longer,    of    great    i 
theological  importance.    Theae  two  worka  contain    ' 
the  germa   of  all  that  is  eSBeotially  peculiar  and 
characteristic   in   H.'s    thinking.      It  was   during    ' 
a  temponu7  residence  at  Strasbuig  that  Goethe    I 
bis  acquaintance.    The  latter  was  five  yean    ' 
younger  tiion  H.,  and,  OB  yet,  nameleas  in  liteta-    | 
tnre ;   while  H.,  bj  his  FragmeTtlt,  was  kindling 
with  new  fire  the  soul  of  Germany.    Goethe  almost    I 
worahipped   him ;    he   tells   us   (in   his   Antol:^    , 
graphy)  that  the  veiy  handwriting  of  H.  eserciBed 
'-   magEcal  inEnence'   (sum  magi^he  Qtiadi]  over    ! 
1.     In  1T7S,  on  the  recommendatiDn  of  Goethe, 
was  invited  to  Weimar  by  the  GiBjid  Doke,    | 
and  appointed  ooort-preacher  and  conaistorial  conn-    | 
cillor.    Here  he  resided  until  his  death,  wbidi  took    i 
place  ISth  December  1803.    H.'s  writings  are  very    1 
□nmerous,  amounting  in  all   to   60   vou.  (Statte    i 
1827—1830).      They  may  be    divided   into   three 
claaees  :  I.  Those  relating  to  religion  and  theology ;    l 
2.  Those  relating  to  literature  and  art ;   3.  Those    , 
~  '  ~ ' '      to  philosophy  and  history.   As  a  theologian,    | 
t  important  work_ia  lus_G'ei»i  der  Atbr. 


Dr  James  Marsh,  2  vols.  Bnriington,  1833)7  Aa 
a  philosopher,  he  has  left  bdiina  >"""'  a  fund  of 
valuable  observations  on  nature  and  mankind.  Hia 
jdiiloaophioal  master-piece  is  his  unfinished  Jdtat 
jttr  PWowwAie  der  OexAtehU  der  MauiMat  (Ideas 
towards  a  Philosophy  of  the  History  of  Mankind, 
4  vols.  Riga,  1784—1791  :  4tJi  edition,  with  Lnden's 
Introduction,  2  vols.  Leip.  1S41 ;  translated  into 
English  by  T.  Churchhill  under  the  title,  OutUwt 
of  a  Phitetophy  of  the  History  of  Man).  In  this 
work,  all  the  rays  of  his  genins  converge.    Hi*  aim 


a  yet  beau  i 
r  hninanity  i 


t,Gooi^l(^ 


ideal  hnmanitj,  it  mi^kt  klmoat  be  raid,  a  Mb 
diTitut^in  vhoaa  terviee  he  I»bouni  with  restleas 
leal  Tbat  enthnvaam,  however,  which  made  E. 
I  to  effective  aa  a  mover  of  men's  minda,  had  iti 
fatal  oompensatiau  in  a  deficiency  of  artiatia  ezcel- 
IcDM.  His  wntings  have  not  that  fine  perfection 
of  style  and  method  whicfa  will  enable  them 
to  float  down  the  stream  of  time  unmolested. 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  hii 
Gedk/Ut  VoOc^Uder,  and  tiie  Cid,  the  last  of  which 
ia  considered  by  the  Spaniards  themselves  to  be 
truly  Spanish  in  its  spirit.  See  E.'s  £e6en&tiii, 
executed  by  his  son  (ErUng.  6  parts,  1846—1847). 

HEREDITAHENT,  in  English  Law,  a  co: 
preheoBiTe  word,  ioclading  everything  that  goes 
the  heir-at-law.  It  is  often  divided  into  corporeal 
and  incorporeal.  Thus,  a  house  or  land  held  in 
freehold  is  a  corporeal  hereditament ;  while  tithes, 
advowBons,  ko,,  are  incorporeal,  being  merely  rights 
in  cennection  with  corporeal  things.  The  word 
incladis  some  things  penonal  as  well  as  real,  la 
when  a  chattel  right  is  carved  out  of  an  estate  of 
inheritance. 

HEBEDITABIKESS.  The  inflnenee  exerted 
by  parents  on  the  qualities  of  their  ofipring  is 
aniveraaUy  admitted,  but  the  rdatrve  amount  of 
influence  which  each  parent  exerts  is  still  to  some 
eiteat  an  open  question. 

The  genual  structure  of  the  body,  the  height,  the 
degree  of  development  of  the  bones  and  muscles,  the 
tendency  to  obesity  or  leanness,  Ac,  seem  to  depend 
sa  frequently  on  one  parent  aa  on  the  other,  in  the 
case  ol  man  ;  but  in  many  animals,  aa  the  dog, 
horsey  Ac,  the  father  moat  frequently  detenninea 
thegeneral  form  and  the  eize  of  the  body. 

The  colour  and  complexion  of  the  ofEiprine  fdlow 
no  definite  rule.  Sometimes  the  colours  of  the  two 
puenta  ap^r  undiluted  in  the  offspring,  aa  in  the 
case  of  a  piebald  colt,  resulting  from  the  union  of  a 
hay  stallion  and  a  white  mare,  while  in  other  cases 
an  intermediate  tint  appears  in  the  young  In  the 
offilpiing  resulting  from  the  union  of^  individuals  of 
the  da^  and  iftiite  human  races,  we  have  this 
intermediate  tint  developed ;  but  it  is  beUeved 
that  the  colour  of  the  father  usually  predominates 
over  that  of  the  mother. 

A  very  curious  department  of  this  subject  is  the 
transmission  to  the  ofbpiing  of  special  mark*  or 
defonnities  exhibited  by  one  of  the  parents  or  more 
remote  ancestors,  and  not  common  to  the  species. 
NtsTus  (or  motW^s  marks),  moles,  harelip,  growths 
of  hair  in  uoasual  places,  an  unusual  number  at 
Qngeis  or  toes,  and  special  malformatious  of  the 
heiut  and  of  other  tamaa,  have  been  frequently 
tnced  to  hereditary  infiuence.  It  is  deaerving  of 
remai^  that  these  peculiarities  have  a  tendency  to 
shew  themselves  in  alternate  generations,  or  even 
at  grc&ter  intervals.  Bnrdach,  Blumenbach,  and 
other  eminent  physiologists,  have  held  the  docta^ne, 
that  parents  (woeUier  d^  or  men)  who  have 
sufiered  aocidental  or  intentioual  mutilation  of 
certain  pwta  (as,  for  example,  the  tail,  fingeis,  &«.), 
often  produce  oSaping  which  inherit  these  injuries ; 
'     '  -'■ "--  dogs  with  cropped  tails  <rften 


1  possibly  may  be  doubtful),  the  results  ... . 
probably  dne  to  an  impression  on  the  mother'a 
mind  nther  than  to  an  hereditary  tendency.  The 
immemorial  practice  of  the  Chinese  in  stunting  the 
feet  of  their  women,  has  not  produced  a  natnial 
variety  with  that  peculiarity. 

McnH,  in  his  Intnkhtctioa  io  MtM<d  PhUo»vphg, 
ohaerrss  that  there  are  latent  powers  or  tendencies 
whioli  have  been  inherited,  and  which  dtea  remain 
nnknomi  unto  broof^  out  by  peculiar  drcum- 


stancea.  He  gives  the  fanniHar  example  of  the 
pointer.  The  habit  of  pointing  at  game  is  originally 
an  acquired  one ;  but  so  strongly  does  this  habit 
become  seated  in  the  race,  that  the  very  fitst  time 
the  youDS  pointer  ia  taken  into  the  field,  he  will 
stand  and  mark  it,  thus  developing  a  purely  here- 
ditary instinct.  'Exactly  in  the  same  way,'  he 
adds, '  we  find  in  nmn  peculiarities  of  mind,  temper, 
thon^t,  habit,  volition,  &c,  appeariag  and  reamiear- 
ing  m  &miliea  and  races.  Lord  Brougham  found 
some  of  his  grandfather's  writing  exactly  resem- 
bling hia  own  [which  is  very  peculiar],  though  the 
cnndfather  had  died  before  he  waa  botn,  and  his 
father's  was  quite  different.'  It  is  alleged  that  the 
children  of  skilled  artisans  are,  as  a  rule,  more  apt  at 
etty  manipulations  than  the  children  of  ordmary 
kbourers,  and  that  hence  the  popnlation  of  certain 
towns— Birmingham,  for  example — has  a  great 
advantage  aver  that  of  other  towns  in  point  of 
manufanuring  industry. 

It  ia  well  known  that  longevity  or  the  reverse,  a 
tendency  to  great  fmitfulneas  or  to  sterihty,  pecu- 
liarities in  the  decree  of  delicacy  in  ijie  external 
senses,  and  a  ipecia]  tendency  to  certain  diseases — 
as  gout,  pulmonary  consumption,  cancer,  Ac — are 
frequently  transmitted  in  hereditary  descent  from 
one  or  other  parent  to  the  offlipring.     The  predia- 

r'Idon  to  any  special  disease  may  t>e  transmitted 
either  psient ;   but  where  both  parents   have 
been   affected,  the   offspring   are   especially  liable 
I  suffer  frem  itL     Deformities  and  diseases,  also, 
igendered  by  circumstances  to  which  the  exposure 
lifelong,  or  affecting  successive  generationa,  are 
ore  cerbunly  and  conspicuously  hereditary. 
Hereditary  Tendency  to  Jieitial  Diteaae. — Aa  the 
mental  oonstitniion  in  general  is  eminently  propa- 
gable,  the  hereditary  tendency  in  mental  (Usease  is 
more  familiar  and  better  demonstrated  than  In  other 
forms  of  morbid  action.     One  observer  attributes 
six^eventha  of  the  cases  of  insanity  to  this  cause. 
In  France,  and  among  the  affiuent  cUases,  one  case 
'     every  three;  among  the  pewnta,  one  in  every 
1,  is  found  to  occur  in  families  predisposed  to 
alieoation.     In  Italy,  the  proportion  is  nearly  the 
same.    When  atating  that  derangement  is  trat^  to 
tronamitted  taint,  expreeaion  ia  giveu  to  the  com- 
plex proposition,  Uist  mdividuals  who  have  inherited 
an  unhealthy  cerebral  organisatioo,  or  bodily  qooU- 
ties,    such    aa   gniemia.   iuciunpatihle  with    sound 
mental    action,   foil   victims   more   frequently  and 
'  levitably  to   inunity  than  those  physically  and 
lentatlf  robust  would  do.     Experience  shews  that 
-  particular  forms  of  physical  degeneration,  such 
rickets,  copaumptioo,  in  like  manner  particnlaF 


of  slienatioii 
uncontrollable  and  ioaatiable  desire  for  stimulants. 


thatthi 


the  suicidal  impulse  appeoiB  ii 


B,  while  the 


„    the   heritage   of   a  third-     There 

laws  by  which  this  proclivity  seems  to  operate. 
Not  merely  are  there  more  females  than  males 
actually  insane,  but  there  are  more  hereditarily 
disposed  to  be  insane.  In  connection  with  this  it 
must  be  cbaervad  that  women  are  more  exposed 
W  constitutiiui  to  the  exciting  causes  of  insanity 
tnui  "^ftl*^!  and  tiiat  as  infants  they  more  readily 
acquire  the  mental  tone  of  the  mother.  But, 
moreover,  the  madness  of  the  mother  is  more 
frequently  transmitted  than  that  of  the  father. 
Fnmch  authorities  record  that  of  467  cases  of 
mental  affectiona,  279  were  traceable  to  the  mother : 

" lian  similarly  records  76  out  of 

taint  exists  on  the  side  of  the 
mother,  a  greater  number  of  children,  and  a 
greater  number  of  daughtera,  are  bom  of  nnsonnd 
mind.  But  this  disposition  to  diaeaae  of  the 
matter  it  manifested  in  the  same  famify 


t.LiOogle 


HEEEDITAET  PRITILBGBB  AND  POSSESSIONS— HBREFOEDSHIRE. 


ID  Ttkrioiu  fonos — in  one  member  suffermg  under 
«pilepiy,  another  under  nunia.  another  under  aooen- 
tlictty  or  delmions.  Even  the  Ust  are  exhibited 
in  mceemiTe  genetationa.  Oxford,  who  fired  at  the 
Queen,  fail  father,  and  grandfather,  all  believed 
tbenuelvei  to  be  8t  PauL— Holland,  Itedieal  No^, 
Ac;  hfuxe,  L'Htridtti  HaturtUe. 

HEREDITARY  PRIVILEGES  AND  P08- 
BES8ION8.  The  question  oE  the  adminibilitT 
of  hereditary  rights  and  pririlegee  has  been  much 
a^tat«d  with'regard  to  three  pointi,  eepeciallj 
in  more  recent  timea.  The  fint  is  heraditary 
nonarchj.  The  '  divine '  right  of  kings  is  now  littb 
'   '   '    ;  felt  to  be  incompatihie  with  modem 


..  .  .  I  of  tlie  pbiitica]  relationi  of  society;  and 
iba  ddence  of  the  tiereditarf  tranaminaion  of  t^ie 
mpreme  power  of  the  state  u  tather  rested  on  the 
ground  M  political  expediency  and  necegaity.  The 
animositie»  and  distnrbancea  of  public  aSam  that 
attend  the  erer-reciLmng  election  of  a  head  of  the 
e  avoided,  it  ii  H«nedi  by  making  power 


B  law  ol  mieceuion;  while  the  dangers  and 
diaadvantagea  which  might  ariie  from  an  authority 
depending  upon  the  chuice  of  Inrtb,  are  capable  <^ 
bemg  neatrdised  by  tnatitationi  which  prevent  the 
monarch  from  doing  harm,  even  if  there  were  not 
every  reason  to  hope  that  self-interest  will  lead  him 
to  use  the  power  which  is  tbe  btrtb-ligbt  of  his 
tamuly,  for  the  permanent  hononr  and  advantage  of 
that  family,  and,  therefore,  of  the  commonity  with 
which  it  is  indissolably  bound  np.' 

Another  and  perhaps  more  difficult  aspect  of 
the  question  is  with  regard  to  hereditary  classes, 
dignm«*,  and  offices  in  the  atste  over  imd  above 
the  hereditary  monarch.  One  thing  is  now  univers- 
ally agreed  upon,  that  the  transmission  in  individual 
fimiliea  ot  £gnit)es,  rights,  and  offices,  involving 
ential  part*  of  govcnunent,  such  aa  the  sapreine 
1 —    -J    JQgtice,    and    other    attributea    -' 


sovereign^  is  inconeisteat  with  the  veiy  idea 

a  state.    The  splitti  •  "  -   -- 

of  petty  Bovereignt 

empire  become  hereditary,  is  a  aigiiat  imtance  of 


It  ia  another  queetdon  whether,  oa  a  political  tusti- 
tntion,  a  class  with  certain  hereditary  privilt^es 
may  not  be  advantageona  or  even  necessary  as  an 
element  of  stability,  and  as  affording  a  soorce  of 
trained  statesmanship.  Society  has  a  longer  life 
than  tiie  individuals  that  compose  it,  and  should 
have  further-stretDhiop  viewa— '  looking  before  and 
aftar:'  and  it  is  ehieSy  in  the  great  historical 
lamiliM  of  a  nation,  that  anch  extended  views  grow 
np  Miid  are  cheri.^ted — bmilieB  whose  traditions 
fonn  part  of  the  national  history,  and  which 
natnroUy  identify  their  fntnre  with  the  national 
proaperity  and  dignity.  Besides  their  traditions 
and  welt'dereloped  natdonal  instinctB,  the  individual 
members  of  sa^  families  enjoy  other  advantages 
as  political  and  social  lesdem.  Their  nsnsUy  good 
education,  and  their  well-secured  poageeaiona  which, 
in  addition  to  a  high  sense  of  honour,  raise  them 
above  having  racourse  t«  petty  shifts  and  jobs, 
ynalfft  them  valuable  as  examples  aod  as  adniims. 
traton  in  a  commoDweolth  vrtiich  aims  at  disnity 
Vid  stabili^.  Oarried  to  an  extreme  length,  as 
waa  the  case  in  France  prior  to  the  Ei^t  revolution, 
the  hereditary  privileges  of  the  nobility  became  a 
sonrce  oi  social  discontent  and  disorder;  bnt  limited 
as  in  the  United  Eingdom,  heredituy  privileees 
and  dignities  are  fonnd  to  be  no  way  incompatible 
with  the  ntmoat  social  ezjianaion,  and  are  iu  reality 
M  pt^mlar  as  to  be  admittedly  a  happv  feature  in 
Um  amotore  of  society.   It  is  further  to  be  observed. 


that  as  great  families  with  privilwes  and  titles  are 
from  time  to  time  dying  out,  whua  others,  throarii 
diatinguighed  pnblio  servioeB,  are  raised  to  ua 
rank  of  nobili^,  that  degree  of  infuiian  of  new 
blood  is  kept  up  which  give*  vigour  to  tiie  t^ttua, 
and  at  least  prevents  the  BritiAi  aristocracy  from 
d^«aeratiQg  into  on  effete  or  antiquated  cast& — As 
re^uds  the  eooaoinic  view  of  hereditary  right  to 
private  property,  see  J.  3.  Mill's  Politiad  Ecmomg. 

HEEEDITABT  RIGHT,  strictly  spoakinfc 
meooa  the  right  of  sucoeasion  as  an  heir-at-law. 
The  foundation  of  this  right  is  nothing  but  oon- 
venience,  the  principle  being,  that  if  a  man  does 
not  by  will  appoint  nis  own  heir,  the  law  will  do 
it  for  him ;  and  the  law,  in  doing  this,  pr 
according  to  certain  degrees  of  relatdonship. 
therefore  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  thera  is  any- 
thing in  mere  hareditary  right  which  is  divine,  at 
superior  to  that  which  reoilta  from  tha  rodisal 
ri^t  of  ownership.  It  is  a  seoaodary  and  substi- 
tutional right,  the  principal  and  primary  ridit 
being  that  by  which  the  owner  of  land  is  enti£il 
to  say  who  shall  at  his  death  enjoy  that  hmd. 

HBTKKPORD,  a  city,  parliamentary  and  muni- 
cipal borough,  and  capiUl  of  the  connty  of  the  same 
name,  is  sttoated  in  the  fertile  and  highly  cultivated 
TBlley  of  the  W^  134  miles  weat-ninth-weat  of 
London.  The  principal  building  is  the  cathedral,  a 
noble  edifice,  which,  after  having  been  substantially 
restored,  was  reopened  in  1863.  8(  James's  ohnroh, 
built  in  1668,  is  an  ornament  to  the  city.  A  very 
interesting  old  map  of  the  world,  said  to  data  from 
the  13th  c,  and  other  geographical  works,  are 
deposited  in  the  chapter-house  and  libracy.  Bendea 
many  other  public  buildings,  H.  oontoins  nnmeroos 
benevolent  and  edncatianal  institutions,  among  Uw 
latter  of  which  are  several  important  free  soEooliL 
.mco^ 

its  5  aaaool  fairs,  that  held  in  October  is  perhaps  the 
largastintheoountyforaatUeandohesBs.  H.retunia 
S  members  to  parliament    Pop.  (1871)  18,347. 

HE'REFORDBHIRE,  an  inland  county  in  the 
west  of  England,  is  bounded  on  the  W.^r  South 
Wales,  and  on  the  K  by  the  oounties  of  Woroaster 
and  Gloucester.  Area,  534,S23  acres.  Pop.  (1871) 
125,370.  The  surface  of  the  county  is  hilly,  with 
oocaaional  valleys  opening  into  wide-spread  T^aias. 
Among  the  chief  hul-iange^  ara  tha  Blaak  Moun- 
tains on  tite  westen,  and  the  Halven  Hills  o« 
the  laslsi  ii  border  of  tiie  county.  The  whole  of 
H.  is  in  the  basin  of  the  Severn,  and  tbe  general 
direction  of  the  streams  ia  aouHi-east  toward  that 
river.  The  Wye,  with  it*  ^nents  the  Liigg,  the 
Arrow,  and  the  Teme,  ue  the  prinoipal  rivsrs.  The 
climate  of  U.  varies  with  tbe  devati^  Mid  the 
exposure,  but,  as  attested  by  the  •eneiat  lonoeri^ 
of  the  inhabitant,  ia  on  the  whole  exceadingly 
healthy.  The  soil  is  for  tiie  moat  part  a  duip, 
heavy,  red   loam,  which  inndaoes  good  oropa  of 

C'  1,  chiefly  wheat,  and  is  hi^y  favourable  to 
growtii  of  tre«s.  Oaks  and  appls-treas  afaonad, 
orchards  are  numenmB,  and  cider  is  made  in  gisal 
quantity.  Sheep  and  cattle  of  ezcdlent  t»««d*  am 
extensively  reared,  and  in  the  nortit-wwt  <rf  the 
county  a  useful  breed  of  horses  is  prodnoed.  Agri- 
culture ia  tlie  chief  emjdoymcnt  of  the  inhobitaots. 

H.,  or  at  least  tiie  greater  part  of  it,  formod  a 
portion  of  the  teiritoiy  of  tiie  ancient  Sllnres,  and 
was  conqnend  W  the  Romans  in  alxnt  73  a.  d. 
Dnring  the  so^wed  Heptarchy,  it  was  included 
in  Mercia.  Prom  its  pcaition  on  the  Welsh  border 
— a  portion  of  the  county  being  ineladed  in  tbe 
debatable  Und  colled  the  >MwehM' — H.  waa  Icag 
tiie  scene  of  frequent  oonteiti. 


tiGuutjl^ — 


HEEENCU— HBRTOED. 


HEBB'NOIA,  >  town  of  Spkln,  in  the  prOTinos  of 
Ciodad  Ilaal,  and  aboni  40  milei  north-east  of  the 
ai^  of  tJiat  name.  It  caniee  on  mannf  aotorea  ot 
■oa^  hM  %  lafgo  weakly  BMAet  and  »  population  of 

HVBBSY   (Or.  SairtMiM)   pruutiTdT  neana  a 
lAow*  or  eUcHcn,  and  in  ita  ^iplication  to  rebgionB 
iw.i;_r  »   .._^   +T   dwaignate   a*   well   the   aot  of 
1  Belt,  and  — '— ^^ — - 


^oui  commuo)^ 
as  the  heterodox  opinioni  thna  adt^ited  and  the 
party  which  nay  have  adopted   them.      '' 
Aoti   of  the  ApOBtlea  (oee  Act*  t.   17. 
zziT.  B;  zxriii.  22),  the  word  Menu  to  be  uaed  of 
a  Mct  or  partif,  abrtraoting  from  the  consideration 
of  it*  character  whether  good  or  bad ;  but  in  t' 
Bputlea  and  in  the  early  Chriatian  writeti   it 
auocot  inTariably  uaed  in  a  bad  aeiwB,  which 
the   aanae   uniformly  aooepted   in   all   Bubaeqnant 
tbe^ogical  literature.     Tbt   notion  of  hereey,  a« 
nndemood  by  theologieal  writen,  inTolve*  two 
ideaai  flnt,the  deliberate  and  voluntaryrejeotion  erf 
Bome  dootnne  pv^oaed  by  the  aupreme  an^iui^ 

baliered ;  and  aeoimdl^,  a  oontumaeioua  per 
in  anah  rejection,  with  the  knowledge  that  the 
belief  of  the  doctnne  ii  required  of  all  the  monbeia 
of  that  particiilar  leligtoaB  conunuaity.  Roman 
Clatholio  writen,  regarding  the  authoi^  of  their 


by  toe  £oman  Catholic  Choroh  aa 
baliered.  PiDteatant  writen  aeldom  u»e  the 
•xcept  in  rdation  to  what  each  aeot  rward*  .  .  .  _ 
n«*witi«l«  of  Cbriftiui  faith.  Beyona  this  point, 
indeed,  tJie  idea  of  hereey  h«a  no  proper  plaoe  m  the 
dogmatical  ayatem  of  the  FtottaiAat  lecte,  especially 


n  ret^tmce  to  other 


tqiprored  by  the  pope,  or  a  dogmatic 

pope  h'TT'^^  exprasily  or  tuiitly  receired  by  the 


the  rejection  of  a  doctrine  which  in  t^t  church 
hdd  to  oonatitate  an  eaeential  and  integral  portic- 
of  the  Chriatian  faith.  Apoataay  ia  the  complete 
abandonment  of  the  whole  ChnBtiaa  doctrine,  and 
the  renoncialion  of  the  Christian  profewion.  If  the 
intelleotnal  error  be  aocompanied  by  full  deliber- 
ation,  and  by  full  knowledge  of  the  motives  of 
belief,  the  h^eay  ia  called  Jormai ;  iboold  it  oriee 
from  ignorance  or  imperiect  kncwledfe,  it  is  styled 
itiattnal;  and  tOie  heresy  is  held  to  be  impotable, 
or  the  coutriuy,  acoon^ng  as  thia  igncrtuice  ia 
vincible  or  invincible- 
Even  in  the  apostolie  Idmea,  hereeie*  hod  arisen 
in  the  church,  and  before  the  council  of  Nice,  the 
catalogue  of  sects  had  already  swelled  to  consider- 
able dimensions.  Without  attempting  any  enumer- 
atiOQ  of  these  beiestes,  it  may  be  said  m  genenl 
that  the  aacta  of  the  eariy  centuries  are  all  ledncible 
to  two  olaiseB  i  (1)  Iluiae  whidi  attempted  to 
aeaodate  the  Chiigtian   doctrinea  with  Judaism ; 

g)  Those  which  ingrafted  Ohiiatianity  upon  the 
entile  religions  or  the  Gentile  philosophice.  And 
thi*  latter  <3sas  natnrally  subdivides  itself  into  (1) 
Hie  sects  which  were  tinged  with  the  errors  of  tiie 
oriental  philosophy ;  and  {2)  Those  which  drew 
tlieir  erron  from  uie  Gteciau  schools.  Of  all  these 
ws  find  traces,  more  or  leu  distinctly  marked,  in 
tiie  secta  of  the  later  age*. 

From  the  very  date  of  the  ettabMuneot  of 
Christianity  in  the  Soman  empire,  heteqr  appeara 
to  have  been  regarded  aa  a  crime  co^piizable  by  the 


dvil  law ;  and  Ccostantine  enacted  several  severe 
laws  for  it*  reineaion,  which  wero  continued  «nd 
extended  by  his  sucoasson,  and  were  ctjlected 
into  a  single  title,  Dt  Hieritieu,  in  tiie  Justinian 
code.  The  panaltie*  of  heresy  ordained  by  these 
enadmedts  are  very  severe,  extending  to  coipond 
punishment,  and  even  to  death ;  tad  they  all 
proceed  on  the  distinct  aasomption  that  a  crime 
•gainst  reli^on  is  a  crime  a^nat  the  state.  These 
ntaotmenta  of  the  Roman  law  were  embodied  in 
Hm  vaiiMiB  Qodsa  of  the  Enropean.  kingdom* ;  and 
in  oonaidering  the  history  oE  the  miSle  agea,  it 
ia  nscesBsiy  to  reoollect  that  tho  prindnU  abov« 
referred  to,  a*  to  the  aooial  bearing  of  we  crime 
of  hraesy  and  of  other  onmea  a^amst  religion,  per- 
vade*  tha  whole  lystem  <A  mediavial  jnrispnidenoa. 
It  is  fmther  to  be  remembered,  that  the  piinaipleB 
of  muiy  of  the  medieval  sects  were  anti-sooijj  and 
oommunistical,  aa  well  as  oppoaed  to  the  dooteines 
of  the  church ;  and  that  their  leaders.  In  many 
jnstsnoea,  by  adopting  violent  and  revolutionary 
mean*  Im  Uk»  propagMion  of  tiimr  dootrineo,  drew 


with  even  these  allowance^  Cathoho  historians 
themselves  admit  Uiat  the  medieval  prooednret 
agunat  heresy  were  in  many  inrtancM  «iees*)Te, 
a«  were,  indeed,  also  the  proca**et  and  penaltdea 
of  the  criminal  code. 

In  English  Law  (2  Hen.  IT.  c  16),  heresy 
consisted  in  holding  opiniooi  contrary  to  Catholic 
faith  and  the  determinatioa  of  Holy  Church ;  and 
by  common  law  the  ofTender  was  to  be  tried  in  the 
provincial  synod  by  the  arohbishop  and  his  council ; 
and,  after  ctmviction,  was  to  be  given  up  to  the 
king  to  be  dealt  with  at  his  pleaanre,  the  king  being 
competent  to  issoe  a  writ  Jt  har<efiao  eomlnmndo  ; 
but  the  ttotnta  above  lefaned  to  empowared  tlie 
diocesan  to  take  oognianee  of  heresy,  and  on 
oonvicrion,  to  hand  over  the  oriminal  directly,  and 
witbont  wailing  for  the  king's  writ,  to  the  uuuiff- 
m«jor  or  oUier  competent  officer.  This  statnta 
contioned  praotieally  in  force,  wiUi  certain  modi- 
fioationa,  Ol  the  29  Charles  H.  o.  9,  since  which 
time  heresy  is  left  entirely  to  the  cognisance  of 
the  eoolesiactical  courts ;  but,  a«  there  is  no  statnte 
defining  in  what  heresy  conauts,  and  as,  moreover, 
much  (S  tho  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
has  been  withdrawn  bv  the  various  toleration  acts ; 
and,  above  all,  as  the  effeot  of  various  recent 
decisions  haa  been  to  widen  slmost  indefinitely 
the  construction  of  the  doctrinal  fcnnularie*  of 
the  English  Church,  it  may  now  be  said  that  the 
jnriadictaon  of  these  courts  in  matters  ot  heresy  ia 
pnutioally  limited  to  preventins  minister*  <k  the 
Ectabliihed  Chnrch  from  preaching  in  t^iposition 
to  the  doctrine  and  the  artiale*  of  the  estaUiah- 
roent  from  which  they  derive  their  emolument*, 
and  that,  even  in  determining  what  is  to  be  con- 
sidered oontnuy  to  the  artialee,  a  large  toleration 
has  been  juridically  established.  See  the  leocnt 
trial  of  Dr  Rowland  Williams,  and  the  iudgment 
nven  by  Dr  Luahington  in  the  Court  tS  Arches. 
or  the  history  and  literature  of  heretical  sects, 
la  the  various  eccleeiurtical  historiooe,  as  also 
Stockmann's  Lexicon  Hreraium  (Leip.  ITIS) ;  De 
Cnsari's  H<trttio!ogia  (Borne,  1736) ;  Pritz's  Ket- 
ierlexkon  (Wtlrzbiirg,  1834);  Arnold's  .ffeteerAiitorw 
(Frankfurt,  169B) ;  Widch's  GachUhU  der  Ktttt- 
reUn  (Leip.  1762) ;  and  Hilger's  iJorsfaHunff  dtr 
HaraUm  (Bonn,  1S37). 

BB'BFOBD,  a  town  of  Pnuaio,  in  Uw  province 
d  Wes^tialia,  is  situated  dose  to  the  frontier  of 
lippe-Detmold,  on  the  Werre,  17  milae  sonth-went 
of  Minden.      Yom^sianning,    linen-i 


■lanning,    linen-weaving   and 
re  carried  on.  Fop.  {1871llaMa 


HSBIOT— HERUANDAD. 


HBBIOT,  Oeobok,  f<nmd«r  of  a  ni&gi>i£ceut 
hospital  at  Edinburgh,  the  son  of  a  goldniiibh  in 
that  city,  a  deacendanti  of  the  Herioti  of  Tntbnnm, 
Ewt  Lothian,  was  born  in  Jane  1563.  Admitted, 
in  May  I£BS,  a  member  of  the  Edinburgh  lucor- 
poratUtn  of  Ooldimitha,  ha  was,  in  1S9T,  appointed 
goldimitii  to  Anna  of  Denmark,  oonsort  oi  Jamea 
VL  of  SootUnd,  and  loon  after  to  the  kin;;.  On 
the  Bcocanoa  of  the  latter,  in  1603,  to  the  Sng- 
liih  throne,  he  weot  to  Londoo,  where,  ai  cooit- 
jeweller  and  banker,  he  unaased  conaiderable  riches. 
He  died  Febmary  12,  1624,  without  iuue,  and 
bequeathed  the  greater  part  of  hU  weftlth  to  the 
town-council  and  ministers  of  Edinboivh,  ta  found 
•od  endow  an  hospital  in  that  city  for  the  mainteu- 
auce  and  education  of  the  gona  of  poor  daceaaed 
or  decayed  boiseoes.  The  noble  structure  of 
Heriot's  Hospital,  from  a  deai^  it  i«  beliered,  by 
Inigo  Jo»^  was  completed,  in  1619;  at  a  oo«t  ot 
£30,000  Bteriing.  After  the  battle  ot  Dunbar,  in 
IdfiO,  Cromwell  made  it  a  military  hospital ;  hot  in 
165B  it  was  reatond  to  the  goTernois  by  Qenaral 
Monk :  and  in  16W,  30  h^  weK  admitted.  180 
boy«  are  now  muntained  and  educated  in  it,  GO  of 
whom  are  non-resident.  In  1766  the  annual  re* 
wai  £1966.  In  IS37  it  amonnted  to  £11.236, 
ing,  in  that  year,  a  surpins  of  £3099.  The  yearly 
rerenoe  is  now  about  £18,000.  Moat  of  the  ground 
on  which  the  New  Town  of  £dinbur^  ii  boilt 
belongB  to  the  hospital  The  reveaoes  greatly 
ceediDg  the  expenditure,  in  1S37  aa  act  of  parliv 
neat  was  procured  for  the  erection  of  schools  in 
Edinburgh  for  the  education  of  poor  children,  free 
of  all  expense.  Of  these  *  Heriot  Schools,'  there  are 
sixteen — viz.,  eleven  juvenile  and  five  infant  schoola 
— attended  by  npwuds  of  4000  boys  and  girls ; 
other  three  infant  achoda  are  to  be  added.  The 
children  who  are  elirible  to  then  oohooU  ue,  fint, 
children  of  -decayea  bfugesses  and  freeman ;  and, 
second,  ohildND  whose  parents  are  in  poor  circum- 
stanoc*,  and  who  reside  within  the  rovaJInr  of  Edin- 
bardi  i  bat  of  lat^  admission  has  alio  beea  given 
to  the  children  of  parents  reaidiDg  beyond  that 
limit.  There  is  a  system  of  tiDiwriea  connected 
with  the  Hospital,  both  for  the  boyi  who  are  edu- 
cated in  it,  and  for  othen  who  are  elected  according 
to  the  diaovtion  of  the  govemors — '  house  bursars/ 
£30  a  year;  and  'out  bursars,'  about  £20;  the 
former  established  in  1810,  the  latter  in  1826l 

HEiBIOT,  in  En{^i«h  Law,  is  a  kind  of  fine  due  in 
copyhold  eetatM  to  the  lord  of  the  manor  on  the 
death  of  the  oopybolder,  and  consista  of  the  best 
beast,  jewel,  or  chattel  that  belonged  to  the  deceased, 
liie  lord  can  enforce  this  right  bj  action,  or  seize 
it  brtni  nanu.  Sudu  a  right  is  practioolly  unknown 
in  freehold  eetatee  in  England,  la  Scotland,  all 
land  is  held  on  much  the  same  forms  as  copyholds  ; 
Mid  much  more  vexatious  things  of  a  similar  kind 
to  heriots,  nnder  the  nsme  of  reliefk,  become  due 
from  a  vassal's  heir  to  the  superior  on  the  vassal's 
death.  In  both  Muntaies,  the  practice  is  equally 
baiWwM. 

HB'BISTAL,  or  HE'RSTAL,  a  cooeiderahle 
village  ot  Belginm,  in  the  province  of  Liege,  extecds 
along  the  len  buik  of  the  Maaa  for  about  three 
miles,  immediately  below  the  city  of  Liege,  of  which 
it  may  almoat  be  considered  a  suburb.  Population 
about  7000,  principally  workmen,  who  find  employ, 
ment  in  tiie  ooal-mines,  the  iron  and  steel  works, 
which  sre  here  carried  on.  Some  mins  still  exist  of 
tiit  ca«tle  of  Heristal,  the  birthplace  of  Pepm  le 
GroB  (father  at  Charles  Hsrtel,  and  great-grand- 
father of  Cntariemagne),  and  from  which  he  had  his 
titia  of  Fepin  d'HeriitaL 

HITRITABIiE  axd  MOVABLE,  a  Scotch  law- 


distinctions  of  thin^ iriiichgo 
he  execntors  respectively.    iSe 
tain  extent  to  tho 
phrase  '  Heir  and  Executor '  (q.  v.)  in  England. 

HKRITABLB  BOND,  in  Scotch  I*w,  is  a  bond 
for  a  sum  of  aopty,  and  joined  with  it  a  conveyance 
of  land  in  seonrity  tha^eot  The  usual  deed  ia  now 
a  bond  and  disposition  in  security,  oorTespooding  to 
the  English  mortgage  (q.  v.}. 

HERITABLE  JURI8DIOTIONS,  a  remark- 
able class  of  jarisdictacaiB  held  hereditarily  frtxn  tlie 
crown  in  ScotUnd,  abolished  (1748)  by  20  Geo.  IL  c 
43.     These  jurisdictions  amounted  to  upwards  of  a    | 
hundred  in  number,  and  consisted  o'  "' — "*-■-- — 


xirrespondj 
•  and  Exec 


ities  and  bailieriea,  with  some  ' 
One  of  the  more  impratant  was  the  office  of  Lord 
Justice-general,  and  the  lordship  (rf  Arsyle  and 
the  Islea,  both  belongini'  to  the  fsn^y  <n  Aigyle. 
In  virtue  of  their  hereditary  rights,  the  posseaawt 
ot  these  jnrisdjctions  eierciiied  an  arbitiwy  power 
over  vassals  and  othen  within  the  limits  of^  their 
domain,  and  could  punish  them  by  fines,  scourging 
imprisonment^  and  even  in  some  cases  put  them  to 
death,  without  inteiferenoa  of  the  common  law.  As 
repugnant  to  social  policy,  and  more  parti^ilBrlir 
with  the  view  ot  extinguishing  the  authority  i^ 
Highland  chiefs  over  their  cl^s,  theae  heribsble 
JnnsdictioDS  were  abolished ;  the  poeaesson  receiv- 
ing payment  for  the  assumed  value  of  their  ri^la. 
Arayle,  alone,  received  £21,000  as  au  indanni^, 
and  altogether  there  was  ptud  by  govemmeot 
£102,037,  12a  2d.  The  abolition  of  these  odious 
jurisdictions  brang  followed  by  the  appointment  of 
sherifi  on  a  proper  footing,  this  great  Iwislative  act 
marks  an  important  era  in  the  history  of  Scotland. 

HERITABLE  SECURITIES,  the  name  given 
in  the  law  of  Scotiand  to  what  are  called  moit^ges 
and  chaiKCS  ou  land  in  England.  These  were 
fonnerly  distinguished  into  wadset,  inteftment  of 


and  also  reserved  burdens  on  land,    AU  heritable    i 
securities  are  founded  on  the  theoty,  that  they  oon-    ' 
atitute  a  pledge  of  the  land  to  the  creditor  until  the    I 
debt  is  paid,  or  rather  the  debt  is  a  burden  on  the 
land,  BO  that  whatever  becomes  of  the  land,  into 
whatever  number   of   handa  it   is  conveyed    and    , 
transferred,  the  debt  still  inheres  in  it,  and  must  be    i 
first  paid  out  of  the  proceeds,  unless  it  is  redeemed.    | 
In  Scotland,  the  principal  heritable  security  is  now    i 
called  the  bond  and  dispoaition  in  security,  which 
consists  of  on  obligation  to  pay  the  debt,  and  a 
disposition  pro  tempore  to  the  creditor,  by  way  of 
security  till  the  debt  is  paid.    The  baud  must  b« 
registered  in  the  Register  of  Sasines,  to  complete  the 
tiue,  and  it  is  assignable  to  a  third  party.     A  power 
is  always  given  to  the  creditor  to  sell  the  estate,  it 
the  principal  or  interest  is  not  paid,  in  which  case, 
the  creditor  must  account  tor  the  surplus  after 
paying  himself  his  debt 

HSRITOK,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  is  the  owner 
of  land  in  a  psirish  liable  to  public  burdens.  The 
heritors,  collectively,  have  vested  in  them  the  tee  of 
the  church  and  churchyard ;  they  elect  the  parish 
schoolmaster,  repair  the  parish  church,  &0. 

HERM£.    See  Hxrkeb. 

HEBMANDAD,  Tkb  (Sp.  'Brotherhood'),  an 
anocLstion  of  the  principal  cities  of  Castile  and 
Aiagon,  bound  together  by  a  solemn  league  and 
covenant  for  the  d^ence  of  their  Uberties  in  seaaona 
ot  trouble.  These  confederacies  wmv  sanctioned 
by  the  sovereigns,  ■ 


power  at  the  nobles,  and  for  maintaining 


"t^Google 


pnblio  McnTitr  thnmdi  the  land  -with  no  co..  .. 
the  gommineat.  la  Aruoo,  the  first  Herauoidad 
WM  ertkbluhed  in  the  middle  of  the  I3tli  c,  and  in 
CMtik  aboat  30  yean  later;  irhile  in  1296,  3S  cities 
of  CastOe  and  Leon  formed  a  joint  confederacr, 
and  entered  into  a  compact,  bj  which  they  pledged 
themadTea  to  take  mmmory  TengeaacB  on  every 
noble  who  had  either  nhbed  or  injured  a  member  oE 
their  aaaodation,  and  lefoged  to  nuLke  j<ut  atone- 
ment for  the  wn»ig ;  or  upon  any  one  who  shoold 
attempt,  even  by  me  order  oC  the  kina,  to  levy  an 
Dnjnat  tax.  Diuing  the  Iodk  period  m  anarchy  in 
which  the  Christian  rulen  of  Spain  were  impoteat 
to  maintain  otder  in  their  own  dominiona,  the 
SaMta  Hemmndad,  or  Holy  Brotherhood,  had  pre- 
■onted  the  only  check  sgainat  the  nnboonded 
of  the  nobles;  and  Isabella  <^  Caatile,  seeing 
nefidal   effects   which  an   eztennon  of  the 


aeti  ot  violence  and  theft  committed  on  the  high' 
roads  or  in  the  open  conntry,  and  the  penalties 


MsembUea  of  tiie  depntie*  of  the  confederate  otties. 
An  Mmnal  contribution  wai,  moreover,  aueoaed 
on  every  hundred  hooseholdera  or  vedTUM,  for  the 
eqnipinent  and  maintenance  of  the  horsemen  and 
madrilUrot  or  officials  of  the  brotherhood,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  arrat  offenders,  and  enforce  the 
aentence  of  the  law.  Although  the  Hermandad  was 
regarded  with  much  distavour  by  the  aristooracy, 
it  continned  for  many  years  to  exercise  its  func- 
tions, until  the  country  was  cleared  o(  banditti, 
and  tiie  ministers  of  iuatice  enabled  to  disohar^ 
t^ieir  duties  without  hindrance  from  lawless  dis- 
torbers  of  the  ^eace.  In  1498,  the  objects  of  the 
Hermandad  bavms  been  obtained,  and  public  order 
eatabliahed  on  a  firm  basis,  the  brotherhood  was 
disorganised,  and  reduced  to  an  ordinary  police, 
soch  as  it  has  existed,  with  varioos  modifications 
of  form,  to  tiM  present  century.  The  laws  enacted 
at  different  times  in  the  juntas  <«  assemblies  of  the 
Harmandad  were  eompUed,  in  I48S,  into  a  code, 
known  as  the  Quademo  de  Uu  Lrga  miemi  de  la 
Htrmandad,  which  was  first  printed  at  Burgos 
in  1G27.— See  Mariana,  Hittory  of  Spain;  Pulgar, 
Begei  CaloUeo*;  Presoott,  Hitlory  of  Ftrdmaxd  and 
/soMIa. 

HEUMAN'N,  JrmASS  Oovrrnivi  Jakob,  a 
German  philolonst  of  great  genius  and  learning, 
was  bom  at  Leipsic,  28ui  November  1772 ;  studied 
there  and  at  Jena,  and  was  made,  in  1798,  extraor- 
dinary professor  of  philosophy.  In  1803,  he  was 
called  to  Kid  as  ordinary  profensar  of  eloqaenc«, 
becoming  in  additaon  prucMor  of  poetrr  in  1809) 
and  in  this  positian  ha  remained  till  his  death,  Slst 
December  1648.     Distinguished  by  Uberal-minded- 


in  the  schools  and  imiversities  of  Qermany.  The 
first  deparbnent  which  he  began  to  cultivate  on 
original  prinoiples  waa  the  science  of  metre,  of 
which  he  attempted  to  develop  a  philosophical 
theory  from  the  categories  of  Eant ;  and  on  tliis 
subject  be  wrote,  besides  his  HandbiuA  d.  ifetrii 
(1796),  several  Latin  treatises,  smone  which  his 
Epitome  Doetrinit  Metriea  (181S)  reai3ied  a  third 
editdon  in  1SC2.  CM  wider  importance,  however, 
waa  tiie  new  method  which  he  introdnced  into  the 
treatment  cf  Greek  grammar,  which  has  had  ita 


influence  on  the  grammar  of  Latin,  and  even  td 
iDoieca  langnaoes,  especially  of  the  German.  The 
prindpla  m  this  method  are  not  only  explicitly 
developed  in  bis  i)e  Emendemia,  Ratume  Oraat 
Orammatiae  (1801),  but  are  practically  illostrated 
in  his  numerous  editions  of  the  ancient  classics.  H.'b 
power  of  dealing  with  chronological,  topographical, 
and  penonal  questions,  is  shewn  in  his  Optucida 
(7  vols.,  Leip.  1827 — 1830),  which  also  contain 
some  pocros  breathina  the  spirit  of  Boman  poetry. 
Consult  Jahn's  Oot^riad  3,  dne  OedOcktniitr^ 
[Ldp.  1849). 

HERMANN,  or  KERMAK,  a  name  that  first 
appears  in  Qemuuiy  in  the  Bth  c  after  Christ,  but 
is  now  become  common.  It  has  been  erroneously 
transferred  to  that  prince  or  chief  of  the  Cheruaci, 
called  by  Roman  writers  Anninius,  and  by  the 
Greeks  Annenios.  This  personage  waa  the  son  of 
Sigimer,  and  was  bom  16  B.C  The  period  in  which 
the  youth  of  H.  was  cast  wss  fraught  with  the 
greatest  peril  to  Germany.  To  secure  the  frontiara 
of  the  empire  against  the  attacks  of  the  Germanio 
tribes,  the  Koreans  had  been  fon^  to  advanoe 
into  the  more  torbulent  districts,  and  to  build  a 
series  of  forts  to  overawe  the  inhabitants.  In 
this  manner,  not  only  had  most  of  the  Celtio 
tribes  from  the  Alps  to  the  Danube  been  subdued, 
but  in  the  yeaia  from  9  fi^c  to  4  a-d.,  Drusus 
and  Tiberius  had  penetrated  into  the  north-west 
of  Germany  as  far  as  the. Elbe,  laid  out  a  number 
of  military  roada,  erected  fbrtroses  in  the  country, 
and  redoMd  the  different  tribes  to  such  dependenoe 
upon  Bome,  as  virtually  amounted  to  complete 
snbjagation.  With  so  much  prudence  and  caution 
hod  Tiberias  proceeded,  that  the  Germans  con- 
tinued to  all  appearance  on  the  best  terms  with 
the  Somans,  nadually  adopted  Boman  habits,  and 
frequently  and  readily  took  service  in  the  Boman 
anniee.  Thus  H.  and  his  brother  Flavins  had 
enn^sd  tiiemselves  nnder  the  Boman  standards, 
and  as  leaders  ot  Chemscan  auxiliaries,  had  not 
only  obtained  Boman  citizenship  and  the  rank  of 
knighthood  in  the  country  of  the  Danube,  bnt 
had  hkewise  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
'  lage,  and  a  deep  insight  into  the  arts  of  war 
piuioy  aa  practised  by  the  Bomana  Enriched 
with  these  experiences,  when  H.  after  the  expir- 
ation of  aome  years,  returned  home,  he  found  the 
state  of  affairs  coiuiderably  changed  for  the  worse, 
through  the  unskilful  despotism  of  the  Boman 
viceroy,  Qnintilius  Varus.  H.  now  conceived  the 
plan  of  delivering  his  country  from  its  appreBsors. 
All  the  tribes  and  leaders  as  far  as  the  Elbe  were 
secretly  summoned ;  Varus  was  lulled  into  security, 
and  induced  to  despatch  portions  of  his  army  to 
different  points,  and  with  the  remaining  portion, 
which  was  just  on  the  point  of  leaving  the  oountiy 
of  the  Cheriisci  for  the  Bhine,  to  quit  Uie  highway. 
He  was  thus  lured  into  the  impsnabls  distnots  of 
the  Teulobtirg  Fvcal  (either  in  the  upper  valkgr  of 
the  Lippe,  or  the  adjoining  Vrcu&Atia  tcnitory);  an 
engagement  took  place,  whieh  lasted  tor  three  di^s. 
T^  result  was  the  annihilation  of  the  whole  Boman 
armv  (9  A.  c).  When  intelligence  of  this  defeat 
reached  Bome,  it  exdted  the  greatest  constenaticn 
and  anxiety.  The  Gemians,  however,  who  had  only 
their  own  hberation  in  view,  prosecuted  their  vic- 
tory no  further ;  and  for  a  few  years  both  parties,  so 
to  speak,  hung  fir&  When  Oermsnicus  (ij-V.),  how- 
ever (14  A.II.),  assumed  the  command  on  the  Lower 
Bhine,  he  resolved  to  crush  the  barbarians.  In 
two  sacoessive  campaigns,  14  A-S.  and  10  XD.,  he 
redaoed  H.  to  ^«at  straits  -,  but  he  beins  recalled 
to  Bome  by  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  17  A.II.,  the  results 
of  his  victorious  aotivity  were  lost  From  this 
no  Boman  army  ever  ventured  ' 


i-.Google 


HERMAimSTADT— HERMAa 


fzom  the  BUne  into  tkt  interior  of  Gennany,  ftnd 
tbil  oiroujiirtanee,  which  decided  the  future  fate 
of  Gemuuif ,  must  be  ■scribed  chiefly  to  HernLonn. 
Nererthelew,  no  sooner  was  the  foreign  eaemy 
expelled,  than  the  internal  fendi  broke  oat  with 
mora  vitdence  than  ever.  In  the  conne  of  these,  H. 
wai  slain  bv  his  own  relatives,  in  the  STth  year  of 
his  age  ana  twelfth  of  his  leadenhip.  Tadtui  aay* 
of  him :  '  He  waa,  without  donbt,  th»  deli*erer  of 
Oermany ;  and  nnlike  other  kings  and  generals,  he 
attacked  the  Bmnan  people,  not  at  the  commeDCe- 
ment,  but  in  the  fulness  of  their  power ;  in  battles, 
he  was  not  always  successful,  but  ne  was  invincible 
in  war.  Ha  still  lives  in  the  songs  of  the  barbarians, 
though  unknown  to  the  annals  of  the  Qreeks,  who 
adtuire  only  what  belongs  to  themselves  ;  by  the 
Bomans,  he  ia  not  eetiniated  according  to  his  merits, 
because  in  our  admiration  for  the  past,  we  oeolect 
the  preMnt.'— Compare  Wietersheim,  Der  FMxug 
da  Qomaniau  an  da-  Weter  16  n.  Chr.  (Leip.  I860] ; 
Masamano,  Armiitiud,  CAervtconim  Dux  aa  Dean, 
h&eniior  Oenataua  (Lungo,  1S39). 

HEOtMANNSTADT  (lAt  COintunt,  Hung. 
Sami-Stebai\,  an  importnnt  town  of  Austria,  capital 
of  the  crown-Und  of  Transylvaiiia,  is  beautifully 
titusted  oD  the  Cibin,  or  Zi^o,  an  afSuent  of  the 
Alnta,  about  70  miles  weat-oorth-wert  of  the 
town  of  Cronstadt.  H.  ia  the  seat  of  the  Austtiu 
governor  of  Trvisylrania,  and  of  a  Greek  noo- 
nnited  bisbop,  and  is  the  heod-qoarten  of  the  12th 
corps  of  the  imperial  Bimy.  Pleaaing  jiromenadm 
surround  the  town,  and  the  district  m  which  it 
is  placed  is  fertile  a«  well  as  beautiful.  Tan- 
ning, wax-bleaching,  and  the  manufacture  of  clotii 
(linen  and  woollen^  cembe,  paper,  and  gunpowder, 
chiefly  employ  the  inhabitants.  The  local  trade  ii 
ooDsidenble.  Pop.  (1869)  18,998,  one-half  of  whom 
are  Protestants. 

H.,  originally  a  village,  is  oalled,  on  the  ancient 
seal  of  the  town,  VWa  HermamiL  The  Hermajm 
from  whom  the  town  has  its  name  waa  a  citizen  of 
IfUmberg,  and  is  said  to  have  led  hither  a  oolony 
in  the  Imi  century. 

HEEMA'PHHODITB,  in  Botany,  the  term 
employed  to  deaignate  those  Sowers  which  contain 
both  tiis  male  and  female  oigans  of  reprodaction 
(stamens  and  pistils),  and  are  therefore  by  them- 
selves capable  of  producing  perfect  seed.  Flowers 
coutainiog  only  male  or  female  organ*  are  oalled 
uniMxuaTor  Dieliiumi  (q.  v.),  and  when  produced  on 
the  same  plaut,  Monaaoat  (q.v.) ;  when  on  differeut 
plants,  Diaciaiu  (q.  v.).  Hermaphrodite  flowers  are 
also  called  ntonocZuuru*  (Gr.  nunos,  one,  and  Uint, 
a  couch)  mi  perfect  floweta. 

HERMATHBODITISM  ia  the  term  em)doyed 
by  naturalists  to  designate  the  state  or  condition  of 
those  orgonislDS,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  in 
which  the  sexual  characteristics  of  the  male  and 
female  are  nnited  in  the  same  individual  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  fable  of  the  union  into 
ooe  of  the  bodies  of  Hermaphroditus,  son  of  Hermes 
and  Aphrodite,  and  the  nymph  Salmacis.  See 
Ovid'a  MdamoTjAoK*,  lib.  iv.  v.  347. 

Thera  are  two  kinds  of  hermaphroditism,  the 
tme  and  the  qiuriou* ;  in  the  former,  there  is  an 
actual  co-existence,  in  the  same  individual,  of  male 
and  female  reproductive  ergons ;  while  in  the  latter, 
there  is  only  on  appearance,  from  arrest  or  excess 
of  development,  of  a  union  of  the  distioctive  organs 
of  both  sexes.  True  hermaphroditism  ia  the  normal 
type  of  sexual  structure  in  most  plants,  See 
HKaKiPHRODUB,  in  Botany.  It  likewise  occurs 
normally  in  many  of  the  lower  iovertebrata,  and  as 

a  monstoisity  in  the  higher  invertebrata,  and 

occasionally '"  -~^-:"  ^^^„\> 


n  veitebrahk 


The  recent  ii 


zalions  of  Balbiani  shew  that 


certain  Infusoria  (as,  for  instance,  the  common  green 
Paramceoium),  at  all  events  ooeasionally  ^maeA  the 
phenomena  ol  hermaphroditiam.    In  aome  of  the 

poljTis  (as,  for  example,  the  Hydra  and *  "-- 

Actinue),  the  sexes  are  nnited  in  Uie  i 
dual;  the  same  is  the  case  with  some  of  t 
(namely,  the  Cteoophoni],  with  certain  otden  lA 
Helminthea  or  parasitio  worms  (the  Cestodea  and 
Tiematodes),  with  certain  Annelidea  (the  HimdiiMi 
and  Lumtoidni,  of  which  the  leeoh  siid  tbe  eaith- 
woim  are  typical  examples),  with  many  acephalona 
molluscs,  with  the  Fteropods  and  with  most  o(  the 
Oasteropods ;  while  in  the  highest  order  of  mollusc^ 
the  Cephslopods,  the  sexes  are  always  distincL 
Among  the  crustaceans,  the  Cirrhipeda  sie  for  tliA 
nMwt  part  hermaphrodites ;  but  in  the  other  and 
higher  iHdera,  if  hermaphioditism  exists,  it  i*  only 
as  an  abnoiinal  occnrrence,  and  give*  rise  to  > 
monstrosity.  (For  example,  the  common  lobster  baa 
been  observed  with  male  organ*  oo  one  *td«  of  ifes 
body,  and  female  organ*  on  the  otkar.>  Inie  but 
not  normal  hennaphroditism  i*  alao  ODoasionaUy  net 
with  in  insects.  In  fourteen  eases  given  1^  Oehasa.- 
heimer,  the  right  side  waa  male,  and  the  left  female ; 
and  in  nine  cases  it  was  the  reverae.  Profeswr 
Owen  ranarks  that  in  insects  hermaphrodites  are 
occasionally  fonnd,  where  the  characters  of  one  aex, 
instead  of  eitendmg  over  one-half,  are  limited  to 
particular  parte  of  the  body  which  agree  in  the 
mam  with  the  other  sex.  Thna,  in  an  individual  of 
Qaatropliaga  querela,  the  body,  the  antannn,  and 
the  left  wings  were  those  of  the  female,  while  tba 
ri^t  winge  were  those  of  the  male. 

True  (but  of  course  abnormal)  hermaphroditism 
ia  far  rarer  amoogst  the  verteblata  titan  in  inaacia 
or  crustaceans.  Vaiioos  instaDcas,  however,  are  on 
record  of  fishes  presenting  a  lateral  hermapliroditia 
strocton,  or  a  roe  on  one  side  and  a  milt  on  the 
other  i  and  reference*  to  various  caaes  that  have  bctn 
reported  may  be  foond  in  Sir  James  Y,  Simpson's 
iMmed  and  elaborate  article^  'Hermaphroditim,'  in 
The  Cydopadia  q/  Anaiona/  and  PhyAAog^.  Hie 
same  article  may  be  referred  to  fot  oases  of  ^imiUr 
hennaphroditism  in  birds  and  TnsiriTn^^  including 
the  human  subject^  namely,  oases  in  wliich  tber* 
were  female  structures  on  one  side,  and  male  stmo- 
tores  (more  or  less  perfect)  on  Uie  other. 

BetumioB  from  these  cases  of  abnormal  trae 
hermaphiwGtism  to  those  of  normal  true  heimaphn>- 
ditism,  the  question  naturally  suggesta  itsdf — Can 
these  tme  animal  hermaphrodite^  poaaessing  male 
and  female  organs,  fertilise  themaelveat  Aa  !at  as  it 
known,  none  of  the  terrestrial  hermaphrodites,  sndi 
a*  land-moIIuBcs  (the  common  snail,  for  example) 
and  earth-worms,  are  self-ioipregnating.  Titej  all 
pair,  and  in  this  respect  offer  a  strong  oontiaat 
with  hermaphrodite  planta.  But  of  aqoatic  ^hj—It^ 
there  are  maoy  self-fertiliiring  hermaphroditM.  For 
further  details  on  the  subject  of  hermapiirodiitiBQ 
generally,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Steenatnip'a 
U>atrstt(jiungen  liber  dot  VorbyTwnun  dt*  HtrmOr 
pSrociiJwmuj  m  da  S'olvr  (1846). 

Spurious  hermaphroditism  is  a   subject  of   too 
irofeasionol  character  to  be  noticed  at  all 


purely  a  prof 
fully  in  thesi 


sabject  may  be  referred  for  further  infor- 
to  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson's  article,  and  to  a 
case  recorded  a  number  of  years  ago  in  The  Laitat 
by  Dr  Gird  wood, 

HE'RMAS,  the  name  of  one  of  those  who  wera 
members  of  the  Roman  Church  at  the  time  at  lAidi 
St  Paul  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and,  aa 
may  be  inferred  from  the  apostle's  addresung  a 
special  greeting  to  him,  a  jierson  of  some  i-niin^iiri. 
among    bis    tellow-ChristunB.      He   waa^    thimglj 


tyCUUl^lt 


HERMENEUTICS— HERMEfj. 


a  obtained 


iGEideiit  at  Bome,  most 
DAme,  of  Greek  origin.  ^.,  however, 
even  more  consideratiaii  from  the  cii 
hii  lieing  the  reputed  aathor  of  the  well-known 
early  treatise,  called  The  Sliepliard,  which 
momy  clasied  amone  the  writings  of  the  apoatalla 
Fathers.  It  is  oscnbed  to  th»  E.  of  St  Fan], 
more  or  less  positively,  by  Origen,  Eusebius,  and 
St  Jerome.  But  there  is  a  aecami  H.,  who  lived 
about  the  middle  of  the  2d  c,  a  brother  of  Pins  I., 
Biabop  of  Kome,  to  whom  the  work  is  attributed 
by  ouwr  writers,  and  it  would  seem  with  greater 
intrinsic  probability.  The  work  contains  many 
iHiuioiu  which  appear  to  be  directed  specially 
agunst  the  Montamatic  erroni — a,  fact  quite  irre- 
concilable with  the  supposition  of  its  having  been 
written  in  the  apostolic  >^  Tlie  Sheplierd,  which- 
ever H.  mar  have  been  its  author,  seems  to  have 
been  originiuly  written  in  Greek.  However,  until 
recently,  it  wa>  known  only  by  a  Latin  version,  with 
the  exception  of  some  Greek  frai^enta  collected 
&om  the  quotations  of  tbe  work  by  the  Greek 
lUhen.  But  in  the  year  1956,  a  Greek  text,  said 
to  have  been  found  at  Mount  AtLoa,  by  the 
too  notoiions  M.  Simonides,  was  publiBhed  at  Leipaic, 
€be  genoineness  of  which  is  more  than  doabnnl ; 
■nd  an  Ethiopic  version  was  printed  in  1860,  by 
H.  Antoine  d'Xbbadie,  tbe  well-known  Abyssinian 
traveller  and  scholar.  Thi  Shepherd  is  a  mystical 
work,  divided  into  three  parts — the  first  containing 
four  '  Tisiona ; '  the  second,  twelve  '  Precepbi ; '  and 
the  third,  ten  '  Similitudes.'  It  has  been  deacribed 
at  the  PUfp-Mi  Progret*  of  the  early  church ;  and 
although  it  contains  bnt  little  of  positive  dogmatia 
teacM^  is  a  moat  interesting  monument  of  the 
Chiistian  life  of  that  period- 

HBRMBITBUTICS  (Gr,  BermeaeaUt,  an  inter- 
preter), tbe  idence  of  interpretation,  especially  ae 
applied  to  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  forms  a  branch 
<A  the  lame  aeneral  study  with  Exegesis  (q,  v.),  and 
indeed  is  o^en  confounded  with  that  science ;  but 
the  distinction  between  the  two  branches  is  yerj 
arked,  and  ie  perhaps  sufficiently  indicated  by  the 
ymoti^  of  the  names  themselves.  To  faermen- 
euticB  properly  belongs  the  '  interpretation'  of  the 
text — that  is,  the  diacovery  of  its  tnie  meaning ;  the 
Dvince  of  exegesis  is  the  '  exposition '  of  tbe  mean- 
j  so  discover^  and  the  practical  office  of  making 
mtdligible  to  others  in  its  various  bearinea,  scien- 
tific, literal,  doctrinal,  and  moral.  Hence,  uthotigh, 
aa  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  article  ExEoasia, 
the  laws  of  interpretation  have  many  things  in 
common  with  thoae  of  exposition,  it  may  be  laid 
down  that  to  the  especial  province  of  hermeneutica 
belongs  all  that  reguds  the  text  and  interpretation 
of  the  Holy  Scriptore ;  the  signification  of  words,  the 
force  and  significance  of  idioms,  the  modification  of 
the  sense  by  the  context,  smd  the  other  details  of 
philological  and  grammatical  inquiry ;  the  consider- 
ation of  the  character  of  the  writer  or  the  persons 
whom  he  addressed ;  of  the  drcomatancee  in  which 
be  wrote,  and  the  object  to  which  bis  work  was 
directed ;  the  comparison  of  parallel  passages ;  and 
other  aimilar  conmderationa.  All  theae  mqniriea, 
although  seemingly  pirely  literary,  are  modified 
by  the  viewa  enl^tamed  aa  to  tbe  text 

Scriptore,  and  especially  on  the  question   „. 

inapiraCion,   and  we   nature  and  d^;ree  of   sndi 
inapiration. 

So  far,  there  is  bnt  little  difference  between 
Soman  CathoUa  hermenentists  and  the  more  strict 
school  of  Protestant  eritics.  It  la  at  this  point 
that  the  fundamental  distinction  between  Cstholios 


f  Holy 


B  side,  and  Frotestanta  of  every  shade 
on  the  other,  may  be  said  to  begin.  With  the 
latter,  tbe  senae  of  the  Scripture  once  truly  aacer- 


tuned  from  the  Scripture  itself  mterpreted  \yj  the 
mlea  explained  above,  ia  r«gBnled  aa  final,  and 
ia  accepted  by  the  interpreter  aa  the  TevelatioB 
intended  by  God,  With  the  fonner,  the  individual 
judgment  which  ia  formed  upon  these  rulea,  and 
which,  as  to  the  actual  meaning  of  the  particolar 
raasage,  may  posaibly  coincide  with  that  of  the 
Frot^vtant,  ia  still  oontrolled,  and,  it  may  be,  over- 
ruled by  the  authoritative  interpretation  of  the 
church,  as  conveyed  in  the  decrees  of  cooncila,  or 
the  dogmatical  definitions  of  pontifb  accepted  by 
the  omversal  church.  From  this  circoitistauoe,  it 
is  often  inferred  that  in  the  Roman  Cathoho  Church 
the  science  of  hecmeaentics  ia  a  nullity,  and  that  no 
freedom  of  interpretation  is  practically  permitted. 
The  Roman  Catholic  critic,  however,  maintains  that 
he  exercises,  and  is  free  to  exercise,  on  the  text  of 
Scripture  the  same  liberty  of  interpretation  which 
the  Frotestant  may  claim ;  and  that  it  ia  quite 
possible  that  he  may  arrive  at  preciaely  the  same 
conclusions  with  the  Frofsetant  as  to  the  meaning 
of  the  Kripturai  Hzl  cotuddered  m  iia^f  tdone.  Bat 
he  diSers  from  the  Froteatant  ia  believing  that 
the  Scripture  does  not  contain  the  whole  of  Qod's 
revelation,  and,  therefore,  that,  as  one  passage  of 
Scripture  ia  modified  by  another,  bo  the  scriptural 
revelation  itself  may  be  modified  by  oUier  revela- 
tions of  God  conveyed  to  us  through  other  mediama; 
aa,  for  example,  that  of  tradition.  See  Tr^ditiox. 
As  regards  the  literature  of  Hermenentica,  most  of 
the  writers  named  in  the  article  ExiaisiB  have 
dealt  with  both  branches  of  the  acience.  They  aro 
for  the  most  part  ProtestanL  The  moat  remark- 
able modern  Catholic  faermeneatioal  writers  are, 
Hermann  Goldhagen  (Main^  1766);  SasmtUler's 
Henn»tt<iiieaBaent{VnV\;  iSii,yi?iIiulitutioJiuaip. 
Saeri  (1789) ;  Jahn's  BntMridim  Benaai.  (Tianna, 
1812);  An^er'i  Sermaieuaea  QtneroiU  (Tienna, 
1813) ;  Unterkircher's  BermaeaSea  BibUca  (1831) ; 
Bonolder,  Berm.  SibL  Prinelma  Jiatkmalia  (Fimf 
Kirchen,  1838^ ;  Schnittler,  Oraa^MeK  der  Ber- 
Toenadit  (Ratiaban,  ISU) ;  QIaire'a  Strviateidiea 
Sacra  (1840). 

HE'RHES,  the  name  of  a  divinitf  more  familiarly 
known  as  Mercury,  the  god  of  speech,  eloquence, 
the  sciences,  traffic,  the^  and  herds.  Under  his 
name  are  comprised  aeveral  mythological  person- 
ages, who  personified  the  eit«»ji»l  expression  of 
— ""'  whether  human  or  divint  The  principal 
are  Teti,   Thoth,  Thenth,  or  Taut,  the 

H.,  the  Greek  god  properly  so  called, 

the  Fhoinician  Taaut,  the  Carthaginian  Snmee, 
the  Etmsoan  Turms,  the  Chaldman  Duvanai,  and 
the  Latin  Mercurius.  The  oldest  of  these  was 
undonbtodly  the  Egyptian,  whoae  worafaip  appears 
as  early  as  the  11th  dynasty.  Thoth  waa  geuOTally 
represented  with  the  head  of  an  ibia  (A«o),  which 
waa  hia  living  emblem,  and  eipreesed  his  name 
in  hiero^yphs.  These,  according  to  the  legends, 
he  had  invented  and  revealed  to  the  monar^ 
Thamoa.  Many  reli^ous  hooka  were  believed  to 
have  been  written  by  him,  and  til  literary  oomposi- 
tiona  were  dedicated  to  >iim.  He  was  scribe  or 
clerk  of  the  gods,  and  in  tbe  fatore  stat«  juitified 
the  good  against  their  accusers,  aa  he  formerly  had 
Osina  in  the  trial  of  that  god  and  Typhon.  lo 
the  contest  between  Osiris  and  l^bon,  when  Horns 
had  torn  off  the  diadem  of  his  mother  Isis,  Thoth 
:pOTted  to  have  replaced  it  with  the  head  of 
_  _3W.  Locally,  he  was  lord  of  S^enu,  Hermo- 
polis,  the  modem  Eahmunin,  but  hia  worahip  was 
universaL  He  was  a  self-created,  self-exiatent  god, 
although  some  legends  of  later  date  make  him  the 
aoD  of  Chnumis,  or  of  the  Nile.  In  his  celestial 
character  he  was  identified  with  the  moon,  AaJi, 
and  was  supposed  to  preside  over  that  luminary. 


dtyCuu^le 


BOOKS. 


uid  the   iouIb   which 
He  iiucribed  bLbo  the 
r  PenOk,  ths  ti 
puadiBO. 
In  the  Phonioiaii  mytbologr,  Tuat 


it  their  hmbitation. 
of  moiurchi  on  the 
ife  of  the  Egypti&n 

rH.aeemi 


deiived  from  the  Egyptian,  and  he  waa  the 
Ifisor  or  ^ypt,  inventor  of  writing  and  tiie  sciences ; 
while  enouer  fonn  of  hia  naino,  SumeB,  is  that  of 
the  Pnnio  H.  of  Carthage.  It  is,  however,  cleu 
that  the  name  Taaat  ia  aerived  from  the  S^vptian 
Tet,  'word'  or  'anech.'  The  tradition  of  a  has 
paaaed  to  the  Araba,  who  reaognise  two  Hermoa, 
one  who  lived  1000  years  after  Adam,  called  b; 
the  Chaldeea  Outiai_or  Davanai,  the  great 


_  t  the  most  important  of  all  waa  the  Greek 
Hennes.  The  variooa  traditiona  which  make  him 
son  of  the  E^^rptian  Nilua,  whose  name  waa 
jr  proDOnnced,  or  the  sacred  Thoth,  are  dearlj 
Egyptian ;  that  which  derives  his  oiudn  from 
Ouranos,  and  Bemeca,  is  pvbably  the  FiuBnician 
myth.  Bnt  the  principal  EC  in  whom  the  actions 
of  the  otiien  cent^e^  was  the  son  of  Zeoa  and 
Mtua,  bont  on  Motmt  Cyllene^  in  Arcadia,  and 
originallr  a  Felaagian  divmitjr  who  presided  over 
cattle  and  commerce.  His  birth  is  placed  sub- 
sequent to  that  of  ApoUo.  Four  boon  after, 
according  to  the  hymn,  he  left  his  cradle,  and 
having  ^und  a  tortoiae,  invented  the  lAtlj/a,  or 
lyre,  nsing  its  shell  aa  a  aoimding-boaTd,  and 
in«lriTig  the  strings  out  of  the  entrails  of  a  sheep. 
A.t  nightfall  he  stole  fifty  of  the  sacred  herd  of 
&.pollo  from  Fieria,  drove  them  to  the  banks  of  the 
AlpheioB,  slaughtered  and  dressed  two  oE  lliem. 
To  escape  detwtion,  he  had  bound  his  feet  with 
branchea  of  the  myrtle  and  *""'"«lf  Apotlo, 
mia«ing  }iui  cattle,  dragged  H.  before  Zeus,  at 
Olympus,  who  conjdemi^  Tiim  to  restore  them ; 
but  Apollo,  enchanted  by  the  aound  of  the  newly 
invented  lyre,  offered  El  his  cattle  in  exchange, 
gave  bim  fais  whip  or  goad,  taught  liim  liow  to 
tend  cattle,  and  presented  bim  with  the  cadncens. 
In  the  Iliad  and  Odytaey  are  no  traces  of  his 
thievish  propenaitiea,  which  were  introduced  by  the 
Liter  poets.  In  the  Gigantomachia  he  liberated 
Zeut  from  T^hon,  and  restored  >iim  his  limbs. 
H.  was  messenger,  henUd,  uid  ambassador  of  the 
gods;  he  bound  Frometheiis  to  Csucasns;  killed 
Aj;^  with  the  hundred  eyes ;  liberated  the  wan- 
denng  lo,  &c.  In  the  events  ot  the  Trojan  war,  he 
cundncted  the  soddtsses  to  the  fatal  judgment  of 
Patia,  braiiglit  Priam  to  Achilles,  and  was  patron 
nt  tllyiaea,  to  whom  he  gave  the  herb  molya,  to 
libenta  him  from  Circe.  Man;  heroical  and  other 
penonages  were  descended  from  him.  As  god  of  the 
soienoea,  he  invented  the  alphabet  from  the  flight 
'  I,  astronomy,  and  nwnbers,  weights  and 

,  mosic,  the  lyie,  and  syrinx,  gymnastics, 
tactics,  and  the  cultivation  oE  the  olive  Many 
festivals  were  celebrated  to  him  in  Northern  Qreece 
and  the  islands,  as  at  Fhenea,  OyUene,  snd  Athens ; 
and  some  of  tjieoe  Hemuea  resembled  the  Satur- 
nalia, slaves  being  served  on  these  occaaions  by 
ir  masters.  Wa  worship,  is  fact,  extended  ail 
I  the  Feloponneans,  -Uie  islands  of  the  ^^ean, 
Asia  Minor,  aad  evea  Heaparia  or  iSaga»  Ormda. 
Amongst  Mimalu,  the  tortoise,  pig,  lamb,  ai 


ibis  and  the  gull  (lorus)  amoni 
palm-bee,  blMk-thom,  cinque-ioil,  and  purslane 
amon^  plants.  H.  had  •  local  worship  in  Samo- 
thrace,  where  he  appeued  as  one  of  the  Cahiri, 
under  the  name  of  Casmiloa,  the  ton  of  Hephaiato* 


or  Vulcan,  and  Cahirs.    In  the  Elensini 
he  was  represented  by  the  hieroceryx. 

The  idea  of  H.  seems  to  have  been  developed 
Srota  two  origins— the  ancient  Pelaagic  or  Arca- 
dian god  of  shepherds,  subsequently  conaideted 
the  patron  of  barter,  of  commerce,  without  any 
trace  of  intellectual  qualities;  and  the  Rusnidaii 
or  Egyptian  K,  inbodnced  by  commerce  into 
Greece,  with  all  the  attributes  attributed  by  the 
Orientals  to  their  deity.  In  art,  a  similar  develop- 
ment is  seen  from  the  old  sgilored  tnmka  or  pillars, 
called  Eermie  and  Uermidia,  retuned  till  a  later 
period,  bat  by  degrefs  ornamented  with  a  bearded 
Iiead,  to  which  sometiniea  are  added  pballio  nm- 
bols,  the  destruction  of  which  at  Athens  before 
the  asiling  of  the  Sicilian  expedition  led  to  a  fesrinl 
tumult,  and  the  fall  of  Alcibiadea  (q.  v.).  In  later, 
but  still  archaic  art,  he  is  repreaantcd  bearded, 
wearing  the  broad-brimmed  petasus,  and  holding 
the  twisted  caduceus.  At  the  time  of  Phidias, 
he  was  represented  unbearded,  with  curly  hair,  a 
crafty  and  charming  expression,  and  the  form  of  an 
athlete^  Instead  of  the  petasus,  wings  are  sometinies 
arranged  in  his  hair ;  his  boots  are  winged,  and  hij 
caducous  has  two  snakes  attached  to  it.  His  form 
ia  naked,  but  often  hsa  a  dtlamgt,  or  cloak,  doubled 
upon  his  shnulder,  and  his  lumd  holds  a  pnne  of 
money ;  while  the  cock,  referring  to  his  invention 
of  the  gymnasium,  or  the  hours  of  busnCM ;  ths 
tortoiae,  allusive  of  his  discoveiy  of  the  lyre;  the 
palm-tree,  emblem  of  hia  invention  of  letteta;  the 
gost,  referring  to  his  charge  of  herds,  and  pateni^' 
of  Pan ;  and  even  the  dog,  allying  bim  with  Annbis, 
are  placed  at  his  side.  The  most  remarkable  ^pe 
of  the  god  was  aa  earning  a  m(a  upon  his  shonldera 
(eriophoroi].  The  csi^ceus  was  gilded  at  the  topt 
paint«d  blue  in  the  middle,  mA  black  at  m» 
bandle- 

The  Etruscans  seem  to  have  derived  his  worship 
directly  from  the  Greeks,  and  represent  him  with 
the  same  attributes  and  type,  but  with  the  Etruacan 
name  Turmi,  as  the  Camillua  of  the  gods.  Bis 
worship  passed  into  Borne,  under  the  name  of  Uer- 
curius,  or  Mercury,  by  wliich  he  is  more  familiarly 
known,  supposed  to  be  derived  from  mercari,  ta 
traffic.  There  was  something  mystio  in  his  cult, 
for  the  /fdoUt  did  not  know  his  nature,  and  he 
originally  had  ihe  laurel  instead  of  the  caducena, 
and  the  name  of  his  mother  Maia  hod  b^n  given 
to  the  month  Mains,  or  May,  on  the  15th  day  of 
which  his  festival  was  held.  Ah  early  aa  259 
A.V.C.,  he  had  a  temple  near  the  Circus  Maximns, 
and  hia  statue  in  that  locality  held  a  purse.  At 
the  Porta  Capena,  there  was  a  well  sacred  to  him, 
and  the  merchants  aprinlded  themselves  and  their 

Eoods  with  the  holy-water,  obtained  by  dipinng  a 
lurel  branch  into  the  weU.  Tradition  made  hnn 
the  father  of  Evander  by  the  nymph  Carmenta,  and 
of  Larea  by  the  goddess  Lan;  bat  the  Bomaiis 
adopted  into  their  religious  System  the  Greek 
traditions,  although,  at  a  Ut«r  time,  under  the 
empire,  the  influx  of  foreign  religions  made  them 
coi^ound  him  with  the  Egyptian  Anubis,  and  even 
represent  him  with  a  dog's  or  jackal's  head,  and 
deoict  bim  of  a  golden  or  black  colour.  His  wi»ihip 
had  even  penetrated  to  Gaul,  where  he  was  adored 
under  the  name  of  Tentames. — GrUber,  Altiiait. 
WOrl^riwA  Voce;  Gerhard,  OriechitcK.  Mj/lM. 
(8vo  BerL  1854,  L  260) ;  Hartung,  BeL  d.  BOnter 
(Svo  Frib.  1843);  Bireh,  OaiL  Antiq.,  pp.  26,  27; 
Muller,  Ank.  d.  Eurut,  p.  660. 

HERM£?rlC  BOOKS.  Amongst  the  F^yptians, 
all  books  or  Htersry  compositionH  appear  to  have 
been  dedicated  to  Tlioth,  and  notices  of  this  nature 
are  appended  to  several  papyri  The  earlier  reIigioa> 
books,  such  aa  the  Bitual,  were  aapposed  to  hav« 


I,  Google 


HERMIT—HEEMIT  CRAB. 


he^n  written  by  the  fingers  or  under  the  dictation 
of  the  god  Thoth  himsdf,  imd  several  cbapters  of 
this  and  otlier  worka  are  stated  to  have  been  foond 
on  monnmenta  written  by  the  god.  Hence  the  word 
Iiermetio,  taken  in  its  ntoat  ejtended  eense,  meant 
inafored,  m  Theth  waa  the  acribe  of  the  gods. 
Tariona  traditioos  prevailed  ai  to  the  □amber  and 
nature  of  these  books.  Clement  of  Alexandria 
mentions  42  hermetic  books,  which  contained  the 
flam  of  ail  knowledge,  whether  humafi  or  divine: 
while  others,  as  lammichna,  raise  thmr  nunber  to 
20,000 ;  and  Manetho  gives  the  astronomical  ciphei 
of  36,626.  The  aeries  of  booki  mentioned  by  the 
great  anthora  were  :  1.  Sacred  hymna  of  Osiris ; 
2.  On  the  Life  of  a  King ;  3 — 6.  Asl^lo^cal  precepta 
and  obaerrations ;  7—17.  Coamography,  geography, 
and  choMgrapb^  of  Egypt  and  the  Nile ;  18 — 27. 
lAwa,  and  discipline  oFprieata ;  28— Sa  Medicine. 
Portiona  of  these  books  have  been  nndonbtedly  found 
in  the  luttAtia  papyri.  Under  the  name  of  hermetic 
books,  several  writing  pindpally  in  Greek,  have 
been  handed  down,  which  pretend  to  be  tiranslated 
&om  the  £^yptian,  and  m'TTiilj^^  books  may  hare 
existed  in  the  2d  centnty.  But  these  books  contain 
notionB  of  the  Neo-Platonic  school  of  Porphyry  and 
lamblichns,  and  appear  to  be  intended  as  philo- 
sophical works  givrng  an  eipliniation  of  the  geneais 
of  the  Cosmos,  the  nature  of  Qod  and  man,  in  anta- 

Kiism  to  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
m  sources  pattly  Egyptian,  portly  Persian  and 
Babbinical,  and  oOier  traditions  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  The  name  of  hermetic  writings  was  parti- 
cularly siTected  by  the  alchemists  and  aatrologeis 
of  the  middle  ages,  as  the  Tractatiu  Vert  Aureiu, 
by  Dominicus  Gnostus,  in  1610  ;  the  Tabula 
Smaragdma,  or  'Emerald  Table  of  Alchemy,'  in 
IMl  ;  and  variooa  others.  The  principal  tenets 
of  the  hermetic  books  are,  that  the  Creator  made 
the  Cosmos  by  bis  word  ont  of  fluid ;  that  the 
soul  is  a  nnton  of  light  and  life,  and  prMseded 
from  the  coamio  soul ;  that  death  and  life  are 
only  changeo,  and  tiiat  nothing  ia  destractiHe ; 
that  the  soul  transmigrates  ;  that  passion  or  suffer- 
ing is  the  result  of  motion. — Baumgarten-Cruzius, 
<fc  Libivrum  Htrmetkontm  Indtde  (Jena,  18S3) ; 
Hrmua  Tritmegvtui,  a  Soheible  (12mo,  Stuttg. 
1S56)  i  HtTVKt  Trimiegutia  [PoeaiancUr)  a  Farthey 
(Svo,  BeroL  1S54). 

HERMIT  (Or.  eranila,  Lat.  aranHa,  an  inha- 
bitant of  the  desert),  one  of  the  names  given  in 
the  eariy  ages,  and  stall  more  in  the  later  ehnrch, 
to  a  class  of  solitary  ascetics,  who,  with  a  view 
to  more  complete  freedom  from  the  caiee,  temp- 
tations, and  ibnsinesB  of  the  world,  withdrew  from 
the  ordinary  interconiae  of  life,  and  took  up  their 
abode  in  natural  caverns  or  rudely  formed  huts 
iii  deserts,  forests,  monntaina,  and  other  solituy 
places.  In  the  first  centuries,  the  names  of  Eremite 
and  Anchorite  (q.  v.)  were  indiaeriminately  applied 
to  these  solitaries ;  but  the  word  treoiita  having 
been  adopted  into  Latin,  it  is  more  commonly 
used  in  the  modem  langoaeee  which  are  derived 
from  the  Latin ;  and  the  (Armacs  nse  the  name 
EiiuiecUer,  whioh  is  of  the  same  signification.  The 
hermits  of  the  middle  ages,  like  the  primitive 
andiorites,  often  lived  in  comjJete  solitude ;  but  a 
much  more  common,  and,  in  itfl  influence  on  the 
church,  more  important  form  of  the  institute,  was 
that  of  a  commnnity  of  hermits,  each  possessing 
his  sepaiAte  hermib^e,  but  all  meeting  at  atated 
times  for  mas,  prayer,  religions  instraction,  and 
othet  common  and  pnblio  exercises.  The  variooa 
hermits  of  this  class  are  r^arded  as  constituting 
religious  orders,  and  althoogh  never  attaining  to  the 

Spularity  which  distinguished  the  Franciscans,  the 
.puchins,  the  Dominicans,  and  other  active  orders. 


they  fonn,  nevertheless,  a  numerous  and  not  nnin- 
fluential  element  in  the  spiritual  life  of  the  Roman 
Cathohc  Church.  It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work 
to  enumerate  all  the  eremitical  orders.  The  most 
remarkable  are — the  Hermits  of  St  Augustine,  who 
trace  their  ori^  to  the  holy  father  of  that  name, 
bat  are  subdivided  into  sevend  varieties,  which  bod 
their  rise  in  the  11th,  12th,  and  13th  centuries  ;  the 
Camaldolese,  founded  by  St  Romuald  in  1012 ;  the 
Celestines,  a  branch  of  the  Franciscans,  established 
by  Peter  Munone,  afterwards  Pope  Celestine  V, ; 
the  Hieronymitee  (q.  v.},  established  first  in  Castile 
in  the  14th  c,  and  thence  introduced  into  other 
parts  of  Spain  and  into  Italy  by  Lope  d'Olmeda  in 
1424 ;  and  the  Paolites,  so  called  from  St  Paul,  the 
first  hermit,  but  an  institute  of  the  13th  c,  whioh 
had  its  origin  in  Hungary,  and  attained  to  a  wider 
extension  and  a  greater  ^polarity  tiian  perhaps 
an^  other  among  ^e  eremitical  orders. — See  Helvot, 
Hutoire  da  Ordrea  JleligieiLC  ;  also  Wetaer,  Ktreha^ 
Lexiam,  art  Emaeditr. 
HERMIT  CRAB,  the  6. 

large  family  [Fagurldce)  of  ei , 

Decajioda,  and  sub-order  Arumunira  (see  Cbab), 
having  the  abdominal  or  tail  sennenta  much  more 
largely  developed  than  in  true  crSs,  but  undefended 
by  hMd  plates,  and  not  forming  an  organ  for  swim- 
ming, as  in  lobsters,  prawns,  and  other  Maeroitm. 
The  soft  and  tender  tail  requires  a  protective 
oovering,  which  the  instinct  of  the  hermit  crabs 
leads  taem  to  find  in  some  turbinated  univalve 
shell  of  suitable  size.  The  most  common  British 
species    {Pagurat  BemhaTdiu)    is   an    interesting 


a  appellation  of  a 


Hannit  Crab  [Pagnnu  Bemhardtti)  t 
uliaalDaioIiluitwlt;  b,ln>bcll;  c>J»ir-l 

object  t«  every  visitor  of  the  sevshore,  and  may 
be  found  in  abundance  wherever  little  pools  a 
left  by  the  tide '  on  a  rocky  or  shelving  ooai 
Shells  of  whelks,  periwinkles,  ka.,  may  be  sei 
moving  .  about  in  the  pools  in  a  manner  very 
different  from  that  in  which  they  were  carried 
*"'  their  original  moUnscoos  owners,  having  now 
:ome  the  property  and  habitations  of  hermit 
lbs,  by  which,  perhaps,  the  molluscs  were  eaten. 
On  the  slightest  alarm,  the  H.  C.  retires  into  the 
shell,  guarding  the  aperture  of  it  with  one  olaw, 
whitji  is  mu^  larger  than  the  other,  the  hard 
points  of  the  feet  also  projecting  a  little.  The 
whole  structure  of  the  ^njnial  {g  adapted  bo  such 
a  liabitBtion.  The  part  which  in  the  lobster 
becomes  a  floUke    expansion  at  the  end  of   the 

tail,   becomes   ir    ■■'^-    ■"     "     ~    J--    '- 

firmly  holding  b 


tyi^ioogle 


H.  C.  hold,  that  it  nuj  be  pulled  in  pieces,  but 
cannot  be  pnlled  ont.  Some  epeciee  have  mckeiB 
to  render  the  hold  more  perfect  Increase  of  aize, 
however,  renders  it  necesury  for  hermit  crsb*  to 
relinqnidi  their  old  ihelli  and  aeek  new  oaes. 
flermit  crab*  are  Ten  interestins  intcate>  of  the 
aqaarinm,  bnt  thor  locomotive  habitg  and  their 
Toratntr  make  Uiem  nnsuitable  for  an  aquarinin 
otherwise  very  finely  atocked.  They  feed  on 
molliucs,  and  on  all  the  animal  garbage  of  the 
■ea-ahore.— Some  of  the  hermit  craba  of  warmer 
olimatei  are  mnch  larger  than  the  Britiah  epeciea  ; 
tome  of  tbem  (geniiB  Canobila]  inhabit  land-ehella, 
and  (ome  are  found  even  at  a  dUtance  from  the  sea. 

HEUMIT  AGE,  the  cell  or  hat  of  a  single  hermit, 
and  sometimes  the  aggre^te  of  the  cells  occapied 
by  the  memben  of  a  single  conmtanity.  MaBy 
ul  then,  from  the  reputation  of  their  inmates,  or 
OS  being  the  soeiieB  N  certain  popular  miraculoiu 
legends,  attained  great  oelebrity,  and  became  the 
Duolei  of  important  ecclesiastical  establishments, 
and,  in  some  instances,  large  and  popolous  cities. 

BERMODA'CTSIj  (Ore.  Senna,  Mercury,  and 
J^utj/tot,  a  finder)  is  the  name  of  a  medicine 
that  bsid  a  bi^  repute  among  the  later  Greek 
and  the  Arabian  phyaiciana,  ai  a  remedy  for 
goat  and  rhenmaUam.  It  is  mentioned  by  Alex- 
nadet  of  Tralleo,  who  flourished  C60  a.  d.  ;  Paulns 
^Igineta,  who  lived  a  century  later ;  Avicenna, 
Serapion,  &c.  By  some  of  the  old  writeni,  it  was 
termed  anima  artiatkiTum,  or  the  toiil  af  lAe  j'oinit 
ConnSi  probably  of  several  speciea  of  colchicom, 
are  stiU  sold  in  Greece  and  in  the  East  under  the 
name  of  hetmodactylL  While  Sir  H.  Halford  and 
others  have  advocated  the  view  that  hermodactyls 
are  the  corms  of  CoieAteum  outumnoZe,  different 
botanists  and  pharmacologiBtB  have  referred  tbem 
to  C.  iUjirtcum,  (?■  vtrntgaiMin,  C.  buUxxodiodea, 
&C.  No  modem  experiments  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  activity   of   hennodactyl,   and   the 


interest. 
HEUNIA,  ii 


le  rather  o(  histnieal  than  of  practical 


!.ot 


I  restricted  to  signify  protnisi 


used  by  itself, 
of  the  abdominal 

Tho  way  in  which  hernia  may  arise  will  be  readily 
nndeiBtood,  if  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  abdominal 
viscera  are  subject  to  violent  presaure  from  the 
diaphragm  'and  other  aorronndii^  muscles.  This 
pressure  forces  them  ontwards  and  downwards 
aqainst  the  walls  of  the  belly;  and  if  at  any  point 
tEese  walls  are  not  suffidenuy  strong  to  resist  this 
prenure,  some  portion  of  the  visoera  is  driven  throo^ 
tbem,  and  a  hernial  tomour  is  formed.  Certain 
IKuts  of  the  abdominal  wallH,  especiaUy  the  inguinal 
and  crorol  rings,  and  the  ntnbilicai,  Wng  weaker 
than  others,  hernia  most  frequently  oocnra  at  then 
pointa.  In  some  iosbuioea  hernia  la  congenital,  as 
from  abnormal  deficiency  of  the  walla ;  in  other 
casM,  it  may  aiin  at  any  period  of  life  as  a  result 
of  violent  bodily  exertion.  Sex,  age,  and  occupation 
aeem  to  have  a  marked  inflaence  in  predispoaing 
to  hernia.  Men  are  far  more  liable  (in  ^bout 
the  proportdoD  of  four  to  one)  to  this  diaesn  than 
women ;  though  they  are  leaa  so  to  those  fonna 
of  the  afTection  known  as  femoral  and  umbilical 
hernia.  According  to  Malgoigne,  in  France,  one 
man  in  thirteen,  and  one  woman  in  fifty-two,  are 
the  subjects  of  hernia.  In  respect  of  age,  he  found 
"    '  the  liability  ia  leait  about  the  ^  of  thirteen 

^ 77),  after  which  it  p^**"*-**"'-'^^^  i*.-*™.*^-  i>n*ii 

the  oloae  of  ti£^  riaing  »1 


is  a  portion  of  ths  Feritoaenia 
,j.    .,    .       ,  a  ***  ™'  aperture  at  which  tfaa 

hernia  protrades.  It  is  pushed  forward  by  the  pro- 
truding viscera,  and  forma  a  pouch.  The  contents 
vary  greatly,  bat  genra«lly  oonaist  of  a  portion  of 
the  Email  intestine  (partioularly  of  the  ileom), 
forming  the  varied  of  bemia  known  as  aita-ocA. 
Omentum  is  often  found  in  hernial  sacs,  toceUiar 
with  intestine  Besides  the  viscera,  the  aao  dwa^ 
contains  a  oertoin  quantity  of  flnid  secreted  by  ita 
iuterior.  Hernia  is  divisible  (1)  into  rtdueSiU,  at 
returnable  into  the  abdomen,  brtdueO^  and 
Itrangulakd ;  and  (S)  according  to  ita  aituatiim,  into 
in^Hial,  crural,  fto. 

The  treatment  of  reducible  hernia  may  b«  pdB*- 
tive  or  radical  The  palliative  treatanent  connata  in 
the  application  of  a  Iluss  (q.  v.)  to  retain  the 
sion  within  the  cavity  of  ue  abdomen.  Em._  ^_ 
ticnlor  kind  of  hernia  (femoral,  omnl,  &&)  rei]niTM 
ita  special  form  of  truss ;  and  bef<n«  applying  it,  tiia 
herma  must  be  reduced  by  placing  Uie  patamt  on 


his  back,  relaziog  the  musdes  by  bending  the  tki^ 
upon  the  abdomen,  andpressing  the  tumour  h»A  m 
the  proper  direction,    lae  ' 


I,  and  should  be  worn  during  Uie  whole  of  the  day ; 
and  if  the  patient  wiD  anbmit  to  wear  it  (or  a  lifter 
one)  during  the  ni^it,  n  mnch  the  better.  Tha 
means  that  have  been  contrived  to  efiaet  a  radical 


it,  a  radical  cure  is  sometimes  effected  by 
wearing  the  truss  for  two  or  three  years. 

In  iiredncihle  hernia  the  protruded  viscera  can- 
not be  returned  into  the  abdomen,  but  there  is  no 
impediment  to  the  paaswe  of  their  contonta  or  to 
their  circulation.  In  tEese  cases,  the  patient  ia 
often  liable  to  dragging  pains  in  the  abdomen,  and  to 
anacks  of  vomit£ng,  in  conaeqaence  of  the  mov«- 


danger  of  this  hernia  p 


(uUted 


ig  into  the  stranguL 
form.  The  treatment  may  be  either  pallii^^ 
radioaL  The  palliative  treatment  consist*  in  ue 
employment  of  a  trass  with  a  hollow  pod  that  shall 
embrace  the  hernia,  and  prevent  any  addititmsl 
protrusion.  A  radical  cure  may  $oiMlimet  b« 
obtained  by  keeping  the  patient  in  the  reennbetit 
position,  and  on  very  low  diet,  ti»  two  «r  three 
months ;  at  the  same  time  keeping  the  bowds 
open  by  laxatives  and  injectioua,  and  waintaining 
equable  pressure  over  the  tumoor. 

Hernia  is  said  to  be  strvngulated  whtti  a  portios 
of  intestine  or  omentum  that  ia  protruded  is  so 
tightly  constricted  that  it  not  only  cannot  be 
returned  into  the  abdomen,  bat  has  its  dctnUatiiM 
arrested.  This  form  is  hi^ily  dangeroaa,  because, 
if  relief  is  not  speedily  affbraed. 


.  •re  Tonous,  bat  this  condition  most  eommbnlv 
M  from  a  ndden  violent  effort,  by  which  a  fitu 

portion  of  intestine  is  driven  into  a '-^ — 

hemia,  which  it  distend*  to  such  a  d 
produce  this  oomplication.  I^e  moai 
early  aymptoms  are  ffatulenoe,  colicky  poina,  &«■ 
They  are  succeeded  by  vomiting  first  of  the  ceo- 
tenta  of  the  stomaoh,  then  of  mncua  and  bile,  and 
lastly  of  fracal  matteis,  owing  to  inverted  peristaltic 
action.  If  relief  is  not  obtained,  the  infiommation 
that  conunenooa  in  the  sac  extends  to  the  peri- 
toneum, and  the  ordinary  signs  of  peritonitis  appear. 
After  a  variable  time,  oomes  gangrene  or  mortifi- 
cation  of  the  part,  and  the  patient  speedily  sinks. 

The  surgeon  fiist  tries  to  return  the  intMtiue,  as 
in  the  preceding  rmsns  This  maoipalation,  termed 
the  taxis,  may  lie  aasisted  by  the  internd  nw  ul 


d  by  Google 


I  by  general  bl 
I,  by  the  hot  bath,  ^   If  thii  f^ 
t  hftre  leconne  to  the  knife  to  divide  the 


HKBO,  »  prieiteM  of  VeniUj  celebrated  lor  her 
l^ve  for  Lcftoder.  At  a  fesbval  of  Ybdiu  Emd 
Adonis,  held  at  Sestoa  on  the  Thiscian  cooct,  H. 
and  Leander  fiist  siir  each  other,  and  were  imme- 
diately ioEpired  irith  a  matual  paisioiL  H,'b 
position  BB  a  prieateaa,  and  the  will  of  ber  parents, 
opposed  their  union.  TJadaonted  by  these  obstacles, 
Leander  every  night  swam  across  the  Hellespont  to 
visit  his  heaved,  who  directed  his  course  by  holding 
a  burning  torch  &om  the  top  of  a  tower  on  the 
■ea-shore.  After  many  interriews,  Leander  was 
drowned  in  a  tempestuons  night,  and  was  cast  on 
shore  at  the  foot  of  the  tower,  where  H.  anxiously 
awaited  him.  At  the  sight  of  the  body,  ahe  threw 
herself  from  the  tower.  A  poem  has  come  down 
to  ns  under  the  name  of  Mubkus,  in  which  this 
stoiy  is  inns ;  Schiller  likewise  has  made  it  the 
subject  of  a  b^utiful  ballad. 

HEBO,  or  OERON,  commonly  known  m  Eebo 


maticiao  and  oatnial  pbilotc^her,  and  displayed, 
especially  in  the  latter  aubjeot, «  moat  Miginal  and 
inveotive  geaiiu.  Hs  oonatmcted  a  great  nnmber 
of  machinea  uul  ■ntomata^-rather,  hoiKver,  m  ion, 
than  for  Oia  purpose  of  applying  ^m  to  any  useful 


titam-tngiae  on  the  principle  of  Baxter's  mill 
(a  vessel  being  caused  to  revolve  by  jets  of  steam 
issuing  from  latetsl  holes  in  the  arms  with  which 
it  is  provided) ;  a  donble  forcing-pump  used  for  a 
Firt-eoffint  (q.  \.),  Kod  various  other  similar  appli- 
cations of  air  aiid  Steam.  It  is  but  recently  tnat 
the  remarkable  claims  of  H.  to  such  discoveries 
have  received  any  notice,  for  in  the  valuable  work  ' 
of  M.  Dutens,  entitled  L'  Origme  da  Dicouvertei  i 
aitribttta  ma  Modema,  the  name  of  H.  is  not  \ 
even  mentioaed.  Among  his  works  wlucb  bsive 
come  down  to  us  are  Ftieicmrdiia,  fais  most  volaable 
work,  in  which  the  above-mentioned  machinca  and 
many  others  are  iignred  and  dncribed ;  BdopoieHia 
(on  the  manufacture  of  darts),  and  CharobalMrat 
Katadxtti  (also  on  warlike  instroments) ;  Peri 
AuiomtUopoiMtda  (on  the  construction  of  auto- 
mata). All  these  works  are  merely  fragmenta,  and 
an  acqnaintanee  with  them  causes  us  to  regtud 
with  the  greater  regret  the  leas  of  the  reat.  The 
best  edition  of  his  works  ia  that  publiabed  in  the 
Vettnim  MathanaSeorvm  Opera  (Paris,  1693). 

BETBOD,  tho  name  of  a  family  which  rose  to 
power  in  Judea  during  the  period  which  imme- 
diately preceded  the  complete  destruction  of  the 
Jewish  nationality.  The  family  was  of  Idumean 
deacent ;  but,  though  alien  in  blood,  was  Jewish 
in  religioii,  tha  Idomeans  having  been  conquered 
and  eoBverbed  to  Judaism  by  J<^  Hyrcanus,  130 
It.a  The  most  remarkable  rulers  of  the  name  are 
four  in  number— Herod  the  Great,  Herod  Antipas, 
and  Herod  Agrippa  L  and  II.  (for  the  two  last, 
see  AOKIPPA).  1.  Hirod  TBI  GttK&T.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  Antipater,  who  was  appointed 
procurator  of  Jodea  by  Julias  C»sar  47  B.  c.  At 
the  time  of  his  fathers  elevation,  H,,  though  only 
15  years  of  age,  waa  made  governor  of  Ctalilee, 
and  afterwards  of  Ccelo'Syna ;  and  finally,  ha 
and  his  elder  brother  were  made  joint-tetrarchs  of 
Jtldea ;  but  he  was  soon  displaced  by  Antigonus, 
tha  reprewmtative  of  the  Asmonenn  dynasty,  and 
forced  to  flee  to  Bome,  where  he  obtained,  through 
tlM  patronage  of  Antony,  a  fall  recognition  of  his 


claims,  together  with  the  title  of  king  of  Judea, 
40  B.  (X  Several  years  elapsed,  however,  before 
he  succeeded  in  establishing  himself  in  Jerasalem. 
On  the  fall  of  Antony,  he  managed  to  secure  « 
continuance  of  favour  from  Augustus,  from  whom 
he  not  only  obtained  a  confirmation  of  his  title  to 
the  kingdom,  but  also  a  considerable  accession  of 
territ<ny,  31  B.  a  Prom  this  time  till  his  death, 
his  reign  was  ondistnrbed  by  foreign  war ;  bnt 
it  was  stained  with  crueltdea  and  atrocitiea  of  a 
chaiacttf  almcot  without  parallel  in  history.  Every 
member  of  the  Aslbonean  family,  and  even  those 
of  his  own  blood,  fell  in  succession  a  sacrifice  to 
bis  jealous  feais ;  and  in  the  latter  years  of  hig 
life,  the  lightest  shade  of  suspicion  somced  as  tbe 
ground  for  his  wholesale  butcheries,  which  are 
related  in  detail  by  Josephus.  Of  these,  the  one 
with  which  we  are  best  acquainted  ia  the  alauehter 
of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem.  Tbe  one  emment 
quality  by  which  H.  was  distingfnished,  waa  his  love 
of  magniHcence  in  architecture,  and  tbe  grandeur 
<A  the  public  woiks  executed  nnder  his  Erection. 
Bven  by  tbtse,  however,  he  alienated  the  Jews,  iriio 
ascribed  them  all  to  h^  Gentile  leanings,  txA  to  a 
covert  design  of  aubverting  the  national  religion. 
H.  married  no  fewer  than  ten  wivea,  by  whom  he 
had  fourteen  children.  He  died  of  a  loatbsom* 
disease  at  the  age  of  70,  aft«r  a  reign  of  37  years. 
— 2.  Hebod  AirnpAB,  son  of  H  tbe  Great  bjr  hia 
vrifa  Malthace,  a  Samaritan,  waa  originally  designed 
by  his  father  as  his  successor ;  but  by  the  nnal 
arrangements  of  the  will  of  H.  the  Great,  Antina 
waa  named  tetrarch  of  OtJilee  and  Perea.  He 
divoroed  his  firvt  wife,  the  daughter  of  Aretaa,  king 
of  Arabia  Petran,  in  order  to  marry  Herodiaa, 
the  wife  of  his  half-brother  Philip — an  inoeatnons 
connection,  against  which  John  Uie  Baptist  remon- 
strated, and  waa  in  conseqaence  put  to  death.  It 
was  during  a  visit  of  H.  Antipas  to  Jerusalem  for 
the  purpose  of  celebrating  tiie  passover,  that  onr 
Lon^  as  having  been  a  resident  of  Ida  tetrarchate, 
waa  sent  before  him  by  Pilate  for  examination. 
At  a  later  time,  he  made  a  journey  to  Kome.  in  the 
hope  of  obtaining  the  title  of  king  ;  bnt  he  not  only 
failed  in  this  design,  but,  throunk  the  intrignes  of 
H.  Agrippa,  was  oanisbed  to  Lngdnnom  (Lyon), 
where  he  died  in  exile. 

HERcyDOTUa,  the  oldest  Qreek  historian, 
and  for  this  reason  usually  styled  the  '  Father  of 
Histotj,'  was  bom  at  Halicamaasni,  in  Caria,  484 
B.  c    He  appears  to  have  early  formed  tbe  resolu- 


bistorical  work 
scale,  and  wit£  this  view  determined  to  visit  and 
observe  with  his  own  ^ee  the  moat  remote 
countries  and  nations.  Althou^  the  dates  and 
extent  of  his  traveli  are  involved  in  obscurity,  and 
I  in  contradictions  in  the  ancient 
gather  from  his  own  statements 
his  early  youth  he  visited  the  islands  and 
coasts  of  Asia  Amor ;  that  subsequently  be  devoted 
particular  attention  to  Egypt,  which  was  at  that 
time  Uttle  known ;  that  he  next  visited  Palestine 
and  PhcEuicia  ;  and  finally  penetrated  as  far  east  as 
Babylon  and  Susa,  We  are  also  informed  that  he 
sailed  through  the  Helleapont  into  the  Blade  Sea, 
and  visited  ul  the  countries  sitnated  on  its  shraea. 
After  bis  return,  he  appears  to  hava  reaided  for  a 
time  at  Athens.  He  speaks  of  having  seen  the 
Propi/laa — L  e.,  the  entrances  to  the  AcroipoliB, 
which  were  not  finished  till  tbe  outbreak  of  the 
Peloponneaiaa  war  (431  b.  c}.  Be  also  interested 
himself  waimly  in  the  politics  of  his  native  city, 
was  inabumental  in  dehvering  it  from  the  tynum7 
of  Lygdanua.  a  vaaaal  of  Persia;  bnt  being  what 
we  siMuld  coll  'a  moderate  liberal,'  he  had  the 
miafortnue  to  offend  the  extreme  or  popular  party. 


t.Google 


whither 

proceeded,  fiere,  in  rU  probkbilit^,  he  wrote  hU 
unliiDrfail  work  in  the  decline  of  lui  life.  Luciui, 
an  indifferent  authoritr  on  luch  a  lubject,  atates 
that  abont  the  yeai  456  B.  o.,  he  read  the  nin 
booka  before  the  Oreekt  assembled  at  tlie  Oljmpi 
gBmea,  but  this  is  contradicted  by  the  nomerou 
aUusione  in  the  History  to  incidents  of  later  occui 
renoe — for  example,  the  revolt  of  the  Medes  againit 
DariuB  Nothua  (409— 40S  B.C.).  The  Btatemeot  of 
Fliny^,  that  it  waa  compceed  in  hia  old  age  at 
Thnrii.  it  the  moat  probable,  and  it  beat  ogreee 
with  the  unfiniahed  programme  of  the  work,  and 
its  abrupt  tennlnation,  aa  if  the  author  were  pre- 
vented by  death  from  finishing  it  ai  he  iotended. 
According  to  Suidaa,  he  died  and  was  haried  at 
Thurii  abont  408  a.  c. 

The  poTpoae  of  E.  in  hia  XBftorr  u  to  desciibe 
the  war  between  the  Fersiana  and  the  Greeks — 
the  itmggle  fair  aupremacj  between  Enrope  and 
Asia,  between  cirilisation  and  barbaiiam,  between 
freedom  and  deapotism.  H.,  wiahing  to  indicate  that 
the  antipailiy  between  the  two  waa  not  the  reault 
of  any  aocidental  quarrel,  but  of  a  deep-rooted  differ- 
ence of  character,  tracea  it  back  to  the  mythical 
a^eo.  This  was  the  only  way  in  which  a  man  in 
ma  time  could  expreea  what  we  mean  when  we 
speak  of  the  differences  of  nuc  In  the  coune  of 
mi  Hiatocy.  he  gives  an  account  of  the  various 
countriee  which  he  had  visited.  Wherever  he  nves 
the  reanlta  of  hia  own  observationa  and  inqmriea, 
he  exhibits  a  wonderful  accuracy  and  impartulity ; 
and  when  he  doea  not  do  thia,  he  is  gener^y 
careful  to  say  so.  Hs  has  been  accosed  of  credulity, 
and  it  is  certain  that  he  too  readily  accepted 
atatements  on  the  authority  of  others,  but  that  he 
waa  penonally  a  keen  uiteDigent  observer  of  what 
he  saw  is  beyond  all  dispute.  H.  wrote  in  the 
Ionic  dialect,  but  Attic,  Doric,  and  epic  forma  occur 
in  hia  work.  The  style  is  marked  by  an  eaay  grace 
and  lively  vigour,  aud  everywhere  there  is  the  [»«- 
•eoce  of  a  reverent  spirit,  giving  a  certain  air  of 
moral  di^^  to  the  entire  compoaition.  The  first 
edition  (in  Latin),  by  Laurentins  Yalla,  appeared  at 
Venice  in  1474  ;  the  first  in  the  original  Greek  at 
Venice  in  1502.  The  chief  modem  editioua  are 
those  of  Schweighanaer  (6  vols.  Straab.  and  Paria, 
1S06),  Gaisford  (4  vols.  Oxford,  1824).  Btlhr  (Leip. 
1S30— 1334),  and  MUller  (Pans,  1344).  The  best 
school  editions  are  those  of  Mattbite  (2  vols.  Leip. 
1826),  Bekker  (Berlin,  1333  and  1845);  O.  Long 
(Loud.  1630),  and  Negni  (Edin.  1S34).  A  variety 
of  translations  of  the  writings  of  B.  have  likewise 
been  published,  as  well  as  of  historical  aud  geograph- 
ical treatiaea  calculated  to  facilitate  the  stody  of 
the  celebrated  historian. 

HEBOEB  were,  in  the  Homeric  period,  the 
kiogs,  princes,  generals,  leaders,  all  biAve  waniors. 
and  men  who  excelled  in  strength,  courage,  wiadom, 
and  experience.  Many  of  these  had,  on  account  of 
■ncii  qualities,  a  fabled  origin,  half  human,  half 
divine,  and  were  honoured,  after  their  death,  with 
a  kind  of  adoration  or  inferior  worship.  These 
heroes  and  demigods  were  recognised  as  the  special 
patrons  or  protectors  of  particular  countriee  and 
dtiea,  and  to  them  were  raiaed  temples  and  altars. 
Theae  examples  of  heroio  character,  held  up  con- 
stantly to  the  admiration  and  imitation  of  peoples, 
tended  to  strengthen  their  peculiar  character,  and 
to  impress  them  with  the  greatness  and  glory 
of  courage,  oontempt  of  danger,  and  nobili^  '' 
purpose.  Foetiy  exalted  the  heroio  sentilnt  . 
suUimity ;   and   poems   which   celebrated  the 


HEROIC  VBBSE.    See  MrraB,  Tebsk. 

HERON  {Ardea),  a  genns  of  birds,  of  the  order 
Orallalora,  tribe  CvUriroatrta,  and  family  Ardada. 
This  family  includes  also  Bitterns,  Ifigbt  Heroai, 
Spoonbills,  Boatbills,  Storks,  Adjutants,  IbiseB,  Ac 
!the  bill  is  long,  compressed,  and  sharp ;  Ute  tail 
abort ;  the  legs  and  the  toes  long  and  slender ;  Uis 


of  plumage — the  bill  is  slender,  but  strong,  forming 
''  ''  thened  cone ;  the  plumage  ii 
exhibits  very  gay  colnm, 
bite,  brown,  black,  and  alate  colour,  finely  blended, 
being  generally  predominant.  The  body  is  small  in 
proportion  to  Uie  length  of  Uie  Deck  and  limbs ;  the 
neck  is  long,  and,  except  in  flight,  is  usoally  iMild 
curved.    In  flight,  the  H.  carries  the  neck,  head,  and 


feed  mostly  on  fish,  froga,  and  other  aquatic 

and  may  l>e  seen,  particularly  very  early  in  the 
ing  aud  late  in  the  evening,  Btanding  patiently 
>nleas  in  some  shallow  water,  at  the  margin  of 
.e  or  stream,  or  on  the  sea-shore,  waiting  (ill 
prey  oome  within  reach.    In  default  of  their  mace 


t.  ctnerm]  is  abont  three  feet  in  leogth 


Common  Uenm  {Ardta  riaerw). 

from  the  point  of  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the  taiL  It 
is  of  a  delicate  gray  colour  on  the  unier  part^ 
except  the  quill-teathos,  which  are  black,  ana  the 
tail,  which  is  deep  slate  colour.  The  Common  B. 
generally  builds  its  nest  in  a  high  tree,  and  many 
nesta  are  sometimes  to  be  seen  in  a  single  tree. 
Pennant  tella  us  that  he  counted  80  in  one  oak  in 
Lincolnshire.  In  very  northern  parts  of  the  worid, 
the  B.  is  known  only  as  a  summer  bird-of-psssue, 
but  it  remains  in  Britain  all  the  year.  Its  gecgn^- 
ical  range  extends  over  most  parta  of  Guvpe  and 
Asia,  and  inclades  the  north  of  Africa.  The  H.  wM 
formerly  in  great  esteem  for  the  table,  althou^  now 
disrwarded;  it  was  also  the  kind  of  game  most 
of  aU  pursued  in  falconry;    and  the  t'^gl"!'  act, 


jbjGoogle 


ISHewyVILii.  11,  prohiliited  the  kjlling  or  taking 
ot  beiODa,  ezoapt  hy  uawkins,  or  wiUi  the  looa-bow. 
Tbm  act  ma  not  r«iealed  au  Qm  game  act  of  Geo. 
IV. — The  Pdkplx  a.  (^.  purpuna)  u  a  smaller  and 
mn^  ranr  Britiah  apeoiea. — llie  Gbeat  Wsitb  H., 
or  QBXAt  EOBxr  {A.  a&a),  a  mere  aoddeiital  viiitor 
of  Britein  and  of  the  veatem  parts  of  Eorope,  ia 
more  common  in  Torkej,  Greece,  tc,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Alia.  It  is  an  extremely  beautiful  bird, 
with  f&ivMj  white  plumage,  much  of  it  loose  and 
flowing.— The  Litttb  Eokxt  {A.  ffortMa)  has  also 
white  nowinf  plauage.  It  is  only  about  two  feet 
in  Imgth. — ijoeriea  has  many  tpadefi  ol  5,,  most 

riea  in  the  tempente  parts  of  North  America  is 
Qsmr  H.  (A.  ffracnu),  the  flesh  of  which  ia  so 
mneh  catMmed  that  it  ia  often  to  be  seen  in  the 


Isp 


Heron  and  egret  plnmea,  made  of  the  long 
feathers,  wet«  in  former  time*  highly  ralaed,  being; 
in  some  connbiM,  deemed  an  ornament  fit  for  royal 
ptnonagei,  or  for  the  highert  nobles. 

HEBOPHILnS,  one  of  the  greatest  ph^cians 
of  antdqnitr,  waa  bom  at  Chalcedon,  in  Bithynia, 
and  flonriihed  in  the  4th  and  3d  centuriea,  b.0. 
He  settled  at  Alexandria,  and  distingnishcd  hmiBelf 
in  particular  by  his  devotion  to  anatomy.  In  fact, 
be  u  said  to  have  pursued  this  to  such  on  extent  as 
to  have  dissected  criminals  alive. 
Several  names  which  he  ^ve  to 
different  parts  of  the  way  are 
still  in  use,  as  the  'Toronlar  Hero- 
/r^"  f  phili,'  the  'CaUmus  scriptorins,' 
[V  I  and  the  'Duodenum.'  B.  placed 
J  I,  the  seat  of  the  sonl  in  tlie  ven- 

(^^        tricles    of    the    brain.      Of   his 
SB        wntings,  only  a  few  fragments 
^^         remain,    which  have  been    col- 
1^         lected  and  published  in  a  disser- 
^^      tatlon    entitled    Dt    HtrofhUi 
Ot^eierrinu  Jf edici  Vita,  scnptii, 
atque  ia  Mtdiana  MtrUi»  (GStt. 
1840). 

HBRO'S  FOnNTAIN,  a 

pneamatae     apparatna,    through 

. .  which  a  jet  of  water  is  supported 

/y  '\  by    condensed    air.      A    simple 

H^P  mode    of    consbucting    it     by 

.^^^  means  of  daas  tube*  and  a  glass- 

^^  blower's  ump  is  shewn  in  the 

Hero's  Fountain,    annexed  Gzure.    Ths  coloma  of 

water  in  the  tube  a,  comprewes 

the  air  in  ft ;  this  ptesses  on  the  surface  of  the  water 

in  e,  and  cansea  it  to  gosh  out  at  d. 

HBRO'STBATUS,  an  Ephesiao,  who,  from  a 
desire  of  future  fame,  set  ue  to  the  magnificent 
temple  of  I>iana,iii3S6B.a  He  expiated  uie  deed 
by  a  painful  death ;  and,  by  a  decree  of  the  lonians, 


HB'BPES,  a  variety  of  disease  of  tiie  skin,  Chirac- 
teriaed  by  veaiclea,  sometimea  as  laree  as  a  split-pea, 
occurring  in  clusters  on  an  influned  osse,  ana  ending 
in  deaquamation,  after  a  coniae  of  a  few  days  or 
weeks.  In  herpes  loeter,  or  nma,  the  largeat  and 
most  ma^ed  variety  of  tbe  disease,  there  is  th< 
addiiional  peculiarity,  that  it  extends  in  patcha 
around  one  aide  of  the  body,  naually  passing  sha^j 
op  to  the  ""Hillii  linc^  but  not  beyond  it  rather  befon. 
I  or  behind.  Herpes  phlyct«nodea,  zoster,  labialis, 
j  pHBputialis,  drcinatus,   are  the  varieties   of    this 


diaeaae  most  commonly  met  with  in  praddoe.  Ilie 
treatment  ia  by  soothing  and  cooling  appUcations ; 
there  ia  no  duigra' ;  but  the  amarbng  during  the 
eruptive  period,  and  the  itching  afterwards,  are 
often  very  distrCMing  to  the  patient,  and  may  be 
somewhat  relieved  by  the  ^ipbcatian.  of  cold  cieam, 
and  other  simple  soothing  external  applicationa. 

HBRPBTO'LOGT  (Or.  AerpMtm,  a  reptfle,  and 
Togo;  a  discourse),  that  branch  of  natonQ  history 
nbich  treats  of  r^tilea.  The  Batrachians  or 
Amphibia  liaving,  till  recently,  been  included  by 
Dataralista  generally — aa  they  still  are  by  many — 
in  the  class  of  Beptilea,  the  adence  of  herpetology 
mair  be  r«^;arded  as  including  the  study  of  them. 
This  brancJi  of  natural  hiatoiy  received  a  share  i^ 
attention  from  tiie  natuialisto  oC  antiquity  ahA  tbe 
earlier  naturalists  of  modem  "^ "^   - 


"Sf, 


deserving  of  notioe  in  connection  with  it  before  the 
time  of  Xinmeus  is  that  of  Aay.      In  the  end  of 


and  Daudin,  bH  of  whom,  aa  well  as  Cnvier,  contii- 


Fitdnger,  J.  £.  Gray,  MUUer,  Owen,  &c  The 
woriL  of  Spix  on  the  Seplila  of  Bnait  ia  one  <^ 
the  moat  important  oontribntions  to  herpetology. 
BeU's  ^utory  <J' BtMA  S^Ula  (Lond.  1S39)  con- 
tains a  Terr  full  account  of  all  the  Britiah  apeoies, 
including  the  Batrachians.  This  branch  of  natural 
history  derives  great  additional  interest  from  the 


of    reptiles   of   totmet 

pom  tile *   "~"         ' 

extraordinary  characters  of  many  ol 

HBRRGTRA,  Autonio,  one  of  the  moat  eminent 
historians  of  Spain,  was  bom   at  Cuellar,  in  the 
649,  and  died  at  Uadrid,  1626.    Hit  principal 
woA  is  the  Hitloria  gaierai  de  lot  Heohos  de  lot 


year  1649,  and  di 
woA  is  the  Hi 

Oatt^ottot  «i  las  Itlaa  y  THerra  Firme  dd  Mar 
(ktano  1492—1564  (4  vola.  Madrid,  1601—1615), 
which  was  afterwards  published  with  continuations 
by  Andr.  Gonzalez  de  Barcia  (4  vola.  Madrid,  1728 
— 1730}.  His  Deaeripeum  d«  !a*  Indiiu  fnxidintala 
(Madrid,  1601  and  IfllS)  forma  an  introduction 
to  the  above  work.  TTi'n  other  works,  which  are  no 
lea  viJuable,  are  the  Hittoria  dd  Mundo  oi  tl 
Begnodo  dd  Bey  D.  Ft^  II.,  1654—1698  (3  vola. 
Madrid,  1S(U~I612) ;  OommaitaTiot  de  lot  Hecho* 
de  Um  Erpa&aUt,  Francaet  y  Ytnteianoi  «»  Itaiia, 
1281—1559  (Madrid,  16S4);  and  the  Jlittoria  de 
Portugal  y  Coaquitia  <U  la*  Ilia*  de  lot  Afont  1582 
y  1583  (Madrid,  1591). 

HERBBBA,  Fkknampo  he,  a  Spanish  poel^ 
was  bom  at  Seville,  in  the  b^inning  of  the  16th 
century.  When  advanced  in  fife,  he  took  order*, 
and  died  in  1589.  He  was  master  of  the  Gre^ 
Roman,  and  Italian  hteiatnres,  and  was  a  man  of 
prodigious  learning.  Aa  a  poet,  he  ranked  so  Ugh, 
m  the  opinion  of  his  contemporaries,  that  they 
bestowed  upon  him  the  appellation  of  the  ^teiae. 
Among  his  poetical  works  still  extant,  many  of  bis 
erotic  poems  are  remarkable  for  tender  feeling; 
while  his  odes  frequently  diajday  a  lof^  enthusiasm, 
but  the  iiniimiliiii  is  cut  in  too  ■'i'«T"fT  a  mould. 


HU  C  .    ,  ,    

ISeville,  1S82),  and  subsequently  under  the  title 
r<rjaj  (Seville,  1619).  They  were  republished  in 
the  Coteceioa  of  Ramon  Fernandez  (Madrid,  1786; 
new  edib  1808).  Hia  principal  historical  work  ia 
the  BAjcion  de  la  Onerra  de  CMpre  (Seville,  1572) ; 
and  he  also  translated  from  the  Latin  of  Stapleton 
a  life  of  Sir  Thcanaa  Mortb 

HERRSRA,  F&uicnsco,    Gl  Vixro,  Le.,   the 
Mder,  (me  of  the  most  eminent  Spanish  painten  of 


L 


jbjLiOOgl' 


HERflINQ— HERE  ING-PISHERY. 


tha  icliool  of  Seville,  was  bom  in  that  d^  about 
the  veor  1576.  He  waa  the  first  to  i&j  aauie  that 
timidity  in  the  lue  of  the  brush  which  we  observe 
in  the  worka  of  the  older  Andaliiaian  painters.  Hia 
drawing  waa  bold  and  Epirited,  for  which  reiwoii  be 
may  joaUy  be  regarded  aa  the  foimdec  ot  a  new 
and  more  nationu  school  His  '  Last  Judgment,' 
painted  lot  the  church  of  St  Beniord  at  Seville,  is 
a  maater-piece  of  druwing  and  colouring.  The 
'  Holy  Family,'  and  '  Outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,' 
in  the  church  of  Sta.  Inea,  in  ^viUe,  are  obo  much 
esteemed.  The  cupola  of  the  church  of  Sta.  Bona- 
Tentora  diaplaya  hia  skill  in  fresco-painting.  He 
likewise  worked  ia  bronze,  a  circumstance  which 
may  have  led  to  the  imputation  cast  upon  him  of 
coining  false  money.  He  died  at  Madrid  in  the  year 
1666.  His  eaael-pointingB  aud  reed-drawings  fetch 
veiy  high  prices.  Some  of  his  best  works  are  in  the 
Lonvre  at  Paris, — His  youngest  son,  Fbamcisco 
HzRltEB*,  Gl  Mozo  (the  Younger),  was  bom  at 
Seville  in  1622.  He  studied  under  his  father,  and 
afterwords  went  to  Rome,  where  he  became  so 
celebrated  for  hi*  fish-pieces,  that  be  received  the 
surname  ot  II  Spagnuoio  dtgli  Petri.  After  his 
father's  death,  ha  retnmed  to  Seville,  and  painted 
for  the  churches.  He  subsequently  went  to  Sfadrid, 
where  ho  pointed  the  dome  of  the  choir  of  Sto. 
Felipe  and  the  chapel  of  Our  Lady  □{  Atocho,  and 
diea  in  1685. — There  have  been  several  other  artists 
at  the  some  name,  bat  of  less  note. 

HBRRIKG  (CAuMa  hartnfpu),  a  &ih  of  the  mala- 
ot^iteroDS  family  Cbtptida  (^.  v.) ;  the  most  impor- 
tant to  markkind  of  all  ipeciea  of  fish.  The  genus 
Clu^ia  ia  distdngnished  from  others  of  the  same 
tanuly  chiefly  by  the  fiiks  and  by  the  teeth,  which 
are  small  and  nomereos,  and  are  situated  not  only 
on  the  jows,  hut  in  other  ports  of  the  mouth,  oa  the 
vomer  (middle  line  of  the  polate)  ond  t^e  tongue. 
The  E.,  of  which  we  think  it  nnnecessary  to  give 
any  description,  is  found  in  the  seas  of  the  northern 
puts  of  the  world,  but  more  abundantly  in  those  of 
temperate  than  of  arctio  regions.  The  opinion, 
once  oiteitained,  that  its  proper  home  is  within 
the  Arctic  Circle,  and  that  its  vast  shools  issue 
thence  ot  certain  seasons,  migiatinK  southward,  and 
ipreading  themselves  olong  the  British  ond  other 
coasts,  is  now  discorded  as  utterly  without  founda- 
tion ;  and  the  H.  is  believed  to  be  an  inhabitant 
of  deep  water,  from  which,  at  certain  seasons,  it 
approaches  the  shores,  probably  never  migrating  to 
any  great  distance.  The  young  ore  abundant  in  the 
shallow  water  near  the  shores  at  seasons  when  the 
parent  fisb  are  absent.  The  H.  seems  always  to 
depoBLt  its  spawn  in  com(Wjativety  shallow  water, 
and  is  said  to  be  very  indifTerent  whether  the 
spawning-ground  be  sandy,  rocky,  or  covered  with 
■uhmorine  vegetation.  Certain  looolitieB,  however, 
have  the  reputation  of  being  favourito  spawning- 
grounds.  Whmt  the  great  annnal  sfaosis  oi  herrings 
^>pe<u'  on  the  coasta^  they  generally  swim  near  the 
Bunaoe  of  the  water,  and  are  followed  by  multi- 
tudei  of  larger  fiihe^  h  h^cs,  dog-fishea,  hit., 
which  prey  on  them ;  mat  numbers  also  fall  a 
ready  prey  to  gulls  aiu  other  aeo-birds,  which 
cmigregate  fra'  the  occasion.  The  food  of  the  H. 
il  believed  to  consist  chiefiy  of  minute  crustaceans 
and  acalepliaj  but  it  feeds  also  on  small  fishes. 
Dot  scrupling  to  devour  even  the  young  of  its  own 
species.  Herrings  are  aometimea,  though  rarely, 
canght  on  the  lines  set  for  other  fishes,  and  by 
persona  angling  from  the  shore ;  they  are  readQy 
oan^t  by  means  of  a  lore  made  of  a  white  feather, 
which  swims  at  the  depth  of  some  yards,  the  point 
of  the  fishins-rod  being  kept  a  yai^  or  two  below 
the  surface  of  the  wato^  the  angler  beinz  in  a  boat 
which  is  in  molioii.     Ill*  immaose  nnulitndGa  of 


ipparent  di 

tmn  being  compensoted  for  by  prodi^ous  fecnndity' ; 
more  than  6S,000  eggs  have  been  counted  in  tha 
roe  of  a  single  female!  But  herrings,  without  any 
apporent  cause,  often  de»ert  parts  of  the  ooast  whera 
for  ■  time  they  hove  been  t«inarkably  abundant, 
not  returning  again  in  similar  plenty  till  after  the 
lapee  of  a  numW  of  years.    Sinne  '    ' '  """'" 


to  ply.  The  mognitude  of  tJie  shoals  of  herrings  ia 
often  enormous,  and  they  have  sotnetiines  even 
been  driven  oahoie  In  for  greater  gnontitiea  than  the 
inhabitante  of  tJie  neighbourhood  could  find  ineuiB 
of  coring.  An  instance  of  this  kind  occurred,  before 
the  days  of  railwoys,  at  Crail  in  Fife.  The  water,  aa 
the  tide  came  in,  was  BO  full  of  herrings,  that  half-a- 
dosen  could  be  token  out  at  one  dip  of  a  basket. 
Pinally,  they  were  stronded  and  left  by  the  retiring 
tide  in  such  numbers,  that  when  all  the  salt  within 
reach  was  exhausted,  the  magistrates  had  to  off^  a 
shilling  a  cart  for  their  removal  as  a  nuisance. 

There  is  evidence  thot  the  berring-fialiery  has  been 
prosecuted  in  England  sinoe  the  bt^iniung  of  the 
8th  c,  ond  In  Normandy  since  the  ifth.  Nor  is  it 
proboble  thot  in  either  case  the  date  is  that  of  its 
commencement.  The  prosperity  of  Holland  is  in  o 
great  measure  owing  to  the  herring- fishery,  and  the 
Dutch  engaged  in  It  with  great  eagemeso,  and  car- 
ried It  on  even  on  the  Britiu  coasts,  ot  a  (We  when 
it  was  comparatively  selected  both  by  English  and 
Scotch. 

Another  species  of  H.  (C.  ZeocAii)  is  occasionally 
found  on  the  British  coasts.  It  ia  rather  smaller 
than  the  common  H.,  and  the  body  is  mni^  deeper 
in  proportion  to  its  length.  It  is  of  paiticolarly  d^- 
cate  flavour, — The  seas  of  other  part*  of  the  World 
produce  a  number  of  other  sjiectes  of  Uie  genoa 
Clvpta,  as  now  restricted  by  ichthyologists.  Hie 
other  British  Clvpdda  ore  now  referred  to  oilier 

The  fishes  popularly  called  Frahmiler  Berringa 
are  SaimoniiiiB  of  the  genua  CongonvM  (q.  v.),  to 
which  also  belong  the  Herring  Bcdmoiu  of  the  Nai& 
AmericoD  lakes  and  rivers.  JJl  of  them  ore  esteemed 
for  the  table. 

HEBRING-FISHEBT.  The  herring-fialieiy  is 
carried  on  all  the  year  roond,  there  being  both  a 
er  and  a  summer  fishery ;  but  the  largest  quan- 
tities of  fish  are  caught  in  Vie  months  of  Aoffuat  and 
September,  at  which  time  the  fishery  becomea 
general  on  all  parts  of  the  British  ooasts. 

The  common  mode  of  capturing  herrings  is  bj  a 
set  of  large  nets  joined  together,  and  known  among 
fishermen  as  a  '  drift.'  These  nets,  held  together  by 
a  back-rope,  are  let  into  the  water  in  a  strai^t 
line,  and  ore  kept  perpendicular  by  a  nnmber  of 
bladders  or  cork  floats,  balanced  Iw  a  few  slight 
weights  of  lead.  Each  sinzle  net  is  compoaed  of 
fine  twine  worked  into  meuies  of  an  inch  square^ 
'  's  60  yards  long  and  S3  feet  in  de]>th.  Theae 
,  which  are  now  woven  by  machmery,  woe 
formerly  made  by  the  fiBhermen'a  families;  but  so 
many  are  used  luiw,  that  it  would  be  impoasible  to 
make  ^enk  by  hand,  as  each  boat  ^*"  a  train  that 
extends  nearly  a  mile  in  length. 
The  herring-fishery  in  Scotland  is  r^nlated  by 
its  of  parliament,  and  watehed  over  by  the  Ccan- 
inioners  for  the  British  Fisheries.  This  Board  will 
allow  of  no  other  method  of  taking  the  fish  than  by 
a  drift-net.  Another  mode  of  Ashing,  known  as 
'trawling'  but  which  is  in  reality  oarried  m  by 
means  ofa  '  seine  '-net,  prevails  on  some  puis  of  tlu 
British  coast;  but  in  Scotland,  tmwling  is  illwal, 
and  subjects  those  who  practlae  it  to  hoavy  j '*-— 


lyCoogle 


The  boats  required  in  the  henine-fidierjr  in  Scot- 
land, sJthon^  open  or  undecke^  require  to  be 
ot  considenible  Bize,  in  order  to  contain  the  large 
quantity  of  aete  which  are  used,  a>  well  aa  to  bring 
home  tlie  fish  that  may  be  tajien ;  the  fishermen 
also  bdieve  th&t  the  open  boats  are  more  conTenient 
for  the  manipOlatian  ot  the  nets.  Uost  of  the  boats 
used  in  Scotland  ara  obtained  Irom  the  port  of 
Leith,  which  has  long  been  celebrated  for  the  '  "  ' 
of  its  open  fishing-b^iats.  Each  vessel  is  mi 
by  a  crew  of  fire  or  six  penons,  one  to  guide  the 
boat,  and  the  others  to  toani^uTTe  the  sails,  nets,  &c. 
The_  boat  ugnally  belongs  to  one  person,  who  hires 
his  assitrt&nts,  or,  as  ia  some  cases,  may  be  owned 
hy  two  or  three  relatiTcs,  who  form  themselves  into 
a  erew,  and  share  in  the  proceeds  of  the  capture. 
The  brat*  of  a  district  usually  sather  to  a  particular 
centre,  for  the  convenience  C4  the  muers.  Some 
flshermeD  will  prooeed  a  hundred  miles  or  more  to  b 
favoortte  port,  and  many  of  the  ouren  have  curing- 
Btatioas  at  five  or  six  different  plaoea.  Ihe  boats 
pvceed  to  lea  so  as  to  arrive  at  the  place  selected 
Iff  the  nets  about  suDset,  when  the  uil  is 
,  id  the  neta  ore  gently  paid  over  the  boat, 
which  requires  to  be  kept  in   motion  d<    ' 

ss.    The  Isat  portion  of  the  neta  is  fii 

by  a  long  swing-rope,  and  when  the  whole 
train  has  been  let  into  the  sea,  the  fishermen  go  to 
rest ;  the  boats  and  nets  being  allowed  to  drift 
with  the  tide.  The  herrings  are  caught  by  striking 
against  the  nets,  in  which  they  entangle  themselves 
t^  the  head.  The  herring-fiuiery  partakes  greatly 
of  the  notore  of  a  lottery.  A  boat  will  sometimee 
obtain  a  large  quantity  of  herrings,  and  as  frequently 
take  only  a  few ;  sometimes  the  nela  are  shot  twice 
in  a  night,  if  no  fish  are  got  on  the  first  trial 

The  commerce  carried  on  in  herrings  is  peculiar. 
Hie  fish  when  brought  on  thore  are  measui«d 
u^Eutted  bv  the  '  crao,'  a  vessel  which  contains  45 
sallons,  and  handed  over  to  the  curer.  A  veiy 
large  proportion  of  the  heirings  taken  on  the  British 
coast  are  pickled  or  oared  by  means  of  salt ;  owing 
to  the  facilities  for  speedy  transport  afforded  by 
railways,  however,  great  quantities  are  also  disposed 
of  freoL  At  Yarmouth,  and  some  other  parts  of 
England,  and  also  at  some  places  In  Scotland,  the 
herrings  are,  after  being  slightly  salted,  mode  into 
what  are  called  '  bloat«ra,'  oy  means  of  smoking. 
A.  large  portion  of  the  total  catch  is  likewise  mide 
into  '  reds'  by  a  more  complete  smoking,  and  both 
Icindi  are  in  great  demand.  9m<^ing-housee  are 
now  numerous  m  man;  parts  of  Scotland. 

The  chief  buyers  of  the  fresh  fish  are  known 
■I  cnrers ;  they  provide  salt,  barrels,  and  laboor, 
for  the  curing  aad  packing  of  the  fialL  The  curer, 
who  ia  uBiially  a  person  of  considerable  capital, 
contracts  with  the  owners  of  the  boats  for  a  cer- 
a  qaantity  of  fiah,  usually  SDO  crons,  for  which 
pays  at  a  rate  which  has  t>een  amnged  for  long 
an  the  commenoement  of  the  fishery.  In  addition 
to  a  specified  price  per  cran,  a  snm  of  money  is 
nsnally  pud  down  by  way  of  bounty,  and  various 
privileges,  snoh  as  dye-stnfi  and  drying-ground  for 
nets,  a  few  gallons  of  whisky,  fto.,  are  B^«ed  for  as 
well.  Some  enters  will  hare  as  many  as  250  boats 
fishing  for  them  on  various  parts  of  the  coast.  The 
herrings  ate  cured  (in  ScotlandJ  under  the  inspection 

-* " —  -nd  each  barrel,  if  cured  according  to 

s  lud  down  by  the  Fishery  Board,  is 
entitled,  on  the  payment  of  a  small  fee,  to  be 
marked  with  the  government  brand,  as  a  maik  of  its 
qoolity.  A  large  number  of  women  are  employed 
to  gat  and  pack  the  fish,  which  they  do  with 
BStODishiuK  decterity.    The  excitement  and  bustle 


in  the  rarioos  industriea  ineidental  to  the  oaptore 
and  cure  of  the  heirinn.  Amsterdoia  is  said  to  hove 
been  built  on  heriing-boiiee ;  but  the  Ihitch  herring- 
fishery,  once  of  great  magnitode,  has  been  exceeded 
by  that  of  ScoUnnd,  which  is  the  laigest  in  the 
world,  and  ftom  which  cored  heningi  are  exported 
to  the  continent  of  Europe  and  to  Irdand,  and  other 
cDimtiies,  in  large  qnantitiea.  The  only  official 
statistios  of  the  nerring-fisbery  in  Qreat  Britain 
relate  to  the  fishery  in  Scotland  and  the  Isle  of  Man ; 
these  ore  issued  anuoally  by  the  Commisabners  of 
the  British  Fiaherie&  No  acconnt  is  kept  of  the 
qoantitv  of  herrings  canght  on  the  T^pliiph  coast, 
nor  is  there  any  authentic  statistics  of  ^e  nomber 
OF  value  of  the  boat*  engaged  in  this  branch  of  the 

From  the  report  of  the  Scottish  Fishery  Board 
for  1873,  it  appear*  that,  in  that  year,  tjiere  were 
"",169  people  employed  ia  the  various  department* 

the  Scottish  herring  and  other  fisheries,  and  that 

e  number  of  berring-boata  in  osa  at  the  varions 
stations  was  16,005,  represmting  in  value,  together 
with  nets  and  lines,  £1,020,328.  The  total  qaantity 
of  herrings  cured  was  939,233  barrels.  The  report 
of  the  Fishery  CommissioneTS  for  Ireland  does  not 
afibtd  information  on  these  points,  and  the  details 
of  the  English  herring-fishery  cannot  be  separated 
from  those  of  other  branchea  of  the  fishery  business. 

Herring-fisberies  have  always  been  the  (nbject 
of  legislative  protection  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
being  considered  a  valuable  branch  of  pablic 
industry.  In  1360,  an  act  o{  parliament,  23  and  24 
Vict,  c  92,  passed  to  regulate  the  Scotch  hemug- 
fisheries.  By  that  act,  the  OonunisaionerB  of  W9 
British  White-heriing  Fishery  may  appoint  a  cImw 
season  in  some  parts  of  the  Scotch  ooaat,  thei« 
being  a  oloae  season  also  fixed  irom  January  to 
May  inclusive,  as  to  the  principal  part*  of  the  coMt 
The  kind  of  fishing-bo^  and  nets  employed  in 
the  fishery  is  anbiected  to  regulation.  A  penalty 
is  incnired  by  selling  fresh  herrings  during  dose 
"  24  and  25  Viet  c.  72.  The  following  at«  the 
recent  acta  for  the  encouragement  and  regn- 
lation  of  the  British  Whito.hening  Fishery,  48 
Geo.  Ut  c  110,  61  Geo.  HI.  o.  101.  C2  Geo.  HI. 
c  15S,  &4  Geo.  Ill  &  102,  66  Geo.  DL  o.  04. 1  Geo- 
TV.  c.  103. 1  «id  2  Geo.  IV.  a  79,  6  Goo.  IV.  0.  64, 
7  Geo.  IV.  c  S4, 1  Will.  IV.  o.  6«,  6  and  7  Vict  o. 
79,  10  and  II  Vict  c  91,  14  and  16  Vict  c.  26,  23 
and  24  Vict  c  92,  24  and  26  Yict   o.  72.     See 


KT. 


wle,  large  numbers  <n  people  being  employed 


HEBRING  SILVER,  a  composition  in  money, 
lieu  of  sapplying  a  religious  house  with  a  certain 

number  of  herrmgs. 
HE'BBISON  (Fr.  Unison),   in  Heraldry,   the 

hedgehog,  a  charge  allnwvely  home  hy  families  of 

the  name  of  Eorru. 


ad  ie  noted  throughout  Germany  for  its  fine  and 
□table  mannfactnree,  particnlaTly  linen,  jwanned 
'ares,  and  leather.  H.  is  also  remoikable  for  the 
.jgularity  and  omplicity  of  ita  architecture,  and 
the  inhabitants  for  their  deanlineo^  freedom  fram 
all  ostentation,  and  qniet  d«)ortment  Pop.  about 
1100.  E.  was  fonikded  in  1722  by  a  colony  of  per- 
aecuted  Moravians,  some  of  whom  were  desoended 
from  the  old  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren.  On 
ooming  into  Saxony,  they  were  aheltered  and  pro- 
tected l>y  the  pious  Count  Zinzendorf,  to  whom  H. 
belonged.  Fiinn  this  place  the  United  Brethren, 
better  known  a*  Moravians,  have  spread  themselves 
•11  parts  of  the  world. 


,db,Goo^le 


HEBSOHEL,  Biu  Whliam,  bom  at  HinoTer, 
Norember  IS,  1738,  wu  the  ton  of  ft  mtuiaian,  and 
was  educated  rpeaaHy  w  a  ptofeaaional  muaioian. 
In  17G7  lie  went  to  England,  where  he  became 
a  teacher  of  mnsio  in  tie  town  of  Leeds,  from 
whiob  he  went  to  Halifax  ai  orgnaiat,  and  aubee- 
qoeDtly  (1766)  in  the  sune  capacity  to  Bath.  Here 
he  wonld  ieam  to  have  first  tomeii  his  "Uention 
to  OBtronomy.  Wanting  »  telescope,  and  unable 
to  afford  a  reflector,  he  ni&de  one  for  himself— a 
Newtonian,  of  five  feet  focal  length,  and  with  tbii 
anilied  himself  to  ttndy  the  heavens.  In  1781, 
he  made  hit  firrt  disioTery  (PAifcw.  Trans.  1780— 
1781),  boiiw  a  new  planet,  whioh  at  first  he  took  for 


,  by  an  eihaustive  procea 

surveying  the  heavens,  which  H.  was  the  first  t 
fdlow,  taking  the  stais  in  regular  s> 

hL 

„^f.^ ._   be  private  ««tron<»ier 

IIL,  with  a  salary  of  £400  a  jeaz.  He  then  went  to 
live  at  Slongh,  near  Windsor,  where,  assisted  by  hie 
sister  Caroluie  (q.v.),  he  oontinned  his  remarches, 
H.  married  a  Mrs  Man-  Pitt,  and  left  one  son, 
John  (q.  v.).  Little  U  known  of  his  private  hfe. 
He  was  knighted  by  George  III,  and  made  a 
D.O.L.  W  i£e  university  of  Oxford;  ho  became 
rich  paray  through  his  wife's  jointure,  and  partly 
Umragh  selling  mirrors  for  reflecting  telescopes. 
He  died  at  Slough,  23d  August  1822. 

H.  contributed  69  papers  to  the  FhUoi.  Trant. 
between  the  yeua  1780  and  1816;  and  to  the  Ist 
vol  of  Mem.  of  On  Aftroa.  Sockty^he  contributed  a 
paper  '  On  the  Places  of  145  New  Double  Stars.'  He 
greatly  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  solar  system  : 
he  i^acovered  Uranus  and  its  six  sotelhtes,  and 
two  satellites  of  aatom.  Besides  this,  he  detected 
the  rotation  of  Saturn's  ring,  the  period  of  rotation 
of  Saturn  itself  and  that  of  Venn*,  the  existence 
of  the  notiona  of  binary  stars,  the  first  revelation  of 
■ystema  bendes  oar  own.  He  threw  new  light  on 
tne  Milky  Way  and  the  constitnldon  of  nebuls,  and, 
in  fact,  was  the  first  to  give  the  human  mind  any 
conception  of  tJie  immensity  of  the  universe:.  His 
oatali^e  of  double  rtus,  nebnlte.  At,  and  tables 
of  the  comparative  brif^tness  of  stars,  and  his 
reseaiches  m  regard  to  light  «id  heat,  would  of 
themselves  entitle  him  to  the  first  rank  as  an 
■alTonamer  and  natural  philoBo^aier.  For  a  notioe 
ot  H.'s  telescope,  see  Tblehoopsb.  He  erected  one 
monster  teleecope,  as  it  was  then  considered,  of 
40  feet  le^tk  It  was  begun  173Cs  and  finished 
1789,  on^B  28th  August  of  which  year  he  by 
'  means  of  it  detected  tiie  sixth  satelltte  of  Satom. 
HEBSOHBIi,  CjkWHJo™  Lncnani,  sister  of 
the  artronMoer,  Sir  William  Herechel  {q.  v.),  bom 
Maich  1750,  lived  in  Hanover  till  1772,  when  she 
came  to  England  to  live  with  her  brother  at  Bath. 
When  Wil^m  turned  astronomer,  she  became  his 
constant  helper;  uid  on  his  being  appointed  private 
astronomer  to  Gloorge  III,  she  acted  as  his  assistant, 
doing  all  the  duties  of  an  sssistsnt  astronomer,  and 
in  that  character  receiving  a  small  salary  from  the 
king.  While  dischaiging  her  duties  in  this  position, 
she  found  time  for  a  series  of  independent  obser- 
vations with  a  small  Newtonian  telescope,  made 
for  her  by  her  brother.  Her  special  busmess  was 
to  sweep  the  heavens  for  comets,  seven  of  which 
she  discovered,  in  r»{srd  to  five  of  which  she 
haa  the  credit  of  prionly  of  discovery;  and  several 
remarkable  nebuhe  and  dusters  of  stars  included 
in  WiQiam's  catalogues  were  deacribed  from  her 
original  observations.  In  1798,  she  published, 
wiui  an  in1z«duction  by  her  brdUier,  A  Catalogtu 
of  Star*  takm  from  Mr  Flam»tet£t  ObtervaHotu, 
lus.     This  valuable  work  was  published   at   the 


expense  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  omtained  661 
stars  omitted  in  the  British  catalogne.  She  lived 
with  her  brother  during  the  whole  of  his  cama, 
sharing  his  labouis  and  distinctiaDa,  and  on  hii 
death  returned  to  her  native  country.  She  was  then 
72  yeaia  ot  age,  but  she  lived  to  be  98,  retaining 
all  her  faculties  to  the  last  In  her  last  days, 
she  was  not  idle.  In  1828,  the  Boyal  Society  con- 
ferred on  her  their  gold  medal  for  oompleting  the 
catalogue  of  nebuhe  and  dusters  of  stars  obe^ved 
by  her  brother.  She  was  afterwards  choMn  ai 
hoooiaiy  member  of  the  Boyal  Society.  Hi* 
H.  died  in  1318,  after  an  uncommonly  Icog  lif^ 
distinguished  by  most  useful  scientific  labours. 

HEBSCHEL,  8ib  John  Fssdebick  Wdua, 
Babt.,  only  son  of  the  astronomer,  WiHiani 
Herachd  (q.  v.),  bom  at  Slongh,  1790,  educated  at 
St  John's,  Cambridge,  wheret  in  1813,  he  became 
senior  wrangler  and  fint  Smith's  prize  man.  Ki 
firat  publication  was  A  CoUeciion  of  Exaixpla  qf 
tit  ApplitxUion  of  the  Caleulut  of  Faiiie  D^trtaea 
^1820).  In  1^!2,  he  apphed  himself  eapainlllT  to 
astronomy,  unng  his  father's  methods  and  inftn- 
ments  in  observing  the  heavens.  For  a  timc^  he 
worked  with  ^  TiXMt  SouHi  in  re-«xaininine  tht 
nebuhe  and  dusters  of  itszs  described  in  his  faUMr'i 
catidogaes.  The  resolbi  of  tiie  re-ezamioation  va* 
given  m  1833  to  the  Boyal  Society  in  the  torn  of  a 
italogne  of  stars  in  order  of  their  ri^  tMouaim. 
he  catalogue  contained  observations  mi  S2S  ndralK 
and  dusters  of  stars  not  noticed  by  his  fatim;  sad 
great  number  of  douUe  stars — in  all  batwea 

I  and  4000.     This  important  oontribntiiRi  te 

science  led  to  his  being  acknowkdiged  asthewoitiiy 
suocessor  of  his  father ;  so  eariy,  indeed,  st  18% 
the  Boyal  Society  had  voted  to  him  and  Sooth  a 
gdd  medal  apieoe  for  their  observations  on  doable 
stars;  but  by  1833  his  pre-eminence  was  beyond 
the  neceaai^  of  being  maned  by  acknowledgmenta 
His  ''n:«atiseoD  Sound'  had  appeared  m^BuCf. 
UeiTO.  in  1830,  and  his  '  Treatise  on  the  Xheoij  d 
Li^t'  (in  the  same  work)  in  1831,  in  which  year 
also  appeared  in  Lardner'a  Cydo.  his  well-knova 
>  Preliminary  .Discourse  on  the  Study  of  NatonI 
Philosophy' — not  to  mention  his  paper*  in  tbe 
Trant.  Aitnm.  Soc  The  Prdiminary  l>iB00iinfr- 
one  of  the  most  charmingly  written  bo<^  <xi 
science  in  any  language — contributed  laradylo  lui 
popularity.  In  1836,  appeared  his  "ReiUM  a 
Astronomy '  in  Lordner's  (7yeJo.  At  this  time,  H. 
was  at  the  Cape  of  Qood  Hope,  where  he  sirittd  in 
January  ia34,  with  the  intention  of  otnnpleling  tlw 
survey  of  tie  sidereal  heavens,  by  Bramining  tlu 
southern  hemisphere  «•  he  had  done  the  nntbtn. 
Here  he  established  his  obeervatoiT  at  ai^acecalU 
Feldhansen,  six  miles  from  Table  Bay.  On  the  Eth 
Mardi  IS34,heoomineiie«dhisobserTatioiia;aDdia 
four  yean,  forking  all  tlte  time  at  his  own  ezpoin 
he  completed  tiiem.  The  public  interest  taken  in 
his  labours  was,  as  might  be  atupoaed,  rety  gnat; 
but  though  now  and  then  gratified  by  partaa'  ■*■'■- 
meats  of  his  results,  it  wss  not  till  loti,  mm  , 
after  his  return  from  the  Cape,  that  it  reoand 
full  gratification  in  the  publicatton  of  a  volnine  d 
Seamt  of  Attronomieal  Obiervatioiu  madt  dsriq 
1834—1838  al  At  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  baas  H" 
Gomplelion  of  a  Tdeteopie  Survey  qf  l3u  wU( 
SurfoM  of  ilte  Ktnib  Heaoeru  eommamd  n  lSi& 
It  need  not  be  said  that  the  results  of  these  lahnn 
are  invaluable.  They  are  now  incorpoiated  into 
all  books  on  astronomy.     HL,  when  it  Hib  Gqil^ 


momy.         .  .... 

impulse  to  the  science  of  metecnlogy. 

having  the  merit  of  having  suggested  thesoboneui' 
taking  meteorological  observations  simnltsscoiri)' 


t.Google 


EEB8&-HEEZB60TnrA. 


tiUng  and  recordiiig  sueh  olwerratiaiui  in  Sonthem 

On  hia  return  to  EInsland  in  1838.  hononn  were 
ahowered  on  him.     He  had  got  the  So;>l  Society's 

Sid  med*l  in  1S36  ;  he  now  wm  mada  a  D.O.L.  of 
*ird ;    on   Queen  Victoria's  coronatioii,  ha  waa 
created  a  baronet ;  he  now  ncceeded  the  Duka  of 
President  of  the  EoyaJ  Society ;  in  18*8, 

._    B   Preaident  of  the  Bojal  Aatronomical 

Society.  In  1849,  he  pubUehed  hia  OuliiTtet  of 
AatrotMrmy,  an  ealkivement  of  the  publication  in 
Ludaer's  Cyda.  In  1860,  he  was  appointed 
Uarter  of  the  Mint.  This  o^ce,  on  account  of  ill 
htattb,  he  reaiened  in  1855.  The  diatingoished 
ulronomer  and  mathematician  died  1 1th  Majr  1871. 
HERSE,  or  HBAJiSE  (Fr.  htr»e,  a  hanow; 
hetuw  a  fiune  for  aetting  candles  in),  hod  origin- 
ally  qnite  a  different 
mcanins  from  that  in 
which  it  is  now  nsed 
The  term  was  apphed 
to  B  bar  or  framework 
wiOi  npright  spilt™  for 
the  reception  oi  candles. 


it  thee 


Hene. 


of  the  chnrch 
and  at  foneral  aerricea. 
Tt  waa  originally  very 
■imple  in  firm,  bat  in 
the  15th  and  16th  cea- 
turiea  heisea  of  great 
aplendonr  came  into  nae, 
and  were  erected  in  the 
chnrchea  over  the  bodies 
of  diitinguiahed  person- 
age*. The  framework 
was  of  iron  or  braaa, 
KHnetimes  of  beautifol 
workmanship,      square, 

,    ... plan,  with  pillan  at  the  angles, 

and  arched  fnunewoilc  above  forming  a  canopy. 
1^  whole  waa  hnng  over  with  rich  cloths  tmd 
embraidery,  and  Lghted  np  with  hnndreds  of  wax 
cudlea,  and  decorated  with  wax  images.  From  this 
the  tnnsition  to  the  modem  fungal  hearse  (see 
FtiNCSAL  RiTis)  oan  be  easily  traced.  In  Catholic 
ehnrcho  of  the  present  day,  the  hearse  BtUl  exists 
M  a  ^iangle  with  spikes,  on  which  candles  are  placed 
HBltSFBLD.  an  old  town  of  Heaaa-Nassan, 
Hortbem  Oermany,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
ttia  river  Fuldk,  which  here  becomes  navigable,  32 
niilM  Bouth-Boutii-eaat  from  the  city  of  CaueL  The 
<:athedral,  built  in  the  bc^oninK  of  the  12th  c, 
M  the  site  of  an  older  catbedi^  that  had  been 
destroyed  by  £re,  waa  itself  set  fire  to  by  the  French 
m  1761.  I^  remains  form  a  pictoreeque  ruin.  Pop. 
(1S71)  6431,  who  carry  an  eiteuaiTe  manufactures 
•J  vooUau  dotb  and  serge. 

HS'BSHIP,  an  old  Sootch  law  term,  denoting  the 
offinceof  oaiT^ng  off  c^e  by  force. 

HlfRTFOBD,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
hmngh,  market-town,  and  capital  of  the  county 
of  the  same  name,  ia  situated  ou  the  Leo,  26  miles 
pnth  of  London  by  rail  It  cont^ns  few  bnild- 
mea  of  any  andutectural  imporUnce,  bnt  there  ia 
a  btaneh  of  Chriaf  a  Hosjntal,  a  grammar-school, 
^  nm^  charity  achools.  H-camea  onDomanu- 
^'^>mt ;  there  aia,  however,  linaeed-cake  mills  and 
Kf^efal  m^ltii^g  and  oonk-niUa  in  the  town  and 
^v™itj.  Then  are  hue  a  &irly  attended  com- 
■auket  on  Satord^a,  and  three  annual  fain.  The 
I  •own  ntoma  <»ie  member  to  parliament     Fop, 

The  old  cmUs  Ot   H.  [scarcely  a   fragment  of 
^ncli  now  retaaina)  waa  built  about  90Sl    It  waa 


strengthened  and  repaired  about  the  Conquert. 
The  present  caatia  is  of  the  time  of  James  L ;  and 
in  tlie  early  part  of  tha  century,  it  waa  uBcd  aa  a 
collf^  for  the  studenta  of  the  East  India  Company's 
civil  service.  It  now  belongs  to  the  Marquia  of 
Salisbury,  and  ia  a  private  reaidence. 

HEUTFORDSHIRE,  or  HERTS,  an  inland 
coonty  of  England,  is  bounded  on  the  K  by  Essex, 
on  the  a  by  Middleaex,  on  the  W.  bv  Bnckingham 
and  Bedford,  and  on  the  N.  by  Cambridge.    Area, 


The  chief  elevations  ore  thoee  of  the  chalk 
downs,  a  branch  of  the  Cbiltem  Eilla,  which  skirt 
the  OOTth  of  the  coun^.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Lea  and  the  Colne,  both  afSuenta  of  the  Thamea. 
Chalk,  at  a  greater  or  leas  depth  below  the  surface, 
forms  the  l^sia  of  tha  soil,  which  ia  various,  mnch 
of  it  being,  however,  a  duxtnra  of  gravel  and  loam, 
with  a  tract  of  rich  loom  on  the  borders  of  Eaaex. 
Climate,  mild  and  healthy.  Tha  agricolture  of  the 
county  has  improved  very  mnch  of  lata  years- 
Immense  quantities  of  hay  and  straw  are  sold  oS 
the  land,  and  sent  to  London.  Throu^ont  the 
county  there  ara  numerous  gardens  and  orchards, 
the  fruit  of  which  ia  sent  to  the  London  market. 
Great  qnantitiee  of  malt  are  made  iu  the  county  : 
Ware  la  the  chief  seat  of  the  malting  trade  in  the 
kingdom.     Paper  and  straw-plait  are  extensively 


Sea  Boio-Li-Dtic. 

HERTZ,  Hbhbix,  one  of  the  most  distinguiahed 
ot  the  Danish  poets,  was  bom  in  Copenhagen 
in  1798,  of  Jewish  parents.  In  1832,  he  abjored 
Judaism,  and  joined  the  Protestant  Church.  Hia 
first  appearanee  as  an  autiior  waa  in  1827,  when  he 
produced  several  clever  vaudeviltee  and  oomediee, 
aa  Kfoiightd  ag  Foliti,  H^  Barduzrdt  og  Juuu 
Farmlfe,  FiyOtdagen,  4o.;  while  three  years  later, 
appeared  his  ajei^gattgerbrait  eOer  poeMx  EpiiOer 
fia  Pitnidia,  which  exhibited  anch  wonderfol 
peweia  of  imitating  the  style  and  spirit  of  other 
■write™,  more  especially  those  of  his  countryman 
Baggesen,  that  pubhc  attention  was  at  once 
arreated.  Hitherto,  he  had  written  anonymously, 
bnt  the  masterly  maimer  in  which  he  had  stig- 
matiaed  the  aSectationa  and  pnenlitieB  which  had 
perverted  the  literature  and  criticism  of  the  Danish 
prase,  produced  a  perfect  ferment  in  the  litetoiy 
cdrclea  of  Copenh^en,  which  led  before  long  to  the 
diaoovary  of  the  unknown  writer.  From  ttis  time 
his  woi£s  followed  one  another  in  r^>id  saccoaton  ; 
and  striking  out  in  an  entirely  differant  path 
from  the  one  on  which  he  hod  firrt:  enteract  ha 
mdnced,  in  1837,  a  dramatic  poem,  Iven  Dyria^t 
Nus,  founded  on  an  old  heroic  saga,  which,  in  vu 
opinion  of  his  countrymen,  coostitutea  his  master- 
piece ;  among  Germany  however,  his  lyrical  drama 
of  Kong  Sen^i  Dailer  (1854)  is  the  most  popular  of 
his  works.    He  died  Febniary  25,  1870. 


HE'RZECtOTI'NA  is  the  t 


t  province 


belongiagto  European  Turkey,  and  situated  between 
Croatia,  Bosnia  Proper,  Montenegro,  and  Dalmatdo. 
Under  the  Venetiana,  the  H.  waa  called  the  Dukedom 
ofStSaba;  at  a  later  period,  it  went  under  tha  name 
of  the  county  of  Chulm ;  and  in  1326,  was  again  raised 
to  the  rank  of  a  dukedom  by  the  Emperor  Frederic 
lU.  Aa  early  as  1466,  tha  H.  fell  into  the  hrMs 
of  the  Turks,  remaining  for  more  than  two  centuries 
afterwards  the  battle-field  between  ChristianB  and 


empire,  with 


definitively   annaied 
the  exception  (d  the  t 


town  CaatelnnoTO 


..Google 


uid  its  ontakirts,  which  ap  to  tliu  day  belong  to 
Anatiu.  In  the  early  hiatory  of  Hnniuy,  the  H. 
playi  a  prominent 'put,  u  Boaoui  and  BulgviA  were 
for  a  conEiderable  period  under  tho  sway  of  the 
Enngarian  crown.  Aceoiding  to  the  present  organ- 
iiatioD  of  Europoui  Tnrkay,  the  H.  bean  the  name 
of  the  Sanjak  Henek,  ood  belongs  to  the  S^alet 
of  Boania.  Iti  phnicid  aapect,  as  also  its  pohtical 
and  ethnogntphical  chuaoter,  coincide  inta  those 
of  Boauia  ^.  t.). 

HERZEN,  Ai.Ex<iNDKii,  a  BnBtitui  author,  was 
bom  at  Moscow  in  1S16.  Before  he  had  oooduded 
his  muTeraity  studiea,  he  was  seized,  along  with 
some  of  hia  fellow-stodents,  oa  tlie  pretext  of 
inikintajning  sentimeritfl  hostile  to  the  govenmient ; 
•od  after  an  imprisoiunent  of  about  ten  ntonthB,  he 
WM  ba3iiahed,in  IS3S,  to  Penn,  not  for  from  Siberia, 
aod  inhseqnently  to  Viatka  uid  NoTgorod.  After 
lUS,  he  was  peimitted  to  reside  at  Moscow,  under 
the  strict  surveillajioe  of  the  police,  and  for  some 
rears  devoted  himself  exduaiTely  to  literary  labours. 
In  1847,  he  left  Russia,  to  visit  other  part*  of 
Eorope,  and  resided  for  some  time  in  London.  In 
his  own  oountiy,  H.'s  life  wsa  one  long  petty  peree- 
cntian.  He  was  despoUed  of  his  property,  and  his 
works  were  subjected  to  the  meet  rigid  censorship. 


literary    perft 


are    DUeUanU 


(both  in  1S47},  EteoUedion*  <^  My  Travdt  , 
On  Iht  Devtlopment  of  Beuolationarg  Idea*  in  Ruttia 
(18C1), Baptixed Property  (1858), or  'Serfism,'  Priton 
and  JixiU  (1854),  My  Sale  (1866),  ItOemtpUd  TcUei 
(1866),  France  or  ^lattd  (1858),  Mtmoirt  of  Caih- 
trine  II.  (18S9),  The  Old  World  and  Smsia,  Tht 
Sew  PhoK  qf  Bu»riaa  lAltratuTt  (1864).  In  1865 
he  took  up  his  reiddeaoe  at  Geneva,  where  he  con- 
tinned  to  publish  the  Kolokol,  a  Russian  newspaper 
he  had  stuted  while  in  London;  but  as  he  took  the 
■ide  of  the  Polea  in  their  last  rising,  the  journal  lost 
its  popularity,  and  had  to  be  given  up.  He  died  at 
Pans,  January  21, 187a 

HE'aiOD,  next  to  Homer  the  earliest  Greek 
poet  of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge,  was  bom 
probably  in  the  8th  c.  a.  o.,  at  Aecra,  in  Bixotia, 
wUUier  hia  father  had  ei^^ted  from  the  Jkjlian 
Kym<^  in  Ama  Minor.  He  seems  to  have  been 
at  first  a  peasant  or  herdsman  in  quite  humble 
ctmnDHtBoces — in  his  Workt  and  Days,  he  speaks 
of  himself  as  aiimlto*,  '  unhououred,'  '  noteless.' 
He  afterwards  left  Aicra,  and  went  north  to 
Orohomeaos,  on  Lake  Copais,  when  he  dwelt 
during  tbe  remainder  of  his  life,  and  where  in 
lat^times  his  tomb  was  shewn.  This  is  really 
■U  we  know  about  H.,  for  the  marvellaus  stories 
of  the  Neo-Platonists  afford  us  no  intelli^ble 
clue  to  his  psnonal  history ;  and  in  the  opmion 
of  some  cnljca,  even  throw  grave  doubts  on 
Ms  hiatorical  reality  altogether.  This,  however, 
is  probably  too  extreme  a  view.  But  while  it  may 
Bot  be  necesssry  to  reject  ths  personality  of  H.,  it 
nuLj  still  be  allowed  Inst  he  was  a  '  representative 
man,'  the  founder  and  head  of  a  school  of  poets 
— the  Boeotian  or  Pierian — who  stand  in  stnkine 
oontnut  with  the  older  Imiio  or  Homeric  school. 
Their  original  r^;ion  was  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Helicon,  whence  they  spread  over  Boeotis,  Pbocia, 
and  £nb(M.  Their  languue  and  venificstini  wera 
neai^  the  same  as  thoae  of  the  Homeiio  school,  but 
in  aSl  other  respects  they  appear  to  have  been 
different,  and  even  antagonistic,  ignoring  the  san- 
munary  straggles  of  the  neroio  age,  and  preferring 
to  sing  of  rural  quietode  and  peaceful  pursuits,  the 


politics.  HeoceUie  Spartati, 
Cleomenee,  sconifally  termed  H.  the  '  poet  of  helots,' 
while  Homer  was  the  poet  of  wairiois.  In  fine, 
it  may  be  said  that  tiie  poetry  of  the  Heaiodic 
school  indicates  an  advance  m  civilisation,  monlity, 
and  thought,  on  Uie  Homeric  school. — The  wona 
either  written  by  or  ascribed  to  H.  are  seven  in 
number,  of  which  the  following  are  the  more  import- 
ant 1  1.  &rga  kai  Hemerea  ('  Works  and  Days  '1,  in  the 
time  of  Pausanias,  the  only  one  considered  to  be 
traN  H.'s  by  the  people  aboat  Mount  Hdicon ; 
2.  Theogonia  ('Generation  of  the  Gods'),  not  con- 
sidered genuine  by  H.'b  countrymen,  nor  by  moet 
modem  critics ;  3.  Eovu  ot  Hoiai  Jttgalai, 
called  alio  Kaialogoi  OunaiiSa  {'  Catalogues  of 
Women').  Of  these  the  first  two  are  entire; 
wh^e  Uie  well-known  Aant  HeraiUoa  ('Shield  of 
Hercules ")  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  relie  of 
the  third.  The  Hesiodic  poetry  was,  iu  ancient 
tunes,  if  not  wonnly  admired,  at  least  held  in 
great  veneration.  Both  the  priesthood  and  the 
philosophers  considered  the  Thtogony  a  great,  in 
fact,  the  greatest  authority,  on  the  subjects  of 
which  it  discourses,  oad  almost  all  tiie  great 
Alexandrine  critics  earnestly  devoted  themselves 
to  its  elucidation,  but  their  commeotariea  have 
unhappily  perished.  Only  here  and  there  among 
the  Sdudia  of  the  later  Neo-Flatonista  Bome  ol 
their  remarks  are  preserved.  The  Most  oomplete 
coUection  of  these  is  to  be  found  In  Gaisford's 
Poela  Qrad  Mmora.  The  first  sdhioil  of  the 
Hesiodic  poems  appeared  at  Milan  is  1493  ;  sub- 
sequent ediiioni  are  those  of  Heinous  (Amsterdam, 
1667),  of  Robinson  (Oxford,  1737),  of  Loetner  (Leips. 
1778),  of  Gaisford  (voL  L  of  hia  PotL  Or.  Jfm.),  and 
of  Gottling  (Gotha  and  Erfurt,  1831 ;  2d  ed.  1843). 

HBSPE'BIDES,  ths  name  ot  the  famous  msters 
who,  aSEiBted  by  the  dragon  Ladon,  guarded  the 
golden  apples  which  Hera  had  received,  on  ber 
marriage  with  Zens,  from  Ge.  Their  genealogy, 
as  well  as  their  number,  are  variously  given  of 
mytliologista.  The  locality  of  the  gardens  was 
also  a  matter  of  controversy,  the  two  favourite 
opinions  placing  them  westward  of  Mount  Atlas, 
and  nortli  of  the  Cancasua.  The  apples  wers  stolen 
by  Hercules  (q.  v.),  but  were  afterwards  restored  by 

HESSE  (Oer.  HoKn),  a  territory  of  Germany, 
occupied,  in  ancient  times,  by  the  Catti  or  ChcUU, 
who  Snt  became  known  to  the  Romans  in  the  year 
Ifi  A.  s.,  when  Oermanicui  destroyed  their  principal 
settlement  ot  Mattium,  the  site  of  the  present 
villages  of  Gross  aod  Klein  Maden,  near  Gndens- 
berg.  In  the  coarse  of  time,  the  Cattt,  who  ware 
the  districta  now  known  as  Upper  and 
in  ttie  Kankidi 
the  gnat 
^  Belgium  and  OaJil,  after  wlu<£  the 

territories  which  they  had  evaooated  wers  occupied 


power  of  the  chiefs  had,  in  the  meanwhile,  beoome 
so  firmly  established  under  the  Frankiah  empire, 
that  on  the  fall  of  the  Carloviogian^  in  911,  CoDtad 
L,  Duke  of  Franconia  and  Heoe,  waa  elected  to 
the  vacant  throne  of  Oermany,  as  being  tba  most 
powccful  of  the  princes  of  ths  empust  Ths  variovs 
branches  of  the  Hessian  family  atill  extaot  are 
descended  bma  Heinriek  L,  sumamed  the  Child 
(died  ISOS),  son  of  Sophie  Ducheas  of  BrabsDt. 
Although  he  htmseU  exercised  littte  nsl  power, 
owing  to  the  dismemberment  of  H.  into  niunenna 
semi-mdependent  principalities,  hii  deMendMits 
gradually  reunited  these  disjointed  ' 
added  many  valuable  ' 


setUed  ii 


TTCoogle" 


their  old  putrimonj.  Itiljp  L,  the  Magnanimous, 
who  Bncoeeded  his  fatiier,  Wilhelm  IL,  M  a  minor, 
in  1509,  introduced  the  Reformation  into  H.,  and 
founded  the  univeraity  of  Miuburg,  with  the  revenues 
of  the  seculariaed  coDTeott  and  momuteriea.  This 
prince  took  an  active  part  in  the  peasant  and 
reli^oua  civil  wars  of  his  day  ;  and  by  a  will  made 
in  ItS82,  divided  his  territories  among  his  four  sooa, 
who  Eocoecded  to  their  allotted  possessions  on  his 
death  in  I56T.  The  eldest,  Wilhelm  IV.,  obtained 
the  half  of  the  Hesaiaii  domains,  with  Cassel  for  his 
naidenca ;  Lodwig,  a  fourth  piut,  with  Marburg ; 
Philip,  an  ei^th  ptui,  with  Bheiofela ;  and  Ckorge, 
an  eighth  part,  with  Darnutadt  The  death  of 
Philip  and  Ludwig  left  all  the  Hessian  dominiona 
in  the  two  main  lines  of  Hesse-Canel  and  Heaae- 
Darmstadt  (q.  v.). 

HBSSB-CA'BSEI.,  or  ELECTORAL  HESSE 
<Ger.  HetMn-Kaud),  was  formerly  an  electorate  of 
the  Qermamc  Confeileratioii,  consisting  of  one  large 
and  five  smaller  districts,  iacludiag  the  coontahip  of 
Schanmbaiv  and  SchmalkBld,  a  part  of  HeoDcberg 
and  Barchteld,  with  various  townahipa,  impacted 
within  the  territories  of  other  atatea.  Id  conge- 
4]aeTice  of  the  occurrenccB  of  1866,  it  waa  annexed 
to  Prussia  on  the  16th  September  of  that  year,  and 
mbaequently  (December  ISCSlwent  to  form  a  part 
of  the  new  province  of  Hesse- Nassau,  which 
embraces,  betddea  H.-C.,  the  greater  part  of  Naaaau 
(q.T.),  andpartof  Heaae-Honibnrg,  and  extends  from 
^BfftoSV  31'  N.  lat,  and  from  I"  Sff  to  10"  12"  K 
long.,  being  divided  into  the  following  two  districts : 


"WIubidaB, . 


7t7,*M 


U.1U 


: — The  country  is  generally 
hiUy,  and  in  some  places  even  moDntainoDS,  form- 
ing a  part  of  t^  great  centrsl  elevated  plateaa  of 
Germauy.  The  most  conaiderable  of  the  ranges  are 
the  Habichlswald,  the  ThnringBrwald,  of  which  the 
greateit  elevation  is  the  InMDerg  (2930  feet),  the 
Meismer  (S3S0  feet),  the  Hondsrilck,  KeUerwald, 
and  Beinhudwald. 

The  principal  riven  are  the  Wens,  with  ita 
nnmenHia  imal]  afflnenta,  but  wUoh  <ailT  belongs  in 
part  to  Hease-Naaaan ;  the  Fnlda,  whose  course 
appertaiiiB  abnort  exclunvely  to  the  provinoe ;  the 
Edder,  Weaer,  Maine,  md  Lahn. 

OmuiU,  Soil,  Prcubclft — The  climate  ia  gener- 
ally mild,  but  in  some  of  the  inoaatainona  diatriota, 
aa  Qm  BhSomUrge,  it  i*  at  tdmea  very  severe.  The 
mean  anunaf  temperature  ia  48°-S  Fahrenheit. 

The  soil  is  almost  unexceptionally  fruitful  and 
well  adapted  to  agricutture.  CeieoJa  of  all  kinds 
yield  good  returns.  The  most  cultivated  districts 
ore  in  the  south-west  of  Hanan,  where  much  fruit 
and  some  good  wines  are  produced.  Flax  is  grown  in 
Schaumbaig  and  I«wer  Heeae,  and  tobacco  ttt  the 
volleys  of  the  Wem.  It  is  estimated  that  for  every 
linnm^  parts  tlie  land  is  distributed  nearly  in  the 
following  ratio  ;  woods,  40  ;  arable  land,  37 ;  meadow 
land,  11 ;  miscellaneouE,  12. 

The  mineral  products  compriae  copper,  lead, 
coboll^  vitriol,  alnm,  clay,  large  qouititieB  of  iron, 
ooal,  and  aalt,  the  last  tliree  A  v^oh  are  the 
property  of  the  atate.    The  mountain  districts  have 


Uo^eianaT,  Bodanherg,  and  Nenndorf, 


Indoitry,  Import;  and  Srporlt — Trade, — In  addi- 
tion to  agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  and 
other  animals,  the  chief  branches  of  mdustzy  am  the 
weaving  of  linen  and  yam,  which,  although  every- 
where practised,  is  proseciited  with  moat  vigour 
about  Fnlda  and  Idarbnrs.  There  are  good  iteel 
-~'  -'-  -     works  at  Schm^ksld,  and  manufactcoiea 


parte  of  the  ppovinoe.  The  exports  consist  priabi. 
pally  of  yam  and  linena,  iron  and  steel  wares,  fine 
clay,  wood,  leather,  grain,  dried  fruits,  and  mineral 
waters  The  transit-trade  ia  oonaiderahle,  and  ia 
principally  conducted  by  way  of  Huian,  CarUhafeo, 
and  bchwege.  The  iatemal  commerce  aad  indus- 
try centre  mora  especially  in  Cassel,  Hanau, 
B>ankfurt-on-the-Maine,  Wiesbaden,  Fidda,  Gteu- 
feld,  Carlahafen,  Diilenburg,  and  liinbar^  There 
are  many  excellent  public  roads  tliroa^out  tike 
province,  and  upwards  of  400  miles  of  railway,  in 
addition  to  which  it  poaaesaea  great  fai^tiM  for 
internal  trade  in  its  uomerooa  navigable  riven. 

Seceipti,  E^^iendiiure. — According  to  the  budget 
of  ISM^lSes,  the  annual  receipts  of  the  electorate  of 
H.-C:  were  aboat  5,108,310  thalers,  and  the  eniendi- 


1864^1866,  the  annual  reeeipta  of  the  electoiate'of 
~  irs,  and  the  expendi- 

tare  S,452,9S0,  an  excess  of  expenditure  over  Uie  in- 
come of  344,670  thalen.  The  national  debt  in  1361 
represented  a  capital  of  3,700000  thalers,  bat  thia 
waa  eiclnsive  of  St  million  thalers,  raised  for  the 
oonatrnction  of  railways,  and  1^  million  thalers 
extraordinary  loaos. 

Arm;/.— The  army,  prior  to  1866,  waa  kept  at 
I^OOO  men,  of  whom  5000  were  on  the  reserve  list. 
Military  service  waa  compnlaoiy  between  the  agea 
of  20  and  27  years, 

Sditealioii. — There  are,  besides  nnmeroos  national 
schools,  ten  gymnasia,  eight  arta,  and  variooa  poly- 
technic,  theological,   miHtary,   tuid   other   sohooui 
Hesse-Nassan  has  one  nniveraity  at  Marburg,  memor- 
able as  being  the  first  which  was  founded  (in  1627} 
after  the  R^ormation,  and  without  papal  authority. 
Sdigion. — The  majority  of  the  population  belong 
the  Reformed  or  Calviniit  faith,  but  the  Luth- 
erans, United  Proteatants,  Catholics,  and  Jews  are 
weU  represented.    At  the  end  of  1S67,  (he  number 
of  Protestant  churchea  in  the  province  was  1375 ; 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  486  ;  Jewish  synagogues, 
"  W ;    and    other    ohurchea,  8.     All  the  ohurohea 
cognised  by  the  state  enjoy  equal  ri^ts. 
Laa.—The  anpreue  court  of  appeal  is  at  Cassel, 
with  two  high  courts  of  justioeW  Cassel  and  Fulda, 
under  whose  jurisdiction  are  various  criminal  and 
magisterial  courts. 

Electoral  Hesse  was  formerly  a  limited  monarchi- 
cal government.  The  ruler  bore  the  title  of  Electoral 
Prince  and  Landgraf  of  Hease,  Grand  Duke  of 
Fulda,  Prince  of  Herafeld,  Hanan,  Fritzlar,  aiul 
Isenburg,  Count  of  KatBeaellenbogen,  Dietz,  &a 
The  dimity,  which  is  hereditary  in  the  m^e  line 
only,  ia  at  present  held  by  the  Elector  Frederick 
Wilhelm  I.  The  elector  was  assiated  in  the  govern- 
ment by  a  council  of  ministers,  who  wen  partially 
responsible.  A  new  constitution,  based  on  the 
federal  decision  of  1667,  was  promulgated  in  I860. 
There  were  two  repreeentative  chambers,  the  higher 
of  which  comprised  the  princee  of  the  electoral 
family,  aeveral  Mcdiatued  Prituxt  (q.  v.),  ofBeera  of 
state,  and  large  landed  noble  proprietors ;  while  the 
lower  chamber  comprised  ^  members,  one-third 
of  whom  represented  the  landed  proprietors,  and 
the  remainder  the  civic  and  rural  districts.  The 
chambeiB  were  convoked  at  least  once  in  every 
three  years.  Each  parish  was  presided  over  by  a 
burgher- maater  [Bitrgermeuttr)  or  magistrate,  each 


ijtkrogte 


H.-d  occapied  the  eighth  jiUce  Id  the  Gennan 
CoofedentioD.  It  but  three  Totea  in  the  PUmtm 
or  gaaanX  conndl  of  tbo  diet,  and  inpplied  a  oontiii' 
Rsnt  «f  6626,  aod  a  reaerre  of  2840  men  to  the 
ledendanny. 

HUlory. — Heew-Caasel  ii  the  elder  line  ot  the 
House  of  Heue,  fonnded  bj  Landraaf  Wilhelm  IV., 
or  the  Wise,  «on  of  PhiUp  the  Uacnanimoos,  -who 
reigned  from  1667  to  11192,  and  held  his  court  a.i 
CsoeL  Wilhelm  was  snooeeded  by  his  son  Maurice, 
who  Joined  the  Pnitsstant  Chnrob,  and  five  years 
before  his  death  reaigDed  the  government  in  1627 
to  his  son  Wilhelm  V.    The  latter  fought 


brothers,  Hermann  and  Emeat,  respeatiTely 
founded  the  lines  of  Haae-Botenbora  and  Hesse- 
Rheinfels ;  and  on  his  death  in  16^,  his  widow 
assumed  the  regenoy  for  their  7011DS  son,  Wilhelm 
VL,  and  by  her  ability,  aecnred  for  him,  as  an 
indemuificatioa  for  the  loasea  which  the  conntiy 
had  Boatained  during  the  war,  the  snater  part  of 
Scdiaiunbiug  and  the  principalis  of  Hersfel±_  Hie 
succesaofS  m  Wilhelm  V.  punned  the  piactica  he 
bad  begnn  of  hiring  out  Hesaiaii  soldien  to  fi^t 
in  the  service  of  foreign  princes,  a  practice  by  which 
ths  finanoee  of  the  state  were  considerably  aug- 
mented at  the  expense  of  the  welfare  and  morality  of 
the  people ;  while,  in  some  instances,  it  led  to  the 
formation  of  importanC  alliances  on  the  part  of  the 
reigning  House.  The  land^graf,  Friednch  I.,  who 
suoceetfed  Ids  father  in  1730,  had  become  king  of 
Sweden  in  17S0,  in  right  oC  his  wife,  the  Prinoess 
Uliike  Eleanor,  sster  ot  Charles  XXL  His  brother, 
Wilhelm  VIIL,  to  whom  he  had  resigned  his  Hfian 
tmritmea,  fought  under  ths  Britiah  and  Hanoverian 
Sag  in  the  Sevoi  Yean'  War,  and  gained  ooatider- 
»bte  renown  for  himself  and  bii  troop*  during  the 
oouraeof  the  war,  whidi  waaaspeoisllydisasbr'"'^' 
tite  i^are  of  his  states.  Wilhelm'a  aon,  Frii 
II.,  penevered  in  the  same  oonrar^  and  kept  np  a 
splendid  court  on  the  proceeds  of  the  pay,  amomit' 
ing  to  £3,000,000,  which  the  foitish^ovemnait 
gave  him  for  the  services  of  the  22,000  Hessians  who 
foudit  agunst  the  Americans  in  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence. Fiiedrich,  who  had  beoome  a  convert  to 
the  Romish  Church,  died  in  17SC,  and  was  ancceeded 
by  bis  son,  Wilhelm  IX.,  who  reigned  as  Wilhelm 
I.,  after  his  elevation  to  the  rank  of  an  elector 
in  1803.  This  prince  frequently  aliift«d  aides  and 
partiea  during  the  Frftich  revolutionary  and  imperial 
war,  fifditinff  with  his  Hessian  mercenaries  first 
under  Uriti^  colours,  then  in  coojunction  with 
Prussia,  and  in  1S06  as  the  ally  of  Napoleon,  who 
in  return  for  his  aid  promised  to  respect  the 
nmbality  of  the  electorate.  After  the  battle  of 
Jena,  the  French  emperor,  suspecting  the  motives 
whi^  had  aotoated  Uta  elector  in  augmenting  his 
army,  tlurew  troopa  into  the  HessiaD  territory,  and 
at  tiie  peace  of  Tilait  incorporated  the  electorate 
in  the  newly  formed  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  In 
1813,  Wilhelm  returned  to  his  dominions  after  the 
overthrow  of  French  power  in  Oermany,  and  at 
once  began  to  restore  the  old  order  of  things  aa 
&r  as  he  could ;  while  he  entered  npon  a  coarse 
of  vexatious  litigation  U>  recover  the  state  lands 
that  bad  been  sold  during  his  exile,  and  appealed 
to  the  diet  wilJi  such  importunate  pertinaciij  for 
indemnification,  that  he  obtuned  ymoos  important 
conoeasions  at  the  congren  of  Vienna,  although  he 
tuled  in  his  wish  to  secure  the  title  of  kiiw,  of 
L    In  accor£nce 


refused  to  fulfil  his  promises.  His  dealli  in  1821 
was  r^arded  as  a  fortunate  event  for  the  doctorate  ; 
but  his  son  and  successor,  Wilhelm  IL,  ] —  ''' 


especially  ambitdous. 


with  the  promise  which  he  had  made  his  aubjeota 
on  his  restoratiOQ  to  power,  he  sammoned  a  body 
ot  jurists  to  construct  a  constitution ;  bat  no  aooner 
was  a  draft  of  this  new  scheme  oompleted,  than  he 


row  policy,  increased  the  rapid^  growing  disordars 
of  the  state,  while  his  relations  to  his  mistrsK 
the  obnoxious  Countess  of  Beiehenbach,  rendered 
him  peculiarly  unpopular  with  hia  sabjecla.  These 
disorders  were  partially  arrested  by  the  relireineat 
of  the  elector  in  1331,  and  the  nominatiiHi  of  the 
electoral  prince  to  the  rank  of  r^enL  Bat  the 
history  of  the  IS  years'  regenoy  of  Prince  Kiedricik 
Wilhdm  exhibits  only  a  sraieB  of  intrignea  at 
court,  dissensions  between  the  goremment  and  Uia 
representativea  of  the  people,  and  a  retrwreoave 
policy,  which  left  H.  far  behind  other  German 
statee  in  material  prosperity.  The  death  of  the 
old  elector  at  Frankfort^  whither  he  had  retired  on 
his  abdication,  raised  the  regent  in  1847  ta  the  rank 
of  sovereign  elector.  The  rerolutioa  of  Faria,  in 
184S,  extorted  from  the  terriGed  prince  many  liberal 

lises  of  reform,  eome^  of  which  were  redeemedi 

.  __  in  1S50,  after  revoking  many  of  his  pledges, 
he  summoned  the  obaonou*  EasaeDpflog  and 
lynau  to  govern  the  country.  Hanenj^ug^ 
asures  at  length  drew  upon  him  a  public  eha^ 
maladmimstratioD  and  treasou ;  and  he  having 
persuaded  the  elector  that  his  personal  safety 
would  be  endangered  if  he  remained  longw  amraig 
his  subjects,  the  prince  and  his  m^Uster  fled  br 
night  from  Caael  to  WilhelmglMd.  On  the  17th 
September  1350,  an  ordinance  proclaimed  that  the 
seat  of  government  had  been  transfeired  to  the 
latter  place.  HaesenpSng  appealed  to  the  Con- 
federation for  its  intervention,  and  H.  became  the 
rendesvouB  of  troops  ;  the  Austrian  and  Bavarian 
contingenta  occupying  the  sooth,  and  the  Prtuaian^ 
apparently  for  the  protection  of  the  people  ^yinst 
the  elector,  taking  th«r  position  in  the  nortiL    The 


protoools,  but  the 
restoration  of  the  elector,  who 
In  1S52,  a  new  constitution  was  nomulgated,  irtudi 
in  no  way  satisfied  the  people,  wlwae  oondiict 
ihnjughout  the  tiying  crisis  had  been  marked  by 
forbearance  and  moderation.  But  the  poliqr  of  th« 
government  remained  unohanfed.  In  Cnitober  IS60. 
on  the  assembling  of  Uie  C%Mnber^  a  readntioa 
was  agreed  to  for  addreasing  the  elector,  requiring 
the  restoration  of  the  oonatitation  <^  1831 ;  bnt  not 
till  1862,  after  much  agitation  and  the  interfonnca 
of  Prussia  and  Austria,  did  the  elector  so  far  accede 
to  their  wishes  ss  to  recognise  the  constihitiiMi  of 
1S31,  with  the  modificatioiis  of  1849.  In  the  war 
between  Austria  and  Prussia,  H.-C.  having  sided 
with  the  former,  a  Russian  army  entered  *^ 
electorate,  and  it  was  ultimately  annexed  to  Prussia 
~L  September  20,  1866. 

HESSE-DARMSTADT,  or  HESSE,  a  grand- 
dochy  of  Germany,  extending  (exclusive  of  «Tn«tl 
outlyiuff  prtions)  between  49°  21!  and  SO"  10"  N. 
let.,  and  T*  SO*  and  9°  10*  £.  long.,  and  conaialaag 
of  two  nearly  equal  parts,  separated  by  a  strip  (3 
land  belonging  to  _  Hesse-Nassan.  The  northero 
distriot  is  mountainous,  being  intersected  by  the 
Vogeltbei;^  and  branch^  of  the  Taunus  and  Wee- 
terfeld ;  while  the  southern  is  level  except  in  the 
east  which  is  occupied  by  the  OdanwaW  range. 
H.-I>.  ia  divided  into  the  foUowing  provinces : 


JDBRaBadt,  ) 
tth.«piul,| 


Xit.)o^k' 


HESSE-DAKHSTADT. 


Oiring  an  tm  at  2955-8  «qnat«  ntile^  Mtd  *  popa- 
Iktion  of  823, 138  for  the  entm  dochy. 

PlyMcnl  OAaraclo'. — H.-D.,  nMch  preaeotB  a  sao- 
OBMioD  (4  fmitful  TaUejn  and  rioh  momibuii  ilopca, 
is  V«U  WBteteil,  being  taSTeraed  b;  the  Rluiia  and 
Maina,  Neckar,  Nahe,  Lahu,  Nidda,  Gdder,  Kidder, 
and  Wetter. — The  cliioate  ot  the  northern  diatricts 
of  H.-D.  ia  veiy  mocb  more  aevere  thao  that  of 
the  loatllenl  or  3tarkeabai:g  dirtdct,  'which  iharea 
the  eUmate  of  Sooth  Oermaor. 

Axricoltors  is  in  a  verj  flooruhioR  oonditian, 
neaiijr  half  of  the  toil  bang  ocoapied  by  arable 
landa.  Com  is  grown  in  sufGcient  qoantitr  for 
exportation,  chiefly  in  Upper  Heese,  where  Indian 
com,  or  maize,  and  flax  are  also  largely  cultivated, 
while  hemp,  tobacco,  and  poppies  are  raised  in 
Rhaninti  Hesse.  The  sonthero  districta,  in  which 
a  great  variety  ti  fmit  is  grown,  inoladins  &m, 

-' '-  -•---■ — '-    •--     — ^  specially  noted  ror  &e 

._ . .  the  ohoic«at  of  which 

the  Hiersteiner,  Lanbenheimer,   Bodenheimer, 

and   red   Ingelheimer,  grown 


ing  of  abaw  m  Dwier 

II  of  oil*  and  leather ;  and  the 

i  W>er,  snoS^  papier-mlchfi  gooda, 

w^  pntvidAd  wiUi  post-roads,  and 


uid  the 


Hie  mineral  prodncts,  which  are  inoonsiderable, 
inolnde  coiner,  cobalt,  iron,  salt,  and  coal,  the  three 
latter  of  which  are  most  abondant  in  the  Wetteran 
districts. 

Indvitry. — The  principal  branchea  of  indnstiT 
vn,  besides  sgriculture,  the  '"»'ti"g  ol  wine,  whicn 
in  good  years  yields  a  retom  of  npwarda  of  fonr 
mimon  tluilera ;  tiie  manufacture  of  oottoiu,  linens, 
and  Btoc&ingB,  and  the  weaTing  of  sfcnw  in  U] 
HesM;  the  ^vparatian  of  oil*  and  ' 
manafsctnre  of  p^ier,  snnS^  pai 
Ao.  E.-D.  is  w^  providAd  witJ  , 
has  a  network  of  nilways ;  while  the  iteam- naviga- 
tion of  the  Bhine^  Maine,  and  Neckar  afibrds  still 
nore  estansiTe  means  of  oommuoication,  which, 
lioweTer,  an  partly  or  wholly  closed  during  the 
viater  months. 

JEsnoius.— The  budget  for  the  years  1S72— 1S7S 
gives  the  followmB  estimate  of  the  financial  condi- 
fionofthegnnd-dDchy :  AnnnalTeceiptB,10,S17,T96 
florins  i  annual  ezpenditun^  10^636,088  florina ; 
leaviDg  a  •nipln*  en  181,708  flonni.  The  pnblio 
debt,  ineiin«d  mainly  for  the  ooattmctioD  (H  nil- 
waya,  amonnted  in  1871  to  16300,000  Oorins. 

^ra^.^The  boops  belonging  to  H.-D.  form  the 
twenty-fifth  division  of  the  srmy  ot  the  €)ennaa 
emjnre,  and  belong  to  tha  eleventh  army  corps. 
Thme  is  a  military  college  at  Darmstadt 

£fwealio>).~Tbet«  are  in  E.-D.  1760  national 
•chools,  g  normal,  and  1  higher  bargher  school, 
while  the  sdocational  wauta  of  the  hi^ber  olasus 
at«  well  supplied  by  the  nniTersity  of  Oiessen  (q.  t.), 
with  its  noble  library,  and  the  24  acientifia  instita- 
tioDS  coDuected  with  it;  by  6  gymnasia,  and  by 
polyteobai^  military,  and  theological  tchooli;  The 
ohief  towM  nufiort  varions  suentifio  and  literuy 
aodeties,  and  the  duchy  generally  is  fiivonrably  dia- 
tiuiniishad  in  reapeet  to  t&a  diffiuion  of  knowledf^ 

Mdigion. — In  regard  to  religion,  tlie  population 
waa    divided    in  1871    as    follows :    Protestants, 


169 ;  Mul  Israelite^  25,373.  The  Lntherans  have  a 
ooiwatory  at  Darmstadt,  with  three  minor  court* 
■nder  its  jurisdiction,  while  the  Boman  CathoUo 
churohea  are  nnder  the  auperviaion  of  a  bishop  who 
haa  his  see  at  Mains.  ..        ,       , 

LaiB. — There  was  a  supreme  tribunal  of  law  at 
Darmstadt,  wilL  leaser  court*  at  Darmstadt,  Oieoen, 
and  Mftinr,  and  aomeroo*  local  ooarts  in  the 
oonuta?  districts,  in  some  ot  which  trial  by  jury 

PotilietA    ConsfitirfJoM,     ^— H.-D.    supplied    a 


contingent  of  7227  men,  with  a  reserve  of  3098  to 
the  federal  army,  occupied  the  ninth  place  in  the 
German  Ckmfederation  (q.  v.k  and  had  three  votea 
in  the  Plenum  or  fall  coaDcil,  and  one  vote  in  the 
limited  council  It  is  a  limited  utoaarchical  state. 
Its  ruler,  who  most  be  a  Lutheran,  bears  the  title 
of  Royal  BighnesH,  and  ranks  as  Qraud  Duke  of 
Hesse,  and  as  a  Bheniah  grand  duke.  The  sncces- 
sion  is  hsreditojy  in  the  female  line  in  default  of 
male  issue.  Id  accordance  with  the  law  of  18C8, 
there  are  two  l^islative  chambers  ot  r^iresentatives, 
which  moat  be  convoked  at  least  once  in  every  three 
yean,  but  the  real  power  of  the  government  rests 
with  the  conncil  of  state  and  tlm  four  ministries, 
into  which  the  several  branohes  of  the  administra- 
tion are  divided. 

.Suiory.— The  line  of  H.-D.,  the  second  main 
btsn<^  (4  the  House,  is  derived  from  the  Heaaian 
count,  Oeorge  L,  who,  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Philip  the  Hagnaoimoaa,  in  1567,  obtained  the  upper 
conntahip  ot  KatzenellenlM^en,  with  the  town  of 
Darmstadt  Six  hia  residence ;  and  suoceeded  in  1SS3, 
ou  the  death  of  hia  brother  without  heirs,  to  a  third 
of  the  patrimony  of  the  latter.  He  was  succeeded 
in  1596  bv  bis  eldest  son,  Ludwig  Y.,  while  his  third 
son,  Frederiok,  became  the  founder  of  the  Heaae- 
Hombnrg  line  (q.  v.).  Lodwig  V.,  who  acquired 
a  portion  of  Upper  Hesse,  was  the  founder  of  the 
nniveraity  of  Oiessan.  Althoiuh  H.-D.,  like  every 
other  part  of  Gennany,  sufferea  considerably  during 
tlie  French  revolntionaiy  wars,  it  finally  acquired  a 
great  addition  to  its  territories  through  the  sgenn 
ot  NspdeoD.  Ludw^  X.,  who  had  suoceedMl  his 
father  as  laudgrsf  in  r790,  joined  the  Confederation 
ot  the  Bhine,  snd  after  havmg  acted  against  Austria 
in  1800,  and  in  concert  with  the  French  in  1813, 
offered,  after  the  battle  of  Leipaic,  to  act  with  the 
allies  against  FraDce,  on  oonditian  of  being  allowed 
to  retain  hia  various  acquisitions  of  territory.  He 
had  assumed  the  title  of  grand  duke  in  1806,  and 
on  that  occasion  ha  promi^gated  various  legialativa 
edicts,  and  annulled  the  pre-existing  union  ot  the 
K-D.and  the  Hesse-Cassel  diets.  In  1814,  he  joined 
the  German  Confederation,  and  made  large  ceiaioiia 
of  territory  to  Prussia,  Bavaria,  and  Hease-Caasel, 
receiving  by  way  of  indemnification  a  portion  of 
Qie  Fr^ch  deportment  of  Donnersberg,  or  Mains, 
extending  t«  the  Lahn,  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  principality  of  laenber^  in  ri^t  of  which  he 
aasnmed  the  additional  tiue  of  a  Rhenish  grand 
duke.  In  accordance  with  the  decree  of  the  federal 
diet,  Lndwig  gave  hia  anbjects  a  representative 
form  of  government  in  1820,  the  scheme  of  which 
was,  however,  so  obnoxious  to  the  assembled 
statea,  that  Qie  grand  duke  and  his  advisers  were 
npelled  to  withdraw  it,  and  to  substitute  another 

its  place.  The  task  of  framing  this  constitution 
occupied  several  diets  in  auccesooo,  and  gave  rise 
to  much  angrv  discuBaioo  within  aiid  without  the 
chambers.  The  death,  iu  1830.  of  ttie  grand 
duke,  who  from  varions  caoaes  was  endearaid  to 
his  aubjecta.  widened  these  difTerences,  and  angry 
disc^uaiooB  soon  arose  in  regard  to  the  civil  lut 

be  accorded  to  the  new  grand  duke,  Ludwig 
In  tha  course  of  the  next  few  yean,  one  di^ 
afto*  another  was  convoked  and  prorogued,  hut 
no  material  change  waa  efleated  u  tha  relative 
poaitioD  (rf  the  chuobers  and  the  govemaienti  The 
death  of  the  grand  dnka,  Ludwig  IL,  in  1848, 
and  the  accession  of  hia  son  atid  co-regent,  Ludwig 
IIL,  the  present  grand  duke,  brought  little  change 
for  the  better.  In  the  meantime  it  must,  how- 
ever, be  admitted  that,  notwithstanding  ft^qoent 
dissensioiis  in  church  and  state,  the  duchy  mad* 
considewU         '  •     ■  ■ 


t.Google 


monopolies  and  other  commsrcul  natriotiona 
Temoved;  sreater  freedom  permitted  in  the  earn- 
onlum  of  Ue  noivenit;,  and  >  moie  Uberal  spirit 
inlosed  into  the  ayttem  of  the  education  imputed 
in  the  natitmal  achoola,  Although  these  and  many 
other  improrementa  wen  snidgmglj  yielded,  they 
hare  b«eD  pentumeiit,  but  the  character  of  the 
grand-ducal  policy  has  oeither  been  liberal  nor  in 
accordance  with  the  wiahea  and  Tiewa  of  the  maioritf 
of  the  people.    See  Qebiukt  in  Supp.,  Vol  K, 

HESSE-HOIUBURa,  a  Oermui  landgraTiate 
prior  (o  Maich  24,  1S66,  when  it  Tevarted  to  H.- 
Damutadt,  by  which  it  wa*  ceded  to  Prnnia, 
September  !^  1866.  It-comJeted  of  the  provinces  of 
HombuTgand  MeUenheim;  the  former  bounded  by 
H.-Darmitadt  and  H.-Nanau,  and  the  latter  by 
Rhenish  Pnutia  and  the  Bavarian  Palatinate. 


»»u« 

4'a£- 

r-r.<Mm 

ChMtini. 

rop. 

£r.-s«,- 

13-H 

i».et7 

14,!(H) 

STiV 

wit 

Giving  109-98  square  miles  for  the  tuperScial  ares^ 
and  :£,SI7  for  the  popolatioB  of  the  entire  land- 
graviate.  llie  former  of  then  provinces  is  a  fruitful 
district  lying  on  the  slopes  of  the  Tannus  Uouotaioa, 
which  produces  graio,  wine,  and  timber;  while  the 
latter  is  monntainona,  and  yields  large  cjuantities 
of  coal  and  iroq,  aod  some  eicelleat  wtne.  The 
budget  for  1866  gives  the  foUowiil^  amonnts ; 
namely,  receipts,  £00,520  florins;  expenditure, 
441,166  florins,  leaving  a  surplus  of  60,351  florins. 
The  debt  was,  in  1865,  3.000,000  florins. 

The  troop*  of  the  landgraviate  were  3S6  men, 
inclading  a  reserve  of  lOU,  which  comprised  the 
oontingeot  v!  H.-n.  to  tlie  federal  army.  H.-H  was 
represented  by  Hesse-Darmstadt  is  tha  limited 
council  of  the  diet,  bat  it  held  one  independent 
vote  in  tiis  PUnuia  or  full  oouncil.  The  estab- 
lished religloit  was  Protestant,  to  which  19,000  of  the 
inhabitants  belonged,  the  great  majority  of  whom 
were  attached  to  fee  Hiformirit  Kirche,  while  there 
were  49G0  Catholics,  and  about  1000  Jeira.  H.-H. 
had  a  legislative  representative  chatober,  and  the 
government  was  divided  into  the  three  department* 
of  Justice,  the  Interior,  and  Finances. 

The  landgraviate  was  an  intend  part  of  Hesqe- 
Darmstadt  (towhich  it  reverted  on  the  fuliire  of  the 
direct  line  in  ]306)  till  it  was  transferred,  on  the 
deaUi  of  Uie  landgraf,  in  1596,  to  his  youager  son, 
Friedrich  I.,  in  whose  family  it  remained  as  an  in- 
dependent state  till  jS6ft.  Little  change  was  effected 
ia  the  province  till  the  oonsress  of  Vienna,  when  it 
was  augmented  by  the  additiim  of  Meissenberg. 
In  1817,  IL-H.  was  admitted  into  the  German  Con- 
federation. In  1830,  disturbances  broke  ont  in 
Meisenheim ;  but  althaQgh  they  were  soon  quelled, 
in  consequence  of  the  powers  accorded  to  the 
landgraf  by  the  diet,  several  severe  edicts  were 
published  in  1332  against  the  liberals,  wliioh  excited 
considerable  disaflection.  Tlie  opening  of  the  springs 
and  baths  at  Homburg  in  1833  proved  an  unex- 
pected sonrce  of  we^h  ^  the  state,  and  after  the 
addition  of  gambling  saloons,  the  eetabliebment  con- 
stituted a  very  important  branch  of  the  revenue. 
Attempts  were  more  than  once  made  by  the  diet  to 
pat  down  the  gambling-tablee ;  but  whenever  the 

firMBure  of  federal  intervention  was  removed,  gamb- 
ing  was  always  resumed  with  fresh  spirit ;  ip  1S62, 
however,  the  depnties  passed  a  law  for  its  gradual 
sappresiion,  and  since  the  passing  of  H.-H.  into  the 
hands  of  the  Proasian  government,  the  system  has 
been  completely  suppressed.  Since  their  first  open- 
ing, play,  with  only  temnorary  abatement,  was  pro- 
secuted at  all  hours  and  seasons  by  all  ranks,  irma 


inta  to  princes  and  princesses,  and  almost  ai 
all  agea,  excepting  among  the  subjects  of  H.-K, 
who  were  stringently  forbidden  to  participate  in  it. 

In  1839,  H.-H.  joined  the  Zollverein  (q.  v,).  The 
rrigning  landgraf,  Ferdinand  Heinrich  Friedrich, 
who  succeeded  his  brother,  Philip  Angnst,  in  1848, 
so  far  fielded  to  the  wiafaea  of  nU  subjects  for  a 
constitutional  government,  as  to  convoke  a  diet  to 
deliberate  on  its  nature;  bnt  when  the  scheme  of 
the  new  constitutian  was  completed,  he  withdrew  his 
promised  consent,  and  the  coune  of  poblio  aSkiia  re- 
sumed the  old  track.  SeeGiBMANYinSupp.,  VoLX. 

HESBB-NASSAIT.        See    HnsE-CuBBL     «ad 

HB'SSIAN  BXT  {Cteidomyia  dutradar;  see 
CBcmoMYu),  a  dipterous  insect^  the  larva  of  which 
has  often  proved  extremely 
destructive  to  wheat  in 
North  America.  Its  ravages 
have  occasionally  even  Jed 
to  the  abandonment  of 
wiheat  culture  for  a 
in  considerable  district*. 
It  is  black,  with  dusky 
wings,  dsj-ker  at  the  base, 
pale-brown  l^a.  black  feet,  Beasian  Fly  (CeciiJaKjne 
and  hairy  aateniue.     There  dxArvntof). 

are  two  broods  in  the  year. 

The  ma^ots  of  the  one  brood  live  at  the  roots  of 
the  plants  thronghoat  the  winter;  those  of  the 
other  are  fonnd  m  tlie  lower  joints  of  the  straw, 
in  ths  end  of  spring  and  beginning  of  summer. 

HB'BYCHASTS  (Gr.  BayAaat,  to  be  quiet),  a 
mystic  and  contemplative  sect  of  the  Greek  church, 
who  renewed  in  the  i41h  c-  the  errors  and 
of  the  older  Euchites,  and  who  may  be 
as  the  Quictista  of  the  Bsst  There  i«  re 
believe  that  the  principles  of  the  ancient 
never  entirely  died  oitt  among  the  Oriental  n 
bodies  1  but  they  attracted  au  nnasual  share  of 
public  attention  not  only  at  home,  but  in  the 
western  church  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  14th 
century.  A  Basilian  monk,  named  Borlaam,  a  native 
of  Calabria,  the  ancient  Magna  Gnecia,  and  himself 
of  Greek  origin,  in  the  course  of  a  visit  to  the 
monasteries  of  Greece,  observed  among  the  monka 
several  practices  and  doctrines  which  be  conmdered 
grievously  reprehensible ;  and  was  partienlariy 
struck  by  the  doctrinal  abuses  of  the  monks  <n 
Mount  Athos,  the  '  holy  mountain,'  the  great  strong- 
hold of  monasticuan  \a  Greece.  In  common  wiui 
the  mystics  of  all  times,  these  monks  placed  all  per- 
fection in  contemplation,  and  in  the  elevatim  and 
abstraction  of  sonl  which  contemplation  prodnoea. 
But  among  many  practices  whioh  he  considsred 
objectionable,  liere  was  one  which  especially 
OTovoked  his  reprabation,  and,  indeed,  his  ridicule. 
Bdieving  that  m  the  soul  lay  hidden  a  certain 
divine  ught,  which  it  was  the  office  of  contem- 
plation to  evoke,  tJiey  withdrew  at  stated  times  to 
a  retired  place,  seated  theniHelTea  on  tha  earth, 
and  fixed  their  eyes  steadfastly  on  the  centra  of 
the  stomach  (whence  the  sobriquet  by  which  th^ 
were  known.  omphidopfyAoL,  napei-«initi) ;  and  they 
averred  thal^  after  the  allotted  time  of  etmtempla- 
tion,  a  kind  of  heavenly  light  beamed  forth  npoo 
them  from  the  soul  (whose  seat,  they  held,  was  in 
that  region),  snd  filled  them  with  ecstasy  and 
supernatural  delight.  They  deidared  that  this  light 
was  the  glory  of^God  himself,  and  tbey  connected 
it  in  some  unexplained  way  with  the  l^t  which 
appeared  at  the  transfiguration  of  our  Lord  upon 
Tabor.  Barlaam  denoimced  these  notions  as  fanatical 
and  auperstitioua  On  the  other  hand,  they  were 
explatced  and  warmly  defended  by  Qtegoiy  Palamaa. 


tyCOO^It' 


HB8YCHIU8-HEXAOON. 


Qie  Aichbialiop  of 
settle  the  eontcrtvenv,  t  coancLt  «u  held  in  Con- 
rtaatiDople  in  1341,  wEiicb  tenniiuted  in  the  triumph 
of  PklBinu  and  th«  monka.  The  eontroreny  aftei^ 
warda  tamed  apon  a  point  of  doctrine — namely,  oa 
the  lutnre  of  the  ao-CBlled  divine  light  Bappoied  to 
emanate  from  the  Bonl  in  this  itote  of  contempla- 
tion. Other  coDDCila  wete  ealled,  one  of  which,  in 
1351.  (gain  pronoanced  in  favour  of  the  monki, 
through  the  influence,  it  woi  said,  of  the  court  and 
of  the  celebnted  John  Caotacuzenua,  who  woa  on 
ardent  patron  of  the  Heaychuta.  But  the  public 
voice  woa  hoatila  to  the  aect,  and  on  tlie  retirement 
of  their  patron  Contacnzenua,  who,  in  1355,  became 
a  monk,  the?  fell  into  obacuritf.  The  controveniy 
about  the  'Thaboritie  light,'  however,  is  rtill  di»- 
cimed  in  Greek  theology.  See  Moaheim,  ii.  669 ; 
olao  Fabriciiu,  BUt.  Oraie.  v.  247,  464 ;  Babenberg, 
De  HayduuUt  Brercilai,  p.  378. 

HESTCHIUS,  a  Greek  grammarian  of  Alex- 
andria, flouriabed,  according  to  lome  authorities, 
towards  the  end  ot  the  4th  century.  He  waa  the 
author  of  a  Greek  lexicou,  taken  partly  from 
earlier  worka  of  a  rimilar  character,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  naw  irorda  and  examples  from  the  writi^e 
of  poets,  oraton,  biitoiiana,  and  phyaidana.  Ha 
valne  ia  very  great,  •>  it  mpplie*  oa  witii  extenaive 
infoimalaon  concerning  the  Greek  laognue  and 
liteiBtare,  especially  of  on  antiquarian  km<L  The 
first  edition  la  that  pnbliahed  at  Venice  in  J614; 
the  best  i*  by  Alberti  and  Buhnken  {2  vola. 
Leydeo,  1746—1766),  to  which  additions  were  made 


by  Schow  (Leip,  1792),  Compare  Ranke,  De  Lead 
MajK&iaBi  oent  Origint  ef  genvma  Forma  (Leip. 
and  Qnedlinbnr^   1831). — Not  to   be   confoondeid 


-with  the  foregome  is  the  historian  HiavcHica 
Ii£iletii&  Burnamed  the  '  ninstrious,'  who  flourished 
in  the  twinning  of  the  6th  c,  and  waa  the  author 
cf  the  fiJlowing  works !  1.  A.  book  on  eminent 
teacheiB  (i'eri  ten  en  Paideta  iampsantS*  SofASa) ; 
2.  Another  on  the  dtf  of  Constandnople  {Peri  tea 
PatriSn  KSBttan^JBrntpoleBt) ;  and  3.  A  Chronicle  or 
history  {BiHiim  Hutoriion,  Ac.),  commencing  with 
the  earliest  times,  and  coming  down  to  the  death 
of  Anastaaius.  It  is  new  lost.  See  Orellioa,  Huj/diii 
Opera  (Leip.  1S20). 

HETEBOCE'ROAI'  {Or.  heOrve,  different, 
nnaqnat,  and  herko*,  a  toil),  a  term  introduced  by 
AgMsiz  to  deaignato  a  pecuHari^  of  structure  in 
the  tail  ot  vaae  flafaes,  in  which  Uie  taul  is  unaym- 
metrical  with  reference  to  the  body  of  the  fisn  or 
the  vertd>ral  oohimn ;  tiie  vertobrol  column  being 
prolonged  into  the  upper  of  the  two  lobes  of  the 
tail,  and  a  second  lobe,  mora  or  l«aa  distinct, 
appearing  on   the  under  aide.      The  heterocercal 


Heterooersal  Toil  (atnrgBcn]. 

tail  is,  among  recent  fishes,  characteristio  of  the 
Conilaginoas  Fishes,  and  ia,  therefore,  a  moeh  leaa 
prevalent  fonn  than  the  aymmctrical  or  homocercal 
(Or.  fumtOK,  equal)  taiL  It  ia  very  generally  regarded 
aa  indicating  an  affinity  to  Saurian  reptiles.  But 
in  the  older  geologia  fotmationB,  the  heterocercal 
is  the  prevalent  form ;  in  all  the  formationa  older 
than  the  oolitic  it  exolosiTely  appeaia. 


HBTKROGANGLIATA  (Or. 
and  ganglion,  a  ganglion),  a  term  introduced  by  Owen, 
and  adopted  by  many  looJogists,  in  accordonoa  with 
Bcheme  of  toologico!  classification  founded  on  the 
ervons  system  in  animals,  to  deaignate  the  MoUugca 
of  Ouvier,  with  which  are  rank^  the  '  zoophytes ' 
of  the  division  Potytoa  or  Sryosoa.  The  nervous 
centre*  or  ganglia  are  not  arranged  in  a  longitudinal 
aeries  of  symmetrical  pairs,  hut  are  variously  dis- 
tributed in  different  parts  of  the  body ;  one  principal 
gauglionio  masa,  howevm',  occupving  a  posltiOD 
above  the  gullet,  with  which  all  the  nerves  of  the 
special  senses  which  exist  are  connected.  With  it, 
also,  all  the  other  ganglia  communicate. — Whether 
or  not  the  new  name  heteiogangliata,  may  nlti- 
mately  come  into  general  use  among  nitematio 
raologista,  it  certainly  indicates  a  mi»t  important 
ihoracter  in  the  organisation  of  the  «n!iTi>l|  to 
which  it  is  applied- 

HETUAN.  or  ATAMAN,  the  title  of  the  head 
general  of  the  Cossacks,  now  retaiaed  only  among 
the  Cossacks  of  the  Don.  From  the  earli^  times 
the  H.  waa  elected  by  the  voice  ef  the  assembled 
peo^e ;  the  mode  of  election  being  by  throwing 
their  fur-caps  at  the  candidate  they  preferred,  and 
the  one  who  had  the  laigest  number  of  caps  was 
declared  duly  elected.  The  power  of  the  H.  was  very 
great,  and  extended  over  life  and  death.  When 
Mie  Cossacks,  in  1654,  submitted  to  the  Bnasiana, 
the  H.  was  permitted  to  retain  his  rights  as  for- 
merly. The  Empress  Catherine  entirely  abohshed 
the  dignity  of  IL  of  the  Ukraine,  and  substituted 
a  government  consistiug  of  eight  members.  The 
Don  Cossacks  have,  indeed,  retained  their  K,  bat 
even  he  possesses  but  the  shadow  of  his  former 
power.  The  last  elective  H.  was  Connt  Plateff, 
who  played  »  prominent  part  in  the  wars  with 
France  (1812-1814).  After  his  death,  the  H.  was 
appoint^  by  the  ccor,  and  nltimatoly  the  title  was 
made  hereditary  in  the  grand  doka,  the  heir  to  tiie 
throne. 

HBVEXrUS  (known  also  >a  Exvkl  or  BOvxtxs), 
JOBANN,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  ostionomets  of 
the  17th  c,  was  bom  at  Daniig  in  ISll,  and  died 
in  that  city  in  1687.  He  belonged  to  an  honour- 
able and  wealthy  family  ;  and  in  1641  ha  erected 
>baervatory  in  hia  own  house,  and  furnished  it 


the  first  astronomer,  with  the  exoeptiou  of  Gassendi, 

observe  a  transit  of  Mercury  (Gassendi's  obsei^ 

,ion  waa  made  in  1631,  that  of  E.  in  1661};  and 

is  now  generally  conceded  that  be  ranks  next 

Flomsteed  amongst  the  astronomers  of  his  da^. 

Delombre  devotes  ten  pages  to  the  notice  of  his 

lahouni  in  his  llitioire  de  rAitron,  Mod.,  and  his  life 

has  been  written  by  J.  H.  Wesphol  (Kttnigsb.  1820). 

"  town  of  Hungary,  ii 


of  the  a 


1  the  midst  of  a 


east-Dorth-east  of  Festh.'  Pep.<t86g)  G703. 

HB'XACHORD,  a  name  given  by  the  andent 
Greeks,  in  theii  nnsic,  to  the  great  sixth.  Ia 
modem  music,  hexachord  denotes  Ihe  aix  diatonto 
d^rees  of  which  Qnido  formed  hia  scale,  better 
known  by  the  six  syllables,  Ut,  re,  nu,  fa,  sol,  la, 
to  which  the  scale  waa  sung. 

HE'XAGOTT  (Qr.  i«c,  six,  and  gOda,  angje),  a 
flgnre  dl  til  sidea  and  six  angles ;  when  the  sides 
asd  angka  are  equal,  it  is  called  a  rtguiar  hexagon. 
If  a  regular  heiagtut  be  inscrilied  in  a  oirole,  the 
radius  of  the  circle  is  equal  in  length  to  each  side 
ot  it,  and  by  joining  the  c— ' ■"■  "— '" 


>  with  the  ong^ar 


s  veiT  aimpU 

Ui 

./Google 


HEXAHEDKON— HEYUN. 


occap;  iptue  (the  eqnilatenl  truogle,  aqiutre,  and 
beu^o),  (he  hexagon  containa  the  gresteit  arek 
within  a  given  perimeter,  the  proportnau  between 
the  three  different  ii^ures  being  Dearlj  as  the 
nmnhera  4,  6^  6,  It  ui  thus  that  bees,  liy  making 
their  oells  of  a  hexagoml  f  onn,  enclose  the  greateM 
■pace  with  the  leaat  expenditure  of  wax. 

HEXAHE'DRON  (Or.  hex,  aix,  and  ftAfro,  ban), 
to  called  from  its  having  six  faces,  ia  one  of  tjie  five 
r^ular  Bolida,  according  to  Flato ;  bat  in  modem 
times  the  term  Cube  (q,  t.)  baa  been  naed  in  this 
aiznificatioa,  and  the  hexahedron  ii  taken  to  include 
all  aolid  figiuta  of  six  faces. 

HEXA'METEB  (Or.  hex,  six,  and  metron,  a 
meistue),  the  name  applied  to  the  moat  important 
form  of  clBBsical  verse.  It  is  the  heroic  or  epic 
verse  of  the  Oreeki  and  Romans,  the  Erandeet 
examples  of  which  are  the  Iliad  and  Oayney  of 
Homer,  and  the  ^neid  of  VirgiL  It  consista,  as  its 
name  implies,  of  six  feet  or  measures,  the  last  of 
which  must  be  a  spondee  (a  measure  composed  of 
two  long  syllables),  and  the  penultimate  a  dactyl 
(one  loi^  salable  and  two  short).  If  Qu  p 
timate  w  aba  a  spondee,  the  vone  is  said  t 
spondee  TIh  following  are  examples  of 
hexameter: 
J>MUi<ra|ttdRU,  MlUnt^  plir\ana  U  [ddehmlS\fiWHhi. 

TUj/n  \  tapaai\ta,  rIdilMnj  iS4  I  tlpmlne  \a, 


forms  oomponnds  is  favontable 
Klopatoek,  Goethe,  and  Vce«  have  [aroduoed  admir- 
able  BpeeiinenB  of  this  kind  of  verw.  It  has  been 
donbtad  wliether  the  English  is  not  too  stubbom 
and  iutoMtable  for  the  free-flowing  maj««ty  of  the 
hexameter;  and  no  small  disonssion  wiUi  regard  to 
this  point  has  been  carried  on  among  schoUn  of  the 
picaont  day ;  although  many  tiaink  that  the  ShaHfe- 
Ins  of  Loiu|feIIow,  and  to  some  etteut  the  VaeaiKm 
SamiU  <a  Clongh,  have  definitely  settled  the 
question  in  favour  of  the  pncticability  of  this 
mesanre  being  adopted  into  Bngliah.  Our  readers 
may  judge  frran  tbe  opening  lines  of  Svangeiine; 

■    ■      -      —  inuring  I  pines 


indiajtinat  in  the  |  twili^t. 
Stand  like  |  Dntids  of  {  eld,  with 

pm  I  phatiii. 
Stand  liks  j  harpers  |  hoar  with  I  beards  that  |  n 

thdr  {  boaomi.' 
The  last  two  lines  ahew  where  Bn^iah  verofication 
is  weak — vis.,  in  its  spondees,  unaocented  syllables 
being  compelled  to  do  the  duly  of  accented  oaea. 

HE'XAPLA.  (Or.  hoopla,  'the  sixfold'),  a  cele- 
brated edition  of  the  Septuagint  versioa,  compiled 
by  Otigen  for  IJie  purpose  of  restoring  the  purity  of 
its  text,  and  bringmg  it  into  closer  sgreement  with 
the  orinnal  Hebrow.  Owing  to  the  mnltiplioatioD  of 
tnnscnpta  of  the  Greek  text,  numerous  errors  had 
crept  in ;  and  in  the  frequent  controvennes  which 
arcae  between  the  Jews  and  the  Greek  or  Hellenist 
(q.  V.)  Christians,  the  Utter,  in  appealing  to  the 
Greek  text,  were  often  mortified  by  the  discovery 
that  it  by  no  meana  represented  faithfully  the 
Hebrew  original  In  order  to  meet  this  evil.  Origan 
undertook  to  provide  a  meana  of  at  least  verifyitig 


the  genuine  Greek  text,  aa  well  as  of  ooofrontiiie 
it  with  the  original  With  thia  view,  he  nrepored 
what  ia  known  as  his  Tetrapta,  or  'fourfoJd' 
veraion,  which  he  afterwards  extended  into  the 
Heiaplik  The  Tetrapla  contained,  in  four  paialld 
oalunma,  the  SeptuagiDt  veraion,  together  wiUi 
those  of  Aquila,  SVnunachua,  and  Theodotioii.  The 
Eeiapla  containeo,  in  addition,  the  Hsbrew  text, 
together  with  a  transcript  of  U>at  text  in  Gra^ 
charaotera.  In  tome  parts  of  the  Old  Testament 
there  were  aaperadded  one,  two,  and  even  tht«e 
other  veiaioua ;  so  that  in  some  parts  the  work 
contains  nine  oolnnuUt  whenoa  it  ia  oocaaioiiallT 
designated  the  HamtajHa,  or  *  nineft^'  Of  Um 
OTUFin  of  these  latter  veruons  fant  little  ia  known. 

The  HeiBpla,  however,  waa  something  more  tJiu  » 
mere  oompilation  of  theee  veniooa.  In  the  margin 
were  given  notea  chiefly  explanatory,  as,  for  iostaooe, 
of  the  Hebrew  names.  Bat  a  still  more  important 
oharaoteriatic  of  the  work  were  its  reetocstions  and 
correstiona  of  the  original,  in  which  Oiigen  waa 
guided  chiefly  by  the  version  of  Theodotaon.  lliia, 
however,  he  did  not  efllect  by  arbitrary  alteratioB* 
of  the  received  text ;  but,  while  he  retained  His 


relrenohment)  the  coireetiona  wluch  he  son^it  to 
introduce.  Both  these  texts,  the  oommon  (ioM 
eidoris)  snd  that  of  the  Hexqila,  are  found  ooan- 
biued  in  existiiig  MSS.  The  Hexqila,  aa  a  wbolt^  ha* 
ton^  been  lost ;  several  editions  <n  those  fragEoients 
of  it  which  it  has  been  poaaibla 


PnMmmaria  of  Oiia  learned  wo^ 

HE'XHAM,  a  small  market-town  of  Sngland,  in 
the  county  of  Northumberland,  is  ureeably  uto^ed 
on  (he  i^t  bank  of  the  Tyne,  20  milea  west  of 
Newcastle.  The  Tyne  is  here  crossed  bv  a  bridge  of 
nine  arches.  The  priory  church,  an  old  cmcifoiin 
structure  of  the  12th  c,  is  now  used  as  the  pariah. 
charch.    It  has  a  loft^  central  tower,  and  at  ita 

'-rn  end  are  remauis  of  the  magnifioeot  mon- 

'  erected  in  the  7th  e.  by  8t  Wilfrid.    Tlie 
manufactarea  of  the  town  are  doves  and  hata. 
Pop.  (1871)  fi33L 


HETLIN,  Du  Pbtsb,  an  English  divine,  of  oon- 

aiderable  note  in  his  own  day,  was  desctinded  fnini 
an  ancient  Welsh  family  belonging  to  Uontgoniei;- 
shire,  and  was  bom  at  Burford,  in  Oxfordshin, 
November  29,  1600.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  wher« 
he  took  the  degree  of  D.D.  Through  the  interest 
of  Laud,  in  whose  theory  of  church  and  king  ha 
devoatly  believed,  H.  was  appointed  chaplain-in- 
ordinan-  to  King  Cborles  in  I^.  Huboeq^aeutly, 
he  held  a  variefy  of  livings,  but  was  deprived  of 
them  during  the  period  of  the  commonwealth.  At 
the  restoratioii,  he  was  made  sub-dean  of  Wvt- 
nster,  an  office  which  many  of  his  friends  thonjj^t 
utterly  inadequate  reward  of  his  literary  servues 
to  the  royal  oause.  He  died  May  S,  1662.  H. 
was  a  very  volurainout  oontroveraial  writer,  hot 
his  works  are  of  no  value  now,  except  as  illustrative 
of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and  Uie  eoclcaiaa- 
^__.        A_  ..  ^iiijj,  ]jg  ij^oneed.      Among  others 


Tbe^ogia  VOenaa  ;  Examen  Hidorievm,  containing, 

—ions  other  things,  a  violent  attack  oa  Fullei'ii 

lurm  Hiilory,  which  involved  h™  in  a  oontro- 

veny  wit^  that  author;  Hutaria  Quingiiarttwliniv 


^dhyCOO^It" 


HBYSE-HllZEKIAH. 


__ ,    Hidern   qf  the 

B^/armaHoii  t^  At  Otanh  <if  Sagland;  md  jEnu4 
SedmBoa,  or  Ae  Hiltorg  oftht  Prttbgltriaif. 

H£TSE,  Cbbibtuh  Gottlob,  a  Oerrnan  icIioIm 
of  great  celebritj,  wu  bom  at  Cbemiiit^  in  Upper 
SuoDj,  26th  September  1729.  Hig  father  waa  a 
poor  weaver.  The  pastor  of  Chenmiti,  hinuelt  very 
poor,  got  H.  educated  at  a  acbool  in  the  (mbnrbe, 
and  anarwarda  sent  him  to  Leipdc  miiremty, 
but  fa»ot  to  give  him  money  for  hia  sapport  I 
Hii  mffiringB  here  were  iomethinn  frightful,  but 
hia  endnrauce  was  henio.  In  1753,  he  obtained  the 
EitaatioD  of  nnder-olerk  in  the  BrUhl  libiv;  at 
Breaden.  While  in  thia  bmuble  office  he  prepared 
hia  edittOQ  of  TSniliua,  which  nw  the  light  in  1765, 
and  bappening  to  &11  into  the  handi  of  Bhunken 
of  Leyden,  eicitad  the  Bdmiislion  of  that  echolar. 
In  1756,  unfortunately  for  K,  the  Seven  Yeare' 
Wm-  broke  out  Frederick  the  Great  marched 
against  Dresden,  and  bnnied,  among^olher  things, 
the  BrUhl  library,  bat  not  before  El  had  edited, 
from  a  eoda  there,  the  Enehiridiim  of  Epictetos, 
Fcv  KHne  time  be  led  a  precarious  life,  being 
often  withont  employment,  ijmI  without  bread.  In 
1761,  he  manied,  and  supported  himself  as  beat 
be  coold  by  writins  for  Uie  booksellen ;  and  in 
1763,  on  the  death  cs  Gessner,  profenor  of  rhetoric 
at  GSttingen,  he  was  appointed  his  Boaceasor  on 
the  reoonuntnidation  of  Khunken  of  Leyden  (who 
had  not  fotgotten  his  editions  of  TumUnt  and 
Bpietetttt).  Thia  closed  his  period  of  roisfortuna. 
Tm  r««t  of  hia  long  life  was  spent  in  peace  and  com- 
fort and  professorial  activity.  He  died  12tii  July 
181Z  The  principal  works  of  H.,  beaidca  those 
mentioned,  are  his  editions  of  Tirgil  (1767,  <th  ed. 
1803),  Pindar  (1774),  ApoUodorns  (1787),  Pliny 
(1790),  CoDon  and  Parthenins  (179S),  and  Homer 
(8  vols.  1802;  2d  ed.  IS04).  He  also  eiecuted 
'almost  a  cart-load  of  tnuulationa,'  besides  'some 
ten  or  twelve  thick  Tolomea  of  Prolusions,  Eulo^ea, 
and  Essays,'  of  whicJi  aiz  volumes  were  pnbliSied 
separately  under  the  title  of  Optua^  Aeadtmiea 
(Getting  1785—1812);  and  finally,  abont  7600 
reviews  of  books  in  the  Q/Sltmger  Oele/urlat  Anx^gen, 
at  which  he  was  director  from  1770.  In  addition 
to  this  herculean  work,  he  had  a  private  elasa  or 
jSnninariuni  for  the  advanced  study  of  philoloey 
and  clasaical  antiquity,  from  wliich  he  sent  forth,  id 
the  coniBe  of  hia  life,  no  lea  than  135  pnifeasora  I 
Compare  the  Life  id  Heyue  by  hia  aon-in-law, 
Ludwig  Heer«n  (Qotting.  1813],  and  Carlyle's  essay 

BBZBKI'AH  (Beb.  HiMak,  TMMvahu,  •  May 
Jehovah  atrskgthen  him^),  king  <rf  Jndah,  aoa  and 
ratetmot  atjStaa,  reigned  from  728  [72S]  to  690 
[697]  B.a  'UMTS  was  none  like  him  among  all  the 
kings  of  Jndah,'  is  tbe  {vsisa  bestowed  upon  him  in 
2  £np  zviii.  S,  and  scarcely  leas  flattering  ii  the 
aooonnt  jneaerved  of  Una  monarch  in  2  Chron.  xxix. 
From  tlra  moment  that,  at  the  early  age  of  five- 
and-twen^,  he  DMHinted  the  throne,  his  mbrts  seem 
dnefly  to  have  been  direoted  towards  the  abolition 
of  the  idolatry  which  reigned  paramount  in  the 
land,  and  the  restoratdon  ofthe  worship  of  Jehovah 
to  iU  pristine  ptirity  and  glory.  The  temple  was 
reopened,  the  Priests  and  Levites  whoae  genealogies 
had  proved  correct  had  their  ancient  revenues 
Mngned  to  t^m,  and  racommsnoed  the  daily  ler- 
vioe;  and  the  first  pasaover  which  fell  in  H.'b  reign, 
wa»— -albeit  a  month  after  the  appointed  season — 
oelebrated  with  almost  onparaUeled  pomp  for  full 
Fonrteen  days,  amidst  a  vast  conooune  of  people,  not 
only  of  Judah,  but  even  of  IsiaeL  Viotwions  in  the 
wars  he  waged  with  Qm  Philistines,  and  relying  on 
an  Egyptian  alliance,  into  which  he  had  enta«d 


against  the  adviee  of  Isuah,  K  dared  also  to  with- 
hold the  fci^niifll  tribate  imposed  by  Sli*lTTmTi*ff»nTi  jq 
the  days  of  bis  father;  whereupon,  at  would  appear 
from  cuneiform  records,  Sargon,  Sh  *}  mjyp  assar'n  suc- 
csoor,  invaded  Judea,  but  without  success.  When, 
however,  Sargon's  Buccessor,  Sennacherib,  on  his 
way  to  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  had  already  seized 
Lachiah,  or,  according  to  Chron.  and  Isaiah, '  all  the 
fortresses'  of  Jodea,  nothing  remained  for  K  but 
to  ask  for  peace,  and  to  offer  any  ransom  that 
Sennacherib  might  deem  fit  to  impose.  Sennacherib 
took  an  enormous  sum  in  silver  and  gold,  for  which 
the  saond  treasury  and  the  very  doors  of  the  temple 
w«n  laid  under  contribution : — perhaps  only  a 
slxatagem  to  convince  the  conqueror  of  the  poverty 
of  the  nrral  coffen.  It  is  a  moot-point  whether 
Sennacherib,  after  having  received  the  money 
intended  to  procnre  the  peace,  treacherously  marched 


t  once,  or  whether  he  continued 


upon  Jen 

1 ij  j^  jyiTpi,  ana  uemg  beaten  there 

H.'s  efforts 
to  renaer  me  capital  impregnatile  were  fntile.  Sud- 
denly, however,  '  an  Angel  of  the  Lord'  (explained 
variously  to  mean  the  plague,  an  earthquake, 
a  sudden  attack  by  Hrha^  or  the  EUmoom) 
sins  during  one  single  night  180,000  men  in  the 
Assyrian  camp,  and  Sennacherib  was  obliged  to 
retreat.  Whether  H.'a  illness— 'Shechin,'  ulcers, 
according  to  some,  or  the  plague,  as  others  under- 
stand  that  word— took  place  before  or  after  Senna- 
cherib's invasion,  is  not  fully  established  as  yet; 
certain  it  is,  that  after  his  miraculous  recoveiy, 
indicated  to  him  by  the  retrograde  movements  of 
the  dial,  he,  among  other  visits  of  congratulation, 
also  received  that  of  tile  ambassadors  of  Merodach 
Baladcm  (Mardocampsdoa),  king  of  Babylon.  The 
latter — as  would  appear  frooi  the  Chaldean  historian 
Berosiu — waa  at  that  time  hkewise  tributary  to 
Assyria,  and  sent  the  embasey  with  a  view  to 
securing  H.*!  co-operation  sgainst  the  common 
enemy.  H.,  imprudenUy  enou^  made  a  great 
display  of  his  treasores,  his  magazines,  and  arsenals ; 
but  so  far  from  impressing  the  messengers  with  his 

rtnesB,  he  only  kindlol  in  Merodach  Baladou 
desire  to  po^ess  himself  of  all  these  things; 
and  the  later  Babylonian  invasion  ending  in  the 
captivity,  is  undoubtedly  to  be  tmxA  ba£  to  this 

a  of  vanity  on  the  part  of  Hezekiah 

The  remamder  of  H.'s  life  waa  passed  in  profoaad 
peace  and  prosperity,  so  that  ha  was  enabled  to 
turn  his  attention  to  the  internal  development  of 
the  mources  of  the  country,  and  the  forti&ation  of 
its  towns.  He  coUected  great  tieasures  and  executed 
many  highly  useful  works,  among  whitJi  the  aque- 
duct cf  Jerusslem  take  a  foremost  plaoe.  His  was 
also  the  golden  age  of  prophetic  poetry.  Besides 
Isaiah,  tbere  lived  in  hia  time  the  pro^eta  Micah 
and  Naboio.  From  a  passsge  in  Prov.  xrv.  1,  it 
wonld  also  appear  that  he  founded  a  society  of 
literati,  who  collected  and  arranged  the  ancient 
documents  of  Hebrew  htersture,  more  eapecially 
the  Proverbs  attributed  to  Solomon.  H.  hiluseU 
waa  a  poet  of  no  mean  order  ;  witness  the  hymn  he 
oompoaed  after  his  recovery.  H.  died  at  the  age 
of  A  years,  in  the  29th  year  of  his  lejgn,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  Bon  Manaaseh. 

The  Mishna  (Pea.  4,  9)  enumerates  three  things 
for  which  H.  is  to  be  praised,  and  three  things  for 
which  he  is  to  be  bhuned.  The  unworthy  burial 
ot  his  lather,  on  aooount  of  lus  wickedness ;  the 
tireaking  of  the  brass  serpent  of  Mosea,  which  had 
become  an  object  of  idolatry ;  and  the  hiding  of  a 
'  book  of  medicaments ' — some  auperstitions  work 
—are  the  three  good  deeds.  His  spoiling  the  door* 
of  the  temple,  to  pay  the  tribute  to  Sennacherib ; 


iiizodtyGuui^le 


HIBEKNATION— HIBISCnS. 


the  atQppmg  up  of  the  upper  Oihon  dormg  the 
BU^  of  Jerusalem ;  and  hu  pofltpoiung  the  flnt 
paasoTer  for  a  Burnth  (see  above),  are  hia  three 
wicked  deeds. 

HIBERKA'TION  (from  ^bemart,  to  paaa  the 
winter)  ii  the  term  applied  bj  lUitaraliBti  to  eijiTeu 
a  peculiar  conditioii  of  sleep  in  which  certain  animala 
— chiefiy  cheiroptera  and  rodentia — pass  the  winter 
season.  It  ii  not  very  clearly  known  to  what 
extent  hibernation  prevails  in  the  animal  kingdom. 
The  bats,  tha  hedgehog,  and  the  dormouse  are  the 
»¥iim»U  which  in  this  country  present  the  most 
striking  examples  of  this  ^enomeaoo. 

The  term  hibematioa  is  not  a  good  one,  because 
■nnmier  heat  produces    in    some   animals  a  1 
similar  condition  to  that  which  winter  cold  prodi.-  _, 
in  others ;  and  hence  the  Germans  use  the  worda 
WintertdUtif  (winter  deep)  and  Sommatdtiaf  (sum- 

condittona. 

The  following  u«  the  most  marked  peculiaritiea 
presented  by  bata,  hedgehogs,  and  dornuce,  when  in 
a   state  of   nerfeot    hibematioo : — Tbe  respiration 

is  very  nearly  BuHpended,  ar  '"  ""^ "'    """  """ 

abaence  of  alt  detaotaWe  re«^_ _    . 

the  almost  entire  abseace  of  any  chan|, 
in  the  bell-jar  or  case  in  which  toe  animal  is  placed 
during  the  iiAestigatioii ;  (3),  bj  the  subsidence  of 
the  tempetature  to  that  of  the  atmosphere ;  and 
(4),  by  the  capability  of  sapporting,  lor  a  great 
length  of  time,  the  entire  pnvatioa  of  air.  The 
circnlation  is  reduced  to  an  extreme  degree  of 
slownem.  In  an  obserration  made  by  Br  Manball 
Hall,  the  heart  of  a  bat  waa  observed  to  beat  only 
twenty-eight  times  in  the  minate.  The  excretions 
are  very  scanty.  Tba  bat  is  observed  to  have 
scarcely  any  axt^^on  during  its  continued  lethargy. 


s  shewn  (1},  by  the 


I   the  I 


Toljtiou  are  qaiescent,  but  reflex  or  excito-motaiy 
actions  are  very  readily  produced.  The  slightest 
touch  applied  to  one  of  the  spines  of  a  hedgehog,  -~ 
the  merest  shake  given  to  a  bat,  induces  cue  or  ti  . 
inspintoiy  movements.  Dr  Marshall  Hall  made 
the  important  discovery  that,  while  the  respiration 
is  almost  totally  suspended,  tbe  muscular  irrita- 
bility ia  ^portioually  augmented.  All  hibernating 
«■"!'"« If  instinctively  adopt  various 
aecnre  themaelves,  during  tHe  leUuu^o  peri< 
sources  of  disturbance  and  eicitemenL   Thei 


Some  £ 


1  themselves  nests ;  others  ooagre- 
large  numbers.  The  hedgehog  and 
Sormoiiaa  roll  thenuelvea  up  ioto  a  ball ;  the  bats 
group  together  in  clnsteri,  with  the  head  down- 
wanb,  aai,  in  soms  spedea  the  wines  are  s^pread,  ao 
that  Moh  individual  embraces  and  ahelteia  ita  ne^- 
boor.  Reviveaoenoe  ia  due  parity  to  the  return  of 
warmth,  but  inainly  in  all  probabili^  to  the  calls  of 
hunger.  The  return  of  the  respiration  and  animal 
heat  to  the  normal  ataudard  is  very  graduaL 

The  phyaiological  use  of  hibernation  is  doubtless 
to  enable  oertaio  animaU  to  avoid  the  consequences 
<A  mmn  winter  cold,  and  (especially  in  the  case  of 
the  insectivorous  animals)  the  deprivation  of  food. 
Befar«  (he  period  of  hibernation,  a  large  amount 
of  fat  is  accmmilated  in  the  organism,  and  this 
fat  oonstitutea  the  fuel  on  which  the  animal  lives 
and  supports  its  comparatively  trifling  heat  during 
the  wmter.  The  other  tissues  suf^  to  a  less 
extent,  and  the  total  loas  of  weight  is  son 
nearly  40  par  oent. — «  proportion  fully  as  g 
that  which  is  usually  suatained  in  death  by 

tion.      For  a   full  account  of  the  pheoom ._ 

hibernation,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Barkow,  i>cr 
Winler^JafmuAaaatr  SrtcAananijen  im  Thierrtich 
dtwgeiUOl  (Berlin,  1846). 


The  fiiHt 
Ireland  in  uicient  timA  occurs  ^ 
on  the  Argonautic  expedition,  attributed  to  the 
mythical  Orpheus,  and  perhapa  as  early  aa  '■^- 
time  of  the  first  Darius.  AriBtotle  apeaka  of 
islands  situated  in  the  oceori  beyond  the  pOlara  of 
Hercules,  '  called  Britarmic,  very  large,  Albion  and 
"  ^  Diodorus  Sicolo* 


imcient  grounds,  romporuus  Mela,  with  quite 
Irifih  warmth  ol  eulogy,  declorea  the  herb^e 
*--  -  luxuriant  that  Uie  cattle  who  feed  on  it 
I  bursL  Fliny  repeats  this  statement, 
and  adda  tiiat  the  Hibernian  mother  troina  her 
child  from  the  very  first  to  eat  food  from  the 
point  of  a  swonL  But  the  most  important  of  all 
j-lan«innl  authoritiea  on  H.  is  Ptolemy,  who  deaciibes 
the  country,  and  gives  the  nomei  of  the  principal 
rivers,  promontcnes,  seaports,  and  inland  towns. 
The  isluid  was  never  conquered,  nor  even  exploced, 
by  the  Bomans.    See  Iceland. 


distinguished  by  a  double  calyx  am 
more  many-seeded  carpels  united  ii 
capsule.    The  speciea  an  niunerooi 


Abtlmotduu  eKuIsnlua)  is  m  general  nae  bata 
t^  East  and  West  Indies  for  uiickening  aonpa, 
1  otherwise  aa  an  article  of  food.     It  is  called 


anb-order 
and  fruit  of  three  or 
.  >d  into  a  many-celled 

capsule.  The  speciea  an  niuneroos,  natirea  ot  warm 
climates,  some  a  them  trees  or  shrubs,  but  meat  of 
them  large  herbaceous  plants,  annual  or  peisnniaL 
The  flowers  of  many  are  very  beautiful.  H,  SyritKut, 
sometimes  called  AWuua  Jrulex,  a  native  <i  Syria 
and  Camiola,  has  long  been  in  cultivation  aa  ao 
ornamental  ahrub,  and  proves  sufficienUy  hardy 
in  many  parts  of  Britain.  Some  are  uvonrite 
hothouse  planta.  The  charscleristic  mucilaginoDa 
and  fibrous  properties  of  the  JItalvacta  are  very 
atroDgly  developed  in  this  tribe.  H.  Abdmi  ' 
(or  AMmaidaia escai^enfuji)  ao  abounds  in  mm 

Qojoo,  OoBBO,  and  Oohbo  in  the  West  Indies . 
BuTDiKAi,  Rui-iDKAi,  and  Dekroos  in  diSeiait 
parts  of  India ;  and  Bauku.  in  the  wort  of 
Africa ;  if  indeed  the  East  Indian  I£,  lonffyblau 
and  the  African  H.  Bammia  are,  as  seems  probable, 
mere  varieties.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  with  a  soft 
herbaceous  stem,  3 — C  feet  higEi,  crenate  leavs, 
axillary  solphur-colonred  flowera,  and  pyramidal, 
somewhat  podltke  capsulee.  It  is  cnlUvoted  in  aoow 
parts  of  the  south  of  Europe.  The  fruit  is  Dsed  in 
an  unripe  state.  It  is  generally  much  esteemed, 
but  is  disliked  by  some  on  account  of  ita  viscidity. 
It  eaters,  aa  an  important  ii^redient,  into  the 
peppe^pot  of  the  West  Indies.  The  ripe  seeds  are 
scraetimes  used  in  soups  aa  barley.  The  bai^  ol 
H.  tttiaceus — a  tree  of  twenty  feet  hirii,  with  a  very 
thick  bole — so  abounds  in  mucilaga,  uiat  bychewing 
it  the  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  obtain 
nourishment  in  timce  of  scarcity.  This  tree,  the 
Bola  af  Bengal — supposed  to  be  the  same  with  the 
MoHo  or  MoKiDT  ol  the  West  Indies  {If,  arbomu) 
—is  one  of  the  moat  abundant  bus  of  the  South 
Sea  Islands ;  and  the  wood  being  light,  tough,  uid 
durable^   is   much  used  for  many  puipoaea.     Tlie 


Many  other   species   yield    fibres,    . 

coarse,  some  of  them  fine  and  beautiful,  which  an 
used  in  different  countries ;  but  the  most  important 
~_  .liis  respect  ia  ff.  cannabimu,  tie  Ak&uU 
UxHF   and   Dicsakeb  HsHr  of  Western   India. 


TX^oogte" 


HICCUP— HIERACIUM. 


partt  of  India,  althongh  nowhere  to  A  great  extent. 
It  ii  an  annual  berbaoeoni  plmnt,  haTing  a  itrsiuht: 
unbrancliing  stem,  3 — 7  feet  huh.    The  fibre 


itrong  oa  hemp,  and  ii  uien!  only  for  rop«a  and 
cuans  fabrics.  It  haa  been  eogeBsted  that  many 
speciei  of  H.  might  be  found  vali^le  for  the  manu- 
ficture  of  paper. — H.  Sabdarifa  ia  very  generallj 
cnltivatod  in  warm  coontriea,  on  account  oE  ita 
calyx,  which,  as  tbe  froit  ripena,  becomea  fleahy, 
nai,  aoquirea  a  very  pleasant  addity.  It  ia  much 
naed  for  making  tart*  and  jelly,  and  a  decoction  of 
it,  aweetened  and  fermented,  aflbnla  a  reireahuiE 
berenge,  well  knowa  in  tbe  West  Indies  as  StrrS 
Cooi  Drink,  the  plant  beii^  colled  Res  Sok&bi.  H. 
Abttmotchus  (ot  AbelmOtiMU  nuwcAoAu),  sometimea 
called  Miras  Seed,  another  plant  conunon  in  widely 
aeparated  tropical  cooatnes,  is  coHivatad  for  its 
seeda,  which  hare  a  fragrance  between  that  of 
mask  and  that  of  amber.     They  are  much  need 

Xperfumen,  and  an  called  AirdnvUe  or  Qraina 
imbrtUe.  In  Egypt  and  Arabia  they  are  mixed 
with  eoCTee,  and  stimulsiit  sod  stomaohio  qualities 
an  aacribed  to  them.  The  petals  of  H.  Soaa-Smauu 
are  astringent,  and  are  used  by  the  Chinese  to  stain 
their  eyebrows  and  their  shoes  Uack. 

HI'COUP,  or  HICCOUGH,  oonmats  si  sudden 
short  convulsiva  inspirations,  attended  with  a  pecu- 
liar sound  produced  in  the  larynx,  and  immediately 
followed  by  expiration.  The  movements  concerned 
in  the  prodnctian  of  hiccap  are  a  spasmodic  con- 
traction  of  the  diaphragm,  and  a  certain  degree  of 
oonitriction  in  the  ^lottu,  which  occasions  the  pecu- 
liar sound,  and  limila  the  amount  of  air  inspired. 
These  convulsive  inapirationa   comm<»tly  occur  in 

Cxysma,  and  succeed  eacb  other  at  intervals  of  a 
seconds.  The  paroiysm  may  last  only  a  few 
minateo,  or  may  eitend  to  boors  or  days ;  in  the 
last-named  case,  it  may  be  daJigeroos  to  life,  &om 
tbe  exhaustion  which  it  caaaea,  but  usually  it  merely 
eidtea  a  feeling  of  nneasineas  or  slight  pain  about 
the  rraion  of  tbe  diaphragm. 

A  debilitated  state  of  the  syrteoi  predisposes  to 
hicoapL  In  thoss  predisposed  to  it,  any  gastrio 
derangement,  aa  emptiness,  or  over-distention  of 
the  stomach,  tbe  ingestion  ol  cold  water,  excessive 

idity,  &C.,  will  prevoke  it.  Ceitaio  diseases  are 
loently  attended  by  hiccup, 
(''hen  the  attaok  is  slight,  it  may  often  be  ttojmed 
by  making  a  very  full  inspiration,  and  then  holding 
the  breath  as  long  as  possible,  the  diaphragm  being 
tbua  held  in  a  state  of  volostMy  contraction.  Strong 
a  belt  ti^tly  drawn  round  the  waist, 
les  give  reUeL  _  In  more  obatinata  cases, 
aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia,  camphor,  mnsk,  Ac, 
may  be  resorted  to,  A  combination  of  camphor  and 
chloroform,  and  the  fret^oent  swallowing  of  small 
rounded  piecea  of  ice,  are  perhaps  the  most  efficient 
remedied. 

HICKB8,  Qkdbqk,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Eiwlish 
divine  and  phil^dogist,  was  born  at  Hews&mi, 
Yorkshire,  June  20,  1642.  He  studied  at  Oxford, 
and  in  1664  was  elected  fellow  a!  Lincoln  CollwK 
In  166S  be  passed  M.A-,  and  in  1606  was  adoiitied 
into  otden.  In  1GT6  ha  became  chaplain  to  John, 
Duke  of  Laaderdale,  whom,  in  1677,  ha  accom- 
nanied  to  Edinborgh.  In  1678  he  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.  from  the  nniveisity  of  Glasgew,  and 
in  1679  from  that  of  Oxford.  In  1682  he  was 
appointed  one  of  tlie  kin^s  chaplains,  and  the 
following  year  made  dean  U  Worcester.  Bafosing 
at  the  revolution  to  take  the  oaths  to  King 
William  UL,  he  wu  deprived  of  all  his  benefice*. 
In  1693  he  was  sent  with  a  Hst  of  the  nonjniing 


Whe 


dercy  to  the  exiled  king  at  St  Gtermaint,  and  in 
1694  was  consecrated  by  a  prelate  of  his  own 
party  sufiragan  bishop  of  Thetford.  ^is  pnbli- 
catioBS  in  eoatroversial  and  practical  diviiuty  are 
numerone.  His  greatest  work,  entitled  Thetaunu 
Oranmatieo-OrUieit*  ti  Archaologiciu  Linguarvm 
Vrtenim  Seplentritmalium,  nppeaied  at  Oxford  in 
1766,  3  voii  foL    He  died  December  15,  1716. 

HI'CKOHT  (Carjnh  a  genos  of  treea  formerly 
included  among  Walnata  (/uohnsj.  The  Hickoriea 
are  exclusively  North  AJoenoan.  They  are  lij^ 
and  beautiful  trees,  attaining  a  height  of  70  or 
80  feet,  with  pinnate  ieaTes.  The  timber  of  all 
of  them  is  very  heavy,  stiong,  and  tenacious,  but 
decB^  speedily  when  eipoaed  to  heat  and  moisture, 
and  is  said  to  be  pecuhariy  liable  to  mjurj  from 
worms.  Qreat  quantities  of  H.  are  used  to  make 
hoops  for  caaks.  It  is  mnch  used  for  handspikes. 
Musket-stocks,  shafte  of  carriages,  hasdles  of  whips, 
large  screws,  tc,  are  made  of  it  It  is  gresUy 
esteemed  i<x  fuel  The  nuts  of  some  of  the  spedca 
are  excellent  eating,  and  nrach  resemble  walnota. 
— C.  alba,  the  9hill-bjhk  or  Shaq-bajix  H.,  bo 
called  from  its  shaggy  outer  bark  peelmg  off  in  long 
narrow  plates,  yicMS  the  common'  kitkory  nut  of  the 
Dorthem  parts  of  the  United  States ;  iJ«o  known  aa 
the  KMa  ThoTMu  Kvi.  It  abounds  on  Iska  Eiia, 
and  In  some  parta  of  New  Jattn  and  Pennsylvania. 
The  trank  la  slender.  The  leaves  are  often  20 
inches  long.  The  nuta  are  in  oonaiderable  request, 
and  are  sometimee  exported.  The  shell  is  thin  but 
hard,  the  kernel  sweet  An  oil,  which  is  used  by 
the  Indians  as  an  article  of  food,  is  obtained  from 
it  by  pounding  and  boiling. — C.  lulcaU^  the  Thick 
SHSLL-BUtK  E.,  a  very  similar  tree,  abounding  in 
the  fertile  valleys  of  tbe  Alleghany  Mountains,  Bas 
a  nnt  with  a  thick  yellowish  shef^  which  is  often 
brought  to  market  in  America,  under  the  luunes  of 
SpringSeld  Nut  and  Gloucester  Nul — C.  olivt^ormw 
yields  the  PaCAMB,  or  Pecah  Nut,  sometimes  called 
the  Illinois  Nut— Other  speciea  yiald  the  MocKXB 
NiTT,  Pio  Nut,  and  Bimit  Hvt. 

HICKS,  EUAfi,  a  celebrated  American  preacher 
of  the  Society  of  Frienda,  was  bom  at  Hempstead, 
Long  Island,  March  19,  1748.  His  gifts  were  early 
reconlised  by  the  society,  and  at  the  age  of  27  he 
ha^  become  a  well-known  preacher,  and  for  many 
yeais  travelled  through  the  States  and  Canada.  His 
unitoriainiBm,  or  denial  oE  tile  divinity  of  Christ  and 
a  vicaiiooB  atonement,  broiwht  him  into  disfavour 
with  orthodox  Friends ;  but  he  preached  bis  own 
views  with  perseverance,  and  at  the  age  of  80  still 
traveled  and  preached.  The  result  of  hia  laboura 
was  a  Bchiam  of  the  society  into  two  divisions, 
popularly  knonu  aa  Orthodox  and  Hickaite  Quakers. 
He  died  at  Jericho,  Long  Island,  February  27,  ISSa 
See  Elisi  H.'b  JowmoT  of  hit  Lffe  and  Labmtri 
(Philadelphia,  182S). 

HIDAXOO  (Spanish,  in  Pbituguaae,  FidaJjfO;  a 
word  derived  by  some  from  h^'o  dti  Qeto,  '  son  of 
a  Goth,'  implying  purity  ot  descent,  and  by  others 
from  hijo  de  alffuno, '  son  of  somebody ')  is  the  title 
'  a  claaa  of  the  lower  nobility  in  Spain. 

HrEHA  PI'CRA,  or  HOLY  BITEER,  once  a 
highly  papular  remedy,  and  still  much  employed  in 
domestic  medicine,  uid  in  veterinary  practice,  is 
oomposed  of  four  parts  of  powdered  aloes  and  one 
part  of  canella.  It  is  identical  with  the  officinal 
preparatJon  known  aa  Pulvii  Alolt  cum  Ctuieiid. 
The  principal  objection  to  its  use  as  a  poraaljve 
medicine  ia,  that  the  nauseoua  taste  of  the  aloes  is 
xnicealed  by  the  canella ;  ud  that,  like  aloetio 
prepaiationa  generallv,  it  is  liable  to  caui 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  intestinal  canaL 

HIB&A'OIUU.    SeeHl^ 


hyCoogle 


HIEEAJtCHT— HIEROCLES. 


HI'BRABCHT  (Or.  hitrv*,  uored,  ud  orcAa,  to 
goTem),  the  iiama  nwd  by  theological  vitten  to 
desigiiate  the  wliote  Mured  ijoremiiig  and  minigtei'- 
ing  body  in  the  ohnioh,  diatnlmted  according  to  ita 
aevend  gradationi.  The  Tord,  in  ita  strict  aocept- 
Btion,  ia,  of  contaa,  only  applicable  to  the  Ronian 
Catholic  Church,  ftnd  to  thoae  Chiirtiaa  commniiitiea 
which  retain  the  ptelaticol  form  of  choioh  govem- 
ment,  or  at  leaat  the  distjoctiona  of  eooleaiaiitical  order 
and  gradation.  In  conaidenng  the  hieruchy  of  the 
CathoHc  Chnrch,  it  ia  neceaaary  to  bear  in  mind  the 
veil-known  distinction  of  order  and  of  juntdiclion. 
I.  Comidend  onder  the  head  of  ordtr,  the  hicoarchy 
embraoea  all  tbe  variona  ordos  or  cluaea  of  laored 
miniattcs  to  whom  has  bem  tmmsA  the  duty  of 
diraoting  die  publio  worahip,  adminiatering  the' 
•aeramoita,  and  diachal^ing  the  varioua  other  officea 
connected  wiUi  the  preaching  of  the  goapel ;  and 
thaae  are  of  two  kinds~tlie  orden  directly  inati- 
tnted  by  divine  anthonty,  and  thoae  eatabliahed 
by  eociteBiaatical  (mlin&Doe.    Theologiani  oommonly 


the  three  raoka  of  blahops.  prieate,  and  deaoona.   The 


prieathood,  but  only  a  fuller  and  entirely  onre- 
Btricted  form  tA  tiiat  order.  In  all  that  r^ard* 
irtiat  Catiiolica  believe  to  be  the  Christian  mmfice 


cannot  confer  th«  aacrament  of  ordertj  nor  can  lie 
validly  ixeroiae  the  p6w»  of  abaolvins  m  the  aacm- 
ment  of  penance  without  the  approbation  of  the 
biihop.  liie  offloe  of  deaoona  ia,  to  serre  aa  help- 
matea  of  the  piieeta  and  biahopa,  eapecially  in  the 
adminiattation  of  the  enchaiist  and  haptiam,  and  in 
the  relief  of  the  material  a4  well  aa  the  apiritual 
neoeaaitiea  of  the   futhful  (Acta  tL  1,  and  foIL). 


See  OsscBB,  UinOB.  IL  The  AJer- 
oru^  1^  juriididion  directly  regarda,  and  ia  founded 
upon,  Uie  goreniment  of  Uie  church,  and  it  com- 
{oiaea  not  only  all  Uie  aDoceaaiTe  degreea  of  ecole- 
aiaatioal  antharitr  derived  from  the  KreatO'  or  leaa 
local  aztenaion  M  the  seva«l  apherea  within  which 
■Dch  governing  authority  >a  limited — begianinK  with 
the  Y"?^  *"  piiiiiate  of  the  univeraat  ohorch,  and 
eztendmg  to  the  patriarcha  aa  ruling  their  aeveral 
patriarchate*,  the  primatea  in  the  aevenl  kingdoma 
aa  national  churcbea,  and  the  metropolitwa  or 
STchbiahopa  within  their  reapective  provmcea ; — bat 
also,  although  leai  properiy,  the  eccleaiaatical  gtmdefl 
which,  although  ecclenaatical  juriadictioii  may  be 
attached  to  them,  are  more  directs  honorary 
in  their  nature,  aa  tiioaa  of  the  carmnalate,  the 
archipresbyterate,  and  the  archidiaconate. 

In  tiie  Anglican  Church,  with  the  offioe  of  the 
episcopate,  tiie  theory  of  a  hierarchical  gradation  of 
Tank  and  of  authority  haa  been  retamed.  The 
Anglican  hierarchy  compriaea  biahopa,  ^ests,  and 
deacona  In  the  Scottish  Chnrch  it  la  of  course 
unknown,  aa  it  is  in  the  greater  number  of  the 
foreign  FrotertsDt  churchea  ;  while  thcMe  Luthenui 
communities  which  have  retained  or  have  revived 
the  title  of  biabop,  concede  little  to  the  office  which 
can  be  cooaidered  as  imparting  to  the  distinction  of 
grades  in  the  ministry  which  it  imports  a  strict 
hierarchical  character.  The  Lutheran  bishop  haa 
Uttle  beyond  his  brother-ministera,  eicept  the  rioht 
to  bear  certain  insignia,  and  the  first  plaoe  in  the 

In  the  well-known  work,  The  Oilmial  Hiemnhy, 


falsdy  aacribed  to  Sionyains  tike  Areopagite,  A* 
hierarchy  inoludea   Christ    aa    ita    head,   and    tiie 
vaiiooa  orders  of  angoU  «s  hia  ministering  ^niita. 
HIBRA'TIO  WBITINO.    See  HoBOOLTnnci.    1 


1  474,  which  deprived  the  latts  of  Uior 
I  liie  ^^n-henian  Sea.    In  the  year  472, 


»  violent  and  rapaciaus,  far  inferior  in  diKai 

..  his  brodier  Oelon.    His  love  <rf  poetrr,  and 

manner  in  which  he  entertained  poets  like  SimoBldeah 
.^achylua,  Bacchylidea,  and  Pindar  at  his  eoort, 
have  perhaps  caused  him  to  be  overestimated. 

HIBRO  IL,  king  of  Syracuse  (269—214  B.C.). 
was  Uis  sou  of  a  noble  Svracusan  named  ffieroelea. 
During  the  troubles  which  prevailed  in  Sicily,  afto- 
the  nSreat  of  King  Pyrrhus,  276  S.C1,  H.  peatly 
digtinguiabed  himii^lf.  and  was  first  aj^tointea 
commander-in-chief,  and  then  elected  king.  He 
joined  the  CarthaginianB  in  besie^ns  Meaaana, 
which  had  aurrendered  to  the  Itomana,bnt  he  waa 
beaten  by  Appiua  Clandina  the  Roman  consnl,  and 
obliged  to  retire  to  Syracuse,  where  he  was  bdcmi 
bloiS:adad.  In  263,  seeing  lumaelf  threatcsied  by 
a  large  army  nnder  Maniaa  Valeiins  Uaxinm, 
ha  ooQcIuded  a  peaoa  with  the  Romans  for  flftawi 
years,  during  which  be  proved  sp  fsithfol  to  his 
engagements,  that  in  248  peace  was  ptrmaamtly 
estaUiahed.  H.  himaelf  vidted  Rrane  ilk  S37,  on 
which  ocoaaion  he  presented  the  Roman  paople 
wilk  200,000  buahela  of  mm.  In  tiie  aeoond  Pmic 
War  he  likewias  proved  himself  the  faithfol  Jij  of 
the  Romans,  and  sappmted  them  witii  mOMT  and 
boupB,  esperaslly  after  thdr  defeat  at  the  lake  ti 
Thrasymene,  when  the^goldan  statues  of  the , 
of  Victory,  weidiing  320  pounds,  which  he 
Rome,  were  wWKuned  aa  a  good  omen.  lie 
about  Qin  year  216,  in  Uie  02d  year  of  hia  age. 
aon  Qelon  havir-  -"•--'  ■•-'--  ^■-  ' 
by  his  grandaoi 
wisdom,  and  simplicity,  had 
the  SyiBCouna,  who  refuse 
to  aooept  his  resignation  oE  the  kingly  office.  He 
devoted  great  attention  to  the  impiovem^t  of 
agriculture,  and  hia  laws  respecttng  the  tattle  of 
com,  kc  {Lt^  Hieromea),  woe  «tiU  in  tone  in 
the  oountry  in  Cicoo's  tune.  He  wm  likewise 
a  patron  of  the  arts,  partioalariy  aichiteetnre.  In 
t^eae  pursuits,  aa  well  as  in  tlie  conatruutiaa  of  war- 
like maohinea,  he  was  assisted  by  his  fricsid  and 
relstrve  Archimedes. 

HIB'ROCLES,  a  common  name  among  the 
Greeks.  The  moat  celebrated  of  tliis  name  wm  fL, 
the  Neo-Flatonist,  who  lived  st  Alexandria  aboDt 
the  middle  of  the  Gth  c,  and  enjoyed  a  great  ma- 
tation.  He  is  uaoally  reckoned  the  author  of  a 
commeDtary  on  the  ^Iden  verses  of  Fythagocai^  at 
which  the  beet  edition  is  that  by  Wan«i  (Lood- 
1742).  Of  H.'s  history  weknownotUnit  Hia  mat 
celebrated  works  we — On  Prorulaiee,  nit,  and  Urn 
Harmony  Mueat  tA«  Divbie  Govanmaa  amd  Matit 
Freetnai  ;  of  wUch  there  remain  aaW  a  :' 
and  pnbliahed 


On  Juttiee,  Satatnce  of  At  Qodt,  and  lAe 
and  Soeiai  Virlut*,  ia  luiown  to  ns  from  a  Bamoer  oi 
extracts  in  Stobeens.  There  ia  also  »  work  called 
.^aleia  (*  a  collection  of  jeata  and  Indiorons  atories') 
attributed  to  him,  but  it  ia  now  believed  to  bel<«g 
to^  much  later  age  than,  that  of  Hierodes.  Tbia 
and  tJie  prsvioui  works  are  oontained  in  Pearson  wad 


tyi^ioogle 


HlEEOQLYPHICa 


either  engisred 


K«edhuii'»  Comment&ry  on  PythagroM  (Cunbridge, 
1709}. 

HIBROaiiTPHIOS  (literaUr  meaning  «»ered 
•cnlptnreB),  s  term  applied  to  thooe  reproncntatLOng 
of  natnial  or  aitifioiu  obiecti  naed  to  e^new  lan- 
goage,  eapemaDy  thoae  which  the  ancient  Eg^ptiant 
and  Uexicani  emplined  for  that  pnrpoaa.  The 
teem  kieroi^ffph  wonldL  howerer,  be  more  correotl; 
applied  toihen  figorea.  The  niunber  of  those  naed 
by  the  ancient  ^yptiana  wai  probably  aboot  1000, 
ukd  hy  their  meana  tbey  were  enabled  to  exprew 
all  the  ideas  required  with  coirectneaa,  oleameaa, 
and  facility.  Tkey  consist  of  representations  of 
celestial  bodies,  the  human  form  aad  its  parts  in 
Ysrioos  attitudes,  aaimala,  fishes,  reptiles,  works  of 
— ^  and  attire,  and  fantaatia  forms.  Theae  were 
relief  or  sank  below  the  surface 
onuments  and  objects  of  hard 
nunanaia  suited  for  the  ^jptie  art,  or  else  tnced  in 
ontline  with  a  reed  pen  on  papyri,  wood,  slices  of 
Bton^  and  other  objccta.  The  scribe,  indeed,  wrote 
from  a  palette  or  canon  called  pa,  with  pen«,  jfcoiA, 
from  tw>  little  ink.holea  in  tiie  palette,  contsimnx 
a  black  ink  of  '"'""i  charcoal,  and  a  red  miner^ 
ink.  Hie  hjero^ypha  on  the  monnments  are  aome- 
timea  tcnlpturra  and  plain ;  at  others,  decorated 
with  ooloiiTB,  either  one  simple  tone  for  all  the 
bieiDglyphs,  which  are  then  called  monochrome ;  or 
else  amamented  with  a  Tariety  of  colours,  and  then 
called  polycbrome;  and  those  painted  <»>  coffins 
and  other  objects  are  often  firat  traced  out,  and 
then  coloured  in  detail  On  tha  p^jyri  and  some 
few  inferutr  materials,  thejr  an  aimply  sketched 
in  outline,  and  are  caUed  hnear  hisniglyphs.  The 
hieroglyphs  are  arranged  in  popendicolar  oolomns, 
•qiMMtea  1^  linea,  or  in  horizontal,  or  distdbnted 
in  a  qi<«adic  manner  in  the  area  of  the  picture  to 
wbidt  they  refer.  Sonetinies  all  these  modes  of 
anangcment  are  found  together.  One  peculiarity  is 
at  once  disoemible,  that  tJl  the  nnimalj  and  repre- 
sentatiouE  face  in  iba  same  direction  when  they  are 
oombined  into  a  text;  and  when  mixed  np  with 
mjiefa  and  scenes,  they  usually  face  in  the  direction 
of  Uie  fignres  to  which  they  are  attached.    When 


a  MSl,  evmy  lette 
illtuninatioD,  and  tl 


they  produce  a  gay  and  agreeable 

, spectator.    They  are  written  ytxy 

•qn«i«,  the  space*  are  neatly  and  carefully  packed, 

■o  aa  to  leave  no  naked  appearance  of  back- 
ground. Qenerally,  they  are  to  be  read  from  the 
direction  in  which  they  face,  and  the  lines  follow 
in  the  eame  auccesaiiHi,  but  many  exceptions  occur, 
in  which  they  follow  the  reverse  order,  whether 
wntt«m  horiiontally  or  vertically,  and  this  at  all 

The  hicgi^yphs,  in  their  natore,  are  divided 
into  two  great  ohuoes — Ideographa,  or  thoae  which 
reproKot  iAgaa ;  and  PAonefics,  or  those  which 
express  sonnds.  Ho  doubt,  at  the  firat  com- 
mencement of  tbe  language,  ideographs  only  were 
employed;  but  the  earhest  known  monuments, 
„i — k  . A  t„  (Jij  3j  dynasty  above  WOO  years 


wluch  aar«nd  ti 


sounds  had  been  completely  developed.  These 
hieroglyphs,  at  the  meet  developed  period  of  the 
language,  compnaed  abont  one-Uiinl  of  the  texts. 
The  ideographs  are  divided  into  two  classes— the 
simple  ideographs,  or  those  which  express  one  idea ; 
and  the  determlnatiTea,  which  are  used  to  indicate 
many.  In  all  instances,  these  ideographs 


give 


ally  found  preceded  by  phonetic  groups, 
the  sound  of  the  idea  tbey  are  intended  to  ex;^ess 
in   the  written   langtiage;   the  simple   ideogmpbs 
being  loaod  only  p«ceded  by  cue  gronp;    while 


the  determinativce  are  preceded  by  many.  The  pure 
ideograph*  Me  of  various  rlasses :  first,  those  repre- 
senting tiie  object  directly,  as  '^jf,  a  dog,  tihar,  to 
express. the  idea  dog;  aeomdly,  tiiaae  metkpborioally 
conveying  the  required  meaning,  as  ^  ,   a  woman 

beating  a  tambourine  to  indicate  ■  joy,'  in  which  tha 
action  indicate*  the  effect  prodnoed;  thirdly,  that 
in  which  the  attribute  is  exfreaatid  by  t^  figure  of 
some  object  possessing  it,  as  Vv,,  a  Jackal,  to 
indicate  '  cunning '  or  '  craft ; '  a  ^  Ajmipg  oenser, 
to  signify  '  inoeaae.'  Or  Uie  direct  action  wh  often 
repreaented ;  u  a  bird  fishing  \^_ ,  to  expren  the 
idea  of  fishing  in  general  Such  a  mode  of  depicting 
ideas  in  detail  was  only  suited  for  dabtvate  monu- 
ments ;  and  the  number  of  ido^raplui  required  to 
express  all  ideas,  would  have  b^u  so  many  a*  to 
have  overwhelmed  the  memoiy  of  the  learner,  and 
to  have  obscured  the  comprahansion  of  the  r^dor. 
In  order,  therefore,  to  reduoe  the  number  of  i<Jeo- 
j/To^u,  a  certain  nmnber  of  these  hieroglyphs  wei« 
need  to  express  more  ideas  than  one  in  tbe  prin- 
cipal dases  of  thought.  Thna,  -A ,  »  seated  man, 
originally  employed  to  signify  man,  was  applied  to 
all  relationships,  functions,  and  ofBces  of^men,  a* 
a^,  father;  am,  brother;  mer,  governor;  htnineta; 
priest ;  bak,  labourer :  the  special  meaning  which  it 
conveyed  being  shewn  by  the  jJionetic  group*  which 
preceded  it.  In  the  same  way,  all  beasts  or  objects 
made  of  leather  were  expressed  by  a  Ain^  M;  ^ 
precions  stones  or  objects  made  of  the  sune  by  a 
rinA  o  ;  all  actions  A  locomotion  by  -/:^,  two  lea 
in  ^  act  of  walling;  and  all  actions  in  which  ^ 
anna  were  used  by  ^ — I ,  an  aim  holding  a  stick. 
The  number  of  these  signs  may  be  computed  at 
about  175,  and  they  resemble  m  their  use  those 
of  the  Assyrian  cooeiform,  in  which,  ahhough  to 
a  more  limited  extent,  the  '"'^'ng  classea  of  thought 
were  determined  by  a  character  prefixed  to  the 
phonetic  group  giving  the  partdciUar  idea.  Thoa,  in 
tiks  Aseyriao,  all  names  of  men  are  pnoeded  faf 
T  ,  a  single  npright  wedge ;  all  ommtriea  by  *1^  , 
three  wedges  disposed  obliquely ;  and  names  ot 
homed  cattle  by  the  group  of  five  wedgM  ^Q.  la 
the  I^O'ptian  system,  however,  the  determinatiTea 
are  always  placed  after  the  phonetio  groups,  and 
are  more  numeions.  The  Chinese  systeDi  of  writing 
approaches  still  more  closely  to  the  Egyptian, 
242  radicals,  bh  they  are  called,  but  really  deter- 
minatives, being  placed  after  other  groups  and 
symbols,  which  indicate  the  special  idea  intended. 
In  this  last  language,  the  radicals  are  generally 

plaoed  to  tjie  left,  as  ^M-  >  haoit, '  g^xiA^  in  which 
the  radical  is  ^^>  "^  '>  woman,'  exoept  in 
those  instance*  in  which  tbey  enclose  the  phonetio 
or  special  eronpa  In  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphs, 
every  word  not  expressing  an  abstract  idea,  as 
the  verb  to  be,  or  the  grammatical  forms,  and 
pronouns,  is  accompanied  hy  ita  determinative,  and  is 
incomplete  without  it.  ITie  genina  of  Uie  writing 
is  that  the  phonetics  and  ideographs  mutually 
eiidain  each  other.  Sometimes,  indeed,  by  a  kind  of 
redondaut  pleonasm,  the  determinatives  are  placed 
after  the  special  ideographs,  as  {VI,  the  three  rings 
of  metal  after  the  cape  used  to  eipreas  gold  and 
■!»*<■;  iSSlithethreefloweraafterthelily,  to  signify 


t,t_,OOgl( 


mEBOOLTPHlCS. 


Ulf ;  and  "ff^  ^>  ^^  *^^  ifier  the  goat,  to  n 

goat    The  phonetio  portioii  of  the  hiero^ln>h>  i 

«ul^  at  the  bett  period  of  wiitiDg,of  a  limited  nomber 
of  dgnB,  about  130,  omployed  as  a  ijllabariuin ;  k  ' 
although  the  term  alpnalwt  haa  been  often  used 

speaking  of  the  phonetio  hieroglnthi,  nothinf^  of  t 

nature  of  a  pure  alphabet  exited  till  a  later  period, 
when  the  Phcenicians  invented  a  purely  alphabetic 
Bjataa,  supprewing  the  Toweli,  miich  the  Ore^i 
■till  further  improved  by  reintroducing  them  in' 
their  graj^  svKtem,  and  so  brought  to  perft 
tioD  t^  invaluable  Invention  of  alphabetic  initiiig, 
at  once  condae,  compendioui,  and  complete.  But 
the  Eeypidan  tueroolyphu  oompriw  two  elaasea  of 
a^lal^— thoee  «i£ng  with  vowels,  or  the  lo-called 


Aa  the  monoiyllableB  enter  into  the  compoaition  of 
the  p<riTO'lUbic  groupa,  it  i>  evident  that  they  are 
Mxa  than  Ae  hilitend  or  diaayllabio  hiecoglypha. 
Hie  ipoken  language  aeema,  in  tact,  to  have  origin- 
tdljr  osnaated  o7  monoeyllaUei,  which  were  nibae- 
^nentlv  enridied  by  agglomeiatiaii,  and  combined 
mto  biliteral  and  teiliterml  roots.  Several  of  theae 
monooyllabic  words  have  descended  from  the  ancient 
langBaee  to  the  Coptic,  as  oi,  a  lamb  ;  au,  a  cow ; 
mou,  a  lion ;  ra,  the  sun ;  pe,  the  heaven.  Kumeroua 
words  of  this  olaas  may  still  he  traced  a*  the  roots 
of  the  more  ancient  language,  but  it  is  obvious  that 
only  a  f^w  of  the  most  manageable  could  be  selected 
for  the  combined  purposes  of  sound  and  writing.   In 

•elected  for  the  same  sounds,  in  order  to  suit  the 
style  of  writing,  horizontal  or  vertical  signs  being 
required  [or  Uie  careful  packing  of  the  grouiis  in  tjie 
texts.  Now,  it  will  be  necessa^  to  bear  ia  mind 
that  each  o£  these  hieroglyphs  of  the  tint  phonetio 


iilrt  that  it  was  always  capable  of  havina  the  vowel 
hieroglyph  which  followed  the  initial  placed  after 
it,  and  that  in  the  hieratic  or  cunive  Egyptian 
writing,  this  was  generally  the  caae,  in  order  to 
distinguish  the  signs.  This  final  vowel  is,  however, 
Benerdly  omitted  in  hieroglyphic  teita,  and  is  said 
to  be  mJitreat,  or  ought  to  be  pronounced  in  the 
first  hieroglyi^L.    The  alphabetia  syUabaiinm  is  aa 


>ii  eagle,  Ao. 


^       ateed,A 

Sm    a  calf,  A 
"^     aherwi, . 


Jt,  an  eaglet.  0^ 

I  arsMiGa. 

^^  a  viper,  GL 

I  leg  of  a  stool,  Ha. 

CI  ahousei  Ha. 


t\ 


t  papyrai  [dant. 


twisted  orad,  HL 


I       a  dub,  Hu. 

I.  (     two  reeds,  In. 

I  two  oblique 
)      strokes.  In. 
-v^      abowl,KlL 


^1 


s 

a  ueve,  KHi. 

m 

a.tand,Qa. 

A 

a  garment,  KHu, 
or  An. 

^ 

top  d.  quiver,  S>. 

.1^ 

a  lion,  Rn,  or  Ln. 

^ 

agoo.e,8.. 

^1 

awDo£,8a. 

" 

1     Bu. 

;. 

areed,8u. 

T 

apsn,M.. 

-^ 

s; 

a  weight,  Ma. 

f 

back     of     duur. 

Ud 

agarden.aH.. 

iv 

partofdre^SHa. 

>> 

a  vulture,  Mu. 

= 

•  pooUSHL 

— 

■) 

aspindle,Ta. 

V 

a  red  crown,  Na. 

ahand,!! 

m 

avase,NB. 

S=i 

twisted  cord,  TL 

>^ 

•goose  flymg.  Pa. 

- 

smnller,Tn. 

m 

a  shutter,  Pia 

> 

a  duckling.  Ui. 

s 

aknee,Qs. 

<2. 

atwi«tedeotd,Ui 

This  comprises  all  the  signs  which  may  be  considsred 
alphabetio  in  their  nature,  at  the  beat  period,  or 
from  the  4tb  to  the  21it  dynasty,  when  a  revolutioa 
took  place  in  the  mode  trf  writing,  and  about  90  addi- 
tional signs,  taken  from  the  idewraphs  and  syllabica, 
were  added  to  Uis  preceding  dphabetic,  and  oaed 
indiscriminately — nc^  indeM,  all  at  onoa,  hnt  bj 
gradual  introductions,  from  the  21st  dynssty  till  the 
2d  0.  A.  D.  Nor  are  aU  the  signs  of  the  preceding 
alphabet  of  equal  antiquity,  ot  as  much  used  aa 
oUiers.    As  to  the  inherent  nature  of  iha  vowels,  it 

nay  be  observed  that  1  A,  the  commoneet,  ia  often 
written  witii  its  complement  V  u  aRer  i^  u 
I  \i  Au,  and  that  'uf  >a  indifferently  expnaaed 
wia  '^,  as  "^  *jp;.  Ha.    Of  the  Uuw  forms 

of  the  A,  tile  first  expresses  the  aspErate,  the 
second  the  nasal,  and  the  third  the  soft  breathint. 
Beudes,  too,  their  final  complement,  the  initial  sonnd, 
especially  of  consonants,  probably  of  those  newly 
btroduced  into  the  systen,  wss  placed  before  them, 
to  explain  their  use.  Thus  I  was  often  written 
"^^y  Nu,  preceded  by  If,  and  followed  by  «,  and 
others  in  the  like  manner.  The  consideration  of  the 
signs  that  preeede  and  follow  after,  indeed  detw- 
nunes  the  sonal  value  of  certaii  hieroglyphics  which 
are  thus  encased  and  explainsd  by  other  phonetica. 

The  syllabics  are  oonstructed  on  the  same 
plan.  T\iej  consist  of  an  initial  hieroglyph,  which  is 
aapable  of  ezpnssing  1^  itself  the  whole  syllable, 

-I-   Am,  Y    Her,  but  which  take  after  them 
complement,  aa   fNk 


their  inherent  consonant  o 


TTCoogle" 


HIEEOOLYPmoa. 


miaf™ent,M^-f-^    ij 


.    Theua 


a  iht  klph&betico-Byllxbic  dlus, 
Knd  *re  w  commonlj'  oied  la  the  texts.  Ths  lan- 
giwge  fa&d  impraiBed  upon  it  by  this  mode  of  writing 
ft  ccrbun  ideMiaphio  chuacter,  which  it  retaine<C 
cerbun  word*  maug  only  written  hy  osrtwn  BjUabiot, 
snd  the  me  of  the  two  Byll&baries  wu  by  no  meiuia 
protniscuDua,  the  examples  of  different  inodeB  of 
gnnipinE  the  lame  word  being  abnormal,  uid  refer- 
able DD^  to  loDg  intervals  of  time.  For  althongb 
aeratsl  handred  papyri  exist  in  the  miueiuna  of 
Europe,  and  no  two  are  written  preoiaelv  alike,  yet 
Qm  greatest  differences  will  be  oDserTable  in  tiioee 
wluiu  are  nmilar  texta,  written  at  long  interraU  of 
tim«  ftmti  each  other.  Nevertheless  aimta  latitude 
prevails  in  the  writing  of  certain  worai  and  proper 
names,  and  those  hieroglyphs  which  appear  id  the 
comspoiiding  places  of  otbers  are  called  variant*  or 
homophona.  oometimea  the  same  proper  name  is 
repneented  by  six  different  groups  of  hieroglyphs, 
yet  they  ccnld  only  have  been  pronoonoed,  in 
one  way,  as  they  represent  the  same  name,  and 
the   diferent   hierog^'phs  are   oonseqoently  only 


I   oonseqoently  ( 


hand  of  the  period,  superseded  the  c 

hien^yphio  mode  of  writmgi  Thislsngnage,extditct 
on^  as  spoken  shout  a  century  and  a  bAlf  ago 

(see  Coptic),  difieis  considerably  from  the  monu- 
mental texts,  having  been  corrupted  by  the  intro- 
duction of  Qreek,  Latin,  and  Arabic  words,  but  this 
oontains,  as  its  base,  the  old  language  of  the  ccuatry 
— a  tongue  analogous  in  some  respects  to  the  Semitic 
dialects,  bat  in  otben  of  a  construction  which  may 
be  called  Hunitio,  or  allied  to  the  African.    The 


and  verbs  remains  unchanged,  and  that 
and  plural  are  made  by  postfixes,  the 
the  nouns  formed  by  prepoBitions,  and  the  tenses 
of  the  verbs  by  the  prefixing  of  the  declined 
abstract  auxiliary  verbs.  An,  An,  or  Khepo',  to 
be ;  or  by  the  affixins  of  the  pronouns  a,lc,  I,  /, 
t,  nen,  lot,  SMjpreoMed  by  prepcaitionB,  to  the 
verbsl  roofs.  The  proMSons  are  either  detached 
and  prefixed  or  affixed,  and  the  prepositions  are 
either  simple  or  compound;  many  remukabls  forms 
of  the  last  class  sxisting  in  the  Language.  There  is 
a  great  vagueness  in  ueir  employment,  and  their 
meaning  is  often  abncrmal,  and  only  defined  by 
the  context. 

G>nBidered  as  the  most  ancient  written  Ungua^ 
the  hieroglyphs  throw  great  hght  upon  comparative 
philology,  the  relative  antiquity  of  vorioiis  vroids 
and  IccutionB,  the  general  construction  of  langua^ 
itself,  and  the  development  of  picture-writing  into 
the  absbact  cipheis  ot  sound,  called  letten.  A 
great  portion  of  the  words  are  similai  to  the  Semitic, 
either  direcUy  or  indirectly :  Uius  lumo,  ths  sea, 
is  like  the  Hebrew  mm;  t<\f,  an  ape,  like  wf. 
The  majority  are,  of  course,  pnrely  Coptic ;  but 
at  the  period  of  the  IMh  dywuty,  or  about  1300 
B.  c.,  many   Hebrew,   Syrios,   and  Aramaic  words 


as  baia  for  Btlh,  a  house,  mahibtru  for  Migdol,  a 
tower,  and  others,  awear;  they  ar^  however, 
rare  and  few  in  numoer  ocoparad  to  the  body 
of  the  language.    Many  other  words  ^ipear  to  be 


writings.    Hecatnus  (I 


Indo-Gomanic.    The  literature  will  be  found  undsr 
the  word  Putbos. 

The  invention  of  hieroglyphs,  called  2fder  Uoru, 
or  '  divine  words,'  was  atbnbuteid  to  the  god  Thoth, 
the  Egyptian  Logos,  who  is  repeatedly  called  the 
scribe  of  the  gtus,  and  lord  of  the  hierDglypha. 
Pliny  attributee  their  invention  to  Mencn.  The 
literatnre  of  the  Egypidans  was  in  fact  styled 
HemiaiD  or  Hmnebc,  loi  acconnt  of  its  anpposed 
divine  origin,  and  ths  knowledge  of  hieroglyph! 
was,  to  ■  certain  extent,  a  mystery  to  the  ignonint, 
althongb  univeisslly  nnployed  by  the  si^erdotal 
and  instructed  oUssee.  To  foreign  nations,  tile 
hieroglyphs  always  remained  ao,  although  Mosea 
is  supposed  to  have  been  versed  in  Ue  know- 
ledge of  them  {Phila,  vita  Moysis) ;  but  Joseph  is 
described  as  convening  with  his  brethren  through 
mterpretara,  and  does  not  appear  to  allude  to  hiero- 
glyphic writing.  The  Qreeks,  who  had  settled  on 
Qie  coast  as  early  as  the  Sth  c.  B.O.,  do  not  appear 
to  have  pcasened  more  than  a  colloquial  know- 
ledge of  the  longoage ;  and  although  Soltui,  638 
B.  a,  is  said  to  have  studied  Emitian  doctrines  at 
Sebennytos  and  Heliopolis,  and  the  doctrines  of 
Pythof^ras  ore  thought  to  have  beeu  derived  from 
Egypt,  these  ssges  conld  only  have  acquired  their 
knowledge   from    interpretations    of    hieroglyph" 


X.  a)  and  Herodotus  (456 
_  ^  _  In  tlieir  taavels,  obtained 

afforded  of  the  language  or  monnmenta  of  the 
oountry.  Democritns  of  Abdera,  indeed,  sbont  the 
same  poiod  (469  b.  a],  bad  described  both  the 
Ethiopian  hieroglyphs  and  ths  Babylonian  conei- 
form,  but  his  work  has  disappeared.  Aiter  the 
cooquest  of  Egypt  by  Alexander,  the  Greek  mlet* 
began  to  pay  attention  to  the  language  and  history 
<rf  their  subjeots,  and  Eratosthenes,  the  keeper  <n 
the  museum  at  Alexandria,  and  Maoetho,  the  high- 
priest  of  SebennytuB,  had  drawn  up  acoouota  of  the 
national  ohronology  and  history  from  hieroglyphic 
sourcee.  Under  &a  Bconan  empiiv,  in  the  reian  of 
Augustus  one  Chnremon,  ths  keeper  ef  tlie  library 
at  the  Serapoum,  had  drawn  np  a  diotionary  of  the 
hiengtypha;  and  both  Diodorus  and  Stnbo  men- 
tion Oiem,  and  describe  their  n>tai«k  Tadtiu^  later 
under  the  empire,  gives  the  aoooaDt  of  the  monu- 
ments of  Tbebes  translated  by  the  Egyptian  priesta 
to  Germanicus ;  bat  after  his  time,  the  knowledge 
<rf  them  beyond  Egypt  ilaelf  was  axoeedin^ly  1""'**^, 
and  does  not  reappear  till  the  3d  and  subsequeot 
centurica  A.  s.,  whan  they  are  mentioned  by  Amrni- 
anus  MarcellinuB,  who  atea  the  banslation  of  one 
of  the  obelisks  at  Rome  by  one  Henaa|AOD,  and  W 
Julius  Valerius,  the  author  of  the  ape^mhsl  liM 
of  Alexander,  who  gives  that  of  another.  Hdiodarus, 
a  novelist  vho  flourished  400  a.  d., describes  a  hiero- 
glyphic letter  written  by  Queen  Candaoe  (ir.  8). 
The  Snt  positive  informaiion  on  the  subject  is  by 


symbolical  and  phonetic,  or,  as  he  colls  it,  cyriolosic 
nature  of  biero^yphics.  Porphyiy  (304  a.d.)  divides 
th«m  •IsO'  into  ocenologio  or  phonetic,  and  enigmatic 


ill-assorted  confoajim  of  tenth  and  fiction, 

are  given  the  intetpratation  of  many  hieroglyphs,  and 
then  eeoterio  meaaing.  After  this  writer,  all  know- 
ledge of  them  disappeared  till  the  revival  of  letters. 
At  the  beginning  <^  the  16th  a,  1629  A.D.,  these 


them  by  vague  eaoterio  notiona  derived  from  his 
fancy,  on  the  supposition  that  the  hieroglyphs 
I  idec^iraphic,  a  thwi;  which  baired  all  progreM, 


t.LiOogle 


HIEBOULYPHICS. 


and  WM  held  in  iti  fall  extent  bj  the  leunad,  tOl 
Zo«g»,  at  the  clou  of  the  ISth  o^  1787  a.  d..  fint 
MumcUted  that  the  ovala  or  cartonohea  oantamad 
toyal  names,  awl  that  the  hiaioghphi,  or  lonie  of 
tham,  were  ued  to  iinnnili  lonnda.  More  monn- 
menta  vere  known,  and  juater  ideaa  had  begun  to 
dawn  on  the  Enropean  mind ;  aod  the  diacovery  by 
the  French,  in  I7B9,  of  the  so-called  Boaetta  Stone, 
a  alab  of  black  granite,  having  inacribed  upon  it,  first 
in  hieroglyphic*,  secondly  in  demotic  or  enchorial 
(a  onraive  popnlar  form  of  writing  extant  at  the 
period),  and  thirdly  in  Chsek,  a  decree  of  the  prieata 
of  Egypt  iMiiinliliiil  in  synod  at  Memphis,  in  hanaar 
of  Ptolemy  T.,  gare  the  fiiat  cine  to  the  deoii^ter- 
in«nt  The  Gin  attempts,  indeed,  were  made  upon 
tiw  dcmotio  text  by  Silvaetra  de  Sacy  with  scHoe 
snocess.  bat  it  was  soon  diaoorered  t^t  the  demotio 
pnrely  alphabetio.  Grade  notions  of  tiie 
110  nature  of  the  hierogln^  prenuled  till 
ISIS,  flnt  gavo  ont  the  hy;fothesia, 
t^ypha  w«r«  luad  as  sonuds  m  royal 
pn^MT  names.  He  was  led  to  thia  oonclnsion  by 
tnwing  the  hiaogl^ph*  throng  the  cmsiTe  hieratio 
to  the  more  oumve  demotio ;  and  M  this  last 
WM  known  to  be  aliihabetio,  he  dednoed  that  the 
ooRv^Moding  hierogly^a  ugu  were  sol     In  thia 


ideoouihio  Di 
I>r  Young,  in 


t  eouiloBioa  t 


t  the  fint 


hieroglyph  in  the  name  of  Ptolemy  (  '  ff-^^^|  Pjj 


•opposed  to  be  •Dperfnova;  the  fonrth  (a  liaa)  he 
cead  OLE;  the  filth  and  axth,  the  i^lbhle  MXi 
ith,  tbe  bkdi  of  the  seat,  an  S.    Unaidad 


Yahie  of  five  hieroglyphs  as  lettoi  ont  of  two  names, 
bat  was  unable  to  proceed  further.  ChampoUion,  in 
1822,  by  means  of  an  inscription  fonnd  on  an  obeluk 
at  Phibe,  whitdi  had  at  the  base  a  (h'eek  iiuuirtption, 
moogttiaed  the  name  of  Cleopatra,  and  by  comparison 
with  that  ot  PbJemy,  at  UEioe  proved  the  purely 
alphabetio,  not  syllabico-alphabetic  nature  of  the 
signs.  Extending  tbe  prinoipte,  he  read  by  ita  means 
t&  names  of  the  Greek  and  Komsn,  and  finally 
those  of  the  native  monarcha.  It  was  soon  seen 
that  the  saoie  hierodyphs  as  those  used  in  these 
names  were  extcnsivdy  used  in  the  texts  for  words, 
and  theM  wmdatomed  ont,  in  most  '"»*»"''«^i  to  be 
snak^onato  tlM  Coptio.  Althon^  the  discoveries  of 
Chan^oMion  w«i«  reoaved  by  many  of  the  learned 
in  Earope  with  diatav*!^  yet  nia  mrthod  of  research 
was  slowly  ad<q>ted  by  Kosellini  and  Salvtdini  in 
1832,  and  tabeeqnentTy  extotded  methodic^y  by 
Lepaius  in  IB37,  and  by  Bnnsen,  Wiiu-lr»^  Qe  Itougi, 
Birch,  Qoodwin,  Cliabsa,  Bruf^M,  and  otbera. 


in  which  they  oaenr  in  pasaases 
capable  id  being  interpreted,  that  of  the  ideographa 
1y  observins  3m  form  of  the  mabols ;  many  of 
them  have  been  made  ont  from  the  [Hctiires  wbidi 


they  explain,  or  tbe  riionettc  gronps  whid 
panythem.   Aoar«fnloomparNonhaabeeoh 
wita  omTesponding  Coptic  and  Hebrew  roc 
they  exist.   In  shrat,  a  oszafDl  prindple  of  induction 
liM  beta  api^ied  to  the  (tody  of  the  oiero^yphs. 

The  discovery  of  aootber  trilingual  iasoription, 
that  ot  the  tablet  at  San  or  Timi%  recm-dtng  a 
aynodieal  sot  of  the  priette  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy 
Energetea  XL,  B.C  23S,  has  eonfirmed  the  mults 
obtained  by  Egyptcdogists,  the  meaning  of  almost 


all  the  word*  having  been  previously  determined ; 
while  the  power  of  reading  all  docnmente  and  in- 
■oriptionB  i^rded  by  their  researches  have  resulted 
ia  oie  rGsusoitation  of  a  knowledge  of  the  histcoy, 
acienoe,  and  literature  of  the  ancient  Bgyp- 
tiana.  'Die  study  has  long  passed  ieto  the  oate- 
gory  of  a  reoogniied  branch  of  oriental  lesmto^  and 
Uia  reeearcbes  have  assumed  a  more  eriticsl  fonn. 
This  has  been  owing  to  tbe  number  of  students,  uid 
the  abondanoe  td  ■"»<""»'  extant  and  publiahed. 
The  doubts  with  which  the  taterpretationa  wise  at 
fit*t  reoetved  have  enocumbedto  uie  conviction  that 
nothjns  bat  ■  oarrent  ayitem  of  intrnpretataoo 
coold  have  obtained  ioeh  logical  rcsnlta.  Wbat- 
evw  doabt  in  fac^  may  exist  ••  to  the  minor  datails 
and  more  aslioate  "^mpm  of  tangfffgft  all  the  asm- 
matical  forma  and  three-fourtEs  of  the  in^La  ot 
the  old  Egyptian  langnsge  hare  beoi  established. 

The  hicn»Iyphs  stood  in  the  same  relatioD  to  ths 
other  two  rarma  of  writing  the  ohanoter,  called 
hieratic  and  demotic,  aa  type  doea  to  handwriting. 
Tlieir  nse  waa  chiefly  for  oflioial  insoriptioas  on 
public  or  private  mouuoMnts,  reli^ns  fbi>inlB 
aod  prayan,  and  rituals  or  hennefac  boc^  (see 
Fafteus).  The  most  remarkaUa  hieradyphic 
inecriptioos  Me— that  of  Una,  recording  the  oen- 
quest  of  the  lands  of  the  n^roee  at  the  tuns  of  tbe 
6th  dynasty ;  in  bononr  of  Khuoinhetp  at  BenihaMMt, 
reoording  the  investment  of  his  family ;  tbe  eam- 
paignaof  Ahmes  against  &e  Hykahos  at  H-Kab; 
the  annals  of  Thothmes  IIL  at  Karnak,  tbe  esmpsign 
of  Pamnsrs  U.  against  tbe  Ehitk,  and  tbe  ttewtr 
with  tiiem;  tbe  aooonnt  of  tbe  tank  fat  gold- 
waahinn  in  the  reign  of  Seti  L  and  ffimness  IL 
at  Eauban  and  Redeaioh ;  the  invasion  d  Egj^  in 
the  reign  o(  Meoeptah  by  the  allied  foraea  af  ths 
Libyans,  Haiyes,  Aohaioi  or  Oraeka,  Sicilian^ 
EtniBoaiis,  Lyciao*,  and  other  peo[^  of  ths  basin  cC 
the  Mediterranean  ;  the  «tar-naiiigs  on  tbe  tonb  of 
Kameses  V. ;  the  journey  of  the  ark  <rf  Ebons  tft 
Bakhtan,  in  tbe  reitrn  of  Bamssis  X. ;  tike  aeoovnt 
of  Cambyses  and  i)arins  on  the  statne  ct  tbe 
Vatican  ;  the  already-cited  syuodical  act  ot  tbe 
priests  in  honour  of  Ptolemy  Energetss  II.,  and  that 
of  tbe  priests  assembled  at  Memphis  oolbe  Rcastta 
•tone  m  the  migo  ot  Ptolemy  T.,  tiie  sepohJirai 
tablet*  ot  tbe  family  of  Pasberenptab,  aad  tbe  hmg 
series  of  sepulchral  tablets  ot  the  ball  An*  fonnd  in 
the  9enneioB,  reoonUiu;  the  birth,  instdlation,  and 
death  of  the  boUa  &««n  tbe  ISkh  dynasty  to 
the  Fereians. 

In  connection  with  the  hinttglviUoa  are  two 
modes  of  writing  them,  first  Om  lueralie  writing, 
consisting  of  a  kmd  of  abridged  binof^MM.  Ibe 
number  of  these  written  chanteten  it  mnr  than 
that  of  the  hien^yphs,  the  gensrie  dstenuinatiTe* 
being  more  en^li^ed,  md  the  vooalie  OMnplcoMste 
of  tbe  consonante  being  constantlywrittan,  in  erder 


igl^phkTbcang 


more  ext«nuvely  used  than  the  hieroglyphie,  _ .  „ 
employed  for  state  papers,  lee^  docomenn,  memor- 
anda, acconnte,  religions  bows,  ritnala,  aad  idl  the 
porposce  of  private  and  pnblio  life.  Books  were  gener- 
ally written  in  hieratio.  It  oommenoes  aa  early  as 
the  4th  or  6tb  dynasty,  and  teiminatca  only  abont 
the  3d  or  4th  c.  of  onr  era.  At  the  eariiest  period,  it 
is  oocasionaUy  written  perpendienlsily,  but  it  was 
afterwards  oidy  written  horiiontally,  and  baa  geoe- 
ntUy  portions  in  red  ink,  oorresponding  to  our  initial 
illnmmated  letters  or  rubrics.  For  liie  literals 
contCDte  ot  these  rolls,  see  FApntm,  Some,  indsed, 
have  Bunpased  that  tiie  hieratic  alphabet  gave  rise 
to  the  Pbceoidan,  and  have  endeavoored  to  trace 
the  PhceoiciaD  aljdiabet  from  hieratio  sonrces.  But 
although  much  ingenuity  ha*  bem  expended  in  tbi* 
inquiry,  the  preeise  source  of  Fhomician  writing 


jbjLiOogle 


HIKRONYMITES— HIGH  PLACES. 


reiuAiiiB  ioTotved  in  obacuity,  the  priiioipal  fact 
bemg,  that  ■  lyUabaiy  eziited  long  prior  to  ihe 
Fhoiiiidian  alphsbet,  whioh  did  not  leaoh  the 
p^ection  ot  the  Graaka,  curing  to  the  auppienion  of 
Towelfl.  The  aeocmd  kind  ^  hien^ly^duo  hand- 
writing waa  the  demotic,  or  ao-called  enchorial.  It 
waa  a  ttm  further  redndion  ti  the  hieratic,  aimpler 
fonna  bung  naed,  while  the  oomplemeDta  are  not 
naed,  and  it  approaohel  atill  nearer  the  alphabetic 
ayatem.  It  oontaina  an  alfJlabet  of  IS  lettera,  and 
a  ayllabaiy  of  48  charaotera,  and  ia  leaa  rich  in  the 
Dumber  <u  determinatirea  aind  ideograph!  than  the 
hieratic.  It  ia,  like  all  cnrmTe  hanib,  more  difficult 
to  decipher  Uun  the  hieratiG.  It  waa  introdnoed  into 
the  E^ptian  graphic  syitem  about  the  commence. 
ment  of  the  36tb  dynaatr,  or  the  6th  e.  B.a,  and 
oontinned  in  nse  till  the  3d  a.  a-S.  Thii  was  the  laat 
native  form  of  writing  in  Egjpt,  the  early  Chriatiiuu 
having  introduced  the  Greek  alphabet,  with  a  few 
character!  borrowed  from  the  demotiQ.  Tbia  ecript 
ia  rarelj  naed  for  pnUio  momuneuta,  altfauuKh  it 
appeal!  on  the  Roaetta  Stone;  but  it  wit  niuven- 
ally  employed  for  contracta,  publio  docnmenti,  and 
occaaional^  tor  religiona  fmrnnls,  owing  to  the 
decreaaiDg  knowledge  of  himogl^iphtcg.  At  the  tiine 
of  Clement,  it  waa  Hie  timt  Irajned  bj  b^^aere. 
VTith  it  the  Greek  language  beg»Q  to  appear  in 

Besidea  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphic!,  there  are 
those  of  the  Aztecs  or  Mexican,  which  were  a  kind 
of  pure  picture- writiiig,  the  namea  of  monarclu, 
towna,  and  other  thi^g!  being  punted  by  the 
objecte  whioh  correaponded  to  their  namet.  While 
in  their  hiatorical  writtngi  the  event*  theniaelves 
were  portrayed,  the  Dumber  of  the  years  of  the 
reign  of  the  king  wu  indicated  by  placing  in  a 
line  en  petaiee  in  the  piotore  the  aymbola  of  Uie 
ye«ta  of  the  Aztec  cycle,  which  were  named  after 

Silanta  and  animals.  The  Mezican  hierwlyphB,  in 
act,  conaisted  of  coDventioDOl  pictores,  and  Uiey  had 
no  means  of  expreosiDg  grantmatioal  form  or  any 
structural  part*  of  a  lucuage.  This  mode  of  pore 
jricture-wnting  jtrevailea  not  only  in  Mexico,  but 
amongst  the  nations  of  Central  America.  The  know- 
ledge of  theae  symbols  has  unfortunately  been  almost 
Icet  since  the  Spanish  conqueet:,  the  meaning  of  only 
a,  few  having  been  rescued  from  oblivion  in  tie 
16th  c,  when  the  zreater  part  of  the  Aztec  MiSS.  waa 
destroyed  by  the  Spanish  ecclesiBsti<».  It  haa  indeed 
been  aaaerted,  that  the  monks  used  -Uiese  symbols 
according  to  their  Kncndt,  to  write  the  Lord's  Prayer 
and  other  formulas ;  thus  n ,  a  flag,  pronounced 
PaMi,  waa  used  for  the  amiable  Pa;  ^ ,  a  st«ne, 
TdlfbrA^tlie  two  expiesaing  Paler;  a  ^  eactus 
fruit,  yoduU,  for  Nodt ;  and  a  stone  ^a  as  above 
for  te .-  these  four  groups  ezpieesing  Pats(r)  Nochte, 
or  If  otter ;  and  bo  forth.  This  seems  to  shew  the 
development  of  a  phonetic  system,  but  it  waa  never 
extensively  used,  on  account  of  the  abhomnce 
entertained  of  the  Aztec  idolatty. — -The  terai  hierO' 
elyphic  waa  alao  naed  by  the  writers  of  emblemata  or 
devices,  symbolizing  Gnomic  sentencea  t«ken  from 
the  Greek  and  Latm  poets,  and  having  no  relation 
to  Egyptian  hieroglyphs. — In  recent  tmiee,  too,  the 
astrdogical  almanaca  have  had  their  symbidical  repre- 
sentations and  supposed  prognoetica  of  fntnre  events, 
which  they  called  hieroslyphs. — Zovg^i  ^  Origins 
ObtUMoncm  {to.  Sonue^  iftfT) ;  Young,  ArAceoiogia 
J1817,  vol  xviL  n  60);  £lKy:Jop.  Britamiea  (1826) ; 
ChampoUion,  Prtdt  dtt  Syttlme  BieroglgphiiTM 
(1S24) ;  Qramnuiin  Eg^tienM  (1841—1361) ; 
Dictiormaire  (1841)  ;  Lepaius,  in  tlie  Arm.  d/^ 
Iia^hiUt  ArcK  (1S28) ;  Birch,  /nCrodiution  ta  Ue 
Sfudy  (j/'tAe  Hierogtyphic*  (1807)  i  Bmgsoh,  Oram. 


maht  Dimotique  (BerL  lS6fi),  WSrierlmch  (1367— 
1868),  OrammalilC  (1872) ;  De  fioug^,  Elude  iPime 
SUU  Em/ptitiiMt  (1608)  j  Chabos,  Papyna  Magiqut 
<f  iTorm  (1861) ;  ZeiUcJuifi.  f.  O^upt  Sprache  (1863 
—1874) :  BoiUMO,  Sgtipft  Plaet  (voL  v.  1867). 

HIBROTTTHITBS,  one  of  the  many  hermit 
orders  (q.v.)  established  in  the  course  of  the  I3th 
and  14th  oaotiiries.  The  Hiertmymitea  grew  out 
of  the  third  order  of  St  Francis.  See  Framciscaijs. 
Some  of  the  followei*  of  Thomas  of  Siena,  one  of 
the  Frandscan  rigorists,  having  established  them- 
selves in  vanona  places  among  the  wild  districts 
which  skirt  the  Sierra  Horena,  by  degren  formed 
into  a  community  and  obtuned  in  1374  the  approval 
of  PopeGrt^ry  XL,  whoooufiimedtheirrale,  which 
waa  founded  on  that  of  St  Augustine.  The  insti- 
tute extended  into  other  provinoe*  ot  Spain,  and 
also  into  Portugal ;  it  was  sobseqiiMitly  established 
in  Italy,  Tyrol,  and  Bavaria. 

HIEBOPHAUT,  or  MTSTAGMJQTJE,  the  priest 
who  presided  over  the  niystertes  at  Eleuais,  waa 
always  selected  from  the  nmily  of  Enmolpus,  who 
waa  regaided  as  their  founder,  and  the  Qist  &ero- 
phanL  The  H.  wbs  required  to  be  a  man  of  ripe 
years,  without  any  physical  defect,  endowed  with 
a  tine  voice,  and  ol  apotlese  character.  He  was 
forbii^en  to  marry,  bnt  it  is  not  improbable  that 
married  men  were  likewise  apwiuted  H.,  and  were 
merely  prohibited  from  fomuDg  a  saeood  maniaga. 
In  the  mysteriee,  the  H.  re^eaeoted  the  Demiuige 
or  creator  of  the  DiiiverH&  He  alone  was  authorised 
to  preserve  and  explain  the  nnwritten  laws,  to 
introdnoe  candidates  into  the  temide  at  Eleusds, 
and  gradually  initiate  them  into  the  leaaer  aod 
greater  mysteriea.  On  this  account,  he  wss  likewise 
B^led  My^agogofi  and  yny^ai,  and  no  one  WM 
allowed  to  ntt^  hia  name  in  the  preesnoe  of  an 
uninitiated  perecm.  At  public  solemnities  he  carried 
the  image  A  the  goddoe,  adorned  with 


HIGH  BAILIFF,  is  a  term  applied  to  some- 
officers  in  England,  who  discharge  ministerial 
dnttsB,  such  as  serving  writs,  kD.,  in  certain  libertiea 
or  fnuichises.  exempt  from  the  ordinary  supervision 
of  the  sheriff  The  term  is  used  in  conia-adutinotioB 
to  the  ordinary  name  of  bailiff,  whioh  is  now  almost 
a  term  of  reproach,  and  confined  chiefly  to  the 
lowest  daas  m  offioers,  who  exeouto  writs  against 
debtors. 

HIGH  COMMISSION  COURT,  a  tyrannical 
court  established  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  r^orm  the 
church,  abolished  by  16  Gh.  I.  c  11. 

HIGH  CONSTABLE.    See  CoNBuau 

HIGH  MJSBBM&AirOnB,  an  ofTenoe  shoit 
of,  bnt  closely  bmdering  on,  beaaon. 

HIGH  PLACES  (Heb.  BanuA}^,  the  name  given 
in  Scripture  to  certain  places  where  illicit  vn^ship 
wsa'perfoimed  by  the  people  of  IsraeL  The  practioe 
dl  erecting  altare  on  elevated  situations  was  com- 
mon in  ancient  times,  uid  originated  in  the  belief 
that  hilltops  were  nearer  heaven,  and,  therefore,  the 
most  favourable  plocee  for  prayer  and  incense.  The 
fathers  of  the  Jewish  nation  acted  in  this  respect 
just  like  their  neighbours.  Abraham,  we  are  told, 
built  on  altar  to  the  Lord  on  a  mountain  near 
Bethel  The  Mosaic  law,  however,  true  to  its 
grand  aim  of  securing  natiiuial  strength  and  purity 
by  a  vigoroos  system  of  isolation,  prohibited  the 
practice  for  the  future,  on  the  nound  that  the 
spots  which  the  Israelites  would  oe  compelled  to 
choose  had  been  already  polluted  by  idolatrous 
services.  In  spite  (rf  the  vehemence  with  which  the 
high  places  are  again  and  again  doaoanced  in  the 
Pentateuch,  the  prohibition  seems  to  have   been 


;=njt5! 


HiaH-PRIEST— HJOHLANDS. 


B  Ions  time  in  producing  tlie  dedred  eSbct — if, 
indeet^  it  ever  reallj  Kccompliibed  it.  During  tiie 
whola  eventful  period  of  the  Judges,  it  wm  not 
only  practicallj  obaolete,  but  we  actnidlj  find  that 
bntk  QideoD  and  HuuMh  built  *ltan  on  bigh 
plaoa  b;  Divine  oonunuid  (Judces,  vi.  2S,  26 ;  xui. 
16—23).  tt  also  occaiioaa  much  gurprise  to  read 
of  the  vioUtionB  of  tha  injunction — among  othen 
W  Samuel  at  Hi2p«b  snd  Bethlehem,  by  Saul  at 
Qtkal,  hj  David,  by  Elijah  on  Mount  CanneL  The 
expiaiiationt  givBD  by  the  rabbia  of  theoe  cootta- 
dictioua  between  the  conduct  of  the  propheta  and 
king!  of  the  Hebrew  people,  and  the  oomniaiula  of 
their  great  lawgiver,  are  too  abnird  for  menti(»L 
Whatever  may  be  the  true  explanation,  it  ia  quite 
oeriaiu  that  worship  in  high  placea  waa  almost 
muTeraal  in  Jadea,  both  dnnng  and  after  the  time 
of  Solomon.  The  retnltJ  were  luch  la  might  have 
been  anticipated.  The  people  erected  altan  not  only 
to  Jehovah  bat  to  Baal,  and  from  worahipping  in 
idolatnme  places,  proceeded  to  woiebip  idoli  them- 
•elves.  At  a  later  period  (see  Books  of  Kings  and 
Uhroniclea}  a  series  of  vigorous  efforts  was  mode  by 
the  more  pious  monarehs  ta  euppreas  the  practice, 
and  after  the  time  of  Josiab,  it  aeems  to  have  been 
finally  abandoned. 

HIOH-PRIBST  (Hsbr.  Kahen  KaggadaL,  or 
emphat.  KtAfa,  Gr.  arclaereut,  Lat.  primut  pun- 
(i(^  ^),  the  chief  of  the  Jewish  Priesthood. 
His  dignity  ws«  hereditaiy  in  the  line  of  Eleasar, 
Uia  son  of  Aaron,  and  many  more  restrictions 
attached  to  it  than  belong^  to  the  ordinary 
offioe  of  a  Priest.  He  was  only  allowed  to  marry 
an  intaot  virgin,  and  One  of  his  own  tribe )  every 
impure  cimtact  even  of  the  dead  bodies  of  his  own 
parents  he  waa  strictly  forbidden,  besidea  having  to 
abstain  from  many  other  thlags  that  night  cause 
any  defilement  whatever.  Bis  fuactions  oonsisted 
prmrapally  in  tbe  geneial  administration  of  the 
sanctuary  and  all  that  belonged  to  the  aoored 
tervice.  He  alone  was  allowed  to  enter  the  Holy 
of  Holies  on  tiie  day  of  atonement,  and  to  consujt 
the  Urim  and  Thummim  (q.  v.).  No  leu  was 
his  costume  of  surpassing  costliness  and  splendour, 
comprising  anmerous  vEsSnents  in  addition  to  those 
of  the  ordinary  prieata.  This  brilliant  costume, 
however,  was  laid  aside  by  tbe  High-Priest  when, 
on  the  day  of  atonement,  he  went  to  perform 
the  most  awful  service  in  the  Holy  of  Holiea : 
a  simple  ^vb  of  white  linen — the  funeral  drees  of 
the  Jews  m  later  times — was  all  he  wore  on  that 
occasion.  The  revenues  of  the  High-Priest  were  in 
the  main  the  same  as  those  of  the  other  priests ; 
but,  accordii^  to  the  Talmud,  he  waa  to  be  richer 


priests  never  addressed  the  High-Priest  but  by 
/<Ai  Kolitn  Oadtd,  '  My  Lotd  Higb-Priest'  Before 
the  Law,  however,  the  High- Prie^  was  equal  to  any 
other  Israelite.  It  ia  doubtful  at  what  time  the  offioe 
of  Sayan,  or  vice-High-Priest,  was  created.  The 
Talmad,  moreover,  spealu  of  a '  MaMach  MilAamaA,' 
'  Anointed  for  tiie  war ; '  an  officer  who  seems  to 
have  shared  almost  the  di^ty  of  the  Bigh-Prieat, 
and  whose  special  duty  it  ap^eaia  to  nave  been 
to  read  the  proclamation  prescrrbed  in  Deut.  zz.  3, 
in  the  tame  of  war,  and  who  may  have  accom- 
paoied  the  bt>ops  for  the  puipoaes  of  celebrating 
the  servioe  in  the  camp.  For  further  historical  and 
theological  points  counected  with  this  subject,  see 
PRums,  Ambds,  and  Jzw& 

HIGH  SEAS,  i  e.,  the  op>an  aea,  inclndiiu;  the 
whole  extent  of  sea  to  far  as  it  is  not  Uie  exclusive 
property  of  any  portienlar  country.    Hie  rule  ol 


international  law  ii 


that  every  ei 


sea  to  the  extent  of  three  miles  from  its  shore ; 
but  oU  beyond,  and  which  is  not  within  tluM  Biil«S 
of  some  other  country,  is  open  or  oommM)  to  all 
countries.  The  part  of  sea  within  three  nule^ 
distance  is  generally  called  the  territorial  aea  of  the 

Cicnlor  country,  or  mart  daufma.  The  distitictiaD 
little  effect  on  the  right  of  navigation,  but  ■• 
regards  fishing  it  ia  otherwise-  Thus,  for  example 
foreign  fishermen  have  no  right  to  fiah  within  tlu«e 
miles  of  tbe  British  ooast  without  a  licence  from 
the  crown,  or  unless  some  special  treaty — as,  for 
example,  tiie  French  and  English  treaty— has  laid 
down  other  arrangements. 


HIGH  STEWARD,  a  judge  now  always  a  lenl 
peer,  who  is  specialty  appointed  by  the  cn>wi>  for 

the  trial  of  peers  indicted  lot 


tinted  by  the  cn>wi> 
r  treason  or  felony,  ne 
is  a  liind  of  speaker  or  chainnan  of  the  peei^  aod 
votes  with  the  rest  It  is  one  of  the  privileges  of 
tbu  British  peerage  to  be  tried  by  the  conrt  al  the 
high  steward. 

HIGH  TBEASON.    See  Tnusoir. 

HI'GHGATE,  a  Dorthem  sabnrb  of  London,  in 
the  oouuty  of  Middlesex,  and  a  station  on  the  Hiy^- 
gate  and  Edgeware  Railway,  6  miles  north-north- 
west of  St  Paul's.  It  comprises  may  elef^t  villa^ 
and  some  important  benevolent  institutions.  On 
ths  slope  of  a  hill  below  the  church  of  H.  is  the 
North  Loudon  Cemetery.  New  baildiup  for  tha 
Highgate  Grammar-school  were  erected  in  1867. 

HIOHLASD  REGIMENTS.  The  origin  of  (he 
first  of  Uiese  re^nents,  (he  42d,  baa  b»en  gi*^ 
under  the  head  Black  Watch  (q.  v.).  The  valu- 
able aervicea  of  this  reomeot  Miooiiiaged  tbe  gorarn- 
ment  to  ongment  the  (oic« ;  and  acconlingly  sem 
otber  Highland  raiments  have  been  laiMd  from 
time  to  time— viz.,  the  71st.  in  1777;  tbe  TSd,  w 
Duke  of  Albany's  Own,  in  the  same  year ;  tbe  lAih, 
in  J787;  the  78th,  or  Ross-shire  Bufis,  in  1793; 
the  79th,  or  Cameron  Highlander,  in  I80S  ;  Uie 
92d,  or  Gordon  Highlanden,  in  1796;  and  ths 
93d,  or  Sutherland  mghlanders,  in  ISOa  The  nni- 
form  of  each  of  these  corps  is  the  HiEhland  dress, 
inclading  a  distinctive  tartan.  The  soldier  wean  a 
coateeof  scarlet,  a  kilt  (in  most,  but  not  all,  of  the 
regiments),  a  plaid  across  the  shooldera,  a  plnm^ 
ai^  the  other  attributes  of  the  Gaelic  costums.  In 
an  army  where  officers  are  appointed  by  general 
competition,  nationality  ia  neceuarily  diare^rded ; 
but  these  corps  are  those  in  which  Scotch  gentlemen 
moat  freqnently  seek  appointments,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  the  officers  are  Scotch.  Of  the  men, 
about  79  per  cent,  are  Scotch,  II  per  cent  EngUah, 
and  10  p^  cent  Irish.    The  regiments  are  recmitsd 


■   dvU  bonndary. 

I  of  der  -  "■-- 
ands,  thi 
H.  may  be  briefiy  described  as  that  porti' 
north  and  north-west  of  Scotland  m  which  tiie 
Celtic  language  and  manners  have  less  or  more 
lingered  until  modem  times.  The  Highland  lin^ 
aa  it  ia  usually  colled,  extends  diagimallv  across 
the  country  ^m  Nairn  on  the  Kloiay  Firth  to 
Dumbarton  on  the  Clyde  ;  bat  ths  monntsinooa 
nut  of  the  oountieB  of  Ban^  Moray,  Aberdeen, 
Kincardine,  and  Pertl)  an  also  nnderatood  to  ba 


t.GoogIc 


included  in  the  deiign&tion  BigUuid*.  Coithnen 
might  be  excluded  m  oeiiiK  *  gcnenlly  level  country ; 
but  throughout  the  H.  Oibtv  an  rich  level  tracts, 
none  being  more  to  thim  the  eutern  diviiion  of 
RoM-ehire,  The  Hebridea  (q.  v.)  or  Wertern  Itlea 
are  included  in  the  H.,  Imt  the  islea  of  Orkney 
and  ShetUad,  though  to  the  nortii,  are  did^ctly 
exclnded,  by  teuon  of  the  NorwegiMi  origin  of  the 
inhabilaate> 
The  H.   Me  MI  ot  lofty  hilU,  aome  green  and 


and  having  genOTttlly  narrow  valley*  between, 
Ulcea  and  anna  of  the  aea,  called  iocia.  Bendee  the 
grander  featorea,  theie  are  impetuons  moonbun 
torrent*,  picturetqae  ravinea,  and  valleya  or  glena, 
in  which,  and  on  the  aidea  of  the  hiUa,  are  seen 
the  huta  of  the  abonginea.  Ferhapa  the  moat 
remarkable  feature  in  the  county  ia  the  line  of 
valleya  from  Invernesa  to  Port-William,  in  which 
Ilea  a  aeries  of  Davigable  locha,  united  bv  artificial 
chajmela  to  form  the  Caledonian  Canal.  Crow- 
ing up  under  a  ayatem  of  clanabip,  the  atate  of 
sooety  in  tbe  H.  waa  antiqnated  and  nnaatiaf actory, 
b  a  national  point  of  view  ;  while  the  coontry 
was  almost  impenetrable  to  travellerB,  or  to  any 
■peciea  of  tiaffie.  Tbe  first  great  attempt  to  reform 
iliii  «t|it«  of  aSaira  waa  the  opening  up  of  the 
country  by  roada  in  different  directiona,  under 
the  auperintendence  o(  Oeneral  Wade,  abont  1723 
— 1726.  The  next  great  act  of  melioration  waa 
the  abolition  of  Heritable  Jnriadictiona  (q.  v.), 
includinK  the  ancient  privileges  ot  the  heada  of 
dana,  abont  1748.  And  lastly,  not  to  speak  of 
the  planting  of  echoola  and  ctinrchea,  much  waa 
done  by  the  establishment  of  the  Highland  and 
Agricoftaral  Society  in  178t  Since  theae  erenta, 
the  ancient  patriarchal  avetem  haa  given  place 
to  improvementa  aa  r^arda  communicationa,  agri- 
onltiire,  dwellinea,  education,  and  other  modern 
conditiona,  including  a  gradual  anbatitutjon  of  Eng- 
liab  for  the  Gaelic  language.  Latterly,  there  haa 
been  a  keen  apirit  of  progreia  in  the  Highlands. 
Croat  numbers  of  the  Celtic  inhabttanta,  who  had 
little  cbance  of  improving  their  circnmatancea  on 
the  apot,  have  been  diapooesaed,  and  their  place 
taken  by  atock-fannen  with  captal  from  the  Low- 
lands. See  Sdtbimjjid,  Whde  &  new  character 
has  thna  been  given  to  extensive  Highland  pastur- 
ages, the  value  of  estates  has  been  fiirtber  and 
rery  remarkably  advanced  by  being  let  for  the 
pursuit  of  game  to  sportunen.  cMeny  persona  of 
rank  and  opulence  from  England.  Wbat,  therefore, 
with  improved  forming  and  shootinga,  Highland 
estates  have  of  late  yeara  risen  immenaely  in  value. 
Inverness  ia  tisually  spoken  of  as  the  capital  of 
the  H.,  and  ia  noticed  under  its  proper  head.  The 
Hi^iland  counties  are  also  noticed  individnally. 
There  are  sund^  pojinlar  Qoide-booka  for  tourists 
in  the  H. ;  and  lot  tninute  topographical  and  other 
details,  we  may  refer  to  the  Chade  to  tha  Hi^dandt 
and  lOand*  ^f  Soolland,  by  O.  and  P.  Anderson, 
Lond.  1S34. 
HIGHNESS,  m  title   of   honour    given    to 


in  addnnsins  the  Sovereign,  o 


'era  supplanted 

'Yoni  Majesty'  toward  the  end  of  llie  reign 

"         "^  ""       '  ■' '  en   ot   royal  peraon- 

d  TIlghTii—  ;  ■  tlioBe  of 


of  Henry  VIll    '  The  children   ot   royal 
ages  anaddreesed  '  Yonr  Boyal  Highness ;' 
empsrora,  'Your  Imperial  Bighueea.'    The  aoltan 
ot  Turkey  is  addresaed  aa  '  Your  Highnesa.' 

HIOBWAT,  in  English  law,  is  the  place  over 
which  ft  right  is  enji      ■  >  -  ■' 
drivinfb  or  riding. 


highway ;  not  becaose  tbe  Queen  haa  any  greater  or 

better  right  than  any  of  the  public,  but  to  denote 
the  inpu^ality  and  equality  with  wtiich  all  the 
subjects  enjoy  the  right  ot  way  without  distinction. 
Highways  are  distinguished  into  several  kinda. 
1.  A  footway,  where  t^  public  have  no  right  except 
to  walk  on  foot ;  2.  A  foot  and  horse  way,  where 
the  public  have  the  right  ot  walking  or  Tiding  on 
horseback ;  3.  A  pack,  and  drift  way — a  way  used 
for  driving  cattle  and  pack-honea ;  4.  A  foot, 
horse,  and  cart  way,  where  the  publio  can  walk  or 
ride,  or  use  vehidea  of  all  ordinary  descriptions. 
Navigable  rivers  are  also  called  highways,  but  this 
is  rather  in  a  figurative  aenae.  Where  tbe  right  of 
way  belongs  not  to  the  publio  generally,  but  to 
the  owno'  of  one  or  two  houses  and  their  tenants, 
this  ia  called  a  private  way,  and  is  olaased  among 
easements. 
It  haa  often  been  disputed,  and  cannot  be  aaid 


which  a  road  ia  created  isby 
by  grant  of  the  owner,  or  by  the 
leceeaity  of  thin^  or  act  of  parliament.  Thna, 
it  a  person  allow  the  public  tor  tour  or  five  years 
to  pass  tbroogh  his  fields  itithont  stopping  them, 
this  will  be  evideocs  from  which  a  jury  may  infer 
that  the  owner  meant  to  make  a  present  to  the 
public  ot  tbe  ri^t  of  way,  and  he  cannot  tHex- 
ward*  exclude  the  public,  for  the  maiim  holds, 
'  onoe  a  highway,  always  a  highway.'  The  mode  in 
which  a  grant  of  the  way  is  proved,  is  generally 


raorial,  oi 


>r  a  few  years  without  interruption,  and 


for  if  that  is  proved,  then  the  Iftw  presnmea  that ' 
right  was  given  by  some  lost  grant.  There  are  alao 
rights  of  way  limited  to  a  particular  purpose,  which 
may  be  proved  by  immemorial  cuabom,  as  a  way- 
tor  the  inhabitanta  of  a  village  to  or  from  the  parish 
church.  One  ot  the  incidenta  of  a  highway  is,  that 
it  it  is  foundrons,  or  oitt  of  repair,  the  pasaenger  ia 
entitled  to  go  over  the  adjacent  land,  whoever  may 
be  the  owner  of  it,  so  as  to  avoid  the  foundrous 
part  of  the  road.    Another  incident  of  the  i 


even  if  a  house  be  built  too 

on  the  highway,  any  passenger  has  a  right  to  abate 
the  nuiaance — L  e.,  he  may  himself,  without  any 
ceremony,  remove  the  obstruction  or  demolish  the 
wall,  but  he  must  take  earn  not  to  do  more  dama^ 
than  is  necessary  for  the  purpose  ot  clearing  the 
rood,  otherwise  he  will  subject  himself  to  an  i^on. 
Another  incident  ot  the  use  of  a  highway  is,  that 
the  public  have  an  absolute  right  to  use  every  part 
..  ■:  ._!  .. ,.  ..J  (-."i.  ,11  J- — ^ —  '  i\i 


of  it^  and  to  pass  to  and  tro  :..  .  ..     __ 

course,  each  must  oomply  with  certain  well  known 
rules,  Budi  as  that  of  giving  and  taking  the  road, 
otherwise,  if  an  accident  were  to  occur,  he  would 
be  liable  for  t^e  negligence,  if  it  arose  from  a  neglect 
of  such  rules,  for  these  constdtnte,  as  it  were,  the  law 
ot  the  road.  It  reaults  from  this  principle,  that 
no  person,  or  body  of  persona,  ia  entitled  to  convert 
part  of  the  highway  into  any  purpose,  however 
useful,  other  tun '  a  highway.  Thus  in  London, 
and  other  potts  ot  the  country,  some  vestries  and 
surveyors  lately  presumed  to  give  leave  to  a  con- 
tiactor  to  lay  luiwn  a  tramway  in  the  atreeta,  which 
was  allied  to  be  a  great  publio  improvement ; 
neverthdess,  aa  it  prsi^ically  resulted  m  giving  a 
monthly  to  some  persons,  and  moreover  was  an 


dtyCoUyl' 


ol«tniotiontootiien,tlujiwulield  tobe*  nuistuice, 
Mid  Uie  puiiw  vho  took  part  in  it  vers  indicted 
for  the  oMtmctiOD.  And  oa  the  same  principle,  it 
hM  been  held  an  indictable  nuisance  for  aa  eJeotrio 
telegraph  company  to  place  their  telegispli  poata  on 
theatnpa  of  ludatthe  side  of  the  nmd;  Cor  tJioagh 
it  tnight  be  thought  for  the  benefit  of  the  public, 
inrtoadof  the  rererae,  yet  a<  it  practically  obefructed 
the  publio  in  the  free  pawage  from  everv  part  of 
the  nighway  to  every  other,  it  was  held  to  be  a 
nniiaoce.  Nothing  bat  an  act  of  parliament  can 
legalirc  inch  use*  of  a  highway,  ana  no  peraon  or 
body  now  OTinting  haa  authority  to  rettrict  the  free 
use  of  the  Queen's  highway  in  snch  a  manner. 

The  soil  of  the  highway,  or  rather  the  right  to  the 
ground  beneath  tba  highway,  ia  praaumed  to<  be 
^ot,  as  it  ia  said  to  be  in  ^<»tlaud,  in  the  crown, 
bat)  in  the  adjoining  owners.  Thna,  if  the  land  on 
both  sides  of  a  highway  belong  to  die  same  owner, 
then  ths  right  to  the  sroond  beneath  the  road 
belongs  to  him  also ;  ami  if  tlie  land  on  one  side 


la  gronnd 

This  I 


other  sid<^  then  esoh  is  i««snmed  to  have  the  right 

to  the  ground  imder  the  highway  up  to  the  middle 

w  uian  a  mme  theoiy,  for 


an  absolute  right  for  ever  to  use  it  for  every  lawful 
purpose  of  tiuimt,  yet  the  adjoimng  owner  has  all 
the  ri^ts  incidental  to  the  property  which  do  not 
interfere  with  this  publio  r^t  of  passage.  Thus, 
il  a  mine  were  discovered  under  the  road,  the 
adjoining  owner  would  have  the  sole  right  to  dig  it 
and  keep  the  contents ;  all  that  he  would  require 
to  attend  to  would  be,  to  leave  sofGcieut  support  to 
the  mrfaoe  of  the  road.  So,  in  like  manner,  where 
these  are  strips  of  land  at  the  side  of  the  road  on 
which  trees  or  grass  grow,  these  belong  solely  to  the 
(idjoining  owner,  and  the  public  have  no  right  to 
their  use.  AnoUierrenuukableconseqnence  follows, 
that  i^  for  example,  a  ges  company  «  a  water 
company  were  to  presume  to  take  np  the  highwaj 
in  Older  to  lay  their  pipes  nnder  &e  surface,  this  is 
not  only  an  iimictable  nnisanoe  aa  r^ards  the  public, 
inasmuch  as  it  obstroctJ  the  nse  of  the  road  for  the 
time  being,  but  it  snbjects  tiie  oompaiLy  to  an  action 
of  treapaas  at  the  snit  ot  the  adjacent  owner,  whose 
|»operty  oonsista  of  all  that  li^  nnder  the  surface 
of  via  nighw»'.  Auo&er  copseqnence  of  the  same 
rnle  is,  that  if  a  peraon  is  loitermg  on  a  highway, 
not  with  tlie  intention  of  using  it  qtia  hi^vray,  but 
for  the  parpose  of  poaching  at  ni^t,  the  courts 
have  held  that  he  may  be  punished  under  the  night 
poaching  aot,  for  tnspaadng  oa  the  land  of  the 
sd icdning  owners  in  lesioh  of  game. 

The  nptii  of  a  hij^way,  in  general,  ia  a  burden ' 
which  falls  npon  the  occupiers  of  the  lands  in  the 
parish.  ProMbly  the  reasra  is,  that  they  use  tliose 
highways  most,  and  tomebody  or  other  most  keep 
them  in  repair.  Sometimee,  however,  the  burden 
of  repair  i*  fixed  on  the  ovmer  of  the  adjoiniug 
land,  if  it  can  be  proved  that  he  has  always,  from 
time  immemorial,  been  in  the  habit  of  repairing,  it 
being  then  presumed  there  was  some  good  reason 
for  uiis.  llie  general  rule  is,  however,  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  parish  most  repair  the  huhways 
withinthe  parish;  and  so  indelible  is  this  obhgation, 
that  no  agreement  they  can  enter  into  will  relieve 
Uunn  of  s»^  a  liabihtv.  But  thoueh  bound  to 
repair,  th^  cMmot  be  called  on  to  widen  the  road. 
The  common  remedy,  accordingly,  when  a  road  is 
out  itf  repab,  is  to  indict  ttie  panui,  when,  if  guilty, 
the  nirveyor  will  be  bound  to  make  a  lat^  and  pay 


(ne  expenses. 

Owing  to  die  defects  of  the  common  law,  which  did 
aot  snfGciently  give  power  to  widen,  shut  up,  and 


improve      „       .  , 

wants  of  t^  time,  a  general  act 
passed  in  1S35,  called  the  GenetsI  Highway  Act, 
6and6WiaiV.c60,whichBtilIrt^[ubitegthesabject. 
Many  minate  detwls  are  laid  down  hj  thii  act,  but 
substantially  the  foregoing  principlee  of  the  oomiaaa 
law  eiill  govern  the  anbjeot,  the  chief  iJteiatioaa 
being  merely  in  tim  macbiDerv  by  which  thcae 
principles  are  earned  out.  The  hi^wavs  ace  kept 
in  repair  by  a  higbway-nite,  levied  oy  the  surveyor, 
a  person  annually  appointed  by  the  ratepayers  in 
each  pariah,  aud  who  is  vested  with  the  contn^  of 
the  eurface  of  the  highway  to  a  limited  extent  foe 
the  purpose  of  keepmg  it  in  due  order ;  so  that 
practically  each  parish  manages  its  own  hi^wsyn 
— a  state  of  tbiogs  which  de  Iwislature  nas  to 
some  extent  removed  by  acts  of  IS^  and  19S4,ftc^ 
enabling  the  justioee  at  Quarter  Sessions  to  ftwm 
several  parishes  into  one  district,  and  so  euforoe  mars 
onilomuty  in  the  management  of  the  roada.  Certain 
specific  OSes,  or  nttber  abuses,  of  the  hi^way  ar* 
also  made  more  promptly  punishable  by  the  firrt 
statute,  such  aa  hoisemen  riding  on  lootpatha,  tha 
tethering  of  Cattle  on  the  aidea  of  tiie  hi^w^, 
playing  at  games,  baiting  bulls,  lightjng  fires,  firing 
offe^uibs,  depoeiting  materials,  ^,  on  the  hi^way. 
party  obstructs,  or  crates  a  nuisanoa 


"at 


)  the  l 


the  party  who  oaosed  the  obstruction. 

Many  highways  are  called  tumpita,  from  the 
fact  of  their  having  toll-gates,  bars,  or  turns  aa«aa 
them,  and  are  manued  by  oommissioners  or  bostee^ 
This  il  always  done  bjr  some  looal  act  of  paiUanunt. 
Where  a  new  road  is  conaiderad  to  be  of  peat 
public  benefit,  the  neigbboniing  proprietora  obtain 
an  act  of  parliameDt  to  make  it,  with  powers  to  take 
ipnlsorily  the  reqiuHtte  land,  and  to  rsiae  maney 


.  the  history  of  all  these  tampike-roads,  the  only 
way  of  paying  the  cost  of  """'"g  them  being  1^ 
levying  this  toll.  Several  generu  acta  have  also 
been  pnased  to  r^ulate  the  manujement  ot  these 
turnpikes.  Sometimes  the  soil  of  the  ton^nke- 
road  is  vested  in  theee  trustees.  These  tanipik»- 
roads  were  violently  opposed  at  first,  the  toll  beinc 
unpopular,  but  they  existed  prior  to  die  first  geneiM 
turnpike  s«t,  13  Qeo.  IIL  c;  S4  The  present  general 
tnmpike  act  is  3  Geo.  IV.  c  126,  but  other  riatatea 
have  passed  subsequently.  In  some  eases,  put  of 
the  highway-rate  is  ordered  to  be  uiplied  towaida 
keeling  up  tompikes,  for  the  parish  i*  boond  to 
repair  these  roads  a*  well  as  genmd  highwaya. 
Several  exemptions  from  paying  toll  are  onatsd  ia 
favour  of  fanners  sending  manure,  tiay,  tttMr,  fte., 
from  one  part  of  the  farm  to  anothar,  pencms 


„    .  chnrcb  on  duty,  Ac     So  penons 

exempt  who  do  not  pass  above  100  yards  along 

the  road.    All  tolls  chargeable  must  be  stated  in  a 

table  of  tolls  set  up  at  the  toll-hor~~ 

In  the  law  of  Scotland,  higbwi 
the  same,  in  most  respects,  as  in  Engiaon ;  Mn  utere 
are  Uie  following  differences.    It  is  goMmlly  laid 

down  that  the  right  to  the  soil  of  the  '■■-' 

is  vested  in  the  crown,  and  not  in 

owners,  as  in  England.    This  theory, , , 

been  shaken  by  recent  esses,  and  liju  bemi  slunni 
to  lead  to  iome  absurdities.  Street*  of  borehs  are 
be  held  by  ths  magistrates,  nnder  the 
or  the  publio  benefit.      The  gmeral  acts 


1  of  the  hi^wny 
t  in  the  adjohiiw 
leory,  however,  haa 


tyCUUl^lt 


HIGHWAYMAN— HILL. 


on  the  sobjedi— Tiz.,  1  and  2  W3L  IV.  a  43,  uid 
3  KDd  t  WilL  IT.  c  33,  vera  puaed  for  the 

lation  of   highwayi,   which   impoHe  varionB , 

in  detail  tdmiloF  to  the  Eo^iah  highway  and 
turnpike  acts.  Pariih  roads  ore  maiatiuned  still  on 
the  old  eygtem  of  statate  labour.  Most  of  the 
roada  are  radiated  by  apecial  acta  of  parliament, 
which  are  to  he  taken  in  conjonctioa  with  the 
Keneral  acta.  When  a  pnhlic-road  ii  obstnicted  in 
Scotland,  the  party  ia  not  indictable ;  but  any  one  of 
the  pablic  may  raise  an  action  of  decloiator,  and 
■0  eEtabEiab  the  right  of  the  public 


llenlfa 


way  b«dng  included   under  LABCEirr,  Bobbzbt, 
AssmT  respectively. 

HIGLER.  See  Hawkzbs. 
HI'LABY.  St,  Bidiop  of  Poitien,  nad  doctor  of 
the  chnrch,  although  by  no  means  among  the  most 
VolnminouB  of  the  Latin  Father*,  yet,  ^m  the 
nature  of  the  Bubjecta  on  which  he  wrote,  chiefly 
connected  with  the  Arian  controversy,  oocninefl  ui 
important  place  in  the  patristio  lit^ture  of  the 
We«tem  Church.  He  wa«  bom  of  pagan  parents 
at  LemonniD  (Poitiere)  in  the  early  part  of  the  4th 
centDiy,  HJH  converaioa  to  Christianity  was  mainly 
the  result  of  his  own  study  of  the  prophecies, 
and  did  not  take  place  till  he  was  advanced  in  life. 
About  t^e  year  3IS0  he  waa  elected  bishop  of  his 
native  oity,  and  immediately  raae  to  the  first  place 
in  the  animated  oontest  of  puti«B  in  the  Arian 
controvcny.  Having  provoked  the  dindeasnre  of 
the  court  party,  he  was  imprisoned,  and  sent  into 
exile  in  Phcygia ;  bnt  he  appean  again  in  the 
council  of  Sdracia  in  3B9,  and  soon  afterwards  was 
permitted  to  resume  possession  of  his  see,  where 
lie  died,  367.  The  chorch  holds  his  day  on  the 
I3th  Jaanary.  His  most  important  work  is  that 
oo  the  Trinity,  but  his  three  addresses  to  the 
Emperor  Constontius,  by  tbeic  vehememx^  and  by 
the  boldness  of  their  langaoge,  have  most  attracted 
the  notice  of  critics.  H?a  theological  writings  are 
especially  valuable  (or  the  history  of  the  Aiiau 
puty,  and  particalariy  for  the  doctrinal  variations 
of  that  sect,  and  the  successive  phases  throu^ 
which  it  passed  between  the  council  of  Nice 
and  the  first  ooundl  of  Constantinople.  The  best 
edition  of  the  works  of  8t  H.  is  that  of  the 
Benedictine  Dom.  Constant  (Paris,  1693),  or  the 
reprint  of  it  with  additional  matter  by  Mafiei 
(Verona,  1730). — Iliere  ia  a  second  bishop  of  the 
tame  name  who  occupies  a  oonspicuous  place  in  the 
i  hiatoty  of  the  6th  c,  HILA.BY  OF  Ajtuta,  bom  in 
401,  educated  at  the  celebrated  monUtio  school  of 
Lenns,  and  made  bishop  of  his  native  city  in  420. 
As  metropolitan  of  Arlea,  he  presided  lA  several 
synods,  utd  emiedaUy  at  Orange  in  441,  the 
pnxnedings  of  which  involved  him  m  a  serious  oon- 
troreny  wit^  the  pope,  Lao  the  Grreat.  A  deposed 
bishop,  named  CheMonins,  having  csnied  an  appeal 
to  Bane,  a  oonnedl  waa  sununoned  by  Pope  Leo,  at 
whiek  H.  wm  ptCMtit,  and  in  which  the  oondem- 
nBti<m  «(  OhelUonias,  aa  well  as  that  of  another 
bishop,  PiojeotiM,  was  reversed.  H.,  however, 
refused  to  submit  to  the  decimon,  and  soon  after- 
wards quitted  Beme^a  proceeding  which  drew 
npon  hiimiMlf  a  very  severe  animadversion.  He  did 
not  queatJcn  the  authority  in  itself,  bnt  lie  main- 
tainu  that  it  was  uncanonically  eiercised.  In  the 
end,  however,  he  taught  a  reocmciliation  with  Pope 
Leo,  and  the  dispute  was  bron^t  to  an  amioable 
termination.  H.  died  in  hit  £th  year  at  Aries 
in  449. 


in  banc  The  term  is  appointed  by  statute  to  com- 
mence  on  the  11th  and  to  end  on  Slat  January. 
The  name  is  said  to  be  borrowed  from  8t  Hilary, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers. 
HI'LDEBRASD.  See  Orioort  VIL 
HI'LDESHEIH,  an  old  town  of  Hanover,  capital 
of  a.  Protsian  administrative  divitioo,  ia  sitnatad  on 
the  river  Innerste,  in  a  pleasant  valley  sutroonded 
by  hills,  24  miles  south-east  of  Hanover.  It  is  a 
verjr  qoiet  town,  with  very  old  houses,  the  upper 
stories  of  which  are  famished  with  becomes.  It 
has  been  a  bishop's  seat  since  822,  and  its  cathedral, 
Haffng  from  the  beginning  of  the  Ilth  c,  l^m 
bronze  gates  (date,  lOlS)  16  feet  high,  and  covered 
with  bas-reliefs.  Here  are  also  in  the  cathedral 
beautiful  paintings  on  glass,  and  many  art  aod 
other  treasures.  The  church  of  3t  Qodehard,  con- 
sidered a  master-piece  of  architecture,  dates  from 
1133  (restored  in  1352),  and  is  surmounted  with 
three  pyramidal  towers.  St  Michael's  Church,  nearly 
on  unaltered  basilica,  dates  from  1022  and  IISS. 
In  October  186S,  some  soldiers,  digging  on  the 
Galgenber^  close  by  H.,  diacovered  at  a  depth  of 
"  feet  about  60  silver  vesseh^  belonging  apparently 
1  the  best  period  of  Eoman  art  Pop.  (1871)  20,864. 
HILL,  Sib  Eowi.abd,  K.O.S.,  post-office  reformer, 
as  bom  at  Kidderminster,  December  3,  1795.  HU 
father  conducted  a  school  near  Birminghun,  wbioh 
celebrated  in  connedian  with  the  '  Hazelwood 
STstem  of  edaoation '  (afterwards  removed  to  Brace 
(Wla,  Tottenham},  and  in  which  H.  was  en^^ed 
aa  a  teacher  until  the  year  1333.  He  there  joined  ; 
an  association  which  obtained  an  act  for  estab-  i 
lishing  the  colony  of  South  Australia,  with  the  i 
'  aga  of  reducing  to  practice  Mr  Gibbon  Wake- 
IcTs  scheme  of  colonisation.  H.  became  secretary  j 
the  Eoyal  CommissioneTa,  who  at  first  managed 
the  afiairs  of  South  Austi^lia.  He  was  also  a  I 
member  of  the  committee  of  the  Society  for  the  I 
Difiusion  of  Useful  Knowledge.  The  high  rate  of  ; 
postage  had  for  many  years  engaged  his  attention,  | 
id  in  1837  he  published  a  pamphlet  recommending 
low  and  uniform  rate  of  postage  throughont  the 
British  lalea.  Petitions  were  pou^d  into  the  House 
of  Commons  in  favour  of  H.'s  plan,  and  in  1837 
the  Honse  appointed  a  committee  to  investigate 
the  merits  of  penny-postage.  In  1840,  the  principle 
of  a  uniform  rate  of  postage  waa  adopted,  and  an 
experimental  charge  of  4d.  per  letter  was  levied. 
This  was  shortly  afterwards  followed  by  the 
present  uniform  penny-rate.  H.  was  placed  in 
was  working  out  his  measure 


Tory  go 
ised  him. 


was  presented  to  "H'H,  Li  1846,  when  the  Whigs 
retnmed  to  office,  H.  was  appointed  seeretaiy  to 
the  Post-master  General.  In  1854^  he  succeeded 
Colonel  Maberley  at  secretai;  to  the  Poet-office,  an 
appointment  which  he  held  till  failing  health  com- 
pelled him  to  resign  in  1864.  His  full  salary  of 
""  a  year  was  awarded  him  for  life,  and  he  alto 


(see  PosT-omCE).  The  Money-order  Office  is  one 
of  the  o&hooti  of  penny  postage ;  and  parliament,  in 
1861,  engrafted  a  system  of  Post-office  Saving 
banks  upon  the  postal-serrioe,  which  was  earned 
out  by  H.  with  his  usual  administrative  ability  and 
success. — His  eldest  brotiier,  Ma.TTREW  Davenport 
Hiu,  till  1866  the  recorder  of  Birmingham,  has 
''  ''  iguished  himself  by  his  labours  for  tne  ednoo- 
}f  the  people,  and  the  reformation  of  criminals. 
One  of  his  brotben,  Hr  Edwix  Hru, 


t^""gl( 


TTTT.T. — HIMXLAYA. 


ififpactorof  itunpafttSomeiHtHonie;  and  tuother, 
iSx  FstoWBio  Hnx,  vm  the  Srtt  to  propamid  and 
enf  oroe  thou  humww  principle  upon  vhich  modem 
pTUOD  diacipline  ia  foouded ;  and  hit  work,  On 
Orime,  u  a  standard  anthori^  for  legialaton.  He 
ia  (1875)  aatultant-aMretaiy  to  the  Poat-offioe> 

HIIiIj,TiKonrT(Bovi.u<i>Hii>ii),BTitiihgenBr»I 
uid  eommandar-in-ciiief,  a  loion  of  the  anment  and 
diatnumiihed  family  of  ths  Eilli  of  SbfratUn,  na 
■ao^a  Mn  of  Sir  John  Hill,  Bail,  of  Bawkatone. 
H«  ma  bon  Angoat  11,  ITIS,  entoed  the  utay  at 
the  ags  of  fifteen,  and  obtained  a  oaptainoy  bdbra 
ha  wu  twenty.  He  took  part  in  the  diaaatroiu 
n«inp«JgTi  in  vhich  Sir  John  Uoore  lost  hia  life. 
Ha  aUo  aerred  in  the  campaina  of  1609,  1810,  and 
1811,  nnder  the  Bnke  of  Welfington,  and  diapLayed 
oonapicnooa  gallantry,  •«  well  »•  great  talenti  aa  a 
commands.  In  the  Peiuiuialar  engatfementa,  he 
iraa  lunally  intnuted  with  the  moot  important 
dntiea  next  to    thoee    which  devolved    "    """ 


th«  mi  eommander.  He  m«  oteated  Bmod  Hill 
of  jUmaras  and  Hawkitone,  necoved  a  pwUa- 
maBtwT  pant  of  £SO0O  a  year ;  and  both  tide  and 
annuity  were  granted  to  Ua  vs^w  in  remainder. 
Ha  wai  tUio  made  O.QB.  He  comnumdad  a 
diviiioo  at  Waterlog  and  ranained  with  the 
army  of  ooonnation,  a*  MOimd  in  onwwaad,  nntil 
it  evaoaatod  the  Freoali  tmitory.  He  anooeedad 
the  Duke  of  Wallington  in  182S  at  a(lmInaIlde^iB■ 
chief  of  the  army,  and  diapeiMed  the  patmu^te 
whkh  he  poaseaaed  with  great  impartiality. 
In  18^  hia  health  dwitined,  and  the  Doke  of 
Wellington  onoe  more  took  ttie  oommand  of  tlM 
amy.  After  hia  reaignatioa,  H.  wm  created  a 
-riMonnk  He  died  nnmaiiied  at  Hardwicke 
Orange,  ooonty  of  Salc^  Beeonber  10,  1U2,  in  hia 
aeventy-flrat  year.  He  waa  mooeeded  in  hia  titlea 
and  eriatea  by  hia  nephew,  Sir  R,  Hill,  Bart. 

HILL  UtrSTAHD.    See  BuvuB. 

HILIi  STATES,  a  nnntber  of  amall  jprinoipalitiei 
of  India  on  the  left  or  east  aide  ot  the  Dpper 
Stttlej,  oomiiriae  about  10,000  aquare  milea,  and 
abovt  CS0,O00  inhabitanta.  With  the  ezoeiitioii 
of  tiiia  ablegate  name,  they  have  but  little  in 
oMnmon  imh  e*ah  other.  Perhapa  twenty  mar  be 
reckoned  which  have  a  diatinet  exJetcnce—uioae 
beat  know*  b»ng  Bhagol,  Bnaaahir,  and  OurwhaL 

Bl'LLAH,  or  HILLA,  a  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia, 
ia  the  paahalio  of  Bagdad,  and  60  miles  south  of 
the  city  of  that  nam^  ia  situated  on  both  banks 
of  the  Euphratea,  and  ia  built  on  the  miss  of 
ancient  Babylon  (q.  v.].  Here  the  Bnphratea  i>  450 
feet  in  width,  and  is  crossed  by  a  floatliig  bridge. 
H.  is  a  fortified  town,  contains  a  citadel,  a  acetjue, 
and  several  well-ttooked  basauv.  Dydng,  tannmg, 
and  manufactorei  of  silk  ai«  here  earriedon.  The 
population,  iriuch  is  flnctuating,  m»  be  atatad  at 
between  7000  and  I0,00a 

HI'LLBL,  HJ.UXLI  (the  Babylonian),  or 
H4g*KMr  (the  Elder),  one  of  the  moat  enuMnt 
and  iBfluenttU  docton  of  the  Jewiah  law,  waa 
bom  aboot  113  n.  o.  in  Babylonia,  of  poor  parenta, 
but  in  th*  temala  line  oE  royal  (Davidian)  deacent 
PoT^  years  old— so  the  l^ttd  rniu— ha  migrated 
into  PalestuM  for  the  sake  M  atndyiim  the  law ;  and 
of  the  small  sun  he  auoed  Igt  hard  laanaal  labour, 
ha  gave  half  to  th*  door-keepet  of  tha  aoadaray, 
whm  Shamaja  and  Abtalion,  the  gt«at  mastcn 
of  the  period,  expounded  the  Halaoha  (q.  v,} ;  and 
beliira  long,  he  became  one  of  the  favoorita  and 


t  Herod  had  moonted  the  throns^ 


H.  was  eleoted  Nasi,  or  pemdent  of  the  nnhedri^ 
tht  ningB  of  hia  aoqnireinenti  ia  said  to  li*v* 
been  imniBniie ;  vnlmoing  not  only  Seiiptnro  and 
tradition,  biit  nearly  all  toanshea  <d  hnmaa  and 
'ruptrktmum'  knowledge  Tet  ha  wai  om  of  the 
meekest,  nwat  modesty  kind,  and  simple  ~ 
men.  ■  Be  of  the  pnptU  of  Ajmo.  a  friend  i 
a  promoter  of  peaoe,  loviiu  "iny^"*.  and ' 
fbem  nearer  to  the  Divine  bw '  (AboUi,  i  i 
not  confide  in  thyself,  until  the  day  of  Uiy  death ' 
(Aboth,  ii.  3).  '  Do  not  judge  thy  neighbow,  nntil 
thou  hast  been  in  hi*  jdaos  tlmwf '  (Aboth,  iL  9). 
Such  were  stmie  of  his  moat  &vonrite  saying^. 
Still  more  oharMtaristic,  and  U^ily  cuioQi,  if 
compared  with  Hatt.  vii.  19;  is  the  answer  ha  g»v« 
to  a  beathen  who,  in  a  sriiit  rf  moekery,  lequeatad 
him  to  teach  him 'all  the  law  of  Moaes' while  In 
oould  stand  on  one  left  'Do  not  unto  othan  aa 
thou  wookW  wA  have  ettet  do  nsto  Vbm,'  BL 
replied)  'that  i*  aU  tits  Uw;  tlM  nrt  i*  mi* 
oomment '  (Babyl.  Tilat.  Shabb.  31  a.L  H.  waa  aba 
the  flrrt  who  o<dleet«d  tlw  nnmhwlM  toaditioM 
of  tlM  oral  law,  aad  airauad  ttwn  mdw  nx 
heads  (see  Ubbna).  Tke  oHea  aUnded  to  akd 
highlv  eu^Beralad  dispota  betwem  H.  asd  hM 
aahool  and  Shammai  &v.),  the  eontonpcnMooa 
snpnme  judge  of  the  Bsahedrim  iAh-B^A^tHm),  ad 
his  iohool,  rasolvw  itMtf  iato  a  Man  th»niislii<l 
one :  the  deeisicsa  thvnadTas  ai^  with  tt  Ten 
few  and  unimportant  axoMitiou,  v<"ti'w'  B^ 
howover,  was  th«  mete  popular  of  tks  tw^  anA  th* 
majority  was,  on  aooonnt  id  tli*  batter  anthecitiea 
he  was  able  to  quota  in  his  support,  gsMnllj  an 

The  time  ot  H.'b  death  is  nnoertaiu.  He  ii  Mid 
to  hava  lived,  like  Mcass^  ISO  ycMi  i  40  yean  in 
ignoranoa  of  the  Law,  40  years  as  the  humUssk 
pupil  of  the  Law,  and  40  yean  as  the  higheat 
inaater  of  the  Law.  A  verso  of  the  dirge  oonpoaed 
at  his  death  has  SBTvived:  'Woe  iw  the  pkiM, 
the  nudeii  the  disoipU  i^  £ira '  (Sank.  11  a.).    Fw 


Oaiulih.  and  T^umm. 

HILTED,a  term  used  in  HeraIdi;,to  Indient*  I 
the  tincture  of  the  handle  of  a  sword. 

HIMjLlATA  C  the  abode  of  mow,'  fioa  th*  ' 

Sanscrit,  Uma,  bow,  and  dfaya,  abode),  ia  aowth  , 

central  Asia,  ia  the  moat  elevated  aad  atnpendoHa  > 


mountain  ^stem  o>  the  Abb.  It  ia  not^  aa  ieaB»> 
timea  repnssBtad,  a  ngU  ohun,  but  a  range  «l 
mgsed  snowy  peaka  depaodi^  fnnn  the  hif^  taU*< 
laid  of  Tibet,  wd  sepatated  ti^y  deep  imM,  &a 


r  and  ioe  of  th*  tntsrior.    Hw  n 


prmMT  eztwda  from  the  great  bend  of  the  I^an 
w  flu  wast,  to  the  Junction  of  the  Sajqw  with  the 
Brahm^tt*  in  the  eaal^  or  faoM  long,  73°  29  to 


k  distaaoe  of  ne*^  ISOO  milti^  fbUowiag 
from    south-east   to  nortb-wett      IW 


to  norttt-wett 
mean  elsvataOD   ol   «u   rang*  ia  froM  ILOOft  to 
18,000  teett  but  45  of  ita  peaks  m*  now  knnm    i 
to  exceed  03,000  feet  in  hei^      Of  thMS  Am 
sra^  in  Kumeon,  Nanda  Devi,  9B,74B'f*st;  in  Nanaal, 
Dhawalagiri,    26,88$  feat;    Mount  Sveiert,  iilKB 

1   highsBl   1  

■ehinjinga, Si^lS* feet:  in 

23i»M  feet  ^rave  the  sea.      

of  the  H.  oontpriaes  three  diatinet  tegioan-^^n^ 
adjm^ng  the  pWna  of  ffindnatan,  the  StoaC  n 
gtass-covored  marahr  plain;  noxt,  th*  gnuk  balk 
of  SmU  ITood,  atntohiiw  akBg a  gawt  pMt  of.th* 


extending  to  the  foot  of  the  tme  monntaina. 

Abova    tjwse    regicos,    which     an     extr , 

unhealthy,  are  plaud  the  Sanitarin  tar  teooja   ■ 


tyCooi^le 


SISOEUSt—BJSD. 


I>arieeling,  BiniU,  Mmua.    Tben  an  no  pbina 

bat  few  lakes  in  UmH.;  th«  «hief  of  the  latter  an 
NaimM,  in  Kniiuwn,  KW  fMt,  and  the  lake  of 
Caafanur.  B136  feet  above  the  m*. 

Snow  faU*  at  rare  intervala  in  the  monutaini 
low  M  2600  feet,  but  at  6000  feet  it  mowa  i^ 
larly  «very  winto-.  The  limit  of  peieimial  mow 
the  H.  ia   16,200  teet  oa  Uia  aonth,  and  17,400  fi- 

the  diy  ■tmoajihate  <rf  T^bet,  and  the  an^  qnaniijy 
of  lain  and  anew  that  falla  thaie.  The  hi^  nnge 
of  Uie  S.  fonni  a  raat  aciFeeiL  which  intetvept*  and 
condeawea  neariy  all  the  lOoUtnre  cairied  Djf  the 
wind*  from  tba  Indian  Ocean,  Hid  depoaiti  it  on 
the  ecMitliam  faoa  d  the  moantaini;  hence  at  Chirrs 
Panji,  420O  fert  above  Uia  lea,  aa  mnch  u  I 
induB  of  rain  haa  been  known  to  fall  in  one  v( 
Glacieia  are  foond  in  eror  part  of  the  range  abi 
tha  waow  Hne,  aa  tA  -^ms,  that  of  Deotal 
Gnifawal,  ia  17,940  feet  above  the  lea.  The  su 
heigbt  of  the  paaaea  in  the  H.  ia  17,SO0  feet,  the 
hi^Mvt  known  ia  Ibi-Gamin  Pan  into  Gorbwal, 
3>,4S7  faet,  and  the  hidteit  need  for  traffic  ii  " 
Panna  Fsaa  in  8^  \%JXia  feet  above  the 
All  tEa  paaaea  above  16,000  feet  are  oloeed  with 
■DOW  from  November  till  May.  Treei  and  cultivated 
graina  attain  their  hiflheat  limita  in  tha  T^ywr^rt^'nt 
at  11,800  and  thTatn  at  1£,300  feat  above  the  aetk 
The  tea-plant  caa  be  cultivated  along  the  entire 
aonthem  laoe  of  the  H.  to  an  elevation  of  SOOO  feet, 
bat  tbe  beat  ia  prodnced  at  front  3000  to  3000  feet 
abore  the  aea.  Hgoa  and  ape*  are  fooad  at  as 
elevathm  of  lljOO(^  and  the  leq^  at  IS.OOOfee^ 
whOe  the  diw  followa  the  herd*  over  paaaea  1^000 
feat  loA.  ffiiakea  are  fbosd  at  an  deration  of 
IS^OOO  Saet,  but  the  Ugheat  limit  d  the  moaqnite 
ia  SODO  feet  above  the  as*,  ^le  geolonoal  atme- 
tma  of  tba  HkruJajraa  oauiati  of  crTEtalline  rookie 
wiQi  ^^aaite,  gndn,  and  a  achistoae  fonnation, 
' —  micaoaoD^  chlohtdc,  and  talcoae  echivta. 


oenbalni^e.  About  the  meridian  <A  S3*  EL,  near 
the  Manaarowar  Lake,  a  P**^  tntntvoee  tangos 
wUch  fnrtlMT  ncrth  m  eaued  the  Giai^ri  HMOn- 
taiiB,  abnta  againal  the  a  froH  Tfbefc  lUi  ridse 
forma  tiw  waterahed  between  the  Samoa  (aftarwaMa 
the  Bnhmwulra)  on  the  east)  and  the  bdoa  and 
Oa^BBonOawMt.  H«aa  fMt  river  ^atama,  with 
th^r  laaAifiaaat  teibntariaa,  doiva  thor  dod 
anpba  fian  tita  BaltiM  el  ~ 
HiBalan  and  canBaqnait&  an 
hetta*  acMon  of  tha  ;«» idwB 
aappfy  ia  anat  needed, 
tb  aoeaoat  of  the  nu^ealiebcU 


fn  flood    at  the 


■nnit,  the  *— g*"*'"  at  tba  anoMit  Hindaa 
iav«rtad  it  with  £  moat  nqntmeiH  jropcctiaa,  and 
eouaotad  it  with  the  UatMy  of  aome  irf  th^  dMtin. 
In  Oa  Partner  the  H.  k  plaoad  to  the  Boatb  o<  the 
libalaoa  mooatain  Han,  whidi  ataada  in  ^  OMtee 
cl  Oe  worid  (we  Hbbo),  and  dHoribed  ••  the  Um  e< 
the  manntaioa,  who  w«a  inaagnrated  aa  ladh  men 
hilhawaa  iartailed  m  tba  Bcraioncnt  of  tha  earth. 
Aa  tte  abode  «f  Siva,  be  a  the  mal  cf  penHaat 
piMau:  lAo  npair  to  fait  mmnn  in  ocder  to  win 
thatoomcftiiMteii&god.  IbwilawMUa^ 
■mkaat.  tha  Pitrk  or  demigoda  Vaiil|aB  angendrnd 


amth-weat  of  the  town  of  that  name,  and  M  mika 
"   ncath-weat  of   London     Ila  pariA  dnudt, 
beantiM  dd  oak  loof,  m  lamwaed  to  have 
netaddniBa  the  lein  of  Edwaid  m.    H. 
f  cotton  hnderr.    Part  of  the 
Pop.  (1S7I)  OWft 


HI'NCMAB,  a  oelebrated  < 

&,  waa  bom  in  SOft.  The  exact  plaoe  of  hii  lurth 
ia  unknown,  but  bom  hii  being  of  tha  famfly  ot  the 
Coonta  of  Toolonaai  it  ii  prMraoed  to  have  ba«a  in 
that  piovinoe.  He  waa  edneatad  in  tha  ntonaateiv 
of  8t  Denia,  and,  with  the  aanctdon  of  the  oooncil 
of  Paiia  (8SS],  he  wa«  intrusted  with  the  foaming 
and  canring  ont  a  plan  fur  the  rrfonnatim  of  tha 

— '-»y.    Some  time  afterwardi,  be  waa  naaud 

'  the  abbeTi  of  Comintene  and  St  Oermain ; 
and  in  840  waa  elected  Ai^biahop  of  Muim. 
The  raoet  important  event,  oonaideied  hiatorically, 
in  the  oateer  of  H.,  ia  hia  oimtrovany  witii  Fope 
Kioholai  L  in  the  year  862  (»ee  NiOHOUfl  L). 
Bothadina,  Biahop  of  Soinona,  aod  nffiagan  of  E., 
depoaed  a  piieat  cd  hia  diooeea^  wha  mealed  to 
H.  aa  metanpolitaa,  and  waa  ordered  by  taim  to  be 
netored  to  irfEloet  BotbadhM  ledatuu  thia  wder, 
bavinft  been,  in  eoaaeqnenc^  oo^amnad  and 
mmnmiMted  by  the  arohUahoo,  i^pealad  to 
pepe,  who  at  eooe  ordered  O,  to  reatwe 
Rothadw^  or  to  ^pear  at  Bcnia  in  penon  af 
by  hia  lefteaitativa,  to  lindieate  tba 
E.  aeat  a  ksata  to  Bom^  bat  refwed  t 
the  depoaed  biahop;  wfaerenpon  NiohcJaa 
the  tuttmux,  and  required  that  the  oaoae  ihoold 
again  be  heard  in  Some.    H.,  after  aome  demur, 

forced  to  acqnieaoe.    The  cauae  of  Bothadina 

.  .  re-examined,  and  ha  waa  acqaitted,  and  netored 
tohiaaee. 
Tha  condnet  ot  H.  ia  alao  hiatoricaHy  intereating 
I  relation  to  the.  temporal  power  of  the  mediera 

(oee  Pom).      tJndw    tha      mcceawr    of 

Adrian  IL,  a  qneation  aroae  aa  to  the 
to  tha  iOTereignty  of  Ltvtaine  on  the 
of  Kitu  Lothain,  the  pope  favcmriug  the 
pntenriona  ot  the  Empcrw  Lewie  En  oppMition 
to  thoas  of  Cniariaa  the  Bold  of  Franoe.  To  the 
mandate  which  Adrian  addrcaaed  to  the  anbjecta 
of  Charka  and  to  the  noblee  of  Lorraine,  accom- 
panied by  a  menace  of  t^e  oenanrea  ot  the  chnrch, 
H.  oSered  a  firm  and  perdstent  oppoaition.  He 
waa  eqaaHy  firm  in  rraiirting  the  nndne  extenaion 
of  the  n^al  prerogative  in  eccleaiaBtical  aJbdis. 
Wben  the  Empentr  Lewia  nx,  in  oppomtioa  to 
the  aolamn  jn^ment  of  the  conncirof  Yiom^ 
aon^t  to  obtmoe  an  »inwor"~  ».— -~i*-  rta-.,— 
apon  the  lee  of  Beanvaia,  S 


nJwitUaUe  naaipa' 

..      itbeVMrSai    Hii  woAi  wen 

collected  in  two  Tdk  wlio  b^  Plm  SinnaMi,  El  t, 
IParii,  1048).  Sevtaal  other  pieoee  of  hii  are  fonnd 
m  the  8th  rcO.  «f  Lahbtfi  VtAUetitM  ^  OoimeiU, 
and  in  the  tiUi  v<^  of  that  of  Haidoain;  aaaleo  in 
PiM  Cellot'B  CortelL  Dmiac  (Farii,  ISSS).  " 
othera  tA   hia  woika,  atill  in  MS., 


The  tan 

fenide  of  erane  otlwi  ipedea  of  deer— nevw  being  io 
i^ied,  however,  to  any  other  Britiih  or  Bnmpeaa 
ipeeiea ;  and  ia  Mnnetiniee  even  extended  to  female 
mtelopta.  In  the  atrieteet  uie  of  Ibe  term  hhid, 
umnSng  to  the  andent  law*  and  coatopH  ol 
veneri^  it  did  not  become  the  deai^tim  of  a 
female  red  deer  until  fbe  third  year  of  ita  ^e. 
HUTD,  Johm  Bu^hj,  an  Eadiab  aatronomer, 
BB  bom  at  Nottioghani,  Mn  1^183%  At  an 
eiriy  psiod  he  became  an  mtnttriaat  in  tha  ata^ 
ol  aatrDnomy,  and  in  1S40  ohainad,  throi^  the 
inflnatee  rf  ItmiemOB  WhaaWooa,  a  Jtaatien  in  the 
Boyal  ObawvatoiT  at  Qreenwioh,  whae  he  lemaiaad 
tUlJnnelMt.  H.  wan  then  aatt  w  one  of  the  etat- 
miirirn  irfiifaitTl  f-  determine  the  axaet  lenptnde 
of  Tihafia,  and  «■  Ida  retom  waa  appointed  to  a 


I ,  Goo'Jie 


HnrDU  KUSE— mOUEN-lSSAKO. 


poat  in  Mr  Bishop's  Obaervatoi?,  Itegent'B  TtA, 
IiODdon.  Here  he  made  tiioae  obaerrstioiiH,  the 
ramlta  id  which  hsva  rendered  his  name  renowned 
in  the  sdetltific  world.  He  han  calculated  the 
orbits  and  declination  of  more  ttuut  seventy  planetfl 
and  cometl^  noted  aixteen  new  movable  ttaza,  and 
three  neboLe,  and  discovered  teo  new  pluieta, 
viz.,  Iris  and  Flora  in  1847,  Victoria  in  1850, 
Irme  in  1851,  Melpomene,  Fortuna,  Calliope,  and 
Thalia  in  1862,  Euterpe  in  1863,  and  Urania  in 
1854.  In  18GI,  B.  obtained  from  the  Academy'  of 
Sdeoces,  Paris,  the  Lalande  Medal,  and  was  elected 
a  eorregpondiiu  member.  In  1S62,  he  obtained  the 
Astronomic^Society  of  London's  gold  medal,  and 
a  pension  of  £200  ■  year  from  the  BritiBh  govern- 
ment. Be  also  mperintends  the  pablication  of  the 
Jfauticai  Alvuaiae.  H.'b  scientafio  papers  have 
generally  been  pnbliahed  in  the  TrMuacttom  o/*  the 
AatroBomkai  Solely,  in  the  OanipUt  Rmdui  of  Pari*, 
j-nH  the  Al^onomitdit  Nadtridiien  of  Ahona.  H.'b 
popular  voAb  are — Rteent  Catattg  and  the  Biemtnit 
of  Heir  Orbia  (publiahed  In  the  Alhen/rum,  August 
9,16^];  Almnormcal  Voeabular!/ il6mo,  IS62) ;  The 
ConuU  {12ino,  1852) ;  Thu  Solar  Sytiem  (8to,  1862) ; 
lUattralfd  London  Aetroiurmy  (8vo,  1853).  EUm^U* 
(^  AlgOrra  (Lond.  1855) ;  DeKiriptive  Treaiiac  on 
ComOt  (1867),  Ac. 

HINDU  KUSH,  or  INDIAN  CAUCASUS, 
forma  the  weatward  continnatioii  of  the  Himalaya, 
being  Bometimefl  reckoned  a  wt  of  that  coloaaal 
range.  It  extends  from  the  Upper  Indus  on  the 
E.  to  the  Bamian  Pasa  (q.  t.)  on  the  W.,  atretching 
in  N.  lat  between  34°  and  36°,  and  in  B.  long. 
between  68°  and  75°.  Separating  Afghanistan  on 
the  3.  from  Turkeatan  on  the  NT,  it  sends  off  the 
Oxns  throngh  the  latter,  and  the  Helmund  throQgh 
the  former,  to  two  salt  lakes — the  Oxob  to  Ajal, 
and  the  Helmund  to  Hamitn.  The  loftiest  aummit 
is  Hindu  Koh,  situated  about  80  milea  to  the  north 
of  the  city  of  Cabal,  and  estimated  to  be  more 
than  20,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Unlike  the  Hima- 
laya Fropcr,  the  chain  is  a  water-ahel.  and  is  also 
tentarkaUy  destitate  of  timber  ;  vhile,  like  the  ridge 
in  qncatum,  it  presents  an  appearance  of  much  greater 
height  towBida  the  south  than  towards  the  north. 

HISDU  LAW,  BELIOION,  &c.    See  India. 

HINDUSTA'N,  meaning  TheLando/iJit  Eindut, 
in  a  temi  of  the  same  class  as  Tnrkeatan,  Afghan- 
istan, Fandstan,  Beloochistan,  or  Fnuwstan  (the 
oriental  name  of  Western  Europe).    See  India. 

HINGB,  the  pvots  or  joints  on  which  doors, 
shutteiB,  Ac.  revolve.  The  aimpleat  form  of  hinM 
is  a  projection  cut  upon  the  substance  of  which 
the  door  is  made,  and  fitted  into  a  hole.  This  is 
s  done  with  wooden  ahutten,  and  there 
iplea  extant  of  sCone  AuUert  hinged  in  this 
manner.  The  cathedral  of  Torvello,  near  Venice, 
which  dates  irma  the  Hth  c,  atill  has  the  windows 
protected  with  shutters  fonned  of  large  slabs  of 
stone,  lunged  on  stone  pivots.  During  the  middle 
ages,  hinees,  as  well  as  every  other  useful  article, 
were  made  subjects  of  omamentatdon.  The  earliest 
ortuunental  hinges  date  from  about  the  10th  century, 
^liie  first  examples  are  cramped  and  Bids',  and  the 
scrolls  aze  frequently  terminated  witJa  animals' 
heads.  In  the  early  Enalish  and  decorated  styles, 
the  hinges  and  other  metd-work  were  very  elaborate 
and  beautifol  in  design,  and  freonently  extended 
over  the  whole  of  the  doors.  In  Uie  perpendicular 
strfle,  hinges  were  usnaUj  very  simple  in  form,  the 
panelling  of  the  wood-work  not  admitting  of  much 
ornamental  iron-work.  In  modem  times,  hinges 
have  almost  entirely  lost  their  <»namental  character. 
They  are  chiefly  nude  of  brass  and  iron,  and  fitted 
«n  tiiB  edges  of  the  doon  and  ahutters,  where  they 


are  concealed.  'Donble-jointed  edge-hinges'  an  . 
tluMe  now  most  in  use.  The  revival  of  medieral  I 
architecture  has,  however,  given  an  impulse  to  tJie    . 


manufacture  of  ornamental  metal-work,  and  hingea 
of  varied  and  good  design  are  now  geneislly  used  in 

nnection  wiui  Gothic  architecture. 

HIKNOM,  Yallxy  or.    See  Oehekna. 

HINNT,  the  hybrid  produced  between  a  horss 
...id  a  female  an.  It  is  smaller  than  a  mule,  but 
the  body  is  more  bulky  in  proportion  to  the  I^s, 
■nd  its  strength  is  Inferior.  It  is  less  valuable  than 
the  mole,  although  it  is  more  docile.  The  hinny 
is  rare.  It  was  described  by  some  of  tlie  earlier 
natuiaiistsasahybrid  between  tiie  ox  and  the 


s  to  have  entertained  thia 


HIN0J08A-DBL-DUQUB,  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Cordova,  and  45  miles  north- 
west of  the  city  of  t^t  name,  consists  of  spacioaa 
streets,  with  neat  white-washed  houses,  each  with 
a  garden  or  court  attached.  It  has  several  oouvents 
and  hospitals,  sad  linen  and  woollen  manuiactarea. 
Pop.  between  7000  and  8000. 

HIOUBN-THSANG,  a  celebrated  ChineM 
traveUer,  professing  the  Buddhist  cwed,  wbo 
visited  110  countries  and  places  of  India  in  the  ' 
first  half  of  the  Tth  o.  (629— «45),  aud  gave  a  very  i 
detailed  and  interesting  account  of  the  conditioo  A 
Buddhism  u  it  prevaued  at  that  period  in  India- 
His  inquiries  having  been  chiefly  devoted  to  the 
objects  of  his  veneration,  he  did  not  enter  so  mudt 
into  details  conoemiog  the  social  and  poUtical 
condition  of  India  aa  might  be  desired ;  but  cm- 
sidering  the  many  curious  notices  he  gives  on  other 
mattera  iriiich,  besides  those  of  Buddhist  intsRst, 
came  under  lus  observation,  and  the  high  d^iee 
of  trustworthiness  which  his  narratdve  primwn,  his 
memoirs  must  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  most  i 
important  works  on  the  history  of  India  in  genoal, 
and  of  Buddhism  in  particular,  during  the  period 
stated.  Apparently,  he  bavelled  atone,  or  with  a 
few  occasional  companions ;  and  wearing  the  garb  of 
a  religious  mendicant,  w^  nothing  but  a  stafl^ 
wallet,  and  waterpot,  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  exposed  to  any  dangerous  adventures  on  hta  | 
journey  from  China  to  India-  It  is  more  remark- 
abl^  however,  that  he  incurred  no  impediment  on  ' 
his  way  home,  when  he  travelled  with  600  packages 
of  books,  besides  image*  of  Buddha  and  various 
aacred  relics ;  and  his  immunity  Irom  danger  affords 
a  remarkable  proof  of  the  civiSsed  condition  of  the 
oounbriM  which  he  described.     It  does  not  ai^iear 


LiOOgIc 


HIP— HIP-JOINT. 


thftt  the  Bccannt  of  his  traveU  was  'written  by 
liimMlf,  for  of  tha  two  worka  relating  to  them 
neither  ii  tlie  perfornumoe  of  Eionen-Thsuig.  The 
Sat  ii  B  bibliogrn^hical  notice  of  him,  in  which  liiB 
tnveU  form  a  prmcipsl  faatare ;  it  was  compoHid 
by  two  of  bi»  pupUB,  Hoel-Ii  nnd  Yen-ThBoog. 
The  latter  bean  the  title  of  Ta-lAang-ti-yu-ki,  or 
'  Memoire  of  the  CountrioB  of  the  West,  pnbliiJiBd 
nnder  the  Thang,'  and  wa>  edited  by  Fiea-ki,  since 


H.  himBelf,  who  dorinB  17  yean  had  spoki 

but  foreign  lanfpiages,  hod  perhapa  lost  the  facility 

rriting  elegant  Chmeae.    Acconling  to  a  remark 


added  to  the  title  of  hia  work  in  the  imperial 
Chinese  edition,  it  would  follow  that  it  had  been 
tranahited  from  Sanscrit  into  Chinese;  but  this 
statement,  as  Profeasor  Stanislas  Julien  observes,  can 
only  mean  that  the  fundamental  part  of  the  work 
relating  to  history,  legends,  tc^  was  taken  from 
Hindn  sourcea,  ainca  it  is  obTioos  that  the  indication 
of  distances  and  nmnerons  personal  observations 
must  have  coma  from  H.  himself.  Both  works 
have  been  pabliahed  in  a  French  translation  by  the 
distineuiahed  Chinese  scholar,  M.  Stanislas  Julien, 
who  baa  acquitted  himself  of  the  great  and 
peculiar  difficnlties  of  his  task  in  bo  creditable  a 
manner,  that  his  Hidoire  delaViede  Hiouan-Thaang 
(Paris,  1863),  and  hia  MimoxTci  #ur  ha  ContrSei 
OcadentaUt,  par  Himitn-T/imng  (2  vols.  Paris, 
1867 — 1868),  have  not  only  become  indispensable  to 
the  student  of  Chinese  and  Sanscrit  literature,  bat 
will  be  a  lasting  honour  to  M.  Julien'a  industry 
and  scholarship.  An  abstract  of  both  works,  by  the 
late  Professor  K  H.  Wilson,  appeared  in  tie  IJth 
volume  of  tLe  Jonmal  of  the  Boyol  Asiatic  Society, 
pp.  106—137- 

HIP,  or  EBP,  the  fnilt  of  tlie  rose.  It  is  almost 
always  red,  and  consiata  of  the  enlarged  fleshy  tnbe 
of  Oie  calyx  filled  with  bard  seed-like  luJugnia, 
which  are  surrounded  with  bristly  hairs  {sela).  The 
fleshy  eoverins  contains  mucilage,  suear,  gum,  malic 
and  citrio  acids,  tannin,  resin,  and  a  number  of 
■alts.  The  seta  excite  itching  in  the  skin.  The 
fleshy  part  of  hips,  beaten  to  a  pulp,  and  preserved 
with  sugar,   finoa  a  place  in   (  ' 


th«  irritating  setee.  The  hips  of  different  spetnes  of 
rose  ara  almoet  indiscriminately  used.  In  aome 
parts  of  Europe,  hips  are  preserved 
artiiJe  of  food,  or  are  dried  and  nsi 
Btews,  the  ocluenia  and  setae  being 
tliia  purpoee,  the  la>^  soft 
hips  of  the  Apple  Bcse  [Sota 
pomifera)  are  preferred, 

HIP,  in  Architecture,  the 
rafter  at  the  angle  where 
two  sloping  roofa  meet.  A 
roof  is  called  a  hipped  roof  Hip. 

when    the    end    is    sloped 
upwards  so  as  to  form  a  hip  on  each  side  (see  fig.). 

HIP-JOINT,  is  a  baU-and-socket  joint  formed 
by  thcTaception  of  the  globular  head  ot  the  thigh- 
bone (or  femur)  into  the  deep  pit  or  cup  in  Uie 
o»  innominatum,  which  is  known  aa  the  aaliAultim 
(so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  vinegar 
cupa  used  by  Uie  Romans).  If  the  variety  of  the 
movements  of  this  joint — viz.,  flexion,  extension, 
abdnction,  adduction,  and  rotation  inwards  and 
outwarda,  and  at  the  same  time  its  great  stteneth 
are  considered,  it  may  well  claim  to  be  regordedas 
the  most  perfect  joint  in  the  whole  body. 

The  reader  will  form  a  t(Jerably  dear  conception 
of  the  relative  forms  of  the  acetabnlum  and  the 
head  ol  the  thigh-bone  from  a  glanoe  at  the  figure, 
in  which  the  surrounding  parts  are  cut  away,  and 


nnder  the  name  of  Conserve  of  HIpe  iCotuerva  Rokb 
FruMt,  Confictio  Bovx  CaniniE,  tie.).     It  is  slightly 
1  astringent,  and  is  often  used  as  a 
a  lor  other  medicines.     Hips  —•— 


refrigerant  a 
vehicle  or  bi 


tfaeir  action  is  pnrely  n 


Hip-]iant: 
1,9,  l,prMa  lljunanti;  4,  9,  tha  gnoUr  and  leu 
iHhUUn  (brUDlna ;  «,  Uw  nl^lold  Ugunent  i  7,  (I 


the  thigh-bone  ia  drawn  out  of  Its  socket.  The 
liaaments  ore  usually  described  as  five  in  number — 
VIZ.:  1.  The  capsular;  2.  The  iliofemoral;  S.  The 
ttru  or  Tonnd;  4  The  cotyloid:  and  6.  The  trans- 
verse. Of  these,  the  capmdar  ligament,  supposed 
to  be  removed  in  the  figure,  is  the  most  important, 
and  extends  from  the  edge  of  the  cap  to  the  droum- 
ference  of  the  neck  upon  which  the  ball  ia  carried, 
encloeing  the  bony  ports  in  a  strong  sheath.  The 
ilio-femoral  is  merely  an  accessory  tiand  of  flbres 
which  give  increased  thickness  to  the  capsular  liga- 
ment in  front,  where  strength  ia  specially  required. 
The  great  use  of  the  capsular  liniment  ia  to  limit 
the  extension  of  the  hip-joint,  and  thus  io  nve 
steadiness  to  the  erect  posture.  The  only  other 
ligament  requiring  notice  is  the  L.  tent,  or  round 
ligament,  which  is  in  reality  triangular  mtlier  than 
round,  SAd  has  its  q>ez  attochad  to  the  bead 


T^^iOOgll 


mP-KNOB— HIPPOCAMPUS. 


of  the  thi^-bone,  irliila  iti  ban  is  connected  with 
the  CATity  of  the  ■ostAboluiiL  Iti  me  ii  noti  Teiy 
oleBTlj  known,  bat  probkblj  is,  to  limit  moroiumt 
in  one  direction.  It  it  lometiiaea  kbient  in  oMea 
in  whicli  tu>  *p*ctal  wmJuuu  of  the  joiat  wm 
obwrred  during  life,  »nd  it  of  by  no  muna  oon- 
ttuit  occnrrenoo  in  DUmlnldfl.  The  joiiit  il  much 
•trengthened  by  a  large  nDmbet  of  miroonding 
rniiMile^  aiHiia  m  which  are  of  ooniideiBble  power. 

In  nich  a  joint  aa  thia,  althonih  the  hgamanta 
materially  aaaiit  in  prevsntins  diilooation,  it  ia 
obrion*  that  the  arbonlar  nuStoai  oaonot,  onder 
ardiiwTy  micnmrtancea,  b«  kept  in  apportion  by 
tbem,  inumnoh  ••  they  nuut  b«  looae  to  their  whole 
dreomfiMtiM,  to  permit  of  the  genenJ  moreiaenti 
of  the  joint.    The  ezperiioeDti  of  Webtr  ihew  th«t 


abncapherio  preianre  ia  the  real  power  by  which 

when  the  mnadei  an  at  rest.  '  One  oouvincins 
•rpwimant  ia  eaailr  repeated— that,  namely,  ci 
>"'i<'"g  Dp  a  aide  of  the  pelm,  with  ita  appended 
Ivwer  axtramity,  the  joint  not  having  been  opened, 
and  tlMD  boring  a  hole  throagh  the  acetabulum,  to 
M  to  ftdmit  ur  into  the  jomt  when  the  weight 
of  the  limb  will  caute  it  to  drop  from  half  an 
inch  to  an  inch,  the  head  of  tiie  uiigh-bonc  being 
polled  ont  of  lie  acetabalam  aa  aoon  as  the  air  is 
peimitted  to  paai  between  the  artumlar  luifacea.' 
— Bninphiy  On  tJte  Human  Sideloa,  ji.  74, 

DiBUjsa  OP  TRB  HiF-joitrr.  Hip-dijieaae  differs 
in  to  many  pointa  of  importance  fnim  other  joint- 
ditaaiea,  and  it  so  tenotui  an  affeotion,  that  it 
reqoirea  a  ipecial  notice.  lit  connection  with 
•erofula  is  mora  diitinctly  marked  than  that  of  most 
other  joint-diaeases,  and  it  atmott  always  occnre 
before  the  age  of  puberty.  It  comet  on,  in  children 
or  young  penona  of  a  lorofnlouB  oonttitntion,  from 
very  slight  caoaei ;  thns,  it  is  often  traced  to  over- 
azertirai  in  a  long  walk,  a  sprain  in  jomping,  or  a 
&11 ;  and  in  many  catea  no  apparent  cauae  can  be 


subdued  without  any 
than  a  more  or  leat  rigid  joint.  UraaLy,  however, 
abflcessea  form  around  the  joint,  and  often  com- 
municate with  ita  interior ;  and  the  acetabnlum, 
and  the  ImmI  and  neck  of  the  thigh-bone,  become 
dicinte^Kted,  softened,  and  gritty.  In  a  still  more 
advanced  stage,  dislocation  oC  the  head  o^  the  thigh- 
bone commonly  occurs,  either  from  the  capsular 
ligamcmt  becoming  more  or  Leas  destroyed,  and  the 
head  of  the  bone  being  drawn  out  of  its  cavity  by 
the  action  of  the  mrrounding  musdca,  or  from  a 
fungous  moaa  spronting  up  from  the  bottom  of  the 
canty,  and  pushing  the  head  of  the  bone  befote  it. 

It  ia  of  extreme  importance  that  the  ^mptoma 
should  be  detected  in  an  early  stage  of  the  disease ; 
and  on  the  least  ntpidoa  of  this  joint  being 
affected,  tuwlcol  aid  should  at  once  be  sought. 

At  lie  duMBte  adTuaes,  absoesae*  (t-  -' 
mentioned)  ooonr  around  the  joint,  which  i 
bom  the  tennoD  they  exert  on  the  obturator  nerve, 
oecatiint  extreme  pain  in  the  inride  of  the  thi^ 
l^e  tbortening  of  the  limb  now  take*  place,  which 
at  the  Bune  tame  becomea  adduoted  ud  inverted. 
Vronk  this  at^e,  if  the  health  it  pretty  good,  and  the 
Innga  are  lound,  the  patient  may  be  to  fortunate  as 
to  reoover  with  an  anchyloaed  (or  immovable)  hip- 

Icint ;  but  the  [KobabiLtT  it  that  eihauttion  and 
lectic  will  come  on,  and  Uiat  death  will  snpervene, 
from  the  wasting  influence  of  the  ponUent  dieeharges 
occaaioned  1?  the  diseased  bone. 

The  duration  of  the  diaease  may  vary  frcon  two 
er  three  montha  to  tni  or  moro  yeart. 


At  the  treatanent  mutt  be  left  tntirelj  in  tfae 
hondi  oi  the  surgeon,  it  is  unneoessaiy  to  on'  mote 
than  that  the  ntost  important  points  are  ptrjtel  nd 
to  the  affi»cted  part,  which  nuiy  be  secured  by  a 
strong  leather  splint,  or  by  a  staiclt  handigv  the 
internal  administration  of  cod-liver  oil  and  *     ~~~ 


and  the  application  of  oounter-irritatioa  t^  mwitit 
of  an  ittne  behind  the  great  taochantar. 

HIP-KKOB,  an  onunneot  carved  in  ttona  «r 
wood,  set  on  tiie  *.vex  of  a  gable  or  hipped  rod,  aad 
forming  a  kind  of  finial  (q.  v.). 

HIPPA'BCHUS,  the  fint  systematic  Mtronomer 
on  record,  was  bom,  according  to  Strabo,  at  NicKS, 
in  Bithynio,  about  the  beginning  of  the  2d  c.  >-  Q. 
Of  his  personal  history,  nothing  is  known.  Aooord. 
ing  to  ^abricdiu,  H.  wrote  nma  separate  work*, 
of  which  only  the  last  and  least  miportant,  A 
Commmttuy  on  AftUiit,  bos  come  down  to  m.  nie 
other  worl^  treated  of  astronomy  and  geegr«phy. 
The  only  authority  we  have  regarding  t£e  dm- 
coveriee  made  by  H.  it  the  BuiUaxu  at  Ptotony, 
and  from  it  we  learn  that  E.  oltoovend  the  '  pre- 
ceeaion  of  ilie  equinoxes,'  detarmined  the  {lace  of 
the  equinox  among  the  ttar^  establithed  the  acdar 
and  Inoot  theories,  invented  the  Astrolabe  (q.T.), 
and  drew  up  a  catalogue  of  upwards  of  1000  atars, 
determining  the  longitade  and  latitude  ol  each.  Aa 
Ptolemy  was  alio  an  astronomer,  there  is  Mne 
difficulty  in  allotting  to  each  his  meed  of  pnuse  for 
the  discoveries  mentioned  in  the  SjpUaxu,  irtiich 
difficulty  haa  given  riae  to  much  diacuasicn,  neult- 
ing  in  favour  of  the  claims  of  Hipparchus.  See 
Delambre'i  Eitlom  de  VA^ronomU  Amiaaa  (Paris, 
1817). 

HIPPOBOSOID^  8m  Fokist  Fly  aad 
SrniEit  Flt. 

HIPPOCA'MFTIS,  a  genus  of  Osseowi  Yi^tm,  of 
the  order  iiopAoinuKin  (q.  v.l,  end  of  ttie  fsmily 
Sj/ngnaiiida  (see  Pm-nsH),  bf  tome  natoraliata 
made  the  type  of  a  separate  family,  Btppoean^nda, 
remarkably  diitinguiibed  by  the  prehentile  tail, 
which  ia  tapering,  and  quite  destitute  of  fin.    TIw 


Bippociunpiui  Brevirootrii. 

spedea,  which  are  not  very  numerous,  but  aome 
of  which  ore  found  in  the  seaa  of  all  parte  of  the    I 
world,  oro  flshea  of  very  extraordinary  form  and 
habita.     They  have  the  jaws  united  uid  tubular,    ; 
OS  in  tile  pipe-fishea ;  the  body  ooMpwaeed,  abort,    > 
and  deep;  the  whole  length  M  the  body  and  tail 
divided  by  longitodinal  and  tMOtrene  ridgei,  with    \ 
tuberclea   at   their  intetaeotiona.     The   aeiJea  ar«    j 
ganoid,   olothing   the  whole   body  in    a   kind  of 
ocmonr.    The  malea  have  pooelwa  on  the  tail,  in 


tyCUUglf 


fflPTOOBAS-mPPODAMlA. 


I  «gBB  M«  OMriid  tin  they 
ir  appetntiM^  Umm  flihss  iam  raoeiTed 
of  BKA-Bosaa.  Ther  iwim  in  k  nrtaeal 
■ad  an  khnyi  nuy  to  entwine  tiieir 
■  anmAd  »tm  w»Bd«,  or  BTBn  with  one  another. 
\j  an  ▼*«y  intenflliiia  objscta  in  an  unsdign. 
I  apeciN,  £r.  traririMMf,  is  ocxaaionallj  found  on 
■hares  of  BittuB,  putianltrlf  in  Uie  Mnth.— H. 
liB  QndkiL  nnthologr  wu  »  M*-hone— hiU  flih, 
F  hqr»e— whhA  Mrnd  Poaaidott  (N^Flam). 
_  HTPPOOUB,  an  aionatw  mediiMtad  wins, 
'in  thi*  Moatrjri  and   atill 


■xslyj 


It  WM  dottbtLNt 


of  Chow7  wiA^    _. 
wen  diratMl  in  the 
after  i^qhlttraa  tb 
half  of  loBW-aBgar 
IB  adjnit*Us  oordia 


tlao  a  diysiciaii,   ud  belonged  to  the  family  of 
tin  AideiaadK,  iie  nbject  of  tiie  present  notice 

k.; »»._  the  19th  or  the  17th  in  descent  from 

-  , —  Sis  mother'!  name  wm  Phwnftrete, 
who  waa  aaid  to  be  deewnded  from  HemJea.  He 
waa  botn  in  the  iiUnd  of  Coe,  probablj  about  the 
yev  480  b.o.  Ee  i«  aald  to  have  been  imrtTOOted 
In  medlcioe  hjr  )ii>  father  and  by  HerodicDS,  and 
In  pUlaaMhy  by  OorgiBa  of  Leontini,  the  cele- 
brated lo^iiat  Mkd  DcmocritaB  of  Abtbira,  whooe 
cnrB,  whoi  anbotad  by  madnA  be  aftarwatda 
aKetsd.  After  apending  aome  tune  in  tnrelUDD 
thronrili  dlflteant  parts  i^  Graece,  be  aettled  and 
mactbed  Ua  profodoii  at  Co^  and  finally  died  at 
uiiaa,  in  TfaewJy.  Bii  age  at  the  time  of  hit 
duQ)  ia  nscerhun,  and  is  itated  by  difFerent  ancient 
anthon  to  har«  been  8S,  SO,  IM,  and  109  jeara. 
Clinton  {fatti  Sm  ^aoea  hi*  death  3GT  B.a,  at 

liat  he  waa  Highly 
anthoT,  and  tluit  he 


it  hia  per- 
iteemed  U 
raised  the 

__    ___   ._  _  very  high  repatation. 

Hia  worka  wen  studied  and  quoted  by  Flato. 
Virions  storleA  an  reoordcd  of  him  by  Greek 
writen^  which  an  undoubtedly  fkbnloot,  and  to 
which  It  ia  tbet«fn«  nnneoeisat;  to  advert :  and 
we  find  lecenda  ngwdina  him  in  Uie  works  of 
jjabio  wii&in^  who  term  blm  '  Bobit,'  while  Mm. 
I  smpeau  ctorj-tellen  of  the  noddle  mm  celebrate 
mm  under  the  name  of '  Ypooraa,'  kn^  in  defiance 
I  of  ehnDology,  make  Um  protaaaoT  of  medlotne  at 
B<nie,  with  »  nnihew  of  wondrous  medical  skill, 
:   wtiom  he  daapatoSed  In  hia  own  stead  to  the  king 


[imgBry. 
M  worka 


^  eomieeted  with  ancient  medkal  writer*.'  ^. 
w*nhm  diridM  the  Hippooratio  CoUaetlon  into 
^t  claaseL  o(  which  we  need  apedfy  only  two. 
^r  etttTenlence,  we  give  the  Latin  Inatead  d  the 

CIaM/.~Woriu  eertabUj/  written  by  H.,  containing 
^«V>iMriai;  Aphorttial;  Dt  MmiU  PopviaHbu*; 
^  italiaw  F&us  te  MoihU  Ae>M»;  £>e  Aire. 
'V^  « lodi;  Kid  D4  CigytUi  VutntrOtu.  aome 
?"yt  crilifa  doubt  the  gennineneaa  of  *ome 
fvm  of  the  Apkuirmi,  the  work  fay  which  H. 
■>  iBMt  pc^nlady  known. 


C^am  II. — Worka  ptrftap*  written  by  ffippoeiatea. 
These  are  eleven  in  number,  and  one  of  tAem  is  tiie 
well-known  Jtujvrandmn,  or  '  Hippootatio  ObI^l' 

The  others  oonsist  of  works  written  before  K; 
work*  whose  author  it  oonjectnfed ;  works  by 
quite  unknown  autioii ;  and  wiUul  forgeries. 

For  anything  like  a  hill  aocount  of  his  views,  we 
must  refer  to  fite  variow  wtlt«t  irtto  have  treated 
of  tfaa  histofy  «1  tnedidnch  We  oan  hera  only 
BentaoB  that  he  difidaa  tbe  canaes  of  dissMs  into 
two  prindpa)  olaaseai  the  first  oonsiBting  of  the 
'-" Of  aaai 


uetpaotanti 
rttenfacw  to  d 


and  tbe  aaoand  ol  more  pctaonal  eauau  auoh  aa 
the  food  and  exerdae  of  the  individual  patient. 
Hia  belief  in  the  infliiMWt  whitdi  different  Himatna 
aiart  OD  the  human  omatitution  ia  vary  iteong^ 
•xpnaaed.  He  asaribas  to  this  influanoe  both  ue 
oonfomiation  of  the  body  and  the  disposition  dl  the 
■kind,  and  heDoe  aocounta  for  tiia  difiannoea  between 
the  hardy  Greek  and  the  Ajutio.  The  four  fimd* 
or  hnmoui*  of  the  body  (bkwd,  pUegm,  yellow  bile, 
and  blaok  blia)  wra«  ngarded  In  him  aa  UM  primary 
seata  of  diaeaae;  health  wm^m  raault  of  ^  due 
combination  <or  enub)  of  thcaa,  and  iUneM  waa  Uie 
oooaeqaanoe  en  a  diatBrbaaoa  of  thia  oaidk  Wben 
a  tlieeaao  waa  prooeeding  favoanb^,  theae  hunoun 
underwant  BDertain  change  (or  cocMofi),  which  waa  tlie 
sign  of  returning  health,  aa  preparing  the  way  ba 
the  espulaioaef  morUdmattatiOrcrtn^theaeori— * 
' — ' —  -  ' — ■* — -  ■--  — —  -\  definite  paic 
days.'  His  trf 
cautiaua,  and  whai  we  now 
it  I  it  ooBBiBted  chisfly  and  often  aolely 
>  diet  and  ngiinan ;  and  ho  waa  aome- 
re^oaohed  with  Mtdna  his  pati^ts  die  by 
doing  nirthing  to  kttp  Uiem  alive. 

The.  worka  of  H.  wen  tnuulated  at  an  early 
period  into  Arabio.  They  wen  first  printed  in  a 
lAtia  tranalation  in  lO&S  at  Btnnb  The  firat  Greek 
edition  (the  Aldtne)  appeared  tbe  following  year  at 
Venioe ;  an  edttJco  It  Mercurialis  wpeared  in  1088, 
one  by  7o«sina  in  IMS,  and  one  W  Van  dcr  Linden 
(stall  mnoh  esteemed)  in  1665.  Other  edition*  have 
sppaared  under  the  editonliip  of  Chartier,  Eahn, 
fell.  The  latest,  and  iaoompanbly  tiie  beet  edition, 
ia  that  of  Littre,  in  10  volnmee,  the  Siat  of  which 
appeared  in  18S9,  and  the  last  in  1861.  An  edition 
l^  Unnerins,  with  a  Latin  translation,  is  now  in 
course  of  publicatiou  at  tJtreoht,  at  the  expense  of 
Um  univarB^  of  Amstvdam.  The  Latin  title  run* 
m  foUowa :  S^)poeratii  et  alioniM  Mtdmnan 
vsUnan  S^Cquia.  E^dit  Franeiieu*  Zadarias 
UrmerilM.  Tliefitat  three  volnmee  appeared  between 
ISH  and  1863.  An  excellent  English  tnmslatira 
of  3^  Oaadne  Work*  itf  H^>po(Tata  was  pabliehed 
in  1849,  In  2  vok.,  bv  the  late  Dr  Adams,  under 
the  atuploea  of  the  Bydenham  Society. 

HIPFOOKVUa  (derived  from  Mvpot,  a  hoiae, 

id  irM^  a  fowataU)  ia  a   fountain   aa   Mount 

HdiwMi,  abost  SO  stadia  above  tbe  giwa  of  the 

Hnaea,  and,  aoeoiding  to  the  mythioal  acooont,  was 

'  by  a  stroke  from  ue  hoof  tA  tbe  horse 

1-  v.).    It  waa  aacred  to  the  Uoaee.    In 

times,  Boma  have  attempted  to  idantUy  it 


it  tn«baUy  oc 
HIPPODAMI'A,  the  beauttfol  daughter  of  (Eno- 


be  alain  by  his  futun  Bon-in-law:    he    theroEora 
stipulated  that  every  suitor  of  hi*  danghter  should 

■----■ -wtth  TihTi,  and  that  death  should 

e  of  defeat.    Thirteen,  or,  as  some 

suitors  bad  already  been  conouerad 

alain,  when  Felopa  came  to  Lydla.     Felopa 


-.Google 


HIPPODSOME— HiraOLYTUS. 


bribed  Uyitiliu,  the  king'a  charioteer,  and  thus 
mcceeded  in  teaching  the  RC^  before  {Enomana, 
who,  in  despair,  killed  hinueS.  H.  became  the  wife 
of  Pelopa,  and  the  mother  of  Atreoa  and  Thyeateo. 
She  afterwanJe  degtryyei  bereelf  from  grief,  at  being 
reproached  with  hjmng  led  her  Bona  to  mnrder  each 
other. 

Hl'PPODROME  (Or.  ^ipot,  a  hone,  and 
dromoa,  a  race-ooorae),  the  Greek  name  for  the 
place  art  apart  for  hoise  and  chariot  raoea.  Ita 
dimenaioDa  were,  aocordins  to  the  oonunon  opinion, 
half  a  mile  in  length,  and  one-eidith  of  a  mile  in 
breadth.  In  oonatruction  and  all  important  pointB 
of  amusement,  it  waa  Qm  countmpart  <M  the 
Bjimjti  Cinma  jq.  v.),  with  the  exoeption  of  the 
of  the  chariots  at  the  atarting-place^ 


In  the  hippodrome,  the  cbariota  were  arranged 
aa  to  form  two  aides  of  an  iaoaceles  triangle,  with 
^e  apex  towarda  the  goal  and  a  little  to  tae  right 
aide.  Bnt  aa  thia  woi^  have  given  the  chariots  on 
the  left  side  a  longer  coarse  than  those  on  the  right, 
the  hippodrome  waa  conatmcted  with  l^e  nght 
aide  longer  t^n  the  other  (see  figure  of  Cihcob). 
The  start  waa  effected  by  setting  free  the  chariot 
on  the  extreme  right  and  left^  a^  when  they  came 
Of^KMite  the  next  two,  by  settme  them  free  ajao^  and 
•o  on  tin  all  woe  in  motaisi.  TbB  hippodrome  waa 
also  nnch  wider  than  the  Boman  dnnia,  to  allow 
room  for  the  greater  number  of  chariota,  tor  thbngh 
ire  haTe  no  preciBe  information  aa  to  the  nnmber 
that  oaaaDj  atarbsd  in  one  race,  we  know  that 
Aloibiadee  on  one  occaaion  aent  seven ;  Sophocles 
mentionB  ten  chariots  aa  competing  at  the  Pfthian 
games ;  and  t^  nmnber  at  the  Olpnmo  games 
muat  have  been  coiuddeiably  greater.  There  ia  a 
beantifnl  description  of  a  chuiot-tace  in  Homer 
{Iliad,  xiiji.  262-650).  The  goldeD  age  of  the 
uppodrome  was  during  the  Lower  G}re^  Empire. 
The  Blue  and  Green  faotJonn  in  the  hippodrome 
carried  their  animoBty  into  all  departmanta  of  the 
public  lerrice,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
perpetnal  disimion  which  rendered  the  Byzantine 
empire  a  prey  to  every  aggwsaor. — The  tenn  Hippo- 
drome bu  been  given  to  a  arena  cenatmcted  in 
1845  at  Paris,  and  abo  to  a  large  Geld  in  the  plain 
of  Longchamp,  near  Bonlogne,  used  aa  a  race-cotu-ae. 

HI'PPOGRIFF,  or  HIPPOGRyPH  (Gr.  h^pos, 
a  horae,  and  grypK-,  griffin),  a  fabnloas  anmtal, 
which  haa  been  represented  aa  a  wineed  hoiae,  with 
the  head  of  a  griffin.  The  hippogriu  figures  largely 
in  the  Orlando  Furioso  of  Arioeto. 

HIPPO'LTTUS,  the  name  of  aevend  saints  and 
martyrs  ol  the  early  ohurdh,  among  whom  the  chief 
interest  is  concenb«ted  opon  one  who  ia  believed 
to  have  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  3d  c,  to 
have  been  Bishop  of  Portus,  near  Borneo  "~^  '" 


have  suffered  n 


rtyidra 


mderAli 


ander  Severus. 


All  the  facts  connected  with  the  history  _  .  _. 
saint  have  long  been  1^  subject  of  moch  donbt 
and  controratay  ;  and  the  intereet  of  the  diacnsBion 
haa  been  much  heightened  of  late  yeara  by  the 
discovery  of  a  very  coriona  and  important  work, 
certtunly  of  the  age  of  the  anppoaed  H.,  and  calco- 
laled,  if  a  genuine  work  of  that  author,  to  throw 
a  nuwt  curiooa  light  upon  tlie  early  hiatory  of  the 
chorch.  The  woA  in  qaeetion  was  one  of  several 
Greek  MSS.  obtained  at  Mount  Athos  in  1842,  by 
M.  Menai,  an  agent  of  the  French  government,  and 
was  published  in  IS61,  at  the  expense  of  the  univer> 
sity  of  Oxford,  to  which  it  waa  recommended  aa 
a  work  of  exceeding  interest  for  the  hiatory  of  the 
early  church,  by  hL  Emmanoel  Miller,  who  nnder- 


firat  to  conjecture  that  the  tme  author  was  H., 
but  he  was  mistaken  as  to  the  particular  work  at 
H.,  vrtiich  ha  took  it  to  be;  sjid  for  a  time  the 
question  of  the  authorship  remained  in  much  oncer- 
tainty.  Some  critics  atdl  adhered  to  the  opinion 
that  the  author  waa  Origen ;  some  aacribed  the 
work  to  the  Roman  priest  Caiua  ;  otiicrs,  again,  to 
Tertnllian ;  and  othan,  ill  fine,  to  some  unknown 
Novatian  heretio.  The  result  of  the  discuamon, 
however,  seema  to  be,  that  althoo^  Bnnsen  waa 
mistaken  in  anmweiag  thia  treatise  to  be  a  work 
of  H,  which   Photiaa   "--   "- — '"' '""'- 


'lilfU 


%otiaa   haa   described  aa  a 

"  ,'  by  liiat  author,  yet  it  ia 
in  reaUty"B  larger  tnaSte  on  the  same  snt^ect  and 
by  the  same  author. 

There  still  remained,  however,  a  further  qneation, 
namely,  Who  is  the  H.  who  ii  to  be  r^arded  aa  the 
author  T  'Withont  reckoning  many  later  saints  of 
that  name,  Dr  DSUinger,  &  his  Hif^polytu*  vnd 
KaHutai,  enmnerate*  lA  least  six  oontemporaneoos, 
or  nearly  contemporaneous,  with  the  supposed  B. 
of  Portiuu  It  must  soMce  to  state,  that  althongh 
not  absolutely  certain,  the  opinion  Uiat  the  au^Kir 
of  the  PhUoioipha'auTia,  waa  the  H.  already  known 
in  the  ancient  church  as  a  writer  and  aa  a  martyr, 
has  met  with  almost  universal  acceptance. 

From  the  autobiographical  details  contained  in 
the  treatise,  added  to  the  particnlars  already  known, 
we  learn  that  thia  H.,  the  time  and  place  of  whose 
birth  are  uncertain,  was,  about  the  year  218, 
Bidiop  of  PortoB,  near  Ostia,  a  suburban  aee  of 
Bome,  and  aa  Bach,  a  member  of  the  eccleoiastical 
council  of  that  city.  Thia  fact  receives  a  very 
deoisivB  confinnatioa  from  a  atatoe  discovered  in 
Kome  in  1561,  inscribed  with  the  name  of  H.,  the 
title  ofhiasee,  '  Portuensia,'  and  the  paschal  oycle  of 
which  B.  is  known  to  have  been  the  aathor.  In 
the  persecution  of  Marinun,  23S,  H.  waa  exiled 
to  the  island  of  Sardinia,  from  which  he  was 
permitted  soon  afterwards  to  return ;  but  in  a  new 
outbreak  of  the  persecution,  he  was  put  to  death, 
probably  in  238.  Probably,  from  the  connection  of 
his  see  with  the  Boman  Church,  H.  took  an  active 
part  in  the  afi^ira  of  that  church,  and  placed 
himself  in  violent  oppositjoa  to  the  Bishop  CaUistaB, 
whom  he  denounces  in  the  treatise  in  the  most 
unmesaured  terms,  both  sa  to  his  private  character 
and  his  public  administration,  aa  a  person  of  most 
diereputable  antecedents,  aa  well  as  criminally 
lax  m  the  government  of  the  church,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  administration  of  penance,  a£ber  his 
election  to  the  see.  The  tone  which  he  adopts 
towards  the  Boman  bishop,  indeed,  is  so  dia- 
reepectfa]  aa  to  appear  to  the  Protestant  critics 
a  clear  and  conclnaive  evidence  that,  in  the  chnrcli 
of  the  3d  c,  that  bishop  cannot  have  possessed  the 
supremacy  which  the  advocates  of  the  papal  pre- 
tenaiotia  ascribe  to  him.  It  is  difScuIt,  in  troth, 
to  conceive  any  bishop  in  the  modem  Boman 
sjntem  addressing  the  pope  in  each  terms  aa  those 
which  H  applies  to  Calliatus. 

The  Boman  Catholic  critics  reply,  that  the  very 
violence  of  the  language  employed,  and  the  unacru- 
puloQS  nature  of  the  imputations,  contun  their 
refutation ;  and  they  contend  that  no  argument 
be  founded  on  H.'s  opposition  to  the  authority 
of  the  Boman  bishop,  inasmuch  aa  not  only  the 
oinniona  expressed  in  thia  very  treatise,  but  alao 
the  direct  testimony  of  Prudentina  (Hynm  xi  v. 
170—180),  shew  him  to  have  been  tainted  with 
the  Novatian  heresy,  or  rather,  although  somewhat 
earlier,  with  the  same  opinions  which  in  Kovatus 
were  condemned  as  heretical,  and  which  eventuated 
in  the  Novatian  schiam.  The  validi^  of  thia  plea, 
however,  is  atrongly  oontroverted  by  Bunsen.  The 
woAs   of   H.,  whtdt   are   ntuneroos,   and  which 


t.LiOogle 


HIPPOMAHE— HIPPOPOTAMTja 


dopiutic&l,  ezegetical,  uaetdc,  and  dirono- 
logiial  treatuea,  -were  £nt  pablished  in  a.  collected 
fonn  by  Fabrieiua,  at  Harobore,  1718—1711  They 
are  also  found  in  the  Becond  volume  of  QaUsudui.— 
See  Buneen's  ffippolylut  and  At*  Age 
ed.  18S4) ;  Miller't  OrigeBia  Pluioio^tiiitena  (O^ord, 
1861);  JiQ\^^tHippolytKtv.ndKaiiulMt{Rt,maiA- 
borg,  1853) ;  Wordsworth's  St  Mippo^/ttu  and  lAt 
Ohunh  o/a>me  m  tAe  TMrd  Centiay  (Loud.  1853). 

HITPOMANB.    See  MiucHrarai. 

HI'PPOPHAB.     See  Sau/jw-thork. 

HIPPO'PHAOI  ('eaten  of  horae-fleih,'  from 
Gr.  Aippot,  a  hotse,  and  piiagein,  to  eat),  acoording 
to  tbe  sccounta  of  tbe  old  geogTaphers,  were  a 
Scythum  people,  livias  north-east  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  where  nwju,  at  tEe  preeent  day,  tlie  Kalmuck 
hordes,  who,  tetainiug  all  the  peciUisritiea  of  the 
old  Scythians,  still  regard  hoiae-flesh  as  a  dainty. 
Id  Europe,  repeated  attempt*  have  been  made  id 
modem  times  to  introduce  the  practice,  which  has 
even  been  defended  on  economical  grounds,  but  as 

St  they  have  failed  to  create  a  public  Uute  for 
rae-flesh. 

HIPPO  PO'TAMUS  (Gr.  river-horae),  a  genus  of 
paohydeimatoos  qoadrnpeda,  constitating  a  family 
by  itself,  and  of  which,  nntil  veiy  recently,  only  one 
spedea  wat  known  sa  now  entting,  although  the 
fosail  remains  of  others  indicate  the  greater  abond- 
ance  and  wider  distribution  of  &e  form  in  other 
periods  of  the  earth's  history.  The  Lu^est  and  b^t 
known  species,  H,  ampAittiM,  is — or,  within  hist«ric 
periods,  has  been—foond  in  almost  all  parts  of 
Africa,  to  which  quarter  of  the  globe  it  ia  entirely 
confined.  A  smaller  speoies,  S.  lAberieneie,  has 
recently  been  described  as  an  inhabitant  of  &e 
riven  of  Western  Africa  within  the  tropics,  and  is 
■aid  to  differ  remaricably  from  the  common  species, 
aod  from  all  the  foasil  epeciea  in  having  onfy  two 
incison,  instead  of  fonr,  in  the  lower  ]aw.  The 
common  H.  is  one  of  the  largest  of  eiistuiff  qnad- 
rapeds,  the  bulk  of  its  body  being  little  in^nor  to 
that  of  the  elephant ;  althongh  its"  ^s  are  so  short 
that  its  belly  almost  touches  the  ground,  and  its 
height  IB  not  much  above  fire  feet.  It  is  eitremdy 
aijaatic  in  ita  habits,  living  mostly  in  lakes  or 
rivers,  often  in  tidal  eatoariee,  where  the  saltness  of 
the  water  compels  it  to  resort  to  springs  for  the 
purpose  of  drinking,  and  aometimes  even  in  the 
sea,  althongh  it  never  proceeds  to  any  considerable 
xUstance  from  the  shore.  Its  skin  is  very  thick — on 
the  back  and  lidea,  more  than  two  incJies  ;  it  is  dark 
brown,  destitute  of  hair,  and  exudes  in  great 
abondaace  from  its  numerous  pores  a  thickish  oily 
'  [itly  lubricated. 
each  four  toes, 
nearly  equal  in  size,  and  hoofed.  The  neck  ia  short 
aad  thick.  The  head  ia  very  large,  with  small  eus, 
and  small  ejes  placed  high,  so  that  they  are  easily 
raised  above  water,  wiUiont  much  of  the  animal 
being  exposed  to  view.  The  muzzle  is  very  large, 
rounded,  and  tumid,  with  la^e  nostrils  and  great 
lips  ooncealing  the  large  front  teeth.  The  E.  cuts 
grass  OT  com  as  if  it  were  done  with  a  scythe,  or 


ponds  in  the  most  importent 
of  the  hog.  The  respiration  of  the  E.  is  slow,  and 
thus  it  is  enabled  to  spend  much  of  its  time  under 
water,  only  coming  to  the  surface  at  intervals  to 
breathe.  It  swims  and  dives  with  great  ease,  and 
often  walks  along  the  bottom,  oompletely  nuder 
water.  Its  food  conmsts  chiefly  ol  the  plants  which 
grow  in  shallow  waters,  and  about  the  margins 
of  lakes  and  rivers ;   and  it  probably  renders  no 


unimportant  service  in  preventing  slow  streams 
from  being  choked  np  by  tie  luiunance  of  tropical 
v^etation,  the  efisct  of  which  would,  of  course,  be 
an  increase  of  the  extent  of  swampy  land.  It  often, 
however,  leaves  the  water,  chiefly  by  night,  to  feed 
the  banks,  and  makes  inrcads  on   cultivated 

greBarioua 

herd   of  twenty  or  thirty   is  very  great, 

wherever  coltivation  extends,  war  is  waged  against 
the  E.,  and  it  disappears  from  regions  where  it 
formerly  abounded.  Thoa  it  is  no  longer  found  in 
Lower  Eg^t,  although  still  abundant  further  up 
the  Nile.  It  is  taken  in  pits,  which  are  digged  in 
its  usual  tracks ;  it  is  killed  by  poisoned  apears, 
is  pursued  by  means  of  canoes,  ie  harpooned, 
and  is  shot  with  ihe  rifle.  The  fleah  is  highly 
esteemed ;  the  fat,  of  which  there  is  a  -  thick  layer 
immediately  under  the  skin,  is  a  favourite  African 
delicacy,  and  when  salted,  is  k^iown  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  as  Zet-lcoe  speot— Uiat  is,  Lake-cow 
bacon.  The  tongue,  and  the  jelly  made  from  the 
feet,  are  also  much  prized.  The  hide  is  used  for  a 
variety  of  purposes ;  and  the  great  canine  teeth 
are  particularly  valuable  as  ivory,  and  are  a  very 
oonaiderabla  article  of  Africa 


Hippopotamos  (B.  otRfiftiAiiu]. 


Duuuna  Iimg  nnder  w 


t  only  it 


surface  when  another  breath 

The  feoiale  H.  may  sometimes  be  „ 

wiUi  her  young  one  on  her  back.  The  H.  is  gener- 
^y  inofiensive,  but  is  occasionally  roused  to  fits 
of  rage,  in  which  it  becomes  extremely  dangerous, 
particularly  to  those  who  pursue  it  in  boats.  The 
voice  of  tjie  H.  is  loud  and  harsh,  and  ia  likened  by 
Burckhardt  to  the  creaking  and  groaning  of  a  large 
wooden  door.  That  the  E.  ia  capable  of  being 
tamed,  and  of  becoroing  much  at^hed  to  man, 
has  been  sufficiently  proved  hj  the  inatances  of 
living  specimena  in  London  and  Paris.  The  first  E. 
brought  t«  Europe  in  modem  times,  a  young  ono 
from  the  HUe,  arrived  in  London  in  1850.  The  H., 
however,  sometimes  appeared  in  the  spectacles  of 
■  IS  ancient  Bomans.  It  is  very  generally  supposed 
I  be  the  Behemoth  of  the  book  m  Job. 
Fouil  tptcUi.— Some  six  species  of  H.  have 
been  descnbed  from  the  later  Tertiary  strata — the 
Pleiooeno  and  Pleistocene  of  LyalL  Xh^  occur  in 
fresh-water  marts,  and  in  the  bone-caves,  mto  which 
they  had  been  carried  for  food  by  the  carnivorous 
animals  that  osed  the  caves  as  dens.  One  species 
found  in  England  and  in  oonsiderable  abnidaiice 


t.Guu^U 


aiPPUIlIC  AOID— HISFAIIIA. 


in  Um  soutiiam  coimtriei  of  Bnrop^  wu  of  »  use 
u  mttoh  giMtar  tiua  tha  li*iiig  apMiMa,  u  ita 
cxtmpaiuaii,  tiie  mammoUi,  ma  grMter  than  U>« 

HIPPUTtIO  AOED  (0,,E,irO„HO)  ia  a  eom- 
poand  of  eraat  intarcat  both  to  the  ohomiit  and  to 
the  pliTiioIiigiEt.  It  derineitoiuHiiafromiti  haviitg 
been  fliH  diaoorated  in  the  vine  Ot  the  heme,  and 
that  fluid,  or  the  lanal  eearetioD  of  the  eow,  aSoida 
w  the  bMt  and  readiM  meMia  of  ohtaliiitig  it 
The  omtala  of  hiMnuie  add  am  modaratelj  large, 
oolonrkw,  hot  robseqiieBtlT'  beoonung  milk-wfaiM, 
toar-aided  nriama,  whioh  us  deroid  <a  odour,  but 
hare  a  ttinVj  bitter  taate.  Thej  diMolTe  nadO^  in 
Ixnling  vatw  and  in  ipirit,  but  an  onlf  ipatuigl; 
•okble  in  cold  water  and  in  ethar.  Ita  dianical 
bearinea  (hew  that  hipptirio  add  ia  IntinuitelT 
aawciMed  Mth  benzoio  acid  on  the  one  hand, 
and  iritli  glycine  (or  glytioocill)  on  the  other.  The 
acid  ii  a  piodnot  m  the  metamorphoaia  of  the 
bodily  titsaes,  eapeeiillj  of  harbiToioiii  aniautk. 
It  ia  a  nonnal  oonatitaiant  of  the  urine  of  the 
hone,  oaw,  dte^  goat,  hara,  ele^iant,  Ac;  and 
moat  nobaW  ia  to  bo  tonnd  in  the  nrina  of  all 
r^etable  feeoen.  In  the  hmnan  urine  of  healthy 
peiBOna  living  on  an  ordinaij  mixed  dis^  it  occnra 
m  ■nn  im^  quantity,  bat  it  ia  increBsed  by  on 
ezcloatTelf  regetaUs  diet,  and  in  the  well-known 


_. I  to  Uke  up  glycine 

or  t>ift  elamente  of  glycina  in  iti  paaaage  through 
the  ayitem,  and  thus  to  fonn  Uppnie  add,  which 
appean  ahnndantly  In  tha  Urine.  IDie  hippniic 
aoid  ODOmring  in  tha  ■ftiwial  organiiin  eziita  in 
comU&ation  with  baaaa,  and  ohie^  aa  hippnrate  of 
Boda  and  himnrate  of  UmtL  The  latt-named  lalt 
can  be  obtained  by  the  mere  evaporation  of  the 
orine  of  the  hone. 

HIFPUIUTII8,  a  teij  taaaAable  genu  of  foaail 
birah*  iheDf,  peovliai  to  tiM  Oretaoacnu  itnta,  and 
BO  abondaut  in  Km»  ot  the  Lower  Qkalk  bed*  of 
tha  P^^neM  and  other  plaoN,  that  the  Mriea  haa 
reoeived,  from  some  continental  geoIagiBtB,  the  name 
of  Hippiuite  Limestone.  The  external  form  of  the 
■hell  la  ao  anomaloiu,  that  the  genua  baa  be«n  toaeod 
abont  by  natuTaliita  in  an  eitnLOrdinary  manner ; 
acme  have  called  it  a  coral,  others  nit  annelid,  otheia 
a  balanna,  but  the  majority  bold  it  to  be  a  molluac, 
diilering  however,  among  themselvea  whether  it  ii  a 
braohiopod,  a  concliifer,  or  a  cephalopod.  The  true 
relation  of  the  genua  bus  been  lately  detenuined 
by  Mr  S.  P.  Woodward,  who  hal  publiBhed  a  full 
UBcription  of  ita  curioui  and  anoBialouB  structure 
in  the  Journal  qf  the  Otologicat  Soci«lv,  voL  xi.  p. 
40.  Bt  haa  ahewn  that  it  ia  a  lamellibranchiate 
moHoack  ^ta  lower  and  fixed  valve  ia  produced 
and  tuerinft  in  tome  spedea  reachii^  a  length  ot 
more  than  a  foot.  On  the  one  aids  are  three 
torrowi,  tepreeantisg  the  nphcnal,  mnacnhir,  and 
ligametdal  nfleotdone  of  the  ahelL  The  upper  and 
free  valve  formed  a  flat  covering  to  the  huge  lower 
valve.     Sixteen  epeoieB  have  been  detctibed. 

HIBIMO  ia  a  contaact  by  which  one  employs, 
for  •  limited  time,  aaothar*a  pfomtty  or  labour 
for  eoma  comddanitioB  or  rowaio.  Where  the 
thing  hired  ia  land  or  booaai,  tea  LantioaD  axb 
TBHAirr.  In  the  "— -  ' —  •-'-= — —  '^'-^ 
into— 1.  LoeaUo  fl  , 
LoetUio  opriM  /odsMi,  o.  .  . 
labour ;  8.  Loeatio  aatodia,  or  tha  h 
and  terrioea  to  be  performed  o 


Uiing  ddivered ;  <  Loeatic  ojmit  tMrdtUM  <tAm 
danm,  the  hiring  of  the  cairiaga  of  gooda  from  on* 
plaoe  to  anotlur.  Theae  jdiraaea  are  ttlll  aomatiBiee 
employed  both  in  tha  law  of  Bki^and  and  8oot- 
Und,  but  the  aubjeota  are  mwe  conYenienUy  treated 
under  other  head*  i  aae  Imr,  LoDanrag,  Saran^ 
OaxKina,  Qaartso.  Tha  vely  br«Doh  at  the  kib- 
jaot  whi^  ilOTi  te  tall  pKmer^iudcx  thia  head,  ia 
the  hiring  of  laak-wMk  or  fob-work  SometiBMi  it  la 
difficult  to  eatabliih  a  contract  ot  thia  kind,  but  in 
genial  there  mnat  be  either  an  ^preaa  or  implied 
contract  to  pay  for  tha  aervicea.  lima,  if  A,  aeeing 
B'b  hoiae  mnning  away,  at  tome  axpenaa  oatohta  it, 
and  brinp  it  bai^  to  B,  tha«  having  been  no      ~ 


bound  to  pay  A  f  or  bi* 
they  have  boeo,  nor  can  A  keep  B'b  horaa  till  inch 
axpenae*  are  paid.  So,  if  B  baa  d^ioeited  a  chattel 
with  A,  who  W  inotured  extiaordiiiary  expenae  in 
preaerving  it,  B  ii  not  bound  to  pav  anything  In 
the  Roman  law,  however,  and  in  the  law  of  ScoUanL 
A  oonld  ke«p  the  hone  or  ohattd  tQl  ha  wa«  repaid 
hiBatp«naea,orhecoaldtneBfbrtheaet  Inlbi^and, 
howevw,  there  mnat  at  least  be  aomo  imidiedreqneBt 
or  contract  When  a  perton  ia  hired  to  do  a  Qung 
in  a  given  time,  and  takaa  mneh  longer,  or  daviatea 
from  the  contract,  he  ia  nerert^daaa  mtitUd  to  be 
paid  for  hie  aervioaa,  for  the  conbact  ia  not  readndad 
on  these  gronnda,  iiiiliaB  thrae  waa  an  expraH 
itipulalaon  to  that  effect.  I>nrinB  tha  pragreaa  of 
1^  coalnct,  it  ia  aometimea  material  to  uiow  which 
of  the  [urtiea  been  tiie  loal  in  caae  id  fin.  It  ia 
difficult  to  lay  down  the  rule  in  auch  aaaea,  for 
everything  depend*  on  the  nature  of  the  oonttMfc 
Whoever  la  the  owner,  inlaw,  oi  the  material  at  tha 
tiaie>  bean  tha  loai  of  it  by  aa  aooideatal  flr^    I^ 


aalaottbe:     ,    _      _ 

iwed  on  them ;  and  in  oaaa  <A 
deatruotion  of  the  Bubieot  before  oomjdatien,  the 
loea  of  the  nuteriala  falla  oo  the  hirer,  Utd  the  loa* 
of  the  labour  falla  on  the  wmkman.  So  if  a  printer 
engaged  for  a  fixed  amn  par  ahaet  to  print  ftnd  com- 
plete a  book,  the  hirer  would  bear  tlia  acddental 
loBi  of  the  paper,  and  the  printer  the  loiB  at  hi* 
laboui  and  akilL  Mnob,  however,  depend*  in  all 
theae  caaea  on  the  termi  of  the  confaraot.  Whwe  * 
a  engage*  to  do  work,  he  impliedly  v 
reaionabU  ahiU,  othawit*k  if  the 


melatt^  he  etunot  reoovw  hi*  money.    In  the  oiaa 
of  Tobbery  while  fjpodi  are  in  the  hand*  of  a  wol- 
ffian to  work  np,  if  the  robbei7  raavlted  from  hia 
negl^enos,  '     ' 
ii    Cioaae 


k  up,lf  the  robbery  n 

le  baan  tiie  loaa.   8o  if  be  mm^  lo 


k  hon*  at  diattel  b 


on  the  owner  to  proY*  negligsoce  in  4Jm  Eireri  but 
in  Scotland  the  oontraiy  rue  ]n«vail*,  and  it  Be* 
on  the  hirer  to  prove  he  uaed  due  oaie, 

BI'KSCHBEKQ,  an  important  mannfacturing 
town  of  Pruaaia,  in  the  province  of  Sileaia,  ia  roman. 
tically  aituated  at  the  foot  of  a  moontain,  and  at 
tha  confluence  of  two  itream*,  the  Bober  and  the 
2acken,  30  miles  eonth-weirt  ot  LiegnitE.  The  town 
in  ancient,  and  ia  itill  girt  abont  by  a  double  line  oi 
watla.  It*  Protestant  cbnnih,  a  Gothic  ediflce,  is 
worthy  of  mention  for  its  bosnty,  its  magnitnde, 
and  its  excellont  ornn.    'B.   i*  'aa  oentie  ot  the 


diJrhTet '  Pop!  (1871)  11,78a 

HIBFArKIA,  tha  name  by  which  Spain  w«* 
known  to  the  Boman*.  According  to  W.  von 
Humboldt,  it  is  only  a  -"^■'It^  form  of  the  origiBal 
name,  wbuh  ha  dsrlva*  from  Etpana,  a  Baaqua 
word,  meaning  a  '  border'  or  '  limi^'  and  whUt  Im 


tyCUUl^lf 


mSPAKIOLA^HITOPADBSA. 


uodeivtauid*  to  implj  Out  the  ocnutij  f<nm«d  Qm 
mMgia  «l  BuoM  torwrda  the  We«tem  Ocean.  Of 
Che  other  Minean  BMUM  ^  tlte  ooontiy,  tiie  ohkf  an 
Iberia — the  common  derignaticm  MDOug  the  Qneka, 
•nd  believed  to  daiote  apaeially  the  Mgkoi  of  the 
Iberm  (modatn  Ebro) — md  Staptria,  on  aoeount 
of  Hiireateiii  dttutioiL 


before  the  tima  of  the  RomMM  Tbe 
oimqaeBta  of  the  Carthaeiniaiit  flnt  ezcitad  the 
mlann  <rf  the  Rotnanii,  and  led  to  tiie  atni^e  on 
Spaoiab  ami  of  tiwaa  two  great  rivaU.  The  tnomph 
of  the  Bomana,  >•  evmj  reader  knon,  waa  ulti- 
matd7  oomplete,  and  for  the  next  two  or  three 
oentonee,  theee  inclefatigable  eonqneron  set  them- 
•elree  to  the  thoroDKh  aobjogatioD  of  the  whole 
ooimtry.  This  wu  floaUy  effected  in  fhs  time  id 
AagaBtai,  who  alio  fonnoed  man;  Boman  nUea, 
adOTnad  with  iplandid  architaotnie,  anoh  al  Cmmmt 
Augoita  {ZarmoxaYi  Smerita  Angoata  (Jferida), 
Pax  Julia  (Btta),  Fax  Augiuta  {Bada^),  L^o 
VIL  Qemina  {Lton),  ko.  In  addition,  that  emperor 
complated  the  lystem  of  militarf  Toade  acroei  the 
penuunila— one  of  the  great  featiuea  of  Boman  con- 
tmeat  erer;whei«— b^un  as  eaily  m  134  b.  a,  and 
thna  tiirew  open  Spam  from  end  to  end ;  ao  that 
gT«at  nnmber*  of  Bomana  flocked  into  the  oonntry, 
and  •ettling  time,  mixed  wHh  and  modified  the 
Dative  Iben,  aome  U  whom  complete!;'  adc^ted 
Bomau  habtte,  and  were  apoken  ol  aa  Togati. 

To  what  ttoid:  of  the  human  familv  the  old  Iberi 
of  H.  belonged,  ia  one  of  the  cmatltontt  VBcata  of 
snentiflo  etSnographj,  lliat  tliey  ars  re^eoented 
in  modem  tinua  Dy  the  Baaqnea  (g.v.)  ia,  how- 
ever, nnivenaUr  admitted.  Nisbnhr  Wda  that  H. 
waa  originally  divided  ai 
and  tii«  Iberi,  fromi 
Cdtiberi  (q.v.).  The 
ever,  both  in  ancient  and  modem  timaa  ia,  that  the 
Oelto  were  not  eqnallv  aborinnal  with  Ou)  Iberi, 
bnt  inradera  from  (Daol;  and  tnat  tiisy,  rather  than 
the  Iberi,  were  victorioua  in  the  etrife  that  enaoed. 


HISPANiaLA  (Little  Spain). 
ELur,  and  Haiti. 

mSTOXOOT  (derived  from  the  Greek  worda 
Awtoa^awebor  taxtare,  and  fo|KM,  a  diaconne)  ia  the 
adence  which  daaaifiei  and  deacribea  the  atrncttind 
or  morpholodcal  elementa  which  exiat  in  the  aolids 
and  ftoida  ol  organiaed  bodit«.  It  ta  identical  or 
nearly  ao  with  general  minute  anatomy  and  with 
mioMeeopio  anatomy.  ABhongh  ita  origin  may  be 
traced  to  the  times  of  Malpighi  (1628—1694),  who 
diacoveted  the  blood  conmadee,  and  of  Leawenhoek 
(1632—1723),  who,  with  comparatively  imperfect 
optic^  meana,  added  much  to  onr  knowledge  of 
the  minnte  stractiire  of  the  tdnnea,  it  never  made 
any  definite  progre—  till  th6  aecond  deoenmoni  of 
the  pnaent  century,  when  the  compound  mioKMOope 
b^Mi  to  aaanme  ite  preaent  improved  fram.  It  waa 
by  me«na  of  thia  miCTOaoomco-chemioal  amninatiM) 
that  the  atmotnre  of  the  different  bon^taaenea  waa 
flnt  deariy  exhibited,  and  it  waa  thoa  proved  that 
naUa,  coVa  hont,  and  whalebone  are  aimilarly  ocm- 
posed  of  aggregationa  of  individnal  eella.  Aiatn,  io 
Hia  investigation  of  the  nervoitB  tiaine,  and  of  many 
other  atmctore^  chemistry  and  the  microacope 
have  beat  most  naefoBy  combined. 

During  the  laat  quarter  of  a  century,  no  depart- 
ment of  medical  acienoe  haa  made  BDck  lapid 
pognaa  aa  hiatology.  In  OermiOT,  it  haa  been 
aacceeafuUy  ooMvated  by  Schwann,  Hewie,  Talmtin, 
Ramak,  Elfllike^  Virchow,  Lcydig,  Fr«y,  and  a  host 
of  othera,  acarce^  leaa  dictingmahed ;  in  Holland,  it 
haa  been  activdy  proaaentBd  W  DondenL  Hajting 
and  othera ;  Lebnl,  Mandl,  Bolin,  and  oUm>%  bare 


oontribnted  to  tbe  Vna^  literature  of  the  anbjeot ; 
irikila  ammigrt  onr  own  oonnbyman,  the  namea  of 
Todd  and  Bowman,  of  Qoodair,  Qoaaket^  J.  E. 
Bennett,  Lookhatt  Cla^  and  Beale,  dsaerve 
honourable  notioeL 


otty  of  tiiat  nama. 

It  ia  estimated  to  contain  abont  ISM  bonaea,  and 
ia  remarkable  for  the  fonntatna  of  bftmnen  in  the 
nei^boorhood,     Theae  foimtalna  or  pita  are  aa 


nugbbooriiood,     Theae  nmntalna  or  pita  are  aa 
abundantiv  produotiv«  at  Ota  preaairt  day  aa  th«7 
wen  inUB  earliest  agea.      nom  them  tatumea 
great  qnantt^,  and 


-  agea. 
and  nafditiia  are  obtiuned 


and  figured  under  Kiror. 

HITOHCOOK,  EtnVAKD,  D.D.,  IJi-D.,  an  emi- 
nent American  noI^iaL  bom  at  Deerfleld,  Miani 
ohuietta,  United  Statea,  Uay  24,  17B3,  vaa  bead  of 
the  aoademyinhia  native  place,  1815— 1818 ;  paatorof 
the  Congregational  ohorcn  at  Oonway,  1821 — 1825 ; 
profeaior  ofchemiatQr  and  natural  hiatoiy  in  Amheiat 
College,  I82&— 184G;  principal  and  profeaaor  of 
natural  theology  uid  geuogy,  1845 — ISH;  Mid  waa 
principal  till  aWtiy  before  hia  death,  27th  Feb. 
1884.  Inl824,hepuUiabed7^tfeoIi;vsr^tAea>»- 
neetieut  YaUey,  a  work  whidi  was  well  reeeived,  uid 
opened  the  way  to  H.'a  advancenMoL  In  1680,  be 
waa  appointed  a  atata  gadlagia^  and  aa  anch,  made  a 
thorough  lurvn  ot  t£e  gaologj  aad  mineralogioal 
Teeonrees,  inclndiiur  alao  ue  botav  and  uxdogy,  of 
Uaaaaehuaetta,  io  raSO  1  of  part  of  New  York  in  1838, 
and  ti  Tennont  in  1857.  He  pubUabed  the  fruita  of 
hia  reaearohea  renrding  UaBuchaaetta  in  1831 ;  ■•"i 
after  iaaninganmamaiAr '- '   '""" 


jmuanpiOMnaiitarTTeportomlSSSasdlSaS, 

embodied  t&eiraue  in  hia  .AsaZJI^iort  on  tA«  Oeoiogy 
ttflfoMoAMtMi  (2  Tbl&  1841),  whidi  ia  the  atandard 

^  -  thia  anbjeot    In  1850^  H.  waa  ^ipoiDted 

-„ nl  oommiMiowr  for  hia  native  atMe,  uid 

icioeived  inafametiotM  to  viait  and  exnnine  the  chief 
'  '  ~  td  Eunme,  which  he  did ;  and 
,    .  led  hia  Bmtirt  oa  tlit  Agriad- 

tttral  fcAooia  <^  Bvropt,  a  valuable  work.  &it 
he  chiefly  diatingidahed  bimanlf  in  the  geological 
department  <tf  natoral  tiieology.  Hia  work  on 
""  -  oonneotion  betw—i  geology  and  religion — The 
^pim  ^  Otobgii  <md  St  toimtded  Bdtnctt  (ISBl) 

_«  had  ft  Ttay  wide  ciroolatiDn  on  botii  ^ea 
of  the  Atlantio.  B.  oama  forward  pronunentiy 
aa  ao  enoBit4>r  of  tlM  foaiil  footprints  m  the  Con- 
neotioot  Valle?.  ^le  moat  impi^ant  of  hia  worka, 
bendea  thoae  mentioned  above,  are  SSemtntiay 
Cfeohay,  teilh  an  Inindvttory  Motiet  by  Dr  Pye 
StMS  (1S40{,  a  work  which  haa  beoome  extremely 
populv,  having  gone  throagh  2S  editions  in  America, 
and  nine  in  SaaJMii;  JFomU  Footmorkt  m  Ote 
UnUed  State*  (1848) ;  Idtnotogi/  qf  Nta  Ungland 
(1858) ;  S^ort  oft  Ma  Qiobg]/  of  Vermont  (18G1), 

HITOPADB'BA  (literaUy,  •  sood  odvioe,'  or 
'telntaiy  ijutmotion,'  from  the  wnacrit  AUa,  good, 
aalutaiy;  and  timuUta,  advice^  inatriurtdon)  ia  the 
name  cd  Uie  oelsliatad  Saoaorit  colleotion  of  fabla, 
the  oontaota  of  which  have  paaaed  i^  a^cst  all 
the  civilised  litaratorea  of  the  earUi,  The  ooUectioo 
itael^  in  the  form  in  which  ve  poaseaa  it,  is  founded 
on  older  worki  of  a  kindred  nature,  and  ia  olasaed 
by  the  Hindus  among  their  etiiieal  worka.  See 
SuncouT  Lmunnuc 

■» 

L.oo^jlc 


HTITEKETT— HOBBBS. 


HI'TTBBEN,  a  oowndarable  iiUnd  on  the  weit 
coMt  of  Norwiy,  Ues  about  47  roilea  wert  o£  the 
town  of  TnmiUijem,  and  ia  abont  30  miles  long  by 
10  mile*  broad.  Pop.  about  37M,  most  of  whom 
live  by  fishing. 

HITZIQ,  Fehdinakd,  a  Oerman  biblieal  Bcbolsr, 
was  bom  23d  Jnne  1807,  at  Eaningen,  Baden, 
and  educated  at  Heidelberg,  Halle— where  the 
inQiieaoe  of  Geseniui  determined  him  io  favour 
of  Old  Testament  Etudiee— and  at  Gijttingeii.  In 
1833,  he  was  called  to  Zurich  as  proCeasor  of 
Uieology,  with  a  special  view  to  the  eiegesiB  of  the 
Old  Taitament ;  but  his  lectnres  have  embraced 
also  the  New  Testament,  and  the  langiuge*  of  the 
Eut,  especially  the  Semitic.  In  1801,  H.  ratumed  as 
profesaor  to  Heidelbers-  The  fint  work  which,  estab- 
lished his  fame  was  his  Ueberietivng  u.  Au^gung 
d.  Pnmh.  Jeiaiaf  (1933).  Besideg  a  translatiaD  of 
the  Psalms,  with  a  commentary  (IIW— 1838\  he 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  twelve  minor  propheta 
(1838 ;  2d  ed.  ISfil),  on  Jeremiah  (1841),  Ezekiel 
(1847),  Ecclesiastes  (1847),  Daniel  (1S60),  the  Song 
of  SolomoD  (1855),  the  Book  of  Proverbs  (1868), 
and  Job  (1S74).  He  publiahed  a  new  translation  oE 
the  Psalnu,  with  a  commentary,  in  1863—1865. 
He  is  also  known  by  Die  ETfiadung  d.  AlphaJittt 
(1840),  UrgaeK  u.  Mythologit  d.  PhUutOer  (1856), 
OacliifJiig  da  Voltea  lima  (ISG9),  &&,  and  by  oon- 
■iderable  contributions  to  periodicals.  He  died  on 
Janoary  22,  187S. 

HIVA-O'A,  the  windpal  island  of  the  Marquesas 

Ein  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  is  about  22  miles 
7  10  miles  broad.  Its  northern  point  is  aaid 
in  lat.  9°  34'  S.,  and  in  long.  13^  4'  W.  Pop. 
stated  at  esoa 

Hl'VITES  (' MidUndets '  according  to  Bwald, 
or 'Tillasen'  according  to  Qesenins),  a  Csnaanitwh 
people,  inio  in  the  tims  of  Jacob  are  fonnd  occnpj- 
mg  the  iq>laiids  of  Ephrum,  and  later,  the  slopes  of 
Hermon  and  the  region  westward  towards  Tyre. 

H'LA'BSA,  the  capital  of  Tibet,  situated  on  the 
Dzangtsn,  in  lat.  SO'  46*  N.,  and  long.  91°  27'  £. ; 
the  larsoit  town  in  Central  Asia,  about  9SO0  feet 
above  uie  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  famoni  for  the 
oonvsnta  in  and  near  it,  composing  Uie  ecdeiiaatical 
establiahmenta  of  the  Dalai-lama,  whose  personal 
residence  is  in  a  convent  on  tiie  adjaoait  Mount 
Botala.  H.  is  to  Bnddhiim  what  Rome  is  to 
Catholiciam,  it  is  (he  head.quarten  of  the  hierarchy 
of  lamas,  who,  by  meami  of  the  Dalai-lama,  exercise 

Sieatly  control  over  nearly  all  Uwigolia,  as  well  as 
bet  The  city  lies  in  a  fertile  pbin,  extending 
about  12  miles  mim  north  to  south,  and  about  125 
miles  in  length.  MoantsinB  and  bills  encircle  it.  A 
Chinese  gamsonis  quartered  near  the  Mount  Botala, 
whose  temples  are  resplendent  with  gold  and  pre- 
cions  stones.  Since  the  expulsion  of  the  Nepamese 
in  1792,  no  foreigners  are  allowed  entrance  from  the 
south.    Pop.  conjectured  at  24,000. 

HO  ADLBY,  Benjamin,  B.D.,  an  eminent  English 
prelate,  was  the  son  of  the  lUv.  Samuel  Hoamey, 
master  of  the  Norwich  Grammar  School,  and  was 
bom  at  Weaterham,  in  Kent,  November  14,  1076. 
In  1691,  be  entered  Catherine  Hall,  university  of 
Cambridge,  where  he  became  tntor  after  taking 
hie  degree  of  M.A.  In  1701,  he  was  chosen  lecturer 
of  St  Mildred  in  the  Pooltry,  London,  and  from 
this  time  b^an  to  attract  attention  as  a  conbo- 
vermal  writer.  His  Btaioaablenai  o/Cim/ormit^  to 
the  Church  of  Englaad,  appeared  in  1703,  which, 
like  all  his  other  performoqcta,  thou^  agreeable 
to  the  sentiment!  of  the  edncat«d  laity  of  the  Chnrch 
oi  England,  was  exactly  the  rereise  to  the  great 
body  m  the  clergy,  both  established  and  dissenting. 
Next  year,  be  obtained  the  rectory  of  St  Peter-le- 


Poor,  London,  and  was  soon  after  engaoed  in  a 
controversy  with  Dr  Atterbmry  (q.  v.)  on  tie  extent  j 
of  tlve  obedience  due  to  the  aviT  power  b^  ecclesi.  { 
astics.  This  contest  was  conducted  by  H.  m  such  i 
■e  for  him  the  applause  of  the  House  of 


referred  to  the  important  services  h  , 

to  the  cause  of  civil  and  religious  liberty.    In  1710,  ' 
E.  was  preseoited  to  the  rectory  of  Streatham,  in   i 
Surrey;  and  in  1715,  when  the  accession  of  George  L 
had  seoured  the  triumph  of  Whig  principles,  «u   ' 
made  Bishop  of  Bangor ;  but  it  is  amrmed  that  he   ' 
never  visited  this  see,  for  fear  of  exciting  a  '  puty  , 
fiuy.'    He  was,  however,  far  from  remaming  idle,  i 
In  1717,  he  preached  before  the  kino  a  seimon  on  j 
the  text,  'My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world.'  in 
which  he  endeavoured  to  shew  that  Christ  bad  not  < 
delegated  hia  powers  to  any  aoclesisstical  authoiitjes.   ' 
He  carried  out   this   idea  to    great    length,  and  I 
maintained  that  it  was  the  beat  and  aofest  ootuuI 
to  take  np  in  attempting  to  refute  both  Romui 
Catholics  and  Dissenters.      Hence    oriKmated  the 
famous   Bangorian   Controveny,   rerairoing  whicll 
HaJlam  says,  that  it  was  'monag^  perhaps  on   i 
both  sides,  with  all  the   chicanery   of  polenuol 
writen,  and  disgorting  both  frMD  its  tvaionsnea^ 
and  friim  the  maoifeat  nnwillinsDeaa  <^  the  dii- 
putonts  to  apeak  ingenoon^  wbat   they  meant' 

\,, ^-----1  opponent  was  William  law,    Hallaa 

iving  read  fort;  or  fifty  pamphlets  oe 
In  1721,  K  was  truiaferred  to  the 
Hereford;  in  1723,  to  that  of  Saliabniy;  and 
in  1734,  to  that  of  Winchester.  In  1736,  he  pub- 
lished a  Plain  Aeeoimt  of  the  Nalare  and  Bad  qf 
the  LonTt  Samer;  and  in  1754—1755,  two  voiiunes 
of  aenuona,  which  were  hi^ily  esteemed.  He  died 
April  17, 1761,  in  the  8Stl>  year  c4  his  age. 

HOANO-aO.    See  Hwamo-HO. 

HOAB-FR08T.    See  Dew.  ! 

HOARSENESS.    See  Throat,  Diausn  or. 

HO'BAET  TOWN,  the  capital  of  Van  Diemes'i 
Land,  or  Tasmania,  stands  on  the  Derwent,  near  it*  i 
entrance  into  Storm  Bay,  on  the  sonth  coast  of  the 
ishmd.  It  is  in  lat.  42°  53'  S.,  and  long.  147°  21' K 
The  mean  temperature  for  the  year  is  SSi*3,  being 
42'°1  in  winter,  ond.eS-^l  in  summen  Accocdingta 
the  latest  returns,  the  population  is  over  31,O0CL 
Besides  the  official  buildings,  which  it  poMeasea  a  i 
the  seat  of  government  H.  T.  has  a  oollege  and  ' 
several  public  schools ;  and  its  naturally  excellent 
harbour  ia  bordered  by  a  noble  quay,  along  wliicli  | 
ships  of  the  largest  size  can  lie.  | 

HOBBES,  Tromab,  was  bora  at  Malmeabmy,  on 
the  Sth  April  1588,  and  was  the  son  of  a  dergjml/a  I 
of  that  town.  At  Uie  age  of  14,  he  went  to  (Aford,  i 
and  was  put  through  the  usual  course  <A  Aris-  j 
totelian  logic  and  physics.  His  instructionB  in  the  i 
syllogism  he  afterwarda  held  in  very  small  estiias-  , 
tion.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  having  taken  his  degree  1 
and  quitted  Oiford,  he  was  recommended  to  Lord 
Hardwicke,  afterwards  EarJ  of  Devonshire,  as  tutor  | 
to  his  eldtiit  son,  this  being  the  commencement  of 
an  intdmate  connection  with  t^t  great  family  which  i 
lasted  throngh  his  long  life. 

In  1610,  he  went  abroad  with  his  purnl,  and  mads  ' 
the  tour  of  Prance  and  Italy.  After  his  return,  be  i 
■till  continued  t«  live  with  the  Devonshire  fsmil?, 
and  his  residence  in  London  afforded  him  op^  ! 
tunitiee  of  becoming  acquainted  with  Bacon,  Bsleigb.  ^ 
Ben  Jonson,  and  the  other  distinguished  men  of  - 
the  time.     Meantime,  he  was  occupied  with  lii> 


tyCOOl^lC  ■ 


HOBBY— HOCHHEHL 


The  Earl  of  DevoniMre  having  died  in  1626,  and 
the  yonng  earl,  Hobbea's  pnpil,  in  1628,  ho  wa* 
need  in  great  pief,  and  took  the  opportuni^ 
iraed  him  of  gomg  abroad  with  the  son  of  Sir 
Gerraae  Clifton,  and  remained  eome  time  in  France. 
In  1631,  hoireTer,  hia  connection,  with  the  Devon- 
shire fsmilf  waa  resumed.  By  the  deKire  of  the 
dowager-oountesB,  he  nndertook  the  edncation  of 
the  young  earl,  Uie  son  of  the  former  pupil,  then 
only  thirteen.  In  1634,  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
on  thii  occasion  waa  much  in  the  aociety  of  Father 
Msnenne.  He  returned  to  England  in  1637.  He 
■eema  then  to  have  applied  himaelf  to  the  compo- 
sition of  faia  first  original  work,  entitled  Elematla 
Philo*opA!ai  de  Civr,  which  was  printed  in  Paria  in 
1642.  Thii  ii  the  first  eipoaition  that  be  gave  of 
his  moral  and  poUtical  philosophy.  His  advocacy  of 
pore  and  anreirtrained  monarchy  a>  the  best  poanhle 
form  of  government,  with  an  absolute  eubmiwion 
on  the  part  of  the  aubjects  both  in  law  and  in 
moislitnr  and  religion  to  the  will  of  the  monarch, 
hM  probably  given  more  general  offence  than  any 
political  theory  ever  proponoded.  It  has  been  made 
the  snbjeot  not  merdy  of  incessant  attack,  but  of 
gross  miarepreaeutalion.  He  published  soon  after 
two  small  treatise*,  entitled  Human  Nature,  and 
De  Corpore  PoliiUo.  The  first  contains  hia  views  as 
'a  the  cooatitntion  of  the  mind,  and  entitles  him  to 
be  conaideted  as  the  father  of  mod^  systematic 
psychology.  Althoogh  the  work  is  valuable  in 
itself,  he  still  considers  it  as  a  prelude  to  the  other 
treatise,  De  Corpore  Polilico,  or  on  the  nature 
of  society,  which  is  here  handled  for  the  second 
time  by  him,  and  in  much  the  same  st  '  ~ 
goes  over  the  whole  ground  a  third  tin 
Jjeoiathan,  published  in  1651,  the  fullest  and  perhape 
the  best  known  exposition  of  his  views  on  wiad, 
politics,  morals,  aod  religion.  Hera  he  contends  as 
before  in  favour  of  pure  monarchy,  which  he  repre- 
sents to  have  grown  out  of  a  primitive  oontroct 
between  the  sovereign  and  the  people,  moved  by 
the  desire  to  escape  from  all  the  evils  of  a  state  of 
nature,  which  is  a  state  of  war.  He  is  far  from 
justifying  tyranny ;  on  the  contrary,  he  enjoins 
upon  the  monarch  a  govemnient  according  to  just 
laws,  and  considers  that  this  is  more  likdy  to  be 
obtained  by  the  government  of  a  single  persoo, 
whose  selSsh  aims  must  be  sooner  satiated  than  if 
the  supreme  power  ware  distributed  in  a  number  of 

After  tha  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament  in 
1640,  he  had  returned  to  Paris,  from  his  dread  of 
the  civil  troubles.  In  1647,  he  was  appointed 
mathematical  tutor  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  after- 
mords  Charles  II.,  and  stood  high  in  the  esteem 
of  that  prince ;  but  tlia  obnoxious  character  of  his 
writings,  especially  after  the  publication  of  the 
Levi^an,  so  offended  the  royalist  clergy,  in 
common  with  all  other  sects,  that  Charles  was 
induced  to  part  with  him ;  and  he  himself,  being 
constitutionally  timid,  took  the  alarm  for  his 
personal  safety,  and  abruptly  fled  from  Paris  to 
thigland.  In  England,  he  found  himself  safe,  the 
Protestant  government  according  him  Oie  most 
ample  toleration.  Very  different  was  his  poaition 
after  the  '  glorions'  reetoration  of  his  own  friends  ; 
for  although  Charles  panted  him  a  pension  of  £100 
a  year,  the  dislike  to  nia  views  was  so  general  that 
they  were  condemned  by  parliament  in  1666,  and 
be  waa  even  in  danger  of  still  severer  measures. 
His  connection  with  the  Earl  of  Devonshire,  with 
whom  he  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  was  no 
doubt  a  powerful  protection  to  him.  His  old  age 
was  Emitial  in  additions  to  hia  writings,  and  was 
morkod  by  aome  shup  controversies.  His  lost 
works  were  a  translatiint  of  Homer,  and  •  Hiatory , 


of  the  Civil  Wars.    He  died  on  the  «h  September 
1679,  m  hia  92d  year. 

HOBBY  {Fako  nMutto),  a  smaU  species 
falcon,  a  native  of  all  or  most  parts  of  Europe,  and 
of  manv  parte  of  Ana  and  Africa.  It  is  in  its 
nbuOTt  length,  about  12  or  14  inches.  It  is  grayiih- 
black  or  blniah-gray   on    tho   upper    parts,    each 


Hobby  {Falco  luifmUo). 

feather  edged  with  yellowish-white,  and  the  whole 
form  is  very  elegan'L  The  H.  is  occasionally  seen 
in  Britain,  but  is  rare — rarer  now  than  it  seems  to 
'  have  been  in  former  times.  It  was  often  employed 
in  falconry,  and  trained  to  fly  at  pigeons  and  even 
at  partridges. 

HO'BOKEN,  a  city  in  New  Jeraey  JJnited  States, 
America,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  Biver, 
opposite  New  York,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
several  steam-ferries.  It  has  beautiful  pleasure- 
grounds,  colled  the  Elysion  Fields,  and  heights  which 
afford  a  fine  view  of  the  cities  of  New  York  and 
Brooklyn,  harbour,  and  fortifications.  It  is  a  great 
summer  neort,  and  is  rapidly  becoming  an  important 
city.    Pop.  (1870)  20,297. 

HOCHE,  T.^7iiiv,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
generals  of  the  French  republic,  was  bom  25th  Jnne 
1766,  at  Montreuil,  a  faubourg  of  Versailles.  In 
1785,  he  entered  the  army,  rapidly  obtained  pro- 
motion, and  was  raised,  in  1793,  to  the  command 
of  the  aiTt^  of  the  Moselle.  Here  ho  was  opposed 
to  the  Dnke  of  Brunswick,  tho  commander  of  the 
Prussian  army,  and  waa  by  liim  repeatedly  defeated. 
He  was  more  successful  against  the  Austnans,  whom 
he  drove  out  of  Alsace.  His  next  important  service 
was  putting  an  end  to  the  civil  war  in  La  Vendue, 
which  be  accomplished  in  a  prudent  and  patriotic 
maoner.  After  having  been  sent,  in  tho  winter  of 
1796,  OB  commander  of  the  troops  in  tho  unfortunate 
expedition  to  Ireland,  he  was  on  his  return  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  Satobre  and 
Meuse.  On  the  I8th  April  1797,  he  crossed  the 
Rhine  at  iNeawied,  and  hod  defeated  the  Austrions 
in  several  battles,  when  his  career  was  stopped 
by  the  armistice  concluded  between  the  Archduke 
Charles  and  Bonaparto  at  Leoben.  After  the  18th 
Fnictidor,  he  was  suddenly  taken  ill  in  the  camp  at 
Wetzlar,  and  died  IStb  September  1797. 

HO'CHHEIH,  a  small  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Hessen-Nassau,  on  an  elevation  sloping 
down  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Main,  about  3  m.  trom 
Mainz  on  the  raui  to  Frankfurt  The  snnny  slopes 
which  hera  skirt  the  Main  produce  excellent  wine 
of  several  varieties,  which  go  by  the  general  name 
of  Hochkema-;  from  this  comes  the  Engliah  name 


hyGoOgI' 


^00^  now  pnn  indiicriiiiiiiitel  j  to  ill 
the  Bhine  iflpou. 

HCfOHKIBOH,  OT  HOCHEIBOHEN,  >  nUage 
in  ths  diatriet  of  Bantmi,  in  Skzonj,  luU-way 
betwaoa  BimtMn  and  Labui,  ma  the  ecene  of  e 
battle  betVMn  the  Anitriana  and  Fnianani  (14th 
Oet  1758)  dtutn^  the  Seven  YeaiV  Wftr.  Frederiok 
TT.  of  Fioaeu,  with  an  aim;  30,000  etrong.  haring 
taken  ini  an  almort  untenable  poeition  at  H.,  waa 
attacludat  five  a.  m.,  nnder  cover  of  a  thick  fog  I 
Manhal  DanB,  with  00,000  Anatriona,  and  compelli- 
to  ratira  to  IIm  liaghta  of  Dieia.  Here  be  was 
again  atta^ad  l^  fh«  Duke  of  Aiember^  and  after 
a  confliot  «t  fiva  how^  dnntian,  uain  letiied. 
He  lort  9000  men  kiUad  and  wonn^dTand  101 
cannona.  Ha  himMll,  and  afanoat  all  hia  geneiala, 
were  wonnded.  Th«  Aoakriana  lort  SOOO  men.  On 
20th  and  2lBt  Uaj  1813,  a  aeriai  of  battlea  took 
^aee  here  betwwn  the  French  and  alliea. 

HCOHBT.ADT.    BmBlxxhkim. 

HODOKINSON,  XuoiT, 
mechanicB  of  Hiiiiiinwii  inn  in 
LondoB,  and  tha  diief  ainhorit 
ol  iron  to 

Auderton,  .  ... 

1789;  At  the  age  of  SI,  he  tattled  in  Manchester, 
and  there  oonuMnoed  the  ato^  of  meohanico.  At 
thia  time  the  principal  anthoii^  on  iron  beams 
waa  l^«dgold  (q.  ▼.)■  ^"^  ^  thaoriea  were  over- 
timed In  Hq  who  aatit&otoiCf  ertaMiahnd  a 
theot^  of  nil  »wn  on  tliia  labjact.  H.  next  made 
a  aaiua  of  >!7  •sperimenU  on  tho  atrength  of 
^llan,  and  hera  again  hia  opinions  came  Lato 
coUiaion  irith  those  of  Tredgold,  Moeeley,  A<x,  and 
with  the  same  triuinphant  reanlt.  Almost  all  these 
researchea  were  carried  on  in  conjunction  with, 
and  at  tiae  expenaa  of,  Mr  Fairbaim  [q.  t.].  For 
hia  important  oxpenmenta  and  oalcnlatdon^  and 
MUMfal  oo-wostuui  in  tL«  OMutmetion  of  ths 
Britannia  Bndgv^  noeived  a  flrat-olaat  medal  at 


Paris  in  ISfiSL"  ^ia  invMAigations  an  in  oeneral 
iMttwed  UiniD^  tha  TVannielMiM  of  tbe  British 
Aisociation  for  the  AdTanosment  ef  Science  (bbs 
e^edallrToIs.  iv.  and  t.),  and  in  tha  Hemdr*  of 
tlM  HaDshsater  Soeiaty  (tba  most  important  of 
wUch  are  in  the  Tohuraea  for  1893,  MMod  aiaiea, 
and  1S31J.  He  alao  edited  Tr«dgM  m  At  Bbw^ 
tjf  Ciut  IroH,  adding  a  aapdeniMitaly  vidome  oon- 
taininjr  hia  own  l£aoiiea  71812—1848).  H.  died 
rrr-»  ,„,    _,„____,.. "--ii«tar.    " 


n  Jane  1881,  at  Broo^ 


r  Hant^ 


SmmroTH  or  Uxmuu^  and  Tinin.4B  Bxavm. 

EODOUlU'lui  Ii  aa  inatavmoit  bit  iiinaaiii  jiim 
the  distanoo  traTaOad  mat  br  anjr  ooomanoa,  and 
coBBiBta  d  an  airangamad  u  toothed  wimsI%  like 
cl<xi-wor^  fixed  oo  me  tida  of  a  mwdune,  and 
oonneetad  with  the  ax^  from  whidt  motion  ia 
AftiHimmi^ip^tnl  to  IL  An  indox  and  ^*J  shew  the 
*T**t  diitiiTm  Hm  Tahiti  irm  tafanAlaiL 

HOB,  an  implameait  of  gaidttun^and  of  agrionl- 
tnm  oaad  for  stirring  Uis  aoiL  dnwmg  in  earth  to 

ot  waads,  to.  lW»  an  maay  tbnaci  this  unib- 
msB^  all  of  iriudi  mar  ba  lefnad  to  two  rlsaw 
Snmhliom  and  Itriution,  tha  foniar  having  the 
Uada  ataoort  at  ri^  aif^  to  tiie  handle;  tho 
latter  aTmfiit  n*  vif  same  plana  with  it.  ^la 
thnat-ho^w  DtUA  Boa,  is  obiefly  nsad  for  killing 
waad%  and  for  stiiring  DOmd  to  a  tbt  ah^t 
dopth.    Hw  diaw-boe,  alQiaa^  nmoh  mad  as  an 

! — > i  J  — 1—: —  :-  sBareoly  used  in  Britain 

.  nnent,    ozce^    far    the 

j)  li  tnniipa,  in  wUob  it  is  ahrajs 

^ in    Mma    ocnntrisa   it   ia  f— 

axtsnsiTalj  used  in  place  of  tha  spada.    In  » 


parts  <rf  tha  West  Indies  almost  aU  tha  tiUage 
of  tlie  groond  ia  dons  by  the  ho&  It  it  mon 
ad^tted  than  the  spade  to  tlie  nte  of  labourers 
whose  feet  are  not  provided  with  thoea.  Hoaa 
intended  for  tilling  the  groond,  iottaad  of  tbe 
ploagh  and  apade,  an  much   larger  and  beaviB' 

nuieh  hi^ov  and  brooi^  down  to  tin  groond  with 
greater  Saoa,  ainnewhu  liko  the  pickaxe.  Hosa  fa« 
ttinii^  Teiy  stiff      ■"" 


3^fS 

oosIt  TnotUflsd,  and  stfiohad  to  a  frame  in  oider  to 
ba  diawB  by  a  boisch  Varions  oontrnanoet  an 
iMploTod  to  aoocanmodsta  th«  bladts  to  ineqaalitisa 
of  sneowN^  fta  Hort»4io«a  oan  csklf  be  «mplo;ed 
for  «nM  town  in  drills;  and  the  driOt  mnat  be 
parfaot^  panllel,  if  mote  than  one  intorral  ' 
be  okaaad  and  ttined  ai  owM.    With  tbe  si 


HQgS  MAOHIKK.    SaeFurrcra. 

HOETEIT,  JAir  Vas  Dm,  a  distingaidted  Dattk 
naturalist  Ha  was  bora  in  J80I  at  TtiiUmilsia. 
and  after  studTing  medioBa  at  Leydtx,  eatabliAed 
himself  as  a  Dlijsician  in  his  native  town,  wh«e  he 
renuuned  till  I83S,  when  he  was  elected  to  Oe  pro- 
fesBoiship  of  soology  lin  the  imiTeiaity  of  lioydaa. 
BD  ofEce  which  ha  held  till  his  death  in  106& 
lost  important  work  is  hia  ^owAoei  do* 
imf ■"■-"■-   " 


s  pol&ed  in  1848;    and  an 

Enriith  translation,  by  Frofassor  ChA  of  Cambridge^ 
nn&r  Qie  title  Sandboet  qf  Zooloffp,  was  iasoed, 
with  important  additiont,  botii  bj  tne  aolbor  nd 
the  editor,  in  18C0— 1SS8.  Ths  bet  tlwt  mort  ol 
hit  works  an  mnnmn,  and  writtm  ia  Dotdk,  it  a 
(Teat  cheA  to  their  general  pemsal  by  ^■f^*'  and 
rrenoh  natonUtti. 

Jut  matt  not  be  oonfbnnded  with  bit  liiiitbii. 
ComCKLiuB  Pbtttb  Yax  skb  HovrxN,  wbo  it  pso- 
fessor  of  medicine  in  the  nnivursilj  of  Laydan,  aad 
'  I  the  author  of  aereral  important  works,  iiiMaiial 

ifedkiim(ti 

(Lcfdeo,  1848).  | 

HOF,  a  mannfactonnf  town  of  the  kin^om  of  ' 
Bavaria,  in  Upper  Franconia,  ia  aituat^  in  a  ' 
frnitfol  diatrict  on  tiie  Saale,  33  milea  nrath^east  I 
of  Bs^renth.  Besides  extensive  mannfaetnres  of 
leather,  and  linen  and  woollen  fabrica,  an  impor-  I 
tant  tianait  trade,  arisiDg  from  its  potitioa  on  the  I 
frontiara  of  Bavaria,  aad  on  the  rulway  ci  " 

thak  oonntrjr  with  Saxony,  ia  here  carried  i 
and  ooal  mines  are  worked  '     " 
0871)  16,0ia 


1  Uie  vidni^.    Pc^ 


:.rs 


HOTBK,  AxDBUB,  the  jafaiotiB  leadK  cd  tha 
_  nolasi^  waa  bom  at  8t  Laonwd,  in  the  va" 
of  PaMTT,  22d  NoncriM  1767.    In  1798,  be 
a  body  of  Tvrolaaa  gainst  tha  Fraaeh  <b  the  lau 
of  Owdai  m  1808,  Hoet  deiNtita,  amn^  lAom 
~  a,  M  wpiSBMit  to  the 

-^ttadMin 

H«ttnnT  dwtehi 
them  a  plan  of  aa  inaniieUioa,  n^di  iMt 
sooh  sDooessttat,  in  three  dm,  from  the  lllk 
the  13th  of  April  1801^ 


yGOO'^IC 


BOFFIUITN— BOO. 


the  Tjrcl,  to  nbdM  tba  Mbtttioqi  pwwBfay,  iriio 
i»d  bMB  atMBdoBad  1»^  ABrtriiB%  ia  MocrdaiMa 


ABrtriiB% 

'     (Jvly  1%  1SO0).    At 
In  thi  nUBf  of 


m»yt  i  but  whan  SpiohlwdiBr,  Joacbim  Haqiingar, 
kpadtin,  and  PMer  H^v,  at  tlw  hnd  tdlh« 
led.  popnlktioD,  ranewed  Hie  def«nM  of  (ha  ^rol. 


and  repsBledl^r  defeated  tbe  «n«anr,  E.  itaoed  iiom 
his  ratiea^  and  took  the  iMdanUp  irf  the  Tymleae. 
At  the  battle  fonght  on  tho  ISth  ol  Aumrt  on  " 
Iielbtvg, Leftbna  waa  dtirea  from  OuTyroL 
oontiiiaad  to  eoadnet  tha  corfl  and  mOitaiy  adn 
iatratkin  tiU  the  peaoa  of  'Vimaa,  (14th  Ootobei). 
^Hie  Vmueh  and  Bavariana  ponied,  Ibr  tha  third  or 
fourth  time,  Into  the  oonntiT,  and  after  a  hrirf 
strnsgla  H.  ma  obliged  to  take  refnge  in  oeaMal- 
mealT  Aftaral^aeol  twomonthB,lievaabeti»Ted 
into  tha  banda  of  tba  PMneb  br  a  niart  nanied 
Dooay,  oonTmd  to  Uantua,  tried,  and  ooadenuied 
to  be  ihot  The  aentenoe  w*a  oaniad  into  exera- 
taon  on  the  SOth  Febmai;  1810.  Hi*  faaulT  wan 
iDd«miii&ed  lor  the  1o*i  of  thai  i/ntywij  hj  the 
Ba-pena  ol  Aoatria  ia  1819,  and  hia  sod  ouiohlad. 
A  itatoa  of  Hq  exeantad  iy  BohaUar,  via  ereoted 
in  1S34  ia  the  ehmd  of  tha  n«»ei«oaB^  at  lan»- 
bmok,  nearthetombottheEtnpaorUaitmilianl. 
BOFrUANN,  Fkodsjoh,  ooa  of  the  mort  oal»- 
biated  riinidaii*  of  ttw  lact  eoDtiiiT.  waa  bom  at 
Halle  in  1060^  and  died  in  that  dtyia  1742.  At 
1^  age  of  fifteen,  he  lost  hia  paranta,  vbo  ^«d  from 
tfphui  fever,  and  voir  ihortl;  afterwaida  became 
deprived  by  a  flie  tn  the  imaU  patrimony  that 
devolved  to  him.  TJndiimi^ed,  however,  by  theae 
miifortnnea,  be  repaired  in  1678  to  Jens,  to  atudy 
medicine,  and  from  tbenoe  prooeeded  to  Brfnit,  to 
become  a  pnpil  of  the  diatdngniihed  ohomet  Qaqiajd 

Cnunw.     He  commenoed  ; '^""     '   "— ^—    '- 

WeetpbaKa,  where  he  had 


Halle.  It  waa  on  bis  recommendation 
ebnted  Stahl  (q.  v.),  who  had  been  his 
telloiT-Btndent  at  Jaoi^  aod  nbaeqnently  be<!Ame 
hie  ^eat  rival,  waa  appointed  one  of  his  eolleagnea. 
At  Sw  vsant  Mqtuat  of  the  king,  he  aubaeqnently 
remorad  to  BerCn,  whera  he  remained  for  three 
yean;  b«t  finding  that  he  oould  not  putsae  his 
atndiea  in  the  abnoephen  of  tha  oo«i^  he  returned 
to  Halle;  and  although  ha  aobaegnanUy  attended 
the  king  at  Berlin  during  a  long  illiuaa,  Halle  waa 
hii  plaoa  of  leaidenoo  during  the  renuunder  of  hii 
life. 

Aa  a  i^iyaidan  and  a  medical  teaober,  H,  enjoyed 
a  celebrity  aeoond  only  to  Bocrhaave,  who  oon- ' 
temporaneonaly  oecnpied  the  chair  of  medioiue  at 
Leyden.  It  ia  onnecciNuy  here  to  enter  into  hia 
Bpedal  dootrinea,  which,  aMoueb  they  loi^  tot- 
vived  hia  time,  oie  now  of  little  practical  valne. 
Haller  anorta  that  he  amaased  a  lu^  fortona  by 
the  aale  of  aaeret  remediea,  one  of  which  (althongh 
ita  oompoaitioii  ia  now  known)  ia  (till  deaignated 
Hoffinann'a  Anodyne  Liqaor  {%.  r.). 

01  hU  nunennu  work*,  the  greatest  U  hia  MtdU 
cfaw  Jlaliinulit  Sjfittmalkit  (OtUe.  1718— 1740,  9 
voli.  4to),  which  ooeafded  him  for  more  than  twoi^ 
yean,  and  waa  oonclaaed  in  hia  eightieth  year.  Hm 
comfueto  worka  have  S<ata  throiuui  variooa  editiona. 
Hia  0pm  Omaa  i^tyBM-niem»,  X>m>w>  Bmlta, 
Corrida  et  Anda,  ware  printed  at  Geneva  In  164l\ 


■abaeqnentiy  at  Ni^dea  on  a  atiU  larger  aoak. 

HOFMANN,  Auamr  VIuxbm,  F.R.B.,  a  dia- 
tingniahed  living  dkemiat,  ban  at  GieaMB  in  181& 
After  obtaining  the  denaa  lA  doctor  of  ^Hoarahy, 
ha  beoameaasiatant  toXiebig  in  tha  QieMen  Lalxw- 
atory,  and  anbaaqnantly  be  waa  aroointed  aztra. 
Mdinary  profeaatw  at  ohenktiy  in  (he  nnivarvW 
of  Bonn.    When  the  Boyal  Oell^  of  Che-  '' 


indedby  Liebig  aa  hi|^i^qaalifled  for  tha  import- 
t  poat  of  aiiDenntw£Bt  to  Ifaa  new  inatitimtai. 


ita  high  ohanctar  to  hia  te«Mhing  and  bit  ■ 
rqmtation.    On  the  ekvatioD  of  Pwrfeaaor 


from  tiie  poat  <4  ohemiat  to  the  Hint  to  the  olEoe  of 
maater  of  that  inatdtntion,  H.  waa  afqpointed  hi* 
•noeenor.  In  1881L  H.  accepted  an  appo^itanent  to 
be  profeoor  of  dieniatiy  in  the  nniveraity  <k 
Berlin,  with  the  oommiMion  to  fovtd  a  ohemioal 
inititnte.  Ho  waa  a  juror  at  ^  the  intetnational 
ezbiUtlona  <Iiondon,  18B1  and  1862;  Pui^  1888 
and  1887).  In  ooojnnotioti  with  Dr  Benoe  Jonea, 
he  edited  the  later  aditltm*  <<  Fownei'a  Mtmaial  </ 
CIttadtlry.  Hia  nnmarona  ocotribntionB  to  the 
Aimatm  do*  CKamf*  tmd  PAtwmac^  to  tiie  Traiu- 
aetumt  of  Ot  Ckamieai  Saeittf,  and  to  the  PliUtM- 
opAkat  TratuatHeiU  (/Me  HowJ  Soeieti/,  ai«  tor  the 
moat  part  on  the  vary  nif^ieat  departmeata  of  organic 
chemistry ;  and  in  18H  a  royal  medal  was  awwded 
to  him  for  his  Jfemoo**  on  l&M«l«etilar  CtaultitaiiM 
qfOte  Organic  Batet.  Itwa*  in  the  cooiaa  <rf  theae 
reMarchea  that  he  diaoovM«d  in  ooal-naphUut  anilinav 
the  basis  of  the  new  colours  raaave  and  magenta, 
wbiob  had  praviouilf  been  onlj^  obtadned  bom 
indigOb  For  hi*  praoooal  aMiHoationa  of  *^"  di*. 
corery,  one  <it  the  n<wt  prixes  waa  swarded  to  him 
at  the  Pari*  Exhibition  of  1887.  K'a  AilroductMm 
to  Modan  CJtmtiitr^  (1W6;  tth  edition,  1871)  ha* 
'"d  to  great  reforma  m  the  teaching  of  chemistry. 
HOFFMANN'S  AKODTNE  LIQUOR  ia  the 
d  name  for  the  Compound  Spirit  tff  SvlpAurio 
lAs-  of  the  London  pharmaoopceia,  and  is  a  mix- 
...re  id  ether,  aloohd,  and  athenal  oiL  It  is  often 
pnsoribad  with  y— <»».>i»-_  in  order  to  pnrvent  tha 

-fhioh  ttu  opium  preparattont  frequentbr 

1  nu^  be  gjven  in  water,  unassooiated  witn 
anything  **tiyi,  aa  a  atimolaiit  ana  antaapasmodic,  in 
doeea  varying  from  half  a  drachm  to  two  drachma. 

HO'FWYIj,  a  villa^  of  Switaarlsnd,  in  the 
canton  of  Bern,  and  aitnatad  mx  mil**  north  of 
the  town  <d  that  name.  It  ba*  been  long  bmon* 
as  the  seat  of  the  edueational  and  agncnltnnl 
institation  foand«l  hsce  by  the  Ute  ILTdenbrn 
(q.T.).  Not  inaDy  yean  aftw  tbo  death  ol  U. 
TvimMtg,  tba  institDtion  waa  given  up. 

HOO  (<SW),  a  ^tts  of  pa«&ydeniMtoBB  qaad- 
ipeds,  of  the  family  Buida  [q.  v.).  ijha  neck  is 
carried  strai^it  forward  from  tha  trunk,  and  is 
very  Uiick  and  strong,  nie  akin  ia  very  thick,  and 
moatty  coreied  with  stiff  briatlea,  amcms  wfaMh  a 
■hart  enried  hair  is  often  alao  fonnd.  l£e  briatka 
of  tha  baok  of  the  iie«3t  genwally  beooma  a  maaa  in 
wild  hogs,  and  partimilariy  in  ttw  maha,  ahbow|h, 
in  domaatiaation,  thia  tmids  to  dimppear.  Aa 
muzzle  ia  elongated,  and  tecminated  by  a  movaUe 
cartilaginous  £bc,  fumished,  *•  in  tits  mole,  with 
a  speoal  amaD  bone,  and  used,  along  with  the  tuaksL 
an  implement  for  tnnung  up  the  soil  in  aeardh  of 
ota  and  other  food.  _  ntaie  an  6  ineiBCfs,  2  oanine 

Googit 


HOG— HOQ  PLUM. 


tn«s,  the  lateral  ones  amall,  and  kc&rcely  touching 
the  gToand,  all  separately  hoofed.  The  tail  ia  ihort 
The  stomach  shews  mere  traces  of  divuion.  The 
food  is  dsiefly  vegetable,  bnt  perhaps  no  animals  may 
more  properly  be  called  omiuTOrous ;  and  although, 
even  in  a  wild  state,  hogs  are  not  to  b«  reckoned 
amon^    beasts   of   prey,    they   not    unfrequently, 

that  come  in  their  way,  as  many  a  housewife  has 
had  occasion  to  observe  in  respect  to  chickens, — 
The  Common-Hog  (S.  scrq/a)  appears  to  be  a  native 
of  most  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  domeetlcated 
■wine  were  found  by  the  £nt  navigators  in  many 
of  the  ialanda  of  the  southern  seas.  The  wild  boar 
is  still  fonnd  in  the  forests  of  monf  parts  of  Europe, 
and  was  at  one  time  an  inhabitant  of  those  of 
Britain,  where  it  was  protected  by  game-laws  in 
the  loth  and  llth  centuries ;  but  at  what  time  it 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  wild  animid  in  Britain  is  uncer- 
tain. The  adult  males,  in  a  wild  state,  ore  generaUy 
Bohtary ;  the  females  and  young  gregarious ;  and 
when  assailed  by  wolves  or  other  beasts  of  prey, 
wild  Bwine  defend  themselves  vigorously,  the  strong 
unitnaTu  placing  themselves  in  tJie  m>nt,  and  the 
weaker  seeking  shelter  in  the  rear.  The  chase  of 
the  wild  boar  is  one  of  the  most  exciting  sports  of 
Surope  or  of  India,  particularly  when  carried  on 
without  the  rifle,  viA  on  horseliack  with  the  spear 
(' pig-stickiDg ').  The  speed  of  the  animal  is  very 
considerable,  and  the  diasa  sometimes  extends  to 
nx  or  seven  miles.  Although  the  use  of  its  flesh 
was  prohibited  to  the  Jews,  and  the  prohibition 
has  been  adopted  in  the  Mohammedan  law,  the 
hog  lias  been  a  domesticated  animal  from  a  very 
eaSy  period,  and  its  flesh  constitutes  a  larae  part 
of  the  food  of  many  nations.  The  fecundity  of 
the  hog  is  great ;  with  proper  treatment,  it  will 
produce  two  litters  annually,  generally  of  4 — S  pigs 
each,  although  sometimes  there  are  as  many  as 
14  in  a  litter.  Vast  qoantitiea  of  the  flesh  are 
consumed  in  various  forms  in  the  British  Islands 
and  North  America,  as  pork,  fresh  or  salted,  bacon, 
ham,  &e.  Brawn  (q.  v.]  is  an  esteemed  English 
luxury.  The  fat  of  the  hog,  which  is  produced  in 
a  thick.layer  ut'^""  **■"  '■^■"    '-  ""  --.*."in  «*  .*-*™ 


bristles,  mrticmarly  of  the  wild  boor,  are  much 
used  for  brush  making. 

There  are  nomerous  varieties  of  th«  domeatio  bog, 
of  which  some  have  erect,  and  some  pend^it  eals ; 
and  those  are  most  esteemed  which  exhibit  the 
greatest  departure  from  the  wild  type,  in  shorter  and 
^ss  powerhil  limbs,  less  muscular  and  more  rounded 
fonns,  Ac  The  Chinete  breed  and  Ibe  Ifeapotitan 
have  been  of  great  use  in  the  crossiDg  and  improving 
of  the  breeds  commonly  reared  in  Britain,  giving 
rise  to  the  improved  white  and  black  breeds  reapec- 
tively.  Hora  are  profitably  kept  wherever  there  is 
much,  vegetable  remse  on  which  to  feed  them,  as  by 
cottao^  having  gardens,  formen,  millen,  brewers, 
Ac  They  are  often  allowed  to  roam  over  fallow 
ground,  which  thev  grub  up  for  roots,  and  over 
stubble-Gelds,  which  they  ^ean  very  thorou^y. 
They  are  ahk>  fed  in  woods— an  ancient  practice- 
where  they  consume  aconu,  beechmast^  and  the 
like.  When  they  are  fed,  as  is  sometimes  the  case, 
chiefly  on  animal  garbage,  their  flesh  ii  less  palatable 
and  less  wholesome. 

The  hog  haa  a  reputation  which  it  does  not 
dsMrve,  of  peculiar  filthiniesi  of  habits.    It  is  true 


that  it  wallows  in  the  mire,  as  the  other  pod^ida'. 
mata  also  do,  to  cool  its^  and  to  provide  itself 
with  a  protection  seainst  insects,  and  it  searches  for 
food  in  any  puddle ;  bnt  its  sleeping-place  is,  if 
possible,  kept  scrapnloualy  clean.  Xhe  too  common 
nlthiness  oi  pigstiee  is  rather  the  fault  of  their 
owners  than  of  their  occnpanta ;  uid  a  clean  and  dn 
sleeping-place  is  of  great  importance  to  tiie  profitabk 
keeping  of  htws. 

The  bog  is  not  inferior  to  other  qnadmptdi 
generally  in  intelli^ce.  It  can  be  easily  rendered 
very  tame  and  familiar.  Its  acuteness  of  scent  hai 
been  turned  to  account  in  mahi'ig  it  search  fm 
truffles ;  and  an  instance  is  on  record  of  a  pu; 
having  been  used  as  a  pointer,  in  which  service  it 
leamM  to  acquit  itself  extremely  welL  Initances 
have  occurred  of  the  nsa  of  the  hog  as  a  beast  of 
dranght. 

The  forests  of  the  island  of  Paiiua  or  New  GniiMa 
produce  a  species  or  variety  of  hog  (S.  Papann), 
more  widely  different  from  the  common  lu^  than   l 
its  breeds  are  from  one  another.     It  is  18  a  20   ' 
inches  high,  with  short  ears,  and  very  dust  tiiL 
The  colour  is  mostly  brown.    The  Papuans  have  not  { 
properly  domesticated  this  animal,  althonsh  ihej 
often  trap  the  young  ones  and  ke^  them  till  ready   i 
to  be  killed  for  use.    The  fluh  is  very  delioatA 

TheBabyroussa  (q.v.)  is  another  and  very  remsik- 
able  species  of  hog.  ' 

The  BoKh  Vark,  or  Bush  Hog  of  South  Afiica 
(CnotropoCanius  AjJKamii),  is  about  two  feet  aii 
inches  high,  covered  wiUi  long  bristles ;  it  hit 
projecting  tusks,  a  large  callous  protnberance  on 
each  cheek,  and  long  sharp  tufted  ears.  It  i>  | 
gregarious,  subsiKbi  chiefly  on  vegetable  food,  and 
nu£es  deetmctiva  inroads  on  cultivated  fields.  i 

HOG  PLUM,  SPANISH  PLUM,  <U)D  BRAZI- 
LIAN  PLUM,  names  pven  in  the  West  Indies 
and  other  tropical  countries  to  the  fruit  of  certain 
species  of  Spondiai.    The  genus  Spondiai  belongs   ! 
'"  the  natural  order  Anacardiatxa,  or,  accfnding 

some  botanists,  to  a  small  order  called  Spun-   | 
ifiaceis,  differing  from  AnacardiaBm  in  Uie  wssl 


Hog  Plum. 

of  a  resinous  inice,  and  in  the  drupe  having  a  not 
with   2 — S  cells   and    seeds,  instead   of  one  cell   [ 
and  one  seed.    The  species  of   Spondvu  are  tiee* 
and   shrubs   with   pinnate   leaves,  which  have  •   I 
terminal  leaflet,  and  flowers  In  racemes  or  ponidss-   I 
Some  of  them  produce  very  pleasant  fruits,  smoiig   ! 
which  may  b«  reckoned  S.  puiwma  and  8.  hka; 
the   spedes   generally  called   Hog   Flam   in  the   \ 
West  Indies,  rncaose  Ouij  are  a  common  food  of 
hogs,  which   revel   in  their   abundance.     S.  pur-   : 
puna  ha*  frait  about  an  inch  in  length,  ovate  w 


,dhyCOO^l0' 


HOG  EAT— HOGSHEAD. 


oblong,  porple  en'  Tuie^ted  with  yellow  ;  the  pulp 
ToUow,  with  a  peculiar  but  acreeiible  add  and 
aromatie  taste.  The  fruit  of  8.  tuberota,  called 
TiSBunasto  in  the  north  of  Brazil,  is  about  twice 
the  size  of  a  larae  gooaebeny,  obloag,  y«lIowi>h, 
with  B  leatheiy  udn  and  eweetish  acid  pulp.  A 
much  esteemed  Brazilian  diah  is  prepwed  of  milk, 
curds,  sugar,  and  the  pulp  of  this  fniit,  from  which 
also  a  reSeahing  berer^e  is  made  for  use  in  feyers. 
The  tree  is  remarkabta  for  the  nujaeroui  round 
black  tubers— about  eight  inches  in  diameter — 
which  it  produces  on  ita  widely  spreading  roots, 
and  which  are  very  ceUnUr,  and  fall  oT  water. 
They  are  evidently  intended  for  the  wanti  of  the 
tree  in  the  dry  season,  and  aro  often  dug  out  by 
tiBvellers  for  Uie  sake  of  the  water,  of  wbi^  each 
tuber  yields  about  a  pint — Closely  allied  to  iSpon^ias 
is  the  genus  Pouparlia,  to  wiiich  belonp  the  Vl  or 
Tahiti  Asplk,  formerly  ^londias  dulcu,  a  very  fine 
fruit  of  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

HOa  RAT,  or  HUTIA  ICapromy),  a  genua  of 
qoadrapeds,  of  the  family  jiurida,  differing  from 
rats  in  having  lour  grinders  on  each  side  m  each 
jaw,  with  flat  crowns.  The  tul  is  round  and  slightly 
hairy,  and  is  used  for  support  in  artting  erect,  as 
by  kaugarooH,  and  for  aid  m  climbine  trees,  in  wbioh 
these  animals  ive  very  expert.  They  maks  moch 
nae  of  their  fore-paws,  as  of  hands.  Their  food  is 
eatirely  vegetable.  They  are  nativea  of  Cuba,  where 
they  are  found  in  large  numben  in  the  woods.   They 


HOGARTH,  WlLLlAU,  a  celebrated  painter 
and  engraver,  bom  in  London  in  the  year  1697, 
served  his  apprenticesbitj  to  a  silversmith  in 
Cranbonme  St^t,  named  F^Hs  Gamble,  and  next 
studied  for  some  time  under  Sir  James  Thomhill, 
the  historical  pointer,  but  not  with  any  marked 
anceeas.  About  1720,  be  set  np  for  himself,  and  hia 
flrat  employinent  was  to  engrave  coata  of  an 
crcsta,  shop-bills.  Ac,  after  which  he  undertook 
execute  pJatcB  for  booksellers,  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  prints  illustrative  of  Hndibrat  (Lond.  1726). 
He  now  tried  hii  hand  at  portrait-painting,  and 
soon  had  ample  employment,  though  he  never  cared 
anything  for  ihis  bnnch  of  art.  In  1730,  he 
married  (ulandestinely)  a  daughter  of  Sir  James 
Thomhill,  and  soon  after  began  to  display  his 
extraordinary  talent  for  representing  in  pictures  the 
follies  and  vices  of  his  tim&  In  1733,  appeared  his 
'  Harlot's  Progress,'  a  series  of  six  pictures,  which, 
Uke  his  other  works,  were  engraved  by  hima^lf  It 
WBs  these  engravingi,  and  not  ths  original  ^laint- 
ings,  that  nnde  H.  a  rich  man,  and  enabled  him  to 
keep  bis  carriage  at  the  age  of  forty-eight.     The 

■  Harlot's  Progress '  was  followed  by  other  moral 
bietoriea  and  satirical  representations  of  vice  and 
folly,  snch  aa  'The  Hake's  Progress,'  published  in 
eieht  engravings,  '  Southwark  Fair,'  '  A  Modem 
Uidnlght  Convemation,' '  The  Distressed  Poet,'  and 

■  Strolbng  Aotrenea  in  a  Bam.'  The  success  ef  these 
WM  giea^  and  insfdred  H.  with  the  belief  that  he 
ocrald  also  win  a  reputation  aa  an  historical  painter. 
After  several  ineffectual  attempts,  he  reoovered 
from  his  dduaion,  and  retomed  to  the  patli  which 

In  1741,  ha  published 

inl74fi,  'Marnageft  la 
c  engravings,  the  jucCnres 


nature  had  appoini 
'The  Enraged  Mm 
Mode,'  in 


a  cutting  satire  upon  FiU.  He  died  in  1764, 
and  was  buried  at  Chiswiek,  where  a  handsome 
monument  was  erected  to  Ins  memory,  with  an 
inscription  by  his  friend  Garrick.  In  the  techuical 
part  of  his  ut,  H.  was  long  thought  not  to  have 
excelled,  but  modem  opinion  is  more  favourable  in 
this  respect.  There  has  never,  however,  been  any 
but  one  opinion  regarding  tho  greatness  of  his 
thought  and  inveution,  and  his  deep  insight  into 
the  characteristics  of  his  time  and  country.  The 
moral  of  his  satire  is  always  stem,  true,  and 
luunistakable.  A  handsome  edition  of  his  works 
from  the  original  plates,  retouched  •  by  Heath,  was 
published  by  Nichols  (3  vols.  Load.  1820—1822)  ; 
others  appeared  at  Leipsic  (1831—1835;  3d-  edit 
1841),  and  at  Stuttgart  (1839—1840). 

HOOO,  Jambs,  a  Scottish  poet,  was  bora  in  tJui 
district  known  as  the  Forest  of  Ettriok,  in  Selkirk- 
shire, in  1772,  and  waa  at  school  for  two  or  three 
winters  before  he  reached  the  age  of  eight  At 
that  early  age,  he  entered  upon  the  occupation  of 
shepherd.  His  £rst  song  appeared  anonymously 
in  ISOJ,  and  having  gone  sbortiy  after  to  sell  his 
employer's  sheep  in  ^inboivh,  ha  threw  off  1000 
copies  of  veisra  which  he  baiT written.  In  the  same 
summer,  Scott  visited  the  £ttri<^  Forest  in  search 
of  materials  foe  his  Border  Minatrdty,  when  H. 
made  his  acq^uaintance,  and  placed  in  his  poaseaslon 
-  number  of  ballads,  taken  down  from  the  reci- 
uttioD  of  persons  resident  in  the  district,  which 
appeared  in  the  third  volume  of  the  iiintlreUi/, 
in  1803.  In  the  same  year,  he  published  The 
Mountain  Bard,  the  proceeds  of  which,  together 
with  two  prizes  for  essays  he  received  from  the 
Highland  Society,  amounted  to  £300.  With  this 
took  a  farm,  which  proved  a 


ravings,  t. 
^he  Nation 


published  his  .Analysis  qf  Beaiity,  a  work  wMoh 
excited  much  oppontion  and  ridicule,  and  H.  is 
generally  held  to  be  erroneous  in  the  conohisions 
at  which  he  arrives.  In  1766  appeared  '  Four 
Print*  of  aa  Eleatton;'  uid  in  176!^  'Th^  Tim«i^' 


appeared.  In  1814,  be  married;  and  although 
uterwards  went  to  live  on  a  farm  given  to  hTm  by 
the  Duke  of  Buccleuch,  he  busied  himself  more  with 
books  and  booksellers  than  with  sheep  and  grazing. 
His  pen  was  proStable,  which  waa  more  than  he 
could  bring  his  farm  to  b&  He  died  at  Altrive, 
on  the  21st  November  1836.  His  works  are  numer- 
ous, comprising,  in  addition  to  those  already  men- 


Bordfr  Qartand;  and  some  songs  of  great  beanty. 
He  also  wrote  extensively  in  prose.  His  prose 
works  aif,—The  BrotpnU  of  Boi^ttde,  triniO- 
Evening  Tale*.  The  Three  PtriU  of  Man,  The  Three 
FerUe  qf  Wtrman,  The  AUrive  TWw,  a  volume  af 
Lay  Sermons,  and  a  Lift  of  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

After  Burns,  E.  is  unquestionably  the  greatest 
peaaant-poet  which  Scotjood  has  TOoducei  Hit 
nneat  work,  both  in  conception  and  finish,  is  The 
Queen'}  Wait.  The  generol  flow  of  the  poem  is 
lively  and  harmonious,  while  in  one  portion,  that  of 
'  Kilineny,'  the  reader  seems  to  hear  '  the  horns  of 
Elfiand  fiuntly  blowing;'  and  in  another,  'The 
Witch  of  Fife,'  he  is  introduced  into  the  weirdest 
witch  and  wizard  world.  His  prose  works  are  very 
unequal,  but  they  occasionally  display  great  humour, 
and  always  abound  in  graphic  description. 

HOGMANAT,  or  HAGMENA,  a  w<ad  of 
doubtful  derivation,  applied  in  the  north  of  England 
and  Lowlands  of  Sootluid  to  New  Year's  Eve.  See 
Nkw  Yeak.  It  ia  customary  for  persons  to  so,  on 
<  Hogmanay  nighty'  from  door  to  door,  askmg  in 
rude  rhymes  for  cakes  and  cheeae  (and  r™"^- 
for  money),  on  receiving  which  they  pass 
next  house. 


dbiGoogl' 


HOGUB-HOLBACB. 


ud  bear,  to  S4  gillona.  In  the  TTnitad  StatM,  it  ii 
rtill  lued  •■  k  meMiue  for  liquids,  sqiliTmleiit  to  63 
nllonB ;  but  when  nied  for  totNuoo^  it  variBB  in 
SiSerent  itftte*  from  ibont  ?G0  to  1300  Ibi. 
HOOUE,  C&FB  lo.  See  Cah  Li  Hogde. 
HOHEITLI'NDEN,  t.  -nOttfi  in  Upper  Sazooy, 
with  250  isbftbitonta,  ftunous  for  the  TictoTyniiieil 
there  by  More»n  OTor  the  Arohdake  John,  3a  Decent- 
bar  1800.  After  the  eipiratiDti  of  the  ormi^ce 
ooncluded  at  Psendorf,  on  the  13th  November, 
Uoreau'i  umy  took  up  ft  position  on  the  pUtean 
between  the  lur  uid  tlie  Inn,  Mid  the  Austrian 
Hiny,  onder  the  Archduke  John,  on  the  right  bonk 
ft  the  Inn.  Ths  Anitrian  main  body  tdvuicod 
•midst  drifting  snow,  uid  attacked  the  diviBiona 
of  Gt^nier  ana  Qionohy  with  the  utmost  fur; ;  but 
the  French  receiTina  ooajsiderahte  reinforcement! 
under  Ney,  the  aia^anta  were  driven  back  ;  and 
being  attacked  in  the  rear,  were  totally  rooted. 
The  Tictoi;  waa  likewiae  decided  at  other  points 
in  favour  of  the  Franch,  who  were  only  prevented 
from  punning  the  vanqnished  by  the  inclemency 
of  iha  weather,  the  badneaa  of  tne  nnda,  and  the 
short  winter  d«T.  The  AnsMana  bad  8000  men 
killed  and  wounaed,  11,000  made  prisoners,  includini 
ISO  officen  and  100  piM«a  of  artillery.  Tha  Frenot 
had  6000  men  killed  and  wounded.  In  conte 
quence  at  this  battle,  the  ncgotiationt  between  the 
belligerent  powers  were  resumed,  and  shortly  after 
ended  in  the  peace  of  Lon^ville. 

myBXSSTAVfES,  »  German  princely  honae, 
which  lunt  poMC— ion  of  the  imperial  throne  ' 
113S  to  12H.  Tho  fonndar  □!  the  &mily 
Fbedbbiok  Tok  fiUBXir,  who  lived  abont  the  middle 
of  tiie  11th  0.,  and  aaaaiaed  the  name  of  H.  from  a 
castle  of  that  name,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  to 
be  seen  on  the  aununit  of  tha  Eohenstanfen  Berg 
(2240  feet),  a  hUl  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube, 
abont  30  miles  below  Stuttgart  A  son  of  his  was 
tha  Chevalier  Frederick  von  Stanfen.  Lord  of  H., 
who  steadfastly  supported  tiie  Emperor  Eeniy  IV., 
and  in  return  received  the  duohy  of  Swabia.  Dnke 
Frederick,  at  his  deatli  in  llOS,  left  two  sons- 
Frederick  IL,  the  One-eyed,  and  Koorad  i  the  former 
waa  immediately  ocmAnned  in  Swabia  by  Henry 
v.;  and  in  1112  the  latter  received  the  dnchy  of 
Franoonia.  Alter  the  death  of  Henry  V.,  his  Wily 
eatatet  fell  to  the  House  of  H. ;  and  Lothaire  of 
Suouy  waa  elected  as  hia  successor  in  the  empire. 

On  Lotbaire'a  aoceanon,  he  revoked  the  Krauts 
made  by  previoui  emperois  to  the  Haute  of  H.,  and 
thus  ^ve  rise  to  a  furiona  war,  in  which  Duka 
Fredenck  (Lis  brother  Eoorad  b^ng  absent  in  tha 
Holy  Land)  bad  to  encounter,  sln^e-banded,  the 
whole  power  of  the  emperor,  the  House  of  Z&hringen, 
and  Henry  the  Frond,  Duke  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony. 
After  Eonrad's  return,  fortune  at  first  seemed  to 
favonr  ths  brothers,  but  in  1136  they  were  com- 
pelled to  implore  the  emperor's  forgiveness.  They 
were  than  put  in  poaaesaion  of  all  their  estate*. 
Konivd,  in  1138,  wsa  aleoted  Emperor  of  Germany, 
ondar  Um  title  of  Koniad  III.      The  succeedinj 


pop.  (1871)  6ti,SS8.  The  territorr,  whoae  smfse* 
is  ge&arally  mountainous,  is  divided  into  the  dii- 
trioti  of  Sigmaringen  and  Eeohingen,  which  luk 

'■-■'— 1  prinoipalitiea.     Tha  aeat  of  provinriil 

ia  at  Sigmaringen.    H.  is  watered  by 


the  Dannbe,  which  oroaBei  it  i  it  is  also  tn^ 
by  the  eaatem  offidioota  of  the  mountiin-nngcs 
of  the  Black  Forest,  the  Hanhe  Alb,  and  the  Hait 
The  mountain  valleys  are  productive,  and  yield  in 
abundance  of  fruit  and  com,  and  flaz  in  soSdoit 
quantities  for  aspartatioa ;  the  forests  abound  m 
fine  timber ;  thei«  are  iran  rnine*  in  acme  of  tbt 
mountain  distncta,  whi^  also  yield  gypsum,  sA, 
and  coaL  The  pnndpal  branohea  of  mdnsbr  m 
agrionltuia  and  the  ■'taring  of  oattls,  ana  tlu 
mannfactnn  ol  toys  and  other  artiolea  in  weed. 

The  population  belongs  almoct  exclnnrely  to  tbi 
Boman  Catholio  religion,  and  ia  under  ths  Jllri■di^ 
tion  of  the  Archbishop  of  Freiburg:  Tbara  is  i 
Catholic  college  at  Hechingen. 

The  Hohenzollem  famUv  traoe*  ita  desoaot  bom 
Count  Thaaailo,  who  lived  about  the  begiBiuig  of  I 
the  9th  c,  and  founded  a  castle  near  HeiminMl,  <n 
the  Zollem  heights,  whence  hia  deaoendantaderiTeii 
their  patronymic    Abont  1165  the  fint  sepsntios  i 
took  place,   Frederic   IV.   founding   the   d^  or  I 
Swabian,  and  Konrad  L  the  yonnser  or  nanaaaim  ' 
line.    The  elder  line  was  subdinded.  in  1576,  isti  I 
the  branches  of  H.  Hechingen  and  H-  Sigmaringeg.  | 
Frederio  VX,  the  representativa    of   the  yoingei  ! 
line,  in  141S  received  from  the  Emperor  Sigiimimi  . 
the  investiture  of  the  electorate  of  Biandeobo^ 
thus   founding   the    present   reigning   dynasty  d 
Prussia.      The   two    braochea   i^    the    elder  list  | 
ooutinued  unbroken  till  1849,  when,  in  accorduiix 
with    a   familv  compact    formed    io   1821,  which  I 
dacland  the  king   of   Fmssia  chief  of  the  joiiit 
Housaa,  the  reigmus  princes  of  H.  Hechim;eii  *ai  j 
H.  Sigmaringen  ceded  their  respective  ri^ti  aod  i 
principalildea    to    that   monarch,    who   agreed  ti  \ 
pay  an.  annual  pension  of  15,(KI0   thaleia  to  the 
former,  and  one  of  25,000  thalers  to   tha  latter,  j 
The  princes  were  to  retain  their  estates  and  bsv  I 
the  title  of  Highneia,  but  were  to  exercise  no  act  i 
of  sovereignty. 

HOKIA'NGA,  a  river  of  New  Zealand,  «nta«  flu 
Southern  Ocean  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Ifortt  ! 
Island — its  mouth  being  in  lat.  3S*  80"  S.,  and  big- 
173°  26*  E.  This  point  is  almost  the  antipodes  o' 
Tangier,  on  the  south  dde  of  the  Strait  of  Oibraltu.  | 

HOLBACH,  FAxn.  HxnraiciH  BnTBica,  BiMi 
Von,  a  French  philosopher  of  the  ISth  c,  wm 
bom  of  wealthy  parenta,  at  Heidelaheim,  ia  tl» 
Palatinate,  in  1723,  At  an  early  aat,  be  went  1° 
Paria,  where  he  continued  to  re^da  dori^  tha 
remainder  of  his  life.  He  died  Slat  June  1789.  M 
H.  was  remarkable  for  his  agreeable  aooial  qnlJiliMi 
and  kept  a  spod  table,  the  most  emincait  thinkm 
and  writers  ^  the  day,  such  aa  CoDdarcei  Sidanti 


under  Uw  sue  ol  Konrad  ill,  ine  succeedina 
emper«t  of  thii  fMnUy  were  Fbidisics  L  (q,  v) 
(1152—1190),  Hmtbv  VL  (IIBO— 1197),  Phiup  I. 
(119S— 120S),  FUDKBICZ  IL  (q.  t.)  (1318— 12S1), 
and  TLosKAD  TV.  (1251—1254). 

HO'HENSTEIK,  a  small  manufacturing  town 
in  the  kinsdom  oE  Saxony,  situated  12  miles  north- 
east of  Zwickku.  Waollei],  cotton,  and  linen 
goods,  and  mMhioery,  are  the  principal  items 
of  manutactan.    Fop.  (18T1)  6669. 

BOBBNZO'LLEBIf,  a  province  of  Prussia,  expound  tha  natural  psinoUtca'^'^^^,  and  «> 
coomsting  of  a  narrow  strip  of  laud  enth^ely  investigate  the  origin  of  the  confljotioB  opinio' 
•nrronnded  by  the  territoriea  of  WUrtemberg  and  on  virtiie  and  vioei  He  diaouHM  ttTmani  <i 
Baden.    Saprafida)  area  about  480  square  miles ;  \  nligiona  mraali^,  and  takes   a   n^  wanV  <' 


_,,  — _  _  CondorceiBi —   . 

Dndca,  Eelvetius,  Baynal,  Tlfinisnsii.  BnBoni  i"-- 
were  in  the  habit  of  aaseinbliug  at  hia  home.  Tbt 
wit^  Abbfi  Galiani  called  B.  the  maUrt  <tliM  at 
philoaimhT.  Hen  speculation,  it  ii  ssid,  wai  esnisJ 
to  such  daring  length*,  that  Buffnn,  D'AhmlxA  < 
and  Bonsseaa  were  compdled  to  witbd»wfa«^  I 
ciicleL  H.  waa  the  zealous  duunj^on  of  nataistin 
and  oontcnded  not  only  agunat  Chrif^sai^i  | 
poaitive  rdigion.    Hii  V^*!^  i 


bnt  Bgainrt  erety  poaitive  rdigioD.  Hii  pn»<nF«l 
work  is  the  AwUms  ifa  la  Nature  (mibNMd 
in  ITTO).    In  this  woilc,  the  Mrthor  eodeaToin  to 


hyCiOOgle 


HOI^BEm-HOLDmO. 


■odal  tad  HiTBgs  life.  Eb  toaahM  on  ths  lO-ciUad 
'  locul  oonpkot,'  mud  in  the  omina  of  hii  obwrvm- 
tUuu  tiiw  to  prove,  among  other  thingi,  that  mU- 
intarBBt  i*  Ui«  tnling  mobre  of  man,  and  that  Qod 
U  only  an  ideal  being,  onated  by  kinsi  and  prievta. 
The  matehaliam  of  the  French  phmiopha  of  the 
ISth  o.  ii  nowhere  more  pernicioua  and  paltry  than 
in  the  writing  of  Holbach.  It  ii  but  fair  to  stat* 
that  hit  life  VM  better  than  hii  hooka  Hs  vai  a 
man  of  good  hMii,  aod  in  ipita  of  hii  theory,  of 
mo«t  nTiSiJHnTi  beuevoleoce.  When  the  Jesuiti  fell 
into  diigrace  daring  the  reign  of  Loui*  ZV.,  H., 
thoof^  he  hated  their  lyitem,  and  had  written 
auinat  them  in  the  day*  of  their  proaperi^,  made 
hu  hoaaeanaaylnmforhii  old  f  oei  wluci  the  clooda 
gathered  round  them. 

HOLBBIlf,  Ham,  the  Tooager,  one  of  tba 
fint  maatan  id  Oennan  art,  wM  bom  at  QrUn- 
atitdt  In  1497-  He  leamsd  the  mdjiuanta  of  art 
from  hi*  father,  Hana  Holbein  the  SLder,  alio 
a  jHunter  of  great  merit  (bom  1400,  died  1026). 
When  tittle  more  than  16  yean  of  age,  b«  adorned 
•e*etnl  hoaaee  and  ohorchei  at  BMel  with  por- 
tnita,  freecoet,  and  altar-pieoaa.  Traditian  bai 
prcaerTed  many  of  hia  droU  layinn  and  hi*  life 
n  M  rich  in  MkBodotea  aa  thoae  of  the  grMteat 
Italiaii  painteia.  H.  growing  tirad  of  B*Ml,£aimiit, 
who  took  ft  great  inleieat  m  him,  and  adeavonred 
to  induce  nim  to  abandon  hia  lixognlar  ooune 
of  life,  introdooed  bim  to  Sir  Thomai  Hare,  who 
kept  him  employed  in  Entdand  for  nearly  three 
yean,  and  then  inrited  Henry  Vin.  to  view 
the  pioturco.  Henry,  enniriMd  and  deUghted, 
eiclaimed :  '  Ii  the  artUt  itiU  alive,  and  ia  he  to  be 
had  for  money  V  More  preaented  H.  to  the  king, 
who  took  him  into  hii  Mrvjoe,  and  rewarded 
him  libraally.  H.  oontinned  to  retide  in  England, 
highly  eateemed  and  fully  employed,  till,  is  1694, 
he  died  of  the  piaffe.  Thoogh  obiefly,  and  at 
many  periods  of  hu  life  almoat  excluat*^,  a 
portrait-p^ter,  in  thii  «tyle  he  itanda  on  a  terel 
with  the  great  Italian  maaters,  and  takeapnoed- 
enoe  of  all  hia  German  oontemporariai.  mi  por- 
trut*  aro  not  ideali,  but  natnre  apinvhended  in  it* 
mo(t  intdleotnal  feature! ;  tiw  execution  ia  rich  and 
nerfeet.  To  the  eariier  part  of  hia  oareer  belong 
hia  moat  celebrated  pt^tuim,  including  '  The  Lait 
Supper,'  '  The  Dance  of  Death,'  Beverol  pictursi 
in  VM  Draiden  Qallery,  two  famoui  pormuti  of 
CDorteaani,  Ac    At  a  later  period,  hia  execution  ii 


who  bad  atudjed   ia  Italy. 
able    portrait!    bjr  H.,   belc 


Some   iplendid  and 

,        longing  to    tbii   period, 

the    Lonvre    at   Parii,  —   '■'— 


to  be __.       . 

Berlin  Mueeum,  at  Longford  aod  Windaor  Caltlea. 
Eighty-ieTsn  aketchei  of  personi  belonging  to 
the  court  of  Henry  VUL  ^  K  are  itill  extant 
Hii  '  Dance  of  Death,'  the  iliuatrationi  of  the  Old 
T^tament,  and  three  eet*  of  alphabet  initiala, 
would  certainly  entitle  hi"'  to  rank  aa  one  of  the 
&nt  wood-engravers,  cuppoaiti|^  them  to  have  been 
not  muely  ■jfign'^,  bat  likewue  engraved  by  him. 
Thii  opimon  has,  bowevra,  been  disputed,  and  the 
qaeation  rouaina  undecided  at  the  preaent  day,  A 
leleetion  from  H.*b  pictorea  in  the  library  at  Basel 
werepubliahed  in  fithwniplu  in  1S29,^  Biimann 
and  &ni  at  Baael. — Compare  Bant  Sotba»  dtr 
JUngere  (Berlin,  1827). 

HOLBBRO,  Lin>VIO,  the  areator  ot  modem 
Danish  literatnn,  and  not  only  the  earUeab  bat 
the  witttert  and  best  writer  <d  light  comedy  in 
" — irk,WM  bora  in  1684  at  Ber^D,in  Norway, 
I  pmiod  when  the  latter  ooamry  ftmned  part 
I  Danish  dominione.    Th»  ten  yean  wbioh 


•  noivenity  of  Copenhagen,  whera 
ne  nan  •cooiea  with  the  original  intention  of  ant<  ~'~  ~ 

the  ehnrob,  embnoe  the  moat  aotive  litanuj  pi 

of  hia  life  •,  tor  doling  that  time  he  ownposed  hia 
— '— aatirioo-heroiopoana  and  romanoea,  ar'  "" 


TOodnotiona  of  their  kiikd  in  the  Daniih  language. 
Xk*  oeation  of  a  national  theatre  in  J723  by  King 
Fraderiok  IV.,  who  aant  tor  French  naim  to 
teach  Daniih  nlAyert  the  art  of  deolaroation,  bad 
led  E.  to  try  Ilia  ttdents  in  dtMuatie  writing,  and 
the  succeM  which  attended  the  attempt  was  speed'' 
followed  by  other*  itill  more  feliatona.  Wea 
and  hooonn  poured  in  npoB  bim  as  he  advanoed  in 
TOus,  and  he  leoeiTed  a  patent  of  nobility  in  1746. 
He  died  in  1761  bequeadhing  hii  property  to  '*- 
Danish  Boyal  HilitarT  Aoademy  ot  Soroe.  I 
ooUaotadwraks  were  published  in  27Tola]iies  oetavo 
at  Copenhagen  in  1826 ;  and  in  1B42,  an  Msodation 
was  eatabliahed  in  that  oity  for  the  better  editing 
of  his  writinn,  the  dramatio  portion  of  which  v  ~ 
edited  by  lieEenb^  in  1843—1847. 

H'l  first  satirico-heroio  poftn  of  Ftder  Paart 
(1719),  and    his  NitU   KUnu   vndmjordMt   Rmtt 
(1741),  which  appeared    origiaally   io   Latin,  but 
latMl  into  lereral  modem 


which  was  spee£^  tranilatef 
languages,  ruik  among  his  bed  . 
among  nis  numerous  comedies  there  are  many  that 
have  enjoyed  an  almost  equal  poptilarity.  Of  these 
we  mv  instance  as  eemoiaOy  potable  (or  their 
broad  humour  and  truth  to  nature.  Den  poUtiiU 
Kandetlotber,  Jeppe  paa  Bytrget,  Dm  SfutuMotte, 
and  JuteifliCTi. 

EO'LCUa    BeeBorrQun. 

HOLD  Is  that  interior  compartment  of  a  vshsI 
throu^ut  her  length  whieh  ii  nearest  to  the  keel 
Prom  the  lowmmost  daok  it  extendi  to  the  voy 


line,  and 


ot  the  ship  |  it  is  slwaya  below  tiie 
id  dependent  on  the  hatdhways  for 
id  what  little  natunJ  light  it  obtaii 


•tored  in  the  hold  ; 
bnuul-room,  filled  with  provisioD.,  . 
tor  the  supply  of  the  ihip's  company,  and  almoat  all 
miscellaaeoui  storea,  such  aa  spare  maota,  laila, 
blocks,  tc  For  thii  latter  porpoee,  the  hold  ia 
nbdividad  into  several  •eotiona  by  bnlk-haada.  The 
Hfttr-hold  lies  abaft  the  nain-maa^  the  main-AoU 
just  before  the  lame  mast,  and  the/irs-AoU  is  from 
the  bow  nearly  to  the  main  hatchway. 

HOLDING,  the  term  in  Sootoh  IdiW  used  to 
denote  the  manner  in  which  heritable  eatate  ia 
holdmi,  corresponding  to  the  En^ish  Tenure  (q.  v.]. 
All  the  land  in  Scotland  is  presumed  to  be  holdan  i^ 
the  crown  as  the  superior,  and  all  penona  who  hold 
the  lands  are  i^ed  vsssala.  The  great  proprietor* 
aro  called  crown- vassala,  and  the  Ettle  proprietors, 
who  generally  hold  under  the  crown-vaiula  are 
called  vaMsli.  The  obief  holding  is  called  feu-hold- 
ing which  weans  that  Uie  vainuholdi  the  land  for 
ever,  subject  to  a  feu-duty  or  annual  payment  in 
money  er  grain  to  the  luperior.  Eaoh  vaaial  oau 
carve  out  Us  land  into  smaller  fens,  and  sell  them 
to  sub- vassals,  to  whom  hs  stands  in  the  relatian  of 
a  supsiior,  and  fo  on  to  infinity.  Thii  Is  not  a  mere 
form,  bnt  enten  into  the  sidMtanoe  of  land  tram- 
ten,  and  entail*  paat  expense  on  all  landholders, 
.-  ...I '  must  always  have  his  title  com- 
bs must  pay  up  the  little  dues 


prindide  tc  —  .._^ —  .     _.. 
nnMtioe  of  mbinfeudation  was  put  a  stop  to  ty  18 
£dw.  t,  ud  now  most  of  the  Isnd  in  Bngland  ll 


hyGooglc 


HOLDING  OYEB— HOLLAKD. 


hM  in  freeliold,  wliioli  mMmt  Oab  each  omer  U 
entire  mMter  of  hii  land,  tod  pftya  fees  or  par^ni- 
■itea  to  nobody,  not  even  to  ine  crown.  Bemdea 
feu-haldiutf  in  Motland  there  is  btench-lioldiiig,  which 
means  a  fidding  where  the  paymmt  it  nominAl. 
Foimerly,  Hurt  were  also  ward-holding  and  Morti- 
ficattan  (q.  v.),  the  latter  beijig  the  holding  hv 
which  charidica  and  religioiu  htnuoa  weie  held^ 
There  ia  ilsD  bnigsse-holdiiig,  applicable  to  Uada 
within  Bnigha  (q.  v\  ai^d  the  tnuufer  of  barrage 
tenemeatB  hu  been  lately  put  on  a  aimilar  footing 
to  other  tenements. 

HOLDING  OVER,  a  phraaa  in  Ikighah  Law, 
meaning  that  a  tenant,  alter  a  r^nlar  notice  to 
quit,  or  tiie  end  of  hia  term,  still  refusea  to  quit, 
and  holds  over.  In  such  a  case,  the  tenancy  ia  held 
to  be  renewed  on  the  aune  terms  from  year  to  year, 
if  the  landlord  choosea  not  to  enforce  the  quitting ; 
but  if  the  tenant  himself  gave  the  notice  to  quit,  or 
the  landlord  deniandii  pasteasion  at  the  expiration 
of  hii  notice,  and  then  the  tenant  refuses  to  quit, 
he  ii  thereafter  liable  to  donble  rent,  or  double  value 
according  as  the  notice  to  quit  came  from  the  tenant 
or  the  landlord-  In  Scotland,  this  renewal  of  the 
coDtract  is  called  Tacit  BdocaHim  (q.  v.) ;  but  no 
liability  to  doable  rent  is  incurred. 

HOLIDAT,  in  Law,  ntMns  Christmas  Day,  Good 
Friday,  and  any  other  di^  appointed  for  a  public 
fast  and  thankisiving.  There  are  other  holidays 
nsual  in  public  officea  and  coorb  of  Uv.  When  a 
bill  of  exchange  falls  due  on  a  Sunday,  payment 
must  be  made  the  day  previous.  If  it  lalu  due 
on  any  of  the  bank  bohdays,  the  bill  is  payable 
the  day  after,  la  England,  the  courts  eicusa  a 
{  man  for  not  giving  notice  of  dishonour  of  bills  of 
exchange  not  only  on  Sunday,  Good  Friday,  and 
Christmas  Day,  but  also  even  on  the  festival  days 
of  bis  own  religioQ ;  and  tboagh  there  has  been 
no  decision  in  Scotland  on  the  subject,  the  same 
rule  would  no  doubt  be  apphed  to  faat-days  pre- 
scribed by  different  sects,  and  a  notice  sent  on 
the  day  foUowiua  would  suffice.  But  as  a  general 
rule,  and  in  alf  other  respects,  it  may  bo  laid 
down  that  no  sect,  established  or  nnestablisbed, 
nor  any  court  or  public  body,  has  any  power  what' 
ever  to  declare  a  holidav  which  has  any  legal 
eAct,  or  which  can  bind  the  public  or  the  lights 
of  third  parties.  Nothing  but  an  act  of  parlianjent 
lias  tiiat  effect,  and  not  even  a  procUtnation  of  the 
Crown  would  be  sufficient  Hence  it  is  that  when 
»  solemn  national  fast  is  proclaimed,  which  is  to 
be  put  on  the  same  footing  as  a  Sunday,  it  requires 
a  special  act  of  parliament  to  make  it  binding  on 
the  public  in  matters  of  business. 


arly  part  of 
the  leth  c,  and  died  between  15Ta  and  1682.    The 

woric  by  which  he  is  remembered  is  entitled  The 


known  as  the  '  Sh^speare '  edition,  from  the  fact 

the  great  i' 

kl  ^ys.  It 
passages  disagreeable   to  Queen  Ehzabeth,  which 


akspeare 
pUed  the  great  dramatist  with 
-_.i  _, —    ^j  contained  some 


theaa  Cliromaa.  He  was  assistod  in  his  labours, 
among  others,  by  William  Harrison,  who  wrote  the 
historical  descriptions  of  the  island  of  Britain ;  and 
hy  Biohsrd  Stanihurst,  who  contributed  an  accotint 
of  the  condition  of  Ireland,  to  whidi  Jdm  Hooker 
added  the '  Cmqnest  of  Ireland '  (a  translation  from 
the  Latin  of  Giraldn*  Cambreniii).    B.  has  alwa^ 


HOLKAB,  the  came  of  a  powCTful  Mahratta 

family,  tliB  member*  of  which  have  at  various  timea 
been  formidable  enemies  to  the  British  empim 
in  Hindustan.  The  founder  of  the  fami^  was 
MuLSAB  Kao  Houus,  who  was  bom  m  llie 
Deccan,  1693,  and  having  gained  W  his  valour 
tbe  favour  of  the  Peisbw^  obtamed  bom  him  the 
weetem  half  of  Mslwah,  with  Indore  for  his  c^itaL 
In  1761,  he  joined  the  great  league  of  the  pnncea 
of  Hindustan,  formed  to  bar  the  progress  of  Ahmed 
Sbah  Durani,  and  was  present  at  the  battJe  of 
Faniput,  I4th  January  1761  ;  bat  as  he  fled  shortlv 
after  the  battle  bad  commenced,  he  was  suspected 
of  treason.  E.  was  the  onlv  Mahratta  chief  oi  note 
who  returned  from  that  dreadful  alaughter.  Ho 
died  in  1768,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  oieoe, 
Aytah-Baee,  who  resiraied  the  miUtuy  power  to 
ToEHAOi  HoLEAS.  Ou  nis  death  in  1797,  his  natural 
son,  JE3WUKT  Rao  Houub,  a  man  able,  brave,  and 
unscmpulous,  seized  Indore,  hat  was  driren  out  by 
Sdndia.  Such,  however,  was  E.'s  reputation  for 
energy  and  ability,  that  part  of  the  Tictoiioaa 
army  deserted  to  him,  with  whom,  and  his  own 
troops,  he  obtained  a  signal  victory  over  Sdndia 
and  the  Feishwah  (October  1802).  After  fighting  a 
long  time  against  the  British  with  varying  snmcM, 
he  was  compelled  to  oonclnde  peace,  and  died  insane, 
October  20,  ISll.  His  son,  Mulhas  iUo  Holkas 
II.,  a  minor  nine  years  old.  succeeded,  and  in  1617 
declared  war  against  the  British,  but  his  army 
was  totally  routed  at  Mshedpore,  2lat  December; 
whereupon  he  sent  offers  of  peace,  which  were 
accepted,  and  an  Enjfiuh  rendoKv  vku  obJAiAtd 
ai  Indent  m  Janvary  1S18.  He  died  in  1S33. 
Maktokd  Bao  Holeab,  Hurri  IUo  Holkab,  and 
Euiot  Rao  Holkab,  successively  ruled  after  him ; 
bat  the  last  of  these  dying  without  heirs,  ti    " 


the  auspices  of  the  British  sovemment^  and  who 
has  diiwayed  great  ability  amce  he  assumed  the 
reins  of  government  in  \SS2.  On  the  breaking  out 
of  the  mutiny  in  1867,  he  took  the  field  in  snpport 
of  tiie  British,  but  the  refractory  behaviour  of 
his   troops  prervented  his  rendering  any  efiectire 


HOLLAND,  Lord,  Hekry  Richard  Fox,  Vss- 
sall-Holland,  third  baron,  F.R.8.,  an  '''"gKA 
statesman,  was  descended  from  Henry  Fox,  first 
baron,  secretaryof  state  to  George  IL  H.  was  bon 
at  Wintenlow  House,  Wilts,  in  1773,  and  succeeded 
to  the  title  on  the  death  of  his  father,  the  second 
baron,  in  1774  He  went  to  Eton,  and  thence  to 
Christ  Church.  He  was  trained  for  public  life  by 
his  celebrated  uncle,  Charies  James  Fox,  and  made 
his  first  speech  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  January 
1798.  After  the  death  of  Mr  Fox,  K  held  the  port 
of  lord  privy  seal  in  the  Grenville  ministry  for  a  few 
months.  He  then  shared  the  long  banishment  of 
the  Whi^  from  the  councils  of  their  sovoeiglu 
During  this  long  and  drea^  interval,  H.,  to  use  Sie 
language  of  Idacaulay  (who  has  paid  an  eloquent 


of  all  opprened  raoea  and  persecuted  aecta.'    He 

held  unpopular  opinions  in  regard  to  the  war  with 
France,  and  signed  a  protest  against  the  detention 
of  Napoleon  at  8t  Helena.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
laboured  to  ameliorate  the  severity  of  the  criminal 
code;  mademanfnlwar,thonsha  West  India  planter, 
on  the  slave  trade ;  threw  his  whole  heart,  thou^ 
a  landowner,  into  the  straggle  against  the  C<^ 
Laws ;  aikl  idthongh  by  rank  and  breeding  an  aris- 
tocrat^ laboued  incmintly  to  extend  and  coniim 


Liniizodh'. 


yClOOglC 


HOIiAND— HOLLY. 


tha  nghti  and  libcotiM  of  tlw  mibiecL  In  1830,  he 
beoune  iduucellor  of  the  daohy  i^  LauoMter,  uid  a 
mambet  <^  the  rafoitn  cabinet  of  Eatl  Grey,  and 
time  posti  he  alio  held  in  the  Melboame  minutty. 
He  died  at  Holland  Honae,  Kensiiigton,  October  SB, 
ISUX  In  hii  ample  penon  and  expreniTe  features, 
he  Teeembled  hia  celebrated  uncle. 

HO'LLAND,  a  name  frequ^tJy  applied  to  the 
kingdom  of  tba  Netherianda  (q.  v.),  aluiougli  in  the 
atriCtest  ■eniw  it  it  Hiplicable  only  to  the  piorincee 
of  Korth  and  Sonth  Holland  (q.  t.). 

HOIiljAIfD,  New,  the  name  fotmerly  applied  to 
the  island  Or  cootiQent  of  Anatrtlia  (q.  v.). 

HOLJiAITD,  Pabib  of.    See  Limcolmbhibi. 

HOLLAND,  NoKTR,  a  proTinca  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands,  lying  between  sr  Iff  and  53° 
18*  N.  Ut.,  and  4°  Sff  and  6°  Ztf  E.  long.  Area, 
1060  Bqaare  milea,  and  [mpulation  (1S72I  JS91,33a 
North  H.  cooaiata  of  a  pemnaula  joined  to  the  main' 
land  at  ita  Bonthem  extremitr,  and  of  tiie  islands 
of  Wieringen,  Texel,  and  Vueland,  lying  at  its 
northern  extremity.  It  ii  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
the  German  Ocean,  and  on  the  R  by  the  Zoider 
Zee.  The  snrfaoe  ia  manhy,  and  in  many  places 
Uea  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  from  whose  encroach- 
nenta  it  ia  protected  by  dunes  and  dykea,  while 
oanala  intersect  and  dnia  it  in  erety  diraction. 
The  principal  riTsr  is  the  Amstel  The  canal  from 
Amsterdam  to  Nienwediep  is  an  important  water- 
way, bnt  will  Boon  be  inpeneded  (for  large  ahipe) 
by  one  in  process  of  oonatmotion  (1874). 

Tha  Haarlem  I^e  (q.  t.)  has  been  drained  and 
conTerted  into  produotive  land,  with  a  population 
(in  1870)  of  11.27!^  but  there  itiU  ezi«t  various 
imall  lakea  or  ponds  in  the  nuusby  diatricta.  The 
chief  towna  of  the  province  are  Aiosterdam,  Haar- 
lem, Alkmaar,  Zaandam  or  Saaidam  (q.  v.). 

HOLLAND,  South,  a  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Netherhmda,  lying  between  SI*  4fi'  and  52°  20* 
N.  Ut,  and  3*  60'  and  S°  10"  E.  laag.  Area,  1162 
square  mil^  and  population  (1873).  710,753.  It 
i«  bounded  on  the  N.  by  North  Holland,  E,  bv 
Utrecht  and  Oelderland,  S.  by  the  Maas,  which 
■epaiatea  it  &om  Zeeland  and  North  Brabant,  and 
W.  by  Uia  German  Ocean.  South  H  oonipriaes  the 
land  around  the  embauohuree  of  the  Bhine  and 
Maas,  which  ia  cat  up  in  its  southern  portiona  into 
teveral  islanda — via,,  Voome,  Overflaokkee,  and 
Qoeree,  Patten,  Yaadinonde,  Beijerland,  &c. 

The  country  ia  flat  and  low,  and  ia  broken  by  no 
elevation  beyond  the  downs,  which  protect  it  from 
the  sea.  Streanu  and  canala  inteiaect  it  in  all 
directions,  and  it  abonnda  with  lakes  and  with 
poldert,  or  lands  that  have  been  recovered  from 
the  sea  or  lakea  by  dnuning.  One  of  the  moat 
noted  of  Oiese  is  the  BiesboB<£,  land  recovered  from 
a  marshy  lake  which  was  formed  by  the  terrible 
inundation  of  1421.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Old 
Rhine,  the  Yasel,  Lek,  Maaa,  and  Merwede.  The 
princiTol  towna  of  South  H.  are  the  Hague,  Ley- 
den,  Kottardam,  Dordreolit,  Gorinchem,  Brielle, 
Oouda,  Delft,  and  Schiedam  (q.  v.).  The  two 
provincea  of  Holland  rank  amoa^  the  most  popu- 
fouB  diabicta  of  Europe,  and  their  inhabitants  are 
^tiogniahed  for  indefatigable  industry  and  habits 
of  great  cleanliness.  The  rearing  of  cattle,  of  which 
there  are  upwards  of  a  million  in  North  and 
Soulji  Holland,  and  the  preparation  of  butter  and 
cheese,  constitute  tha  principal  acurcea  of  industry 
in  the  rural  diatricta.  Allunaar  in  North  Holland, 
and  Qonda  in  Sonth  H.,  are  the  great  centrea  of 
the  cheeae-faade,  The  prorinces  ofHolland  enjov 
the  largest  ahue  of  the  national  comnurce  and 
wealth. 


HOLLAND,   Sm  HxHsy,  Bart,  MJ>.,  r.RS., 

D.CL.,  &c,  an  eminentphysician,  bom  at  Knutsford, 
Cheshire,  m  1788.  He  received  hi*  profeadonu 
education  in  London,  and  subsequently  at  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  graduated  aa 
M.D.  in  1811.  He  then  spent  two  or  three  yeara 
m  the  east  of  Europe ;  and  in  1815,  after  hia  return 
to  Enaland,  published  hia  Tra-neU  tn  Albania, 
Thaaalg,  ic,  in  a  4to  volume.  He  settled  in  Lon- 
don, and  soon  rose  to  high  entin^oce  in  hia  pro- 
fession, of  which  he  became  one  of  the  recognised 
heada.  In  1828,  he  waa  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians,  a  distinction  at  that 
time  very  rarely  conferred  upon  a  Scottish  M.D. 
In  1840,  he  waa  appointed  physician-in-ordinaiy  to 
the  Prince  Consort,  uid  in  18&,  physioian-in-ordinary 
to  the  Queen.  In  the  following  year,  he  was  made 
a  baronet  In  1866,  the  univereity  of  Oxford  con- 
ferred on  him  tha  bonoraiy  degree  of  D.C.L.,  and 
he  has  likewise  received  the  dMiee  of  LLP,  fr — 

the  univerwty  of  Cambridge,   Maasachuletta.     

1S40,  he  published  a  volume  entitled  Mtdical  Jfota 
and  SrjUclumt,  consisting  of  34  easaya  upon  varioua 
of  the  most  interesting  departments  oiF  medicine 
and  psychology,  which  nas  passed  through  several 
editions.  lo  18S2,  hia  Chapten  on  ifent<d  Phyti-  ' 
ology  a_ppeared,  which  are  '  eniansions  of  those 
eesay*  in  hia  former  work  which  ta^eated  of  '  that  ' 
particular  part  of  human  physiology  which  com- 
prises the  reciprocal  actions  and  relatione  of  mental 
and  bodily  pheDomens.'  TTia  JSiiayi  on  ScUntifit 
Sjilrjedt,  published  in  1362,  and  cmbraciiie  the 
consideration  of  many  of  ihe  most  profound  Babjecte 
in  pbyeics,  shew  that  if  his  special  studies  had  taken 
a  dtETerent  direction,  he  would  have  attained  fame  aa 
a  natural  philosopher.  The  Secolleclions  of  Paat  Life  I 
he  published  in  1871.    B.  died  Oct  1873. 

HOLLANDS.    See  Gdi.  | 

HOLLOW- WABB.     A  trade  term,  applied  to    j 

ch  common  iion  utensiU  as  are  hollow,  such  as    | 

caldrons,  sauce-pans,  kettlea,  &c.  | 

HOLLT  ITUx),  a  genas  of  trees  and  ahrube  ol 
the    natural    order    Aqutfaliacea,    chiefly   nativea    j 
of  tempeiste  dimatea ;   with  evergraen,  leathery, 
shining,  and  generally  spinous  leaves ;  small  dowers    . 
which  have  a  4 — B-tootbed  calyx,  a  wheel-shaped 
4 — 6-cleft   coroUa,  4  or  6  stamens,  and  the  fruit    | 

gobose  and  fleehy,  wiUi  4  or  5  atones  {ntd»).    Tho 
JioiON   H.    (/.  aqiMiiivm),  tile   <mly  European    [ 
speoiea,  and  a  native  a^  of  aome  parts  of  Asia,  is  a    I 
well-known  ornament  of  woods,  parks,  and  shrub-    I 
beries  in  Britain,  the  stifineaa  <rf  its  habit  being  so    I 
compmuated  by  the  abundance  of  ita  branchleta    I 
and  leaves,  aa  to  make  it  one  of  ont  most  beautiful    i 
evergreens.    It  is  found  as  a  native  plant  in  Scot- 
land, although  Britain  is  nearly  its  northern  limit ;    i 
and  it  attains  a  greater  size  and  displays  greater 
luxuriance  in  Uie  northern  than  in  the  southem    | 
parte  of  ita  geographic  range,  often  appearing  in    i 
ihe  former  as  a  tice   of  considerable   sise,  20  to 
SO  feet  high,   whilst  in  the  latter  it  is  generally 
a  mere  bnsh-      It  prefers  light  soils.    I^ere  are    I 
numerous   vaiietiea   of  H.,   produced,   or  at  least    | 
perpetuated  by  cultivation,  exhibiting  great  diver-    l 
si^  in  tiie  leaves,  of  which  the  JTa^ehog  H.  may    | 
be  mentioned  aa  extremely  sinnous   and   spinous, 
whUst  others  are  prised  for  their  colour,  golden,    j 
silver-blotched,   Ac     The  flowen   of   the  H.   ore    i 
whitiah,    axillary,    nesTly    umbellate ;    the    fruit 
amall,  scarlet,  rwely  yellow  or  white.    The  abund- 
ance of  the  fruit  adds  much  to  tlie  ornamental 
character  of  the  iree  In  winter,  and  afforda  food    < 
tot  birda ;  but  to  man  it  ia  purgative,  emetic,  and    I 
diuretio,  and  in  larger  quantilies  poisonous.    The 
leaves  are  inodcmnui,  have  a  mucilaginous  bitter    j 


J-tTtklO 


5^. 


HOLLT  aPBlNGS-HOLOPTTCHroa 


and  aomewhrnt  ftTUtere  taste,  and  HaTB  bMn  oaed 
medioinallf  in  enaoa  of  gont  and  Thmmatiiin,  as  a 
diaphoretic,  and  also  aa  an  aatiingont  and  tonio  to 

oonect  a  tandencj  to  diairhiss,  fto.      "^^   ' 

and  small  branches,  chopped,  an  so 
for  feeding  sheep  in  seTen  winters.  The  root 
and  hark  aro  emollient,  expectorant,  and  diuretic 
Bird-lime  (q.  v.)  is  made  from  the  inner  bark.  The 
vood  is  ahnoet  as  white  aa  ivory,  verj  hard  and 
fine-grained,  and  is  need  bj  cabinet- makers,  tnraen, 
mna^al  initrament-makers,  tc.,  and  sometimes  for 
wood-eograTing.  Handles  of  tools  and  handles  oi 
metal  tea-pots  are  very  often  made  of  it.  The  H. 
is  often  plmted  for  hedces,  as  it  bean  clipping 
well,  and  makes  an  eiceUent  fenca.  A  H.  hedge 
nay  either  bo  kept  low,  or,  as  i*  the  case  at 
Tyninghame,  in  East  Lotiuan,  allowed  to  grow  to 
the  hei^^t  of  20  or  90  feet.  In  ths  gardening  of 
former  days,  hollies  were  often  clipped  into  Sm- 
tastdc  shapes.  The  name  E.  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  ose  of  the  branches  and  berries  to  decorate 
churches  at  Christmas,  from  which  the  tr«e  was 
oalled  Holy  Tree.— Nmneroos  other  speciea  of  H. 
are  found  in  North  America,  most  of  them  in 
awampy  sitnntioiu,  in  South  America,  Nepnnl,  Japan, 
and  other  ports  ol  the  world  ;  some  of  wtiich 
have  now  become  not  unireqaent  ornamental  trees 
and  abrubs  in  Britwn. — MiLTfi  (q.  t.),  or  PaTaguay 
TVa,  is  the  leaf  ol  a  SouUi  American  species  m  H. 
(/.  Parofpuntti). 

HOI.I.T  8PBIVQS,  a  vOLage  m  Northern 
Misaisaippi,  United  States,  America,  on  the  Cenlzal 
Bailwi^,  26  miles  sonth  of  its  jniLctian  with  the 
Hempbis  and  Charleston  line.  It  is  Uie  principal 
town  in  Iforthem  Misaisaippi,  and  contains  several 
chnrohes,  four  "■'^■"''—i  a  bank,  and  two  or 
three  newspapers,  with  a  large  trade  in  cotbm  and 
merchandise.    Pop.  (1870)  3000. 

HCLLTBOCK  (AlOaa  ro»ai),  a  plant  of  the 
uatntal  order  JfolaaoMB,  oommonly  referred  to  the 
Muue  genu*  witb  Che  Uiusli  Hollow  (q.  v.).  It  has 
a  tall,  stnight,  hairy  it«m ;  heort-uaped,  cruate, 
wrinkled,  5-~T-angled  leavso,  and  1am  axillary 
flowers  almost  without  stalks ;  the  leaves  rtlmiwi«>iing 
into  bracts,  and  Uie  nroer  pvt  <^  the  stcon  farming 
a  B^e;  the  petals  hairy  at  tba  base.  The  H.  is  a 
natin  of  India,  the  south  of  Europe,  Ac.,  ia  to  be 
seen  in  almost  every  gaiden  in  India,  and  haa  been 
moch  ouhivat«d  in  ^trdena  in  Britsjn  from  a  very 
early  period.  At  present,  it  is  a  favourite  flower, 
and  varieties,  the  result  of  cultivation,  are  very 
numerous.  It  varies  much  in  the  colour  of  Oa 
flowers,  and  double  and  semi-double  variatiea 


— , lOlDX  till 

the  froat  seti  in.  It  is  a  biennial  or  peremuiJ  plant 
The  stem  risea  to  a  he^t  of  8—16  feet,  unbnncbiiig, 
or  uesrly  ao.    Tha  fibres  ti  the  plut  have  been 


.  iL 

that  It  mioht  be  oultii 


for  cultivatian  c 


Into  yam,  but  it 
Tohlable  fi 
smannlaott 

imiohtbec 

green  fodder  for  cattle,  which  are  very  lond  of  its 


of  paper.    It  is  not  improbable 
iv^ed  with  advantage  to   "    ' 


mt,  and  the  leavea  are  prodnoed  in  great  abnnd- 

M  if  tiie  plant  is  prevented  from  flowering.    The 

Bomn  ara  muoHagmons  and  demulcent,  uid  are 
•ometlaiea  used  like  those  of  mallows  and  marsh 
mallows.  The  leavea  yield  a  fine  blue  dye. — Tha 
CHunu  H.  {A.  Ckmauu)  ia  an  allied  sp«ciaa. 

HOLHKS,  OuvxR  WEiTDiai,  M.D.,  an  American 
phyaidaii  and  author,  was  born  at  Cambridge, 
MMsaohnMtta,  August  29,  1809.  In  1829,  he 
mduatad  at  Harraid  Cdlwe,  and  entered  apoa 
uie  study  of  law,  but  soon  a£tpted  his  other's  pro- 
tession — medicine.  He  studied  in  Borope,  graduated 
as  doctor  of  medkina  in  18!K^  and  two  yeata  after 


if  anatomy  and  p 


-  -^. ly  and  phyriolagT 

In  Dartffionth  Collese ;  and  in  1847,was  mnstemo 
to  tha  lame  chair  M  Harvard,  the  medical  difart- 
ment  of  whieb  is  at  Boston,  where  he  hsa  siiiM 
resided.  Dr  H.  Is  not  only  a  man  of  adanoe,  bats 
humorous  and  satirical  poet  of  much  ability.  Bevanl 
of  his  lyrics  also  are  among  the  mMt  exquisite  nn>. 
dnced  m  America.  Host  of  his  paans  nafa  been 
delivered  beforo  cidU^  litwvy  wewtiM,  as  i^MbT,  d 
Mtlrvial Bmos t  Ttrjutdior*!  Urama;  •sdJAna. 
In  1867  he  contributed  his  Avioavt  t^the  Bna^fiul 
Tabk,  a  connected  series  of  pros*  easi^s,  to  tlie 
AUatUie  MmOU]/,  which  was  followed  by  7h  Pni- 
fiuor  at  Hit  Bttalifail  TcMe,  which  haa  the  added 
interest  of  a  story.  A  remarkule  work  is  tiie  ftngnTmi- 
Fenner  (1861).    Ci  H.  is  one  irf  the 


[s  may  be  mentioned  Boylaltm  Prise  DisMrtaHom, 
jiecAtrsf  cti  Botnaopath]/  md  iU  Kindred  Dduaou,  a 
S^ort  on  Mtdieal  Litemtare,  besides  many  artidei 
in  profesrioual  periodicals.  In  ISSS,  he  pnbliihni 
a  second  novel,  entitled.  The  Ovardian  Angti;  ind 
in  1S70,  Mtduimtm  m  Thought  asd  MbraU. 

HOLOCAIITHnS,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the 
family  Chalodontida  (q.  v.),  remarkable  for  Um 
great  beauly  and  ^mmetry  of  thair  oolonra,  and  (or 
ueir  Bzcellenoa  as  articles  of  food.  They  have  the 
very  compressed  form  and  other  genenf  charaotoa 
of  the  Chatodoniidm,  »  •uude  dorsal  fin,  and  a  km 
■pine  on  the  aUl-oovw.  niey  are  native*  of  w 
seas  of  wann  dimatea.  ff.  inaentor  Is  one  at  Ihs 
most  eateemed  fiiliM  ol  the  Esat  Ii^isfl,  rivaUiag 
the  salmon  in  flavour.  Its  greatest  aita  ia  ahoat  15 
inoheslong;  ita  colour  is  deep  Una,  irilh  nnnovai 
narrow  bonds  of  orann  t^a  pectoral  fins  black,  tha 
toil  bri^t  yellow.  H  ia  known  in  acme  ta>r^  el 
tha  Bast  as  Uia  Sntpavr  {jfJajian. 

HOliOCAVST.    See  SAOninoa. 

HOLOFffRNEa    See  Jcdetk. 

HO'IiOOBAFH  fOr.  Aoloi,  all,  and  gn^ 
writing],  deed  or  writing,  in  Scotch  I^w,  bmuu 
a  writing  in  which  the  author  or  maker  do<a  bii 
own  ^umonahip.  Oonsidarable  privil««  an  BttB 
to  thu  apedea  of  writing,  wbaieas,  in  Bn^aad  sad 
Ireland,  it  la  in  generot  utteriy  inmiatenal  irtnae 
penmoiiBliip  b  lOM,  provided  tne  pw^  sign  or  seal 
the  writing  or  deed.  In  Scotland,  it  »  pwaai  exe- 
cute hia  will  or  a  deed  in  hc^wrafdi,  this  ditpoMi 
with  the  usual  fonnalitlea  which  would  be  requiiit* 
if  he  merely  mgned  a  papar  writtaa  by  aoolha' 
hand,  for  no  witnessea  are  reqnired  to  otteat  hia- 
graph  deeds  or  testaments.  If  the  handwrits^ 
however,  is  dispnted,  evidence  must  ba  ^vm  ss  ts 
whose  handwriting  it  is.  In  England,  it  is  ijaH* 
immateriol  whether  a  person  writes  out  his  am  will 
or  not;  in  eitlier  cos*  there  nuat  ba  two  wiUiesKa 
So  m  the  eaae  o(  hdMiraph  miMiva  wiitinn  sm 
acoounta,  there  ia  a  diffiMioe  aa  to  the  pood  n 
prescription  andioatde  in  Sootlond,  but  in  En^ud 
there  is  no  distinotion  merely  on  *^'"  ground  ^Hx 
distinction  between  holograph  ond  other  deed*  als^ 
prevoili  in  the  low  of  Fianoe  and  other  CMltinental 


HOLOPTT'OHltrS  (iotoi  tO,  and  ffSflM 
wrinkle),  a  remarkable  genus  ol  toanl  ganoid  flilx^ 
BO  named  from  the  wrinkled  oppeanuice  of  tlu 
enamelled  scales.  They  were  <n  lorae  size,  »i»* 
tpeciea  probablyreachino  the  leDgth  ol  12  feet  Iba 
small  head  was  covend  with  large  tubereulstio 
platea,  like  thoae  of  the  crocodile,  and  tha  body 
completely  encased  in  laive  acales,  more  like 
-  -'  -  reptile  than  -  "'^     " '-  •■"• 


ivGoQi^le 


HOLOTHUEIA— HOiarEIN. 


Iwne,  in  Bumenma  layeis,  airaDsed  ilteniatelj  at 

right  wigl«a  to  each  other,  and  the  outuda  waa 
eovend  with  a  bnght  gloa^  corrugated  enamel. 
The  Bpinea  of  the  &i  were  Ia»e  aod  hollow ;  the 
bones  were  partiallr  oatified ;  the  centra  remained 


queDtiy  ■ 


d  with  hard  enamel  instead  of  (tin,  and  were 
fumiahed  with  a  double  row  of  teeth ;  the  outer 
row,  placed  along  tbe  edge  of  the  month,  were  atnall 
and  thickly  set ;  the  inner  range  were  widely  «et, 
and  Teiy  larg^  at  leait  twenty  timei  tbe  bulk  of 
"" "  "^'"  srs.    The  apeoimen  figured  w        '     ' 


the  othen. 


I  obtuned  at 


Holoptycliioi  Kobilinimiu  (AgH>.). 

(naahbennie,  on  the  I^rth  of  Tay,  by  Mr  Noble ;  it 
DOW  farma  part  of  the  Biitiih  Husenm  collection. 
It  ia  a  foot  acron  by  two  feet  and  a  half  long 
without  the  tail,  which  ii  waating.  It  ia  nearly 
perfect,  lying  on  ita  back,  with  tbe  acalet  and  the 
ventral  fins  in  their  original  position. 

The  genna  ia  pecnUar  to  the  Old  Red  SandstouB 
and  Carbonifeniua  Measure* ;  eieht  species  being 
toond  in  the  former,  and  nine  in  the  latter.  It  baa 
been  propoaed  to  confine  the  name  Holoptychius  to 
the  fosails  of  the  Old  Bed  Sandstone,  und  to  give 
that  of  Shitodua,  which  Owen  applied  to  (he  t^th 
nmaina  before  their  oonneotioD  with  the  fish  was 
known,  to  the  HnloptTchiana  of  the  Coal  Measorea, 
irilick  haTB  As  onter  row  of  teeth  more  robntt  and 
r,  and  more 

HOLOTHtntIA,    a    genos   of   Bdmodermaia 


Holothoria 
^  H.  phaptApni;    i,  bneeal  tppndi 

f,  H.  HpLllou;  d,  u  imola-ttd  brui^ 

igm  of  H.  papiUiiH ;  *,  H.  ddcuhIi  ;  f,  H.  nttiU. 


of  the  bnceil  sppfDd- 


Ska-sluo  and  Ssa.-cucuhber  are  i>opular  name*  of 
soma  of  the  animala  of  this  family.    Tbe  ffolo- 
Ihurida  bare  not  the  covering  of  cahiareous  plates 
cbaractaristic  of  the  more  typical  Bdimodermaia, 
but    a    soft   leatheiT  muacolar   inteKument,  tbij 
irritable,  and  capable  of  great  distention  and  con- 
traction.   Some  of  tliem  ate  almoat  globoae,  some  so 
mach  elonnted  aa  to  be  almost  worm-like ;  hnt  the 
same  individual  Is  often  capable  of  extent^g  itselt 
to  several  times  the  leosth  which  it  has  in  a  Mate  of' 
Kpoae.  In  locomotion,  tbe  body  is  extended  and  con- 
tracted aa  by  tbe  simelidea,  bat  the  prinoipal  i^gans 
tion,  as  in  star-fiahee  and  aea-nrchins,  are 
sacken  or  Avtbulacra  {a,  v.],  of  which 
there  are  usnally  five  double  tows,  whilst 
sometimes  they  are  distributed  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body ;  but  some  of 
.    the  species  have   the  sucker*  developed 
only  on  a  disc,  and  the  body  then  pre- 
senta   an  upper   and  an   onaer  ■ot&ce. 
The  radiate  structure  ia  moat   apparent 
in  the  mouth,  which  is  surrounded  with 
tentacles,  in   number  alwa^  a  multiple 
of  five,  exhibiting  great  variety  of  lieauti- 
ful    forms,   and   capable  of   being   oom- 

iiletely  redacted.  Little  ia  hnown  of  the 
aod  of  the  HohOairidcB,  which,  however, 
probably  conaiats  of  small  marine  animals. 
Within  the  opening  of  the  mouth  there  is  a  circle  of 
teeth.  There  is  no  proper  stomach  The  inteetdoe 
is  often  veiy  Domplicated.  The  respiratory  ornos 
are  near  the  anus,  and  consist  of  branching  tubes. 
Tbe  or^tUB  of  boUi  texea  are  found  in  es«h  indivi- 
dual. The  young  pass  tbroogb  several  stages  or 
tronsformatiouB,  in  which  they  are  very  onlike  their 
parents ;  in  their  first  stage,  after  leaving  the  egg, 
they  swim  vigorously  bv  means  of  membranous 
expansions  of  the  body.  Tbe  H^oIofAuru&e  are  capable 
of  the  most  extraordinary  reproduction  of  parts, 
even  of  the  most  important  organs.  They  are  found 
in  all  seaa,  but  particularly  atonnd  in  the  Red  Sea, 
and  between  the  south  of  Asia  and  Australia.  Tbe 
lai^est  European  epedea,  H.  {Cvatvaria)  frondoia, 
occaaionally  found  in  the  Brildah  seas,  is  about 
a  foot  in  length,  and  capable  of  extending  itself 
to  three  feet  Most  of  the  foitiah  species  are 
small,  and  they  are  not  of  a  pleasing  appearance  as 
they  usnally  come  under  observation,  although  the 
expanded  tentacles  give  them  besutr  in  their  proper 
ahodea.  But  many  of  the  tropical  species  exhibit 
B[dendid  colours,  and  are  among  the  creatures  which 
inake  the  bottom  of  tbe  sea,  particnlarly  among  coral 
leefs  and  i«l«m<«^  gay  and  lovely  aa  a  garden. 

The  BMe^-mer  (q.  v.),  or  Trepang,  so  much 
esteemed  aa  a  delicacy  by  the  Chinese,  belongs  to 
this  family. 

HOXSTBIK,  fonneri^  a  duchy  belonging  to  Den- 
mark, and  at  the  same  tune  a  member  of  the  Ger- 
manic Confederation,  was  annexed  in  1863  to  Prussia. 
It  is  separated  from  Slesvig  on  the  H.  by  the 
river  Eyder  and  the  Slesvig- Holstein  Canal ;  is 
bounded  on  tbe  £.  bv  the  Baltic  Sea,  the  territory 
of  Lubech,  and  the  duchy  of  Laueoburg ;  on  the 
3.  by  the  Eambniv  territory  and  the  river  Elbe, 
which  separates  it  From  Hanover ;  and  on  the  W. 
by  the  North  Sea.  Area,  3270  sq^nare  m" 
651,610.  The  princiiul  rivers,  besidea  the 
the  Eyder,  are  the  StliT  and  the  Trave. 
aotface  of  the  land,  one-eighth  consists  of  _..  ._ .  . 
He  central  districts  of  the  province  are  occupied 
by  an  undulating  plain,  varied  by  low  hills,  and 
tnveiBed  from  north  to  sonth  I7  a  heathy  and 
sandy  ridge,  from  which  the  land  falls  away 
lually  on  the  east — where  the  surface  is  varied 
lakea  and  fertile  well-wooded  valleys— and  on 
t£e  west.    The  soil,  with  the  exception  of  several 


KiS 


"t7t?Dogte 


HOLBTEBS-HOLY  liSLAKD. 


and  lima  ore  the  only  minerals  found.     Amber  ia 


■  the 


and  t 


■boonda  in  peat  The  manufacturer  of  H.  are 
inconmdermble ;  agricultnre  and  tliQ  rearing  of  cattle 
are  the  chief  employments  of  the  peo^e.  The 
hintorf  of  H.  and  its  political  relations  are 
noticed  in  the  article  Slesvio. 

HO'LSTERS,  caua  for  pistols  affixed  to  the 
pommel  of  a  saddla  They  are  frequeotly  covered 
with  wool  or  fur,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  cider  in 
the  event  of  his  being  thrown  f  onrard  apon  them. 

HOLT  ALLIANCE,  a  league  formed  afte^ 
the  fall  of  Kapoleon  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Prussia,  nominaUy  to  regulate  tbe 
relations  of  the  states  of  Christeudom  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  Christian  charity,  but  really  to  preserve 
the  power  and  influence  of  the  existmg  dynasties. 
Moat  of  the  other  European  rulers  acceded  to  it,  and 
the  treaty  was  formally  made  public  in  the  Frank- 
furt  Joaraal,  February  2,  1816.  It  was  in  virtue  of 
this  league  Uiat  Anstna,  in  1821,  crushed  the  revo- 
lutions m  Naples  and  Piedmont,  and  that  France,  in 
1823,  restored  absolutism  in  Spain.  Subsequsntly, 
both  France  and  England  seceded,  after  which  it 
became  a  mere  nominu  unt^ro.  A  special  article  of 
the  treaty  excluded  for  ever  the  members  of  the 
Bonaparte  family  from  any  European  throne  1 


be  the  aeamleas  coat  of  our  Saviour,  and  to  have 
been  discovered  in  the  4th  c  by  the  Empress 
Helena,  in  her  memorable  visit  to  Palestine,  and  by 
ber  deposited  at  Tttrtet.     The  Treves  relics  were 


The  Holy  Coal  ot  Treves. 

concealed  from  the  Normans  in  the  Mh  c  in  ctypta . 
but  the  Holy  Coat  was  rediscovered  in  1196,  and 
then  sdemnly  exhibited  to  the  pnhlio  gaie,  which 


did  not  talce  place  agun  tiU  1512,  when  multitada 
flocking  to  eee  and  venerate  it,  Leo  X.  appointed  it 
to  be  exhibited  every  seveo  yeaia.  The  R^oimation 
and  wars  prevented  tbe  regular  observance  of  this 
great  religious  festival;  bat  it  was  celebrated  in 
1810,  and  was  attended  by  a  concourae  of  no  fewer 
than  227,000  peiBoas ;  and  in  1844  by  still  greater 
multitudes,  whilst  miraculous  cnree  were  confidently 
asserted  to  be  performed  by  the  precious  relic.  Ths 
exhibition  of  the  Holy  Coat  in  1844  ia  otherwiw 
memorable  for  the  reaction  which  it  produced, 
leading  to  tbe  secessiou  of  BongG  and  the  German 
Csthohcs  from  the  Church  of  Rome. — For  further 
iafonnation  see  The  Bock  of  Days,  published  by 
W.  &  R.  Chambers. 

HOLY  FAMILY,  the  name  given,  in  tlie 
language  of  art,  to  eveir  representation  of  the  infant 
Sanour  and  his  atteniUDts.  Id  the  early  part  of 
the  middle  ages,  when  the  object  in  view  was  io 
excite  devotion,  the  Virgin  and  Child  were  uauallv 
the  only  persons  represented.  At  b.  later  period, 
Joseph,  Elizabeth,  St  Anna  (tbe  mother  of  tbe 
ir: — iQj^and  John  tbe  Baptist,  were  included.  Some 
e  cjd  German  painters  have  added  the  twelve 
apostles  as  children  and  plavfellows  of  the  infant 
Christ,  as  well  as  their  moth^,  as  stated  in  the 
legends.     The  Italian  school,  with  its  fine  feeling 


undivided,  and  be  concentrated  on  oae 
whether  that  figure  be  the  Madonna  or  the 
Two  matters  ore  pre-eminent  in  this  species 
of  representation — Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  RaphaeL     I 
HOLT  GHOST,  or  HOLY  SPnUT,  in  Ortho-    | 
dox  Theolo^,  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity  (q.  v.),   . 
proceeding  bum  the  Father  and  the   Son,  yet  of 
oos  substance,  majesty,  and  gloiy  with  tbe  Father 
and  the  Son,  veiy  and  eternal  Qod.     !^i  distinct   < 
penonality  is  believed  to  be  attested  by  a  multi- 
tade  of  passages  in  Scripture,  which  it  la  nnnecM-   \ 
sary  to  quote.    One  may  suffice ;  '  But  when  the   i 
Comforter  is  come,  whom  I  will  send  onto  yon  fcnm 
the  Father,  even  the   Spirit  of  truth,  which  pnv    ' 
oeedeth  &(nn  die  Father,  he  shall  testify  of  ne' 
(John  XV.  26).    The 'Procession'  (q.  v.)  of  Ue  Spirit 


between  IL 

Churches.  He  is  essentiaUy  a  spirit  of  holiness, 
and  his  grand  function  is  to  apply  to  the  hearti 
of  men  the  beneflts  of  Chiist's  deatii,  to  work 
in  them,  first,  a  belief  of  the  truth  aa  it  is  id 
Jesus,  and  thrai  to  eanctify  them  by  that  buth. 

HOLY  GRASS  {HierorMoe  bortalu),  a  gnus 
abont  a  foot  high,  with  a  brownish  glossy  l'^ 
panicle.  It  ia  fonnd  in  the  moat  northern  psjls  of  , 
Britain,  and  in  tbe  north  of  Europe.  It  has  a  sweel 
smell,  like  that  of  vernal  grass;  and  in  Iceland, 
where  it  is  plentiful,  it  is  lued  for  scenting  apart- 
ments and  clothes.  In  some  countries,  it  is  atrev^  ' 
on  the  floors  of  places  of  worahip  on  festival-dsjn, 

HOLT  ISLAND,  or  LINDISFA'BNK  » 
small  island  of  England,  belonging  to  the  county 
of  Northumberland,  and  situated  abont  ten  milet 
south-east  of  Berwick-on-Tweed.    It  is  about  four   i 
miles  long,  and  two  miles  broad,  and  is  coniiect«l   , 
with  the  mainland  by  sands  three  miles  in  extent, 
which  can  be  traversed  at  low-water  by  vehicl"   i 
of  an  kinds.    Pop,  of  parish  (1871)  878;  bnt,  in- 
cluding the  chapelriea  of  Kytoe  and  Ancroft  (wbich   | 
are  both  in  tbe  ancient  parish),  and  called  /^and-   i 
ihire,  3764.    On  the  south  coast  ia  the  village  of  I 
Holy  Island,  finely  situated,  and  now  much  resorted   i 
to  by  aununer  visitors.     On  tJie  island  ■  ' 

ruins,  the  chief  of  which  a 


muchreionm   i 
id  am  sever^ 
extensive  mw 


hyGoogle 


HOLT  lANB-HOLT  SEPULOHRE. 


■ombe-lookiiig  remHD*  d  tiie  fBmoiu  Abbey  of 
LindMune,  orifpnall;  a  Suu>n  edifice ;  Uure  it 
alio  on  uicieiit  cattle,  now  fortified  and  occupied 
bj  a  party  of  artille^.  In  former  timea,  H.  L 
was  the  teat  of  a  bi«hopiic 

HOLY  LAND.    See  Faubtixb. 

HOLT  PHIAL,  or  SAINTE  AMPOTTL^ 
Obdeb  or,  tbe  name  of  an  order  of  knighthood 
which  foimerly  exiited  in  France,  and  waa  com- 
poaed  of  tool  peisona,  usually  tlie  first  in  point 
of  task,  family,  and  fortnne  in  the  province 
of  Chomp^ne,  and  styled  Barmu  df  la  SainU 
AmpcnUf.  At  the  coronation  of  the  French  kingi. 
they  were  delivered  to  the  Dean,  Priors,  and 
Chapter  of  Bheinu,  ae  hoetafea  for  the  fallUment 
of  the  engagement!  enterea  into  by  the  great 
ofBceiB  of  the  crown  to  return  the  holy  phial 
in  which  the  coronation  oil  was  kept,  and  wnich, 
according  to  the  legend,  was  brought  from  heaven 
by  the  Holy  Qhoat  under  the  form  of  a  dove,  and 


I  having  prevented 
m  bringing  in  time  that  which 
had  already  been  prepared.  The  peculiarity  of  thii 
order  was  that  the  luiighta  were  only  knighta  for  a 
dajr.  Their  badge  waa  a  cross  of  gold  enamelled 
white,  cantoned  with  four  flenr-de-ba,  and  on  the 
croaa  a  dove  desceu^ng  witli  a  phial  in  its  bei^ 
imd  a  right  hand  receivmg  it. 

HOLYPLAGES,HOLY8BPUL0HItE.  Under 
the  head  JntimaLxii  (q.  v.)  am  enumerated  mauv 
localitiea  which,  from  the  memoriea  wuociated  wit£ 
them,  must  be  full  of  aoleoui  interest  for  every 
religioua  mind ;  but  the  name  Roly  Place*  of 
Jeruaalem  more  atrictly  deaignatei  the  groop  of 
sacred  places  of  which  the  Church  of  &e  Holy 
Sepulcl^  is  the  centre,  and  which  are  supposed  to 
oranfrite  the  sites  of  the  chief  events  of  oui  Lord's 
passion,  death,  aod  burial:  Oethsemane,  the  Supper- 
room,  Ute  Chwch  of  the  Aacension,  the  Tomb  A  Uie 
Virgin,  Aa 

Id  the  article  JiBrsALEK,  the  general  topo- 
jfraphy  of  the  aadent  and  modem  city  is  fari^y 
dMcribed.  The  to-oalled  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  stands  within  the  modem  dlr,  on  the 
north-western  or  Latin  quarter.  It  is  a  Byuuttne 
building,  in  Uie  centre  of^  a  spacious  encloeed  court. 
Under  the  great  dome  of  the  church  stands  the 
Holy  Sepultmre,  which  is  of  an  oblong  form,  fifteen 
feet  by  tm,  and  is  surmounted  by  a  rich  ceiling, 
deiuirated  with  gold,  nlver,  and  predoua  marble.  A 
eircnlar  hall  surrounds  the  space  beneath  the  dome. 
Around  this  circular  hall  are  oratories  for  the 
SyriaiiB,  Copta,  and  Maronites  ;  and  above  it  is  a 
seriea  of  gatleriea,  which  are  similarly  appropriated- 
In  the  body  of  ihe  church  are  the  chapels  of  the 
Oreek,  I^tm,  and  Armenian  Christians,  the  church 
OS  a  whole  being  maintuned  by  the  Ottoman 
anthoritiee  in  the  condition,  as  it  were,  of  a  com- 
mon meeting-ground  for  all  the  Christian  oom- 
muntons,  as  ue  rivalries  of  the  several  religious 
bodies  constantly  lead  to  angry  controversy,  and  not 
unfrequently  to  sanguinary  confiicta.  O]^ioaita  the 
entrance  of  the  enolosure  is  a  somewhat  devated 
marble  slab,  which  is  called  the  Stme  of  Unction, 
aud  is  shewn  a*  the  (tone  on  which  our  Lord's 
body  was  anointed  before  entombment ;  and  above 
is  an  elevation  approached  by  steps,  which  is  the 
traditionaiy  Mount  Calvary,  and  on  which  now 
stands  a  rich  dome-shaped  building,  floored  with 
rich  marbles,  in  the  crypt  of  which  is  the  cavity 
supposed  to  have  been  formed  by  the  erection  of  the 
croaa.    The  street  by  which  this  site  is  approached, 

"'  '^'" "IS  of  Herodi  palace, 

is  the  pincipal  street 


on  the  north  aids  of  the  a/ej,  i 


of  the  Latin  quarter,  and  is  called  by  the  Turks 


HarAt-d-Alham,   and  by  the    

Dolorota,  as  being  the  supposed  route 
from  the  hall  of  fudemeot  to  Calvary. 


Such  is  the  traditional  view  a.  ._ 
not  only  uf  these  leading  events  of 
history,  bat  also  of  many  othera  of  m 
anee,  and  leas  prominently  noticeable. 


aoquiesced  in  Uiis  view  of  the  topo 


prommently 

Jpographyi 

Placea;   but  since  the  begimung  of  lai 


locality, 

r  Lonf « 

minor  import- 


e  of  ages,  the  ChJristJ 


Tot  a  long 


graph 


>hT  of  the  Holy 

„ „  _i  last  century, 

doubts  have  been  entertained  as  to  its  correotueaa  ; 
and  in  late  years,  the  qaestdon  has  been  discunad 
with  much  learning,  although  with  little  positive,  or 
at  least  conclnsrve  result  About  the  year  1730,  a 
German,  named  Eorte,  who  had  visited  Jeruaaiem, 
and  explored  the  locality,  published  a  work,  calling 
the  authenticity  of  the  received  system  of  sacred 
taponaphy  into  question.  The  doubts  eipreaud  by 
him  have  been  repeated  at  intervals  ever  since  hia 
day,  and  e^ieeially  by  the  celebrated  American 
critic,  Br  Robinson,  auuior  of  Bitlieal  Saearehti  m 
Fedatine,  who  may  be  said,  in  two  suoceesive  inves- 
tigationa,  to  have  exhausted  the  evidmce,  on  OIM 
side  of  the  question,  at  least  so  far  as  the  remaini 
of  the  ancient  city  had  at  that  time  been  explored. 
Dr  Bobinson  distinctly  aflirms  the  imponibility 
of  reconciling  the  received  sacred  localities  with 
the  plain  requirementa  of  the  gospel  history ;  but 
he  fails  himself  to  point  out  a  scheme  of  topo- 
iphy  which  may  be  substituted  for  that  which 
I  been  traditionuly  received.  More  recent  critics, 
and  especially  Mr  James  Ferguson,  in  an  Bttay 
on  {A<  Andent  Topography  of  Jemmleai,  agreeing 
with  Dr  Robinson  in  rejecting  the  received  topo- 
graphy, conteuds  gainst  him  that  the  tme  site 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  can  be  aoourately  deter- 
mined, and  that  it  is  no  other  than  the  Kbiague  of 
Omar,  or,  aa  the  Mohammedans  call  it,  the '  Dome 
of  the  Rock.'  This  he  hold*  to  be  tiie  identical 
church  which  Conatantine  erected  over  the  rock 
which  oontuned  the  tomb  of  our  Lord.  Dr 
Stanley,  a  late  biblical  traveller  in  Palestine,  left 
the  qno^ou  undecided.  We  can  here  do  nothing 
mora  than  refer  the  reader  to  the  chief  authbritie* 
on  each  side  of  the  controveny.  It  is  one:  upon 
which  future  explorers  may  throw  much  light  by 
skilful  and  judiciously  conducted  excavations.  See, 
on  the  one  side,  RobinsoD's  BMicai  Raeardut  in 
PakiUnt:  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Biblt,  article 
'  Jerusalem '  (Fereuaon) ;  Sttag  on  the  A  nciejit 
Topography  of  JenuaUm,  by  the  same  author. 
On  Uie  other,  Williams's  jfoly  City;  Raumer's 
BeUr&gt  atr  Bibl.  Oeographie;  Sepp'i  Foradistngea 
einei  DeulK/ien  Satauien  m  Jeruaaiem;  Schaffter's 
Atdde  Lage  dea  htUigen  Qraba.  Under  the  auspice* 
of  the  Palestine  l^loration  Fund,  diligent  re- 
searches are  now  bemg  carried  on  at  Jerusalem  ; 
several  important  discoveries  wero  made  in  1874. 

HOLY  SEPULCHRE,  KmoHTa  or  tus,  on 
order  of  kniehthood  instituted,  probably  by  Pope 
Alexander  Vl.,  for  the  guardianship  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  and  the  relief  and  protection  of  pilgrims. 
The  pope  was  originaliy  the  grand-master,  but  he 


Father  .  „  . 

by  the  rules  of  the  omer,  be  all  of  noble  descent ; 
they  were  bound  to  hear  nuua  dailv,  to  tight,  to  lli-e, 
and  to  die  for  the  Christian  faith,  &o.  In  return 
for  these  duties,  the  knights  bad  the  moat  unusual 
imd  extraordinary  privileges  conferred  on  them  : 
(hey  were  exempt  btaa  taxation,  could  marry,  and 
yetp-     ---     -  *     ■     ■■■=-—-<-  — 


:kTogfe 


HOLT  WATSB— HOLYHEAD  ISLAKD. 


■t  Perosia.  Altar  ft  tomporaiy  union  with  th« 
HondtallBn,  tite  ordir  wm  mooDftTocted  in  1814 
Itoth  m  FnnoB  knd  in  Pobtad,  Htd  i*  (till  in  «xkt«K« 
-witliin  k  Tuy  mull  circle  of  knights  elected  by  the 
OnudiaD  Father  bom  <^  meet  reepectaUe  fOgnna 
wbooome^'  ' '"~ 


HOLT  WATER,  in  the  Bomon  Oatholio,  u 
•1m  in  the  Qreek,  Rtuuain,  ud  Oriental  ohurchee, 
dgniflea  water  blmed  hj  ■  prieat  or  biihop  lor 
certain  reHaloill  vat*,  water  u,  a)[aaat  of  iti  own 
natnie,  a  fitting  tymbd  (rf  fwrity ;  and  aooordingly, 
in  rantt  of  the  uunent  relisioni,  the  lua  of  Initral 
"  '   I  water  not  01U7  formed   part  of  the 

hip,  bnt   idao  entered  largely  into  the 

peiaoual  acts  of  sanctiflcatioa  preecribed  to  indirl- 
doale.  The  Jewiah  law  contained  many  proviiioiu 
to  the  Mme  effect ;  and  onr  Lord,  by  ectabliehins 
baptiam  with  water  aa  die  neceeaary  form  <n 
imtiation  into  the  religion  inatituted  by  him,  gave 
hia  BBDction  to  the  nae,  which,  from  its  nnivaraal 
acceptance  among  mankind,  appears  to  be  a  relio 
of  the  jnimeral  natural  rerelation.  The  mage  of 
■prinldina  tkB  hand*  and  face  with  water  twfore 
entering  the  lanotooiy,  which  was  prescribed  in  the 
Jewiati  law,  waa  retailed,  or  at  leest  very  early 
adopted,  in  the  ChrietiMi  chnnth.  It  i«  eipreBily 
mentioned  by  TertoUiao  in  the  end  of  the  2d 
century.  And  that  the  water  to  employed  was 
bleued  by  the  prieata  we  learn,  among  othera, 
from  Bt  Jerome,  and  from  the  apoitolical  conititu- 
tiona.  Althoul^  it  ia  difficult  to  fix  the  precise 
time,  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  practice  of 
mingling  salt  with  the  water  is  of  very  ancient 
origu  (see  Canon  SO,  Z>t  Conteer.  J>uL  ia.].  In 
the  Weatem  Church,  there  ia  a  solemn  bleesing  of 
water  in  the  lerTioe  of  Holy  Saturday,  but  the 
ceremonial  is  repeated  by  the  priest  whenever  it  may 


Catholioa  regard  llie  uae  of  holy  water  chiefly  as  a 
means  of  nugeating  to  the  mmd  the  neoessity  of 
Internal  pnnty;  and  although  it  is  enppoeed  to 
derive  from  the  bleimng  a  apeidal  efficacy  for  thii 
end,  yet  this  efficacy  is  held  to  be  mamly  sub- 
jective and  of  a  character  entirely  distinct  from 
that  aaeiibed  to  the  sacramental  rit«  of  the  church. 
^  the  reformed  chnrchea,  the  nse  of  holy  water  i« 
r^arded  as  nnecriptnral  and  superstitious. 
_  HOLT  WEEK,  the  week  immediately  preceding 


tiOQ  of  the  f  aasion  of  our  Redeemer.  In  English 
use,  it  is  also  called  '  Faesion  Week '  (a  name  anpro- 
priated,  in  Boman  use,  to  the  week  before  Palm  Sun- 
day). This  institution  La  of  very  early  origin,  end 
the  name  Holy  Week  is  but  one  of  many  I^  which 
its  sacred  chorsctei'  has  been  described.  It  waa 
also  called  the  'Great  Week,'  the  'Silent  Week,' 
the  'Week  of  the  Holy  Passion,' the  'Vacant  Week,' 
the  'Peuitentiat  Week.''  In  the  Boman  Catholic 
Church,  the  special  characteristica  of  the  celebration 
of  the  Hoty  Week  are  Increased  solemnity  and 
gloom,  penitential  rigour,  and  moumiog.  u  any 
of  the  ordinary  church  festivals  fall  therein,  it 
is  transferred  till  after  Easter.  All  instrumental 
music  is  suspended  in  the  churchee,  the  altars  are 
stripped  of  Uieir  omamenta,  the  pictures  and  statues 
are  veiled  from  public  sieht ;  mantiat  I&bour, 
although  it  is  no  kinger  entirely  prohibited,  il  by 
many  persons  voluntarily  suspended ;  the  rigour 
of  (asbng  is  redoubled,  and  alms-deeds  and  <»her 
works  of  mercy  sedulously  enjoined  and  practised. 
All  church  services  of  the  week,  moreover,  breathe 
the  spirit  of  mourning,  some  of  them  being  specially 
devoted  to  the  commemoration  of  particmar  scenes 
in  the  Passion  of  our  Lord.  The  dan  thus  specially 
■s  Palm  Sunday,  Spy  Wednesday,  Ho^ 


aatnrday.  Holy  Thmitj  (called  alao  : 
Thursday,  from  Jf(mda(M%  ue  fint  word  in  a 
ot  the  entuch  serrioes  of  tlis  day),  in  the  Bonm 
Catholie  Church,  ia  specially  dcMgned  ■■  a  odb-  - 
memormticD  of  IJie  Last  flapper,  and  of  Uie  in^- 
tution  of  the  BucharisL  But  tliaro  am  seraal  I 
other  services  annexed  to  the  day,  as  the  solemii 
consecration  of  the  oil  or  chiism  used  in  baptMgi,  j 
confirmation,  orders,  and  extreme  anctioD,  the  I 
washing  of  pilgrim*'  feet,  and  the  tenebm.  To  | 
Holy  Saturday  belongs  tiie  solemn  blenng  cf 
fire  and  of  the  water  of  the  baptismAl  font;  and 
from  the  earliest  times,  it  was  set  Apart  fcr  the 
baptism  of  catechumens,  and  for  the  ordinatinci  «( 
candidatfB  for  the  eocleaiasiicsl  miuialsy.  Fnm 
the  fire  solemnly  blessed  on  this  day  is  limited 
the  Paschal  Light,  which  is  regarded  as  A  nrnlnl 
of  Christ  risen  from  the  dead  lliis  symbolial 
light  is  kept  bnming  during  the  reading  of  the 
g^pel  at  mass  throughout  tlie  interval  betwsca 
Easter  and  Pentecost  See  Wetaer's  f  trcAo- 
Lecieon,  art  '  Charwoche.*  It  moat  be  added, 
however,  that  in  many  instances  tha  primitiTc 
institution  of  Uie  Holy  Week  was  perverted,  and 
Uiat  the  suspension  of  labour,  which  vraa  oiuinal]; 
designed  for  purposes  of  devotion  and  reeoluctioa, 
was  tamed  mto  an  occasion  of  amuaemeDt  nd 
nnfreqnently  of  a  very  questionable  character.  Su^ 
abases  are  now  imiveisally  discountenanced  by  tlit 
ecclesiastical  authorities. 

In  the  Protestant  oommnnions,  Uiere  ia  do  ^eail 
solemnisation  of  the  Holy  Week,  with  the  exoqrfin 
of  Oood  Friday  (q.  v.),  which  ia  ofaaerred  in  some  tt 

HOXTHBAD,  a  seaport,  parliamentaiyboRM^  ' 

and  market-town  of  North  Wales,  in  the  county  tJ 
Anglesea,  is  situated  on  a  small  island  o(  tiia  sum 
name,  24^  miles  west-north-west  of  Bangor,  and 
27^  miles  north-wert  of  Ixmdou.  Although  lecestlT 
much  improved,  it  is  still  a  primitive^  irregnlsrij' 
built  tomi.  It  is  the  station  of  the  mail  ateam- 
packeta  to  Lublin,  from  which  it  is  distant  iboBt 
09  miles.  The  harbour  of  E.,  which  is  almost  diy 
at  low  tide,  ia  formed  by  a  pier  about  1000  fMt 
ia  lenrth,  running  north-east  from  an  islet  callfd 
Salt  IsWd,  vhioh  is  connected  with  the  mainlsnii 
by  a  swivel- bridge.  Few  manufactures  are  airied  i 
on  hare.  Pop,^187I)  MIS.  who  are  emiJtyBd  U 
the  coasting-trade,  and  in  ship-building  and  mp^ 
making.  The  fine  harbour  of  refuge  oonstucted 
at  this  town  in  186^   enolosea  an  area  of  about 


a  sending  a  member  to  tiie  Houie  fi 

lAruiUlUDS* 

HOLYHEAD  I9LABD,  a  small  ialandofSnili 
Wales,  liea  west  of  the  island  of  Andeaaa,  and 
forma  jiart  of  the  county  of  that  naaie^  Its  pestot 
length  is  seven  and  a  h^  mUe^  and  its  grrsM 
breadth  about  three  and  a  half  miles.  Area,  about 
0000 1^.  acres;  pop.  (1871)  S69&    H:  L  tss^Mtd 


1  Boad  I 


. ^-„ -jTound  (or  sheep,  a_ 

proponion  of  arable  land,  is  for  the  most  part  rockr 
and  barren.  On  the  north-west  oosst  are  two  M*. 
the  NotOi  and  South  Stacks,  the  latter  witi  1  ' 
light-house,  the  lii^t  of  whi<^  is  visibla  at  twts^ 
miles'  distance.  The  South  Stack  is  connetMl 
with  the  island  ot  H.  by  a  suspenaion-bridM;  1t>  ' 
Stacks  and  Uis  north  coastNtf  the  idaod  M  H  ■•  I 


t.LiOogle 


HOLTBOOD-HOUAQS. 


lu>Ilow«d  viit  bj  the  aetioii  of  tha  Mft  into  mani- 
ficoit  otTW,  irhich  are  tha  haniit  of  umnmarablB 
WA-fowL     Principal  town,  Holj-hcad  (q.  ▼.). 

HOXTROOX}.     Id  the  veu  1128,  King  David  L 

3f  Scotlaad   founded  at   EdinburBti  an  abbejr   af 

eanona  regnlAr,   of  the  order  of  St  AagDEtiDe.     It 

iraa  dedicated  ia  honour  of  tlie  3alj  Crou  or  Rood, 

vlucli  waa   broBsht   to  Scotland  by  St  Marearet 

atHmt  the  year  1070,  and  became  ono  of  the  heir- 

looiM   of    the    kingdom.      The   Biace   Rood    or 

SroruHS  (q.  v.),  aa  it  waa  called,  fell  into  the  hand* 

of  the  £D^jdi  At  the  battle  of  NeviUe'a  Ctdm  Is 

1346,  and  aa  it*  hiatory  puaed  from  itmemhtMtoa, 

a  faUe  apmnK  up  telling  now  King  David  wm  -pn- 

vaOed  upon  by  nla  yunng  noUea  to  so  a  hunting 

on  the  tiittmn  featiTU,  by  which  the  (£un!h  yearly 

cotnmemotnted  the  finding  of  the  Holy  Croaa  at 

Jenualem ;  hoir  the  chaae  lay  throngh  the  foreat, 

which  in  Ihoae   d«y*  encircled  Arthor  Seat,  and 

I    itretohed  almoat  to  the  gate*  of  Edinbiuvh ;  how 

I    the  kin^  in  porsait  of  a  wild  hart,  outrooe  all  his 

\    eompamona;  bow  at  thafoot  of  Salialmry  Cn^  the 

I   hart  tnined  to  bay,  and  overthrew  the  km^i  hone ; 

bow  aa  it  ntahed  at  the  hiiw,  threatening  bim  with 

instant  death,  a  cross,  as  if  bom  between  ita  antlers, 

nuraenkndT  slid  into  the  king's  handi ;  how  at  the 

sight  of  it  the  hart  fled  and  vaniahed ;  and  bow  the 

king,  wanted  bj  a  viaion  in  Ilia  aleep,  reaolved  to 

bnila  a  monaaten  in  honour  of  the  Holy  Rood  on 

the  niot  where  lua  lUe  had  been  to  pret^naturalir 

1   laved.    Whan  this  le^;end  waa  InTeated,  apparently 

I   about  the  yew  1420,  it  had  been  forgotten  that 

:    (he  fiist  aito  of  Uie  abbay  wa«  not  at  the  foot  of 

\   Siliiboi^  Crags,  bat  vithm  the  walls  of  the  castle, 

I    whence  it  was  not  finally  removed  until  after  the 

I    year  1174,  to  the  eaatem  oiiremity  of  the  Canongate, 

\    H  the  little  bmgh  came  to  be  called,  which  the 

canona  erected  bAween  their  abbey  and  the  king's 

bor^  of  Edinbur^     The  abbey  waa  burned  by 

1   tike^Miih  in  13SS,  m  1644,  and  in  IMT.    Before 

il  could  be  i««tored  after  these  loat  conflagrations, 

I    the  Refonnation    arrived,  when  the  roins  of  the 

choiT   and   transepta  were   taken  down  to  repair 

I   the  nave.     This  was  used  as  the  parish  church 

I   of  the  Canongate  from  about  1660  1^  1672,  when 

I   it  wu  tamed  mto  the  chapel-royaL    In  1687,  Kins 

JanHS  TIL,  having  built  another  pariah  ohnreh 

'    t<iT   the  Cuiongate,  set   the  nave  of   the    abbey 

dtdrch  qiart  for  Um  Roman  Catholic  eerrice,  and 

lud  it  fitted  np  with  stalla  for  the  Knizbte  of  the 

1   IWrtle.    It  waa  pondered  and  bonied  by  the  mob 

I  at  the  tUvolntion  in  1688,  and  remained  in  neglect 

Mtil  1758.   In  that  year  it  waa  repaired  and  roofed. 

nit  the  roof  wag  too  heavy  for  the  walls,  and  it  fell 

1"  17GS,  cniihing  the  piUaia  of  the  north  aisle,  and 

othmriae  injiirJDg  the  bnilding. 

The  abbc^  of  H.  early  became  the  occasional 
>n>de  of  the  Scottish  kings.    John  Bslliol  held  a 

Cliament  within  ita  walls  in  1205.  Jamea  IL  waa 
"  in  it,  crowned  in  it,  msiried  in  it,  buried  in 
'^u.?'  ^'""'^tio'i"  o*  •  palace,  apart  from  the 
«Dbejr.  were  laid  by  Jame«  IV.,  whose  epleiidid 
nnptials  with  the  Princeea  Margaret  of  England 
■ere  ctlebwted  here  in  1501  Edinburgh  had 
o™  beeom*  the  acknowledged  capital  of  Scotland, 
I  "a  H.  henceforth  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  Scottuh 
\  WTereigDs,  Queen  Mary  took  up  her  abode  in  the 
.  ^laee  when  ihe  returned  from  France  in  IG6I. 
'  ""%  is  1566,  Rizdo  waa  torn  from  her  side,  and 
mi^end.  Her  son,  King  James  VI,  dwelt  much 
,   !"  H.  hdon  hii  accession  to  the  throno  of  Sngland 

I»  l«a  He  revisited  it  in  1617.  It  was  gartisoned 
°I  Cromwdl's  troops  after  the  battle  of  Dunbar 
V  lUo,  when  the  prater  part  of  it  was  burned 
TV'-  It  was  lebniU  by  King  Charles  IL,  from  the 
"■P*  of  Sir  William  Brace  of  Kinioas,  betwoon 


1671  and  167ft  In  174S  and  174S,  it  waa  oooapied 
in  snoosBion  by  Frinoa  OhariN  Bdward,  and  l^ 
the  Dnke  of  Cmnb^and.  It  ahaUand  the  Cmut 
d'Artois  [aftarwaida  King  OharlM  X  of  Fnnaal 
from  1796  to  17V9,  and  again  from  18S1  to  1S8S. 
King  Qeorge  IV.  held  bia  court  in  it  in  183S.  8iuot 
that  time  much  baa  been  done  to  make  it  a  initable 
reaidence  for  the  aovareign,  and  for  a  good  many 
yean  the  Qneen  has  visited  it  almost  every  snmmar. 

Th«  oldest  pert  of  the  palaoe  is  the  north-waat 
tower,  founded  by  King  Jamaa  IV.  about  1000,  and 
oomplatsd  by  hia  aon.  King  Jamea  V.,  who  died 
in  1548.  It  waa  sooiewhat  modernised  in  1671— 
1670;  and  the  rods,  if  not  tiie  floor*  also,  were 
renewed  by  King  Charles  L  (1625—1049),  whoa* 
cipher  they  hear;  but  otherwiaa  Um  diqioution  of 
the  rooToi  saema  to  be  mooh  the  urns  aa  in  the 
dayt  of  Qneen  Hary.  It  need  foareely  be  added, 
that  the  furniture  ia  much  mora  reoent,  and  that 
the  articles  shewn  as  relict  of  Hary  and  bar  court 
are  wholly  spuriona. 

Tha  puaoa,  with  its  preainott  and  park,  ia  a  aanc' 
toaiy  for  debtors.  In  England,  the  same  privilege 
ext«ida  to  royal  palaoe*  to  this  extent,  that  no 
writ  of  laoal  prooeaa  oan  ba  exeonted  vrtthin  thur 
bound*;  not  this  pEtctiaally  m  only  a  protec- 
tion to  Um  aerTMit*  of  the  palaoe ;  and  no  mean* 
ezitt  for  Inwdvent  pertiMi*  taking  lod^ngi  in  ■ 
privileged  plaoe  then  or  eltewhara,  and  avtdding 
imprisonment,  in  so  systematic  a  way  a*  is  com* 
peteot  to  residents  within  the  precincta  of  Holjrood 
Falace,  where  there  ia  ample  accommodatioa.  The 
predncts  comprehend  the  adjoining  park  and  the 
hilU  of  ArthuPs  Seat  and  Salisbury  Crags.  Refugee 
debtors  must  procure  a  certificate  of  pretection 
within  twenty.fonr  hours  from  the  proper  ofGciol 
within  the  bound*.  Taking  refuge  within  the  aanc- 
tuoiy  is  considered  disreputable,  and  from  this  cause, 
as  well  as  from  recent  melioratiouB  in  the  laws 
affecting  debtora,  the  practice  is  greatly  failen  off. 
It  ia  to  be  added,  that  the  aane^aiy  of  Holyrood 
ahalters  debtors  to  the  crown. 


,  and  market-town  <a  NorA  ' , 

county  of  Flint,  and  44  mHea  north-weotottiietown 
of  that  name,  ia  sitnated  on  an  eminesoa  on  the  line 
of  the  Holyhead  and  Cheater  Railway,  and  near 
the  aonth-weatem  shore  of  the  eatnaiy  of  the  Dea 
It  is  the  centre  of  an  immensely  valnabls  minetal 
diatrict,  and  ia  the  seat  of  numerous  eatabliahmeoti 
for  lead  and  copper  smelting,  mannfaetariug  ahot, 
one,  &C.  There  are  alao  manntactoree  of  oottous, 
flannels,  and  galloons,  paper,  uid  Roman  cement ; 
coal  and  lead  mines,  and  limestone  quarries,  are 
workod.  This  borough  unite*  with  tboee  of  Flint, 
Hold,  fto.,  in  retnmmg  a  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  {1871)7961. 

E.  is  now  one  ut  the  most  important  and 
flouriahins  towns  of  North  Wales.  It  owe*  ita 
origin  to  the  renowned  Well  of  St  Winifred,  whiidi 
ia  estimated  to  deliver  twenty  .one  tons  of  water  per 
minute,  and  is  said  to  be  the  ma«t  oopioua  ipring  in 
Britain.  Its  waters  were  at  one  time  believed  to  be 
efficacioBS  In  eurins  diteaaea,  and  woe  viaited  by 
great  number*  of  pttgrims. 

HCyMAQE  is  1h«  aerrice  or  tluw  of  respect  dne 
from  a  koi^t  or  vaaud  to  hi*  hii  in  feudal  lisMi. 
The  word  i*  derived  from  the  form  of  tiiniesiiiii 
used  in  doing  the  ternca^  whlth  -wtm—jeo  daw^ne 
voitrt  AD)ns~t  bee<nne  your  man.  Since  the  Umli- 
tion  of  tenures,  the  word  has  no  subetantial  legal 
meaning  in  the  law  of  England,  eioejit  in  a  limited 
sense  aa  to  copyholds,  to  <&note  the  kind  of  acknow- 
ledgment mode  by  a  tenant  to  the  lord  of  the  manor. 
The  homage  jury  consisted  of  the  tenants  who  did 


-OS 


#e 


EOMALOFTESIA— E0tl£2L 


IiODUge,  and  tb^r  prcMnca 
•ome  acts.  Hi>nuiffium  redden  wu  the  eipreaaion, 
DOW  obaolete,  Bignifjing  s  Holemn  remmciatioii  of 
homage  or  Couty  to  the  lord,  and  a  deSsnce  of  him. 
The  word  homage  in  not  used  in  Scotch  law,  though 
the  feodal  iyEtem  is  not  obiolete  in  Scotland  in 
loaiiy  other  respects. 

HOMALCyPTERA  (Or.  level- winged),  the  name 
eiTen  by  some  entomologiats  to  a  small  onier  of 
insects,  which  has  been  more  generally  iwarded 
as  a  division  of  the  order  Diplera.  The  H.  have 
also  been  called  Ftjtitaba,  &om  the  remarkable 
cinnunstsnce  that  the  larvie  are  hatched  within  the 
body  of  the  motiet,  and  remain  there  till  they  have 
pasaed  into  the  pupa  state.  Some  of  the  H.  are  wiiig- 
lesi.  Ezamplea  of  tliis  order  are  found  io  the  Forest 
Fly  (q.  v.),  and  in  those  eitraordinary  parasites 
of  bats  called  IfyetrrUiia.    Ail  the  H.  are  parasites. 

HCMBURG  VOR  DEB  HOHE,  a  pleasant 
little  town  in  the  province  of  HeBBe-Nsasau,  Ger- 
many, is  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Taunus  Moun* 
tuns,  nine  miles  north-west  of  Frankfurt- on-the- 
Uaine.  It  has  beautifol  environs,  and  is  much  fre- 
quented on  accoont  of  its  mineral  waters  and,  untdl 
recently,  of  gambling-saloons.  The  waters  are  con- 
ndered  very  effective  in  cases  of  disordered  liver 
and  stomach.  They  are  five  in  number,  and  one  of 
them,  the  SSiabeUi,  contains  more  carbonic  acid 
than  any  saline  Bpa  known.  About  400,000  bottles 
of  the  'waters'  of  H.  are  annually  sent  away.  Pop, 
<18TI)  8626. 

HOME,  Hbnsy  (Lord  Kuiq},  an  eminent 
Scotldah  lawyer  and  author,  was  bom  in  1696  at 
Kamea,  in  Berwickshire.  Destined  by  bis  friends 
for  the  law,  he  was  apprenticed  in  1712  to  a  writer 
to  the  signet;  but  he  afterwards  decided  on 
adopting  the  highest  branch  of  his  profesaion, 
and  qualified  himself  for  it  mainly  by  private 
reading  and  attendance  at  the  courts.  Entering 
the  bar  in  1723,  ho  was  raised  to  the  bench  in 
February  1752,  aatmming  the  title  of  Lord  Kames, 
and  was  made  one  of  the  Lords  of  Justiciary 
in  176a  Ee  died  27th  December  17S2.  In  172S,  he 
published  Remarkabk  Dicimoru  of  the  Ctyurt  qf 
SoKOn  frvm  1716  lo  172a  The  materials  of  this 
work  were  in  1741  embodied  in  his  Dv±kiaar}j  qf  tie 
Dedmoiu  (tf  th^  Court  of  Stttion  during  its  whole 
history,  which,  though  now  superseded,  was  of 
great  use  to  lawyeia  at  the  time,  and  was  thoueht 
wortiiy  of  beina  continued  by  Lord  Woodhousefee. 
He  IS  best  known,  however,  W  his  Euayt 
on  the  Pnne^Ut  qf  Morality  and  Natural  Sdigion 
(1761),  contuning  a  solution  of  the  question  of 
human  freedom,  which  brought  on  him  the  suspi- 
cion of  infidelity,  and  raised  considerahlo  contro- 
versy in  t^e  coiu^  of  the  church  and  through 
the  press;  his  Introduction  to  iiie  Art  of  TkiTiiing 
(1761) ;  and  above  all,  his  celebrated  Prindplet  of 
A-ifiam,  the  work  on  which  his  fame  now  chiefly 
reata.  In  1773  appeared  his  Sketdm  qfOit  Hiitory 
Hf  Jfan,  which  may  be  found  entertaining,  but  are 
now  of  very  little  scientitic  value.  Though  thus 
bu^y  occupied  with  judicial  and  literary  labours, 
he  took  a  very  active  interest  in  agriculture  and 
commerce,  and  wrote  a  useful  tract  on  the  former, 
entitled  Tht  Qen&emain  Farmer,  being  on  Attempt  to 
improve  Agriailture  by  luijecting  it  to  tlie  Tat  of 


8ae  Laid  WoodhonseWs  Memo\n  of  the  Hfe  and 
Wriliagi  of  Home  (2  vola.  4to,  Edin.  1807). 

HOUK,  John,  a  Scotch  clergyman  and  dramatist, 
was  born  in  1722.  He  studied  for  the  church,  and 
was  appobted  to  lie  parish  of  Athelstaneford, 
whwe  be  wrote  his  tragedy  of  DougUu,  which  was 


acted  in  Edinburgh,  and  reoeived  with  the  utmost 
enthusissm.      The  production   of   this  piece  gave 

at  offence  to  his  clerical  brethren,  and  he  was 
ly  compelled  to  retire  from  the  ministry.  He 
retired  into  Englsnd,  where  he  ohttuned  tne  pro- 
tection of  the  EWl  of  Bute,  and  received  a  pension. 
His  other  dramatic  works  are  Agie,  Aquiliia,  The 
Faitd  Dixovery,  and  Aloiao,  eveiy  line  of  which 
has  departed  from  the  memory  of  mankind.  Ha 
died  in  1808. 

It  is  dif&cult  now  to  underatand  the  enthuBiaam 
with  which  Dou^lat  was  first   greeted.      It  was 

[raised  by  men  of  all  ranks,  and  Bums — who  should 
ave  known  better — talks  of  E.  having 

'  Methodised  wild  Shskspeare  into  plan.' 
This  enthusiasm  has  departed  long  ago.  Still 
Douglas  contains  pathos,  and  amid  its  florid  decla- 
mation there  may  be  found  not  a  few  natural  touches, 
and  it  is  on  account  of  these  tliat  it  still  haunts  Qie 
stage  in  a  shadowy  kind  of  way. 

HOIIELYIT  {Raia  miraletua,  ot  maeuiala),  a 
»:ies  of  Bay  (q.  v.),  common  on  the  south  coast 
England,  and  plentiful  in  the   London  market. 


species  o 
ot  Engia 


Homdyn  (Ba4a  nacutala). 


but  comparatively  n 


of  Scotland. 
nearly  resemblea 
...  )n  some  parti  of 

the  Bntish  coast,  the  H.  is  called  Sand  Bay.    It    \ 
is  also  known  as  the  Spotted  Ray, 

HO'MEB,  the  greatest  name  in  the  hist*^  ot  ] 
epic  poetn',  and  who  stands  as  high  in  tliat  depari- 
ment  as  Shakspeare  does  in  the  drams,  has  come  i 
down  to  IIS  in  modem  times  nnfortunately  as  little 
better  than  a  name,  and  presents  materials  for 
biwraphy  aa  scanty  as  those  which  he  offers  for 
criticism  are  rich.  We  are  not,  however,  foroed  to 
go  to  such  lengths  of  doubt  in  his  cose  as  Aristotle 
did  in  the  case  of  Orpheus,  denying  that  snch  a  man 
ever  existed ;  for  though  the  Germans,  since  the 
days  of  Hejne,  Wolf,  and  Niebuhr,  have  indulged 
themselves  in  every  variety  of  historical  scep- 
ticism, and  reduced  H.,  as  well  as  Cadmus  and 
Bercides,  to  mere  '  symbols.'  the  more  sober  geniiu 
of  British  criticism,  with  which  the  moderate  views 
of  the  best  later  Germans  coincide,  has  pronounced 
an  almost  unanimous  verdict  in  favour  of  the 
historical  reality  of  the  author  of  the  Jliad  and  the 
Odytiey.  Not  that  any  reliance  is  to  be  placed  on 
the  details  of  the  old  Greek  livea  of  H.,  which  are 
manifestly  fictitious ;  but  the  internal  evidJence  of  the 
poems  themselves  leads  to  the  belief  ia  an  anihor- 
ship  such  as  agrees  substantially  with  the  kernel 
frtnn  which  these  very  ancient  legendaiy  traditions 
.  were  developed.     1^   central   fact  in  which  all 


-t.fckTogte 


thesa  traditioiiB  agree  i«,  tliot  the  author  of  theu 
poems  was  an  AJnatia  Greek ;  and  though  othar 
places  are  nuned,  the  greateEt  amoont  of  tegendaiy 
evidence  clearly  points  to  Smyrna  as  the  city  whidi 
had  the  honour  o!  giving  birtii  to  the  father  of  epic 
poetry.  The  dialect  in  which  the  Iliad  and  Ody»>ey 
are  written— the  Ionic— ia  the  Tery  variety  of  Qreek 
which  Taa  afterwards  n««d  in  the  same  r^on  by 
Herodotus,  the  bither  of  Historr,  and  by  aippo- 
crate*.  the  first  and  gteatot  of  &eek  physidana ; 
and  the  allomoni  to  natural  {dienomena,  eapeciaUy 
the  btquent  mention  of  the  strong  north-west  wind 
blowing  from  Thrace,  plainly  indicate  Uie  west  coast 


the  geoina  of  H.  nnqiuatioakbly  soared  above  the 
best  of  the  medieral  baUad*  to  which  the  Fjigli.h 
ear  is  aconatomed,  it  it  qnite  certain  both  tW  Uie 
materials  oat  of  lAieb  ni«  Kl«>t  porana  were  com- 
posed were  nothing  bnt  aiiea  pcvolar  ballad*  and 
tales  as  delisted  onr  forc&then  Mfor-  '■'-  -  '"- 
tion  of  printang,  and  that  the 


of  the 
poet.  The  cbroaology  of  the  Homeric  poems,  boUi 
as  respects  the  great  oeutral  event  which  they 
celebrate — the  Trojan  #ar— aod  the  an  of  the 
Doet  himself,  is  much  more  doubtful ;   ont  it 

that  H.  lived  considerably  before  the 
^  fa  regularly  received  record  of  dates 

amimg  the  Greeka — that  is,  before  the  year  7TS  B.  c, 
the  commencement  of  the  calculation  by  Olym- 
piads. The  date  raven  by  Herodotns  for  the  aee  of 
H.— 400  years  before  his  own  time,  that  is,  about 
S50  B.  a — is  [otibabla  enough  ;  but  consideriDg  the 
entire  want  of  any  reliable  foundation  for  chron- 
ology in  those  early  times,  we  must  not  seek  an 
accnracr  in  this  matter  beyond  Uiat  which  was 
attained  W  the  Greeka  themselves,  and  allow  a  free 
margin  of  at  least  200  years  from  the  time  of 
Solomon  (1000  b.  o.)  downwards,  during  which  the 
singer  of  the  lUad  and  Odyiteg  may  have  flouriahed. 
To  throw  >ii'n  farther  back  .  than  the  earliest  of 
these  dates  would  be  inconsistent  at  once  with  the 
historical  elements  in  the  midst  of  which  Ms  poems 
move,  and  with  the  style  of  the  language  which  he 
USES :  for  this  exMbita  a  luxurioua  fre^om,  a  rich 

Glish,  and  an  eiqmsite  euphony,  which  removes  it 
;  from  that  roughness  and  clumiineas  which  is 
wont  to  charact«iiae  languages  in  their  earliest  stage 
of  literary  development.  Th«  Ionic  dialect  need  by 
H.  is,  in  fact,  a  highlv  cultivated  shoot  of  the  old 
Helltmic  stock,  and  which  waa  in  the  poet's  hands 
■o  perfect  for  ihe  highest  poetical  jnirposes  as  to 
have  remained  the  model  for  the  epic  style  dming 
the  whole  period  of  the  poetical  hterature  of  the 
Greeks. 

In  endeavooring  to  form  a  correct  estimate  of  the 
ponldon  of  H.  as  a  poet,  the  primary  fact  from 
which  we  must  start  i«,  that  he  was  not  the  epic 

Cof  a  literary  age — like  Virgil  among  the 
lans,  Tasso  among  we  Italians,  or  Milton  among 
ourselves — but  he  waa  decidedly  and  character- 
istically an  aoidoi,  or  minstref,  a  character  well 
known  to  ns  from  our  own  medieval  literature,  both 
in  other  shapes,  and  specially  as  it  has  been  pre- 
sented to  us  by  the  kindred  genius  of  Sir  WaJter . 
Scott  That  there  i*  an  esseutiaL  and  vital  generic 
distinction  between  the  popular  minstrel  of  an  age 
when  books  are  either  not  known  or  little  used,  I  have  long  been 


literary  epos  or  epos  ot  cnltoTtt  preeisaly  by  those 
chantotenstica  which  distdngnish  oar  old  Dillads 
from  the  poetry  of  Wordsworth  and  Tennyson.  Of 
modem  poets,  the  one  who  Dosaessed  the  greateat 
relationship  to  the  genuine  old  minstrel  poets  waa 
Sir  Walter  Scott ;  but  even  in  his  poatiy.  many 
pecnliaiities  can  be  pointed  out,  which  mark  the 
literary  writer  of  a  later  age,  as  distinguiehed  from 
the  popular  singer  of  a  people's  boyhood  and  Inety 
youUL  In  oniter  to  understand  H.,  therefore,  we 
must  look  on  him  as  the  culminatioa  of  the  minstrel 
or  ballad  poetry,  in  the  shape  of  the  minstrel  epos ; 
a  grand  combination  of  popular  ballad  mat^ials 


id  ballad  tone,  elevated  to  the  highest  pitch  of 
hich  it  is  capable,  with  the  arohitectural  fona 
■jtd  stmoture  of  the  epos.     To  the  rod^nitio 


this  true  character  of  the  Homeric  poems^  the  pre- 
seat  age  has  been  led  mainly  by  the  adventoroai 
and  suggestive  criticism  of  tiae  celebrated  sdiolar, 
Frederick  Augustus  Woll  TbiM  distinguished 
German,  otiginally  a  professor  in  Halle,  afterward! 
'~  Berlin,  published  in  the  year  n95tiiewelegimiena 
. .  a  new  receusion  of  the  text  of  S.,  in  which 
he  maintained  the  extreme  sceptical  view  already 
alluded  to,  according  te  which  the  Iliad  is  no 
roper  epic  poem  in  Uie  sense  that  the  ^ntid  and 
'aradite  Lotl  are  so,  but  only  a  skilful  com^lalion 
of  popular  ballads,  origin^  separate,  and  d  whcke 
separate  exi*t«uoe  the  shup-eyed  critic  can  now 
easily  adduce  tatis&otinx  proot  Now,  this  theory, 
conunonlj  called,  after  its  author,  the  WolGan 
theory.  Mid  which  has  found,  and  still  finds,  not 
~  few  moat  ingenious  snpportera  in  Germany, 
utains  an  important  element  of  truth,  which  has 
>  often  been  summarily  rejected,  along  with  the 
nr  which  it  promulgates.  It  is  not  credible 
it  poems  pervaded  by  such  a  wonderful  unity 
t<uie  and  plan  as  the  lUad,  manifestly  also 
inspired  by  a  genius  of  the  highest  order,  should 
be  resotvable  mto  the  mere  patehwork  of  skilful 
compilers ;  bnt  it  is  an  important  truth  to  announce 
that  the  materials  of  H.'s  poetry  were  not  in- 
vented by  himself,  but  taken  up  from  the  living 
traditions  of  the  people  to  whom  he  belonged,  a^ 
that  even  in  the  grand  unity  to  which  hn  genius 
has  subjected  then,  their  original  popular  tone 
'lod  spirit  is  preserved  in  a  fashion  which  character- 
Btically  distinguishes  them  from  all  epic  poetty  of 
he  literaiy  ages.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
□erits  of  W<^  in  this  regard  will  soon  be  as  uni- 
ersally  recognised  in  every  other  country  as  they 
—   long  been   in  Germany;  but,  in  the  mean- 


of  literary  readers,  admits  of  no  doubt.  The  con- 
ditions of  the  work  to  be  done  being  diflerent,  the 
work  ilaeU  cannot  possibly  be  tbe  same.  It  is  qnite 
certain,  however,  that  the  great  majority  of  the 
critics  and  translators  of  H  in  this  country  have 
not  recognised  this  distinction.  The  oonsequence 
ia,  that  they  strike  an  entirely  false  note,  and  blow 
the  seraphic  bump  <^  Milttm  when  thef  should  be 
oontent  to  taka  a  ^aia  ahepherd's  pipe  in  tlieir 
handa.  These  oritiei  and  traiialators  are  no  donbt 
aotnated  t^  the  vecy  noble  deure  of  redeemins  the 
author  of  two  stuji  noble  poems  as  the  tliad  and 
the  Odi/ttej)  from  tbe  Tul^pir  fellowship  of  wanderinz 
miaabrela  and  baUad-mongcn;  but  however  high 


Mure  nor  Mr  Gudstone  has  been  able  to  exhibit  tc 
Ti!ngH«h  readers  the  true  golden  mean  in  this  tnatter 
between  the  extravagance  of  the  ultra- Wolfiana,  and 
the  falsetto  of  the  anti-Wolfian  critics  and  trans- 
lators. Among  the  Germans,  Walcker,  Nitsch,  and 
K.  O.  Mtlller,  may  be  named  as  presenting  the 
beet  models  of  judicious  and  well-balanced  crifidsm 
in  this  slippery  doniain. 

Tbe  characteristics  of  H.'s  poetry,  as  the  culmina- 
tion of  ballad  poetry  and  the  grand  model  of  Uie 
minstrel  epos,  may  be  expressed  in  a  very  few 
words.  In  the  first  place,  the  materials  are  essen- 
tially national,  and  il^not  strictly  historical  in  every 
detail  of  decoration,  grow,  like  all  ballad  pMby, 


jbjGoogle 


HOMICIDAL  UAITU— HOMUDON. 


Mit  of  Uu  nal  life  of  tiu  peoplt^  ukd  rctt  at  leart 
npon  u  honart  Itutorio*!  •nbttnttaiii.  In  tiiii  view, 
the  Iliad  ii  u  vilasble  foi  the  etrUcat  hiitoiy  of 
the  HellenioHM"  --■"-•-■---  -">"- — •"-  --- 
(or  the  Uter  juriod 
klone  that  U.  po) 
Talus ;  lie  ia  for  all  age*  ai 
earliaat  ataoea  of  human  kwis^,  aectma  on 
the  booka  M  Hoaea,  and  perhi^  aoma  of  the  Terr 
oldest  of  the  Vedaa.  The  fint  genua  of  almost  m 
other  arta  aod  adences  aftenrtifda  cultivated  hy 
the  Greeks  and  Ronuuu  are  to  be  found  in  Horn 
In  this  Tiew,  he  iru  to  the  Oreeki  thainieli 
an  encyclopedia  of  theic  natioiml  oulture;  and,  as 


writen  with  all  the  deference  due  to  a  Bible. 

The  poems  of  H.,  as  a  gctat  human  inheiitano^ 
haTA  nsturallf  been  incoiporated,  by  tranilatiaii, 
into  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  ui  Italian,  the 
translationa  of  Cesarottl  and  Montl—in  fVeach, 
that  of  Uontbel— in  German,  that  of  Vosa,  are 
the  most  famous.  In  England,  ve  have  tried  this 
great  problem  in  the  moat  Tarioua  stfUa,  and 
have  prodaoed  speeimaiiB  of  brilliant  saooew  in 
certain  partial  aspect*.  The  whole  exoellencea  of 
H.  have  not  yet  been  exhibited  in  any  one  of  ths 
notable  English  translatianB,  not  is  incb  a  com- 
bination peihaps  possible.  The  grand  flow,  rapid 
march,  and  sonoTous  fulness  of  the  original,  are  well 
given  by  Pope ;  the  rough  dnunstio  vigour  of  indi- 
vidual phrases  and  passages  are  beet  rendered  by 
Chajmian ;  while  the  onaSeoted  truthfulneis,  and 
easy,  unpretending  grace,  which  so  prominently 
mark  the  ereat  Bmymean  minstrel,  appear  moot 
clearly  In  Cowper.  Of  the  recent  attempta  whioh 
have  been  made,  and  are  making,  k>  profent  H.  in 
lome  new  aspect  to  English  reuers,  it  is  prema- 
ture to  speak.  We  maf  only  sav  that  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Odyuqi  m  the  Spenserian  itanaa, 
by  Woraley  (BloAwooA,  1861),  is  the  only  one 
that  has  received  Bcme  special  nuu^  of  public 
apOTobatiou  and  applanae. 

)^io«e  who  wish  to  enter  more  minutely  into  the 
Tkrious  questions  connected  with  H.  and  the 
Romoio  poems,  may  consult  the  works  on  Greek 
literature  by  Oolonel  Mure  and  K.  O.  Holler;  the 
specisl  work  on  H-  bv  Ur  Gladstone ;  the  aiticle 
■Homer* in  Dr  Smiths  DieH/Mory  <ifAneiaU  Bio- 
~  ^;  and  the  article  ■HomM''iailieAit7eIqp«Iia 


HO'MIOIDAI'  MA'NIA.  Thiaisthe 
mmrtriirt  of  the  French.  There  is  developed, 
undec  certain  morbid  condltionB,  a  blind,  irreeiatible 
teaden^  to  destroy  life.  It  is  independent  of  hatred, 
or  any  appreciBble  incentive ;  and  even  acts  in  oppo- 
•ition_to  the  general  di«pa«ition,  the  intereiti,  and 


hagen  has  racorded  a  series  of  motlTeleu  ml 
Gawget  dTce  the  case  of  M.  N.,  who  was  silent  and 
•olitaty.  Dot  leaacnable,  and  confessed  a  desire  to 
•hod  uood,  and  paitianliuiy  that  of  his  mother  and 
■iaiwr  bw  iioniard.  He  deplored  the  dreadful  ten- 
be  bred  Uiem  iMth  tenderiy.    Yet  Uie 


menuy  a  child,  a  wife^  a  benefactor,  or  an 

object  of  love  and  respecL  Hoffbatker,  in  GermanT ; 
Bsqnirol,  Marc,  FoviQe,  in  France ;  and  Conolly, 
in  Britain,  have  all  demonstrated,  and  in  criminal 
courts  hsTe  testified  to  the  existence  of  this  form  cf 
mimtal  disnssn,  and  ground  of  IrTGapaniibilitT ;  1 


■Mnoooml 
nwtiTdeM 


beu  obtained  of  tJis  irresistible, 

il  tendmcy  as  a  bar  to  trial  or 

Hm  impnlBe,  however,  is  mani- 

toon^Uoatedfarni,    It  may  cripnata 


in  dri  miowi[  and  ths  act  which  fliit  itveals  tha 
mental  oondition  may  be  committed  in  supposed 
aeU^lefeace,  or  to  secure  the  salvation,  or  prevent 
the  soSermg  of  the  individual  deatroyed.  Such 
manifestation  may  oonatitnto  the  characteristic 
symptom  of  forions  madneai,  where  the  excited 
maniao  woriScea  all  annnd,  or  iJl  who  resist  his 
oonne,  nndcf  the  inattffat]o&  of  the  predominatiiig 
paasion,  or  of  melanch^  and  decpondaney.  ^loe 
occui  period!  when  the  tendency  to  ilnd  blood 
become*  epidetnio  or  imitatire.  tiiere  ia  in  many 
natnu^  an  iU-de6ned  sstisfactinn  on  h^'aring  oi 
Blau^t«r,  wars,  and  atrocities  j  and  snch  det^!^  vt 
the  gi(^t  of  blood,  are  said  to  be  snggestiTe  of  this 
tendency.  Maro  states  that  six  caaes  of  in^ticide 
followad  immediately  upon  the  publication  of  the 
trial  and  history  of  Henriette  Cornier,  who  cut  off 
the  head  of  her  child.  The  puatperal  condition, 
various  hereditary  tendencies,  powerful  moral  im- 
pressions,  and  atmnspherioal  influencee,  are  oonceived 
to  induce  thia  tendency.  The  proximate  eanse  is 
generalljr  found  to  connat  in  marked  organic 
change*  in  the  narroai  lyitem,  nick  a*  are  dSect- 
able  in  epilepay:  or  in  the  more  insidious  and 
ob*care  ftmotaral  alterations  which  at«  sujqrasad 
to  aocompaujr  perverted  and  depraved  instincts ; 
although  homicidal  tnaiiia  may  occur  independently 
of  either  of  these  patholo^cal  conditions. 

Esquirol,  Du  Makidia  litataitt,  t.  iL  p.  llS; 
Marc,  Di  ia  Folic,  &c,  t.  iL  p.  24;  Yellowlees^ 
Bomiddid  Mania,  Sdaburgh  Mtdicai  Jmrnud, 
August  1862. 

HCMIGIDE,  a  torm  uaed  in  English  I^w  to 
denote  the  mere  killing  of  a  human  being  withjoat 
implying  the  attendant  criminal  responaibili^.  It 
is  used  with  the  word  ju4tf/7atle,  to  denote  that 
tha  killing  was  done  under  lawful  authority,  as 
hanging  a  man  or  killing  a  prisoner  to  prevent 
him  eacaping,  or  killing  one  to  prevent  an  atrocious 
crime  bamg  committeO.  BxaucAU  lumidde  means 
killing  in  Klf-defence^  or  ic  defence  of  a  wife,  child, 
mrent,  or  servant,  or  proper^,  or  by  mere  actad^it 
Felonvnia  homicide  includea  murder  of  one's  self  or 
another;  and  man^ugKter  is  killing  without 
malice,  but  attended  with  neglisence,  hot  blood,  or  | 
in  some  nnlawful  way.  In  Scotlsnd,  excusable 
homicide  ie  generally  called  cul[>ab1e  homicide.  I 

HO'HILDON,  Batilb  of.  In  t^e  autumn  of  ' 
1402,  a  Scottish  army  of  aboot  ten  thonaartd  mes  , 
in  vaded  E^land,  under  the  oommsnd  of  Sir  MnrdaiA 
Stewart  of  Kincleven,  tin  eldest  son  of  the  Bwent 
Albany,  and  of  Ardutiald  Eail  of  DooidaL  Aiey 
advanced  to  the  gatca  of  Newcastle  wiuont  <^>po- 
sition,  and  were  retnming  to  Scotiand  ladeo  with 
spoil,  when  they  were  encountered  by  an  Jtngiith 
force  under  tlie  Earl  of  Northumberland,  his  son 
Hotspur,  and  the  exiled  Eari  of  Hatch  or  Dunbar. 
The  Scotch  took  up  their  position  on  Homildon 
Hill,  near  Wooler.  Uu  the  14th  September,  Hotapor 
vas  advancing  to  oharsa  them,  when  he  waa  stopped 
IT  the  Earl  of  March,  until  the  English  arcnera 
ibould  do  their  work,  Theii  shafta  were  poured 
with  suidi  effect  that^  in  -Uie  words  <j  a  extem- 
porary chnnicler,  they  bristled  in  the  dans*  ranks 
of  the  Scottish  army  like  qpilla  npon  a  hedgehog. 
"- length  a  gallant  knight,  Sir  John  Swinton,  oiKl 
:  'Brave  fellow-ooontaymen  I  what  has  this  day 
itohed  you  that  yon  sbmd  hen  to  be  shot  like 


those  who  wflCrush  down  with  mc^  in  the  Lovd'a 
name,  npon  the  enemy,  and  ather  ^ve  oar  livetu 
or  fall  with  honour.'  At  these  wivds,  Adam  of 
Gordon,  ^lo  was  at  mortal  fend  with  Swinton, 
■prang  forward,  and  throwing  Umself  «■  1^  kne«^ 


ItizodhyGuUl^lL 


HOMILETICS-HOUINE  BEFLEGIANDa 


wlioinlie 


wlioailie  mmt  noir  look  apon  as  the  btmt  knight  in 
BritMD.  Hii  request  waa  gnnted;  and  the  two 
knii^itai  fdUoirad  by  about  a  hundied  ratainen, 
luued  mmB  the  "lij^g'"*'  raoka.  Thxy  weie  alain  to 
a  num,  but  not  before  they  had  made  auch  ilanghter, 
tfajtt  Ui«  Waafaii  oaptaini  v<ce  aaid  to  have  oon- 
fcMod,  that  3  aU  the  Soota  had  fon^t  ai  wdl,  the 
d»y  vonld  hare  had  a  different  iaane.  Am  it  wm, 
the  Bngliah  had  an  eaay  Tictoty,  and  the  ScoU  were 
utUrlv  Touted.  Their  leadmi  were  taken  ^litonen ; 
&ve  01  their  beat  knighto,  with  many  of  tiieir  braveat 
eeqniTM,  were  ilain ;  »ad  beaidea  w»  omnben  that 
werekiUedoi]  thsBeldbythe  Kngliah  wrowg,  abont 
fire  hondred  were  drowiied  in  ftttemptiiig  to  cron 
the  Tweed. 

HOHILE^Ioa,  that  particular  bnmch  at  (acred 
riietorio  which  regards  the  oonipontioQ  of  the 
fmniliar  diacooiHea  known  ludeT  Hie  name  of 
homily.  The  earlifAt  wiiter  on  the  Babject  of  homi- 
Utice  ia  St  Augustine,  whoie  book,^e  Doetrina 
ChrUSana,  is  in  Bomu  sense  an  adaptation  of  pro- 
fane rhetorio  to  sacred  uses.  Babanus  Maarai 
and  Isidore  of  Serille  also  inddentally  treat  the 
subject ;  but  the  nearest  approach  to  a  syste- 
maoc  treatment  of  the  Enbject  in  medieval  litera- 
tore  is  to  be  found  in  Honibert,  Be  Srudititme 
Condonatomtn.  8t  Carlo  Borromeo's  lailruclioTut 
PaMonua  was  a  part  of  his  general  scheme  for 
the  improvement  of  clerical  edncation ;  and  in  the 
eccleeiwticBl  course,  as  well  of  Catholics  as  of 
Protestanta,  homilBtica  occupies  an  important  place. 
The  bare  enametVitiDa  of  the  worke  of  Schott, 
Marheineke,  Theremin,  Sailer,  Oiabert,  Brand, 
Laberenz,  may  shew  the  im^KXrtance  which  is 
attached  in  both  ohnrckea  to  this  branch  of  sacred 
science. 

HOHIUA'BIlrM,  a  collection  of  homiliea  for  the 
use  of  pMton.  Such  colleotianB  were  in  use  from 
a  Teiy  aarbf  period.  Mabillon  mentions  a  very 
vuient  OalHcaa  homiliarium  {Da  Lit.  QaiHeait.). 
The  fif^  homiliea  of  Venerable  Beds,  too,  were 
in  ffuiilitti-  use  among  the  clergy  in  all  parts  of 
the  West,  and  we  find  in  the  letters  of  the  early 
medieval  time,  traces  of  a  bosy  inteFchaoge  of 
sermons,  original  or  otherwise,  between  bishops  aod 
clergy,  even  in  distant  countriee,  The  supply, 
however,  was  imperfect  and  scanty,  and  ooe  of  the 
many  reformatory  measures  of  Charlemagne  was  a 
compilation  of  homilies  under  the  title  of  homili- 
ariom,  which  waa  made  nnder  his  direction  by  the 
deaooti  Paul  WameMed.  It  wm  compiled  in  the 
end  of  tiu  8th  o;,  and  contains  homiliea  for  all  the 
Sundays  and  teiivtit  of  tjiia  year.  Many  ^nods 
of  that  and  subsequent  periods  directed  the  clergy 
to  translate  these  sermons  for  their  £ocks,  and  the 
collection  continoed  in  nae  for  this  purpose  down 
to  tile  Idth  cfntury.  It  was  printed  at  Speyer 
in  I4S2,  and  again  at  Colonie  in  1667.  A.  collection 
of  homiliea  is  also  ascribM  to  Alcuin,  but  it  seems 
mora  likely  to  have  been  but  a  modification  of  the 
homiliarium  of  Watnefried.  A  collection  of  Ji^gl"*' 
homilies  turned  into  verse,  that  they  might  be  more 
readily  remembered  by  the  people,  appeata  to  have 
been  composed  about  the  middle  (A  the  IStli  oen- 
tury.  This  colleotion,  affording  a  metrical  sermon 
for  every  Sunday  uid  featival-day  in  the  year,  exists 
in  MS.  ;  and  a  portion  of  it  has  recently  been 
edited  by  Mr  Small,  librarian  to  the  univeisi^  of 
TCdinburgh. 

HOMILIES  OF  THB  CHURCH  OF 
EKGIiAND,  a  collection  of  sermons,  the  first  part 
of  which  was  published  in  1647,  the  first  year  of 
the  reini  of  Edward  VI.,  to  be  read  in  the  churches, 
partly  m  order  to  supply  the  defect  of  sarmons, 


but  partly,  also,  to  ssoore  tmifomuty  of  doctrine, 
and  to  gwd  agNHt  the  het«aodoxies,  old  ud  new, 
which  at  that  time  thM«teuad  the  oiuoiisoUdsted 
church.  Th«  second  put  was  published  in  1562, 
at  the  same  time  witiL  the  artiolea,  under  Msabeth. 
The  3Cth  attiole  deolarea  that '  the  Book  of  Homiliea 
doth  oontain  a  godly  and  wholesome  doctrine,  and 
n  onwwry  for  theae  timee.'  1^  titles  are  enumerated 
in  the  wtielei  nnd  are  tvsut^-one  in  number.  The 
htoniliea  are  not  now  read  in  chur^tes ;  bnt  there 
i*  no  Imt  to  jtteveat  their  being  so  read,  and  tliey 
are  frequently  appealed  to  in  oontrovenies  as  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  AngHofp  Church  on  the  points 
of  which  thef  teeat.  The  precise  degree  of  au^ority 
due  to  them  is  matter  of  doubt. 

HO'HILT  (Or.  homilia,  converse)  primitivelv 
signifies  a  disoourse  held  with  one  or  more  indi- 
viduals, but  in  ecclesiastical  use  it  means  a  dis- 
oourse held  in  the  church,  and  addressed  by  the 
minister  to  the  oongregatioo.  The  practice  of 
explainins  in  a  popular  form  llie  lessons  of  Scripture 
read  in  tne  synagogues,  bad  prevailed  among  the 
Jews,  and  appean  to  have  been  adoptal  in  the 
Christian  churches  from  the  earliest  times,  The 
discourses  employed  for  this  purpose  were  of  the 
most  simple  chuscterj  but  with  the  exception  of 
one  ascribed  to  Hippolytns  (q.  v.),  we  have  no 
sample  of  this  form.  □{  oomposition  earlier  than  the 
homilies  of  Origen  in  the  3d  centuiy.  Taking 
these  as  a  iypc^  the  eariy  Christian  homily  may  be 
described  as  a  popular  exposition  of  a  portion  of 
Scripture,  accompanied  by  moral  reflections  and 
exhortations.  It  differs  from  the  sermon  (Gr.  logoi, 
Lat.  oratio)  in  eschewing  all  oratorical  display,  and 
in  following  the  order  of  the  scriptiml  text  or 
narrative,  instead  of  being  thrown  mto  the  form 
of  a  rhetorical  discourse  or  a  didactic  essay,  llie 
schools  of  Alexandria  and  Antiooh  appear  to  have 
been  the  great  centres  of  this  class  of  sacred 
literature,  and  in  the  early  centuries  we  find 
the  names  of  Rippolytus,  Metrodorus,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Dionysius,  and  Oiwory  lluHmMturgus, 
as  prinoip^y  distinguished.  But  it  was  in  the 
following  centuries  uiat  the  homily  received  its 
full  development  in  the  hands  of  the  Oriental 
Felhers,  Athanasius,  the  two  Oregoriea,  of  Nyssa 
and  of  Nazianzum,  Basil,  the  two  (^rils,  of  Jeruea- 
lem  and  of  Alexandria,  and  above  all,  Chrysoatom ; 
and  in  the  West,  of  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Peter 
ChrysologuB,  Leo,  and  Gregory  the  Great  In  later 
centuries.  Venerable  Bede,  the  popes  Sabinian,  Leo 
IL  and  IIL,  Adrian  L,  and  the  Spanish  bishops, 
Isidore  of  Seville,  and  Udefonsus,  continued  to 
use  the  homiletic  form ;  aod  even  in  Uie  modern 
dmcch,  many  preachers  have  regarded  it  as  the 
best  medium  ot  scripturel  instruction  ;    and  two 


matter,  rather  than  of  any  eeriptural 
isumed  to  be  expounded ;  the  Utter  is 
LWetical  and  moral  expodtioD  of  some 

J  the  liturgy,  or  of  some  olier  extract 

from  Hol^  Scripture. 
"■  ■  right  to  add,  however,  tiiat  this  aliictly 
jl  aoceptstioD  of  the  name  homily  is  byno 
unifomily  observed  in  modem  use.  The 
name  hondly  is  very  frequently  used,  ^ost  ai 
a  synonyin  lor  sermon,  and  signifies  nothing  more 
Uian  a  ^n,  moral  disconise,  without  ornament  or 
rhetorii^  pretensioD,  but  also  without  any  preten- 
sion of  being  moulded  upon  the  anoient  pamstical 

QCMINB  BEFLBQIA'NDO,  an  old  writ  in 
BngHiil.  law,  meaning  to  bail  a  man  out  of  imson; 


t.Coogle 


HOMCBOPATHY. 


BOH<EO'PATHY,    fnun   two    Greek    word* 
ugnifyiog  ■  ■uniLu'  mfrering,'  ii  a  Byiten  ot  medi- 

dna  intrcMinced  into  pnoiice  aboat  tJia  cIom  of  lut 
centniy,  by  a  Oemtui  phTmcun  (rf  the  uuds  of 
TT.i. ,-  „  J,    It  Ib  founded  npon  tho  balirf, 


HBhnsn 


to  those  whicl)  tha; 
power  to  excite ;  ezpnaaed  in  Lktin  by  the  phrase, 
Sinttlia  timUt&iu  curojitur,  and  in  Sadiah  by  '  Like 
curea  like.'  That  diieuei  ore  corad  by  Hubttaacea 
which  produoe  in  penons  in  health  aymptoma  like 
thoae  praaented  by  a  patient,  has  been  from  the 
earliest  (unea  a  Tecogoued  fact,  both  by  medical 
writera  and  by  poeta  who  have  eipreaaed  the  pre- 
Tailiog  belief  of  the  agea  -  in  wluoh  they  lived. 
Among  the  former,  we  find  the  author  of  a  treatise 
senenJlj^  aaciibed  to  Hippoerabes,  entitled  On  t!ie 
Tlaat  in  lion.  This  writer  givei  nnmaroni 
eiamplea  of  wbat  may  be  called  homaopalhic  curea  ; 
and  recommeDda  for  the  cvire  of  mania  this  remork- 

Oum  tuMdaii  to  induce  manta.'  The  worki  of  the 
poeta  aboimd  with  ilhutration*  of  this  belieL  Prob- 
ably the  oldest  expression  of  it  is  in  some  lines 
aaciibed  by  Athemeua  to  Antiphanes,  wfao  IJTed  404 
B.C.,  which  have  been  thus  translated — 
'  Take  the  halt,  it  i>  well  writtdn. 

Of  the  dog  by  which  joa  're  bitlen  ; 

Woik  tjl  one  wine  b;  his  brother, 

And  one  labour  with  another  ; 


ghakspeore,  in   Romeo   and  JuUet,  thus  expressea 


Take  thoD  soma  new  inCection  to  the  e je. 
And  the  rank  poison  (dthe  old  will  die.' 

Milton,  in  the  preface  to  Samion  Agoniitei,  givea 
his  vetaion  thus  ;  '  In  physic,  things  of  melancholic 
hue  and  quality  are  used  agunst  melancholy,  sour 
uainat  sour,  salt  to  remove  salt  homonrB,'  tc 
Thus,  there  has  always  been  a  vagus  tnutition  that 
medieines  aometimea  cured  diseases  similar  to  those 
tbey  caused.  But  it  was  reserved  for  Hohnemaim  to 
propound  the  startling  dogma,  not  only  that  medi. 
cinea  did  occasionally  produce  such  cures,  but  that 
true,  diiccit,  and  radical  cures  oonld  only  be  effected 
by  reoognisiug  this  principle  at  the  guide  for  the 
selection  of  the  right  remedy  in  any  given  morbid 
condiiion  of  the  aystem.  He  en^ged  bis  friends 
and  disciples  in  the  task  of  prociuiDg  accurate  data 
on  which  to  proceed  in  reductag  his  rule  to  prac- 
tice Tiiey  took  given  quantities  of  iho  sabstauce 
which  waa  the  subject  of  experiment,  and  each 
kept  a  record  of  the  effecta  it  produced.  The 
TOriooB  records  thus  obtained  were  submitted  to 
Ualmemann,  who  compared  them  together,  aad  with 
his  own  obeervatioDS  on  himself,  and  out  of  the 
results  thos  obtained,  compiled  what  goea  by  the 
name  of  'a  proving'  of  the  medicine.  Hahnemana 
Iwra  it  down  as  one  of  the  fundamental  propoaitiona 
ot  homceopathy,  that  no  medicine  should  be  given 
to  the  sick  which  has  not  finrt  been  proved  upon 
those  in  health.  He  devoted  himself  to  this  task, 
and  has  left  ten  volomes  of  such  '  provings ; '  oat  of 
this  work  the  various  abridgments  id  popular  use  in 
this  and  other  oountrica  have  been  derived.  The 
properties  onoe  determined,  then  it  becomes  pos- 
siU«  to  administer  it  in  •coordance  with  tha  prin- 
iple  of  homcBopathy.    To  do  ao,  ' 


quirea  that  th«  msdioine  ihoold  be  given  by  itMlf. 


nina,  theseoond  proposition  ot ^ 

i^  *  that  only  one  medicine  should  ever  be  givea  at 

To  asoertun  the  affects  irf  nedicanal  snbstaneea 
Upon  persons  in  health— from  the  knowledge  thns 
obtaiued  to  seleot  a  ranedy  irtiose  action  i  ■  ii  1 1  s 
ponds  with  the  aymptoms  of  the  patiant  under 
treatment—to  give  thn  remedy  by  itself  ^ooe,  are 
three  of  the  fondamental  roles  for  the  [nactioe  of 
homteopathy.  The  fourth  is,  that  the  dose  of 
a  homiBopathio  medidae  should  be  so  small  as  not 
to  csose  any  seneral  diatnrfaanoe  at  the  system.  Ha 
action  bcuig  Emitad  to  that  portion  of  Um  bo^ 
which  is  in  a  morbid  oondttion.  How  small  that 
is,  can  be  ascertained  onlj^  by  experiment.  When 
Hahnemann  propounded  his  system,  he  nnnted  oat 
tiiat  the  amount  of  the  effect  of  a  medicinal  substance 
depends  upon  two  conditioos  ;  firtt,  the  mechanical 
form  in  which  it  ia  administered;  uid  teoud,  the 
state  of  the  body  of  the  peraon  who  takes  it 

Ti__  ,_    ^  jj^j.j  pjjj  ^  belladonna  of  five 


[nil  be  dissolved  in  a  pound  of  water,  and  an  onnos 
of  the  solution  be  given  every  hour,  then  we  Bball 
have  well-maAed  CTmptoms  <^  tba  poisonon*  action 
of  the  drug.  But  it,  instead  of  adminiataring  it  to 
a  person  m  rude  health,  it  be  given  to  one  who 
is  suffering  from  such  an  inSsmmstian  of  Qa  tMisils 
as  belladonna  produces,  then  we  ahall  find  that  the 
inflamed  tonsils  will  be  most  acted  upon  by  their 
specific  irritant.  Diaease  implies  a  pretematnnl 
sensitireneaa.  An  ioflamed  eye  cannot  bear  light, 
an  inflamed  stomach  cannot  bear  food,  and  every 
diseased  organ  ia  powerfully  affected  by  the  par- 
ticular substance  which  bu,  in  its  physiological  I 
operation,  a  close  af&nity  with  the  character  oTths 
morbid  condition  in  wtiioh  it  is  at  the  time  its  I 
specific  medicine  is  administered. 
To  arrive  at  the  d^ree  io  which  it 

to  reduce  the  dose,  a  scries  of  expc 

necessary.    It  was  a  matter  to  which  bQ  A-priori    , 
reasoning  waa  inapplicable.    In  an  arti^  pnbtished    ' 
in  Hiifeuai^t  Jounial  in  the  year  1801,  HMUMmann 
observes:   'yon  ask  me  what  effect  tvAvi^  of 
a  grain  ot  belladonna  can  have.    The  word  eoa  is 
a^  to  lead  to  miseonoeptions.    Let  us  a^  Nature    ' 
what  effect  iWrav*^  "i  »  grain  of  belladonna  haa.'    i 
He  then  states  the  conditionB  of  the  experiment—    ' 
viz.,  that  this  fraction  of  a  grain  should  be  admin-    | 
istered  to  a  patient  suffetiuR  from  a  peeoliar  fonn    ' 
of  scarlet  fever  then  prev^ent  in  Qermaay,  and 
presenting  a  combination  of  symptoms  beiuing  a 
close  resemblanoe  to  those  prodnoed  by  belladonns. 
Hahnemann  maintained  HuA  tiiis  fractioa  ti  a  groin 
was  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  honuaopaUue  core,    i 
Homcaopathio  doses  are  often  exineasBd  by  £rao>    ' 
tions,  thus ;  Suj^iose  the  medicine  to  be  a  t^s-    ' 
table  substance ;  a  stnHig  tincture  is  made  <rf  ik, 
and  Uiis  is  technically  called  the  moAer  tiiwfsre. 
Two  scales  of  dilution  ais  now  prepared  from  this, 
called  respectively  the  detinal  and  the  cMteanKtJ^    | 
which  laH^  waa  that  advocated  hf  Hafanemann, 
while  the  former,  though  of  recent  utroductitm,  ia 
at  present  very  lai^y  employed.     To  prepare  the    i 
dttmud  attenuations,  I  drop  ot  mother  tincture  ia 
added  to  9  drops  of  alcohol,  and  it  is  labelled  1*.    ' 
The   sccoikI   deam(d   dtliUion    (2")    ia  formed  by    ! 
adding  9  drops  of  spirit  to  I  drop  of  1',  and  so  on    | 
tor  the  3",  *c   Inpreparinj  the  i»7i/e»iiB*£»,r-- " — 
*  mother  tincture  "      ■■'■"-■ 
to  dilute  it 


ed  to  99  drops  of  alcohol. 


drop  of  number  1— that  ia,  of  the  li^th  I        _..,  .. 

''  I  mother  tincture— is  mixed  with  oOier  99  dropa 

altehol,  and  marked  2,  or  the  second  dilution. 


hyCoogle 


HOUCEOPATHT. 


Thi«  oonbuni  y^th  of  a  drop  at  Ttrth  of  a  drop  of 
the  moUier  tmctnre,  or  y^fs^th  at  a  drop  of  tliB 
mother  tincture.    Thin  mmpfe  prooea  of  Bubdivuion 
ii  oontiimed,  and  each  itep  is  recoided  in  Uie  uuw 
nf :  thoH,  number  3  meani  a  millicaith ;  nnmbier  6^ 
a  rallionth ;  and  namber  30  (wliioh  u  the  hieheat 
reoonunended  bj  Hahuenunn),  a  dodllionth.    £tioI- 
nble  tobatances,  of  coime,  oamot  b«  Ulna  treated : 
they  are  triturated  irith  vucar  of  milk.    Ona  grain. 
saj,  of  mlphnr  ia  tritniated  vitii  99  graina  of  mgai 
of  milk,  fonning  lA*  firU  trUKraUon,  and  marked 
nnmber  I,  and  ao  ou ;  bat  after  advancing  to  t 
fifth  or  aixth,  then  it  a  preeumed  that  all  aubataiK 
become  aoluble  in  thia  reiy  minate  proportion 
alooho],  and  alooholio  dilations  are  nude  of  them 
the  aame  way  aa  of  the  vegetable  tincturoe.    After 
making  theaa  alooholio  preparationa,  the  homceo- 
pathio  chemiat  aatoratea  'with  them  miante  pellidea 

of  augar  of  mUk,  known  teehnioally  by  the ' 

ffoMlu  or  pUiAi' 

A  ayatem  ao  leyolntioiury  natnnUly  enoonntered 
moat  determined  oppoaition.  lu  Qermany,  there 
were  l^al  idsatadea  to  ita  pncticti  lu  Anatiia, 
phjtioiana  were  not  allowM  to  diamnae  their 
oirn  medicinea,  eren  gratnitonaly;  all  medicinea 
adminiatered  to  the  nek  wen  prepared  b*-  ^'-~ 
^lotheoariei,  and  the  fate  of  bomiBopathy  cool 
be  tmated  to  their  hands,  aa  tbair  intereata 
deeply  inTolved.  Thua  it  happened  that,  from  the 
year  181S  to  the  year  1836,  boDueapatfay  was  only 
i.i — •.!    .■_    Xnatria    midar   exceptional      


tolerated   i 


In  1336,  cholera  broke  ont  tor  the  aacood 


fidlowed,  tna  required  by  government  to  prepare  the 
honatal  for  the  reception  of  chdera  paaenla.  He 
imtotook  the  charge,  on  the  condition  that  he 
waa  to  be  allowed  to  emjdoy  homixopBthy  in  ^eir 
beatment.  Tbia  waa  granted,  hom<Bopathy  having 
been  very  anccevful  in  Vienna  and  dinerent  towna 
in  Germany  in  cholera  in  1830— 1S31.  He  treated 
732  caaeaj  of  theae,  488  recovered,  aod  244  died. 
The  hoapital  waa  under  daily  inspectioa  by  the 
government,  and  the  reaolt  of  the  tre^ment 
was  made  known  to  Coont  Eolomvt,  the  home- 
minister.  Shortly  after,  the  emperor  iaaued  an 
ordinance  granting  to  every  duly  qualified  pbyiician 
the  right  of  practiaing  homceopauiy.  The  cholera 
morta£ty  under  bonKBopatbic  beatment  waa  in  thia 
instance  ime  in  three,  while  the  average  mortality 
of  the  aame  epidemic  at  the  aame  place  waa  two  in 
Uiree.— Wilde's  Austria. 

When  cholera  waa  approaching  Western  Europe, 
Hahnemann  waa  studying  his  '  provings,'  to  ascer- 
tain what  aabatonce  reaembled  most  Dsarty  in  its 
effecta  the  symp(oma  of  the  disease.  The  medicine 
be  found  to  be  camphor;  and  before  be  had  ever 
aecD  a  caae  of  cholera,  guided  irf  the  details  given 
by  practitioners,  he  annoanced  m  the  year  1331-: 
'  £veiy  one,  the  instant  any  of  bis  friends  is  token 
ill  of  cholera,  mnst  immediately  give  him  oamphor.' 
This  bold  prediction,  that  camphor  waa  the  anti- 
dote for  Ibe  first  stage  of  cholera,  was  soon  teated  in 
Hungatv  and  Moravia,  and  camphor  boa  tince  been 
accepted  nniveraally  by  bomiBopathists  aa  the  moat 
efficient  remedy  agiunst  an  invsnon  of  obolera. 

The  reported  aocoeas  of  the  homceopathio  treat- 
ment of  cholera  at  Vienna  had  a  powerful  influ- 
ence in  direoting  public  attentjon  to  the  hoapital 
where  the  new  system  iraa  practised.    PhyaicianB 


recovered. 

From  Germany  as  a  centre,  where  it  is  now 

extensively    mactised    and   tau^t,    biomasopathy 

spread  over  Europe   and  Ajnenco.       In  America 

there  ue  upwarda  of  two  thousand  avowed  prac- 

titioneiB  of  the  system-     In  France,  Italy,  Spain, 

and  otiier  countnea,  it  has   nomeroua  adherenta, 

muy  of  whom  occupy  infiueutial  positions  of  troat 

\  authority.    It  was  introduced  into  England  in 

year  1827  by  Dr  Qain,  physician  to  the  king  of 

Belgiana  ;  and  thera  are  now  above  300  regia- 

tered  pr»«titionerB  in  Britain  who  have  adopted^  ifc 

In  London,  tbera  la  a  hoapital  capaUe  of  eonbun- 

*  ■""       'iientaj  where  teetoi 

,  ^ipomted  teachers. 

phyaidana  who  avoteedlj/  praotiaa 

patDy  naa   not   ereatly  increaaed  of   late; 

adberenta  claim  that  the  aetual  practice  of  it 

haa  been  greatiy  augmented.  In  proof  of  this  they 
point  to  the  more  recent  teit-books  in  medicine^ 
puUiahed  by  the  teachers  of  the  dominant  achool : 
and  to  Uie  reot^nitjon  of  the  value  of  small  doaes  of 
aconite  in  inflammatory  fevers,  aiaeuio  in  gaatr 
(in  ono-drop  doees)  in  vomiting,  &o. 


rily 
In  the  administistian  of  i 
similoTf,  the  ifoM  being  a  matter  In  whicdi'  eiperienoa 
has  (aided  to  dllntians  in  many,  though  not  in  all 


from  all  parts  of  Europe  and  from  America  went 
thither  to  watch  the  treaboent  In  a  Report 
published  by  Dr  Fleiachmann  aome  years  ago,  it 
u  stated  that  at  that  time  he  bad  treated  17,313 
caaea,  chiefly  of  acute  diseaaea.  Amoos  theae  were 
— of  ^7aipela%  C14  caaea,  of  which  610  recovered ; 
of  rheumatic  fever,  1417,  of  which  1416  reoorered ; 
of  intermittent  fever,  1066,  of  which  lOSS  recovered ; 
'   '  ition  of  the  longs,  10S2,  of  whicb  1004 


The  objection 


employ 


._  the  disease  for  which  they 

scribed,  bat  solely  on  the  impossibility, 
to  the  common  view,  of  adopting  this  aa  a  b^ktuiuu 
rule  of  practice,  and  especiatly  aa  an  excloidve  and 
all-embracing  law  of  therapeutics.  The  action  of 
emetics  in  some  kinds  of  indigestion,  and  of  rhubarb 
to  some  kinds  of  diarrhma,  are  familiar  eiamplea 
in  daily  use,  shewing  tbat  ordinary  practice  ia  not 
regulated  by  any  l^nd  prejudice  against  what  )• 
ca&ed  the'  bomieopathio  law  of   '  nmilia  iJmtUhu 


Bgainat  the  law,  but  rather  aeta  it  aside  oa 
a  mere  metaphysical  abstraction,  having  nothing 
to  do  with  the  real  principle  of  iIib  oore,  which  u 
to   be   found   in   common   sense   and  experience, 
applied  to  the  facta  of  individtisi  caaes  and  groapa 
oi  cMea.    The  true  phyaician  ia  not  a  aeotory;  oe 
diaowna  aQ  artiScial  lormnlaa  of  cure,  exactly  »a  be 
and  he  eapeciaUy  diaowni 
"  t,  invented  for  him  by 
remediea  is  not  founded 
and  be  retoaea  to  be 
limited  in  his  practice  by  any  other  technical  mica 
than  thoae  derived  from  a  fair  view  of  facta  inves- 
ted   on    the    ordinary   principles    of   positive 
ice.      It   is   very   certam   that    Hahnemann's 
;ed  'provings'  have  been  rejected  as  in  great 
Tigiouary  by  the  great  majority  of  those  who 
I  attempted  to  ascertain  personally  the  effect 
of  the  same  remediea;   and  it  ia  equally  certun 
that    Hahnemann    himself    admits    the    general 
aggravation    of    diseases    by   homceopathio    dosea 
wbeu    adminiatered    in    sensible    quantitdea,   and 
that  the  system  of  infiniteeimBl   doaea   waa  with 
>iim   aimply  a  last  refuge  from  t^e  contradictary 
character  of  the  results  obtained  under  the  earUra 
trials  of  remediea  devised  acoordii^  to  his  aaauiMd 
principle.    The  argoment  of  phyatcdana  in  mMial 


tydOOgIC 


HOMOaAKGUATA— HONBUBAa 


IkM  been,  Ui«t  tiia  prindpl*  ir 


dpi*  m)  filas,  md  that  the 

Oa  viAkUo  ad  lAnirdum. 

"Duj  admit  freely  Oiat  honveopathj  hu  in 
iDstaiMea  done  good,  by  Ulastrafang  t&e  tponta 
core  of  itiiwMiH,  and  eoneetins  a  blind  taitb  in 
heroio  nmediesi  bat  tJUiov^  Indindoal  oonrarts 
oE  lome  local  credit  have  here  and  there  been  made, 
there  is  not  the  ilighteit  appearance  of  a  more- 
ment  In  tha  profevion  bnmids  wAoptiiiK  liMiKeo- 
pathy  aa  a  lyitem,  and  ita  mnch-Taanted  atatirtiw 
are  genentUj  regarded  aa  ertremely  fallaoiotM. 

HOMOQANOLIATA  (Qr.  JbrwM,  the  aami 

by  Oiren  to 


w  with  a  belief 


j;0«irftMi,  a  gan^C-,, 

Uia  Articaiala  oi  Curier,  In 

in  the  great  importance  of  the  nervoui  h] 

a  baiii  oI  ioolc«ioal  daauQcatioii.    Each     „ 

in  the  loweat  S.  oontains  a  pur  ot  ganglia  with 

D«rvM  prooeeding  from  them ;   all,  however,  com- 

mnnioatmg  by  oervona  filamenti,  and  oonitituting 

a  oODtinnoa*  ^-Imj"      In  the  hij^er  forma,  there 

la  a   greater   concentration,    and  a  more  evident 

allotmant  of  the  ganglia  of  partiaulai  legmBiita  to 

partionlar  fonotiona. 

BOMOLOOA'TION,  a  Sootch  law-term,  deii< 
Isg  an  act  ot  oonduct  which  confimu  or  approi  __ 
of  Bometluag  which  otherwiae  might  be  mvalid. 
Thua,  aa  infoTHxal  deed,  thou^  naeleai  in  itself,  yet, 
il  aoted  OD  by  one  or  both  partiea,  will  be  set  up 
and  made  valid,  aa  againit  the  party  homoWatiiig. 
lo  oooatitate  homologation,  a  cUm  knowledge  <a 
lAat  the  peity  ia  domg  ia  neoeiaaiy.  Th»  tmn  ia 
not  lued  in  En^^iah  law,  but  •tmilar  tStcU  an  pro- 
dneed,  and  bear  other  namM,  inch  aa  coiAnnanon, 
•■tc^el,  part  pmf ormaiio«i 

HOHO'I^OOUS  qnantitica  ot  magnitodea 
Geometry  are  anch  aa  oonwpoad,  or  an  like  to 


\    to  ocsimonding  Mi^ea. 
'^  In   tha   faianglM    J^O, 


ASCr,  whioh  are 
BO  b  homologoiu  to  B'C,  AB  to  iM,  and  AC  to 
AC    Bee  Hoholoot. 

HOUOXOOT,  in  Anatomy,  ia  tha  term  now 
died  to  indicate  (trootaral  ooireapondanoa^  iriiile 
the  t«rm  OMO&igv  ii  amployad  to  indicate  Amotional 
retemblanoch  Ihua,  l^homoIogD&  la  Imjdiad  'the 
tame  organ  in  different  »"'"'»i"|  under  arery  variety 
<MC  form  and  function; 'while  by  anali^ue  we  under* 
atand  '  a  part  or  organ  in  one  ^nitnd  whioh  haa 
ttw  Muoe  lunctioni  aa  another  part  ot  mrgfn  fat  a 
di^rent  animaL'  For  example,  the  wugi  of 
an  ioaect  are  the  analogaea  ot  those  of  a  Mt  or 
Urd,  but  not  the  homologaea;  whilat  tiie  latter  an 
homoWaM  with  the  anni  of  man,  the  for*-lw 
of  qiia£iiped«,  and  the  pectoral  fina  of  fiahaa.  em 
fartW  iUnaUation,  aae  Owen  On  (Ae  ArtM^t  and 
HomtHagut*  1^  ffi*  BkeUioit. 

HOMOOTTBIAN  (Gr.  hmo*,  the  aame,  and  ovOa, 
■nhrtance),  and  HOUOIOCSIAN  {Or.  homolot, 
like,  and  omia,  anbatanoe),  two  terms  that  long 
diatzacted  the  primitive  (uinrch.  The  &nt  waa 
the  ahibbolath  of  orthodoxy  in  the  Arian  con- 
teoivariy,  the  dedree  of  the  counoil  of  Ifioa,  which 
declared  the  Son  to  be  Aomooufian,  of  the  fame 
■ubatanoa  with  the  Father.  Tha  rigid  Ariani,  who 
isaiBtad  the  decree  of  Nice,  of  eoune  rejected 
tha  term,  Tttt  aemi-Ariana,  who  held  the  aabor- 
dination  of  tha  Son  to  Uie  Father,  were  dividsd 
aa  to  ita  nae.    Some  of  them  rejected  the   word 


1  aa    objeedoiuAle,   bat 


idea,    regarded    the    ' 


I  wfaieli 


rather  as  Ruoaptibla  of  n 
abaolutely  falae.    Both  pi 

use  from  a  daclee  ot  the  oonncil  

tha  year  369,  againit  Paul  of  Samoaata, 

•jqiMMly  oottdamned,  Th^  contended,  thMofor^ 
tliM  the  IMhara  ol  Niea  had  erred  in  am^ying  it, 
and  they  propeaad  to  cnbatitate  for  it  the  tun 
/TomoiotMlan  (of  a  like,  L  a.,  a  aimilar  bnt  not  tdea> 
tioal  anbatawM  with  the  Fathn).  'mthont  enteii^ 
into  &e  doctrinal  oonfaoveiay,  it  will  mOoa  to 
■ay,  that  tha  term,  aa  need  by  tha  ooniunl  of 
Anlioch,  bore  a  Teir  diflknot  aigniflaatioa  ftom 
that  whiclt  tha  Kathan  of  mo*  attached  to  il 
In  the  ooatroraiay  with  Panl  d  Bamnaata.  lAok 
with  tha  Sab^liani,  held  that  tha  Pathw  and 
tha  Son  hava  but  one  and  tha  aame  paiacm,  the 
word  oatia  waa  employed  to  aignifv  ptnooiji^. 
Hanoe,  when  the  ooudoil  oondonned  t^  doctrine  cl 
Paul,  that  the  Son  ia  homoouaian  with  tha  Father, 
it  merely  declared  that  the  Father  and  tha  Son  are 
not  one  and  the  tame  pertoo.  On  the  eontnty,  tha 
oonncil  of  Nia«i  in  defining  that  the  FUhar  and 


Bden 


odo 


HOM<yPTBRA  (Or.  I 
jrferon,  a  wing),  aoooiding  t 
•"  order  ot  mncta  ;    aorard 

two  grMt  divimona    of ^ 

(q.  v.],  diSerini;  from  the  Stbropttra  in  having  tiM 
firit  pt^  of  winga  of  uniform  aubatanoa  tliraiuh- 
out  (whether  peneotly  meml^anona,  or  admawhat 


uniform  aubatanoa 

—  , ^ J-  memtosnona,  or  i 

leathe^,  and  BO  paaalns  into  elyba),  uid  tha  Tcafana 
or  luokBr  originating  mm  the  inferior  part  of  tha 
head  neat  the  thorax,  or  even  betwaan  the  firat  pair 
ot  I^a.  The  H.  feed  on  the  Jniooa  of  plants  and 
•ome  of  them  an  yen  tronbleaoma  to  &maia  and 
gardenere.  The  tanalM  of  manyhava  an  ee^iWer, 
bjr  meana  of  which  they  pieroa  planter  in  cede* 
*"   — '~~    ~    place  for  the  reoaption  of  th^  tm, 

— an  aotln*  and  reaauUo  tha  pertait 

ioaeet,  but  are  winsleM,  The  pop*  ■>'>  *!■■>  aotiv^ 
and  hare  rudimBittary  wiogi.  Among  the  H.  an 
Cicadas,  the  largeat  of  the  order,  Lantam-ftiei, 
Frcth-hoppen,  Aphidea,  and  the  Ooomu  tribes 

HONA'IT,  one  of  the  central  prorincee  of  China, 
having  an  area  of  66,900  tqnara  mllea,  and  a  popii> 
latioa  of  2&0W,771.  Ita  cajntal,  Kaifung-^v  i* 
situated  on  the  Yellow  Blver,  fn>m  which  it  hii  aftan 
Bufiered,  the  rivar-b 
adjaoent  oounby. 


In  the  I2th  a  of  oux  era,  it  wai  aiz  league* 

edremnfereno«h    At  preaent,  tha  d^  ii  oninterwtina 

to  Boropeana,  tave  aa  tlte  reaidenee  of  tlie  J*we  (3 

Cluiia,  now  dwindled  to  a  few  families 

HONAWA'R,  a  ae^oct  on  the  Ualabar  W  wert 

iMt  of  th*  peninanla  of  Hindoatan,  bcliHifli  to  th* 

preaideney  «  Madraa,  iriueh  h«n  •ztands  bom  ibere 

to  diore.    It  ia  in  Ut.  14*  17'  IT.,  and  lon^  ^V  3ff 

£,  being  MO  milea  to  the  Krath-eait  of  Bomb^.    It 

atandi  on  the  north  aid*  (rf  an  inlet  of  th*  Arabian 

Sea,  vriiich  reoeivea  the  Geraeppa  vt  Sheravatti  htm 

Weatan  Ohanta.     ThoiiA  both  Uia  harbooi 


Bouth-waat  monsoon,  tha  snrf  ii  a  aerioua  impediment 
to  navigation.    Pop.  12,00a 

HOMDUItAB.  a  repablican    atate    of    Central 
Amarioa,  extending  eait  and  west  from  the  Oatib- 


dbyGoo«^le 


HOHDUKAB— HOKET. 


north-wML  It  «to«tohM  in  N.  Imt  iMtwMH  13*  IV 
And  16*.  ud  in  W.  long,  betwan  83*  and  89*  W, 
Qontaining  ftbont  4T,06S  Kin&ra  mOea,  inclndiiu 
ft  poitioD  of  the  Moaqolto  Tonitoty,  and  301,700 
inSsbib    '"    '   "'   "~"    —•--"- "-    -• 


An  (ooallKit  aeimltnml  ooontrv,  S.  dbmmdi  ako 
in  minBnl  wedQi.  The  ndnmui  an  gold,  ulTer, 
ooppar,  iron,  dnsabM,  amc,  Matiauaj,  tin,  platinnm, 
opal,  amEthnli,  wbcirtaa,  chalt  limNtone,  marble, 
and  ooaL  The  laLl  produces  rUnabl*  timber,  frnit- 
treea,  cotton,  nigar,  o^ae,  tobaooo,  indigo,  maize, 
wheat,  potl^oe*,  yam^  ylantaiim,  banuai,  and 
beant.  Ilia  fonign  bade  u  earned  on  ohleflj  with 
Omt  Biit^  the  United  Stated  and  Spain.  The 
imports,  amoimtiiig  in  1S6S  to  760,000  dollan,  or 
£1^,000  flteriinf^  <Mmtiited  to  the  extent  of  more 
ttum  on»-haU  of  oottoD  mMttiIaetiiTe>— the  aiticlea 
next  in  otd«r,  wodl«na,  nlkt,  and  winea  and  epirit^ 
having  be«B  alinoat  pnoiMlV  e  ""  ■  •  '• 
nim-total.  Tiat  i^oUie  m  lot 
poae*  diridsdinto 


EatiTe  pnr- 


to  tSfiflVi,  13n  axpenditOM  haa,  lor  aereral  jeanL 
caoeedad  the  leTenns,  while  toani  have  been  laiaed 
to  conatrnct  an  inter-ooeanio  lailway  from  Fort 
Cortex  on  the  Atlantia,  to  tiie  Bajr  of  Fonieoa, 
on  the  PaciBa  Ooean.  Of  this  Tafiwar  onlr  92 
miles  on  the  Atlaatia  Bide  ware  flniihed  in  1872. 


Uw  WMt^  and  H«i^iiTM  on  tha  aanth.    From 

adjaoont  oonnMaa  of  BiitiahHondnrM  and  Tooatan 
it  reoorea  a  Tariety  (d  Bteeama,  the  ohiet  of  which 
ii  tha  Baliaa,  and  oootaina  aerenl  islaadK  The 
■hors  ia  marked  \>j  reefa. 
HONBtnLAS,  Buhbk  See  Bujzk 
HOKXa,  ca  WHET-SrONE%  a  partlonlar  obii 
of  etoiiea  naad  for  the  porpoae  vt.  dwrpanii^  "^Vf" 
tooli, andi aa knirei^  MTtlMa, ft&  nugrarenam^ 
ont  into  [uecM  about  a  loot  in  length,  and  from  an 
indi  to  two  inohea  thiok,  and  tdtur  left  Kpiar*  or 
TonndnLaooordingtotlmr  intended itM&  Tbeflneat 
kind  of  honea  an  thow  called  -oil-atonM ;  tiwae  an 
hard,  compAol,  and  BO  v«T  riUcicmL  tiiat  tluy  nadSy 
wear  doini  tha  hardest  atwl }  u^  are  Taiietaea 
of  date,  derired  from  tha  argillaoeona 


and  in  Siberia    In  OreeA  Britain, 

yield  htHie-atonea  o(  axoellent  quality,  and 
better  than  the  oeUbratad  Wat«r.<rf-Ayr  atoMviriiioh 
ia  mneh  ated  for  p^iihing  oopptt-plataa,  aa  vd  aa 
for  hooea.  The  Wdah  dl-abna  <a;  Idwall  itnM, 
and  the    ontler'a    grean-iton^  a 

Snowdou  in  WUe«;  and  In  Um  _._„ 

TaTiatook,  the  DevonihiM  ««li«tMM  an  pneoted. 
Whaterer  part  of  the  wmld  they  oome  tram,  thn 
neambls  euh  oHur  ywj  oloaefy.    Hie  boua  need 
for  (harpming  acyUMa  and  othiar  large  bladea 
tmaSy  made  of  aome  coane-gninsd  «    '~^  ~  ~ 
are  maatifactarod  In  many  looalHfaa. 

HOmSDALB,  a  new  and  flonriahing  boron^  in 
tiie  north-east  part  of  PennaylTania,  United  Butea, 
Anerioa,  160  milea  north-east  fnnn  Hanialaii^ 
It  ia  ^toated  at  the  oonflaenee  of  the  LaekawMten 
and  Dybarry  Creeka,  and  connected  by  caaal  and 


newspaper*.     Hie  town  has  extmded 
corporate  borough.    Pop.  (1870)  of 

HOKSBTY  {L^maria),  a  genos  of  planta  of  the 
nilnni  ctder  Crue^aa,  at  which  two  apeoieB, 
natiree  of  tha  aonth  of  Europe^  L.  tamma  or  Menmt, 
and  L.  rafmm,  have  long  been  tmltiTated  in  Briti^ 
flowei^gardeni,  partly  on  acoonnt  of  the  beaafy  tA 
their  flowan,  and  pwtly  of  the  cnriona  appearanoa 
of  thaii  large  flat  teed-ponchea  {tOicuUt).  They  are 
I — 34  feet  high,  with  latiier  coane  /oliage.  The 
orJAin  of  theEnglieh  name  is  donbtfoL  Soma  of  the 
older  Bn^iwh  joeta  menldoa  the  plant  as  lAinarit. 
It  waa  nprded,  in  tha  day*  1^  superstition,  aa 

HO  A 19  it  Is  Mcreted  by  the  neotuiferoni  glands 
of  floweia,  from  whence  it  is  aolleoted  by  the 
woridng  or  neater  beea,  which  extract  it  by  means  of 
Ae  proboMM,  and  pass  it  into  the  dilatabon  of  the 
(Baoph^na,  known  h  the  nop  <x  honey -bag.  When 
the  animal  has  arriTed  at  the  hive,  it  disgorgM 
the  honey,  probably  altered  by  admi^nrs  with  Uie 
Baoretion  of  the  crop,  into  the  oella  of  the  oomb.  It 
is  used  by  the  beee  as  food,  bnt  it  is  its  genera] 
propcttiea  and  its    nsBS  to  man  that  here  rvqnire 

Thm  eonpovtJon  of  honey  Tariea  Bome^Hiat 
aoDording  to  the  food  of  tha  bees,  their  age,  the 
Beaaon,  tea.  Hybla,  a  tnonntain  in  SioUy,  and 
Hymettna,  a  monntain  in  Attica,  were  in  aaoient 
tdmea  oelebrated  fOr  their  honey ;  doubtleas  in 
oonaeqDMuM  of  the  wild  thyme  and  other  fngnat 
herbeKTowing  on  them.  IIib  honey  of  Narbonne 
and  Chamoo^  ia  now  held  in  hi^  estimation  for 

by  bee*  haviog  aocess  to  heather  hae,  as  ia  w^ 
kiiown,  a  peco&u-Iy  agreBable  taate.  The  lubstancts 
which  have  been  recognised  in  honey  are  sugar 
of  twp  kinda — one  orystallisable  and  analogon*  to 
Qluooaa  (q.  v.),  and  tha  other  nnoryataDiaable, 
mannito  faaeoMing  to  Onibonrt) ;  sommy,  waxy, 
oolcnrii^  and  odccon*  mattenj  ana  pollen.  The 
proportun  of  oyvtalliMihl*  ngar  buveaae*  with 
the  aga  ol  the  hooey,  *0  *•  to  gin  it  in  time  a 
gnnnlar  oharaeter.  The'  beat  and  nnrast  honey 
IB  a  clear  finid  contained  in  a  white  oamtL  whiM 
oldm  honey  ia  of  a  yellowiah,  and  even  reddidi  tint. 
Fran  the  remoteat  times,  honey  has  besu  nnployed 
aa  an  artiole  of  foodi  and  to  the  aaoiant^  who  were 
nnaoqnainted  with  angar,  it  waaof  mon  importance 
than  it  now  It.  'A  hmd, flowing  with  milk  and 
honey'  ofCsrad  the  hi^eet'  oonoavable  admb^ea 
to  the  eastmi  mind.  Taken  In  moderata  qnaoti^, 
hon^  ia  untritiTe  and  laxative,  bnt  dyspeptic  per- 
Bons  often  find  Qiat  it  aggravatea  tJwir  ^rmpbuns. 


a  demnloMit  (duiaoter  to ' 

pnsmibed  for  allaying  cou^  ^ 

wywli,  which  ia  niiiafly  pmaied  by  mixing  honey, 

aoeUo  aod,  and  water,  it  n  frequently  added  to 

gaigje%  or  mixed  with  iMtrley-water,  Boaa  to  form  an 

auiBSslilii  -""''"g  drink  in  febrila  and  inflammatory 

i^Mtioiu^  «r  given  aa  an  expectorant  in  ooogha  and 


It  thoDld  be  nuotioned  that  2u»«yoi 

poaMBaea  very  dekteiioas  propetrtiea.  Aei^nhon,  in 
his  history  of  the  Betrsat  of  the  Ten  Tlonsand 
(Initifuis,  book  It.),  deanibea  the  honey  of  Tnbiiond 

as  having  prodaoedtbeefbat  of  tanp<aaiyr"' 

or  rather  dnuikennass  on  Iha  whole  army  .._ 
of  it.    llr  Abbo^  writiiv  from  Uebisond  in 


,,Guuyk 


HONEY  BUZZAED— HONEY-DEW. 


to  Out  secretuy  of  the  Zoological  Sodetjr,  obsen-oa 
thftt  he  has  himself  witneeied  that  the  effects  of  thia 
honej  are  itiU  freciselj  the  lame  as  those  which 
Xenophon  deacnbes,  and  he  adopts  the  Tiews  pro- 
pounded by  Toomefort  in  1704,  that  the  poiaonoos 
properties  are  coDsequeat  on  the  beea  extracting 
the  honey  from  the  AsaUa  Ponlica.  Many  other 
instances  of  poisonous  hooey  are  </a  record. 

Honey,  althoogh  not  of  so  much  importaDce  com- 
merciollj  aa  it  was  before  sugar  became  so  large 
an  importation,  is  neverthe^ss  bron^t  to  this 
country  from  abroad  in  considerable  quantitlM, 
which,  in  addition  to  the  home  prodnce,  mentioned 
iti  the  article  Beb,  shews  that  it  is  still  largely  in 
demand.  Nearly  6ftv  tons  are  anniMllv  imp<»ted 
from  various  ^kU  or  the  world :  Nortn  America, 
the  West  Indies,  Portu^,  France,  and  Greece,  are 
the  countries  from  which  we  receive  most.  The 
Prench  is  very  fine,  and  is  chiefly  consumed  for 
domeatio  and  medidnal  purposes ;  the  Greek  is  the 
finest,  and  is  ooly  oeed  as  a  table  delicacy ;  most  of 
the  other  kinds  tre  inferior,  and  excepting  some 
portion  which  is  used  by  the  tobacco  manufacturers, 
to  give  a  spurious  sweetness  to  tobiu»o,  it  is  difBonlt 
to  account  for  the  consumption  of  so  Urge  a  quantity. 
Honey  is  often  very  much  adulterated.     One  of      ~ 


floor ;  samples  of  EVench  honey  have  also  been  found 
largely  adolteialed  with  gelatine;  the  latter  oannot 
so  easily  be  detected,  ««  thorn  U  *lwm  preeeot 
naturally  a  portion  of  gelatine  in  honey.  Xhe  quality 

of  even  the  best  depends  upon  iU  careful  refinement 
or  clarifying.  U  honey  be  slightiy  heated,  the  chief 
impnritiee  rise  to  the  surface,  and  can  eaiily  be 
removed  by  skimming ;  this  is  ntaally  done,  except 
in  the  case  of  virgin  honey,  which  is  geoerally 
sufficiently  pure  for  most  purposes, 


differing  from  them,  and  from  all  other  FaJcoHida, 


Honey  Biuurd  {Pernti  apironu]. 


3  another  like  scale*.  The  food  of  honey 
in  consists,  not  of  honey,  but  ohiefl^  of  beea, 
wasps,  and  their  young,  in  quest  of  which  these 
birds  dig  up  tha  eround,  to  get  at  the  nests  of 
Uie  insects.  Thn  teed  also  partly  on  other  insects, 
and  less  frequently  on  lizards,  smiill  birds,  Ac  One 
■pedes  iP.  ajmcmu)  is  found  in  Britain,  but  is 
rare ;  it  is  rather  larger  than  a  conunoo  buzzard. 

HONEYCOMB  MOTH,  or  WAX  MOTH  (ffoi- 
leria),  a  genua  of  small  moths  of  the  same  tiibe  with 
clothes'  moths,  of  which  some  ot  the  specie*  are 
remarkable   for  infeeting  bee-hives.      There  they 


deposit  their  eggs  ;  and  the  larvie  feed  on  the  honey- 
comb, through  which  they  make  tunnds  lined  with 
silk,  and  in  the  midst  of  which  they  finally  spin 
their  cocoOns  and  undetgo  their  transformations. 
The  cocoons  are  often  united  in  little  heapa  These 
moths,  when  numerous,  are  very  injurious,  and  some- 
times guite  destructive  to  the  bees,  from  the  stings 
of  which  they  seem  to  enjoy  a  p^ect  immunily. 


Honayoomb  H oth ! 

a,  Oalleris  nullDnella;  t,  lirrai  e.  pDpi;  i,  larra  ncklB|  !■ 

WSJ  Uu(ni|h  bouTSunbj  t,  QillCTi*  ilTtaria. 

Q.  meUonella  or  ctrtana,  perhaps  the  most  deotruo- 
tive  species,  is  about  an  inch  in  extmt  of  wings ; 
Q.  alctaria  not  much  more  than  half  an  inch.  Both 
have  a  satiny  appearance,  and  are  amougat  the 
worst  enemies  the  bee-keeper  has  to  encounter. 

HONETGOMBB,  in  guns,  are  fiawa  resembling 
the  cells  made  by  bees,  worked  in  the  metsl  bjr  the 
action  of  exploded  gunpowder.  They  spread  r»pldly, 
and,  with  continuous  firing,  soon  eat  into  the  metal 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  the  further  use  of 
the  gun  dangerous. 

HONET-DEW,  a  viscid  saccharine  «xnd«tion 
whk^  is  often  found  in  warm  dry  weather  on  the 
leaves  and  stems  ot  plants,  oconmnff  both  on  tr«es 
and  herbaceous  iJants.  It  is  uanally,  Init  not  alw^s 
•saodated  with  the  preaence  of  ApAidet,  Coed,  and 
other  insects  which  feed  on  the  juices  of  plants,  and 
its  £ow  is  Bsoribed  to  their  punctures;  bnt  the 
rupture  of  the  tisanes  from  any  other  cause,  such  as 
tha  state  of  the  weather,  seems  also  to  produce  it, 
and  warm  dry  weather  seems  to  be  necessary  for 
the  production  in  the  sap  of  that  snperabundaoce  of 
sugar  which  is  thus  thrown  offl  Aphides  themselves 
exude  by  certain  jieculior  organs  (see  A}>H]e)  drops 
of  a  fluid  which  is  called  honey-dew,  which  prob. 
ably  differs  considerably  from  the  direct  exudation 
of  the  plante  on  which  they  feed,  but  mingles  with 
it  where  tbey  abound.  Honey-dew  is  often  so 
abundant  as  to  fall  in  drops  from  one  leaf  to  another 
on  to  the  ground,  sometimes  falling  from  tree*  even 
as  a  copious  shower.  IXfierent  kinds  of  manna  are 
the  dried  honey-dew  or  sscoharine  exudation  of 
certain  plants.  See  MmiA.  But  very  generally, 
this  exudation,  as  it  dries,  coats  the  surface  of  leaves 
and  bnnohes  with  a  clammy  film,  to  which  evejy- 


and  thus  the  pores  of  the  plant  are  cloggea  and 
its  health  is  unpaired.  Oardenen  ore  Uiertfore 
careful  to  waah  off  honey-dew  with  the  syringe 
Orange  and  lemon  plantations  sometimes  suffer 
great  injury  from  toe  abundance  ol  honey-dew ; 
and  it  has  proved  a  cause  o(  T«ry  great  loss  in  the 
coffea-plant^tions  of  Ceylon. 


t.Google 


HONEr-EATEE--HONBTaUCKLE. 


HONEY-EATER,   or  HONEY-SUCKER,  > 

name  Bometimea  gifea  to  some  ol  the  Snn-birdB 
(q.  v.),  bat  itlso  the  common  noma  of  >  l&rge  iamil; 
i^  birds  nearly  &Uied  to  tii««e  and  to  fimnming- 
iMrda,  and  peculiar  to  Auatralia  and  the  iilonda  of 


that  part  of  the  world.    Thii  funilvi  MtUphagida — 
of  tiie  order  InKaaora,  and  tribe  Tenui 
a  [onz  cnrred  sharp  bill,  not  ao  slender 
ming-Wda  and  lan-blrds ;   the  tongnB  t< 
'n  a  penoil  of  delioate  filaments,  the  better 


fluttering  and  darting  amoos  trees  and  shrubs  when 

in  blossom,  and  ore  very  abDndant  in  all  parts  of 

Australia.    They  are  extremely  vivacious  and  active, 

aad  keep  np  a  continual  chattering.     One  at  the 

most  splendid  species,  Iteliphaga  or  Plilorii  para- 

(Uieut,  IB  called  the  Rifleman  or  Rifle  Bird  1^  the 

Australian  colonists.      Another  species,  Afymntia 

mdanojAryt,  is  called   the  Bell  Bird,  because  its 

voice  much  resembles  the  tinkling  of  a  little  belL 

To  this  family  is  referred  t^e  Poe  Bird,  Parsoo 

Bird,  or  Tui-tui   [ProtAemodrra  2foea-Zeelaitdia!) 

of  New  Zealand,  a  bird  larger  than  a  blackbird,  and  '  „  .  ^  ,    ■ 

of  a  deep  metallic  green  colour,  becoming  bronze   n^^**  °^3  "i™  oi^  another,  twuung 

and  black  in  certain  ligihts,  with  snow-wfite  tufts    di™=t'™«.'"'*' *o*''8  naht,  and  anotherlo  the  left— 

of  downy  cnrUng  feathers  on  the  sides  of  the  neck.    Yery  similar  to  this  is  Qie  Pbrtouatb  H.  (t.  capri. 

Unlike  most  of  the  MtHpha^^dct,  it  is  a  bird  of  fine  /^™™'i  ^5_P^.f  "^^t^^ ,°'  Ao'^ers,  and  remark- 

tons.     It  has  aLio  great  powers  as  a  mocking-bird. 


LocvsT,  and  in  Britain  as  the  Tzkxb-thoiuibd 
AcAoiA. — a  lofty  and  beautiful  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Ltquminoyx,  sub-order  Cizsa.lpinie(z,  a  native 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  of  the  basin 
of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  not  found  wild  on  the 
Atlaatic  coast  of   North  America,  altiiough  often 

Cttfd  for  ornament  in  the  vicinity  of  hamtations. 
fiowen — which  are  small,  gieeuiah,  and  in 
■pikes — have,  when  perfect,  six  stamens  and  one 
pistil,  but  are  veiy  generally  uniseiual.  The  leave* 
•re  twice  pinnate,  without  terminal  leaGets,  the 
numerous  small  leoQets  giving  a  peculiar  graceful- 
ness to  the  foliage,  which  is  of  a  light  shining  green. 
The  tree  is  furmshed  niUi  numerous  sharp  triple 
spines.  The  pods  are  long,  flat,  pendulous,  often 
twisted ;  the  seeds  large,  brown,  and  enveloped  in 
t,  pulp,  which,  when  the  pod  is  ripe,  is  very  sweet 
Sugar  has  been  made  from  it,  and  when  fermented, 
it  yields  an  intoxicating^  beverage,  in  use  among  tjie 
American  Indians.  The  honey  locust  attams  a 
heioht  of  70  or  30  feet  Trees  of  lu^e  size  are 
'to  be  seen  in  some  parts  of  Britain,  The  wood 
resembles  that  of  the  American  Locust  Tree  (q.  v.), 
or  False  Acacia  [Roirinia,  pieudacada),  but  is  mor« 
coatse-gnuned. 

HONEY-STONE,  or  MELLITE.  a  mineral  of 
remarkable  characters  and  composition,  found  'in 
conneetioii  with  coal  and  sulphur  in  several  place* 
in  Germany,  It  occurs  in  square  oolohedrons,  looks 
like  a  hone^-yellow  resin,  and  may  be  cut  with  a 
knife.  It  la  a  mellate  of  alumina,  con^stiog  of 
mellio  acid,  alumina,  and  water. 

HO'NEYSUCKLB  (Lontcira,  or,  aocording  to 
some  botanists,  Capri/olium,  which  others  make  a 
sub-genus  of  L,),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Capri/oliacea.  They  are  shmbs,  often  twin- 
ing, and  have  the  flowers  either  in  whorls  or  in 
pain.  The  calyx  is  short  and  5-toothed ;  tiie  corolla 
tubnlar-fnnnel-shaped,  6-clett,  generally  two-lipped ; 
the  fruit  a  3-celled  and  many-seeded  betry.— The 
CoiQIOlf  H.,  or  WooDBiNK  IL.  peridym^am),  is 
very  abundant  in  woods  and  thickets  in  most  parts 
of  Britain.  On  account  of  its  beautiful  oream- 
coloored  whorls  of  flowers  and  their  delicious 
fra^irance,  it  is  often  planted  in  shrubberies,  and 
framed  aoainst  wnlls.  It  is  aoid  to  be  the  '  twisted 
eglantine  of  MQton.  The  phenomena  observed  in 
its  growth  have  been  adduced  in  proof  of  -  a  per- 
eeptvot  jKnuer  in  plants :  the  branches  shooting  out 
till  they  become  unable  to  bear  their  own  weight ; 
and  then,  on  their  meeting  with  any  other  branch, 
twining  around  it,  from  right  to  1^ ;  hut  if  they 


reatUlr  learns 


ffw^ijjifr  i] 


speak  many  words,  and  becomea 


HONET-GUroB,   INDICATOR,   or  MOROC 

{Indicalor),  a  genus  of  birds  ranked  in  the  Cuckoo 
family,  but  rSffcring  from  Uie  true  cuckoos  in 
characters  which  shew  an  approach  to  wocdpeokers, 
and  also,  in  some  respects,  to  creepers.  They  are 
all  natives  of  Africa,  and  are  found  in  almost  oU 
parts  of  it  They  have  acquired  their  name  from 
ruiding  men  to  honey ;  a  curious  instinct  prompting 
them  to  flutter  near  the  traveller  with  frequent 
repetitions  of  a  or  which  resembles  the  syllable 

HONEY  LOCUST  TBEB  (OUdiltdua  Iriaean- 
Am}— alto  known  as  the  Swcr  Loocst  and  Bunx 


able  for  haviDg  the  upper  leaves  united 
opposite  pair  form  one  leaf,  through  the  middle  cd 
which  the  stem  passes.  This  pecuBarity  is  confined 
to  (he  flower-bearing  shoots,  and  does  not  occur  on 
the  jonng  runners  ;  it  is  also  most  pwfect  nearett 
the  flower.  This  species  is  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  but  now  naturalised  in  many  parts  of 
Britain,  and  much  planted,  as  althou^  leu  power- 
fully franant  than  the  Common  H.,  it  flowers 
earfior.— There  aiB  numerous  other  tpeoies,  nattves 
of  Europe,  Siberia,  and  North  America. — The  Flv 
H.  {L.  Xj^oHeam)  is  an  erect  shnib,  a  native  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  scarcely  indigenous  in  Britain,  but 
common  in  shrnbbeneB.  Its  branches  are  not  nnfre- 
qoently  used  in  some  parts  of  Europe  for  tubes  of 
tobacco-pipes ;  and  it  is  said  to  make  good  hedges 
in  dry  sous.  Other  erect  species  are  not  uime- 
quently  planted  in  shrubberies. — The  TRTTKPKr  H. 
{L.  lempervirau),  called  in  Amerioa  the  Cobal  H, 


ItizodhyGuUl^ll. 


HOKEYSnOKLB-HONOLULU. 


ii  *  n*tivo  of  the  Hontliani  it&tc*  of  North  Ain«>io», 
often  pl&nted  in  Britain  on  uoonnt  of  iti  bwutifal 
flowers,  red  on  the  outside,  and  Kwlet  within,  which, 
however,  h&ve  no  fragrtuioe.  It  ia  »  twininj;  erer- 
green  ■hmb.— The  b<^ea  of  the  boneyaookXet  »ra 
nanBeona. — The  name  H.  i«  alw  given  to  ihrnba 
VB17  diSerent  from  thi*  geniu,  bnt  of  which  the 
flowen  abound  in  honey,  m  to  ipoeiea  of  Banttia  in 
Atuballa.  AxaUa  viteo4a  fa  called  Swamp  EL  ■- 
North  Amsrioa. 
HONETSnOKLE,    Fbxhoe.       See    Fbesch 

HONEYBCOKLB. 


PenLui,  and  Hindu  anJiitectnre,  and  whei«vet 

indioatw  an  eMtsni  origin.  He  Ckeekt  borrowed  it 
fmn  the  Fenuni,  and,  bj  Tafinins  and  iiiq)roTinv 
it,  made  it  one  id  the  most  beantjnil  ornament!  <n 
Vami  arahiteotnra.  It  ie  ohieQy  nied  in  the  lonio 
,  Style  (q.  V.].  See  alio  Obkcux  ABUUiTiUTUUi. 
HONTLETTR,  a  imall  town  and  iMimTt  of 
FnncB,  In  the  department  of  Calvadoi,  ia  litaated 
on  the  •onthem  Uiore  of  the  eatnaiy  <d  the  Seine, 

apatite  to,  and  seven  milee  distant  from  the  port  of 
vm,  Ita  ntnatioD,  backed  by  wooded  heishts, 
ii  exceedingly  ^leaaijig;  bat  it  1*  badJv  boilt,  mrty, 
•nd  unintenstuiff.  lite  commerce  of  IL,  once  of 
aome  impcwtanoe,  naabeen  abeorbed  in  great  meMare 
by  Havre  [  many  veasels,  however,  engaged  in  the 
flihnriea,  are  atiO  owned  herc^  and  there  ia  a  oon- 
^derable  trade  in  Uia  export  of  «ga  and  fmit  to 
TiHgland,  and  in  timber.  Hie  pnnclpal  manufae- 
turea  ate  liaaiart^.  chei^oal  prodneta,  hardwares  and 
refined  mgar.  There  are  also  rope-walka  and  ahip- 
building  yarda.  The  harbonr  ia  tumiahed  with  two 
Ught-honaea.    Fop.  {1S72)  0120. 

HONG-KONG  ('Fragnjit  Streami'),  a  Britiah 
ialand  off  the  eoath-east  co»t  of  Ohina,  la  aitoated 
in  the  estuary  of  the  Chu-Riui^  abont  100  milea 
■Duth-eaat  of  Canton.  It  ia  nine  milea  long,  freon 
two  to  aix  broad,  and  Has  an  area  of  aboat  20  aqnare 
mile&  Tbs  capital,  Victoria,  ia  aitnated  in  lat.  22° 
16i'  N,,  long.  114'  81'  E.  Pop.  (1872)  121,885; 
1I5,5M  of  whom  were  Chineae,  4931  Koropeana  and 
Americana ;  the  remainder,  1400,  were  Mamla-men 
and  otlieni  of  iniied  blood.  The  total  public 
income  in   1871  waa  £17^962;    the    ezpenoitore, 


The  iaiand  ia  covered  to  the  ahore  with  mountain*, 
the  paaka  ranging  from  1000  to  nearly  2000  feet 
hi^  The  moontun*  conuat  ohiefly  of  granite, 
neniti^  aetpentine,  and  trap ;  granite  qoamea  are 
akilfally  worked  by  the  Chinese.  In  the  earlv  yean 
of  the  colony,  when  the  gronnd  was  being  broken 
np  for  building  purpoaee,  European  setUais  snffcred 
mnoh  frcon  februe  and  other  disean^  and  an  nnenvi- 
able  repntation  for  iinlmalt.hlTiii—  iraa  justly  aamed. 
Now,  however,  in  thia  rsspeot  H.  may  compare 
favoDrably  with  any  other  Britiah  poaaetaion  in  tbe 
east.  For  aboot  aix  montha,  from  Utf  to  October, 
die  beat  ia  opprssaive  in  the  extreme,  being  accom- 
panied with  moch  rain  and  damps  Dnnng  foor 
of  the  winter  montha,  the  weather  ia  oool,  dry, 
bracing.  aometimeB  even  cold ;  bat  the  change  tima 
tbe  high  and  moiBt  temperature  of  aommer  to  a  dry 
cold  ia  apt  to  produoe  dangeroua  diaeaaea,  more 
eapeaially  of  the  kidneys.  Hie  temperature  in 
anmmer  mngM  from  33^  to  90*,  and  in  winter  from 
4<r  to  76*.  On  the  mainland,  oppoiite  the  northem 
abine  of  tbe  iaUnd,  and  aepanted  from  it  by  the 
harbour,  which  varies  from  half  a  mile  to  foor  milea 
in  width,  ia  the  Kow-lotmg  Peninsula,  a  strip  of 
coaat  teintory  and  portion  of  the  township  of  the 
isme  name,  wbicb  waa  ceded  to  the  British  govern- 
by  the  convention  of  Pdcin,  October  2^  19S1. 


ratot  by  I 


Tlotoria,  the  coital,  U  ntuated 

abc^e  id  tiie  island,  on  a  amall  bay  auTonaded  by 
monntaina.  It  is  laid  out  in  magaifioent  ataeeta  and 
terraoei^  and  has  an  abundant  supply  of  good  water 
from  a  large  reservoir  on  the  soaOiBm  side  of  the 
island.  The  harbonr  i«  commodiaas  and  safe  i  the 
roadstead  has  a  depth  of  from  8  to  7  fathom^  ai>d 
afibrds  good  anoherage.  At  Aberdeen,  on  the 
south  aicCs  of  Uia  ialiud,  and  at  Kow-loong,  there 
are  docka  capable  of  taking  in  tiie  larnet  stcMicn. 
Between  Yictoiia  and   Cimton    and  Macao,  com- 

the  o^eninK  «  Uie  Sues  Canal  the  same  mi^  almost 
be  aaid  of  Bhanghal,  Tokohama,  Bombay,  Calcntts, 
and  Singapore,  so  that  the  magnificent  hatboor  p»- 
aents  a  moat  stirring  appsaranoa.  In  1S71,  the  total 
'- — age  of  vetael*  entcoed  and  desred  amoonted  to 
i,70I  tons.    Hoe  meroantdle  hoosea  cenbaliae 


tonnage  ol 
3,m3oi 


t^eic  operatiou  and  oondnot  their  money  tiaoaao- 
tjons;  yet  E.ooonidH  onlvaaecondaiy  riuik  la  the 
commerce  of  China.  Hie  Wk  of  tba  merahandjae 
from  Emt^  me*  direct  to  tike  place  of  its  de*tin«ti^ 
without  toa(£iaathisport;  in  the  same  manner,  teaa 
and  eilka  paaa  through  H.  only  irtian  tt  ia  a  port  of 
call  for  ma  steamera  carrying  them.  The  import 
trade  of  H.  ia  ohiefly  in  qiiom,  in  Enj^Uah  cotton 
and  woollen  gooda,  and  in  metals,  in  repairing  vessel^ 
and  in  tbe  bwiafar  of  passengers  One  of  the  most 
flonrigliing  of  British  colonies,  H.  ia  deatined  to  fur- 
ther extension  and  importance,  and  will  rise  with 
the  gradual  inmeasa  01  the  oommeroe  of  fkatorn 
Aaia.  A  amall  speeiaa  d  deer  is  found  <m  the  island. 
Among  reptiles  there  an  aevatal  spaoies  of  non- 
poismLODs  snakei^  one  i^edee  ot  the  boa  whi^ 
rudiaa  a  lengUi  of  eight  or  nine  fee^  and  tiie  cobn. 
^limds  also  abound. 

In  1643  this  island  waa  ceded  in  perpetui^  to 
[or  Britannia  Majesty  by  the  treafy  of  Nankin, 
having  been  oooupied  as  a  preliminaty  measuie  in 
184L  Its  afhira  are  ruled  by  a  governor  and  Ic^ 
lative  oounciL 

HCNITON,  a  small  market-town  and  mnnioipat 
boroogb  of  England^  in  the  county  of  Devon,  ia 
beautitully  situated  m  a  graceful  and  highly  oulti- 
Tated  valley,  near  Ulb  l^t  bank  of  tiie  Ottar,  16 
milea  north-east  of  Exeter.  The  old  church  contains 
a  light  and  elE^ant  oak-screen,  erected  in  J482  by 
Conrtenay,  bishop  of  Exeter,  E.  has  long  been 
famous  for  the  lace,  called  from  the  town  in  which 
it  ia  the  chief  bianoh  cd  manufacture,  '  Honitcn 
lAce.'  This  lace  ia  made  bv  hand  on  apittaw;  ita 
mannfaeture  was  introduced  into  England  by  the 
LoUaids  during  the  reign  of  Elimbeth.  The  vale  of 
Honiton.is  famous  for  its  butter.  Pop.  (1871)  3464. 
E.  was  fonneriy  a  parliameotary  boron^  iiH 
returned  two  membets  to  the  House  of  Comm«n^ 
bnt  it  was  disfranchised  in  1868. 

HOHOLtI'LU,  a  seaport  in  hrt.  21*  18*  N,  and 
long.  ISr  65'  W.,  on  the  Bouth-weateni  or  lea- 
wud  coast  of  Ooahn,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands 
(q.  v.),  is  perhaps  the  only  spot  in  Polyoeaia  that 
can  fairly  claim  to  be  reckoned  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  world  of  oommeroe  and  dvilis^on. 
Being  the  seat  of  government,  as  well  aa  the  centre 
of  ^ade,  it  ia,  m  every  sense,  the  metropoUs 
of  its  own  ^gronp,  which  is  at  once  the  largest  and 
the  moat  impOTtant  of  all  the  kindred  cluater*. 
Bnt  beyond  thi^  its  intrinsio  advantage^  and  the  - 
ahnmoe,  or  at  least  the  distance,  of  rivals  along 
the  snrrounding  w>t«*,  in  any  direatioI^  have 
eomUned  to  raidw  it  an  entrepM  batwaen  dia 
opposita  sborea  of  the  Psmfia  Beaidea  attraoting 
Dumben  of  whaleta  for  n^iaiii  and  npptiaa,  £ 
occupies  a  most  oonvndetit  poatum  mi  eaa  of  tbe 
thraa  great  thoroo^ilana  «  its  own  riant  ocean. 


..Google 


aONOBAfilDM-^ONOtlB. 


a^hongh  Oothu,  in  mhiuiiimi  with  Um  Mit  of 
chain.  It  vridantly  of  toImuo  lorauddon,  vet 
real,  whioh  fonni  Qim  bnakwkter  of  Qie  nwl 
d  H.,  is  of  oonl  fomutioD.     Xbe  temperature  of 
the  town   ranges  bgtwetn  67°'9  in   Jannarj,  "' 
83*4  in  Angiut;  to  Um^  nmi^ily  eomputeo, 
■nnnal  mean  it  7ff*'SS,  with  a  dlTergenoe  in  si 
direoUon    of   oi^   7°'6&      33ie   b^uoal   heat   la 
modifiad  by  periodical  north-easttti.    Tb%  p^>nl»- 
tion,  Dambenag^  fnlly  20,000,  oontitts   chiefijr  of 
nativst,  tJie  ttmagfi  efeinent  of  it  connting  ^>ont  a 
tenth,  and  of  tMta  a  oood  manv  are  naturailted 
•ubjMtt  fimn  the  United  Statei  o!  Amerioa.    H.  ia 
Tinted  atmnally  by  about  300  vettali  of  vMiotu 
■itet,  many  of  them  being  vhalera.    Tiiia  mart  of 
toafflo  ha^  for  teTenty  yean,  maintained  the  noitr, 
and,  through  tJie  noity,  tile  peace  of  the  onoe  inde- 
pendent and  hottile  tribe*  of  the  Eawaiian  Arohi- 
eilago.    lu  B.  are  to  be  found  oontnlji  from  the 
aited    Statai,    Cliili,    Deanark,    Franos,    Gnat 
Britain,  Gennaoy,  Rniaia,  Sweden,  Italy,  Belgian^ 
the  NeUierlanda,  Anttria,  and  fern. 


bcoauM  they  were  ptwunied  to  be  oTt 
and  paid  bdordkand,  and  not  on  uie  rulnr  theory 
of  p^nunt  tor  lerTiceB  rendered.     The  l^al  effect 
which  followed  wu,  that  neiUier  Mnuuel  nor  idiyn- 
cian^  if  not  paid  their  feet  beforehand,  oonla  tmng 

itittlltl 
bat  not  at  to 

far  a  counsel 
tor  a  fixed  n    . 

cowed  in  England  in  tils 

but  baa  not  yet  been  decided. 

HONCVRinS,  Fu.TTiTa,  seooDd  toa  of  Xheodoeiui 
the  Great,  wat  bom,  aooording  to  the  beet  aathor- 
itiea,  0th  September  354  i-n.  On  the  death  of 
hit  father,  the  em^re  waa  diTided  into  two  putt, 
H.  recaiTing  the  western  half,  with  Borne  aa  hit 
oa|nt«l;  bat  being  only  ten  yean  old,  waa  pat 
niider  the  gnardianthip  of  Stilicho  (q.  v.),  who 
WW  all  hia  life  the  de  facto  nilw  of  the  Weatem 
l^jnre.  H.  flrat  took  up  hit  rendenoe  at  Milan, 
where,  in  308  A-n.,  he  married  Maria,  ibo  daughter 
of  Stilioho.  The  moat  important  eventt  of  E.'b 
reign  wero  the  Taiioot  treatiea  ooncladed  with  the 
G<nnan  tribe*  who  dwelt  on  the  Rhine  and  Upper 
Dannbe  j  the  rigoroua  ^eraeoation  of  pagamam 
in  399 ;  and  the  OBTaatatutn  of  Northern  lUly  by 
Alario  and  Hit  Yiaigothi  in  400—403.  StUicho  waa 
than  in  Qenoanyi  bnt  on  hit  retoni,  he  apeedily 
cleared  the  ooun^  of  the  inTadert,  after  totally 
defeating  thou  at  Folleiitia  (Haroh  403).  Another 
iimptum  «l  barbaiiant,  Dndar  BJiadagaitm,  took 
plaoe  in  405 — 406,  which  wat  M*in  rcfwlled  b^ 
tika  powsrfnl  ana  ot  Stilicho.  Kererthuett,  tiua 
brav*  aoldier  and  able  miniater  lott  tite  faTonr  of 
luB  weak  and  worthUet  auwtar,  and  wat  teaohw- 
oualy  tlaiu  at  BAvenna,  408  A.i>.  Alario  wat  not 
alow  to  take  advantage  of  the  oroortanitT  afforded 
him.    In  40S  ^D.,  he  invaded  Italy,  and  btaieged 


. .  paid  their  feea  beforehand,  ooald*briiig 

Bgaintt  the  client  to  raoover  them.     Hit 

I  in  the  United  Kingdom  aa  to  oounael, 

lepttered  phyaioianB,  who 

^—  •"  aetooo.     3Tw  law  - 
idly  moke  a  special 

*     ili  haa  been ,  

of  Kennedy  v.  Blown, 


»  I^  acbOD.     nte  law  aa  to  how 
Q  validly  moke  a  special  agreement 
e  for  il^  haa  been  rally  dia- 


mperial  pnrple. 

IX,  after  having 
I  third  time  betieged  BMOti  ^ais  iraed  It^.  A 
1 !__    ..  ..t.   ._..-_  J  amjjda  araaa  m  the 


northern   provinoei,  and  «f  Heraolian   in  Afriea, 


Pladdia,  nater  to  E.,  along  with  a  ahare  in  the 
empire,  which  he  did  not  long  enjt^,  aa  hia  death 
took  place  a  few  montha  after.  The  Gothic  and 
Oeiman  tribes  had  for  aome  time  been  slowly  but 
steadily  encroaching  upon  the  Weatem  Zmpire,  and 
B,'»  reign  taw  Spam,  Gaul,  and  Pannouia,  aome  of 
tlie  finett  provinoea,  anatched  from  ita  giaap.  He 
died  S7Ui  Auguat  4^  H.'a  ehanoter  preaenta  tew 
lafient  pointa.    He  waa  weak  and  tooliah,  and  when 


HOKOBIUS,  the  name  of  four  popee. — Eonobrib 
L  haa  been  the  aubiect  of  much  oontiorerty,  not 
alone  between  OathoW  and  Proteatant%  but  alto 
between  the  Qallioan  and  Ulbamontane  aohooU  of 
Oatholica  themtelvca.  He  waa  bom  of  a  oonaalai 
family  In  Campaniik  Of  hia  earlv  hiatciT,  little  ia 
known,  exoqjit  liut  he  toi^  an  active  part  m  twing- 
ing to  a  doae  tiie  diqintea  whii:li  arc—  '-  ■"■"-••• — 
Italy  about  the  conttovcaqr  of  the 
(q.  v.).  On  the  death  of  Bonifaoe  T.,  n. »«, .»  —. 
elected  Bitbop  of  Borne.  Sa  general  adminwtratdoii 
(rf  church  afuort  haa  been  fiivonrablv  jiu' 
hiatoriant;  and  hit  name  ia  eapeoially  ec 
with  the  history  of  the  pMchal  oontrovwy  in 
Ireland,  and  with  that  of  the  early  Anglo-Saxon 
Church.  But  hia  pootifioate  ia  ptftacularly  memor- 
able on  aocount  of  the  Monotheliatia  heraay.  Sea 
MoiroTBXUBiL  H.  ia  oonnaoted  therewith  rather 
nej^tively,  than  by  anypoaitiTe  participatioa,  in  the 
"        ■     ■■       gi  ^„  Honothelite  docttine.    While 


tile  contcovenv  waa  yet  new  in  the  West,  Sergint, 
Patriarch  of  ConatantiuoplB,  -wrote.to  H.,  to  explain 
the  MonoUielittia  dootrinee  in  the  most  favounble 
it,  and  to  aogoaat  that  it  would  be  moat  devr- 
i  to  impoae  Sence  on  both  partiea,  in  a  di>- 
pate  which  really  did  not  affect  the  aubatanoe  of 
the  Catholio  doobine.  H.,  misled  it  ia  al^^ 
by  tlua  ttatement  of  Sergiua,  coneented,  and  even 
— prened  himaelf  in  language  which  would  appear 
._  condemn  the  doctrine  of  two  willa  in  Cfbriab 
The  Catholic  histotiana,  however,  "v-^t'in  that  in 
thnt  jlifi'lttmiTig  the  belief  of  two  wills  in  Obiiafi 
H.  merely  denied  the  existence  in  Chriat  of  two 
diacordant  or  conflicting  willa,  that  ia,  of  a  eormpt 
and  ttt^iil  Jtuman  will  oppoaed  to  the  divine  wilL 
It  ia  not  eaay,  perhaps,  to  reconcile  thie  with  the 
decree  of  the  aixtb  general  council,  in  which  H.  ia 
anathematised  in  company  with  manv  othen^  ot 
whoee  haterodoiy  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Bat  the 
defenders  of  H.  reply,  that  although  the  sixth 
council  certainly  doea  include  B.  in  one  common 
condemnation  with  a  groQp  of  heretical  teachet^ 
yet  the  explanation  appended  to  the  oondem- 
natioD  of  the  former,  viz.,  that  '  he  had  not  by 
tha  Qxeraae  of  his  apoatolio  autliority  extinfotahed 
the  riaing   flame  of  hereey,  but  by  neglecting  i^ 


himself  personally  ortliodoi,  he  enjfuned  ailenoe 
on  the  oontroveny  at  a  time  when  a  more  far- 
aighted  mler  wbnld  have  felt  it  hia  duty  to  inter- 
fere by  a  cleat  and  explicit  declaration.  On  the 
""bole,  they  mrintiriT'  tnat,  however  H.  ma^  by  lua 


imjandent'dlence  have  comraomised 
of  orthodoxy,  he  did  not  put  forth  a 


„ ,, ^__      rUi  any  inch  dog- 

nutio  deolaratim  aa  can  fairiy  be  ngarded,  whether 

I^  ftotaatanta  or  by  Gilhcana,  aa   irreconcilable 

vrith  the  tfari«t  nltramontane  doctrine  of  Infallibility, 

that  dootiine  oontemplatea  the  pt^ 

from  tiie  apoatolio  cnair.'    H.  died  m 

Hten  of  hu  are  preeerved  in  I^bbe't 

CM.  OoneQIorvm,  vol  iit 

HONOUB,  AooBTiJNa  roB,  «  j^fM  naed  in 


LinlizodhyGoOglt. 


HONOTJEASLfi,  EIGHT  flONOtTtLABL^  aM)  itOST  HONOURABLE— HOOD. 


the  ]«r  of  InllB  of  exohuiRe,  to  denote  thai  a  itnngar 
Tolnnteen  to  accept  a  bill  oat  of  raapeet  to  ■  foreign 
party  iuoing  the  bill  to  peiaoiu  m  thii  oauntiy, 
who  refme  to  accept^  in  which  caaa  the  stranger 
aoeepting,  incoia  certun  leiponiibilities. 

HOTTOUBABLE,  BIOHT  HONOURABLE, 
Aim  HOST  HONOURABLE;  titles  givea  in 
the  United  Kingdom  to  Peers,  their  funUiea,  and 
pasona  holding  oertain  paUio  litnations.  A 
Marquis  or  Marchioness  is  styled  Most  Honour- 
able, a  Peer  (tempoinl)  or  Feereas  of  a  lower 
nade,  whether  by  right  or  by  conrtoay,  is  Right 
HononrablCL  Tbe  title  Right  Honourable  is  also 
bestowed  on  tiie  younger  sons  of  Dnkei  sjid  Mar- 
qniMa,  and  their  wives ;  and  on  all  the  daiightani 
tf  Ddces,  Marquises,  and  Earls;  and  Honourable 
on  tiie  younger  sons  of  Earls,  mod  all  the  children 
of  Viscoanta  and  BaronA  Privy  Councillors,  the 
Lords  Mayor  of  London,  York,  and  Dublin,  the 
Lord  Advocate  of  Scotland,  and  the  Lord  Provost 
of  Edinburgh,  are  also  entitied  to  the  prefix  Right 
Honourable ;  and  Maids  of  Honoor,  Lords  of 
Session,  the  Supreme  Judges  of  Eogland  and  Ire- 
lai(d,  to  that  of  Honourable.  Uemben  of  tlie 
Houae  of  Commons,  though  HoDOorable  is  not 
prefixed  to  their  names,  are  diatiogniahed  as  the 
'  Hmwnrabla  nember  for  — — ,'  and  the  Eaat  India 
Company  hat  been  held  entitled  to  the  game  prefix- 
In  Aoenca,  the  characteristic  love  of  title  has  been 
shewn  in  the  practice  of  attaching  Honourable  to 
the  names  of  governors  of  states,  jadges,  members 
of  congress,  ai^  other  public  functionaries. 

HONOTJBABLE  ORDINARIES,  in  Heraldry. 
See  ORsnrAitim. 

HONOURS,   MiUTART    Ain>    Navai.      See 

HONOURS  OF  WAR,  the  term  used  to  express 
the  privil^es  allowed  to  a  garrison  sun«ndering, 
eitbw  in  consideration  of  a  brave  defence,  or  from 
SMUe  oUier  caose.  Many  degrees  of  hoDonr  may 
be  paid  to  a  vanquiahed  enemy,  according  to  the 
generonty  or  jodgment  of  the  victorious  commander- 
ni-chiet  In  some  oases,  the  garrison  is  allowed  to 
march  out  with  all  its  ann^'dmms  beating,  coloon 
fi^g,  kc  ;  at  another  time,  the  conqu^ed  force 
inll  only  be  permitted  to  advance  silently  to  the 
front  of  their  works,  there  to  ground  or  pile  arms, 
and  dien,  facing  about,  to  return  to  their  lines  as 
prisonen  of  war.  Occasionally,  the  capitulation  will 
provida  that  the  garrison  shall  deposit  their  arms 
and  warlike  atorea  at  tome  specified  ipot,  and  then 
march  on  to  their  own  territory  on  parole  of  not 
■erring  during  the  existing  war  against  the  victors 

HONTHEIM,  JoHM  Niohoi-as  ton,  was  bom 
■t  Treyea  in  1701.  He  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit 
•ohool  of  his  native  city,  studied  canon  law  at 
Lonvain  under  the  celebrated  Van  Espen,  and 
afterwatda  taught  it  for  ten  years  at  l^evea,  of 
which  see  he  became  coadjutor  in  1748,  with  the 
title  of  biahop  in  partibaa  tufidelium.  He  is  the 
author  of  two  volominoDs  works  on  the  history 
ct  Treves,  Hittoria  TranrentU  Diplomatvia  (3  vols. 
foL,  1750).  and  Ptodronuu  HU.  JS-mrm^  (2 
vols,  (d.,  17C7).  But  hit  literary  career  is  ohieflv 
tnemorabls  for  a  Uuolo^cal  essay,  which,  althougD 
with  very  mean  pretensiona  to  learning,  by  ue 
novelty  and  boldneat  «f  its  viewi,  created  an 
immense  sensation  in  the  thedogioal  wivld.  The 
title  of  this  woik,  vrhich  was  in  lAtin,  and  dedi- 
cated to  Pope  Clement  XHL,  is  '  On  the  State  of 
the  Church  and  on  the  Legitimate  Anthority  of 
the  Roman  Ponti^'  a  work  composed  with  a  view 
to  the  reunion  of  Christian  sects.    The  name  of 


Uis  anthor  was  for  a  long  time  nnkn 
being  published  under  the  nom  de  pit 
Febronius  (a  name  said  to  be  taken  from  that 
of  E.'s  niece,  who  was  called  Justina  Febnnia), 
whence  the  aystem  of  church  gcvemm 
UiB  workproponndt  has  been  cdled  Fel 
(q.  v.).  His  tchema  mav  be  described  _.  ..  ._^ 
exaggerated  form  of  QaUicanism,  with  the  demo- 
cratic element  of  congr^ationaliam  auperadded. 
The  work  immediately  a^er  ita  appearanoe  waa 
condemned  by  Clement  XIH.,  as  well  as  by  many 
iadividnal  biahopa.  It  drew  forth  a  number  irf 
replies,  the  moat  importaDt  of  which  are  those  of 
Zaccaria  (1767)  and  Ballerini  (1768).  Pios  TL, 
in  1778,  required  from  H  a  retoactation  of  tliwe 
doctrines.  This  retractation, however,  wat  modified 
by  a  subsequent  OoTnmentarv,  published  at  Frank- 
fnit  in  1781,  to  which,  at  de  dedre  of  the  pma. 
Cardinal  Qetdil  replied.  H.  eveotnally  made  full 
submission  to  the  church.  He  died  in  his  90tk 
year,  at  Montquinlen  in  Luxemburg,  Septiraber 
2,  179a— See  Jienzel's  Neua^  OttAutit  ier 
Da^Aen,  jL  dIS6,  and  la\L 

HONTBD  (Land- defenders),  the  name  given  in 
Hungary  under  the  earlier  Unga  to  the  national 
champions.  With  th*  diswpearance  of  these,  the 
word  too  disappeared;  but  m  the  summer  of  184S 
it  was  revived,  and  applied  first  to  those  Enngarian 
Tolunteera  despatched  to  the  south  ^ainrt  the 
Servians,  and  subsequently,  when  the  war  with 
Austria  really  commenced,  to  the  whole  patriotie 
army.  Still,  m  common  parlance,  the  term  HonvCd 
is  used  only  with  reference  to  the  Hungarian 
iniantiy. 

HOO'BLY,  a  town 'of  Dharwar  (q^),  in  the  presi- 
dency of  Bombay,  stands  in  lat  15*  20'  S.,  and  long. 
7S°  13'  E.  It  contains  (1871)  60,000  inhabitants,  aid 
IS  one  of  the  principal  cotton-marts  in  that  section 
of  ludih  A  good  road  has  been  caostrncted  to  the 
Malabar  coaat^  by  which  the  raw  cotton  of  the 
neighbourhood  is  easily  and  ehei^ily  tiwtsported 
for  shipment. 

HOOD,  Rosm,  the  hero  of  several  old  ballads 


a  gallant 

and  generODB  nature,  hauntiD^  the  depths  <a  9mi^ 
wood  Forest,  Notlinghanuihire,  and  of  Batnadala 
Foreet,  Yorkshire,  in  an  early  era  cA  English  history, 
which  it  has  hitherto  been  customary  to  fix  m 
the  12th  centmy.  The  earliest  anthentie  notiM  tA 
him  is  in  the  VUion  of  Piert  Piomkmajt,  a  poem 
dating  from  between  1355  and  1365:  'diymet  of 
Robin  Hood  and  Randolph  Eai)  of  Cbettet'  a>« 
there  alluded  to.  About  l^ff,  Wynkyn  d«  Words 
printed  a  poem  of  considerable  length,  entitled  7^ 
Lytel  Cfatt  of  Bobm  Hood — apparently  a  series  of 
rude  popular  ballads  strung  together,  b^ng  probahfy 
a  modification  of  the  '  rhymes 'apoken  of  in  Piers 
FloDgliman.  Thna  vre  tee  evidence  for  a  consider- 
able antiquity  to  the  ballads  commemorating  Robin 
H,  a  ool^ction  of  which  filled  two  little  volnmea 
printed  by  Ritaon  in  1766.  It  is  also  certain  that, 
m  the  eariy  part  of  the  16th  o.,  there  was  a  wide- 
spread celebration  td  annual  nistia  sporta  and 
matqneradingt,  under  the  name  of  the  A>Mi  Sood 
Oamtt,  in  whioh  tbe  deeds  of  the  hero,  and  of 
hit  companions.  Little  John,  Friar  Tuck,  Ac,  and 
of  his  sylvan  iiiislimi.  Mud  Marian,  wers  reue- 
saoted.  These  even  extended  to  Scotland,  mere 
Qm  Eeformers  Had  some  difficulty  in  putting  tken 
down.  In  the  ballads  and  the  games  alika,  Bobin 
was  always  exhibited  aa  a  valiant  man  out  of  suite 
with  fortune,  giving  to  the  poor  much  of  what 
he  took  from  the  noh,  most  skilful  with  the  long 


,ib,Googli? 


Tiet^oiH  in 


In  additioD  to  thew  erldence*  of  tlie 

■ncli  a  hero,  we  miut  miurk  tlut  liu  gnva  hu  for 
■gea  been  pointed  to  in  Kirkleee  Put,  Yoikihins 
Duucked  by  »  flat  atime  on  which  wu  cured  a 

While  then  codld  be  little  doubt  that  wine  cuch 
predatoty  ontlBw  ■■  Robin  H.  onoe  eziited,  imd 
tliat  hs  wu  of  ■  cheracter  to  excite^  generally 
speaking,  the  oflectiona  rather  than  the  raprabation 
ol  the  people,  there  was  a  sad  want  of  dooameutary 
evidence  regarding  him,  until  the  publication  of  a 
tract  hy  the  Rev.  Jowiph  Hunter  in  18SS:  In  thii 
tmcAure.  it  ia,  fint,  ifaewn  that  one  of  the  balladi 
repreaenta  Kobin  aa  f^ine,  by  the  invitation  of 
*  Edward  onr  comely  king,  to  meet  him  at  Notting- 
ham ;  aa  there  acc^iting  lerTice  with  his  maJMty ; 
and  aa  accompanying  him  to  oonrt ;  where,  however, 
bsooming;  lick  aJinoat  to  death  with  that  kind  of 
fife^  he  aid  not  remain  above  IG  montha;  after 
irtiiah  he  Ktired,  and  resumed  hia  wonted  free  and 
jovial  life  in  the  forest.  Mr  Hunter  then  prooaeda 
to  ihew  that  King  Edward  IL  in  1323  made  a  pro- 
(neu  through  the  western  and  midland  coantiea,  ia 
the  couiee  of  which  he  came  (November  9)  to  Not- 
tingham ;  that  in  the  excheqner  aocoonta  between 
Htfch  and  November  of  the  ensuing  year,  among 
the  names  of  24  'porteors'  of  the  king,  to  whom 
wages  were  paid,  occur  tboee  cf  '  Bobyn  and  Symon 
Hod, ; '  and  that  finally,  at  the  latter  date  occdib  an 
entry—'  Robyn  Hod,  heretofore  one  of  the  porteurs, 
because  he  could  no  longer  work,  received  aa  a  gift, 
by  command,  S*. ; '  the  name  from  this  time  appear- 
ing no  more.    Mr  Hunter  likewiae  asoertained  that. 


aa  that  of  defender  in  a  suit  r^ardin^  a  smallpiece 
of  land.  The  probalNlitr  therafore  w,  that  £obin 
H.  Hved  and  acted  aj  the  b«U«d«  reneaant  him 
onW  a  few  yean  befMS  the  em  of  Pian  Ploughman, 
and  teallypaawd  from  wild  fonat  life  into  the  royal 
■ervioe  toe  a  laiet  apace — an  adventnra  which  might 
appear  aa  the  most  inoradible  attributed  to  him,  if 
we  did  not  know  aomething;  of  the  whimsical  and 
pnerila  chwacter  of  Edward  IX,  which  was  such 
that  he  did  not  disdain  oocasionally  to  seek 
ment  in  playing  at  ohock-farthina  with  hia  » 
Mr  Honter  fumier  deemed  it  likely  that  H.  was 


tiie  failure  of  their  enterprise.  If  >o,  hia  life  in  the 
forest  might  be  rather  a  sort  of  goerrilla  warfare  than 
a  practice  of  simple  rapine  ;  and  hence  it  might,  in 
Kane  measure,  ariae  that  the  '  geata '  of  Robin  E. 
became  the  subject  of  so  much  romantic  and  afCec- 
tionate  sentiment  ou  the  part  of  the  community. 

HOOD,  Thokas,  was  bom  in  London  in  1798, 
•nd  after  leaving  Khool  WM  placed  in  the  count- 
ing-honse  of  a  Ruaeian  merchant,  but  his  health 
fuling,  ho  was  sent  to  Dundee.  At  the  age  of  IT,  he 
returned  to  London,  and  engaged  himself  to  leam 
the  art  of  engraving  with  his  uncle.  In  1821,  he 
was  offered  the  poet  of  sub-editor  of  the  Ltmden 
Magaane,  whidl  he  aocepted,  and  at  onoe  entered 
npon  its  duties  and  an  extensive  literary  acqa^nt- 
ance.  Hia  first  separate  publicatioa  wa*  entitled 
OdeM  taid  Addrata  to  Qraii  People.  He  published 
WMbu  and  OddUies  in  1S26,  of  which  a  second  and 
third  seriea  irapeued  during  the  two  following 
ysus.  In  1%29,  he  oommenced  77ks  Oomie  AnnuiU, 
and  continued  it  for  nine  yeant  He  edited  The 
Qtm  iac  one  year,  oontribntinB  to  its  pages  his 
•biking  poem  entitled  Bwma  AranCt  Dream.  In 
1831,  he  w«nt  to  redd*  rt  Wanst««d  in  Esanv,  whore 


he  wrote  bis  novel  of  Tvlnen  Hali  ;  but  pecuniary 
difficnllies  supervening,  he  returned  to  London  in 
163&  In  1838,  he  commenced  the  publication  of 
Hoc^a  Own,  to  which  his  portrait  was  attached. 
Health  failing  abont  Uiis  time,  he  went  to  reside  on 
the  continent  and  remained  six  years.  In  1839, 
he  pnbliahed  Up  <Ae  Bltine,  the  idea  of  which  was 
taken  from  RMmphry  Clinier,  On  his  return  to 
England,  he  became  tne  edittn'  of  The  New  MonlAly 
Magaane,  and  on  his  withdrawal  from  its  managa- 
ment  in  1643,  be  published  WhiituiealUiet,  oonsittiDK 
chiefly  of  his  contributione  to  that  seriaL  !□  184^ 
he  started  HoocTi  Xagaane,  and  contributed  to  its 
pages  till  within  a  month  of  his  death.  Dating  Lis 
last  illnesi.  Sir  Sobert  Peel  conferred  on  lum  a 
pension  of  £100  a  year,  which  was  transferred  to  hia 
wife.  He  died  on  the  3d  May  184S,  and  was  bmied 
in  Kensall  Green  Cemetery.  Compare  Jfemoriolt 
<lf  Thomiu  Hood,  Coiiedai,  Arranfed,  and  Edited 
by  At*  Davghler,  wicA  a  Pr^aet  and  Nolu  hy  \i» 
Sort  (2  vols.  1860). 

E.  takes  a  bi^  place  both  as  a  hnmoriat  and  as 
a  serious  poet.  He  is  great  at  once  in  comedy  and 
pathtw,  and  he  sometiinea  cnrioosly  mingles  and 
combine*  both.  As  a  pnnster,  he  was  snprone :  he 
connect*  far-*epar»ted  word*  and  ideM  I^  the  most 
subtle  analopes,  and  sends  Hum  looser  Much  ol  his 
vK'bal  and  shalloi^and  will 
i  ia  as  a  poet  that  H.  will  be 
remembered.  His  Svgette  Aram'*  Dream,  8otig  of 
CTis  Sfart,  and  Bridge  if  Sight,  are  among  the  most 
perfect  poem*  of  their  kind  in  the  RnglisB  language. 

HOOD,  ViBcomrr  [Sixata.  Hood),  English 
admiral,  was  eldest  son  of  the  Bev.  3.  Hood,  vicar 
of  Thomcombe,  Devonshire,  at  which  place  he  was 
bom,  17M-  At  16,  he  entered  the  royal  navy, 
was  made  lieutenant  in  1746.  and  post'Captain  in 
1756.  In  1759,  being  in  command  o(  the  VetbO, 
32  guns,  he  enraged  a  French  GO-gun  ship,  which 
he  took  after  a  dnperate  action  of  four  honra.  In 
1777,  he  was  made  commissioner  of  Portsmouth 
dockyard,  and  next  year  received  a  baronetcy.  He 
was  then  nuule  rear-admiral,  was  sent  to  the 
West  Indies  to  reinforce  Rodney,  and  commanded 
a  division  in  the  engagement  with  the  Connt  de 
Qrasae,  April  IS,  17S2i  He  was  made  a  peer  of 
Ireland  by  the  title  of  Baron  Hood.  In  1793, 
he  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the  Uedittt- 
nmean  fleet,  and  took  posaeaaion  of  the  port  of 
Tonlon ;  but  the  French  Republican  army,  in 
great  force,  compelled  him  to  evacuate  it,  after 
deatroying  or  carrying  away  the  prvncip^  part  of 
the  sluppmg,  firing  &«  aiseniJ  and  public  storea. 
He  thcoi  sailed  for,  Conica,  which,  after  a  cam- 
paign, he  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Oreat  Britain. 
In  1796,  he  waa  advanced  to  the  rank  of  a  viscount 


--His  younger  brother,  Alxxuidkb  Hood,  served 
as  rear-adnural  under  Lord  Howe,  was  second  in 
command  at  Lord  Howe's  victory  of  the  1st  June 

1794,  obtained  a  victory  over  the  French  fleet  in 

1795,  and  was  made,  in  1796,  Baron,  and  in  1801, 
Visconnt  Bridport.    He  died  in  1814 

HOOD-HOULDINO.    SeeDuMVONB. 


by  permitting  it  to  grow  uninjured  by  the  rasp 
and  knife  (see  HoBsa-SHOBiMa),  whilst  its  too^- 
Dcss  is  secured,  and  undue  dryness  and  evaporation 
prevented,  by  ameMing  daily  the  crust,  sole,  and 
fn^  with  a  little  glyo«nne,  or  a  mixture  mada 
by  melting  together  a  quarter  of  a  pound  each  of 
tar,  honey,  beea'-wax.  and  gtyoerine,  with  a  pound 
of  lard.    Softneai  pud  brjttlenea*  of  the  boof,  whioh 


HOOFT— HOOKE. 


■re  fruitful  wNmei  of  oiaoki  and  CSanw  (q.  r.),  m»j 
bt  ramidl«d  by  i^  rtgalMr  «■•  of  •uoh  dnmn^ 
by  pladng  the  feet  for  lercnd  honn  duly  in  ttuok 
wooUan  nnba,  kept  ood  mxI  nunit  by  bejneat 
(^l^lMtioai  of  oold  wkter.  Hid  by  enoonnguig  > 
mora  healtliy  nowth  of  bora  by  oooHioiuu  mud 
bliiteis  Tonnd  tne  oonnwy  bead.  Gncka,  or  Buid- 
onok^  M  th^  ue  teimed,  moaUy  occnz  amon^ 
hone*  mnob  npon  the  roiid,  oaose  lunenen.  Mid 
otnutitDte  luuoimdiiBaB.  Whan  leTioiii  ttnd  reoent, 
ponmoiiig,  thinning  Kwaj  of  the  cmt  kbont  the 
oraok,  uid  perfect  reit,  are  euentiaL  After  the 
earliar  best  and  tendemcea  are  remorad,  a  hot 
iron  aboiild  be  drawn  at  ri^t  anglea  to  the  orack, 
both  above  and  below,  so  «■  to  aeparate  the  diaeaaed 
from  tiie  aonnd  horn.  Waxed  uireftd  or  flue  win 
■honld  be  wound  roimd  the  hoi^  and  a  aonnd 
growth  of  bom  atimnlated  by  a  bluter  nnind  the 
coronet.  The  boisc^a  hoofa  an  too  haid  and  ooaiM 
to  be  employed  for  the  '"f'^'ig  of  the  better  claaa 
of  comba  and  buttona,  fo^  which  pnrpooe  the  baata 
of  cattle,  to  the  Talne  of  nearly  £0000,  an  annoally 
imported.  They  are,  boweTer,  largely  need  by 
iwj.TinfMj'iimii'j  [j  proaaiate  of  potaib  and  artifliul 


waa  bom  at  Amateidam,  ISth  March  1S81,  a 
at  Leyden,  and  travelled  in  France,  Qei 
and  Italy.  He  died  at  the  Eigne,  May  21, 
The  chief  historical  works  of  H.  aie  HH  Levat 
tan  Xoning  Beadnk  17.  (Amat  lesft—lGSS),  and 
NtdtrUmdtlu  Sidoriai  (2  Tola.  Amat.  1042— leU; 
moat  reoant  edition,  1820—1823).  The  latter  of 
these  ia  itiB  of  tlie  ipnateat  Talus,  and  m  oon- 
tidered  one  «f  the  elaMMi  of  Sntoh  Uteratnn.  H. 
aleo  tnuulated  Tadtua  into  Dntob.  Ai  a  poet^ 
his  Miimedigla  bare  not  bees  siirnaased,  if  even 
equalled.  Ml  apeoimeiw  of  the  lignt  Anacreontio 
nuiee.  m»  LA»*  w«ra  pnUiabed  oy  Hnydecooper 
in  173S.  H.  baa  exennsed  *a  important  influence 
on  the  derelopnient  of  Uie  Dutch  langoage. 

HOCyOHLT,  B  river  of  Bengal  Proper,  is  formed. 
In  lat.  23'  25'  N.,  and  lona;  88*  ^  S.,  by  the 
junction  of  the  first  two  ulaeta  of  the  Gangea, 
Vaa  Kiagmtti  and  the  -  JellinghL  ITnon  the  pomt 
in  qnaataon,  the  stream,  strictly  so  called,  ia  120 
miles  longi  the  estnaiy,  as  far  as  SaniOT  B««da, 
measuring  36  miles  more.  Of  bU  the  enaiinelB  by 
which  the  Gauces  reachee  the  «aa,  the  H,  is  the 
most  sTailable  lor  navigation.  In  the  dry  season, 
the  tide  is  felt  nearly  np  to  Chandernagore,  IT 
miles  above  CSalcntta.  During  the  sonth-west 
monsoon,  the  H.  is  snbject  to  the  pbanomeaon 
known  as  'The  Bon'  (q. t.).  TJp  to  Calcutta, 
the  draught  is  seldom  leas  than  IT  feet  j  but  the 
bottom  ia  aaid  to  be  mlting  up.  At  ita  entrance, 
too,  Uie  H.  is  mnch  encumbered  with  shoals. 

HOOQHLV,  a  city  of  Bengal  Projier,  stands  on 
the  richt  or  western  bank  of  the  nver  Hooghly, 
27  milea  north  of  Calcutta,  in  lat.  22°  M'  N.,  and 
long.  8S'  22'  11  It  is  estimated  to  contain  (1871), 
siong  with  Chinsun  (q,  t,),  31,761  inhabitants. 
Hero  is  a  college  for  English  and  Asiatic  literature, 
whioh  owea  its  existence  maialy  to  the  muniflcenoe 
of  a  native ;  it  has  aeveral  schools  sllied  with  it, 
nie  district  of  Hooghly,  with  Howrah,  contuns 
1«M  aqnan  miles,  and  a  pop,  {1871)cf  1,438,666. 

HOOK,  l^KDOu  Edwa&d,  a  oalebrUed  novelist 
and  diamatio  writer,  waa  bom  in  London,  Septem- 
ber 32, 1788,  and  educated  at  Hamiw.  In  1805,  at 
the  age  of  17,  he  prodnoed  an  operatia  fane  called 
tiie  Mblia't  Setarn,  which  was  very  suooessCul ) 
and  between  that  year  and  1811,  he  wrote  twelve 
otltar  opentb  pdeoea  and  fanes,  all  of  which  wen 
popolw  at  the  time.     Eii  raady  wit,  sparkling 


homonr,  and  wonderfol  powan  ol  in^roriMitica, 
made  him  the  delight  of  ioolety;  and  hanng 
pleaaed  the  Fiinoe  Begent  by  his  faati  of  mimiory, 
he  waa  appointed  (1813)  acooontant-ganeial  and 
u  the  Uawifiiui,  with  a  salary  and  allinr- 


officea  he  held  t 


.  .  .  a  militaty  duet  cauaed 
Kim  to  be  attcated  ">^  sent  to  Ikulaod,  and  hia 
eSeota  seized  and  sold.  The  r''™'«ti<^,  it  aft«t> 
wards  apniearBd,  had  bean  oommittad  by  his  A^poly, 
who  dee&oyed  Kinuulf  On  obtaining  bia  libai^, 
"      ipported  himself  by  writing  for  the  newspapera 


1  the 


It  of  t 


John   SuU,  weekly  Tory  newipqier,   in 

waa  appointed  its  editor.     EVom  lua  o 

with  uu*  boldf  olerer,  and,  at  that  time,  Tirahnt 

print,  he    denred,  dorias  its    ~  ~  ~ 

Sjly<~-~ '-    • 

to  the  „ __- , 

he  waa  aimted  nnder  an  E&ehe^ner  writ 
.He  reouuned  within  Uw 


iMn^  vrtiiah  yielded  him  £20CM). 
folloired  in  1^5,  and  a  tliird  in  laita,  lor  eaou  oi 
which  he  received  1000  guineas.  Several  otlwr 
three-Tolnmed  novels  wero  published  by  him  in 
npid  snooession,  such  as  JfaxaeO,  1830 ;  Lose  aad 
Prid*.  1833;  OiBial  Ovrnq/,  whioh  oontains  a  sort 
of  antobiomphy  of  KimMlf,  18S0j  Jack  Sntff, 
1837t  Bir£t,l)iuht,  and  Marriaga,  1830;  OnnuH 
Jforrfof,  1889;  &a    He  died  August  34,  ISIL 

HOOK,  Ekv.  Wii.TER  FuQiTHiB,  D.D.,  eon  of 
the  Hev.  James  Hook,  Dean  of  Worceetor,  was  bom 
at  Woroester  abont  the  beginning  of  the  oentory, 
and  educated  at  Christ- Chm^ib,  Oxford,  where  be 
Ousted  in  1821.     After  holding  stme  minor 


in  the  church,  he  was  appointed  Tioar  of 
Leeds  in  1337.  and  in  1S50,  Dean  dfChiche•te^.  la 
1866,  the  Bishop  of  Ripon,  on  taking  leave  of  the  clerey 
of  hie  dioceee,  stated  that  20  churches  had  been  bmll 
Leede  through  the  exertaona  of  Dr  H.,  white  adiocd- 
oms  had  been  jirovided  for  mon  Hbaa  lO^OOO  ehit< 
dren.  Among  his  woiks  an  An  Be^eriattieat  Bioff- 
naiKy,  contaming  the  lAea  qj' Jneienl  FaO»r*  and 
Jlf(><femDit>biei(8vols.  Lond.  1846— 1802),  .d  (TAardl 
Dictionary  (Sth  ed.  1859),  Strmoiu  Svggifkd  by  fA« 
SftracUt  o/ow  Lord  and  Saviour  Je*ii»  Cliriti  (2  vols. 
1847),  On  the  Meant  of  Rendering  more  gjicttial  the 
EdacaiiiM  qf  Oit  PeojiU  (10th  ed.  1851),  and  lAva 
<if  the  ArdA'ahopi  qf  CanitrTniry,  on  which  he  was 
working  to  the  last,  the  eleventh  volmne. 


HOOKB,  BoBKRT,  an  English  natural  phOoa- 
opher,  bom  at  Freshvrater,  Ids  of  Wi^t,  July  18, 
1636,  was  educated  at  Weatminster  school,  and  at 
Christ-Church,  Oxford.  In  1662  he  was  awointed 
of  eipoimenta  to  the  Soysl  3odety,  and 


of  geometry  in  Gteaham  College,  London ;  and  in 
16^  surveyor  for  the  dty  of  London,  a  most 
lucrative  appointment.  He  died  at  Gresham  0)11<^ 
Uanh  3,  1T03L  H.  was  a  man  of  extiaordinaiy 
inventive  ganini,  and  has  justly  been  consideiea 
as  the  greatest  of  philosophic^  mechanic ;  the 
wonderful  asgamty,  nay,  almost  intnitiou,  ha 
~'iewed  in  dedacmg  correct  general  laws  fanm 
Lea^  premises,  has  never  before  or  since  been 
ego^ed.  Than  was  no  important  inTantion  by  ain 
pn^l^^^ftphe^  of  that  time  which  ""■*  '" 


rantion  by  any 
■  not  ia  part 

hyGoogle 


, by  Eookt.     Ei»  theoey  ol  graTitotiaD 

_abwqnentlj[  fonaed  put  of  Newhm'a ;  be  anti- 
ciptited  tha  invention  of  the  itum-en^e,  and  the 
discovery  of  the  laws  of  the  conEtnmed  motionfl 
of  planets.  Among  liu  own.  completed  diBcoveries 
MM,  the  law  of  the  exteniian  and  oomTneeiion  of 
elaatiabo^w,'iil<s>uw>«tcTuy'  the  DmplHt  theoiy 
of  th»  aroh ;  the  balanoo-qning  of  -mtchM  and  the 
Mnent  olocka;  the  paimanenoy  of  the 
of  boiling  mter.  The  qnadialit,  telo- 
alu  mateilaUy  indebted 


HOOKER,  BiCEUS,  m&at  <A  fhe  Books  of 

Eededutical  Polity,  and  one  of  the  moat  illiutrioni 
of  Engliah  tfaeoloffians,  was  bora  in  the  atj  of 
Exeter,  or  ita  neignbonrliood,  about  tiie  year  ISM. 
He  WM  early  diitingiudied  for  hii  '  qmck  appre- 
heniion  of  many  perplext  parts  of  leamine,'  and 
attraci«d  the  notice  of  Jewell,  Bishop  of  Bahsboiy, 
throng  whose  influence  he  wal  sent  to  Oxford 
about  his  15th  year.  He  was  placed  at  Corpoa 
Cluisti  College.  He  was  adTatic«d  flnt  to  the 
dignify  of  Boholar,  and  theo  of  fellow  of  his  college. 
After  about  three  years'  niideDoa  in  his  college  is 
fellow,  he  ent«md  into  saored  oiden,  and  ere  long 


tbsir  way  in  the  Ifth  OMttairy.  To  H.,  howerer, 
tha  trial  of  foch  a  pnbUo  amtsaiance  was  evidently 
oeniiderable,  aeoaraing  to  Walton's  aooonnt;  and 
the  more  as  tii«  weat&er  prayed  Tery  nnfaTonrable 
for  his  jaataey;   'Wt  a  warm  bed  and  rest,  and 


enabled  bim  to  penonn  the  ofBoe  of  the  day,  which 
waa  on  or  about  the  year  ISSl.'  Mrs  Chonjunan's 
kindness  proved  too  mitoh  toi  the  simpls-miaded 
theologtao.  He  was  led,  evidently  without  doe 
oonsidaraliana  into  a  marriace  with  her  daughter. 
This  ntairiag*  ol  Hi,  as  is  tawwn  to  all,  waa  far 
from  proving  a  tonroe  of  hqurinsss  a  renilt  tbat 
soold  •oaroHy  have  bMn  expeoted  from  ita  oom- 
manoamant.  Walton's  deacnption  of  the  visit  of 
his  two  <dd  pnpils,  Edwin  Sandys  and  Oeorge 
"^  '.  '  RinWrd  called  to  rook  the  oradle' 


oanght  cold  in  his  passsg 
end,  and  gradually  snnk 
followed. 

H.  will  always  be  esteemed  one  of  the  most  iUtis- 
trious  thinkers  and  writers,  not  only  in  Endish 
theology,  but  in  English  literature.  He  is  alike 
comprahenaiTe  and  profound,  tianqnil  and  eloqoent. 
He  IS  speculative  without  mysticisni,  and  earnest 
without  declamation.  He  searches  all  the  depths 
and  rises  to  all  the  heights  of  his  subject,  without 
ever  forgetting  the  simplitdty  of  the  Christian  <» 
breaking  the  charm  of  catholic  association  that  bind* 
all  ita  parts  tocether.  More  than  anything,  he  is 
wise  and  judioouf  in  the  highest  sense  i^  that 
word ;  and  it  is  the  light  of  lofty  and  calm  wisdom, 
■liining  through  lus  pagos,  that  continues  to  make 
them  a  delightful  and  excellent  study,  when  most 
of  the  contemporary  theological  works  "~"  ' ""~ 


priest,  aft«i  his  marriage.  He  waa  tr*n*fen«d  are 
long  to  the  mastanbip  of  the  Temple,  Vf  the 
patTC«iage  of  Archbishop  WUtgift ;  and  here  be  was 
plongsd  into  tha  oontrorersy  with  Foritaiusni,  out 
of  which  hia  great  worit  aroaa.  Travers,  one  (d 
the  most  zealous  of  the  Elisabethan  Puritan^  waa 
his  odleagne  in  the  Temple^  Travers  was  tha  more 
attnctlTB  and  popular  Matoiv  if  ttie  less  profound 
thinker,  The  nmon  was  noi  a  happy  cim.  The 
oonsregation '  abbed  in  the  forenoon,' Pnller  tells  tuk 
'lA&wtA  in  the  afternoon.'  ■  Pure Cantaihnn' 
was  in  the  Bsoendant  in  tha  moiuing, '  (JanevB '  in  tne 
irftemoon.  H.  soon  tired  of  the  contention'  in  tlie 
oongreg^tion,  and  the  indifihrsnoe  of  tha  majority  to 
his  miwstry.  He  acoordingly  applied  to  tbe  Mob- 
bishop,  who  presented  *»■"■,  m  the  yesr  1001,  to  tbe 
.  reotorv  of  Boscum,  in  the  diooesa  of  Saliabnry,  and 
six  miles  from  that  eity>  Here  he  ranainad  fM  four 
veats,  busily  employied  with  his  great  wttk,  wbitsk 
his  experience  m  ihe  Tempi*  probably  pmnpted. 
The  first  four  books  of  the  Eoolemastioal  Felity 
appeared  in  159*.  In  the  same  year,  bs  was  bans- 
ferred  to  the  living  d  Kshopahonts,  nssr  Oantei- 
bnTT,  where  he  spent  ths  few  rsmuning  years  of 
Us  lifa,  and  gave  to  thswcnU  tbe  fifth  book  of  tha 
Polity.  Ther«ouuningthresbo<^WBapsathiiiMns. 
About  Uks  year  1600,  in  ths  4«th  ysar  e(  Us  ags,  ha 


HOOKEH,    SiK  WiLLUM  JAOKSOir,  F.IL8.,   a 

'  '     ■   '  ■" iTM  born  at  Norwich 

ii  Journal  qf  a  Tour  Im 


an^  anjptged  in  the  publication  ot  botanical 
works.  His  mveetigations  on  the  foilash  Jnnger* 
manniw  and  Itlosses  led  to  his  appointment  to  the 
chair  of  botan]^  in  the  university  of  Olaseow,  where 
he  lectured  with  great  saooess  till  1841,  when  he 
resigned  lus  professonhip  on  being  chosen  director 
of  tile  Boyal  Qardena  at  Kew,  an  office  which  he 
filled  in  a  most  efficient  manner.  Hia  name  was 
enrolled  in  the  lists  of  all  the  sciantiflo  societies  at 
home  aod  abroad ;  and  he  was  knighted  in  ISSO^on 
account  ot  his  high  scienti&i  acquirements.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  most  important  of  his 
works :  1.  itoiutgraph  <tf  Ms  BrtfiiA  Jimgtrmanmm 
(1812—1816) ;  2.  Muteologia  BrUawAia,  containiiu; 
the  mosses  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (181S) ;  3. 
Ieont»  Fiiicum  (in  assoolatian  with  Dr  GrevillHl,  (2 
vola.  foL  182B— 1837) ;  4.  Tht  SrUish  Flora  (1S30}, 
a  work  that  has  gone  through  seven  editions ;  S. 
A  Ceumm  qf  OrStidaeeoui  PtanU  (4to,  1S48] ;  6. 
7^  Victoria  Segiaj  T.  Icoms  fbxnlarura  (10  vols. 
ia37— 18S0)  ;  8.  BriliA  Fcra»  a862}  i  &.  Oarden 
jfams  (1862). 

HOOKER  JosKPH  Dalton,  M.D.,  C.B.,  F.RS., 
SB  born  at  Glasgow  in  ISI6,  and  is  the  only  surviv- 
ing son  of  Sir  W.  J.  Hooker  (q.v.).  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  medical  profession,  and  graduated  as 
M.D.  at  Glasgow  in  1839:  He  immediately  there- 
after renonoMd  the  pursuit  of  medidne  for  that  of 
botany,  andji^ed  the  antarotio  expedition  of  the 
BrOtis  and  Terror,  When  he  retnmed  in  1S43,  he 
broiuht  with  him  B340  i^iecies  of  plants,  which,  with 
the  uscoveriea  of  Captain  Cook  and  other  voyages, 
were  pablisbed  in  six  quarto  volumes,  nnoer 
the  title  of  Botany  c^  lAs  Aviaraic  Yoyagt 
(1817—1800).  This  great  work  gave  him  at  once 
an  ominent  poaition  in  sdence.  la  1347,  he 
undertook  an  expedition  to  the  Himalayas,  which 
oocupied  him  for  Uiree  jrears.  The  large  collections 
made  at  this  time  were  joined  to  those  of  hia  friend, 
Dr  nomas  Thomson  of  the  Botanio  Gardens,  Cal- 
cutta, and  numbered  in  the  aggregate  nearly  7000 
speoies.  His  Hmaiayan  JommaU  (2  vols.  8v<l 
18M)  contain  the  nsnative  of  this  enwditiau,  and 
the  Shododtitdroat  ^  ihe  SmUm-Himalaj/a  (1649— 
ISfil]  iUostrats  ths  most  rsmaAable  additions 
whiiut  be  made  to  (lie  omamentalplants  of  onr  sar- 
dens  (01  this  occasion.  WithDr  nunnsouheDnasr- 
toA  a  Flora  Indioa  (vol  1,  Svu^  1866),  the  fiist 


laHe  diMcrtattM 


hyGuUl^ll, 


HOOKS  AMD  E^^— SOOPINQ-COUGH. 


geograpliy,  »  deputment  of  the  science  wlilch  hu 
receiTed  epeaial  atteutioa  trom  Dr  H.  in  iiia  vari- 
ous works.  He  ftfterwwiJa  again  nndertook  a  flora 
of  Brituli  India,  wUch  yxaa  completed  in  1874  In 
1871,  he  made  an  expedition  to  Morocco,  ascended 
the  Qreat  Atlas,  the  summit  of  which  had  never 
before  been  reached  by  a  European,  and  broaght 
back  a  valnable  collection  of  plante. 

Dr  H.  waa  appointed  Assiataat-Director  at  Rew 
Oardeas  in  1855,  and  on  the  death  of  hii  father 
in  1BG5,  he  sncceeded  faim  as  director.  He  was 
president  of  the  British  Aseociation  in  IS6S,  was 
appointed  Companion  of  the  Bath  in  1869,  and 
elected  president  oE  the  Royal  Society  ia  1873. 

In  the  list  of  Bcieatiflc  memoirs  published  by  the 
Koyal  Society,  he  is  recorded  as  the  aullior  of  68 
independent  memoirs,  and  the  joint  author  of  18 
mare.  "  He  has  pre[Mired  a  valoable  Sludenli'  Flora 
ofOie  Britieh  lilaadi,  chleHy  characterised  by  the 
record  of  the  geograpHcal  distribution  of  the  species. 
His  ^reat  work,  which  he  has  undertaken  in  con- 
joDCtiDa  with  his  friend  George  Bentham,  is  a 
Otntra  Planiarum,  the  first  part  of  whiob  appeared 
in  1862 ;  and  the  first  part  of  the  second  volome, 
bringing  down  the  work  to  the  Compotita,  was  pub- 
liahwl  in  1S73. 

HOOKS  A^iD  BYIB.    The«  small  artiolea  are 
largely  used  in  millinery  for  dress-fasteners,  and 
are  of  great  utility.    Formerly,  they  were  made  by 
hand,  ^  wire  la  which  they  are  formed  being 
bent  into  the  proper  shape  with  pliem  ;  now,  how- 
ever, they  are  entirely  made  by  machines  of  great 
nmjjicity  and  beauty.    With  a  pwr  of  them  it  is 
pMiible  to  make  200  hooks,  and  the  same  number 
of  eyes,   in  one  minute.      The  operstioni  of  the 
roachinoB  are,  first,  to  draw  the  wire  forward  from 
the  supplying  reel,  then  cut  off  the  length  required 
for  hook  or  eye,  as  the  case  may  be ;   a  sinker 
then  descends  and  forces  it  into  a  slot,  by  which 
it  is  bent,  and  two  projecting  cams,  acting  at  the 
same  time  on  the  two  ends,  bend  them  over  so 
as  to  form  the  lateral  loops  used  for  sewing  Uie 
hook  or  eye  !«)  the  sarment ;  then,  in  the  case  of 
tiie  hook,  it  i>  pass^  under  another  sinker,  which 
torce*  the  doubled  wire 
into    another    slot,    and 
forms  the  hook  part ;  one 
aide   of   the    slat,   being 
movable,  is  made  to  strike 
tiie  bent  portion  of  the 
hook  sufficiently  to  flatten 
ib     It  is  then  complete, 
and  drops  out,  to  make 
room  for  another. 

BOOK-SQnip,    the 

name  oommonly  given  to 

oephalopod    molluscs    ~' 

the  genera   Onudioleu..   . 

and  SnoploleuM*,  allied 

to  tlie  common  squids  or 

CaUmaiie*     {q.  v.),    but 

I  having  the  tijim  deititate 

of  any  eovaiing  of  akin. 

Tlia  arms  have  two  rows 

of  fuckeiw;  tba  tentkdea 

mnob    exceed    them    in 

lengUi,  and  are  famished 

wiUi     hooks     at     their 

exbemitiu.   Hook-sqnids 

are  found  in  the  Sargasso 

Bmi,  Arms,  and  Teatadei  Sea,    in   the   Polynesian 

g(  Hook-aqnid.  Seas,  kc    They  are  much 

dreaded  by  swimmera  and 

diren,  being  often  of  large  tize — aometimes  six  feet 

kmg  or  mor»— whilst  their  hooka,  their  many  i 


suckers,  and  their  strooff,  aharp 

mandibl^  entitle  them  to  a  place  among  the  moat 
formidable  monsters  of  the  deep. 

HOOP  ASH.    See  NnrLs-TRBt 

HOOPER,  Jobs,  an  English  prelate  and  martyr, 
..  ju  bom  in  Somersetahire  tn>out  1496,  and  educated 
at  Oxford.  By  the  study  of  the  works  of  the  Ger- 
toan  iieformers,  and  of  the  Scriptures,  he  was  con- 
verted to  Proteatantisni,  and  about  1640  he  went  to 
the  continent,  and  spent  some  time  in  Switzerland. 
At  the  acceeeion  of  Edward  VL,  in  1547,  he  returned 
to  England,  and  became  Apreacber  in  London.  In 
1550,  ne  was  appointed  Kshop  of  Gloucester,  bat 
his  objections  to  wearing  the  Episcopal  vestments 
cauaed  some  delay  in  his  consacmtion.  In  1662,  he 
received  the  bishopric  of  Worcester  in  oonHnendam. 
On  the  commencement  of  Mary's  reign,  in  1S63,  ha 
was  committed  to  the  Fleet,  where  he  remained  for 
16  months,  being  frequentlj^  examined  before  th* 
council ;  but  oontmuing  finn  in  the  Protealant  faith, 
ha  was  condemned  as  a  heretic,  and  burned  at  the 
stake  at  Glouoeater,  February  9,  1555.  He  waa 
the  author  of  numerous  termons  and  oontrovmital 

HOOPIMQ-COUaH,  or  PBET0SSI8,  U  an 
infections,  and  sometimes  epidemic  disease,  moatly 
attacking  children,  eapecially  in  the  aprii^  and 
autumn.  Its  eaiiieet  symptoms,  whi^  nanally 
appear  five  or  six  daya  after  exposure  to  infectitm, 
are  those  of  a  common  cold,  aa  hoarscoeas,  a  watery 
discbarge  from  the  eyes  and  nose,  opprearion  of  the 
cheat,  a  short  dry  cough,  and  more  or  less  fcveriah- 
ness.  This  atase,  which  is  called  the  catarrftal,  kata 
a  week  or  ten  davs,  when  the  fever  remits,  and  the 
congh  begins  to  be  followed  by  the  peculiar  whoop 
which  characterises  the  disease,  and  which  ia  canaed 
bv  the  inspiration  of  air  throngh  Uie  oanla«cted 
cleft  of  the  glottis.  See  Lartnz.  The  disorder  may 
now  be  re^rded  as  fully  developed,  and  oonnsts 
oi  paroxyams  of  severe  coughing,  which  nanally 
terminate  in  the  expectoration  oc  gliury  moona,  or 
in  vomiting.  During  the  fit  of  coughing,  the  face 
becomes  red  or  livid,  tlie  eyes  projeot,  and  the  child 
seizes  some  person  or  object  ne«T  him  for  anpport. 
These  paroxysms  occur  at  nnoertain  interral^  bat 
nanally  about  every  two  hours,  and  between  them 
the  child  returns  to  his  play,  takes  his  food  with 
good  appetite,  and  exhibits  little  or  no  atgn  of  ill- 
ness. The  disease  reaches  its  height  at  Miont  the 
end  of  the  fourth  week,  after  which  the  paroxyams 
diminiah  in  frequency,  and  the  patient  ahewa  Slgna 
of  improvement.  The  second  stage  may  laat  nan 
two  to  eight  weeka,  and  ia  aucceeded  by  wlwt  may 
be  termed  the  convalescent  stage,  the  daralioa  u 
which  ia  very  variable. 

This  is  one  of  those  diaeasee  which  seldom  oecor 
more  than  ouoe  in  a  lifetime ;  «nd  hence  it  probably 
is  that,  aa  few  children  cecape  it,  it  is  comparatively 
rarely  noticed  in  adults.  Morbid  anatomy  has  failed 
to  throw  any  direct  light  upon  ita  special  aaaL 
liie  proportion  of  deaths  to  recoveries  in  caan 
of  hoojnng-oon^  haa  not  been  aatiafactorily  detCT- 
mined,  but  when  there  is  a  severe  epidemic^  the 
mortali^  do*  to  this  diseaao  is  often  very  ^«at ; 
the  deaths,  bawtmn,  in  the  great  mairaity  of  oases, 
occur  amongst  the  poorei  olaaaes.  Xhii  mntali^ 
is,  in  r«ali^,  due  ratlier  to  the  bronchitia  and 
pneumonia  {or  inflammation  of  the  lungs),  which 
are  frequent  complioations  of  hooping-cough,  than 
to  the  diseaae  itseO. 

The  treatment  of  hooping-cough,  aa  long  aa  it  is 
uncomplicated  or  simple,  should  not  be  meddleaonie. 
Nothing  that  can  be  prescribed  in  the  eatly  ataa 
will  check  its  natural  course,  and  the  object  ef  the 
phyaician  ahoiild   be  to  ward  off  oomjilicatiana. 


iiizodt.-Guu^le 


HOOPOB-HOP. 


I 


and  to  condact  the  dUe*se  iileij_  to  iti  natoral 
tennin&tion.  The  diet  should,  comiiat  of  milk  aod 
nnatunulating  fuiiuceous  matters.  Tha  bovela 
ahonld  be  kept  looder&taly  open.  If  the  weather  U 
cold,  the  child  ohonld  be  kept  in  the  home  iritb  the 
temperature  of  the  room  at  about  60°.  A  grain, 
or  a  grain  and  a  half  of  ipecacuanha  may  be  given 
three  or  four  times  a  day.  Slight  coDnter-imtanta 
niay  alio  be  applied  to  the  aunace  of  the  chest ; 
Boche's  Embrocation,  which  consists  of  oliva  oil, 
with  half  its  quantity  of  the  oils  of  cloves  and  amber, 
is  extensively  used  lor  this  purpose.  Nothiog  ia 
to  serviceable  in  the  last  or  convalescent  stage  ss 
change  of  air,  often  even  when  from  a  pure  to  a 
comparatiTely  impure  atici»phere ;  and  next  to 
this,  the  internal  nae  of  a  solution  of  biuozide 
of  hydrogen  (see  HyoBoout,  Binoxidk  or)  seems 
most  worthy  of  trial 

HOOTOB  (I7pupa),agenDS  of  birds  of  the  order 
Intutora,  tribe  Tawinittra,  and  family  Upupida. 
To  this  family  are  referred  also  the  genera  Pro- 
menpt,  Epirna^iu  (Flume-birds),  Jux,  natives  of 
warm  parts  of  Asia  and  its  ialandii,  Australia,  and 
Africa,  aome  of  which  are  lemarfcable  for  magni- 
ficence of  plnmage.  In  the  whole  family,  tile  bill 
is  long  and  slender,  tiie  wings  of  moderate  size  or 
short,  the  lege  short,  the  toes  long,  and  the  claws 
strong  and  curved.  There  are  among  them,  how- 
ever, great  divenitiee,  which  have  led  soma  to  divide 
them  mto  two  families,  Upupida  and  Promeropida. 
The  genus  PromeropH  and  its  nearer  alliee  have 
a  close  relation  to  the  Mtiiphagidix,  which  they 
resemble  in  partly  feeding  on  the  sweet  juices  ol 
[janti,  in  order  to  which  the  toogue  ia  extensile 
and  divided  at  the  tip.  The  hoopoes,  on  the  other 
band,  exhibit  many  points  of  resemblance  to  the 
crow  family,  with  which  Ihey  are  connected  by  the 
chon^s,  and  some  points  of  resemblance  even  to 
bombills.    The  tongue  ia  short,  and  not  exteautle. 


Hoopoe  [IJpafa  qtop*). 

The  CoiQtOH  H.  (17.  tpop,)  is  an  African  bird,  a 
Slimmer  Turtant  of  most  parts  of  Enrope,  found  tiso 
m  some  parts  of  Asia ;  not  of  frequent  occnirence 
la  Britain,  although  sometimes  seen  in  autonm, 
Teiy  seldom  breeding  in  any  part  of  the  island.  It 
is  about  the  size  td  a  missel-thrash ;  its  pluniage 
•zhilnts  a  fine  mirture  of  white,  buff,  and  black ; 
and  it  has  a  law  crest  of  two  parallel  rows  of 
leathers.  The  H.  derives  its  name  from  its  very 
frequent  utterance  of  a  low  soft  aoond  T«Mmblina 
the  syllable  hoop. 


HOOPS.    SeeCEiNOUiOL 

HOORN,  a  decaying  town  and  seaport  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  provinoe  of  North  Holland,  is 
agreeably  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  20 
miles  north-north-east  of  Amsterdam.  It  was  at 
one  time  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  of  its 
province ;  but,  like  alt  the  towns  of  North  Holland 
situated  on  the  Zoider  Zee,  it  has  grea^  fallen  off 
in  trade  and  prosperity.  There  are  at  K  ext«nsive 
markets  for  butter  and  cheese,  and  fishing  and 
commeroe  are  carried  en  to  some  .extent.  Here  the 
larae  nets  for  harring-fishing  were  invented.    Pop. 

HOP  {Hvmadiu  lujmliiA,  a  perennial  diceoious 
plant  of  the  natural  order  CannoMnoctoi  (q.  v.),  the 
only  species  of  its  genus.  It  has  long  rough  twiniiu 
stems,  and  stalked  3 — 5-lobed  rouah  leaves,  and  u 
a  plant  of  luxuriant  growth  and  abundant  foUage. 
The  male  flowers  grow  in  loose  branching  axillary 

C'cles,  and  consist  of  five  stamens  surrounded 
.  6-Iobed  perianth.  The  female  flowers  are  in 
ttnAUa,  or  cones,  with  large  persistent,  concave, 
entire  scales,  which  enlarge  as  the  fruit  ripens. 
Hie  part  of  the  hop  so  mu^  used  in  brewing,  and 


Hop  [Hwnmiiu  tupuliu). 

sold  under  the  name  of  hop»  (q.  v.),  is  the  ripened 
cone  of  the  female  plant.  femsJe  plants  alone, 
therefore,  are  cultivated  to  any  conidderable  extent 
it  being  enough  if  a  few  mole  plants  are  scattwed 
over  a  Held. 

The  oil  of  hops  is  sedative,  anodyne,  and  narcoldo ; 
and  hence  the  value  of  pillows  stuffed  with  haps 
in  cases  of  mania,  sleepleasnese,  *a  Ilie  bitter 
principle  is  not  narcotic,  but  it  is  tonic  The 
oU  and  bitter  principle  combine  to  make  bops 
nseful  than  chamomile,  gentian,  or  any  otiier 
r,  in  the  manufacture  <d  Iwer;  and  hence  the 
medicinal  value  of  extra-kopwd  or  bitttr  beer.  The 
fanoM  acid  contained  in  the  strobiles  also  adds 
to  the  value  of  hops,  and  particalarly  as  oausing 
the  precipitation  of  vegetable  mnctlage,  and  conse- 
quently the  clearing  of  be^.  The  hop  is  first 
mentioned  by  Pliny  as  one  of  the  garden  plants  of 
the  Komans,  who,  it  s^ipears,  ate  the  young  shoola 
as  we  eat  asparagus ;  and,  in  fact,  many  country 
people  in  England  do  the  same  at  Uie  present  day. 
It  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  of  some  parts  of  Asia, 
a  doubtful  native  of  Britain  and  of  North  America, 
more  extensively  cultivated  in  the  south  of 


tyCiOogle 


HOP  FLEA— HflplTAli. 


Engluid  ibui  in  uiy  port  of  the  world,  but  tiao  to 
k  conndeTBbla  extent  m  Oennuij,  Fnmoe,  Fluidera, 
Hnd  Southam  Rumia,  and  dot  snocenfully  in  North 
America  and  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand. 

The  cnltiratioa  of  the  hop  waa  introdncsd  into 
England  from  Flanden  in  the  time  of  Henry  VUL, 
bat  did  not  become  infficieDt  for  the  supply  of 
the  kingdom  till  the  end  of  the  171h  century.  For 
pome  time  after  hops  began  to  be  used  in  ^nvwing, 
a  rtrone  prejudice  eEetSd  against  the  ionoTStion 
and  paAuuuent  wu  petitioned  againtt  hop«,  M  'i 
wicked  weed,  that  would  spoil  the  taste  of  the 
diink,  and  eodongGr  the  people.'  Above  SO,00O 
acre*  are  now  employed  in  the  cultivation  of  hops, 
ohieflr  in  the  counties  of  Kent,  Snaaex,  Woroeater, 
and  Hants ;  the  two  former  counties  producing  the 
best  hotHi  in  the  world.  Fields  of  hops  are  to  be 
seen  as  W  norUi  as  Nottinghamibire. 

The  hop  lequiree  a  very  rich  soil,  and  its  growth 
is  promoted  by  the  liberal  applioation  both  of  oiganio 
and  mineral  manures  ;  although  exoeuive  manuring 
is  prejudiciaL  It  spreads  rapidly  onderground  by 
ita  roots,  and  is  not  easily  extirpated  w^re  it  has 
one*  been  introduced.  It  is  generally  propagat 
by  layers  or  cuttings,  which  usually  grow  for  .. 
; v_/;__  bfing  planted  out    In  the 


year  in  a  nttmery  bi 
plantations,  they  aj     „  ,  , 

three  or  four,  at  distancee  of  from  n  _    . 

Great  care  is  necessary  in  fastening  the  Mema  t« 
the  poles  when  they  benn  to  shoot,  setting  np 
any  that  may  be  blown  down,  Ao.  The  stalks,  or 
bma,  are  taken  down  from  the  poles  after  the  hop- 
pickmg,  and  cut  and  removed,  to  be  used  as  litter 
or  as  manure,  for  which  purposes  they  are  excellent. 
The  fresh  bines,  which  are  cut  to  prevent  undue 
luxuriance  in  summer,  ar«  dried  for  feeding  cattle, 
and  are  as  good  as  the  best  olover  hay. 

The  fibre  of  the  stems  is  employed  to  a  consi- 
derable extent  in  Sweden  in  the  manttlaoture  of  a 
coarM  kind  of  cloth,  which  is  strong,  white,  and 
durable  j  but  the  fibres  are  so  difficult  of  separa- 
tion, that  the  stems  require  to  be  steeped  in  water 
<  for  a  whole  winter. 

The  hop-plant  often  ■uSen  my  much,  and  the 
prospeots  of  the  farmer  are  destroyed  by  the  Hop 
Miloew,  and  by  insect  enaiiies,  the  worn  ol  which 
ue  noticed  in  the  f  dlowing  artialea. 

HOP  FLEA   [ffaiika  ooncvina),   a  very   small 
not  quite  one-tenth  of  an  inch 


in  length,  whidt  often  does  much  mischief  in  hop- 
plaotstions  in  ipriug,  devouring  the  tender  tops  of 
tha  young  shoots.  It  is  of  thesamsoenas  with  the 
oallad  tumip-tfy), . 


I.  nop  Fka  (ffitflM  «MisiH)  I  *,  utnnl  iIm  ;  1,  ravdlsd ; 
a.  Hep  nr  U^^*  AmwU]  •■  a,  nuuil  alu )  1,  mifnlBsd. 

HOP  FLT  (AjAit  ffamuli),  a  spedea  of  Aphi* 

at.)  or  planfc-louse,  important  on  account  of  the 
nrj  which  in  soma  seaaons  it  does  to  hop-planta- 
tioni.    It  is,  indeed,  the  principal  cause  of  the  great 


diff^irence  between  the  hop  crop  of  one  year  and  ot 
another,  causing  the  variation*  in  prioe  and  the 
speculationB  for  which  the  hop  trade  is  notable. — 
The  winged  female  is  green,  with  a  black  head,  and 
spots  and  bands  of  bl^k  on  the  body  ;  the  legs  arq 
long.  A  few  winged  females  appear  about  the  end 
of  May,  and  win^ess  multitudes  are  sometimea  to 
be  seen  by  the  middle  of  June,  on  the  under  side  of 
the  hop-leaves  and  on  the  stema.     The  fi/  is  Um 

Cb  dread  of  hop  cultivators,  and  no  means  hava 
.  found  of  arresting  its  ravages.  I^dy-Urds 
and  other  insect*  render  important  ferriee  bjr 
devouring  the  aphidea,  and  reatrunins  tiieir  «xe«*< 
sive  mulBi^cation.  It  is  proposed,  m  Kfrbr  and 
Spence's  Entomology,  that  women  and  childnni 
should  be  employedto  pick  off  the  winged  ^ihidat 
on  their  first  appearsjice. 

HOPE,  Thoiub,  a  distJngniihed  author  and 
patron  ot  art,  ancient  and  modon,  WM  bom  in 
London  about  1770-  While  still  a  Tontb,  ha 
travelled  over  a  large  portion  of  Europe,  Asi%  and 
Africa,  and  collected  many  drawir^s,  chia^  of 
buildings  and  sculptures.  In  EngWd,  he  flnt 
attracted  attentioQ  by  the  sp1en<ud  decoratioits 
which  he  bestowed  on  the  interior  of  his  mansion 
in  Duchess  Street,  Portland  Fl*ce,  London,  a 
deecription   of   which    appeared   in   bis 


that   com. 

pletely  revolutionised  the  taste  of  this  country. 
In  1S09,  he  published  his  Cottame  of  the  AndaUt, 
the  infiueikce  of  which  was  nndonbtedly  ▼err  gnat 
His  essay  on  the  Anhitecture  of  Thealxta,  beltawng 
to  the  same  year,  also  deaervea  mentiim.  Ibea 
yean  afterwu^  appeared  his  Itodem  CtuAimei, 
■od  in  1319  his  Ana^laehu,  or  Memoirt  <tfa  Modem 
Ortek  al  Vie  chie  qf  Ote  ISA  Oentary.  This  last 
work  is  his  master-piece.  It  was  pntdished  anony* 
mously,  and  was  said  by  many  pec^e  to  be  a  pro- 
duction of  Lord  Syron's,  who  waa  greatly  HsMored 
by  the  rumour.  It  is  certainly  a  brilliant  and 
erudite  performance,  but  (a  teiuon*  and  obocnro 
in  many  places.  It  wants  the  dramatic  vb  of  a 
gennine  work  of  genius,  and  is  now  hanUy  if  ever 
read.  The  only  other  works  of  H.  worth  mea- 
boning,  are  his  auay  On  Ae  Origin  and  ProiptU* 
of  Man,  a  very  heterodoi  but  rabbei  eloquent  piece 
of  writing ;  and  a  ffisforicol  Euay  on  ArAUeeOire, 
both  of  which  ware  pnblished  poethamously.  H. 
died  February  3,  ISSI. 
hApiTAL,  MioaxL 


■  bom  at  Aigu» 


parliament  of  Paris,  and  after  discbarging  variona 
pablio  funotioni,  beoams  chancellor  in  IMO,  daring 
the  minority  ot  Francis  H.  France  at  this  time 
was  torn  by  contending  factions.  The  Onisea,  in 
urticular,  were  powerful,  ambitious,  and  inteDselr 
Catholic :  and  wbnt  one  of  the  family,  the  Cardirtu 
do  Lorraine,  wished  to  establish  the  Inqnisitioa  in 
the  countiT,  H.  boldly  and  firmly  opposed  him,  and 
may  be  aaid  to  have  aaved  Fiwice  fnmi  that  detest- 
able institution.  Ha  summoned  the  states-general, 
which  had  not  met  for  80  years,  and,  beinc  sup- 
ported by  tile  moss  of  moderate  Catholics,  be  toroed 
the  Quises  to  yield.  His  speedi  at  the  opening  ol 
aasMnbly  wu  worthy  rf  hia  wise  and  miyiani- 
_  .  .11  spirit  I  '  Let  us  do  away,'  said  he,  '  with  tJios* 
diabolical  words  of  Lutherans,  Huguenot*,  Mtd 
Papists — names  of  party  and  sedition ;  da  not  let 
na  change  the  fau'  appellatdon  of  Christiana.'  H* 
induced  the  assembly  to  pass  an  oidonnance  abolish- 
ing arbitnuy  taxss,  regulating  the  feudal  aotlwn^ 
of  the  uoblea,  and  correcting  the  abotss  td  Um 
judicial  svstem.  In  the  following  year,  ha  isoarad 
various    benefits    for    tike  persecutad   Hngoenola; 


.yi^oogle 


HOPKINS— HOKATIUB  FLA.CCIT8L 


halt  jialitioo-ieligxnH  pMrioiu  ww«  too  fl«M  awl 
TindietiTe  is  FnoM  in  tiuw  dayi  to  be  utiifled 
vitlt  u^thing  but  blood:  aiid  in  qdta  ol  tin  moat 
■tniHimu  oi&tB  wbiob  H.  oonld  n^co,  tha  nsfcioB 
ma  plunged  in  tha  hotran  of  ajril  mr,  anding 
nthar  In  tha  mooaH  of  the  Omoei^  the  politlciS 
nUramoMmm  of  thefr  day.  Tha  old  patnot,  who 
lond  Fnuoa  too  well  to  be  cither  Hngnenot  or 
nltnBMntane,  want  into  retiMmant,  where  he  heard 
the  newi  of  the-  puMtore  ol  St  Baithcdomew,  a 
«aima  i«aiD»t  both  the  nnitr  of  Fnmoe  and  the 
rishta  M  conacieDoe,  which  broke  hil  heart  He 
dud  Itth  Mareh  1S73. 

HOPKIITS,  Sakdxl,  D.D.,  an  Amerioaa  oWgy- 
nan,  and  fQtui4«r  of  IJie  Hopkiniiaii  theology, 
wa«  bom  at  Waterborv,  Connectiinit,  Srotember 
17,  178L  Haviiur  gtadiiated  at  Yale  OJtese  in 
1741,  he  itadiod  theologj  with  Jonathan  EdwanjUi, 
ud  from  1743  to  17^waa  fettled  aa  paator  of 
r  called  Great  BamngUm,  Maau- 
hen  removed  to  Newpwt,  where  he 
30,  ISOa  W*  wrilu^  oonaiat  r^ 
a  life  of  Preaident  Edward^  aennonih  addrsMei, 
work  on  the  millanninM,  and  a  ^atcan  of  thaolog 
repnhhabed  in  Boaton,  18C2.  He  is  aaid  to  be  &_ 
huo  of  Un  Baeohcr  Stowe'a  Xtnitltr'*  Wooing.  He 
waa  Mmarkahle  for  hia  tim[ilioit 
paneyeiina  indnabj,  and  hi*  p 
dootriniB  nave  been  a  aaiiiae  i 
a  oentoT^i^ — HorKnHUnB,  thoae  who  adopt  the 
i^aologioal  oiunions  of  Dr  Hopkini,  are  not  a 
diatinot  aaot,  bat  are  pretty  nwiMtoaa  in  America 
in  tome  of  the  Chnatian  hodiea  of  which  the 
toiata  an  sensnUy  Calviniatib  They  hold  moat 
of  the  CalViniBtia  doctrinea,  and  eren  in  their 
moat  extteme  form,  bat  they  entirely  rqeot  the 
dootrina  of  impotatdon,  botli  the  impntatioa  of 
Adam'a  liii  ana  i^  ChriaVa  righteoimea*.  The 
fundamental  dootrin*  of  the  ^jddiiaan  ^«tem, 
however,  ii^  that  all  virtiw  and  true  holinea*  cod- 
■iat  in  dittnUnHtd  bmmoltnet,  and  that  all  rin  i« 
w{iMM«^-ttM  ielf-kT*  whidi  laadi  a  man  to  gira 
hu  firat  TOgud  even  to  hia  own  etatnal  intaraata 


ol  iniutHrd-«eed,  and  between  ita  outer  ahelTand 
the  kernel  there  ii  a  amtdl  gnantity  (d  a  pecoliar 
granular  anbatance  oalled  Lujiulint,  wMoh  alao 
eziate  aa  a  aort  irf  effloreacence  on  the  nuface  of 
the  icalea  themtelvea ;  much  of  the  value  ol  the 
hop  depeudt  upon  the  abondanoe  of  thia  tnbrtance. 
The  lupvibu  Ii  not  a  mere  powder,  bnt  each  gnin 
ii  a  little  Ofipniaed  oeUnlaT  body,  of  an  oval  or 
round  form,  Mid,  when  aeen  nuder  the  misroaoope, 


I  peculiar  tbeolc^gioal 


havins  aretloalatad  inrtaoti 
hare  been  analyied  by  man^ 
bg  i(  the  reaolt  of  the  v 


of  1 


Viilitt*oD(oUariufi) I-OD 

LlffilB, n-M 

rattf,  Mtolaaiut,  and  «»«)'  matMni  mBu-1 

HOV,  mallo,  aui  aananla  uidA*  HTorkl  ialta  Iifm^^u 
(u»lu*  of  Unw,  aoMUs  oT  unmanU,  dilorU*  f"*"^ 
-•— -- ■— i,«iilrh»l«(ifpoliih),&o.        .         J 


Hie  fiiat  year  the  hinee,  or  atalki,  are  WMk.  and 
have  to  be  provided  with  polea.  When  the  hinea 
die  down  in  antnmn,  they  are  cut  oS^  and  the 
atiokf  removed  or  ttaoked,  and  during  the  winter 
Uia  gtonnd  ia  forked  over  and  manored.  The 
planti  are  in  perfection  the  third  year,  when  each 
reqoirea  a  pole  abont  18  or  20  feet  in  height,  to 


whkh  the  yonngbinea  are  tied  aa  they  gnnr,  with 
niihaa  or  baab  Olkay,  however,  aoon  b^  to  twine 
anmnd  the  ndea,  and  then  require  no  more  tying. 
In  the  Bngltah  lum-gronnds,  the  picking  begins 
aboot  &e  middle  at  BeptMDber.  Thia  is  done  by 
womm  and  ohildrBn  chiefly,  aome  men  being  neo«- 
■ary  to  lower  the  polea  and  bring  the  hop*  within 
reach.  As  the  bona  are  picked,  they  are  taken  to 
the  oa»t,  or  hop-kiln,  in  which  Utc^  are  dried, 
naiially  on  horiaontal  aoioena  of  halr-oloth,  throngh 
whioh  the  heat  of  the  kiln  paaaw.  Thia  operation 
leqniree  to  be  performed  with  great  care,  aa  the 
Bsaential  oil  ia  veiy  liable  to  be  volataliaed,  espe- 
cially aa  the  hope  are  &«qnentl7  kept  from  year  t» 
year.  When  fiilly  dried,  they  an  carried  to  tike 
packing-hoiue,  and  are  there  praaaed  into  the  ban 
or  pocketa,  and  sewed  np  ready  tot  aale. 

The  beat  varietiea  of  the  hop  ate,  the  Hill  Ooldint 
Oe  Eaat  E^t  OcJding,  Golden  Hops,  Jones'  Hops, 
Gmm  Hopa,  and  Fatnham  White  Bine. 

The  Oddingi  are  the  heat  and  richest,  and  are 
used  tea  the  finest  ale«.  The  Jonea'  are  moet  valued 
for  their  habit  of  short  growth,  which  enables  ths 
power  to  uae  shoTt«r  poles.  The  Oolegatei  are  very 
hardy,  and  can  be  grown  on  a  poorer  loil  than  the 
oUiers.  The  grape  hop*  are  auo  very  hardy,  and 
iriU  do  on  an  indifferent  soil;  thay  are  alao  very 
pioIifl& 

—  I  al 

la  .       j_ 

.  hope  paid  ^n  excite  duty,  and  formed  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  revenjie,  althoneh  a  very  vari- 
able crop,  owing  to  the  seriooa  check  it  is  liable  to 
from  ineecta,  fonp,  diMaaes,  and  the  weather.  In 
1873,  the  land  nnder  hope  in  England  amounted  to 
63,278  acres,  of  which  more  tbau  40^000  were  in 
Kent,  and  most  of  the  remunder  in  Snaaci,  Here- 
ford, and  Hampshire.  The  aonual  exportation  of 
hope  ia  abont  40  000  owt,  chiefly  to  the  United 
Statea  and  Aiutrali& 

In  a  oarefoUy  condaoted  erpetiment,  Dr  Ives 
obtained  14  ounoea  of  Inpnline  from  0  pound*  ot 
hop* ;  and  as  be  was  sure  that  he  had  not  removed 
it  all  from  the  scale*  and  nnts,  a  fair  conclodon 


^wn  that  the  luptlline  oonttitatea  a  sixth  of  the 
whole  weight  ot  the  beat  hm*.  Both  the  bitter 
taate  and  the  prcaervative  charsoter  of  hopa  are 
■rnnmiHd  to  depend  entirely  upon  thia  material, 
'  in  the  form  of  fully  developed  Inpnline 
or  diffiiaed  in  an  undevelaped  atate  in 
leture  of  the  aoalea.  It  la,  therefore,  ot 
the  utmost  importance  not  only  to  encourage  the 
devdopnent  oi  the  lupuline  by  good  cultivation, 
bnt  it  1*  equally  desirable' to  make  the  best  use  M 
it  when  produced.  In  furtherance  of  this,  many  ot 
"-  ~  principal  Engliah  brewers  now  use  an  Ingemotu 
itiine  made  by  Mr  Haodyafde  of  Derby,  which 
first  shake*  off  and  mfta  oat  the  lupnline  gruns, 
and  then  separates  the  nnta  or  seeds  from  the  scales. 
The  reasan  tor  this  separation  is  this :  Experience 
has  shewn  that  much  of  the  aromatic  principle  of 
the  lupnline  is  dissipated  at  a  boiling  heat;  there- 
fore only  the  ecales  are  so  treat«d,  lAilst  tlie  free 
Inpnline  is  mashed  with  lokewarm  woct,  and  the 
nnta,  after  being  cmshei  are  treated  in  tha  same 
"  "  added  together  when  cold.  By 
oma  is  fully  developed,  and  a 
smaUei  quantity  of  hopa  is  found  to  answer  fully. 

There  is  a  uarootio  nrindple  in  hope  as  weU  as 
the  bitter  and  tonio,  all  of  mdoh  have  led  to  thefr 
erordoyment  in  medicmsL  Buoh  use  is,  however,  very 
linuted.  For  the  fall  details  of  thtnr  empb^ment 
in  the  proeea  of  brewing,  see  Bkzb. 

HORATIUB  FIiACOVa,Qinim[B,  the  renowned 
Boman  aatuiat  and  Ijrist,  was  born  at  Venuaia,  in 
''       '    the  oonntiy  now  oalled  the  BatUieala, 


Tfp 


yCOQgl 


H0EATIU8  FLACOUS. 


ktoly  forming  put  of  the  ki^adom  of  N^ilei — on 
Uie  8th  Decenibei.  65  b.c.  Hu  father,  who  had 
been  born  a  alave,  hut  nunomitted  before  the  poet's 
birth,  trat  a  eoaeior  (a  collector  of  moaey  for  tax- 
satherara  and  bankera),  by  which  employment  he 
bad  become  a  proprietor  oa  a  modeat  ecale  ia  hia 
native  district.  £arly  •eeinz  the  geniiu  and  promise 
of  hii  son,  be  reaolved  to  oerote  hia  whole  meana 
to  hU  edacatioa,  and  remoTiug  to  Kome  for  'Uie 
porpoae,  he  g&Ta  him  the  culture  uaually  becAowed 
on  the  cliil£«n  of  the  hu^ert  clauea.  Having 
finiahad  hia  yoathfol  itudies  at  Itome,  he  va» 
eogaged  on  hujher  ones  at  Athena,  when  the  taaaaai- 
nation  of  Johui  Qeiar  threw  the  whole  Soman 
world  into  coofuaion,  and  dragged  H.  himself— in 
hia  2Ist  year — into  the  cavil  war  which  followed. 
Bmtns  coming  with  Caaaiua  to  Greece,  made  E.  a 
tiibnne,  and  ha  served  with  the  republican  leaders 
in  that  rank  ulitil  the  fatal  field  of  Fhilippi  ^ut 
an  end  to  their  campaign.  Bmtus  and  Catdos 
destroyed  thenuelves.  E.  made  hia  aabmiMion, 
and  retained  to  Borne.  With  what  was  left  of  his 
patrimonv  he  bought  the  office  of  public  scribe, 
and  while  living  by  thia  humble  place,  devoted 
-■      lergj-     -  ■■         "" 

dm 
■df  to  two  great 
of  the  Gts^  lyrio  spirit,  and  the  perfect  develop- 
ment of  the  ola  Boman  satire.  B>  ia  hii  oomfJete 
artiatio  ancocM  in  both  objeeta  which  hat  made 
him  one  of  the  most  inflaentiDl  writers  of  the 
world,  and  which  wiU  seoore  hia  fame  as  long  aa 
order  or  coltnre  eiiat  upon  the  globe. 

B.'*  fint  known  labours  were  satires  and  epodes 
— the  epodea  being  imitations  of  the  Grreek  satiiiat 
Archilochna.  But  it  ia  probable  that  he  early 
b^an  to  imitate  the  other  great  Greek  Ivriata ;  and 
it  u  certain  that  hia  fint  aucceaa  waa  derived  not 
from  the  public  but  the  private  ciroulatioii  of  bis 
worka.  He  made  the  friendahip  (rf  Virgil,  whoae 
rise  prei»ded  hia  own,  and  of  varius ;  and  VirgU 
and  Variua  introduced  ^im  to  MaMenaa  when  he 
was  about  26  yeara  old.  That  great  Etrusoui 
noble  and  friend  of  Augnatus  became  the  good 
genioB  of  the  poet's  life.  He  endowed  him — at 
some  period  not  exactly  known,  but  before  33 
B.a — vrith  a  farm  near  Tivoli,  in  the  Sabine 
oonntry,  eetabliahed  hia  independence,  fostered  hia 
fame,  •ouoht  hia  intimacy,  loved,  honoured,  and 
encouraged  him  aa  much  aa  one  man  could 
another.  The  friendahip  of  Mieceoai  led  to  that 
of  Augnstoa,  and  H.  enjoyed  all  hia  life  (he  died  at 
CT)  the  conaideration  of  the  neateat  persons  of  his 
time.  He  shews  hia  gntitade  for  such  favoor  in 
many  passages  of  bis  poema,  bnt  he  is  never  servile, 
and  he  complimenta  the  emperor  himself  only  on 
thoae  featuiea  of  his  roign  which  have  tended  to 
aeoure  b'm  the  gratitude,  or,  what  was  not  less 
needed,  the  fOTtdveness,  of  posterity 

It  ia  imposnUe,  in  our  brief  space,  to  diacnss  the 
vexed  question'  of  the  chroncdoey  of  H.'s  poema, 
or  to  notice  a  fiftieth  part  ot  what  has  been 
written  on  it.  But  if  we  cannot  be  sure  of  the 
the  poema,  they  give  oa  themselves 
for  judging  of  the  character  of  the 
poCT.  Even  hia  penonu  appearance  is  familiarly 
known  to  US.  He  waa  a  little,  round,  dark- 
eyed  man,  prematurely  gray-haired,  and  inclined 
to  corpulence;  in  droa  somewhat  slovenly,  and 
apt  to  be  abstntcted  in  hia  gait  and  manner.    " 


temperament,  yet  fully  aenstble  of  tx>th  the  dignity 
and  the  praduiae  of  moderation.  His  philonphy 
was  Epicurean,  liks  that  of  most  Boman  men 
at  the  world  of  his  age ;  bnt  he  had  both  an  <7e 


and  a  heart  for  the  nobis  ill  histoty  and  in  life, 
and  his  most  diaoemiiu;  readeia  cannot  but  aea 
that  there  waa  a  latent  fond  of  eaneaineM  and 
even  piety  in  his  nature,  to  which  bis  poetry  nenc 
fpve  full  Bipteeaion,  The  real  kev  to  his  gminsi 
la  to  study  him  as  eaaentially  a  ^hiloso^diical  wit 
and  monliet,  who  had  an  exqiuBite  famlty  for 
lyrical  creation,  and  waa  a  <tn™h«i1  artist  t^  dint 
Ot  raaotice  in  it,  bat  who  piimaiily  bdongad  to  ths 
philoeoi^ioal  rather  than  to  tha  po«tie  dan  of 
minds.  Some  strict  modem  oritios  hnre  doobtod 
hia  beinx  a  poet  at  all,  wbiob,  aince  be  oonld  pro- 
duce air  the  effects  of  poetiy,  is  [dainly  itoiiaeiiae. 
The  latest  criticism,  however,  decidedly  tends  to 
place  hia  lyrical  worka— aa  imitations  of  tiie  GreA, 
and  echoes  of  the  natural  notes  of  an  eariier 
and  more  poetic  age — farther  below  his  Satirea 
and  EpuUa  than  it  waa  once  customary  to  rank 
them.  Meanwhile,  thia  neither  robs  the  Odei  of 
their  value,  nor  of  their  charm,  nor  of  their  merit. 
Their  value^  Bs  representing  an  older  litetatnre 
which  only  exist*  in  fragments,  is  inuneasonble^ 
Their  charm,  as  breathing  now  all  the  gaiety,  now 
all  the  sadness,  of  the  ancient  pagan  mmd,  is 
incBistible.  And  their  merit,  even  as  imitations^ 
implies  a  delicacy  of  inmght,  a  fineness  of  tosdi,  n 

Eot  minute  fini^  which  has  been  exhilnted 
ly  few  writers  in  the  whole  history  of  art. 
sre,  indeed,  perpetual  models  of  ocmstradion, 
equally  valuable  to  poets  of  every  schod,  and  wore 
not  Ims  carefolly  eddied  by  Wordsworth  than  1^ 
Pope.  Great,  however,  as  is  the  merit  of  WO 
Odu,  that  of  the  Satirrt  and  SpiiOa  a  still  UAn. 
The  native  Boman  satire— an  indigeoona  pndnet 
of  Italy,  as  Casaubon  has  irre&agably  estsUlshed — 
was  developed  by  H.  into  a  branch  of  eon^oritiiHl 

Culiarly  bis  own,  and  in  his  own  speciaa  « iriudi 
has  never  had  a  rival  He  ridicules  the  folHea 
of  the  world  from  the  point  ot  view  of  a  man  of  the 
wotid,  playing  round  vice  like  a  picsdiv  ronnd  a 
boll ;  ud  thou|^  his  moralitv  does  not  rise  above 
the  level  of  a  prudential  moderation  abhcnrent  of 
eztremea,  ha  eiiforaet  thia  with  so  mnoh 


dramatio  Uveliness,  and  gay  vivaoioas  hnmoL.— 
wit,  that  the  pnlpit  has  profited  t^  him  not  kai 
than  the  author's  stody,  and  be  has  bets  tha 
favourite  of  ecoUaiaBticaf  digtiitaries  and  slatemen, 
while  alao  being  the  pocket-oompanion  at  men  ot 
letters  and  epipaaunatists.  The  Epiilltt  oontain 
the  graver  element  of  the  SaHra  in  atill  greater 
perfection,  and  with  the  addition  of  a  fine  vein  of 
personal  emotion  and  affection,  tinged  — — "*— '"y 
vrith  the  melancholv  of  advancing  life,  iriuoh,  on 
the  whole,  makes  them  the  most  valoidde  of  S-^ 

The  literature  of  H.  in  moden  Enrt^  ia  enor- 
mona,  and  can  on^  he  danced  at  brae  in  the 
briefest  manner.  The  £aitlo  Prmcm  a«paand 
at  Milan  in  1470,  in  4to,  and  waa  f<dlowed  W  a 
long  line  of  editiona.  In  modom  timea,  Oidli  um 
taken  a  leading  place  as  Hotatian  edito,  and 
since  him,  Dillenburger  baa  beMi  Justly  popular; 
while  England  has  oontribnted  to  the  sobjeo^ 
among  many  other  works,  the  valnable  Hvratia 
Ratitatat  <a  Tate,  and  the  smimtDons  volume  ol 
Dean  Milman.  Among  the  T^pi"*'  tranalatnn  ol 
H.,  in  the  whole  or  in  part,  areloond  Ben  Jcoaoo, 
Milton,  Atterbory,  Pope,  Warren  Hastings,  and 
Cowper,  while  Pojw's  /mitafiaiM  occupy  a  dirtin- 
gnished  place  of  their  own.  The  best  kiwwn 
translation  of  the  whole  of  H.  in  English,  is  tbat  of 
Francis,  but  his  day  is  fast  Koing  by.  Ezcdlent 
translations  have  been  issuedin  our  own  time  by 
Mr  Martin,  Hr  Robinson,  Lord  Ravensworth,  Lord 
Lyttoo,  and  Vrot.  Conington  ;  and  a  enrioosi  bnt 
powerful  one  by  ProL  Newman,  whose  theory  o( 


t.LiOogle 


HOBDHK-HOEN  MAOTJFACTUESS. 


HO'BDSIIir,  a  term  that  hu  been  wpUed  to  a 
Bubatauce  tbat  caa  be  extracted  from  barley,  but 
vrhiah  ia  merelj  a  miituFe  of  Btarch,  cellulose,  and 
n  little  uitiogeDouB  matter  of  unknown  composition. 

HtyBDEUH.    See  Baiuxt. 

BtyKEB.    8ee3iNii. 

HffRBHOTTlfD  {Marrubium],  a  genus  of  pUnti 
of  tlie  nBtnral  order  Labiala,  having  a.  tiibolkr  10- 
ribbed  calyx,  with  6  or  ip  spiny  equal  teeti,  4 
■tamena  included  iu  tlie  corolla,  the  upper  lip  of  tlie 
corolla  erect,  the  lower  lip  3-cleft.  The  _speciea  are 
mostly  perennial,  herbaceous  plants,  natiree  of  the 
Booth  ol  Europe  and  the  East  One  species,  "— 
Whi       "    ■•' 


COKUOH  o 


I  H.  {M.  milgare),  is  a  n; 


Horehoond  (JfomiUum  vuieart), 

Britain,  and  is  found  generally  throughout  Europe, 
except  in  the  more  oortbeni  regions,  growing  in 
waste  plaoM,  waysidea,  fto.  It  is  about  1 — I^ 
feet  hitfi,  bushy,  with  roundish,  orate,  crenate, 
wrinklu  leaves,  and  ahnost  globose  whorls  of 
white  flower*.  The  whole  pluit  has  a  whitish 
sftpearanee,  from  the  down  with  which  its  leaves 
ate  covered.  It  has  an  aromatic  but  not  very 
afreeable  smelL  It  is  tonic,  stimulant,  and  laxa- 
tive, and  is  much  used  in  cooghs,  being  a  popular 
remedy,  and  a  very  safe  and  emcacions  one.  It  was 
forme»y  also  employed  in  affectiona  of  the  womb 
and  of  the  liver.  It  i»  adminiatered  in  the  form  of 
an  infusion,  or  made  into  a  symp  with  sugar,  and 
sometimes  the  syrup  is  candied.  The  name  H. 
belongs  also  to  onotber  plant,  a  native  of  Britain, 
Bailola  tugra,  sometimes  called  Black  H.,  a  fetid 


plant,  also  of  the  order  Labiata,  and  of  a  scut 
very  cloeely  allied  to  liarralnum.  It  cfose] 
resembles  the  White   H. 


very  cloeely  allied  to  liarralnum.  It  cfosely 
resembles  the  White   H.   in   taste,  and  ^possesses 

similar  medidnal  propertiee A  third  British  plant, 

I/yaipyta  Rerc^tceui,  ■  diandrons  plant  of  the  same 
natural  order,  is  sometimes  colled  Wateb  Hokk- 
HOVW.    It  b  also  known  as  Oypsy-wort 

HORI'ZON,  the  drcnlar  line  formed  hf  the 
apparent  meeting  of  the  earth  and  ik^ ;  this,  in 
aeteonomical  phnwe,  ia  colled  the  aennbU  horvotk 
The  rottonai  horium  is  the  circle  formed  by  a  T>Une 
pMsing  thronsh  the  centre  of  the  earth,  parallel  to 
the  seiHible  lioriiaD,  and  produced  to  meet  the 


HORN,  Cafk.    See  Cape  Horn,  or  Hoobh. 

HORN,  a  musieal  instrument;  commonly  called 
in  this  country  the  French  Horn  ; '  in  Italy,  Como  ; 
in  France,  Cor  de  Chosse.  Ita  form  is  that  of 
a  long  tube  of  braes,  with  a  large  bell-shaped 
ending.  For  greater  convenience  the  tube  is  coUed 
np  into  four  continnons  circles,  lying  aide  by  side, 
the  coils  being  soldered  together,  to  keep  them 
in  their  position.  It  is  sounded  l^  means  of  a 
mouth-piece,  in  form  like  a  little  hollow  cup.  The 
thinner  the  eheet-briss  is.  of  which  the  horu  is 
mode,  the  more  easily  can  the  sound  be  produced. 
The  sounds  obtained  on  the  horn  ara  the  harmonics 
of  the  sound  of  its  whole  length,  a  fundamental 
sound  which  cannot  be  produced  by  the  mouth. 
As  those  sounds  form  only  a  limited  scale,  the 
notes  awanting  are  artificially  made,  by  the  hand 
being  inserted  mto  the  bell,  so  as  to  flatten  a  higher 
note  down  («  a  lower  one.  These  flattened  notes 
are  called  stuffed  notes,  as  the  sound  of  them  is 
muffled.  The  horn,  in  ita  natural  state,  can  only 
be  played  in  one  key ;  but  by  means  of  crooks, 
which  are  added  to  increase  die  length  of  the  tube, 
it  can  be  transposed  into  any  key.  When  at  ita 
greatest  length,  the  horn  measures,  from  the  mouth- 
piece to  the  end  of  the  bell,  16  feet.  The  music 
lot  the  horn  is  always  written  in  the  key  of  C,  with 
the  key  of  the  composition  marked  at  the  beginning 
of  each  movement ;  thus,  Como  in  D,  &c,  guidea 
the  performer  as  to  the  crooks  he  must  use,  ir 


French  Hon. 

order  to  play  the  not«a  in  the  key  indicated.  The 
stuffed  notes  on  the  horn  being  very  defective 
in  quality  of  sound,  in  comparison  with  the  ereat 
beauty  of  the  open  notes,  many  inventions  have 
been,  from  time  to  time,  tried  to  remedy  them.  The 
most  successful  invention  ia  the  valve-horn,  which 
is  constructed  so  that  the  performer  can,  by  means 
of  three  valves,  lengthen  or  shorten  the  tube,  so  aa 
to  produce  any  note  in  the  chromatie  scale,  aa  a 
harmonic  of  the  length  of  the  tube,  and  conse' 
quently  all  of  the  notes  are  of  the  same  quahty  of 
sound,  and  open  notes.  The  valve-hom  is  now 
generally  used  as  a  solo  inatrument  with  Kreater 
effect  than  the  common  horn.  As  an  ori£estral 
,  the  horn  is  of  great  importance.  There 
less  than  two  horns  in  an  instrumental 
score,  and  in  many  great  works  four  horns  are 
absolutely  necessary.  The  date  of  the  invention  of 
the  horn  a  lost  in  antiquity. 

HORN  MANTJFACTtTREa  The  horns  of 
various  p "'""'"  are  employed  for  usefnl  and  orna- 
mental puiposea.  The  principal  are  those  of  the  ox, 
hufialo,  and  two  or  three  species  of  deer,  and  of  sheep 
and  goats.  Horn  can  be  softened  and  split  into  thin 
laroinaa,  or  pressed  into  moulds ;  and  aa  it  recovers 
ita  peculiar  character  of  flexibility,  toncbuesa,  and 
trausporency,  when  cold,  it  is  particulany  adapted 
for  a  great  variety  of  purposea.     It  can  ouo  be  dyed 


..Cooralt 


HOKy-WOBE—HOKNHBAH. 


Tarii>iu  oolonn.  Solatum  of  gold  in  uiu  i^^  i^va 
it  red  j  wtariiim  of  nibste  of  uItbt  m  nitrio  aoid, 
hUot ;  a  ptMt*  of  rad-lead,  nude  with  ft  eolatioD 
of  potwb,  colonn  it  brown ;  to  that,  with  a  propet 
anangemcOt  and  applioatioa  of  thece  mateii^  the 
nKwt  adiniiable  inutationa  of  the  mach  more  ooetly 
tortoiM-ihell  can  be  prodnoed.  The  more  oonunon 
T^;etable  dye-atuA,  a*  logwood,  BmU-wood,  l«r- 
wood,  uf&on,  indigo,  &c^  will  «l«o  oolonr  it,  bnt 
neitho'  n  peinuuentlyiior  m  bristly  «■  the  m^sllic 
material!.  Bj  long-oontintwd  (oaking,  the  homa  of 
all  the  animali  above  toantioiied,  except  the  deer, 
can  be  laftened,  and  thoae  of  the  ^eep  and  goat  oaii 
be  eaaily  split  into  WTentl  layen  when  they  hare 
been  eoakea  and  boiled ;  and  tbeae  layete  can  not 
cnly  be  flattened  out  by  patting  ttaJam  between 
•mooUi  inm  platea  heated  and  placed  in  a  preo,  bot 
if  the  edgea  of  two  or  mora  are  biooght  togetliar 
between  poliahed  oopper  platei,  and  tceae  tightly 
■crewed  togeUier  witli  a  hand-Tice,  and  iJnnged  for 
■ome  time  in  boiling  water,  and  thence  into  oold 
water,  the  edges  will  he  fonnd  firmly  welded  together, 
uid  ttke  same  property  enable*  the  hom-woAer  to 
uie  up  the  imdleat  onttii^  with  profit.  Another 
valuabte  proper^  of  hem  la,  that  when  heated  it  can 
bepr«wediutoBdie,andnot  only  take*  a  beautifully 
ifau^  impreuiaa,  but  if  left  in  the  die  until  cold,  it 
retajDi  it.  In  thii  way,  then,  it  ii  employed  in  tn^tting 
handle!  for  umbrella*,  knivea,  forka,  Ac,  and  even 
oroamental  boxes,  and  a  rariety  of  other  articles. 
Comba  ore  made  out  of  the  flattened  sheets,  and 
beautifal  carringB  are  mode  out  of  the  solid  parts 
of  tbe  boflalc-honu  brought  in  mich  Tast  numbera 
from  the  East  Indies.  Ox-horue,  too,  are  some- 
times of  fine  quality  and  colour,  and  ore  faahioned 
into  drinking-caps,  and  other  artides,  often  hichly 
omsmental.  Deer-homa,  which,  strictly  spealung, 
are  bone,  have  a  veiy  limited  application ;  Vb»y 
are  employed  in  this  county  for  maUng  knife- 
handles,  called  buck-hom,  m  much  favour  for 
poolcet-kniTca ;  but  on  the  continent  the  horns  of 
the  fallow-deer  are  extensively  o«ed  in  nuking  the 
deei-hcm  articles  of  furniture  peculiar  to  Germany. 
The  deer-hems  used  is  Great  Britain  are  chiefly 
those  of  the  Axis  {Axit  Tnaeulala),  of  which  at  least 
100,000  are  annually  imparted  from  the  East  ladies. 
Fnnn  the  same  country  are  brought  to  Btituin  600 
tons  of  buffalo-horns,  whilst  from  South  America 
and  other  puts,  the  importation  of  ox  and  cow 

HOBN-WQBE,  in  Fortification,  is  a  work  having 
one  front  only,  thrown  out  beyond  the  glads  of  a 
fortt«u ;  wiUl  a  view,  1.  To  strengUien  a  weak 
ulient  in  the  general  outline ;  2.  To  occupy 
tjateaa  in  advance  of  the  place,  or  to  protect 
buildings,  the  including  of  wliich  in  Oa  original 
enceinte  would  have  extended  it  to  an  inconvenient 
degree ;  3.  To  oocupy  a  tongue  of  land  protected 
on  its  sides;  4.  To  D»r  »  defile;  5.  To  cover  the 
head  of  a  bridge ;  6.  To  occupy  rising  ground,  the 
possession  of  vbkh  would  render  the  enemy  more 
than  necessarily  dangerous.  The  front  of  a  horn- 
woA  oonsiste  of  two  demi-bsetians  connected  by  a 
eurtain,  and  osually  defended  in  front,  as  in  the 
fortress  itself,  by  tenaille,  ravelin,  and  ooTert-way. 
The  flanks,  protected  by  ditohes,  nm  straiglit  upon 
the  ravelin,  bsstian,  or  curtain  of  the  main  defences, 
'  BO  that  the  ditch  may  be  swept  by  the  fire  of  the 
latter.  The  flanks  should  not  be  too  long  for  easy 
musketry  range. 

In  most  of  the  earlier  works  of  this  naton,  the 
ditch  of  the  horn-work  was  united  with  the  diteh 
of  the  main  works  by  being  cut  through  the  sUcia 
and  oorert-way,  but  ist  modem  works  the  oom- 
work  is  oonstructed  entirely  beyond  the  {^ads,  a* 
the  annexed  figure  shews.     The  masonry  wall  ia 


shewn  in  the  figure  by  a  thick  blank  liw  at  Out 
i._.a   .»  .!._  1.      i.^drlj  f^  immediataly  beyond 


head  of  the  hcnn-w 


A,  Hom-woik,  Dovering  a  BuIJon,  S, 

the  glacis,  bnt  at  times  it  is  merely  a  straight  wall 
thrown  across,  bs  in  the  dotted  line. 

Occasionally,  horn- works  are  very  nseful;  but 
modem  engineers  generally  prefer  ooutnictitig 
detached  and  advanced  works.  A  doable  hom- 
worfc  becomes  a  Cromn-ieork  (q.  v.). 

HOHNBBAJtt  (Corpimu),  a  genus  of  the  natural 
order  Oapuiifene  ;  consisting  of  trees  with  compact, 
tough,  hard  wood;   bark  simoet  smooth  and  of  a 


Hornbeam  {CarfUuu  SttiUut). 

eoanst  (rf  a  nrmen,  otowned  with  the  4 — ft-toothed 
border  of  t£e  penantli,  and  with  two  QueMl-like 
■tigmas,  and  art  placed  in  loose  slender  estkins, 
always  two  together,  esok  at  the  bsse  of  a  stalked 
bract,  which  is  thrM-oIoft  or  thrBt-oomere^  and 

lijil.jl.CoOijIc 


HOENBIIJ.-HOBNKr. 


iritioh,  wbea  the  tree  ia  in  trtat,  snlargai  tgtj  mnoh, 
beoomsa  iifijt  mtd  oovan  tb*  lolly  npaied  nut  on 
one  ode.  Tha  not  hM  «  thick  hoak,  and  ii  miaU 
and  itriated.  Olie  CowfOM  H.  (C.  BMha),  miy 
fnqnent  in  the  wood*  of  mrnny  paita  of  Eniope,  is  a 
beantifiil  bee,  attaining  a  height  of  flO— 100  feeL 
It  ia  aaldom,  indeed,  now  leen  a  meh  dimenaioD*  in 
BiitMn ;  bnt  it  (eema  to  hare  formed  a  principal 
part  ti  the  ftncient  f  oreata  of  some  parts  of  the 
laUnd.  It  haa  elongato-orate,  acnnunale,  almost 
triply  «emte  leaTea.  When  in  frait,  it  haa  Tery 
lar^  deeply  3-pattite  bracbk  It  thrivea  be«t  in  a 
m(>deistelv  aunst  and  ahady  ntoatiBii.  It*  root 
dcKcndi  deep  into  the  ground.  The  wood  ii  white, 
TBiy  hard,  imcommonJy  strong  and  toogh,  and  there- 
fore aoitable  for  bearing  heary  itraina.  It  ia  mach 
luad  liy  Kuneia,  tnmera,  and  wheelwrights.  It  takes 
a  very  ^na  pt^iali,  and,  when  well  stained,  might 
readily  ba  miataken  for  ebony.  In  the  earth,  or 
when  exposed  to  the  changes  of  the  weather,  it  ia 
of  no  great  dnrsbilil^.  It  bnniB  like  a  candle,  and 
it  ia  one  of  the  best  kindH  of  firewood ;  it  affbtda  on 
excellent  oharcoal,  and  the  aahes  yield  much  potaah. 
Tha  yoong  stems,  hy  reason  of  the  dense  growth  of 
their  twigs,  are  rery  soitable  for  forming  live-fences 
and  bowers ;  and  aa  it  beais  clipping  very  well, 
the  H.  was  often  employed  to  form  those  live-walla 
which  were  formerly  so  much  the  fashion  in  gardens. 
HOKCTBILL,  the  name  of  a  genus  {Burxrot)  and 
of  a  family  {Bacerolida)  of  birds,  to  which  Ciivier 
asaigned  a  place  in  the  syndsctyloiis  division  of  the 
order  /nsessoru,  bnt  which  some  natnraliats  rank 
with  crows  in  the  tribe  ConirmlTel.  Their  ana- 
tomical stnicture  haa  been  foond  to  indicate  ofCni- 
ties  both  with  crows  and  toucans,  and  the  same 
inference  may  be  drawn  frtmi  their  habits.  The 
species  are  nnmerons;  they  are  nativoi  of  Airica 


HomUn  {Bvteroi  Shittixerot). 

and  the  East  Indies.  Hey  are  mostly  large  birds, 
Bome  nearly  as  large  as  a  torkey,  the  smallest  rather 
smaller  thui  a  magpie.  Thof  btb  remarkable  for  the 
enormous  size  of  tne  bill,  and  for  a  large  bony  pro- 
tubemnce  with  which  it  ia  generally  surmounted. 
The  hill  ia  curved,  broad  at  the  base,  compressed 
towards  the  tip;  the  bony  protuberance  on  the 
upper  mandible  assumes  different  forms  in  different 
species.    They  laaj  be  described  as  omnivoroua 

HO'RNBLBirDB,  a  mineral  allied  to   Augite 
(^.v.j,  and  containing  from  40  to  60  par  cem' 


which  ooiAain  qnaits 
larly  abundant  as  a  < 
sometims*  foond  in  oonaiderabla 
in  beda  of  sla^  stroctnre  (H.  si 
called   COMMOH  B.   ' 


lie  variety 

large  proportitm  of  protoxide  of  iron ;  ta  generally 

four-sided,  or  in  six-sided  prisma.  The  orystallised 
H.  ia  sometimes  called  Blidc  SiAori,  and  is  M^wble 
of  being  made  into  ornaments. 

HOTCNOASTLB,  a  market-town  of  England,  in 
the  ooun^  of  Linooln,  is  sitoated  in  an  agreeable 
district  at  the  foot  of  the  Wolds,  20  miles  east  of 
Lincoln.  The  pariah  chmcb  is  the  most  intsresting 
of  the  puhlio  bnUdinos ;  porlaona  of  it  were  erwted 
durinff  the  reign  of  Henry  TIL  There  is  a  con- 
siderable trade  nare  in  corn  and  wool;  and  of  the 
three  Annit*!  fairs,  that  held  in  Angnat  lasts  for 
ten  days,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  ninse-fairs  in 
Britain.  Thera  are  at  H.  remaina  of  a  Beman 
foitiiication;  coins  and  other  antiquities  are  ooca- 
sionally  foond  in  the  neighbourhood.  Fop.  (1871) 
4SG5. 

HOBNE,  Rbv.  Thoius  Habtwbll,  D.D.,  an 
English  biblical  oritie,  bom  October  20,  nSO,  was 
educated  at  Cbiiit^s  Hospital,  and  afterwards 
became  clerk  to  a  banister.  Hia  leisure  hoars  wen 
devoted  to  the  study  of  the  ISible,  and  in  1318  he 
published  his  Ijiirodvction  to  Ae  Criiirxd  Study  and 
Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Sanplarei,  a  work  which 
procured  for  him  admission  into  orders  without  the 
naual  preliminaries.  Subsequently,  St  John's  College 
Camlsidge,  granted  him  the  de^ee  of  B.D.,  and 
two  American  colleges  that  of  D.D.  In  1833,  be 
obt^ed  the  rectory  of  St  Edmund  the  King  and 
St  Nicholas  Aeons,  London.  He  was  also  made  a 
prebendary  of  St  Paul's  CathedraL  In  the  course 
of  a  long  life,  H.  published  a  great  vorie^  of  works, 
but  the  one  already  mentioned  ia  the  principoL 
From  the  fiitt  moment  of  its  appearance,  it  not  only 


popular,  but  attained  the  digni^  of  being 
'ed  the  text-book  on  the  subject  in  all  or 


twelve  editions,  and  has  been  frequently 

BO  that  it  still  retains  the  high  reputatioi.  ...u^..  .. 

originally  bore.    He  died  February  1362. 

HOBNBT  {Ve^  crabro),  the  largest  speoiea  of 
waap  found  in  &itain.     "^  '"      "' 


Hotwt  [Vttpa  ertibnt). 


some  part*  of  Ei^Iand,  bat  is  not  found  in  Sootland. 
The  thtrox  is  mostly  black,  the  fore-part  rufous; 
the  abdcHnen  ia  yellow,  witb  thieo  broiwn  pointi  tm 


LinhzixlhyGoO'^lc 


HOBOTNG— HOBKT  TKBUBS. 


Moh  Mgnunb  The  iting  is  verj  piinfiiL  Hie  H. 
ii  B  vtay  voneioni  ionct,  seizmg  and  deTooriiig 
beee  and  othBt-  iniects,  uid  curying  them  to  its 
neat  to  feed  i(a  yomu;.  The  nest  is  in  a  hollow  tn«, 
in  an  outhonM,  of  in  some  other  iheltered  plaoe. 
The  coDunnnity  ii  not  Bnppoeed  ever  to  oonbtin 
mare  tluui  about  200  individnala,  all  deriving  their 
origin  from  a  mn^  female,  which,  having  Hmrived 
the  winter  in  aome  aheltered  hiding-place,  Uye  the 
foomlatioii  of  the  nest  in  spring.  The  nest  is  a 
cniioiu  rtmcture,  of  a  sabstanoe  resembling  coaise 
paper,  and,  except  as  to  size,  pretty  similar  to  that 
of  the  oommoa  wasp.  The  oommnnity  consista  of 
females,  males,  and  nentera  or  woiken,  as  in  the 
MM  of  bees,  but  there  are  nmncroos  (emideB.  Most 
of  the  males  and  neuters  pariah  on  the  approach  of 
winter,  some  of  the  females  alone  surviving. 

H0RNI2TG,  Lettebs  or,  a  writ  in  Scotch  Law, 
which  isanea  to  compel  a  party  to  execute  or  canr 
out  a  judgment  or  decree  of  the  court.  The  wnt 
wM  formerly  the  only  form  of  enfoicing  avil  decreefl 
by  imprisonment^  except  in  the  case  of  small-debt 
decrees.  But  by  recent  improvements,  the  process 
is  shortened,  and  other  forms  are  more  used. 

HOENITOS,  or  HOENOS  (Span,  ovan),  the 
name  given  to  the  low  oven-shaped  billodu  which 
emit  smoke  and  vapooii,  and  which  occur  in  great 
nmnbers  on  the  sides  and  in  the  ndghbourhood  of 
the  large  yolcanoee  of  South  America. 

HORNPIPE,  a  musical  instrument,  consisting  of 
the  common  wooden  pipe  with  tho  necessary  holes 
for  producing  the  notes,  and  with  a  hoiu  on  each 
end.  The  performer  blows  into  one  of  the  horos, 
and  the  sounds  of  the  pipe  proceed  ont  of  the 
other.  In  the  north-west  of  England,  where  this 
instrument  is  mostly  found,  it  ia  need  to  accompany 
a  national  dance  which  is  also  called  the  Hornpipe. 
The  melody  of  this  dance  ia  always  in  triple  time- 
that  is,  in  },  or  i,  and  sometimes  in  4  time — and  it 
condsts  of  two  gLrts  of  four  or  eight  bars  each, 
with  repeats.  The  movement  of  the  dance  ia 
tolerably  quick. 

HORNS  .  are  appendages  to  the  frontal  bonea 
of  many  of  tho  extensive  family  of  ruminants, 
and  are  obvioosly  intended  as  weapons  of  defence. 
In  the  genua  Cennu  (deer),  the  homa  (known 
also  as  antlers)  are  solid,  uncovered  by  epidermis, 
bone-like  in  oomposition,  and  deciduous.  In  the 
genus  Cametoparaaiii  (the  giraffes),  we  have  the 
single  example  of  sohd  persistent  horns  completely 
invested  with  a  hairy  integument.  In  the  other 
horo-bearing  mniinants — as  the  ox,  sheep,  goat, 
and  antelope — Uie  horns  are  hollow,  uncovered 
by  epidermis,  are  composed  of  a  special  tissue 
(HoBUT  Tmiaa,  q.v.)  quite  different  from  bone, 
and  are  persistent.  Ia  all  these  cases,  the  horns 
or*  attached  to  ihe  cranial  bonea  i  and  in  all  the 
hollow  honu,  excepting  those  of  the  antelope,  the 
oeseouB  axis  ia  hollowed  out  into  cells  communi- 
cating with  the  frontal  sinosea,  and  thus  admitting 
the  atmospheric  air  into  tJie  interior.  Tho  horn  of 
the  rhinoceroB  is  quite  distinct  in  character  from  the 
homa  in  any  of  the  nuninanla.  It  is  a  tegumentaiy, 
not  an  osseous  appendage,  and  ia  usually  described 
as  if  it  were  a  mass  of  hairs  which  had  coalesced. 
It  consistl^  however,  in  reality,  of  an  aggregation  of 
tabee,  round  which  the  homy  matter  la  arranged 
in  concentric  lamiiue,  as  in  the  homy  eicrescencca 
OB  the  inner  sorface  of  the  leg  of  the  horse,  lie 
first  and  the  third  variety — yii.,  the  antleis  of  the 
Cereida  and  the  hallow  horns  of  the  ox,  Aji. — alone 
require  special  notice. 

Tho  deciduouB  homs  of  the  Crrvida  at  different 
ages,  and  their  process  of  growth,  are  explained 
in  the  article  Dim.     To  that  deacription,  it  need 


only  be  added,  that  these  homa  ai«  formed,  on 

two  well-marked  morphological  typee— one  group 
possessing  rounded  antlers,  Hiich  as  occur  in  the 
roebuck  and  the  red-deer,  and  the  other  having 
the  antlers  more  or  less  flattened,  a«  in  the  elk 
and  fallow-deer.  A  remarkable  sympathy  exiats 
between  the  generative  organa  and  the  homa ;  and 
the  developmeot  of  the  latler  may  be  arteatcd,  and 
their  periodical  ehedding  may  be  prevented  by 
castration.  As  a  eenei^  role,  it  ia  only  in  the 
male  Cemidte  that  homa  are  developed.  In  the 
reindeer,  however,  they  are  common  both  to  the 
male  and  female. 

In  the  hollow-homed  ruminanta,  the  bony  pro- 
taberanoes  or  'cores'  arising  from  the  frontal  bones, 
and  supporting  the  horns,  Instead  of  blanching  liko 
antlns,  form  more  or  less  solid  i^lindrical  |£alts, 
the  suifsce  being  protected  by  ordinary  Periceteum 
(q.v.),  and  hv  an  extension  of  trae  skin,  which 
becomes  developed  into  a  denae  homy  aheath.  In 
the  acoompanying  figure,  the  homy  aheatli  ia 
detached  from  the  right  hom,  so  as  to  ahew  tiie 
*  cote '  in  the  interior. 


The  homa  of  rominants  are  almost  invariably 
two  iu  number,  but  exceptions  occur  in  the  case  of 
the  extinct  Bramatherium  and  Sivatherium,  and 
amouKst  living  species,  in  the  Four-homed  Goat, 
the  Hany-homed  Sheep,  fto.  In  the  Prong-horn 
Antelope  there  seems  to  be  an  approach  to  the 
cervine  type,  there  being  a  prong  of  soma  length 
about  halt  way  up  the  hom,  which  may  be  r^arded 
as  uialogouB  to  the  brow-antler, 

HORNY  TISSUES  were  formerly  regarded 
as  extremely  simple  in  their  stnctnie,  «id  as 
being  only  difTercnt  forma  of  a  sabstanoe  to  which 
the  term  keraiia  (from  i^ai,  a  hom)  was  applied- 
Recent  investigationa,  however,  shew  that  the  parts 
which  conaiat  of  homy  tiaane — aa,  for  example,  the 
petaiatent  homa  of  the  mminants,  the  epidermis, 
the  nula,  claws,  and  hoofs,  whalebone,  tortoise-ahell. 
An. — hare  a  somewhat  com^dicated,  and,  in  some 
reepects,  a  variable  stmcture,  although  they  are 
so  far  analogous  to  one  another  that  they  proceed 
from  nucleated  cells  which  are  not  morphologic- 
ally developed  like  the  cells  of  most  other  orcans, 
but  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  dry  up  and  are 
only  a^utinated  together  by  an  interoellular  sub- 
stance. In  a  chemical  point  of  view,  they  also 
closely  resemble  one  aaother,  for  when  compoml 
with  other  tissues  they  all  contain  a  large  quantity 
of  sulphur,  in  combination  with  a  subetence  whoio 
origin  from,  or  affinity  with  the  Proteine  Bodies 
(q.  v.),  ia  sufficiently  obvious  from  their  behaviour 
towards  certain  re-agenia  (the  caustic  alkalies  and 
the  mineral  and  acetic  acids,  for  example),  and  their 
percentage  compositiou. 

The  aooompanying  figure  represeuta  a  lon^- 
tndinal  section  of  cow's  Jwm  (magnified  410  dia- 
meteia)  taken  peipendicolai4y  to  the  surface,  kept 
for  four  houn  m  coaceDtratod  potash  sidation,  to 


t.CoogIc 


HOENY  TiaSUIS— HOROLOGY. 


which  mter  ma  then  added.  U,  howerer, 
of  hornm  examined  in  iU  natural  itate,  it  appears 
to  cooEUt  of  nombarlcaa  bondlea  of  Gne  threada 
lying  (dde  by  side.  Afte 
addition  of  the  potaah 
tion,  these  bandlea  are 
to  unfold  into  little 

whieh  gndnally  «zpai 

tbe   regular   nndeated   cella 
■hewn  m  the  fipire. 
The   oellulaF  itmctnre   of 
y.  hoofs,     whalebone,    tortoiae- 

ihell,  Ac,  may  be  exhibited 
in  a  nmilar  manner.    It  ii  ' 
I  the  histo-chemical  investi^- 

rr         n  tiona  of  Mulder  and  Dondon 

o.  «U  ™l'8^°1^'  .  *■"*  '^  "^  ""^Jy  indebted 
i.Mllotiheiipper  lij^l  ^°'  "i^  knowled^  of  the 
l,niiiItiu<ifib<Utur.'  Btructnre  of  these  tueaes,  who 
seem  to  have  established  that 
every  homy  tisane  contains  at  least  three  difiTereut 
kinds  of  snbstancea— riz.,  1.  The  robstanoe  of  the 
cell-membnuies,  which  is  exceedingly  difficult  of 
Bolutioa  in  alkalies,  and  which  forms  tbe  principal 
part  of  the  tiuoe ;  2.  The  cell-contents,  which 
dissolTB  more  readily  in  alkaliea ;  and  3.  A  con- 
necting, or  true  inten^nlar  substance. 

These  tissaea  hare  been  submitted  to  ultimate 
analysis,  after  having  be«i  previously  digested  in 
water,  alcohol,  and  ethsr.  The  an^gy  of  their 
composition  is  shewn  in  the  following  tabular  view ; 


-■ 

"n-S? 

g-j; 

Htlil. 

Sft^ 

x^ 

rsr 

Crb™. 

Hilrogen, 
Oijgen, 
Sulphur, 

IJH 

so-ss 

17-« 
t'93 

M-il 

ai-09 

U-01 
07* 

<W7 

W-B7 
380 

18-7? 

These  tisBues  diifer  elightly  in  the  quantity  of 
inorganic  matter  which  they  contain,  but  the  differ- 
ence does  not  Tory  much  beyond  I  per  cent 

Hair  yields  from  064  to  I'SS  per  ceot.  of  ash. 
containing,  amount  other  ingredients,  peroxidB  of 
iron  Bcd  a  little  silica.  In  feather*,  the  quantity  of 
silica  is  very  considerable,  and  it  is  doubtless  to 
this  constituent  tiiat  the  shaft  in  a  great  measure 
owes  its  strength  and  hardness. 

HOROXOGY  (Gr.  ^oi'ti,  a  defined  portion  of 
time)  is  that  brauch  of  applied  science  that  has  for 
its  object  the  measurement  of  time.  Although  it  is 
easy  to  look  back  oa  a  period  when  time,  according 
to  the  modem  conception  of  it,  as  measured  by 
houn,  and  minntes,  and  seconds,  was  nnknown,  yet 
ire  find  progress  early  made  in  the  measurement 
of  larger  periods  of  time,  by  obaervationB  of  the 
heavenly  bodies;  and  althoagh,  in  the  later  pro- 
gress of  astronomy,  it  is  found  that  the  moTements 
of  the  more  conspicuous  heavenly  bodies  do  not 
aSbrd  accurate  marks  for  the  equable  measurement 
of  Umt,  they  were,  for  practical  objects,  saffident, 
and  afforded  at  least  a  better  measure  of  time  than 
any;  other  phaiomeoa  which  came  under  the  obser- 
vation of  mankind.  Thus,  time  waa  early  divided 
into  yean,  according  to  the  motion  of  the  son  among 
the  constellations;  into  months,  according  to  the 
motion  of  the  moon  telatirely  to  the  sun's  place  in 
the  heavens ;  and  into  days,  by  the  alternate  light 
and  daAnesa  cansed  by  the  risina  and  setting  of 
the  sun.  It  was  loos,  however,  before  any  accurate 
measure  was  found  lor  a  division  of  the  day  itself. 
The  earlieat  measure  employed  for  this  pnjpose 
that  we  can  bsce  is  the  shadow  of  aa  upright 
object,  which  gave  a  rough  measure  of  time  by  the 
variations  in  its  len^  and  positiOQ.  This  easily 
■uggeated  the  invmition  of  Sun-dials  (q.  v.).   Annthpr 


iB  early  adopted  for  the  measurement  of  short 


Inatriunenta  for  the 


to  afford  a  still  more  certain  measure,  and  hence 
the  invention  of  Hour-glaasea  (q.  v.).     King  Alfred 
is  said   to  hare  observed  the  lapse   of  time  by 
noting  the  gradual  shortening  of  a  lighted  candle. 
It  is  not  very  easy  to  trace  to  its  source  the  history 
of  the  invention  to  which  the  modem  dock  owes 
its  parentage;  the  earliest,  however,  of  which  we 
have  a  complete  description,  and  perhaps  the  earliest 
which  attained  any  distinct  auperiority  to  the  rude 
machinee    already   mentioned,    waa   the   clock  of 
Henry  Vic  or  De  Wyck,  a  German,  erected  in  the 
tower  of  the  palace  of  Charles  V,,  king  of  France, 
in  1379.   A  sketch  of  this  clock,  which  is  Bubjoiued, 
will  be  ngetut  not  only  from  its  historicsl  interest, 
but  also  because,  from  its  comparative  simplicity,  it 
will  form  a  groundwork  for  farther  explanation  of 
the  mechanism  of  clocks  and  watches  in  their  mora 
complicated  forms.    It  will  be  readily,  imderstood, 
from  a  glance  at  the 
annexed  figure,  that  as 
the  weight  A  tends  to 
uncoil   the    cord  and  , 
set    in     motion     the 
cylinder  B  round  its 
axis,  the  motion  will 


municatod 

tflothed  wheels  in 
the  figure,  and  finally 
to  the  crown-wheel  or 
escapement- wheel,  I ; 
the    teeth    of    which 

lo    act    on    the    two 

imall  levers  or  pallets, 

,  k,  projecting  from, 
and  forming  part  of 
the  Buspendra  upright 
spindle  or  vertical 
axis.  KM,  on  which 
fixed  the  Twulator 
balance,  LL,  tliat 

vibratory,  instead  of  a 
circular,  motion  of  the 

balance    itself  is   the      fig.  L—De  Wyek's  Cloolc 
result.  -,  The  hands  of 

the  clock  are  attached  to  the  wheel  N,  also  set 
motion  by  the  cylinder  B.  Now,  unless  tliere 
were  some  check  upon  the  motion,  it  is  manifest 
that  the  heavy  weight  A.  would  go  rapidly  to  the 
ground,  causing  the  wheels  to  rotate,  the  balance  to 
vibrate,  and  the  hoods  to  go  round  with  increasing 
'elocity.  In  order  to  prevent  this  rapid  unwinding 
if  the  clock-work,  and  adjust  it  to  the  more 
deliberate  measurement  of  bme,  the  bolauce  is,  in 
De  Wyck's  dock,  loaded  with  two  weights,  m,  m ; 
and  the  further  these  are  removed  from  the  axis 
spmdle,  EM,  the  more  heavily  they  will  resist 
1  counteract  the  escapement  of  the  levers,  and 
the  rapidity  of  the  rotation  of  Uie  escapement- 
wheel,  till  the  clock  be  brought  to  go  neither  too 
quick  nor  too  slow. 

The  above  construction  is  probably  the  basia  of 
all  the  principal  time-keeping  machines  in  nae  in 
the  ISth  century.  The  great  epoch  in  the  hlitot; 
of  horology  ia  marked  oy  the  appUoation  to  it  of 
""  Pendulum  {q.  v.)  as  a  regulating  power.  This 
effected  byHuygeos  {q.  v.)  about  16S7.    This 

m 


Coogl 


do  iJum  liiiitdy  to  add  a  new  wheel  to  tile  a 
moDt,  aa  taio  enable  him  to  place  the  crown-wheel 
and  Epiudle  in  a  horizontol  instead  of  a  peipendi- 
cnlar  pomtion,  that  the  lower  arm  of  the  balance^ 
then  of  Mnine  perpendionlar,  instead  <tf  faorizoutftl, 
M  in  De  Wycta  clock— might  be  extended,  m  it 
were,  downwards,  and  thnt,  in  &(it,  be  converted 
into  a  pendnlnm. 

The  Drinciple  of  oonstruction  adopted  by  Hnj^geas, 
from  the  peonliai  action  of  Urn  ieven  ^d  gpindle, 
requited  a  MAi  pendnlnia  and  great  btgb  of  oscilla- 
tioD ;  and  Mthongb,  to  sacai«  isochronous  vibration 
in  theM  1m^  arcs,  uie  ingenious  derioe  of  constrain- 
ing tbe  motum  in  a  cjeloidol  corre  was  reaorted  to, 
menee  was,  ae  has  been  remarked,  that 


[  eoreiiied  the  peodulnm,  ii 
l^t  to  govern  the  ol«^' 
irardi,   &e   cdebrated  Dr 


the  pendnlnm  oa^t  to  sovem  the  ol«^'  About 
ten  yMH  iftvirardi,  &e  cdebrated  Dr  Hooke 
iuTentod  an  •Mspement,  irtiich  enabled  a  leas  main- 
t^nins  power  to  cany  a  heavier  pendnhmi.  The 
pendunm,  too,  making  BmalleT  area  of  vibration, 
wu  leu  reiiBted  by  the  air,  and  therefore  performed 
Iti  motion  wUfa  greater  regularity.  This  device 
ti  called  tile  enUA  or  taidior  ac^wemeni.  It  waa 
bronght  bjr  Hooke  before  the  iiotioe  of  the  Boyal 
Sodrtv  in  1680 ;  and  was  practically  intnidaced 
into  the  art  of  clockmaking  by  Clement,  a  London 
ckickinaker^  in  16Sa  It  is  the  form  still  moet 
uauallj  employed  in  oniinary  docks.  It  recolatee 
the  motion  as  follow*  ;  The  pendolmn  is  fixed  at  A, 
down  behind  Hba  pallet-wheel  (the  last 
of  the  train  of  wheel-work), 
which  revolves  in  the 
direction  of  BC,  nnder  the 
action  of  the  weight ;  B  and 
C  are  the  paUefe.  When 
the  pendultua  swings  to  the 
left,  AC  risca,  and  a  tooth 
escapes  from  C,  while 
anouier  tails  on  tiie  ontoide 
of  B,  and,  owing  to  the  form 
of  the  pallet  S,  this  latter 
reooils  daring  the  remainder 
of  the  8wing.  Tho  same 
thing  oooniB  on  the  pendulnm'a  retom  ;  the  arm  AB 
riKB,  a  tooth  escsipee  from  B,  and  another  [alls  on  the 
inside  of  C,  and  i>  poshed  backwards  by  it  dnrii 
the  remunder  of  the  swin 
is  thus  regnlarlj  retarded, 

to  escape  for  every  two  oec.  _     _  _., _, 

•econds— and  as  the  wheel  contains  30  ted±,  it 
perfonng  pne  revolution  pet  nunate  (the  seconds 
hand  i*  fixed  on  the  eitxemity  of  the  axle  of  this 
wheel).  During  a  portion  of  each  contact  between 
the  pallets  and  teeth,  the  onward  pTeasnre  of  the 
wheal  gives  an  additional  impetns  to  the  pen- 
dulum, BO  as  to  counteract  the  retarding  effects  of 
the  resistance  of  the  ur  and  friction,  w'&tch  would 
otherwise  hrinE  it  to  a  stand. 
^e  only  ddect  of  this  escapement  is  the  recoil, 
modifications  have  been  devised  to 
obviate  this.    The  finrt  and 


Kg.  2. 


e  swing.     The  revolution  of  O 
uded,  one  tooth  being  allowed 
r  every  two  oscillations— L  a,  every  two 


George  Qcahsm,  an 
itb  watchmaker  in  the 
ol  the  I8th  c., 
proved  form  is 
called  the  dead  'icapement 
or  dmd-ieai  aeapemeni 
(fig.  3).  Here  the  ontn 
stirface  of  B  and  inner  of 
C  aiv  arcs  of  drclea,  whose 
centre  ii  A,  and  a  littie 
eouidderstion  wiU  shew  that  there  can  be  no  recoil 
This  escapement  b  adopted  in  time-keepers  when 
fftaX  sooorBoy  is  required.     Other  ' 


the  detaAed  etcapement,  the  pin-wtsd  emaptmad 
in  various  forms,  and  the  fframlfi  tacapemaii 
(described  below),  though  very  efficient,  have  not 
come  into  general  use- 
In  the  great  olock  in  the  new  Houses  of  Fsrlia- 
ment  at  Weetminster,  the  pendulum  is  upwsrds  of 
13  feet  long,  to  beat  2  seconds,  and  ito  bob  wei^is 
"     -  ■-      The-    -■    ■-  -'  ■-- -    '-  -- 


kept  up  by 
gramly  aeavemtnt.  On  each  tide  of  the  pendulnm- 
rod  a  small  tnetaHio  hammer  is  hong  upon  a  peg- 
'  The  BWiuKing  of  the  pendoliun  &«{  draws  out  a 
littie  bolt,  that  stopped  tiie  turning  of  a  wheel ;  the 
wheel  then  goes  round,  nnder  the  iofluence  of  the 
weight,  lifting  one  of  the  little  hammers  as  it  Aoat 
*o,  until  it  is  cancht  by  another  bolt.  The  hammer- 
hMd  next  falls  by  its  own  gravity,  and  strikes  the 
pendnlom-rod  just  as  it  is  m  the  act  of  deeoend- 
mg,  commnnlcatins  the  force  of  its  blow  to  quicken 
';  the  same  thine  is  aftenratds 
a  opposito  side  <A  t£e  vibratieo,  and 
then  again  on  the  same  side ;  so  KJ^ng  on  altef^ 
nately."  He  push  thiu  given  is  emoiBy  tmvar;- 
ing.  '  Tite  wheel  has  three  stops  and  oap  on  it,  and 
□ce  round  in  tbi«e  bests  of  the  pendulum,  or 
aaconda.  Witii  Uiit  c<nibivanoe  ■  It  is  found 
that  all  the  teeth  ot  the  aevenl  wheels  may  be 
>a^  just  as  tnmed  oat  from  the  easting  and 
le  clock  wiQ  nevertheless  keep  better  time  tium 
would  have  done  witii  the  most  perfectly  finiJied 
teeth  nnder  other  airangements.' 

l^e  gradual  perfection  of  the  cloak  required  also 
iroptovemento  in  the  pendolum.  No  simple  pendo- 
lum,  however,  can  be  depended  on  for  an  aocurato 
timekeeper,  for  the  isochranism  of  vibration  oL  tha 
pendolom  depends  on  lis  being  always  the  same 
length ;  now  a  cord  oontraots  or  expands  with 
changes  in  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  and  a 
rod  with  cold  or  heat.  To  overcome  Uieee  defects 
in  the  nmdulum,  oompenssting  pendulums  wen 
invented,  of  which  Graham's  mareuriid  eontpoi- 
KUion  pau^um,  invented  in  171Si  and  fianisou's 
gridiron  pendutum,  in  17^  are  the  two  principal 
lorma  (see  PanxiujiL). 

The  above  improvements  in  the  esoqiement  and 
the  pendulum  bring  the  meahuiic^  perfection  of  the 
dock,  as  a  time-keeping  insbnment,  to  the  point 
which  it  has  attained  at  the  present  day.  But  the 
~  ~^  of  horology  would  bo  incompleto  unless  there  were 
30  standard,  independent  of  individual  tnedisn- 
ical  contrivances,  to  which  sll  tnay  be  referred,  and 
by  whioh  the  errors  of  e*di— whidi  must  eiist 
in  the  most  perfect  humsn  oontrivsnces — miy  be 
conectod.  The  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodlM 
still,  as  <rf  old,  the  only  standard  for  a  general 
Burement  of  time,  affording  as  thn-  do  maite 
of  unvarying  certainty,  to  be  read  by  all  alike ;  and 
docks  uid  other  mechanioal  oontrivanoes  ai«  indi- 
vidual and  imperfect  ueastBM  at  tiie  intervals,  to 
'-  trusted  only  until  there  is  *  new  opportnni^  of 
mparing  tfaem  witii  tbe  oeitain  and  public  signals 
oi  tiie  heavens,  lliese  rigeals  osn,  5ow«ver,  only 
be  accurately  read  by  persons  fnnusbed  with  the 
r  appmtas,  and  instnoted  snffiaiently  in  ib 
This  ii  done  in  obaervatoriea,  and  there  are 
in  moet  parts  ot  this  oonu^  now  inftdent  oppor- 
ttmities  ot  setting  doAa  by  a  communioatiMi  nxm 
or  less  direct  witb  these  eatablishnMits.  When 
these  are  not  to  be  had,  Uie  snn-dial  may  still  be 
used  with  advantage,  as  a  means  of  approiiniation 
to  the  coneet  time.  The  time  which  a  olock  ou^t 
to  mariK  is  mean  Hme,  the  definition  of  which  will 
be  found  in  the  article  Di.T  (q.v.).    Thei     ~    ''~ 


I  anvpiaos  will  be  4  miu 
«  «  longitade  esal  ot  C 


tCoo'jIe 


and  4  DunntM  alowet  for  every  degree  wett.    Since 

the  introduction  of  r^wsys,  clocka  ue  nniAlIy  aat, 
within  Great  Britain,  to  Greenirich  mean  tdme. 

The  methods  by  irhich  time  in  determined  in 
obnrmtoriea  belong  to  the  details  of  pncticiJ 
Mtronomy.  For  the  more  ready  traDsmiHmon  of 
aormst  tune  to  the  public,  there  i»  *t  Greenwich 
ObcerTBtory,  as  veil  aa  some  others,  a  ball  which  is 
dropped  by  means  of  electricity  preciwil;  at  one 
o'clock.  Within  tlie  last  twenty  years,  howerer, 
lhfi«  was  inTBnted  a  most  ingemoua  device  by 
whidt  pablio  cloaks  in  a  town  oan  be  kept  at 
every  instant  in  perfect  agreement  with  the  mean- 
time clock  in  the  observatory.  This  is  effected 
by  an  electiio  connection,  and  a  modiGcatioa  of 


^iplication  of  it  was  to  He  town-hall  dock 
Liverpool,  when  for  tbe  Srst  time  wu  seen  the 
ctuions  spectaale  of  a  ^gre«t  dock  with  woria  Dearly 
100  years  old  keeping  time  with  Bstronomiool 
Bcctmey.  In  the  same  way,  a  dock  in  the  castle 
of  Edinbitrgh,  by  whose  mechanism  a  gon  is  fired 
precisely  at  one  o'dock  every  day,  is  coutrdled  by 
the  toeaD-tiioe  clock  in  tbe  obBervston-  on  tlie 
C^totr  Hill.     To  such  perfection  has  the  art  of 

C'lliMtion,  as  well  as  the  keeping  of  correct  time, 
n  now  brought. 
It  is  not  known  when  the  alarm,  or  when  the 
Btrikinff-mechanism  of  tba  clock  was  first  applied. 
The  alarm  was  adopted  for  the  use  of  the  priest- 
hood, to  arouse  them  to  their  morning  devotions. 
The  first  striking-clock  probably  annoonoed  the 
*        ""  '     '      '  w,  »s  they  still  do,  to  avoid 

a  De  Wyck'a  dock,  the  whed 
pins,  served  to  discharge 

„   ,_.   , represented  in  the  figure). 

During  the  ITth  c.,  there  existed  a  great  taste 'for 
stiikiiw-olackB,  and  hence  a  great  variety  of  them. 
Several  of  Tompion's  docks  not  only  struck  tbe 
qnartors  mi  eight  bell^  bnt  also  the  hoar  after 


each  quarter;  at  twdve  o'dock,  44  blows  were 
stmdt;  and  between  twdve  and  one,  no  leas  than 
1)31  Many  struck  the  hour  twice,  like  that  of 
m  Clement  Dttna,  in  the  Strand,  London,  first  on  a 
lorg*  bell,  and  then  on  a  small  ona.  Others,  anuii, 
were  invented  so  as  to  tell  the  hoars  wiUi  the  least 
nosafUe  noise ;  slso  by  the  aid  of  two  bdls,  each 
blow  on  the  small  one  indicating  five  hows. 

The  striking  part  of  a  dock  is  rather  a  peculiar 
and  intrioate  piece  of  meduuusm.  In  otdinaiy 
docks,  the  impelling  power  is  a  weight  similar  to 
that  whkik  moTsa  the  time-msasnring  mechanism 
itadf ;  bat  the  pmwureof  this  weight  on  the  strik- 
i..  .....h:__  i,  dpiy  pjnnitted  to  wane  into  play 


at  stated  periods  In  o 


rkinra  ot  the 
time-keeping  apparstos — via,  at  the  oompUtion  of 
every  hoar ;  whan  the  minute-wheel,  which  revolves 
once  in  an  hour,  and  carries  the  minute-hand  of  iiie 
dock  along  with  it,  brings  it  into  action  by  tfao 
temporary  release  of  a  catch  or  detent,  pemuttuig 
the  weight  woond  np  on  the  cylinder  of  the  strildiu- 
apparatuB  to  mn  down  for  a  little,  in  doing  whi<£, 
the  hammer  is  forced  into  action,  so  as  to  sbike  the 
bell  Whether  the  strokes  shall  be  one  or  many,  is 
determined  principally  by  two  pieces  of  mediamsm, 
one  called  a  nuiu,  from  its  form  or  outline,  with 
twelve  steps,  and  the  other  a  nui,  with  twdve 
teeth !  but  the  intricate  action  of  the  whole  it  would 
be  in  vain  hem  to  attempt  to  explsin.  Suffice  it  to 
say,  that  the  time  during  which  the  sfriking-weight 
is  allotBed  to  descend,  varies  according  to  Uie  turn- 
ing of  the  twelve  steps  of  the  snail  on  its  axis,  and 
the  position  of  the  twelve  teeth  of  the  rack,  at 
difiiarant  hours  of  the  day  i  being  sometimes  only 
long  enough  to  permit  one  blow  to  be  given  by  the 
hammer  on  the  bdL  and  at  another  tints  l(Hig 
enough  for  twelve  such  blows. 

The  consideration  of  portable  time-keepers 
(watdiee  and  chronometers)  is  reserved  for  the 
head  Watch  . 

HO'ROSCOPSL    See  AamoLOOT. 

HORS  DB  COMBAT,  a  French  term,  litCTally 


le  Btta^a 
unuer  coniuueiuuijiL 

HORS£  (Sowu),  a  msius  of  paohydermatons 
quadrupeds  of  Uie  family  JIgiudcs  (q.  v.),  ot  SoKdim- 
guia,  genenlly  regarded  as  induding  all  the  species 
tA  the  family,  attCongh  sometimes  limited  {see  Ass), 
so  as  to  contain  only  one  spedes,  the  most  import- 
ant to  man  of  ell  annnal«  that  are  nsed  ss  beasts  of 


and  Ass,  and  a  more  particulsr  description  of  the 
H.  seems  to  be  unnecessary.  The  native  oountiy  irf 
the  R  is  uncertain.  Some  oontend  for  Ama,  and 
some  for  Africa ;  some  suppose  that  the  H.  was 
first  domesticated  in  Egypt,  and  qnote  Scripture  in 
support  of  their  opinion,  but  to  Do  better  purpose 
than  to  shewthatat  a  very  early  period  it  was  in  use 
as  a  domesticated  and  valued  animal  sniong  the 
ancient  Egyptians ;  whilst  otliets  adduce  arguments 
not  more  conclusive  to  shew  that  it  was  originally 
domesticated  in  the  north-east  of  Asia ;  some  think 

Britain,! 

wild  races  of  Central  Asia  and  the  north  of  Africa 
are  really  indigenous  to  the  legions  in  which  they 
are  fonim,  or  the  ofipring  of  animals  which  have 
escaped  from  dcmeatiDation,  like  those  of  Amerioa  ; 


le  orieiD  of  the  domestic  H. 
one  origmal  fonn,  or  to  several  forms 


somewhat  diffsim^  and  belonging  to  diHerent 
countries,  are  questions  also  unceinin ;  and  the 
last  of  them  is  very  ■itnilfti-  ' 


t  which  i 


admitted 
great  as  in  that  case. 

The  lips  and  teeth  of  the  H.  adapt  it  for  cropping 
the  short  herbage  of  diy  plains  or  hills,  so  that  it 
finds  abundance  where  an  ox  would  be  very  insuffi- 
ciently supplied.  The  feet  are  also  adapted  to  d^ 
rather  than  to  soft  or  swampy  groond.  On  soft 
gronnd,  not  only  is  the  foot  apt  to  sink,  not  being 
very  broad,  but  the  homy  hoof  is  soft^ied,  and  a 
diseased  state  of  the  feet  is  the  result,  as  in  the 
case  of  many  of  the  great  diay-hoiaes  of  London, 


LiOOgIt 


red  in  the  aUuvial  dirtricta  of  the  eMt  of  Euc- 
land.  The  H.,  however,  requires  ft  liberal  supply 
of  water ;  iiiid  dniin^  the  dry  seasoii,  in  the  hot 
pluns  of  South  Amencs,  great  troops  of  wild  hones 
often  nuh  tiirioiul^  to  the  riven,  and  u  they 
approach  the  drinking- place,  trample  one  another 
under  foot,  vast  nunben  of  skeletoai  remaining  to 
Ueach  in  the  mn. 

Wild  horaes  are  found  on  the  plains  of  Central 
Aua.  Some  alao  inhabit  mouDtainoos  or  hilly  dis- 
tricbl  both  there  and  in  the  north  at  Africa.  They 
abound  still  more  in  the  grasey  plains  of  North  and 
South  America,  although  iisej  were  first  introduced 
into  Aiuerica  b;  EuropeaDS  ;  and  certain  tribes  of 
Indians,  both  in  North  and  South  America,  hare 
become  at  least  as  equestrian  in  their  habits  b«  any 
of  the  Tartars  of  the  east.  Wild  hor«ea  are  also 
found  in  tlie  Falkland  Islands,  into  which  they  were 
introduced  by  Eoropeani,  and  a  peculiar  breed  hac 
been  found  in  a  wild  state  in  the  island  of  Celebes. 

The  races  or  Tarieries  of  the  H.  have  on  evident 
relation  to  the  climate  of  the  countries  in  which 
they  occur.  Those  of  cold  and  stormy  regions  are 
comparatiTely  small  and  rough-haired ;  those  of 
more  favoured  climates,  large  and  sleek.  Tbtxe  are 
also  differences,  more  eridentlv  to  be  ascribed 
'j3  domestication,  according  to  which  certain  breeds 
tre  particularly  adapted  to  certain  kinds  of  work', 
lome  excelling  in  fleetness,  some  in  endurance,  some 
n  mere  stj^gth  for  burden  or  draught  The 
slender  fonn  of  the  race-hoise  or  hnnter  contrasts 
almost  as  strongly  with  the  ponderous  solidity  of 
the  dray-horse,  as  the  great  size  of  the  latter  does 
with  the  diminntiveness  of  the  Shetland  pouy. 

Wild  horses  congregate  in  troops,  sometimes 
small,  but  sometimes  ofmany  hnndreda.  The  males 
have  fierce  contests  for  the  supremacy,  and  males 
that  have  contended  unsoocessfully  are  often 
driven  off  to  a  soUtary  life.  -  On  the  appearance  of 
danger,  the  chief  staUion  of  a  small  troop  seems  to 
direct  the  movements  of  all,  and  even  tha  largest 
troops  seem  instinctively  to  move  in  a  kind  of  con- 
cert, so  that  when  they  are  assailed,  the  stronger 
animals  oppose  the  enemy,  and  protect  the  younger 
and  weaker.  Wolves,  even  when  in  packs,  attuik 
with  success  only  weakened  stragglers,  and  even 
the  jaenar  is  repelled.  In  fighting,  horses  either 
raise  tihemselvea  on  their  hind-feet,  and  bring  down 
the  fore-feet  with  great  force  on  the  enemy,  or 
wheetina  about,  kick  violently  with  the  hind-feet. 

The  Tarpan  of  Tartaiy  is  one  of  those  race*  of 
wild  H.  which  are  some^mee  regarded  as  original, 
and  not  descended  from  domesticated  animnln.  It  is 
of  a  reddish  colonr,  with  a  bhick  stripe  along  the 
back,  and  black  mane  and  tail.  The  eye  is  small 
and  vicions.  Tarpans  are  sometiaies  cao^t  by  the 
Tartars,  but  are  with  great  difficulty  reduced  to 
subjection.  In  some  of  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia 
are  wild  horses  of  a  white  or  dappled-gray  colonr. 
— Hie  wild  horse  of  South  America  is  uiece  called 
the  Jftufam  It  exhibits  considerable  diversity  of 
colour,  but  hay-brown  is  the  most  prevalent.  It  is 
strong  and  active,  and  is  often  taken  with  the  lasso, 
and  employed  in  the  service  of  man.  A  curioos 
method  is  practised  by  some  Indian  tribes  of 
promptly  subduing  its  wild  nature,  and  rendering  it 
tractable,  by  blowing  stroogly  with  the  month  into 
its  nostnla.  By  ot£er  trib^,  it  is  subdued  mare 
rudely.  It  is  urown  on  the  ground,  and  ere  it  con 
recover,  a  man  seta  upon  its  back,  wbom,  when  it 
rises,  it  cannot  shake  off,  and  who  retaina  bia  seat 
until  it  is  quite  submissive. — The  Koomrah  of  North 
Africa  is  regarded  by  Colonel  Hamilton  Smith  as  a 
distinct  species  {S,  utimiffnu).  It  has  no  forelock, 
but  woolly  hair  os  the  fordiead,  is  (rf  a  i«ddish 
bay  cobur  without  (tripe  do  the  back,  orany  white 


about  the  limbs,  has  limbs  of  a  somewhat  asa-hke 
shape,  and  the  toil  covered  with  short  hair  for 
several  inches  at  the  root.    It  is  an  inhabitant  of 


Of  domestic  varieties  and  breeds  of  the  H.,  tha 
Dumber  is  very  great,  Jmost  every  country  or  con- 
siderable district  having  one  or  more  of  its  own,  and. 
particular  breeds  being  valued  on  acoonnt  of  their 
Stness  for  particnlir  purposes.  The  breeds  are  also 
continually  varied  by  raoering,  and  great  improve' 
ments  have  thus  been  effected.  The  superior 
fieetness  of  the  English  race-horse  and  enduiaace  (f 
the  hunter  are  ascribed  to  the  crossing  of  the  old 
English  breed  of  li^t-limbed  E.  with  Uie  Arabian ; 
and  the  English  dray-horse,  remarkable  for  its  great 
size  and  strength,  in  like  manner,  owes  mnch  d  its 
excellence  to  the  crossing  of  the  largeft  old  Ei^lish 
breed  of  draught-horse  with  the  Flooish.  A  breed 
produced  by  crossing  one  at  tha  liftbter  kinds  of 
English  dranght-horae  with  the  race'hone,  is  in  the 
highest  esteem  for  cairiage-hoisea.  North  Amfrica 
has  a  breed  of  light-limbed  horses,  remarkable  for 
fast  trotting.  The  SufoUc  PutuJt  has  been  the  origin 
of  many  oC  the  most  useful  kinds  of  draught-lusaes 
employed  in  Britun  for  ordinary  farm-work.  The 
Clydadale  H.  is  also  one  of  thebest  breeds  of  this 
class,  and  is  an  improvement  on  an  older  breed. 
Numerous  breeds  of  smaller  size,  pontes,  have  long 
existed  in  difieient  porta  of  Britain,  and  in  almost 
all  other  countries.  The  Shetiand  Poay,  which, 
compared  wi^  the  diay-hone,  is  like  a  pocket  edi- 
tion of  a  book  beside  a  great  folio,  is  most  piiied 
when  most  diminntive,  and  sometimes  does  not 
mnch  ex«eed  a  lane  dog  in  stature.  A  stroi^  man 
has  been  seen  to  lilt  one  with  his  arm,  and  again  to 
ride  on  its  back,  whilst  at  the  same  time  he  walked 
with  his  feet  on  each  side  on  the  eronnd.  The 
Shetland  pony  is,  however,  a  very  tatSj  animal,  and 
remarkably  strone. 

The  Arabian  £L  has  long  been  the  object  of 
antiring  care  and  attention,  and  to  this  veiy  much 
of  the  excellence  of  the  race  is  certainly  to  be 
ascribed.  The  regard  of  the  Arab  for  his  hone  has 
long  been  famous.  Very  similar  in  some  respecia 
Arabian  is  the  Barbory  H.,  which  was  lu^j 
in  Western  Europe  before  the  *"!"»"  was 
there,  and  from  the  name  of  which  is  derived 
the  En^ish  word  Ixaii. 

The  E.  has  bean  used  from  the  moat  remote  we* 
both  for  riding  and  for  drawing  carriages,  Mt 
rather  for  pomp  or  pleasure,  the  chaae,  and  war, 
than  for  agricultural  or  other  labours,  for  which 
oxen  and  other  animals  were  for  a  lontf  time  mora 
generally  employed.  The  H.  is  an  animal  of  no  little 
mtelligenoe,  docihty,  and  offeetiooateness  ;  qnalities 
of  which  the  display  would  certainly  be  more 
general  and  perfect, .  if  it  were  not  for  the  cmel 
treatment  so  commonly  practised  in  '  breaking '  and 
otherwise.     The  H.  lus  a  very  strong  memory  of 

C'  ;es,  and  finds  a^in  very  readily  a  road  whii^  it 
once  travelled  before.  Its  caation  in  advancing 
on  swampy  ground  has  often  excited  adniirati<UL  It 
seems  often  to  enter  with  a  kind  of  enthusiasm  into 
the  work  in  which  it  is  engaged ;  the  war-bocae 
evidently  delights  in  tiie  matSiS  muMc  and  mililoiy 
movements  to  which  he  has  been  aocnstomed ;  the 
racer  and  the  hnnter  seem  to  know  the  object  of 
their  exertions,  and  to  be  aa  keenly  bent  upon  it  as 
their  riders ;  and  the  dranght-hone  often  exhibits 
much  acquired  expettneas  in  situations  of  consider- 
able difficulty.  Ijiatances  ate  also  on  reoord  of  tks 
rranarkaUe  display  of  intelligeuoe  in  such  things  as 
the  opening  of  doors,  ooni-cheets,  ftc. ;  and  two 
instances  aie  known  of  horses  which  have  leaned 
to  turn  the  tap  of  a  water-barrel  in  order  to  obtain 
water,  one  i^  which  also  ended  l>y  shutting  it  agun. 


tno^f 


hyGoogle 


Tiie  Seili  o{  tha  H.  u  used  i 


Q  Jjondonui  food  for  doga  and  cats.  Mana'  milk  is 
mncli  and  by  tome  of  the  tribea  wliose  chief  wealth 
coDsietB  in  their  horaea  :  and  the  Kalmncka  aubject 
it  to  fennentation,  and  diatil  from  it  a  kind  of  iipirit. 
The  hide  of  horaea  ia  made  into  leather,  irtiich 
ia  uaed  for  covering  lar^  office  and  boaid-room 
tablea,  tie.  The  long  hair  oi  the  mana  and  tail  i« 
lued  for  making  haircloth,  atnffing  mattreaaefl,  Ac 

Hybrida  between  the  E.  and  the  aaa  an  noticed 
in  UiB  articles  Hutny  and  ULuLE.  Hybrida  have 
alao  been  produced  between  the  H.  and  the  zebra. 


■pecie*  ;  Dot  they  have  been  tamed  to  no  nte. 

FotM  Horte. — The  remains  of  the  hone  have  been 
long  noticed  oasociated  with  the  munniotb,  rhino- 
ceroa,  and  other  estioct  quadrupeda,  in  the  drift 
*"' — *^"-ia  and  oaBiferouB  caTema  in  the  Kew  World, 


iBweUai 


n  the  Old.    Their  oc 


s  America 


B  remarkable,  from  that  continent  being 
entirely  withont  tha  horae  when  it  was  diacovered 
by  ColumbiU.  Cu™r  was  unable,  in  the  fragments 
that  he  exanuned,  to  see  any  difference  from  the 
similar  portions  of  the  ensting  speciea.  Meyer  and 
Kaap  havB  pointed  out  distincbva  chaiacters,  and 
Owen  has  shewn  that  the  remains  obaerred  in  this 
country  belong  probably  to  two  different  apocies. 
TheUreeet  (Bquvf  fimH»)  was  about  the  height  of 
a  middte-aized  domestic  horae,  and  differed  from 

head  and  Jawa,  reaeraUW  m  thia  reapeot  uie 
wild  borsea  of  Aaia  described  by  Fallas,  and  in 
having  the  molar  teeth,  while  equal  in  length,  yet 
decid^y  smaller.  The  aecond  apeciee  (£jtnur 
plieidau)  was  about  the  size  of  a  urge  aaa,  and 
differed  from  the  other  apedea,  aa  well  aa  from  the 
living  hoise,  in  the  more  complex  plicationa  of  the 
enamel  of  ito  molar  teeth. 

Hones,  of  whatever  breed  or  deacription,  should 
be  of  good  size,  shape,  and  style ;  for  auperior  animals 
nre  fed  and  kept  at  the  aame  coat  aa  inferior  aorta, 
are  always  able  to  perform  their  work  easily  and 
satisfactorily,  and  are  at  any  time  saleable  at  remun- 
erative prices.  To  produce  sach  animals,  requires 
careful  selection  of  sound,  active,  symmetrical,  well- 
descended  parents.  The  mare  carries  her  colt  eleven 
months,  but  occasionally  exceeds  her  time  by  one  or 

S'o  weeks.  Farmers  prefer  their  mares  to  foal  in 
ay,  from  which  time  the  age  is  generally  calcu- 
lated, bnt  on  the  tnrf,  ages  date  from  Janoory,  and 
hence  the  ewlier  the  racinz  foals  are  dropped  the 
better.  Parturition  is  uauuly  performed  eoaUy  and 
without  any  aasistance,  the  fral  aoon  getting  on  bia 
logs,  and  socking.  Qood  grass,  with  a  feed  of  oata 
daily,  will  insoce  an  abundant  supply  *  of  milk. 
Weaning  may  take  place  in  five  or  six  months ;  and 
the  foal,  when  taken  from  ita  mother,  muat  be  sap- 
plied  with  a  few  oata  and  bran,  aome  good  hojy,  and 
comfortable  shelter  at  night.  At  a  year  ol^  colta 
aro  generally  castrated ;  and  are  gently  broken  in 
and  Gghtly  worked  when  about  three  years  old ;  but, 
under  good  treatment,  they  continae  to  grow, 

....  __.  ■_^_  _... . ■-.  nntaom 


onght  not  to  be  pot  i 


I  Qmj  are 


Oata  and  hajr  are  the  staple  articles  of  food  for 
hard-working  horses.  The  oats  sbonld  be  sound, 
Bweet,  and  heavy ;  and  for  hocks  and  hunters,  are 


should  be  civeu  either  slightly  bniiaed,  or  along 
with  aome  &mS-  For  ooaohing  or  farm-work,  a  few 
bean*  or  peaae  ahould  be  given ;  half  a  buahel,  along 
with  a  bushel  of  oata  and  hay,  is  a  usual  weekly 
allowanee  for  well-kept  form-horses.  Clover  and 
Bya-grasB  Hay  (q.v.),  such  as  is  common  throng- 
OQt  Scotland,  ia  more  palatable  and  nutritive  than 
the  meadow-hay  in  general  use  in  England.  Biding- 
horses,  eating  a  Cair  allowance  of  oata,  will  conaume 
daily  14  poiinda  of  hay ;  bnt  the  heavier  daaa  of 
hotsea  require  more.  Farmoni  use  oat,  pea,  and 
bean  straw  for  fodder  during  the  winter  months, 
and  in  moat  well-managed  estabtiahmenta,  a  con- 
siderable poition  of  the  fodder  is  now  given  cut,' 
which  enables  the  hard-worked  horae  to  nil  himself 
more  rapidly,  and  thus  gives  him  more  leisure  for 
rest  and  repoae.  Cart-horsca  usually  have  ou  even- 
ing aUowance  of  aliced  Swedes  or  cairota ;  a  daily 
pound  of  lioaeed-cake  is  now  frequently  added,  to 
keep  the  coat  glossy ;  whilst  a  weekly  Inan-maah  is 
advisable,  and  should  contain  during  winter  an 
ounce  of  pounded  nitre.  Horses  ahould  be  liberally 
supplied  with  water  at  least  three  times  daily,  nor  la 
it  ever  necesaoiy  to  reatrict  the  suppliM,  except  for 
a  few  honra  before  severe  fast  work,  and  when  the 
animal  is  much  overheated  and  fatigued.  In  aome 
well-coostrocted  boxes  and  atables  (see  Stabix), 
there  ia  water  conatontly  before  the  animal  in  a 
shallow  vessel  capable  of  holding  about  a  quart,  and 
which,  aa  it  ia  removed,  ia  alowly  replemahed,  and 
thug  cannot  be  drunk  either  with  undue  rapidity  or  in 
injurioua  quantity.  During  summer,  horsea  generally 
have  auch  green  food  as  grass,  clover,  or  vetche* ; 
but  if  their  work  ia  severe  or  long  continued,  oats 
and  hay  ooght  atiU  to  form  the  prmcipal  articles  of 
diet.  In  summer,  farm-borses  are  often  tumejl  out 
to  graze  after  their  day's  work  ia  over ;  but  it  ia 
generally  more  economical  to  bring  their  green  food 
to  the  atable,  or,  better  atill,  to  commodious  yarda. 
seldom  advisable  to  follow  the  old-fashioned 
of  turning  hacks  or  hunters  out  to  gras^  aa 
they  are  apt  to  get  kicked  or  otherwise  injured,  and 
beaid^  their  condition.     If  not  required  during 


large  yard  o 


a  box,  where  they  can 


.  and  fit  for  ■  . 
and  their  conatitutiona  uninjured  by  violent  diver- 
aitiea  of  feeding  and  management,  ^e  email 
atomach  and  natural  habita  of  the  horae  indicate  the 
□eceaaity  of  hia  being  fed  at  frequent  moderate 
intervala  oE  five  or  an  houra.  In  moat  locolitiea, 
farm-horses  turn  out  at  seven,  returning  to  the 
stable  at  J1.30  or  12,  being  fed  and  rested  for  an 
hour  and  a  haU  or  two  honra,  and  then  returning  to 
work  for  (our  or  five  hours.  In  the  midland  and 
aouthern  counties  of  England,  the  straggling  position 
of  the  fieldat  and  their  inconvenient  metance  from 
the  atables,  induce  many  formers  to  keep  their 
horaea  in  the  yoke  from  aeven  until  two  or  tiuee, 
when  they  finish  for  the  day.  This  practice  is, 
however,  oy  no  means  commendable,  unless  the 
wor^  is  very  light,  and  the  horaea  have  a  feed,  a 
'ew  mouthfula  of  water,  and  10  Or  15  minutes'  rest 
tboot  mid- day. 

To  inaure  health,  horaea  must  be  kept  in 
commodious,  well-lifted,  airy,  properly-ventilated 
atables,  which  ought  to  be  erected  only  m  dry  situo- 
tioua,  ahould  be  uioroughly  underdrained,  ond  well 
paved,  if  poasible  without  o  loft  overheod,  white- 
washed annually,  and  always  kept  scrupulously 
clean  and  free  from  smell  lliis  may  be  effected  by 
the  prompt  removal  of  soiled  or  wet  litter,  and  by 
strewing  the  floors  daily  with  a  litUe  (ppatun,  or 
H'Dongol'a  diainfectant  powder.     Where  there  ia 


L,C.ooi;le 


HOBSE— HOBSEMANSHIP. 


1,  loose  boXM  ai 


and  grooming,  with  plenty  of  (reah  lur,  and  good 
■table  managemeiit,  horees  are  Bomrcely  erer  ont  of 
health,  and  rraoire  ndther  bails,  conuaia,  nor  any 
■nch  meaue.  Without  profeuional  advice,  no  groom 
or  carter  ahonld,  nnder  any  pratenoe,  be  permitted 
to  indulge  hia  predilection  for  phTsieking  or  dootoiing 

healthy  nt 

HOBSE,  a  miner's  term,  applied  to  any  intruded 
material  which  ia  the  appu^nt  oauae  of  a  sudden 
■ttemiption  in  the  contmuity  of  a  mineral 


oppocite  digitate  leavee,  flowen  with  flre  apreading 
uaeqnal  petals,  and  a  leaUiery  S-Tolved  capmU 
covered  with  wrft  spinea.  The  seeds,  which  are  not 
more  than  three  in  each  fruit,  ore  Wgo,  and  some- 
what resemMe  chesnuts ;  but  tiie  habit  of  the  treee, 
their  leaves,  and  their  flowen,  are  very  unlike  those 
of  chesDota,  with  which  thev  have  no  botanical 
affinity.— The  Coimoir  H.  (j£.  kippoeattaitum)  is  a 
much  esteemed  omamentu  tree,  very  frequently 


planted  in  Britain,  and  in  all  parts  of  Europe  of 
which  the  climate  is  snitaUe,  on  account  of  its  rich 
foliage,  and  its  erect  racemes  of  beaotifnl  reddish 
white  floweiB,  which  are  produced  at  the  eitremities 
of  the  branches,  and  contrast  admirably  with  tho 
<1ark  green  of  the  leaves.  At  St  Petersburg,  the 
U.  is  a  greenhouse  tree.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
uatdve  of  Persia  or  some  part  of  tlie  East;  but, 
strangely  enough,  i(«  native  country  is  still  some- 
what uncertain.  It  w»a  introdncecl  into  Weateni 
Eurepe,  from  Constantinople,  in  the  end  of  the  IGth 
century.  It  attains  a  great  size,  sometimes  rising 
to  the  height  of  100  feet,  and  extending  its  branches 
very  widetv.  whilst  they  often  droop  almost  to  the 
ground.  Ijm  leaves  have  long  stalks,  and  seven 
obovate-wedge-shapedleaSets.  The  wood  is  soft,  not 
rery  sbvog,  nor  veiy  durable  in  the  open  air ;  bat 


la^  ordinaif  purpoaca,  ai 
The  bark  is  bitter  ai 


the  contuient  of  Enropa  aa  »  snbititnte  foi  PernvUa 
Bark,    The  rind  of  the  seeds  coataina  a  colonting 


unpleasantly  Hitter,  and  confaun  so  much  of  the 
eaponaoeou*  sab«t«nce  prevalent  in  this  nataral 
order,  that  niieu  reduced  to  powder,  they  may  be 
used  for  washing.  They  contain,  however,  a  wge 
qoanti^  of  ataroh,  which,  wh^i  extracted  and  bvml 
&om  bitterness  by  means  of  an  alkaline  solntiao,  is 
pleasant  and  nutritions.  It  is  prepared  oo  a  large 
soale  and  at  a  cheap  rate  in  France.  HoiBe.<dieannta 
have  long  beui  employed  in  variona  couDtriea  ■■ 
food  for  Dim,  sbeep^  iwine^  and  horses,  all  of  whi<^ 
are  fond  of  tham,  and  grow  fat  upcm  tham.  In 
Britain,  howevur,  they  are  atill  very  generally  allowed 
to  rot  beneatii  the  trees.  It  is  said  that  when 
the  H.  was  first  introduced  into  Btitain,  it  did  not 
perfectly  ripen  ita  seed,  which  it  now  does  eran  in 
the  northern  parte  of  the  island. — The  other  apeeieB 
jBieuitu  are  natires  of  North  Aneiie*.  The 
iage  ia  vetr  aimilor  to  that  of  tiie  ootomon  haaa- 
chemut.  Both  the  leaves  and  frait,  however,  of  the 
BtrcK-EVE  or  Ansiaur  H.  (.£.  OMctauit)  are  very 
poisonous.— NorUi  America  poase«ea  also  a  number 
of  species  of  a  nearly  allied  lennt,  Pawia,  with 
ver?  similar  foliage,  smaller  &weta,  *ad  Bnooth 
frmt.  The  seeds  of  J".  rruicrodatAga  or  P.tdtdU,1ite 
Edible  Bitck-ets,  are  eatem,  eithw  boiled  or  naated. 
Tbin  species  is  a  shrub  with  long  and  beautiful 
racemes  of  fragrant  white  flowers,  which  have  Img 
projectJQg  ftomens.  It  ia  a  native  of  the  sonthan 
states,  and  seldom  ripena  ita  fruit  in  £ki^and.  P. 
Indica  ix  a  lofty  tre^growing  at  elevationa  of  8000 

10,000  feet  in  the  ^unalayo,  and  producing  seeds 

Lry  similar  to  those  of  the  H.,  which,  altliongh 
bitter,  are  eaten  in  times  of  acaixnty. 

HORSE-FLT,     See  PoREm-FLT. 

HOBSE- QUABDS,  the  name  applied  to  a  larn 
public  offloe  in  Whitehall,  appropriated  to  the 
deparbnenta  under  the  genaral-oommanding-in-chieL 
Tb  word  Eorse-guaroa  is  used  conventionally  to 
■Lenifr  the  military  authoritiea  at  the  head  of  army 
anain,  in  oonbwUatinctioa  to  tha  civil  ohi«^  the 
Secretary  of  State  for  War. 

HOE8E-GUARD8,  Rotai,  tx  OXFOHD 
BLD£9,  is  the  third  heavy  oavalry  regiment  of  the 
Household  Brigade.  The  renment  was  raind  in 
1661  from  the  remnants  of  the  disbanded  army  of  the 
late  Commonwealth.  It  has  ever  proved  a  loysl 
corps,  althon^  it  readily  transferred  its  all^iance 
from  Jamee  II  to  WilUam  HL  It  took  part  in 
Morlborou^'s  campai^;  served  under  the  Duke 
of  Wellington  in  &e  Peninsula  and  at  Waterloo, 
and  has  aJwaja  bean  considered  one  of  the  finest 
heavy  cavalry  corps  in  the  world.  The  guards  d 
state  for  the  sovereign  toQ  token  ather  from  its 
ranks  or  from  those  of  the  LifO'QuardB.  The  pre- 
uniform  consiste  of  a  steel  helmed  with  ^ums, 
.  . .  .el  cuirass  over  a  blue  coatee,  leather  breechaa, 
Mid  knee-boots ;  the  horses  are  black.  The  eatab- 
liahment  of  the  regiment  consisted  in  1S72  cj  1302 
of  all  nuiks,  witJi  626  horaes,  exclusive  of  officers' 
chargers. 

HORSEUATfSHIP.      Thronghoat   history  the 

t  of  managing  the  horse  and  nding  on  his  bock 
has  ranked  high  among  useful  and  giaocful  occom- 
ilishmeata.  According  to  Ccear  and  Livy,  tbe 
InmidionB  and  Hatintaniana  rode  A«r  horsca 
without   either  bit   or  aaddle,  and   gsided  Uian 


.Google 


solely  bj  nsiiiz  s  small  switch,  which  wm  applied 
to  eitiier  ndo  a  de  neck,  accordinj;  as  the}'  wished 
to  torn.  Hie  Peni&iu  tnined  their  hones  to  kneel 
to  iw^Ts  their  riders,  and  were  the  first  to  intn>- 
doce  saddles.  Saddles  oF  a  similsr  shape  to  thoee 
now  in  use  were  not  known  till  the  Uth  a,  and 
side-saddlca  were  intnidaced  aboat  138S.  Stimpa 
were  osed  in  the  6th  c,  but  were  not  oammon  even 
in  the  12th. 

The  two  eeaentials  for  riding  are  ft  fiim  seat  and 
a  light  hand,  as  without  a  combination  of  the  two 
no  one  can  became  a  good  horseman.  In  every 
deicription  of  riding,  the  li^t  dolicate '  hand,'  just 
feeling  the  njeath  of  iJie  nocae,  and  plavins  the 
bit  in  aocordanee  with  his  moTement,  will  insure 
BDccesa ;  uid  it  is  to  this  delicacy  of  wrist  that  we 
most  attribnte  tiie  ease  and  skill  with  which  Isdiea 
often  ride  the  meet  high-spirited  animals,  which,  in 
rougher  hands,  would  be  unmanaeeable. 

Ths  tint  Won  in  honemansnip  is  to  leam  to 
aonat  safely  and  easily ;  and  the  ordinary,  and 
on  the  whole  least  objectionable  way,  is  a*  follows  ■. 
Stand  at  Uie  shoulder  of  the  hone,  looking  towards 
his  tail,  and  taking  the  leins  in  the  right  hand, 
divide  them  by  the  middle-finger  of  the  left  till 
yoa  feel  the  hone's  mouth ;  then  take  hold  with 
the  left  hand  of  a  lock  of  ttie  mane,  lift  the  left 
foot  into  Ute  stirnip,  and  udng  the  mane  as  a 
sli^t  hold,  spring  into  the  air,  taking  hold  of  l^e 
bock  of  the  saddle  to  asBist  in  getting  the  right 
leg  eamly  over  the  hone,  steadying  the  fall  of  the 
body  by  the  right  hand  on  the  pommel,  and  then 
oiranging  the  stirmps.  In  dismoiinting,  exactly 
the  rerene  of  this  process  is  followed,  or  both  feet 
may  be  disengaged  from  the  atirraps  at  onoe,  and 
the  rider  may  vanlt  bxim  the  saddle  to  the  ground 
witb  greater  rapidity,  and  less  risk  of  falling  if  the 
bone  chance  to  move  on. 

Hiera  are  fbur  di^rent  strflea  of  riding  praotised 
among  modem  civilised  nations — vis.,  Ui«  military, 
Toad,  hunting  and  racing  styles.  Hm  militaiy 
style  diffen  m  many  partionlan  from  the  ottien, 
as,  owing  to  tiie  loiu  stiimpe  used,  the  soldier  is 
obliged  to  sit  well  down  in  his  saddle,  with  his 
body  erect,  the  seat  being  preeerved  more  by 
beluioe  than  by  a  tight  hold  by  the  leg  or  tbi^ 

In  the  seat  for  n>sd-ridine>  the  stirmps  are 
amused  at  sach  a  length  thai  when  the  feet  are 
hanging  loose,  they  shall  jost  touch  the  ankle- 
bone,  imd  the  rider  nsoally  inserts  the  feet  only  as 
far  as  the  '  ball '  of  the  foot.  In  riding,  have  the 
horse  well  in  hand,  to  assist  in  snpportmg  him,  in 
case  of  stumbling ;  the  seat  firm,  to  be  secure  in 
case  of  diying;  and  a  knowledge  of  handling  the 
bridle,  to  insure  a  quick  and  i«ady  response.  In 
hQntin{^  a  much  firmer  seat  i*  necessary;  the 
stiirufKleaiiien  are  about  two  holes  shorter,  the 
feet  nreiaed  'bonw'  in  tlM  stirraps,  irtiich  otherwise 
would  be  apt  to  be  lost  in  jumpiiw  j  the  leg  tnm 
thielt  to  the  knee  w^  forward,  and  neaiiy  wt  right 
an^  to  the  nppsr  part  of  Uie  body  m  indined 
forward;  tiie  b^  Derpcndicnilar,  the  heel  well 
down,  and  tiw  toe  pomang  neariy  cbaiglitfonrard. 
This  'seat'  the  hnntet  us  in  cmunoo  with  all 
Mneetrian  natiom,  as  tlte  Arabs,  Tartan,  Fenians, 
Egyptians,  CosMtaks,  Hagj]an,aiid  tarraasiain,  the 
last-mentioned  nation  eanring  it  to  sucA  an  extrane 
that  the  leg  assnmei  Hm  tonn  of  the  letter  T,  with 
the  knee  for  Hie  apex.  In  ridins  at  a  feitoe, 'ocdlmrt* 
the  hoiw  into  the  pace  at  whidh  he  ma  with  moat 
eaae  to  himself ;  keep  him  sbai^t  sS  the  fiuoe  till 
faerises;  'ease' hismovtlibyleaninglbrwaid;  take 
especnal  oare  not  to  oonflne  It  when  he  is  mining 
his  eflbtt,  or  yon  will  pnU  Um  into  the  fenoe  as  he 
descends ;  lean  well  back  in  ths  saddle,  and  gMitfy 
tike  hold  of  hJa  month  to  support  bim  oa  landii^ 


Do  not  gallop  with  a  loose  ran  (excepting  down- 
hill, vbem  the  bone  reqnina  his  head  me),  for  the 
hone  win  go  wiUi  'a  stnf^ing  pace,  which  is  veiy 
undsainble.  For  nMingv  the  essentuda  are  a  good 
and  powtrfnl  Mat,  good  '  hands,'  a  mtt  knowledge 
of  pace,  and  qoiolmew  to  take  advantage  of  any 
chsnoes  of  snecess.  The  jockey's  seat  is  peculiar, 
as  his  object  is  to  give  as  much  ease  as  possible 
to  his  horse.  He  ndee  vei^  much  forward,  fre- 
quently stamding  in  the  stumps,  and  isolating 
his  pirn  at  his  horse  according  to  nu  orden. 

As  tlie  ibvngest  part  of  a  bone,  and  also  the 
centre  of  action,  ia  sitnated  at  a  point  just  behind 
his  shoulder-blades,  the  nearer  we  can  ride  to  Uiis 
the  better,  and  riding  rather  forward  in  tiie  saddle 
is  a  relief  to  Ihe  hme,  while  loaning  baok,  as  it 
bean  npon  his  loins — hia  weakest  pan — ia  a  cause 


llie  tiiigh  is  the  most 

strong  seat.     Few  riden  whose  thiols  an  short 

and  roiuid,  have  a  good  seat;  lAile,  on  the  other 


side,  are  genendly  very  fina. 

No  one  oan  pietend  to  ho 
knowledge  of  the  proper  ac._  .  ...  „  .  .  . 
If  a  hoTse  nms  away,  do  not  exhanst  yourself  by 
vain  pnllii^  bat  gaida  him  ont  of  danger,  and  1^ 
him  run  tillhe  is  filed.  A  Bocqphaln*  noaeband  is 
agatnat  bdting.     If  a  horse  rears, 

._. B,  and  lean  fbrward;   in  hunting, 

ft  of  falHng'  oonsisti  in  getting  clear  of  your 
In  ease  of  a  horse  kicking,  keep  his  head  up 


the' 


possible,  and  eit  &na  in  the  saddle. 

HORSG-POWEB,  a  term  used  b  expressing 
the  force  of  a  motive  power.  It  is  based  upon 
the  aesuiBptdon  that  hones  in  general  perform  a 
certain  constant  amount  of  work  in  a  specified 
time  i  an  assumption  which  ia  evidently  erroneous. 
The  fundamental  nnit  of  woi^  ia  the  Foot-pound 
(q-  Y.) ;  but  in  measuring  the  work  of  a  hone 
by  this  unit,  the  estdmatee  of  the  most  celebrated 
neen  differ  widely  from  each  other :  Boulton 
Watt,  basing  their  calculations  upon  the  work 
oE  London  dray-horses  (working  eight  houn  a 
day),  eetimaled  it  at  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minuta 
D'Aubuisson,  taking  the  work  done  W  horses  in 
whims  at  Freibrag,  estimated  the  work  at  16,440 
foot-poonds,  woAtng  debt  honn  a  day;  nnder 
similar  drcumstanoes,  Desagnliers'a  estimato  was 
44,000;  Smeaton's,  22,000;  and  Tredgold's,  27,600 
foot-pounds;  17,400  is  thought  to  be  nearthetrnth. 
It  matten  littie,  however,  what  number  is  assumed, 
provided  the  same  be  always  used ;  and  accordingly 
the  original  estimato  of  Watt  is  still  counted  a  hoiae- 
power.  In  calculating  the  power  of  a  steam-engine 
m  terms  of  this  unit,  the  general  rule  is  to  '  mul- 
tiply together  the  pressure  in  pounds  on  a  square 
inch  of  the  piston,  the  area  of  the  piston  in  inches, 
the  length  ot  the  stroke  in  feet,  and  the  number  of 
strokes  per  minute,  the  result  divided  by  33,000, 
will  give  the  horse-power;'  but  it  is  neccasaiyto 
dedn^  about  A^  °^  the  whole,  as  an  allowance 
for  friction. 

HORSE-BAOINO  dates  frtmi  the  times  (A  the 
early  Oneks  and  Botnaus,  among  whom  it  was  a 
favourite  sport.  In  Ki^and,  Charles  L,  Oromwell, 
and  CSuirles  IL,  were  more  or  less  patrons  of  the 
turf ;  and  the  last-named  monarch  was  a  regular 
freqnentw  irf  Newmarket,  whieh,  partly  from  thia 


HL  and  Queen  Anne  were  also  patoMM  of  hone- 
racing.  Flying  CUldeM,  bred  in  171B  by  the  Duke 
d  Dovonaldni  waa  long  oonaidcmd  to  hkra  beta 


jCinoglc 


EOBSE-BAOIKG—BOBSB-BADISB. 


the  Beet««t  horae  aver  known ;  ha  onied  nino 
(tone  kt  Newmailuit,  »od  mn  31  miles  in  6  minutea 
40  geoDiida  ;  Ke  ma  nerer  beaten,  and  pioduoed 
497  yramen,  bnidea  naliuug  £200,000  in  atakea. 
The  celebrated  horse  EcUpae,  the  fleeteat  from  the 
time  of  Childera,  ww  bred  in  1764  by  ths  Duke 
of  CDmbttiaDcL  Commencing  at  five  jean  old, 
thia  kotae  von  eleven  pUiga,  woa  never  beaten, 
and  became  the  aire  of  umomerable  wimiera. 
modam  nce-hone  ia  considerably  taller  a: 
eariier  mAtnrity  than  the  original  type,  partly  fiom 
jndidoai  eroaaing,  and  also  from  euiy  lugh-feeding 
and  traininl^;  ydi  there  baa  been  a,  looa  of  Btoutaeaa 
of  cuualitution,  although,  for  speed,  no  pure  bred 
Ar^  haa  a  chance  -with  a  modem  thorough-bred. 
The  hoiaea  are  entered  aa  yearling  (a  mce-horae' 
age  dates  from  the  lat  of  Jaonat^  in  the  year  he  i 
foaled)  ;  but  of  240  entered  in  tbu  way,  mrely  more 
than  26  oome  to  the  poat  two  veara  sfterwaids,  the 
majority  being  foand  piKcticaUy  nseleas  for  r 
pnipoaea,  anil  ths  forteita  from  theae  horses 


pniposea, 

^acnttched*  form  by  fal  the  gKUtet  portioo  of  the 
ipleodid  prizea  of  tha  tnrf.  (ft  ha«  been  ealculat  ' 
that  there  an  IfiOO  thonnl^-bMd  brood-mares 


apleodid  prizea  of  the  tnrf. 
that  there  an  ICOO  thonn  „ 

England;  that  these  produce  annually  about  1100 
foab.)  The  value  a  a  thorongh-bred  yearling 
depends  entirely  upon  'the  fashion  of  hia  Uood:  aa 
much  as  1800  gnineaa  have  been  given,  and  600  and 
800  aie^no  means  extravagant  rates  tor  {Oomiaing 
colts.    The  titining  of  the  young  raoer 


Middleham,  Richmond,  Malton.  Haley,  , 
whme  the  downs  offer  a  wide  expanse  of  open 
country  for  exercise.  The  trainer's  charge  is  two 
guineas  a  week ;  and  for  this,  each  horse  is  per- 
sonally attended  to  and  ridden  by  a  Ud  specially 
attached  to  bim  A  thorough  preparation  for  a 
great  race  is  a  loog  and  troubtesrane  operation, 
consisting  of  several  etagea,  during  which  the  colt  is 
gradually  brought  from  a  itaturoU;  loose  coodition 
to  the  greatest  perfection  possible :  first,  by  steady 
and  continuous  walking  eierdsG,  then  proceeding 
by  gradoAl  stogea  to  gentle  galloping  and  sweatiag, 
ad  finishing  by  testmg  the  capacity  of  the 


against  a  o 
fo.' 


npetitor  at  a  distance  equal  to  the 
^  race.  It  bos  been  found  that,  practi- 
cally, the  speed  of  almost  aU  horses  can  be  equalised 
by  addition  or  subtraction  of  weight  to  be  carried 
when  running  ;  and  so  nicely  is  this  odjosted,  tbat 
the  Handioftps  (q.  v.),  arranged  on  this  principle, 
provide  aome  of  the  beat  races  in  the  year.  The 
Chester  Cup,  Doncoater  Cup,  Ascot  Cap,  Goodwood 
Cup,  Liverpool  Cup,  C^zarewitch  and  Cambrid;rc- 
ahire  stakes,  are  all  run  on  these  terms.  For  the 
great  priaes  of  tbe  turf,  however,  the  1000  onif  2000 
guineas,  the  Derby  (about  £6000),  Oaks  (about  £4000), 
nnd  St  Leger  (about   £5000),  for  three-year-olds. 


the  horses 
Enormously  1 


a  equality  of 


stakes  r 


in  into  two  classes 


betting.   We  may  dii 

— those  who  bock  a  single  horse  from  ji    „    

OT  private  information ;  and  tliDae  who,  without  any 
knowledoei  but  from  mere  calculation,  estimate  the 
odds,  and  take  the  'field'  against  'any  favourite.' 
The  hitter  daaa  are  the  professional  betting-men 
('the  ring'),  who  devote  themselves  to  thepurmit; 
the  former  ia  oompcaed  of  the  owners  of  hcoses  and 
their  friend*,  who  trust  to  thmi  knowledge  and  tact. 
ColcMsl  fortunes  have  been  mode  by  the  'ring' 
in  tiiia  way,  and  there  are  men  perpetooUy  attend- 
ing tiie  ooontry  noes,  and  ready  to  lay  against 
<^ ^  'back'  tiw  'Held.'     As  no  debts 


become  debts   of  honour;   and  tt         _ 

only  amenable  to  the  regulations  of  the  tnr^  whidi 
have  been  devised  to  msure,  as  far  aa  poaaible, 
honest  dealings.  The  Jockey  Club  ia  the  great 
-tribunal  of  sport  in  England,  and  its  regnUtion 
are  adhered  to  all  over  the  country ;  it  is  com 
poaed  of  64  nobleman  and  gentlemen,  who  take 
an  interest  in  the  turL  Newmaricst  Heath,  the 
great  centre  of  rooing,  ia  in  its  poeaeasion,  and  by 
virtue  of  the  positiou  and  authnrity  of  its  m 
bers,  it  is  enabled  to  eierciae  a  great  check  n, 
dishonesty  and  fraud.  The  seven  annual  race- 
meetings  at  Newnurket  are  as  follows  :  the  Craven, 
first  spring,  second  spring,  July,  first  October, 
second  October,  and  the  'Houghton.'  The  prin- 
cipal races  are  for  the  1000  guineas,  2000  guineas, 
Cezarewitoh,  bud  Cambridgeshire.  The  Epaom 
meeting  is  the  most  popular,  from  its  neam —  '- 
London,  and  from  the  interest  attaching  t 
racea  for  the  Derby  and  Oaks.  After  Epaom,  the 
Doncoater  St  Iieger,  for  tbiec'year-olds,  doinu  the 
position  of  greatest  interest ;  it  is  run  for  by  tbe 
competitors  in  the  previous  Derby  and  Oaks,  and 
is  generally  considered  to  be  a  test  of  the  oorrect- 
ncss  of  their  results.  Ascot  is  reckoned  the  most 
fashionable  meeting  in  the  year ;  it  is  held  on 
Ascot  Heath,  in  Berics,  and  here  the  best  horses  in 
Enalond  oomnete.  at  a  more  mature  age  tbsn  at 
e  for  tJie  Asoot  cup  in  1854, 


other  noes.    In  the  rac 

West  Australian  ran  f 

27  seconds,  the  fastest  ra 

meeting,  which   ia   held 

mend's  pork,  in  Suasei,  is  also  popv 

upwards  of  150  race-meetings  held  annually 

United  Kingdom;  npwwds  of  IGOO  horaes 

these,  and  160  jockeys  ... 


n  record.    Goodwood 

the   Duke   of   Rich- 

lular.    There  are 


jockey  u 
olwa^  retained  I 
conaulerabla  a — 
upon  bis  aervii 
pa^  of  a  jockey  ia  £5  f or  a 


>  valuable,  tl 


•  Bum,  and  tbeae  gentlen 


'be  regular 


winning  and  i 
it;'  but  there  are  so  many  gntoities, 
that  this  gives   no  indication  of   Uis   income   of 


has   become  popular   in  Innce. 

Prussia,   Sardiiua,  and  in  the  British  colonies  of 

India,  Australia,  tiie  Cape,  and  Canada. 

In  addition  to  the  flat-raoing  in  EngL 
are  a  great  nnmt>er  of  steeple-choaes,  where  horses 
contend  over  natural  and  artificial  fences,  ditches, 
&c  The  sport  is  dangerous,  on  account  of  the 
immensB  speed  arising  from  competition,  ao  that 
horses  get  too  distressed  to  jump,  and  broken 
1  1  J  ^i._  __.  11.  loaaquenoo.  In  America, 
,  popular,  and  their  horaea 
othras  in  that  description  of  racing. 

HORSB-BADISH  (.irmoraaa),  agenns  (rf  plants 
of  the  natural  imler  CrucifertBy  differing  from  acnrvy- 
grass  {CoMearia)  chiefly  in  having  the  valves  of  the 
seed-pouches  destitute  of  praminent  nerves.     Ihe 

--1  are  perennial  herbaceous  pUnts,  having  erect    ' 

and  white  flowers,  and  roots  remark^le  tor 
their  pungency,  which  is  owing  to  a  volatile  oil, 
of  ve^  powrafol  odour,  believed  tt    "      ■■     ■■    ■ 

with  the  vfJalile  oil   of  mnatard. 

K  (J.  nutiainit)  haa  lon^  cylindrical  white  rocta, 
-*-"■    about  two   feet   high,  large,  much-veinod, 
'-    — -"  1   loag     ■  " 


otting-mi 
:celiUlo1 


oblong,  I 


Itg 


stalks,  and 


._.   middle  and  south  of  Europe,  ia 
natnroliaed  in  some  placet  in  Britain,  and  is  culti- 
vated for  the  a«^e  of  its  roots,  which  ara  acraped 
ited  down  and  mixed  in  salada,  or  uaed  aa  a 
lent  with  roast-beef.     H.  root  is  used  also 
medicine  as  a  atimuJanl^   niyl  is  often  nsafttl 


or  grated 
omdimen 


CglizodtyGuUl^lL 


HORSB-EADISH  TREE— HOBBE-SHOEING. 


alio  regarded  h  .._ 
oes  ap3>Iied  azternally 
KB  a  rnbefadent  instead  of  mnttard.  In  coItivstioD, 
the  H.  U  generallj  planted  very  deep.  It  IM  Toy 
difficult  to  eradicate  froifE  groojid  in  which  it  bw 
become  eBtablishad,  aa  almost  any  portion  of  the 
root  will  grow.— Another  Bpociee,  A.  maerocaTpa,  a 
native  of  Hungary  and  IVaosylTania,  has  Dmch 
larger  flowers,  and  a  mther  less  pungent  root 

HOBSE-RADISH  TREE  {Moriaga  pUrygo- 
aperma),  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Afonngacea, 
a  native  oE  lEidia  and  Arabia.  It  has  bipmoBte 
or  tripinnate  leavea,  with  ronndish  oblong  leafleta, 
terminal  paniclea  of  white  flowers,  and  a  pod-like, 
3-valvad  fmit,  with  roundish  S-winged  seeds.  The 
leaveflf  which  are  mildly  pungent,  are  used  in  oorries, 
and  with  vinegar ;  the  rooti,  which  are  very  pun- 
gent, are  nsed  for  purposes  like  those  for  which  the 
root  of  the  horse-radish  is  used,  from  which  they 
are  not  easily  to  be  distiugaished.  The  teeds  yield 
the  useful  filed  oO  called  Oil  of  Ben  (q.  v.),  and 
the  bark  a  gum  like  tragacanth.  if.  aplviit,  another 
species  of  the  same  genus,  also  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  is  cultivated  m  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Italy,  for 
tha  sake  of  the  oil  of  'ben  obtaiiied  from  its  seiads. 
For  the  sake  both  of  the  pungent  roots  and  of  the 
oil,  these  trees  are  now  cdltiTated  also  in  the  West 


falls  in  riding  and  driving.    Chief  amonnt  tta  faults 
are  the  attempts  to  fit  the  foot  to  the  aiae,  instead 


and  ras^nng,  and  eonseqaent  injuty  of  the  ..  .  ._ 
puts  of  the  foot.  After  the  cautious  removal  of  the 
old  shoe,  the  crust  on  which  it  rested  geoenUy 
requires  to  be  pored  down  with  a  drawing-knife, 
and  its  edge  litenrnrds  rounded  with  the  rasp. 
Any  TOBgeA  portions  of  tbe  froK  may  also  be  taken 
oS,  andthis  includes  the  whole  of  the  allowable 
paring  or  dressing  of  the  horse's  foot.  The  homy 
sole  intended  as  a  coreiing  and  protection  of  the 
sensitive  parts  beneath ;  tfa^  tough  elastic  frog,  an 
insensible  pad  which  obviates  ooncnssion,  and  pre- 
serves the  foot  wide  and  free  from  contraotion  ;  the 
bars,  an  involution  of  the  crust,  which  help  it  to 
support  weight,  and  give  it  lateral  support,  are  all 
too  valuable  to  be  mthleaaly  cut  away,  and  in  all 
ordinary  cases  must  be  scmpnlously  preserved  from 
both  knife  and  rasp.  For  sound  healthy  feet  treated 
as  advised,  a  plain  shoe  is  preferable  for  saddle  or 
harness  horses;  the  web  need  not  exceed  three-fourths 
of  an  inch,  must  fit  the  crust  closely  and  accurately 
all  the  way  round  to  the  heels,  where  its  inner  edge 
will  rest  upon  the  strong  and  uncut  bars.    Nowhere 


torn  off  in  heavy  ground.  To  lessen  the  chances 
of  tripping,  and  make  the  shoe  wear  equally,  it 
should  for  t^e  fore-feet  be  turned  up  sliehtly,  and 
its  ground  surface  hollowed  out  a  little  Si  the  toe, 
so  as  to  present  the  appearuice  of  an  ordinary  shoe 
which  has  been  worn  for  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks ; 
and  which,  aa  every  one  knows,  is  therefore  rendered 
more  safe  and  comfortable.  By  turning  up  at  the 
toe,  these  advantages  are  secured  at  once.  For 
■addle  or  li^t  harneaa  woA  three  naili  on  the  out, 
and  two  on  the  inude,  will  firmly  secDre  any  well- 
made,  well-fitting  shoe.  The  nail-holes  should  be 
connbennnk,  be  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  web,  and 
pass  straight  throngh  14^  thus  giving  the  lUuls  a 
firmer  hold  ot  the  itont  unrasped  cmst.  The  points 
d  the  nails  when  driven  home  ahooM  be  lu«km 
over  and  laid  down  with  the  hammer,  but  not 


polishing    stroke,    is   very  injurious; ._ 

unctnous  protecting  portion  of  the  crust,  and  renders 
it  weak,  brittle,  and  liable  to  crack.  Shoes  should 
be  replaced  every  three  weeks,  or  a  month  at 
furthest.  In  shoeing  the  hind-feet  the  oabnde  web 
is  generally  turned  slightly  down  behind,  whilst  to 
give  an  equal  bearing  the  inside  heel  is  thli^ened. 
For  heavy  draught,  both  hind  and  trae  ahoes  should 
have  moderate  tips  and  heels,  which  enable  the 
horse  to  exert  his  full  powers  without  so  much  risk 
of  slipping.     Instead  of  the  Ave  nails  used  for  the 


for  a  time  require  leather  or  waterproof  pads,  but 
as  the  sole  grows,  these  should  be  discontinued,  and 
are_  never  required  in  healthy  feet,  where  the  sole, 
which  is  the  best  and  moat  natural  protection,  ia 
allowed  te  grow  undisturbed  by  the  knife.  Horaes 
with  corns  should  have  their  shoes  made  with  a 
wide  mmde  web,  which  rests  upon  the  bars,  or  have 
for  a  time  a  bar-ahoe.  The  last  nail  on  the  inside 
should  also  be  dispensed  vrith,  and  the  seat  of  the 
com  or  bruiae  carefully  pared  out,  but  without 
injuring  either  the  frog  or  bars.  If,  from  constant 
cutting,  the  bars  are  unfit  to  aid  the  orust  in  carry- 
ing the  sho^  it  will  be  oftrai  advisable  to  shoe  for  a 
lime  with  tips  or  half-shoes,  keeping  the  horse  aa 


■hould  )»  Isft,  wiUi  the  hill  Irow  bdvnn  them ;  E,  E,  tlw 
ueIm  bstir«B  Ihe  hnl<  and  bKt.  ^btn  corrw  npiwir; 
y.r.  ibi  mnnTo  larrwe  or  [be  lot:  0,  G.  tbe  bnlboiu  tit«li  i 
H,tlieclerL 

much  aa  possible  on  soft  ground,  and  waiting  the 
healthy  growth  of  the  foob  In  troublesome  cases 
of  thrush,  such  tips  are  also  moat  serviceable,  allow- 
ing the  frog  the  natural  healthy  pressure  for  which 
it  IB  intended,  and  with  asCringenbi  and  cleanliness, 
greatly  expediting  a  cure.  Groggy  horses  shoiUd 
have  the  toe  shortened,  and  turned  up,  as  already 
advised ;  the  frog  and  sole  must  be  untouched, 
and  the  shoes  made  light  and  nicety  fitted.  Over- 
reach, or  cutting  of  the  heel  of  the  fore-foot  with 
the  ^oe  of  the  hind,  is  remedied  by  filing  round 
the  posterior  edge  of  the  offending  toe,  and  keeping 
j.i._.   _L__    __    F._   1...1  possible  on  the  loot 


that  shoe  aa   ur  back   i 


tyCUUl^lC 


, ifyBr»m« 

NoUao^BhoeiMg  Hortui  Mr  MiWa  pamplikt  on 
Hoiw-Aotba,  uiniukUT  pnUiihed  in  the  Joonuil  of 
tlw  Bonl  ^rioattunl  ^ooie^ ;   'SvAtatot  Dick's 

HOltBBNS,  s  imall  bat  Tsiy  old  tovn  uid 
Mtpcnt  en  tha  cut  ooHt  of  Denmark,  and  ooe  of 
the  pnWot  and  mort  thriTinc  in  the  oonntiy, 
u  Btu«tad  at  tiie  head  of  the  fiord  of  the  ume 
name,  25  milea  sonth-weat  of  AarkuiUL  U  cod- 
taina  two  dhimhea,  hai  four  bridgee,  aad  cairiea  on 
manolaetim*  of  tobaoco,  and  s  o<niBtderab)e  general 
trade.    Pop.  (1870)  10,501. 

HO'B9HAM,  a  parliamentuj  boron^  and 
market-town  of  England,  in  the  coun^  of  Srusei, 
ia  litoated  on  a  tnbatary  of  the  Aran,  28  milee 
north-eut  of  Chichester,  and  35  milea  aouth-aouth- 
weat  of  I^ndon.  The  Court-hoiue,  a  Qothic  edifice  ; 
at  Mary**  Chorah,  in  the  Early  English  style ; 
and  the  Orammar-Bchocl,  with  an  endowment  of 
£412  a  year,  are  the  principal  institutioiii  of  the 
town.  The  trade  and  maDufoctiires  are  incon- 
siderable. H.  Tetunm  a  memher  to  parliament  Fop. 
of  parL  borough  in  1861,  6747 ;  in  1871, 7831. 

HOBSLEY,  Sahuil,  an  English  prelate,  waa  the 
■on  of  a  clerOTman  of  the  EpKoopal  Chorch,  and 
waa  bom  at  8t  Martia's-ia-tne-Fielda,  London,  in 
1733.  He  waa  educated  at  Wertminiter  School 
and  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  where,  thonnh  he 
stndied  hard,  and  laid  in  immense  atoree  of  know- 
ledge, he  took  no  degree  in  wts.  In  1768,  he 
lecams  curate  to  hia  father,  then  rector  of  New- 
ington,  and  shortly  after  lacoeeded  to  the  rectory, 
B  Uving  which  he  held  for  Uur^-four  yeats,  tiiough 
be  hIbo  enJOTed  in  the  interval  loany  other  prefer- 
meats.  In  1767.  H.  wsa  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  of  whioh  ha  long  continued  an  active 
member.  In  fact,  tihe  writiegi  that  first  brought 
him  into  notic*  were  tdentific,  and  not  theolo^caL 
Ws  may  mentinn  hit  Btmarla  on  Hu  <^»crMioiu 
made  •»  UU  tait  Voyage  toward*  lis  NorA  PaU,  Jbr 
dtltrmtung  ISt  Aecdiratitm  i/  Ae  Pendsdtan,  ia  laL 
79*  61'  (1774).  Two  years  afterwords,  he  iasaed 
propoaala  for  a  eomplete  edition  of  the  works  of 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  which,  however,  did  not  make 
ita  appearonoe  till  17811.  Bat  the  grand  event  in  his 
career  was  hia  oontniTen^  trith  Dr  Priestley,  which, 
considering  Uie  momoitDns  nature  of  the  lubjecta 
discnased,  and  tlie  iplendid  talents  of  the  com- 
b^anta,  may  be  safelv  pronounced  to  be  the  greatest 
theological  contest  of  us  16th  eentnry.  The  imprea- 
sion  tt  tiw  time  waa,  that  m  far  m  Mrd,  nuMJleM 
UMuv  goei,  H.  had  decidedlr  the  beat  of  it  Rods 
in  langoagst  bat  pan^jlied  m  leuLii^  OMiteo^ttt- 
ODS,  &&tiA,  dictatorial,  hk  attitude  reminda  one 
of  Goliatii  rather  than  of  8t  Paul,  and  we  cannot 
but  feel  that  he  is,  at  least,  as  much  inspii«d  by 
the  smbitioii  of  the  pagilist  as  by  the  ardonr  of  the 
Christian.  The  Vod  that  exotted  the  ooatroreny 
waa  Dr  Priestley's  Hitlory  c^  On  Oorruptfoiu  of 
GMtHanUf,  onoo^  which  oomiptiona  waa  inolnded 
the  orthodox  dootnoo  of  Chiiat'aanoieateddinni^. 
H.  nriawed  tbe  work  with  great  aevcvity  in  hu 
dwMM  dtUvarad  to  the  cltos;  d  the  arcbdeaoonrj  of 
StAJbaa^Majr  22,1781  ftMatlay  readied  the  same 

£«■  in  k  pnblioation  antitlad  LtUtr*  U>  Dr  Hor*ln 
Aiwatr  to  Ms  A«imad»«rticm»,  h>.  In  1784,  O. 
retorted  in  aevraitaen  LtUtr*  hwa  lk»  ArtMMeMt 
ttf  St  AOqiu  tB  nvto  le  J>r  Priatla,  Ac  Tbeae 
were,  in  I«tn^^  met  ay  a  new  aertM  faxn  Priestley, 
who^  wuing  warm  with  the  fi^t,  desonbes  his 
aotitgOBiat  m  'the  iiraoiiidUe  £gnitary.'  After 
k  siMnee  of  ai^t««n  ntontus,  H.  again  replied  in 
Ua  StnaHe$  o»  Dr  PnttOeift  Btetrnd  LtUm,  Aa, 


rewuded  with  the  hisEopne  of  8t  Danda  in  17M, 
whenee  he  was  banalated  to  the  Uahoprio  of  St 
Asaph'*  in  1802.  He  died  Ootober  4,  1806.  H.'b 
chantctar  aa  a  writer  has  been  already  indiaated ; 
it  lemaina  to  be  added,  Oat  oa  a  tHJdKm'ba  waa 
liberal  and  humane  both  to  the  clergy  and  the  poor 
of  his  dioceaa,  although  vigilant  and  eves  starict  in 
the  discharge  of  hia  e^acopal  duties.  H.'s  works, 
beaidee  those  already  mentioned,  oonaist  of  Bennoos 
and  treatiaes  im  biblical  oriticism,  on  mothematiea, 
and  on  classical  aubjeets.  A  ooHected  edition  of 
his  theological  woik*  waa  published  by  Longman 
[6  vols.  IW). 

HORTICU'LTTJRAIi  SOCIETIES,  aosociatioiu 
for  the  encouragement  of  gardening,  are  now 
niunerous  in  almost  a!t  civilised  countnes,  but  seem 
to  derive  their  origin  only  from  the  beginning  of 
the  present  centuir,  when  the  LoitdoK  HortiaiUaral 
Society  was  formed,  chiefly  through  the  ezertim*  of 
Mr  Knight,  Mr  Wedgewood,  and  Sir  Jouph  Banka, 
The  soc^ty  obtained  a  charter  in  180&  Thefnieri- 
menial  Ocuden  of  tlw  sooiety,  the  firat  of  ita  kind, 
was  established  in  1817,  and  was  removed  to  it* 
present  aituation  at  Ohiswick  in  1822.  The  pm- 
gress  of  t^e  society  was  very  rafsd^  and  ita  nsdnl- 
ness  has  been  very  great  Societies  of  &e  same 
kind  soon  began  to  spring  up  in  Qennany  and  otlier 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Korope,  and  horticoHiiTsl 
societies  now  exist  in  almoet  ali  the  towns  and  in 
many  of  the  villages  and  noal  diatiiets  of  Britain. 
The  iVusnoo  Oardtning  Booiel^  periiapa  ranks  neit 
in  importance  to  the  horticnltaral  sooety  of  Loo- 
don;  and  the  Pemologiixd Soelely  c/AUead^/bM 
been  vwy  nsefnl  in  ruard  to  the  cultivation  of 
fruit).  TiM  horlionltaru  sodetjea,  now  so  oomnxm 
thronghout  Kitain,  have  done  much  to  promote 
not  only  hoitionlttue,  but  habits  of  neatness  and 
a  taato  for  flowers  *maog  the  humUer  duasBi,  of 
which  the  hmuaiUBinK  efbet*  have  be«n  vny  msni- 
fest  and  importsot  It  ia  perh^a  to  be  reoietted 
that  their  attention  liaa  been  so  asetoHvely  devoted 
to  the  oultivatfon  of  particular  kinds  of  vegetables 
already  in  noeral  nae,  and  of  tiuae  flower*  known 
OS  florists'  noweta. 

HOUTICtTLTUBE.    See  GutsxNixo. 

HO'RUS,  an  Egyptdan  daty,  whose  name,  Har, 
mevit '  the  day,' or '  the  son's  path,' and  ia  sencaalh 
written  in  hkoogl^phics  by  the  spanow-hai^  whiii 
waa  aaored  to  bun.  ]lie  old  daiivatioD  from  the 
Hebrew  aw,  li^t,  ia  now  reoognisad  aa  inwmect 
Under  tbe  naioe  «{  Haroa  were  iododed  aeveisl 
deitiea,  aa  Haiacaia,  the  Eld«r  Horoa  (q.T.}i  and 
Hazpoentes  (q.v.),  or  tbe  Tonnger  IB/cwnt;  Sar- 
aaaCia,  Homa,  the  nniter  of  tiie  vpMi  and  Iowa 
world,  who  waa  the  aeoond  son  cJ  Atbor,  r«ided  in 
Annn,  or  Heliopolia,  and  emanated  from  tba  ^^e  oif 
the  son  (Boselhni,  M.d.e.,L  47) ;  and  Biw-itMa, 


boy  wearing  a  tri^e  erown,'  who  eziated  In^  the 
oommeooement  of  thinn  ^  asU-created  bon^  and 
emanated  fK^n  the  So,  or  finDameBt;  bcBdas 
aevenl  otlieie.  But  the  joinidpal  Hrana  waa  H. 
the  SOB  of  laifl  {Bar-ti-ietCt,  repreaanted  aa  a  naked 
ehild  ataodius  wealing  a  akuUoap,  or  tbe  onwn  of 
Upper  and  Lower  %rpt  H.  is  firat  mentiansd 
by  Hetodotna  (ii.  IH.  u.  1S6)  aa  tbe  son  of  Isi* 
and  Oairia,  and  brotbn  of  fiabastia,  the  Egvptian 
Diana.    Variooa  aooounta  an  given  erf  bis  bim ;  be 


having  been,  Boomding  to  o__ .  _„ 

of  hia  father  Oairis  buore  tbe  birth  of  Osiris  and 
Isisi  or,  according  to  onotiier  account,  begotten 
of  ODris  after  that  god's  destmotion  by  TjpboD. 
His  birth  was  said  to  be  prenaturt^  and  he  was 


tyCuOl^lt 


HOBUS— HOBIERT. 


oaweqnaitlj  waik  in  hii  lower  litnba.  In  ordor  to 
ttvoid  tiie  peneoation  of  ^I^Fplioii,  he  mH  bron^t  np 
by  Leto  on  the  floatmg'  isUmd  of  Chemmiis,  or  Bnt^ 
ID  Mcrat.  Having  grown  op,  he  beome  Sar-net- 
atf  (Honia  the  kven^  of  tus  fsther],  and,  along 
with  lata,  avenged  hia  faUier'a  death  (see  OsntlSh 
accoiding  to  the  beat  receiTed  tradition,  Tanqniahing 
Trphon  and  hia  aaaodatea  in  a  great  batue  at  a 
Tulaffa  near  the  dty  of  Ajitntu,  on  the  S6th  of  the 
DumQi  Hoth,  on  Mioh  oocation  Osina  came  from 
the  nether  world  to  hia  awjatanee  in  the  ahiqw  of 
a  woK  (Piodor.  1  SI).  Aooordiiu  to  the  Egyptian 
ritoal,  h«  cat  off  their  heada  for  the  foiria  of  haaTen, 
and  their  tMsha  for  the  wild  beaata  and  fiahes. 
Typbon  i*  ttm  to  have  been  dalirered  bound  in 
fetten  to  laia,  who  releaaad  him,  npon  vritich  H. 
tore  the  diadem  off  hia  mother'a  head,  but  Thoth 
replaced  it  by  the  head  of  a  cow.  E.  waa  often 
ctoifoimded  with  the  elder  Eonu  by  the  Graeka, 
but  Uie  monnmenta  cepreeent  him  aa  the  type  of 
royalty,  the  anta^oniat  of  Set  or  Typhon,  the  aTengec 
of  hia  fothcr  Oairia,  for  whom  he  obtained  the  com 
of  Elyiinni  and  the  wateia  of  Elephantine,  con- 
qnertd  the  north  and  loath,  and  tbarad  Bgypt  with 
Set  or  Typhon,  having  held  the  govemment  ol  the 
northern  portioD  aa  IFyplioD  of  tbe  lonth.  After  the 
death  of  Typhon,  he  oeoame  Kle  monarch,  and  aa 
last  kinf  of  the  dynasty  of  goda,  reigned,  according 
to  different  veraiona,  100  or  26  yeara.  Ifmnerooa 
Gsotedo  ezpUnationa  have  been  ziven  of  thU  god, 
w  that  he  rapreaenta  the  Nile,  aa  lyphon  the  dcMrt, 
the  fruitful  air  or  dew  which  revivea  the  eaitii,  the 
moon,  the  lun  in  relation  to  the  chaogea  of  the 
year,  or  the  god  who  preaided  over  the  conrae  of 
tho  sun.    He  alto  lepreeented  three  planets,  Jnpiter 

Snroprtta),  Saturn  (ifonbo),  and  Mars  (Harlalir). 
a  epanow-hawk  waa  sacred  to  him;  so  irere 
liona,  whidh  wen  placed  at  tha  aide  of  lua  throne. 
There  was  a  festival  to  oekbrate  hit  «yea  on  the 
30th  Epiphi,  when  the  ion  and  moon,  which  they 
represented,  were  on  the  same  right  line  with  the 
earth.  A  movable  feist,  that  of  his  coKination,  is 
anppoaed  to  have  been  aelected  for  the  ooronationB 
of  the  kings  i^  Egypt,  who  are  deacribed  aa  sitting 
npon  hii  throne.  When  adult,  he  ia  generally 
represented  bawk-beaded ;  aa  a  child,  he  ia  aeen 
cairisd  in  hia  motJier'i  arma,  wearing  the  psohent 
or  atl,  and  seated  oa  a  lotua-flower  with  his  finger 
on  hi*  lipa.  He  h«l  aa  especial  looal  worahip  at 
EdfoD  or  Hnii  the  anejent  ApaUinopcdia  '**|y'^ 
where  he  waa  identified  with  Ba,  or  the  son.  l^eie 
were  also  Booka  cd  Honw  and  jBi%  prohahly 
referring  to  hi*  l^and  (Lncian,  De  Soma,  aus  OaO. 
a.  183).  Hie  magnet  waa  called  hia  bone;  he 
was  of  £ur  oomplnioii. — Birch,  Gall  iff  Afiliq.  p. 
3fi;  Wnkinwm,  Mm*,  and  Oud.  toL  !v.  p.  306; 
TaUooaki, Food.  ii.  4,  p.  238;  Champollion,  Pmlk. 

Eg.;   Hinoka,  DaiL    Umi.    ""    ^"    "    "■" 

Boeokh,  Mai^ho,  p.  61. 

HOKUS,  a  khig  of  X^npti  naned  EaiemheU, 
who  reigned  at  the  cloaa  S  the  18th  dynasty.  Hia 
reign  ha*  been  phoed  at  ]«ei,  liSS,  or  1446  B.a, 
Imf  it  probably  feUabont  1400  K.  a  AHfemgh  the 
lists  of  Uanetno  give  him  a  reign  o(  SB  or  38  yean, 
no  hi^iBr  monnmental  date  tban  hia  seventh  year 
baa  been  hiHierto  fonnd.  He  restored  the  mnwiip 
of  AnuD  Ba,  which  had  been  overthrown  by  the 
diak  tir  sun  wonbippers,  and  conquered  the  Bam- 
bwn,  a  tdbe  of  the  negroa  of  Snh  or  iGthiopia. 
Hm  moat  aontbsm  point  whsre  his  monomenti  have 
been  found  ia  QebatAddeh,  the  indent  Amen-Heri, 
between  the  Wady  Hal&  and  IhouDbooL  Be  alio 
embeUisbedlinxtv  and  otherqnartcn  of  Thebes.  Fine 
statues  of  tU*  monanli  axiat  at  Tnrin,  and  other*  in 
the  BiHiah  MoMun.— Bra^sdi,  OeoarajAM  du  AUm 
.^pjptou,'  Chan^ollion-F^aao,  L'Sgypte,  p. 


»  Magyar*^  Mid  of  eonaoU- 
Hmgariaii  nationality  ttirongh  Hi*  seientifia 
naetnt  of  the  Hniwinaik  laogaage.  Amnfip 
H.'a  publiibed  works,  ueohief  nxm  belonn  to 
his  Mamarantig  TOtgnaketi  Sigi  Ifaattt^^rel 
(Prinubre  FamiUea  of  the  Hnnganaaa,  Faath,  1630), 
an  8to  Tolwne  of  nodeiate  nie,  bat  the  w^*"'!'* 
for  it  have  been  gathered  from  innninerabl*  rare 
maauKript*,  and  other  doeamaati,  partly  finwgn, 
partly  draneatk;  It  i*  a  monnmental  work  in 
~     '  ~  oonneotin^  wme  ol  the  living  Hi: 


.   Mag,   zzviii.   p.   187  j 


Vanv,  waa  bom  at  G 


hSb,™ 


with  the  ohieftaini  who  oame  with  _ .  .... 
at  the  end  of  the  8th  century.  In  1S14,  appeiMd 
at  Feath,  D^tnct  of  tht  Emg*  Lemi  Hit  Ortal 
and  Mat/tiat  Conmui;  in  lESl,  two  volnnei  of 
Aruner*  to  Ou  QaMioiu  m  FMdom,  pat  ly  the 
NaUauUMutaai  at  PoA;  in  1826,  Stit(At»  fKim 
&aOldaitBiiloTf<>faeSiatgariia»Jfali(m;  in  1828 
and  1820,  SeimtAa  on  Blbiieal  Saiprmu^M,  Ac 
H.  waa  fiir  many  yeara  editor  of,  and  later,  chief 
oontribntor  to  the  TWora  dnjir  Gytj  temibiy,  or 
Scientific  Magaaine. 

HOSE' A,  the  third  (in  the  order  o!  time)  of 
the  twelve  minor  piripheta  of  the  Old  Teatament, 
delivered  hia  prophetical  raeisi«e,  accoidiogto  the 
inscription  of  hi*  book,  during  t&e  reign*  of  IJadah, 
Jotluun,  A^v,  and  Hezeldab,  kinfn  tA  Jndsh,  and 
of  Jeroboam  IL,  kioK  of  braeL  Iteekoning  even 
from  the  lost  year  of  Jetoboam'i  reign  (about  785 
B.C.)  merely  to  the  fint  of  Heiekiah^i  (aboat  725 
B.a.),  hi*  career  must  tlraa  have  extended  over 
nearly  GO  yean ;  bat  most — especially  of  modern 
Bcholore — seem  inclined  to  re^rd  this  period  as 
improbably  long,  though  kohb  calcniatioii*  (e-^, 
Horaley'ii)  make  it  even  longer.  Whether  H. 
belonged  to  Judah  or  Israel,  cannot  be  determined 
with  certaia^ ;  but  the  zieateat  critic^  with  the 
exception  tA  Uaurer,  maintain  him  to  have  been  an 
lanelite.  Hi*  pnpheoies,  which  are  mainly  direoted 
against  Israel,  ove  a  bightful  pietnre  of  abimalits* 
i£ilatry,  licaifiouanes*.  intenmeraMM)  falsdiood, 
luiatioii  toward!  cluadTantt^eoai  and 
_  forei^  alliaatei,  and  they  may  be 
rewded  aa  ^KOpriate  to  Uie  period  ol  auMchy 
and  vioe  whioh  followed  the  Inzurion*  leign  of 
Jeroboam.  H. 

HOSHITKQABA'D,  a  town  hi  Oenb«l  India, 
stand*  on  the  left  or  aonth  bank  of  the  Nerbndda, 
inlat23'44'N^andl0Bg.  7r44'E,  Pop.  (1886) 
13,070.  UadiatrictoftheiauMnameiaaaaMiTiMOti 
of  the  Jnbbnlpore  divimov  in  the  dhief-ocmnuasioner- 
ahip  <^  the  Oentnl  PtovIdom.  It  ha*  an  area  of 
^SZ  sqnare  uiks,  with  a  popdation,  in  1866,  lA 
440,433.  Bflddes  being  so  fertile  ss  to  be  atyled 
t^  inu^en  of  Hke  country,  it  posaesaes  abundanoe 
of  eatoellent  ooaL 

HtysiEBT,  in  it*  most  limited  sense,  refera  to  the 
manofaotore  (tf  stockinga  (hose) ;  but  in  its  more 
genaial  apiJiostiML  it  comnrisea  aU  knittedjoods, 
whether  nude  try  band  or  by  machi»iy.    The  nae 


d  probably  the  first  were  made  of  skins, 
ana  snoseqaently  of  oloth  ;  thn  were  slso,  until  a 
oompsTotitely  late  period,  maib  all  in  one  piece 
with  the  trousen,  oonstitating  the  trunk-hoae  of 
our  ancestor* ;  but  these  ganoenta  were  aepanted ; 
and  Uie  art  of  knitting  was  invented,  it  ia  supposed 
in  Sootland,  about  the  commencement  of  the  16Ui 
century.  Oertaia  it  ii  that  knitted  stookinei  foatkl 
their  way  to  France  from  Sootiand,  and  led  to  the 


hyGoogh 


MUbliibment  of  »  guild  et  rtacJdng-knittaM,  who 
^MMe  for  thaiT  patcon  Mint  8t  Firov  of  ScoUand. 
In  1680,  WlUiBin  Lee,  of  Woodbridge,  Notlingliun- 
■hire,  entirelj  aharad  the  hodav  tnde,  by  invent- 
ing tiie  knittdng-fntne ;  (sd  ilUKMigh  he  did  not 
live  to  enjoy  mueli  benoAt  himwlf  oraa  it,  it 
beoame  a  tg^  important  tud  to  the  oommerce  of 
thia  ooontry.  DonoK  the  Protectorate,  the  itock- 
ing-frame  knitten  obtained  a  charter,  and  extended 
their  optraticina  throngh  the  prorince*  of  England, 
but  wiUi  all  the  diaadvsntagea  of  a  monopoly,  which 
STentnal^  led  to  legal  proceedinn,  by  which  the 
ohartar  waa  set  aside  in  I7fi3.  Since  that  time, 
maOT  imi^oremeats  have  been  made  in  the  ttook- 
ing-bamea,  and  it  may  be  fairiy  eaid  that  foor-fifUu 
of  the  atookingB  now  worn  thronrii  the  world 
are  made  by  the  manufaetarera  of  Qraat  Britain. 
The  ingeniona  oontrivaooee  by  which  this  vast 
work  ia  produced,  will  be  described  nnder  Srocxnro- 

Htockinra  are  made  of  cotton,  of  wonted,  or  ol 
ootton  and  wonted  mixed,  called  Angola,  and  ol 
■ilk.  They  are  each  made  of  two  distinct  kinds. 
The  best  are  made  in  a  flat  web,  which  haa  to  be 
■ewn  at  the  back  aa  well  aa  the  foot,  and  it  is  ac 
made  that  when  the  two  edg^  are  brought  togethei 


frame,  and  form  a  cylindrical  web  of  equal  width 
from  top  to  bottom ;  thcso  have  to  be  atretched  on 
boarda  to  give  tliem  the  shape,  and  are  ironed  with 
hot  Irona  whilit  on  the  board,  to  make  them  retain 
the  shape  of  the  board.  The  foot  is  formed  by 
cutting  the  web  and  addine  a  small  piece  far  the 
■ole.  Hottii^ghamihite,  which  gave  birth  to  the 
inventor  oE  thjs  stocking-frame,  ie  still  the  centre  of 
the  homery  trade  in  Great  Britain.  At  Belper,  ' 
Derbyshire,  stockings  of  very  fine  quality  are  p 
dnced ;  bnt  the  cheaper  sorts  of  stockings,  glovea, 
■indete,  &c-,  are  made  in  Nottinghaiu  or  ita  unme- 
diate  uei^bonHiood. 

HOSMER,  Habiutt,  an  American  artist,  was 
bom  atWatertown,  MuBacbnsetts,  in  1S31.  As  ahe 
bad  a  feeble  constltatian,  her  faUier,  a  physician, 
mcouraged  her  to  etrcngthen  it  by  out-door  exer^ 
cisea,  aiu  she  became  on  adept  in  sliooliag,  riding, 
rowing,  skating,  and  swimming.  She  i^  shewed  a 
talent  for  aculpture  by  modelling  figures  in  clay.  To 
prepare  herself  for  her  choeea  career,  she  studied 
anatomy,  first  with  her  father,  and  afterwards  at  the 
medical  college  at  St  Louis.  Betnming  to  her  home 
in  ISSl.shemodelledher  first  work, '  Eeeper,' which 
had  BO  decided  a  success  that  she  was  sent  to  Bome, 
where  she  became  the  pupil  of  Oibaon.  In  his 
Btudio,  she  haa  modelled  busts  of  'Daphne'  and 
'  Mednsa,'  and  a  statue  of  '  (Enone  '  for  a  gentleman 
of  St  Louis  ;  and  the  much  admired  statue  of 
'  Beatrice  Cenci '  for  the  MeroantQe  Library  of  that 
city.  Her  statue  o£  'Fuck,'  of  which  there  are 
now  about  30  copies,  was  honoured  by  orders  for 
copies  from  the  Prince  of  Wales  and  the  Duke  ' 
Hamilton.  Her  most  ambitioua  work,  fiuislied 
1S59,  was  a  colossal  statue  of  '  Zenobia  in  Chuns. 


shelter  to  trarellera.  The  oldest 
that  on  the  Great  8t  Bernard  (see  Bkrnabs,  Grkat 
St),  which  the  priests  at  the  canton  of  Valais  gained 
possesaion  of  in  1S26,  and  afterwsrda  fitted  np  in  a 
comfortable  manner..  A  honaoe  likewise  existed  on 
St  Gothard  as  early  aa  the  13th  century.  At 
present,  however,  it  is  inhabited  not  by  momca,  but 
by  a  hoaptaUer,  who  entartains  tivvellen  gratis, 
■ad  accepts  no  remuneration    beyond   a   present. 


Similar  establishmenta  are  found  on  Mont  Cenia, 
the  Simplon,  and  the  Little  St  Bemaid. 
HOSPITAL,  in   Law,  is    used  in  Eoglaad  to 

denote  aa  eleemosfnary  corporation  fonnded  for  the 
purpose  of  luppartme  certain  descriptions  of  penoos  ; 
whereas,  in  Scotland,  it  more  frequently  signifies  a 
mortification  or  endowment  for  the  educataon  aa 
well  as  support  of  childreo.  In  both  countries,  it  ia 
also  used,  popularly,  to  denote  an  institution  for  dia- 
pensing  medical  assistance  to  the  poor  gratuitously. 
HOSPITAL,  Diim  or  tok.     See  Smxus  or 

CHiSITT. 

HOSPITALLSBS,  charitable   brotheriioods 

founded  at  various  times  and  In  different  oountriea, 
for  the  care  of  the  sick  in  hospitals.  The  vow  to 
devote  themselves  to  this  work  of  mercy  is,  in  all 
these  brotherhoods,  superadded  to  the  ordinary 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  sod  obedience,  which  ant 
common  to  all  the  religions  orden  in  the  Church 
of  Borne.  One  of  the  earliest  recorded  inri-jnf  of 
a  hospital  served  by  such  a  brotherhood  ia  that  of 
Constance  in  the  13th  century. 

The  KxtoHia  or  St  Johh  or  Jebobouch  [^,  v.),  aa 
also  the  TiUTOXio  Khiobts  (q.  v.),  were  originally 
hospitallers.  The  hoqtitallen  of  Oar  Lady  ra 
Christian  Charity  were  founded  near  Chalons  in  the 
end  of  the  13th  c.,  by  Guy  de  Joinville ;  a  similar 
body  at  Paris  in  1294 ;  and  the  hospltollen  cJ  Our 
Lady  Delia  Scala  about  the  same  time  at  Siena. 
The  history  of  the  Brethren  of  Merqr,  founded 
by  St  Jobh  of  God,  will  be  found  under  Uiat 
name.  There  ate  many  other  local  institatea  or 
congregations,  all  of  which,  however,  recognise 
the  same  geneml  rules,  and  follow  the  same  genoal 
organisatioa. 

HOSPITALS  are  so  called  from  the  medieval 
hatpiHa,  or  more  properly  the  class  of  faoapitak 
established  very  generally  for  the  reception  and 
relief   of   lepers,   whose   malady  was  one  of  the 


-  .nly 

_  [tola ; '  hence  the  frequency  of  such 

E laces     as     Spital,     Spitalfields,     Ac       The    leper    i 
Dspitalg,  and   other   kinds  of   the  old   hoapitia,   I 
disappeared  with  the  improvement  of  society,  and 
sobetitutes  for  them  on  a  oroadcr  scale  began  to  be 
established  in  the  modem  fotra  of  hospitals.     Of   ' 
public  establishments  under  this  genenil 


rzi^. 


I,  ther. 

distinct  classes — hospitals  for  the  reception  and 
treatment  of  the  sick  and  hurt,  hoapitals  fia  the 
board  and  education  of  children,  and  hospitals  fnr 
the  reception  and  permanent  board  of  poor  old 
persons  of  both  sexes.  Hospitals  of  these  several 
classes  are  numerous  and  on  a  munificent  scale  in 
Great  Britain,  where  they  take  the  position  of 
leading  charities  in  the  country.  As,  in  the  [nsmit 
work,  the  more  remarkable  hospitals  receive  some 
ootice  under  their  respective  heads,  we  need  hers  ' 
only  offer  a  few  geneial  observations.  I 

HosriTAis  for  the  sick  and  hurt  are  in  some   : 

Cof  England  and  Scotland  termed  Infirmariea.   I 
r  whatever  designation,  institutions  of  this  kind 
cstabliabea   in   all  parts  of  the  civilised 
ipported,  as  in  England,  on  a  principle  of 
-   ~  '-  France,  chiefly  from  the  funds  of 
"— '-  monicipalitiea.    The  primary 


wAld,  an 

the  state  0 
'  more  important  object  of  all  such  u 


is  to  mitigate  bodiljr  suffering,  whether  that  ariaea 
from  natural  or  accidental  causes,  in  which  reject 
they  are  indispcnaahle  as  a  refuge  to  all  who  are 
uiUKile  to  pa^  for  private  medical  or  surgital  aid,  or 
as  a  convenient  means  of  succour  on  emetveDCies 
to  persons  of  every  rank  and  degree  of  opals&oft 


uoiizcdtgGoogIc 


HOEfPITALa 


While  such  in  the  main  object  of 
iiutitutioai,  they  are  in  numeroui 
abl^  aa  schoolH  for  medicioe  and  Burgery ;  as  such, 
no  imiversity,  at  which  these  and  kindred  branches 
of  learning  are  tanght,  can  be  said  to  be  complete 
nithoDt  the  adjunct  ci[  a  weU-orgoniwd  hospital, 
where  profonors  can  jnactioaUy  educate  their  pnpila 
by  pointins  ont  vanetiea  of  diseaae  and  inWies, 
and  exempli^Fing  methods  of  treabuent.  Hence, 
the  best  ipecunena  of  hoapitala  are  found  in  nniver- 
dty  towns — as  in  London,  Paris,  Edinbnish,  and 


some  other  c 


a  famed  as  schools  of  madicme  and 


,  IBM;  and 

BfltUehem,  1547.  A  considerable  acceasion  to  the 
□umber  took  place  in  the  reign  of  George  IL,  when 
society  became  alive'  to  the  Talne  of  such  institu- 
tioiu.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  Soyal 
InfirmaiT  of  Edinbnreh  was  estaUished  (IT36J. 
The  antiquity  of  British  hospitals  sinks  into  insig- 
nificance in  otMnparisoD  with  that  of  some  inttita- 
tions  of  this  kind  on  the  continent.  The  EStel 
Dien  in  Paris,  which  is  aUeged  to  be  the  most 
ancient  hospital  in  Europe,  waa  fonnded  in  the  Ttli 
c,  sad  loDg  known  as  the  Maison  Dieu,  received  the 
benefactions  of  sqccessive  soverdgns.  It  is  now 
conducted  on  a  stupendous  >cale.  Houaes  of  this 
kind  in  France  usually  receive  valuable  aid  from 
a  religiouB  sisterhood,  renowned  for  its  practical 
benevolence,  the  Sisters  of  Men^.  A  itrikiug 
example  of  theoe  women's  onsemsh  and  usefiH 
labcors  is  fatniahcd  at  the  great  hospital  for  tiie 
sick  and  hart  at  Lyons,  where  the  entire  establish- 
ment—cooking, nursing,  disgensing  medicine,  ftc — 
is  gratuitoDsly  condncted  by  them. 

In  London,  Paris,  and  other  large  seats  of  popula- 
tion, the  pressore  for  admission  by  patients,  and 
likewise  the  necesity  for  clas^fying  and  properly 
attending  to  large  numbers,  have  1m  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  hospitals  for  ntecial  deportments  of 
medical  practice.  Thus,  bendes  the  general  hospi- 
tals, tiiere  are  now  ^rii>8-ii'  hoafntala,  ophthalmic 
hospitals,  consnmptive  hospitals,  children's  hospi- 
tals, &G. — each  wi^  iti  peculiar  accommodation, 
and  its  appropriate  staff  of  officials.  Independently 
of  these,  there  are  hospitala  for  the  treatment  of 
mental  maladies,  of  which  Bethlehem  and  8t  Luke's 
in  London,  and  the  establishments  in  Paris,  known 
as  Hospices,  are  examples.  To  this  class  of  insti- 
tntions  oelong  Lunatic  Asylums  (q.  v.],  ijso  asylnms 
for  the  reception  and  treatment  of  naturally  imbe- 
dle  children ;  these  last,  thou^  in  operatioa  for 
some  time  in  France  and  Switzerland,  being  but  of 
recent  establishment  in  Great  Britain.  To  all  these 
institutions  under  civil  administration,  are  to  be 
added  those  lux^tals  which  are  miujitained  1^ 
tiie  Pngli.h  Frenoh,  and  other  governments  for  tlM 
military  and  naval  services. 

No  jiart  of  ths  sodal  economy  of  European 
cnnntnes  is  so  perfect  in  its  organisation,  so  purely 
humane,  and  so  unobjectionable  on  the  scare  of 

Eromiscnous  charity,  as  the  iDstitution  of  public 
capitals  or  infirmaries.  As  means  of  relief  and 
•chools  of  medicine,  they  appear  to  be  absolutely 
essential  to  eveiy  dense  community ;  not  the  least 
of  their  valuable  qualities  being  that,  by  their 
prompt  and  libeisl  action,  they  mterpoae  to  stem 
contagious  distempers  which,  if  UDchecked  on  their 
outbreak,  might  Msit  and  decimate  families  who  are 
for  removed  above  the  need  of  gratuitous  medical 
attendance.  On  this  latter  ground,  as  well  as  from 
sentiments  of  benevolence,  the  hospitala  or  infir- 
maries of  Enf^and,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  are  the 
objects  of  much  solicitude  to  the  general  corn- 
muni^  ;  it  being  eostomary  for  wealthy  individoall 
to  beqneatii  sums  towards  their  support,  and  for 
236 


"e  erected  and  maintained  w 


beat  [daced  in  airy  aitturtuiDt,  thiqr  are  f  or  the  «dce  of 
Donvanienoe  uanally  Mtnated  in  tha  neighbouritooda 
where  they  are  partiauhtily  leqaind.  Internally, 
they  ate  arranged  in  ward^  each  under  its  own 
nurses,  with  general  superintendents,  and  a  suitabla 
bod^  of  servants.  Bemg  open  night  and  day  to 
receive  j^teasing  oases,  there  is  a  t«eident  surgeon 
with  asEistajits  constantly  in  attendance.  Scmpu- 
lous  cleanliness,  quiet,  decorous  oondnct,  exelnmon 
of  intoxicants  and  of  miscellaneous  visitors,  are 
among  the  points  principally  attended  te  by  the 

The  Middlesex  Hospital,  parish  of  Marylebons, 
may  b«  taken  as  a  fair  specumen  of  a  general 
hoi^itat  in  !£^igland.  It  is  a  large  building,  dis- 
posed in  the  form  of  the  letter  H,  which  adauts  of 
tborongh  ventilation  in  all  the  passagee.  It  com- 
prehends 310  beds,  of  whioh  130  are  for  medical;  and 
190  for  snrgical  oaaea.  Three  wards  are  set  apari: 
for  the  reception  of  S6  poor  women  aflected  with 
cancer,  a  clus  of  coses  when  seemingly  incnntble 
not  usually  admitted  into  general  hospitals.  The 
-*-"'  ■""(ists  of  three  phyaciana,  who  take  charge 
nedic^  cases  Uk  the  waidsi  a  physiaian- 
ur,  whp  devotes  himself  to  the  iinriuim 


of  the  medic^ 

accoucheur,  wh(    _   __    . 

(wculior  to  women  Hid  infants,  and  who  super- 
intends the  working  of  the  maternity  department : 
four  BorgeoDS,  who  take  charge  of^  the  surgical 
patients ; 

'  e  can  of  oub-j^tientB. 
and  an  ap  " 


BorgeoDS,  who  take  charge  ot  the  snrgicai 
its;  and  aaeistaut-phyaicianB  and  sutgeoos, 
take  can  of  oub-patientB.  Besident  boMt- 
snreeons  and  an  apotheoary  with  assistanta,  attend 
to  ul  emergencies  m  the  uaenoe  of  phyvciana  and 
snrmons,  and  summon  them  if  noceasaiy.  Attached 
to  tiie  hospital  are  a  ohaplain  and  secretary.  The 
phymciaus  and  surgeons,  who  nve  their  services 
oatuitoualy,  act  as  ^feasors  in  the  medical  odlege. 
The  maiL^enieot  is  oondncted  by  govemort,  and 
a  medical  and  weekly  OMomittce.  In  and  out  door 
patients  are  admitted  by  letters  of  recoounendatiou 
from  gavemois  or  subscribers  to  the  funds,  but 
in  oases  of  cancer  and  dinranrn  of  the  eye,  and  in 
cases  of  emergency,  the  recommendation  is  dispensed 
with.  The  annual  number  of  patients  reomred 
into  ths  hospital  is  about  2100,  and  18,000  receive 
"      '  .     ..    '  homes.      No    lying-in 

tal,  bat 


direction  of  the  phystdoii-aecoaahear.  Tbs  total 
eeegtu»  incurred  is  lew  thut  £11,001^  erf  whioh  more 
than  tt  half  is  bum  endowment,  and  the  remainder 
bom  sobaor^tdom,  donationa,  l^aciea,  and  misoel- 
laneous  coUeatiaM.  A  separate  fond  is  provided 
to  aasist  voot  patients  leaving  the  hospital,  who 
may  be  dendeot  in  clothing  or  other  necessaries. 

As  in  some  decree  allied  or  aniiliaiy  to  hcsiutals, 
there  ore  two  kinds  of  establishments  deserving 
notice.  The  first  to  be  mentioned  ore  public  DU- 
ptntariet,  where,  at  stated  hours,  medical  advice 
and  medicines  are  given  gratis  to  applicants )  and 
though  like  other  lorms  of  charity  liable  to  abuser 
it  is  allowed  that  these  institations  are  of  mnch 
value  in  tiie  midst  of  poor  communities,  and  also, 
like  hospitals,  are  a  means  of  staying  the  course  of 
contagions  diatempers.  The  other  institution*  to 
be  noticed  are  those  called  in  France  Maxtond  de 
SaiUi.  These  establishments  ore  private  hospifads 
for  the  reception  and  treatment  of  patients  who  are 
Me  and  disposed  to  pay  a  small  sum  fot  board  and 


t,Googl( 


HOBFTTAIiEt-HOaPODAR. 


medinl  or  nrpgd  mttaidAiioe.  A  ooBunon  otuum 
U  &«m  UiTM  to  five  fnnca  k  day.  Undm  ue 
BUM  of  SamOtoriuoi,  an  attanpt  haa  been  made  to 
iuttodnoa  t^T"  ^T^1^  ol  ioatitiitioii  into  TBj\fti*ifc^^ 
where,  howerar,  from  varknia  mroumatMioei,  inelod- 
ing  tba  geneial^  good  home-aooamnuidation  of  the 
uudle  f™*  anb-middle  riatnn.  the  iuititaticoi  bM 
not  beoome  ao  popular  aa  it  is  in  Puii. 

HoernUA  for  tha  boaid  and  edaeati<m  of  tba 
jooDg  BZe  mora  varied  in  aharMter  and  moN 
nnmwooa  in  Qraat  Britain  than  in  aaj  ooanta;  in 
the  woild.  (kmrnttang  for  tiie  moat  put  of  large 
and  bsn^sotne  building  placed  in  nlnbriooa  ntoai- 
tiona  in  the  ennrona  of  dtiei,  eome  He  apeeiiUy 
adi^ited  lor  boTi,  eime  for  giria,  and  le«i  frequently 
thqr  are  for  boUtt  aoine  an  maintained  br  endow- 
ment* fnm  daoeaaed  benefaotora,  aome  dj  fundi 
eoimeetad  with  trade  iitooTfon.tioa*,  and  some  trr 
oaaual  donalioni  and  cnbacnptiona.  The  oldert,  uta 
thoaa  on  tbe  moat  mnnifioent  ooalt^  an  of  de  dasa 


•0  likewiae  does  the  (Snrd^ase,  Philadelphia, 
which  coating  for  oonabnotirainea^  two  milliona  of 
doUaii^  and  giving  Bcoommodatian  to  npwarda  of  SOO 
oiph&ni,  ia  not  exoalled  iu  point  of  anhitaotnral 

3 __    !_     mnntflniina    )rf  private  Sulowmont, 


nandeor,  a 
bv  any  B 


1  Great  Britain 


u:  tney  are   am 

—  at  age,  and  kept 

lourceeni  vooj  cqhitv  uratuitona  beard  and  ednca- 
tiim  wiUiin  th«  ertabhthmentj  and  they  wmt  a 
luiitcnn  aooording  to  tiie  fanqv  of  the 
dnii  bMug  in  •oma  iuftancea  In  Exijria 
and  lidionuMS.     Hum  ia  ordinarily 

petition  among  parenin  andgnudiuu 

admli^on  of  c^dren  into  theaa  boqiitali,  for  the 
benefit  to  be  teonrod  ia  deemed  eqtul  to  a  gift  td 
£200  to  £000.  Heuoe,  ai  may  ba  nippoaed,  the 
charity,  to  call  it  ao,  ii  fraqnently  atmaed.  Aa 
reudence  wttiiia  aneh  eataUidunenta  for  a  period 
of  riz  or  aeven  yeara,  interrnpted  only  by  kaud»a, 
fnvolna  a  witlidniwil  to  that  extant  lam  ue 
family  cdrale,  aerioua  objection*  have  lately  been 
taken  to  the  maAed  and  neeeaeaty  defieiuev  of 
hcapital  tndnin^  On  titia  gronnd,  at  well  aa  from 
thefr  panperiaing  tendency,  boapitala  for  children 
ara  loteruig  in  pnUio  eetnnatton;  and  aztoided  in 
number  beyond  all  leaaMiaUe  boondi,  aa  Oey  are  in 
Bdinbor^  and  anne  other  plaoea,  are  remozketrated 
against  as  being  inconaiitont  with  a  aonnd  eooial 
•oonomy. 

HoBPiTAia  for  indigent  old  men  and  women  are 
fonnd  in  aeveral  European  oonntriee,  but  nowhere 
ore  they  eo  oommon  aa  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
Nethemnda,  where  bwginz  ii  rigDnHudy  proecribed 
by  &t»  police,  and  aMigiving  aaanmea  the  ohar> 
acter  of  tatea  for  anpnort  of  i£e  poor,  inie  work- 
houMi  for  the  reception  of  pwiah  panpen  are  the 
hnmbteat  variely  rf  theae  hoapitia,  thondi  aa  aeen 
In  Mm*  parte  of  Bi^and  and  ScottandTtiwy  are 
on  a  va«t  scale  of  aooommodatioii,  ad^^ted  to  the 
wanti  of  unicna  or  ohiaten  of  pamlieft  Connde^ 
ably  above  thee*  in  poiiit  of  oontfort  and  libcralitT 
of  managMoent,  are  Uie  hoapitalt  endowed  by  indt 

vidnala  or  bjinaaipofaf —  ' — "■-   

occulted  a  reapeotabla  l      , 

miatortimM   Upsad    into   decayed    < 

Almoet  every  «ty  of  any  note  In  tba 

dom  baa  one  or  more  of  thii  ipeciM  of  hoepil 
the  daim  fer  adndiaion  bains  ordinal^  a  privil^a 
U  local  boigeaHi   or ^ —    -'  "^ "' 


ible  pcvtion,  and  have  throngh 
_  into   decayed    cnmnmatances, 
' »  United  Eing> 


crafts.     Atudogons  to  thi*  elaas  of  inatitnlianawaB 

" '  ■-    "  —"^1   for    snperannDated   """—— 

lUnal  Navy,  and  the  Milttaiy    | 

Theaaareofthe    ' 
nature  of  bospitala  for  indigent  men  and  woman  ct    . 
leqieotabla  ohanotw,  but  wtUi  tliia  diffsraioe^  that 
instead  of  all  living  in  wards  und*  one  roof,  the 
'""**—  are  eaoh  provided  with  a  small  dwelling  for 
*'~~    ~~  hsraeU,  ud  ieo«iva  the  n  ' 

d.     mw«e  ,-  "" 


separate  dwelliiupi  grouped  in  the  form  d 
building,  abonna  in  London  and  its  vicini^  whare 
tiiey  aootd  [deasAg  ■"■-rJ—  of  the  mnnifioanoe  : 
of  opulent  benefacton,  and  inorapcnwted  titj  omn- 
pMues.  At  8t  CroH,  near"Winohatv,  and  *t 
Ooventiy,  there  are  Alma  Honiaa  cniiona  fr^on 
thor  antiqni^  uid  external  ^yeaimofc  Hm 
noblert  *tTwnplt  of  *-^»*  olaas  of  inwLj^^^ftnf  b  Ute 
Charter-House,  London,  d^aoribed  in  the  fvaant 

HOSPlTAIiS,  UiuuBT,  eetabliabments  tor  the 
reception  of  the  eick  and  wounded  of  an  army. 
The  anuHeet  ie  the  Be^mentol  Hoapibd,  nnder  uie 
medical  offioera  of  the  reoment ;  neat,  there  is  the 
Divisional  Hospital,  preoided  over  by  staff  medical 
officen,  for  the  benefit  of  all  the  corps  in  the 
diviBLon  :  and,  laatly,  ttiereisthe  Qeoenl  ^smtal, 
applicable  to  the  whole  tot««i  In  theae  ho^ital^ 
the  medical  officer*  are  re^onslble  directly  to  the 
Secretuy  of  State  for  War  for  all  purely  medical 
functions.  With  r^uA  to  discipline^  iwpecliDna^ 
and  other  military  duties,  tha  (oinoipal-  "«»^"^ 
officer  ia  lesponaible  to  the  oomnuuiunt  <d  the 
regiment  or  dlyision,  wba  in  hia  torn  ia  answenhU 
to  the  general-in*obiaf  Sxx  the  state  of  *^y>  hevntals 
in  hia  ""miri^ii^,  Sddieta  whUs  in  boepitJ  are 
subjected  to  a  stoppage  of  7d-  n  day  Eron  their 
pa^,  nnleas  in  bospitu  on  noiwnnt  <a  wounds  r^ 
ceivsd  in  action,  or  oa  service  in  the  field;  bwt 
their  whole  pay  is  stopped  if  detention  in  honttnl 
be  certified  to  have  become  neoesiary  £nw  Sktir 
own  miaconducti  Thne  are  sevtt^  large  miiikaiT 
hoapitals  at  home— e.  g.,  NeUey  {q.  v.).  Fort  Pitt 
for  Innatio  eoldieiij  Wo<Jwiiii,_io.     '~  """  "" * 


arrays 

of  uie  intendenoe  of  the  army,  the  medical  i 

charge  being  under  the  supreme  contnd  ol  the 


HOSPITALS,  N^vAi,  establishments  for  the 
-  ore  of  sick  and  wounded  seamen.  Thev  are  served 
by  naval  medical  officers.  The  naval  hoapitals  st 
home  which  are  at  present  kept  np  are  at  Hudar 

v.)  and  Pljraouth,  faimouth,  Hanlboiriin^  j 
uuittJiam,  and  Portsmouth:  but  abroad  there  ai«  | 
such  eetablithments  at  Malta,  Bermuda,  Halifax,  I 
Jamaica,  Aaceotion,  IJie  Cape,  Hong-kong,  Yoko-  | 
hama,  and  Uaboo.  The  annual  coat  of  the  naval 
hospitals  amouilta  to  about  £64,00a 

HO'SPODAB  is  the  title  now  nsnslly  riw  to   i 

tliMgnwpiinHinf  MiJH>vi»»«.IW«llMlil»     Rmwiy, 

they  were  called  bv  the  TuAa,  Beys ;  by  UM^HIave^   ' 
Wc^ewods.    The  latter  title  is  frequently  given  in 
oonneotion  with  that  <rf  hospodar,  the  t«ra  wciJewDd    . 
signifying  the  ri^t  and   dignity  of  leading  Oa 
army  (being  thus   tdeotieal   with   Di^),   iriiile 
hospodar  (goapodar,  gospod,  goapodin,  in  the  variona    I 
Slavonic  duMots)  means  maplT,  nusrtn  (dominna). 
Formeriy,   tbs  lithnanian   prmoes  were  Itkewiae    | 
oalled  AospoAiri^  and  Qie  P(£ah  kinn  down  to  the    i 
time  of  Sobieaki,  aanmed  this  title  m  &eir  dmfe.    t 
natio  nsgotiationa  with  Bnsaia.      OemJar  (misr,    , 
monaroh]   is  even  now  the  title  of  tha  Anperer 


jbjCoogle 


HraT— HOT  spBuras. 


1  etdiam  o 
[IA.TU,  Vau 


of  BmBi%  K 

nuts.    8m  HOLIIA.TU,  Wauaoou. 

HOST  (UL  Awtfa,  m  Tiotim),  Uu  luune  ginm  in 
the  B61DU  Catholic  dnnh  tbtiie  MUMttslad  bnad 
of  the  Bnohuiit  It  ii  ao  called  in  oonf  cmiity  wiQi 
Uu  dootrins  of  that  ehuM^  that  the  Bnohailit  it 
a '  ncrifloe,'  in  Qm  airict  mdm  of  the  irord.  Hie 
bovt  in  Qm  l^tin  Ghnrdi  la  a  *l*<*i  ^ronlar  ^^* 
of  nnlaaTened  bnad,  mad*  of  the  flncot  flonr,  u>d 


TarioQi  Protestant  commimitiea,  the  Enchaiiit 
oelabrated  in  learened  bread,  onlj  differing  from 
indinai7  bn»d  in  being  of  a  finer  qnalitr  ;  and  one 
d  the  ponnds  of  BepantJon  btta  the  Wert  alleged 
bj  Miami  Cernlantu  vta  the  veatern  ^aetioe  ot 
umng  nnleaTened  bread.  Hie  Oreeh  and  noteatant 
oontiaTenialiaW  ^Me  tiiat,  in  the  earir  ehnnih, 
oidinaiy  or  learoned  mead  WM  alwayeliMd,  and  that 
*  *  * '  umI^  at  tiie  IjMt  Sapper,  emjdOTBd  the 
1  the  learned  Oardmal  Bona,  and  the 

dhii  w  * ""  ■  ■     • 

head,  contendnv  Ue  ant^td^trf  the 
nnleavened  bread,  and  tspeoal^  for  iti  eonfonnitj 
-with  the  inititation  of  our  Lord,  inatmach  ai  at  the 
paschal  nipp«r,  at  which 'he  took  bioid,  and  blened, 
and  brake  iV  none  other  than  the  nnlearened  was 
adminible  (£n»d.  ziL  8,  IS;  Lerit  zjdiL  6).  See 
Elee'i  DcgmaUi,  iii.  190. 

HOST,  Jxm  Km  tag,  a  Daniah  hiatorian,  bcxn  at 
St  •auimaa,  ISth  September  1772,  and  died  26th 
March  IML    da  grut  aim  <^  hu  literaty  career 


<^H^w^fc^j^n  ne^ifinii  wrth  th>tyiii^,hfli*rtebTiahiHl, 
in  eompao^  with  Kjremp,  Fnm,  and  Baggeaen,  tha 
8csandina*ian  Litenry  Society,  which  coigmated  the 
journal  cotitled  -Uie  BatBdMaman  Mutam.  Hia 
meat  Important  wmk  ia  Count  Stmmtea  and  Ait 
JTinUrylS  Tola.  CoiMDh.  1824},  which  w«a  the  fint 
attsnpt  to  delineate  in  a  IAicroii|diLlT  lumartial 
manner,  tiie  tfrenta  of  that  aingnlar  periodin  Daniah 
hiatoij.  Amimg  Ida  otbs  wtitin^  ami  Spmda 
OtuU;  SuphvvM;  Daintora;  A  BiBtdiA  Oraumar 
OMd  DitUonarg  />r  Ztattttj  Ltetaru  on  At  BmHA 
iM^guagt  and  Poetrj/;  Life  sad  Gtttnttnmt  <tf 
Outlatiu  Adofyktu;  Mwmoriidt  of  lit  Lift  and 
Goventmail  <^  CAritliim  VIL;  aad  HUory  of  At 
DaniA-Moitarditi  uadtr  ChritHaa  VII. 

HCSTAGE  (through  tba  French  flam  (ortase), 
fran  the  I^tin  obtee),  one  pnn  in  [dadge  for  tlw 
perfanDMiM  of  ccmditiona.  When  a  town  capita- 
Ute^  Tiotois  and  Tanqnidted  oaaaUv  giva  Into  the 
eoatody,  one  of  the  other,  aararal  omoet^  as  |MgM 
"--*  "-'-  paiij  win  daly  oanT  eat  the  taraariimi. 
^&etonnaarefaM«d, 


Uted.  WhenU 


thehoatageaai 
■a,  that " 

'it^ian 


poniidk,  tiia  hoatuea  i 

howwTer,toaddda^: 

mtmrnttanees  wooM  hare  to  be  very  remarkable 
indeed  to  be  held  to  JoatifrK  omel  a  meaeore  aa  the 
exeonticn  of  a  hcatage. 

HOSTI'LIUB,  TvtLfB,  gtandaon  of  Eoatna 
Eostalioa,  Uie  ohampMi  of  B^ne  in  the  flrat  war 
with  Uie  Sahinea,  (oooeeded  Nnma  FampHiaa  on  the 
tbrone  of  Boua,  S70  B.  a  Aomrding  to  Livy  and 
other  writan,  S.  madetha  bmooa  anangeoient,  by 
the  ocmbat  (a  the  Ecratii  with  the  Cnriatii,  for  the 
deoiaicv  of  the  qoeatimr  of  auuremaey  between  Boma 
and  iJba,  which  wa«  decided  m  faronr  of  the  former  ■ 
he  fcodit  aointt  Fidw  and  Teii,  and  conqnered 
Uiewat^O^*^«T«d  Alba,  and  removed  theinhabi- 


grew  old,  he  became  more  pamflo  ) 

and  ilatiii  ininiiil  to  attaid  mora    __„ ,    ._  __ 

woidim  el  tba  goda,  hot  he  had  too  long  proroked 
them  bj  hii  negligence  to  be  fcfgiren,  ao  that^ 
when  be  wiahed  to  inqniie  of  Japiter  Midat,  "" 
'  "  I  hii  hcua  with  8»a.  ah 
o  NiebDhr.AjRkold, 


to  Niebohr.  AjRkoU,  kL,  tiiere 
tinct  paiaaniJiW  in  the  Wend 
f  Aomolm  mm  If  ain%  lAidh 


S38  Ka     According 

an  glimpMa  cd  a  dial.      ,         

an  merely  paracmificatiaiM  of  the  two  prineqial 
etagM  of  a  oiition'a  growth, 

HOTBED,  a  heap  of  tenumtbig  matter,  coTered 
It^er  of  euth,  and  genenlly  mrmoiuitad 


fermentation.  Hotbeds  not  being  eomenanv  are 
in  Twy  raieiBl  aae ;  a«  f<^  growii^  nttlona,  Mid,  in 
the  nraucn  parte  of  Britain,  cncomben,  for  raising 
omamBital  pLsnta  from  seed  in  siting,  to  be  planted 
in  the^  open  gnnmd  aa  sammer  adTsaoei^  ft&  The 
matetial  monly  used  is  stabla-dong,  or  a  miztare 
ot  lione.diimg  and  Itttar ;  bat  tannma'  buk,  leavea^ 
Uie  waete  of  fla^  ootton,  or  woollen  faetones,  fto, 
are  aometioua  sabatitated  lor  it.  The  heat  ot  a 
Teiy  rapid  fcnn«atation  being  too  grcMt  it  is  Moea- 
sBiT  that  tins  be  om  bettne  the  Iwtbed  ii  idanted) 
and  it  is  nsoal,  «i  this  aeocnnt,  to  prepare  the 
material  i  for  some  tine  bebm  it  is  formed.  A  hot- 
bed ii  made  hi^iest  at  the  back,  slopins— in  tiie 
northern  parts  of  Oie  worid— towaida  the  sool^ 
Hie  bed  ortenda  on  all  sides  six  indiea  or  theret^ 
beyond  the  fram^  which  has  a  morable  glaaB  saan 
or  aaahes,  sceoidmg  to  Ha  ne.  ThA  thtekneaa  of 
tlie  hotbed,  and  of  the  earth  ap«ai  it,  are  accommo- 
dated to  the  poipoaa  intended,  and  the  degree  of 
heat  reqoiied.    when  the  heat  decnaaea,  it  ia  fw 


le  pnrpoaea  ueeeeaary  to  keep  it  np  by  Mningt  of 
bos  aame  Toaterial  as  t£e  hotbed,  added  to  the  ridea 
of  it  "Bu  saahee  of  hotbedi  matt  be  partially 
remoTod  daring  the  ity,  to  permit  ventilation  and 
the  eaoape  of  vaponr. 

HOTHOUSE,  a  building  intended  tea  the  cnltiva- 
ticn  of  exotic  plants  reqoinnEa  higher  temperature 

employed  to  Include  even  the  green-hooae  and  con- 
aSTStoiy,  but  more  geaerally  it  ia  applied  to  thoae 
bnildingl  in  wHch  uti£cial  heat  ia  kept  up  at  all 


the  Bark-Btove  (a.  t.)>  Dry- 
honiet,  pinery,  peach^ooie,  &a. 


of  the  year, . 

atove  (q.  v.),  torcine-1  .        .  ^        ,,^  . 

Hothonaea  rasemble  green-houBei  in  their  general 
form  and  abrwrture,  and  with  most  of  the  aame 
vaiietiea  in  both.  It  ia  important  that  they  have  a 
good  expoeure,  ao  that  the  planta  may  enjoy  aa 
much  aanahine  as  poaiible ;  and  the  free  admiaaion 
of  idr  to  the  utouat  extent  allowed  by  the  reqaire- 
mMits  of  cliinate,  is  very  advantaeeoaa.  The  oldeat 
mode  et  heating  hotbonaea  is  by  tnmacea  and  flaea; 
the  other  modea  ptaotiaed  arc  by  steam,  or  by  hot 
wator  led  thiongh  the  home  in  tubea,  and  1^  bot 
air  admitted  into  the  atmoapheie  of  the  house.  Into 
the  detaila  of  theae  modea,  we  cannot  entei. 

HOT  SPBINQS,  a  «m«U  village  in  Arkanaaa, 
United  States,  America,  ti3  mile*  weat-by-aouth  oE 
IJttle  Book,  and  oelebnUed  as  a  reaort  for  invalida 
to  the  hot  apringa  whidi  give  the  name  to  the 
TiUase  and  the  cooaty.  Fif^  V™<9i  i^^  110*  to 
100*F.,  1xeak  oat  bom  the  weait  sde  cf  a  mountain, 
and  flow  Into  a  creec,  which  imptiea  into  the 
Wachita  river,  ax  mileadistaDb.  There  an  alio  eold 
chalybeato  tprings,  ranch  faeqiMntad,  and  iolphar 
springs  in  the  aame  eona^. 


t,Googl( 


HOT  WALLS-Hdria.. 


HOT  WALLS,  or  FLDED  WALLS,  in  Ouden- 
ing,  an  tniiM  farniihed  with  fnnuMoi  and  flnea,  in 
ca%r  t«  the  ]trodiiotioii  ol  finer  kindj  of  fruit  than 
iNHild  otho-wiae  be  eipeated  in  the  cliiiuit&  The 
flnea  are  led  as  obliquely,  and  make  aa  to*ay  tana 
from  right  to  left  aa  are  conmatent  vith  their 
dnwing  well,  ao  that  as  little  heat  as  poemble  ni» 
escape  Djr  the  chimney,  and  as  mnch  aa  poasibfe 
may  be  azpended  on  the  walL  The  heat  ia  applied 
chieily  danu;  spring.  At  that  aeaaon,  also,  mov- 
able Blazed  frames,  or  Bometimea  mere  screena,  are 
placed  in  front  of  the  walls. 

HOTCHPOT,  A  phraae  naed  in  E^i^iah  law  to 
denote  that  where  one  child  haa  already  reoeiTed  an 
odTancement  oat  of  the  father's  personal  estate, 
that  child  moat  bring  such  sum  into  hotchpot  before 
be  will  be  allowed  to  shore  with  the  other  children, 
under  the  atatate  of  distribntiona,  after  the  father's 
death.  In  other  words,  K  child  who  has  sot  money 
from  the  father  to  place  him  in  buameaa,  ka., 
mnat  treat  that  aa  a  payment  to  aoooimt  of  his 
share  at  ,tiie  father's  death.  A  similar,  but  not 
identical  doctrine  exists  in  Scotland  under  the 
name  of  CoLiAnoir  (q.  v.). 

HOTE'L.  originally  Hotld,  or  Soitdrie,  a  French 
term  applied  to  on  inn,  or  house  for  the  temporary 
■oocHnmodation  of  ttsvelleia.  -T^a  tenn,  however, 
ia  also  ajnlicd  in  France  to  the  town  mansion  of 
a  distinip""^"^  pereoDoge,  and  in  like  manner  the 
w<ail  inn  was  at  one  time  indifferently  used  in 
Bngland  to  signih'  the  town  residence  of  a  great 
man.  The  name  hoirtalrie  was  applied  by  Chaucer 
to  a  public  inn,  and  till  a  more  recent  period  it 
was  similarly  used  in  Scotland.  From  ita  general 
use  comes  ^  designation  hoatler,  which  orwiually 
signified  the  keeper  of  the  inn  or  hostel  Only  in 
reoent  timm  haa  the  mgoificant  old  WngH'T"  word 
inn  been  eolipaed  by  the  reintroduction  of  hostel, 
under  the  aoftened  form  of  hfiteL 

An  aoooont  of  inns  ancient  and  modem,  under 
wltatevei  deaignotjon,  would  form  an  interestina 
chapter  in  social  history.  The  Caravonaani  (q.  v.] 
of  the  Bast  ia  the  most  ancient  apeciee  of  inn 
of  iriiiah  there  ia  any  notice.  The  Oreeka  and 
Bonuma  did  not  improve  on  the  quality  of  these 
oriental  estabhshmenta.  Their  inns,  if  worthy 
of  the  name,  were  little  better  than  receptacles 
for  humble  claasea  of  wayfarers,  or  place*  where 
cooked  food  and  wine  were  dispensed  to  the  hungry 
and  thirsty  atronger.  Along  their  highway  the 
Bomans  gave  encouragement  to  these  primitive 
vorieti^  of  inns;  the  best  of  such  eatabusfaments 
being  called  eaitprma,  or  tabtna  dieertoria,  while 
those  of  an  inferior  kind  were  known  as  popiiia, 
of  which  same  specimeDs  have  been  disdoeod  at 
Pompeii. 

nie  duties  of  hospitality  and  also  the  obliga- 
tions of  religion  long  postponed  the  introduction  of 
regular  inns.  In  ntedieval  times,  the  caatlea  of  the 
banma  offered  dielter  with  straw,  and  sometimca 
food,  to  the  wayfarer  of  high  and  low  degree, 
and  there  are  traditions  to  the  effect  that  to  pass 
•ome  of  these  strongholda  without  calling  to  tender 
obeisance,  and  receive  the  hosfdtaU^  of  the  owner, 
was  deemed  on  inavlt.  Bnt  the  monastio  eotab- 
liahments,  great  and  small,  ioattered  over  every 
part  of  Chrutendcan,  formed  the  chief  hotpUia  (see 
HosFlo*).  With  .the  general  improvement  of 
society  and  the  increasing  oonconne  of  tnvellels 
came  the  modem  in",  or  profeauonal  hospitium,  at 
whicj)  entertainment  for  man  and  horse  waa  afforded 
aa  a  matter  of  bnaineas.  Kowhere  in  Europe  did 
this  class  of  eatabliahmentB  BO  aoon  attain  to  a  deter- 
minate and  leHMotoble  character  aa  in  England, 
drawing  first  mto  importanoe  in  London,  York, 


Oxford,  Bristol,  and  some  other  cities,  tl 
and  well-managed  IKf^g^i^h  inn  was  imitatod  on 
a  smaller  scale  in  ihe  different  provincial  towns, 
and  gained  «  imod  standing  in  national  uai^  before 
it  spread  te  BcoUand  ;  the  inns  of  which,  even  up 
to  the  "'''^'*<'>  of  the  18th  c,  were  od  a  meagre 

scale  of  aooommodation.      It   is  not  i tttit  to 

coll  to  mind  more  than  a  few  of  the  interesting 
old  inns  in  London,  all  celebrated  leea  or  more 
from  their  respective  aigna :  the  Angd  at  St 
Clemaot  Danes,  and  Aiiga  at  Islington  ;  the  AU, 


Qmnd ;  Fimr  Suaiu,  Bishopmte  Street :  BaTaoaCt 
Head,  Snow  Hill ;  CMdta  Oro»»,  Charmg  Cross  ; 
WUU  HoTtt,  Fetter  I^ne:  and  Tabard,  South- 
wark.  For  brief  notioet  ot  then  and  othen,  see 
(htrioiUia  of  London,  by  J.  Timb*.  For  the  most 
part,  the  old  inns  of  London,  Westminster,  and  South- 
walk,  consisted  of  a  building  round  a  conrtyaid, 
entered  from  the  stavet  by  a  wide  covered  passage. 
^e  ground-flo<a  was  disposed  as  stables,  kitchens, 
and  other  offices,  with  a  large  receptioD-room; 
above,  were  the  leaser  apartmenls  and  bedrooms. 


scene  of  arrivals  and  departures  in  the  courtyoM 


of  t: 


open  galleries  still  survive.  Such 
renowned  as  the  hoetelrie  from  which  Chaucer's 
pilgrims  set  out  for  Canterbury.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  this  fonn  of  constructian  waa 
derived  from  the  airangemeut  of  ancient  Roman 
villas,  which  coosiited  at  buildings  round  a  aeries 
of  courtyards ;  hence,  also,  the  form  of  French 
hotels,  pnblio  and  private.  Modem  Italy  haa 
examples  of  inns  of  this  form.  We  may  ollade 
partioulariy  to  the  H6td  de  FiUs  at  MOan,  and 
the  AUxrgo  ddte  Due  Torri  at  Verona;  thia  loat 
having  hanging  salleries  round  a  cour^ard  in 
precisely  the  old  fingliah  atyle. 

Of  the  character  and  management  of  the  inns  of 
En^and,  with  thor  offera  of  '  entertunment  to 
man  and  horse,'  we  ore  favoured  with  innnmer- 
able  glimpooi  in  the  fiotiona  of  Fielding,  Smollet^ 
Ooldnnit£,  and  others — the  j<Jly  haetess,  the  obae- 
quiooa  wuters,  the  bonnoinjE  chambermaidB,  tha 
hoetler  who  takea  the  traveSer's  nag,  and  abovn 
all  the  gaiTuloiu  host  who,  when  invited,  gives  hia 
company  to  his  gnesta,  tells  them  the  news,  and 
at  mnner,  according  to  use  and  wont,  places  the 
fiirt  dish  on  the  table.  See  Dr  SgnUait  Tour  w  , 
SeartA  of  lite  Pictuntqus,  illnstrated  by  Bowlaod- 
aon,  for  some  humorous  delineatima  of  inn-ossges. 
The  great  personal  comfort  and  indepoidence 
of  feeling  enjoyed  in  F-ngHah  inns  ia  frequently 
referred  to  in  htentture.  Archbishop  Leighton,  i 
who  died  1684,  in  the  BtU,  Warwick  Lan^  *  often  ~^ 
used  to  say,  that  if  he  were  to  choose  a  place 
to  die  in,  it  should  be  an  inn ;  it  looking  like  a 
pilgrim's  home,  to  whom  this  world  waa  &  aa  on 
mil,  and  who  was  weary  of  the  noise  and  confiuiaa 
of  it.  And  he  obtained  what  he  desired.'— Burnet's 
Own  Tima,  Dt  Samoel  Johnson,  as  is  weU  I 
known,  expatiates  on  the  delif^ts  of  an  I'^gl"*'  inn  i 
on  one  occasion,  as  related  by  Boswell,  repeoiiiig 
with  great  emotion  Shenstone's  lines  : 

'  Whoe'er  hu  travelled  life's  dull  toand. 
Where'er  his  ituea  may  have  been, 
Hiv  nigh  to  Uiink  he  stJlThu  found 
The  wormaat  welcome  at  an  iim.' 

Knglish  inna  have  not  lost  their  repatattoo  tot 
comfort  and  the  attention  paid  to  gueits ;  bat  th« 
almost  entire  alteration  in  the  meuioda  of  travel* 
ling  liy  the  introdaelion  of  railways  has  left  tbena 


LiOOgIc 


HOTTENTOT  COUHTRT— HOTTEKTOTS. 


conaidaiablT  behind  the  Teqntremcnti  of  &»  age. 
Ezcajit  in  tiie  iculler  town*  ttnd  Tillage!,  they  have 

beenEDpenededbyhOleli — thatii,)i(raNaof  ki 

prstentioiu  kind.    ThebeHercluiead.  tlie«e  h 

conbun  ^vkte  parionn  for  fimiiliw  or  individnali 
who  chocae  to  be  ilone,  also  a  la^a  Bparboent  for 
travaUen  generally.  Hooma  frequented  t?  com- 
mercial tiaTellen  have  a  rooin  set  apart  lor  thit 
clara  of  cnstomere.  The  plan  of  takms  meals  sk 
a  lable-^MU  bu  not  hitherto  made  mncll  progreaa 
in  England,  a«  if  it  were  iomehow  contrary  to  the 
nktdooal  resens  and  eiclueivaiieas.  The  marked 
defect  in  the  modem  hfltela  in  London  and  else- 
where in  England  conaiitB  in  their  inanffident  mxo. 
The  greater  number  are  merely  private  hauae« 
trani^rmed  for  the  {nirpwe,  and  are  inadequate 
to  meet  tbe  iwoUen  dimenmona  of  railway  traffic 
The  tmth  is,  the  establishment  of  inna  or  bOtela 
in  any  part  of  Great  Britain  haa  not  hitherto  been 
look^  to  aa  a  profitable  investment  for  a  large 
capital.  The  buainesa  of  innlLoeping  baa  been 
tiion^t  a  little  deroratoiy,  and  few  except  old 
waiters,  who.  had  realised  Bome  mon^  by  their 
aerricea,  embariced  in  the  biuines.  Oit  the  oon. 
tinent  Ol  Evxryoe,  the  trade  of  hOtal-kesping  enjoys 
a  canaidei*Uy  nigher  aocial  atatns.  A  large  capital 
is  invested,  toe  keeper  or  manager  ia  a  man  of  local 
note,  ud  the  wait^a  or  garfont  are  j^omis  men  who 
follow  the  bnrineaa  aa  a  profeaaion  in  which  they 
expect  to  rise  by  thdr  diligenoe  and  acquirements. 
In  point  of  fact,  the  garfon  ia  mnoh  above  the 
Tlngliali  waiter  in  hia  aims.  He  voluntaiily  under- 
«>ea  a  kind  of  cnnicnlajn  of  edacation,  by  paae- 
iDg  from  the  hftteU  of  one  conntry  to  tlioee  of 
another,  and  does  not  oonaider  hinuelf  proficient 
till  he  speaka  dennan,  French,  Italian,  and  English ; 
at  the  very  lesst,  if  of  German  birth,  speaking 
I^vnch  with  fluency.  Some  good  and  capadoua 
hStela,  built  distinctly  aa  anc^  have  lately  been 
establuihed  at  the  principal  rulway  termini  in 
London,  also  at  Dover  and  a  few  other  placea. 
With  these  exceptions,  the  hStela  of  Kngland  are 
far  behind  the  new  high-alaaa  hfttela  of  tne  conti- 
nent ;  nor  do  we  know  of  any  UngHaTi  hAtel  which 
approaches  in  grandeur  or  extent  to  the  Hitd,  dt 
Loavn  in  Pang,  the  Mtiropole  at  Geneva,  or  to 
some  of  tbe  piagniQcent  hStels  at  Hamburg.  The 
tendency,  however,  ia  ia  the  direction  of  gigantic 
establiiilinteats,  tJle  property  of  joint-stock  companiea 
(limited).  Already  some  very  large  hAtels  on  this 
footing  have  sprang  ap  in  the  metropolis. 

In  England,  the  Mtel  system  of  Uving  ia  aimplT 
that  of  paying  for  what  is  called  for,  wit£  the  addi- 
tion of  a  certain  chanre  per  diem  for  the  rooms 
which  are  occupied;  in  France  and  other  continental 
conntriea,  this  plan  is  so  far  modified  by  the  plan  of 
iii-ning  at  n  table  d'hAt^  which  lesaens  the  general 
expenses.  Both  in  English  and  continental  nfitela, 
the  charge  for  attendance  is  now  made  exphcitly  in 
the  bill,  a  vary  grateful  improvement.  Tbe  ordinary 
hAtela  in  all  puta  of  the  United  Ein^om  are 
Ucoised  by  maoutratea  to  tell  wines,  spiriti,  and 
other  exdsaUo  liquors,  and  therefom  come  noder 
the  cat«goiT  of  public-houaea  open  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  ponce.  In  the  bigher-claaa  hotels, 
however,  the  supply  of  liqnora  ia  oontined  to  the 
resident  gnesta ;  and  it  ia  only  in  the  othera  that 
drink  is  sold  aa  in  taverns.  See  Tateru.  Latterly, 
there  has  sprung  up  a  clasa  of  houses,  some  of 
them  on  a  considerable  scale,  known  aa  Temperanu 
H6ldt,  which  have  no  licence^  and  do  not  anpply 
any  excisable  liqooia.   See  TzwKB-uias  MovmfENT. 

Throaghont  the  United  States  of  America,  the 
system  of  hAtalfl  haa  taken  a  peculiar  turn.  The 
hfttets  are  bnilt  for  the  purpose,  and  usuaUy  vccy 
latjie;  with  few  eioeptioas  they  are  conducted  aa 


boBidiiig-houBeB  on  the  plan  of  nti^fginp  so  much 
per  diun,  everything  included  axoBptuig  liqnoK 
which  is  obtaioable  in  a  large  drinking-room  nailed 
the  bar.  A  conunon  charge  is  about  1(^  Cd.  Bl«rUng 
a  day.  All  the  meals  an  given  with  hberal  pro- 
fusion in  the  table-dliAto  fashion ;  and  as  absence 
fnnn  these  entertainments — to  dine  with  a  friend, 
for  example — makes  no  difference  of  charge,  the 
aystem,  though  simple  and  adapted  to  a  constant 
flow  of  customers,  ia  not  without  ita  disadvantages. 
Elegtmt  in  their  architecture,  and  spacious  and 
commodious  in  their  interior  arrangementa,  the 
American  hOtels  are  got  up  at .  great  expense,  aa 
may  be  judged  from  their  extensivo  sccommo- 
dation,  which  ranges  from  180  to  800  rooms.  The 
^iCor  Iltmte,  the  St  JVic&o&u,  and  the  MelropolUan, 
at  New  York,  are  among  the  largeat  and  most 
splendid  of  theas  estaUiihmentB.  T^ie  system  of 
American  hfttels  is  generally  followed  in  tbe  British 
ooloniea.  w.  o. 

nof  South 

,     - J    --   tlie  W.  from  the 

Cape  Colony,  havi^  the  AtJantio  on  the  W.,  and  the 
Beehnanas  and  Kafirs  on  the  E.  In  £.  long,  it  eitenda 
between  IP  and  ST;  and  in  a  lat,  between  31°  and 
Homo  line  to  the  north  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn. 
This  territory  is  bat  of  little  value.  Ita  prinoipsl 
river,  the  Orange,  ia  almost  oseless  for  navigation; 
and  though  here  and  there  well  wooded,  yet  the 
surface  is  chiefly  an  arid  deserli  The  only'examideB 
of  civilisation  are  to  be  found  in  sereral  miasionary 
eBtahlishments. 

HO'TTENTOTS  is  the  name  generally  given  by 
Eiiropeaoa  to  a  singular  race  of  people,  supposed  to 
be  d^sended  from  uie  aborigines  of  Southern  Africa, 
and  DOW  dwelling  for  the  most  part  in  and  about 
the  English  settlement  o£  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

TK» :„    «(  tjiB   name  Hottentot  is  uncertMn. 

of  Dutch  origin  ;  a  word  coined  by 
the  early  Dutch  settlers  to  convey  by  the  scunib 
Hot  en  Tot,  Hot  and  Tot,  some  idea  of  the  peculiar 
clicking  noise  made  by  tiie  people  when  speaking. 
Dampier,  however,  wrote  the  name  SodTnadoS, 
"'"'""  '.  of  H. ;  and  Prichard  says  that  it  is  prolMbly 
iption  of  SoulenKftia,  Uie  name  of  a  parti- 
cnlar  tnbe  now  eitinct,  or  at  least  aaknowu.  They 
now  call  themselvea  by  various  names,  auppoied  to  M 
those  of  tribes,  aa  Attaqnas,  Hesaoquas,  Dammaraa, 
Saabs  or  Saaps,  Namaquas,  and  Koranas ;  and 
bv  the  eolleabve   name  of  Quai-qnn,  or  Gkhui- 

In  the  ethnological  classificatioa  given  by  Dr 
Latham,  the  H.  are  ranged  nnder  th«  second  great 
division  of  the  human  uznily — Atlantidtt.  In  the 
older  classification,  that  of  Blumenbach,  they  are 
ranged  under  the  third  great  division  of  Hie  human 
rac»— the  Slhiopita>»~tmiet  which  division  that 
'ao  places  the  n^roea.  But  the  H.  are  not 
negroes,  and  are  mora  akin  to  the  Mon- 
golians ;  having  broad  foreheads,  bi^  cheek-bones, 


other,  the  large  sixe  of  the 

points  in  which  the  H.  r^nnjuuia  wjv  uurutcru 
Asiatics,  and  even  the  Eaquimaox.  The  person  of 
the  Hottentot,  when  young,  ia  remarkahte  for  its 
symmetry.  Tho  joints  and  exij«mitiea  are  small, 
and  the  males  look  almost  as  efleminate  as  the 
women.  The  face,  however,  is  in  general  extremely 
and  with  age  this  ngliness  increases.  Sir 
Barrow,  in  describing  the  Hottentot  women, 
observes  of  them  that  before  child-bearing  they  are 


-x^ 


tyCOOglC 


HOTTONIA— HOmiD. 


d«nded  iAtnta  are  moh  tb>t  it  ii  thought  ther 
win  BOoii  became  nttedj  oxbnct, 

HOTTO'NU,  »  genua  of  pluta  of  the  tutnral 
otitic  Primulaetit,  of  which  one  Bpedce,  B,  paliutru. 


'  Thdr  charmi,  however,  ara  Tcly  fleetinz.  At  aii 
early  period  of  life,  and  immediately  afltff  the  fint 
child,  their  breurts  begin  to  grow  loose  and  n^^it, 
and  a8  old  ace  approaches,  become  distended  to  an 
;  the  bell;  protmdea  i  and  the  hinder 


•  iTtha  M  ooocK/u,  or  bone  at  the  lower 
,  of  the  ipbe,  wa«  donnted  and  bent 
ootwaida,  which  it  not  the  case.'  The  appearanca 
of  the  BiiajeameiL  or  Biulunen,  who  are  Uie  mo«t 
deraded  tribe  of  the  K^  atill 


I  l»ngnagn    of    Qia    H.    !■    qoito 

paaonaT^tpeorance.    It  has  b 


<dick  langoage,'  and  has  also  been  compared  to  the 
olnokiiw  of  a  hen  when  she  has  laid  an  egg.  llie 
dieat  of  the  Hottentot  in  hie  native  state  is  exceed- 
ingly umple,  being  merely  »  strip  of  the  skin  ot 
some  uninul  tded  romid  the  waiat,  from  which 
there  depends  a  sort  of  apron,  that  hoDKi  down  both 
before  ud  behind.  This  is  nearly  uie  same  foY 
both  W>za8,  BO  that  in  the  animner  both  go  almost 
naked,  protecting  their  persons  from  the  son  by 
oovering  ot  grease ;  bnt  in  the  winter  they  hare 
■art  of  cloak  made  with  skins,  that  covers  nearly 
the  whole  body.  The  E.  lire  in  kraals  or  TiUuea, 
=-"--  gf  a  number  ot  circnlar  hots  like  boe- 


corsirtina  of  a  number  ol 

hivea.    Tbvj  h»T«  both   oxen   and  sheep, 

manaoemaot  of  whioh  they  shew  great  skill. 

are   also  addicted   to   the   chase,  in  which   tiiey 


They 


poisoned  arrows,  javelins,  and  speara.  Their 
only  manufacture  b  a  rude  kind  of  earthenware ; 
except,  of  course,  that  they  make  their  own  sheep- 
skin clothes,  such  as  they  are,  also  their  bows  and 
arrows,  and  other  weapons.  Like  most  savage^ 
they  have  some  taste  for  music,  which  tJiey  practise 
upon  a  rude  sort  of  guitar  with  three  strii^  and  a 
Sute  made  of  the  tuirk  of  tieea.  Of  religion,  there 
appeara  to  be  bnt  very  Uttla  notion  among  ue  H., 
and  they  h)^v«  no  parttcnlar  obserrancM  at  either 
births^  marriages,  or  funerals.  Dr  Pridtwd,  how- 
ever, obaarrea  of  tiiem:  'Although  the  wild  tribss 
of  the  Hottentot  race  diqilay  fmocity  and  all  ttie 
other  vices  of  savage  life,  ^it  wa  have  abnndaot 
proof  that  these  pKple  are  not  insusceptible  of 
the  blMsiiigs  of  civilisatdcn  and  Christianity.  So 
nncoltavatad  people  untear  to  have  received  the 
instmetiai*  of  the  Moravian  missianaries  more 
readily  Qisii  the  Hottentots,  or  to  have  been  more 
fully  reclauned  and  Christianised.' 

'Aie  a.,  as  a  distinct  race,  first  become  known  to 
Europeans  about  the  rear  IfiOft  when  Francisco 
d'AlmOTda,  Viceroy  of  T^^l^if^  lanjling  at  Table  Bay, 
was  killed,  with  about  aeventv  of  nis  followers,  m 
a  scuffle  with  the  nativea.  xhey  were  afterwards 
fieqnanlJy  visited  by  navigators  from  different 
oonntaieBi  bnt  no  authentic  acoonnts  reached  Europe 
raapeotingthem  until  the  Dutch  settled  in  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  eentuiy. 
Cte  H.  wara  th«dn  mudi  mme  nnmeioM  than  at 
ptessat,  but  iq>oa  beoomina  addicted  to  rum  and 
Dfafidy,  their  numhere  diminished  nadoally.  Manr 
ef  the  tribes  paitad  with  their  flo^  and  herds  to 
poowe  the  fire-watar,  and  eventually  tl>^  beosaoe 
the  abednte  alavM  of  liie  Dutch  settlera  or  Boer& 
ZViHB  this  condition  tiiey  have  been  delivered  bv 
the  enlightened  and  humane  ndicy  of  the  BritieL 
govemmimt;  and  as  free  labourer*  they  make 
ezosllant  herdsmen  and  drovers.  Their  number  at 
nreseut  is  thought  to  amount  to  about  fifteen,  or 
bom  that  to  twenty  thousand,  not  including  t^oae 
who  in  all  probabili^  may  be  found  dwelling  mora 
in  the  interior.  Of  the  Bushmen,  no  numeriul  eati- 1 
mate  hsa  bem  formed.  They  are  widely  soattered 
thmughout  the  TJ^gli^h  settlements,  but  tiieir  aum-* 
hen  must  be  very  nnaD,  while  their  wretehed  and 


Water  Tiolet  or  Featherfoit,  is  among  the  moat 
beautiful  of  British  aqnatio  planla.  It  is  not  found 
in  Sootland.  Its  leaves  are  all  submersed,  crowded, 
and  much  divided :  the  large,  beautiful  pale  pnipl^ 
whorled  floweta  alone  rise  above  water  on  a  long 

Slindrical  stalk,     Other  Bpeciaa  of  H.  are  found  in 
9£ast. 
OnA'RIOS  are  small  eoaaiing-vessGls  and 
pleasure-boats  used  in  parte  ot  the  Hediterr 
Xhey^bear  lateen  aails,  and  have  each  two 
andabowej^t 

HOUKU  (Qer.  ffvn^,  a  ii_ 

to  those  kinds  of  dog  which  are  used — _a. 

'--''  -nore  eepedally,  at  least  by  systematic  writeta 

J,  to  Uioee  which  hunt  by  scent  rather  than 
t.    When  this  definition  is  adopted,  grey- 
are  not  regarded  as  true  hounds.    Eiamplca 
of  true  hounds  are  touud  in  the  Bloodhound,  the 


Old  ^gliab  Hound  (C^tf  taffOte). 

old  En^iah  Southern  hound,  the  Sb^^ionnd,  the 
Foxhound,  the  Harrier,  and  the  Be^e;  ^oe^ 
allied  to  which  are  also  the  Ftunter,  Setter,  SpaniN, 
Ac  See  these  heads.  The  Hounds  are  by  boom 
naturalist  regsrded  as  a  distinct  speoiea  of  dog 
tOamt  ngta).  They  are  oharaoterised  not  only  ^ 
lliiiiiiiaa  id  scent,  but  by  great  decSitT  and  Mgacaiy. 


t.LiOogle 


HOtTHDS— HOTTSB. 


Hm  mniile  U  not  ao  ibup  ■■  in  greyhoimdi, 
U  the  foim  m>  ■leader.  The  eftra  are  larse 
pendnloiu.  Some  7Arieti«a  h«Te  rough,  and  m 
have  amooth  hair.  The  tunah-hured  rarietieB 
generally  thoie  whioh  eilubit  th«  moat  perfect 
domestitmtioii,  and  in  which  the  attachment  to 
DUui  i>  doaeet.  True  honndu  ue  figmed  in  ancient 
Effyptiaii  puntinn  and  sonlptiirea.  It  ii  believed 
that  all  tiie  ben  TuietieB  were  introduced  into 
Europe  in  comparatiTely  recent  timea  from  the  Eoat. 
H0UKD3,  in  point  of  Uw,  render  the  penon 
who  keepa  them  liable  to  the  dog-t«i— viz.,  five 
ahillinga  each — nnleai  compoimded  for ;  but  a 
peraon  who  follows  the  honnda,  i.  e.,  goea  oat  hant- 
mg  with  them,  doM  not  require  a  game  licence. 
Though  Each  •  peraon,  however,  i>  not  pnoitbable 
■ommarily  b^  b  taaffiBtrBta  for  an  illegal  treapwa 
when  followmg  the  boonda  on  a  atraiu^B  Ujida, 
jet  lie  i»  liable  to  an  action  at  law  for  the  treepaaB, 
except  only  in  the  oaoe  of  foi-hunttng,  which  to 
this  extent  may  be  colled  a  priTileged  pursuit,  at 
leut  in  Engluid.  In  Sootlono,  foxhunting  ia  not 
allowed  aa  an  excuse  for  a  treapua  ;  and  in  England 
and  Irelaail,  erea  in  following  the  foK-hoooda,  no 
more  damage  is  to  be  done  th^  what  ia  abaolntely 

HOfim'S-TONGUE  iCyn^liMtum),  a  geniu 
of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Boragimte,  of  which 
thN«  are  many  gpeciea,  all  of  a  couae  appearmce, 


diaagreeabla    The  root  wbb  formerly  adminiatered 


Honnd'a-Tongne  {OjpuvlBtfm  (tJUNoIt). 

In  •crofolo,  dysentery,  fte.,  and  Ii  wud  to  be  anoint. 
It  ia  olio  one  of  the  pratcnded  ipedfiea  for  aeipeat- 
bitea  and  hydrophobia, 

BOU'KSLOW,  a  imaU  town  at  England,  in  the 
oounty  of  MiildlfTT.  contiat*  of  a  Emgle  atreet, 
itretching  along  the  Great  Western  Boad  Irom  Loo- 
don,  from  wbich  it  ia  distant  ten  miles  weat.  Its 
church,  a  modem  building  in  the  Italian  style,  ia 
stmnoanted  by  twelve  anuJl  apirea  and  a  belfiy.  lie 
nmaeroiu  iniw  and  posttng-honsee  of  H.  were  busy 
and  proapeKiua  till  uie  opening  of  the  nulwaya  to 
&onl£amptoD  and  'BaUL     Prions  to  that  events 


its  poating  bnaineta  wM  as  eitansiTe  aa  that  li 
•Imoat  any  town  in  EkigUnd.  About  600  horaas 
were  then  niaiutained  h«e,  and  about  1S3  cooohea, 
while  COO  ooache*  paued  tbrou^  the  village  daily. 
The  Heath,  formerly  notorioot  u  the  scene  of 
highway  robberies,  is  now  in  grMt  part  enclosed. 
Numerous  villas  hava  risen  up  aroand  the  town. 
On  the  Heath  are  extensive  goDpowder  milli> 
cavoli;  barracks,  and  an  anenil.    Fop.  (1871)  9294 

HOUR,  a  measure  of  time  equal  to  yith  part  of 
a  day.  liie  diviBtou  of  the  day  into  honra  met 
to  have  been  known  to  the  Babylonians  and  Egjr 
tians,  from  whom,  first  the  Greeks,  and  tben  t 
Romaas  derived  it.  But  their  scheme  of  division 
extended  only  to  the  natural  day  (while  the  sun 
was  above  the  horizon),  which  they  divided  into 
twelve  parts.  The  consequence  of  this  was  that  t^ 
hour  constantly  varied  in  length.  This  system  was 
introduced  into  Rome  by  L.  Fapirius  Corw>r  about 
293  s.  0.,  and  during  the  Punia  Wat*,  the  Romans 
adopted  the  division  of  the  night  also  into  twelve 
parts.  This  system  continued  till  about  the  end  of 
the  4tb  c,  when  the  preaent  system  was  adopted.  In 
the  Biitidi  Empire^  and  most  continratal  countries, 
the  day  is  reckoned  from  midnidit  to  mid-day 
12  hours,  and  mid-day  to  midnight  12  honra.  Iri 
Italy,  the  day  is  rec&ined  from  annaet  to  sunset, 
and  the  houia  are  counted  &om  1  to  24  The 
Chinese  reckon  from  an  hour  (in  our  time)  before 
midnight  till  the  corresponding  time  next  night,  12 
honra,  eadi  hour  beinn  equal  to  two  of  onia.  The 
Japanese  atUI  follow  the  old  custom  of  reckoning 
from  snnrias  till  smuet  Astronomera  reckon  from 
mid-day  (on  the  provioua  day)  to  mid-day,  cotioting 
fioml  to 24. 

HO'6'RA,  a  towi  on  i/tte  right  or  wevt  bank  ol 
the  Hot^Uy,  stands  within  the  Smita  of  the  Twenty- 
four  Fe^uniiahs,  in  lat  22*  38'  N.,  and  long.  88* 
!&  E.    It  is  directly  opposite  to  Oalontta,  of  whieh 

it  may,  in  fact,  be  r '" 

betweea  t' 


[>  Oalontta,  ol 
<  aubiiTbt 


H.,  beis^  inlu-Wfaiil  chiefly  1^  ^p-lnildan^  bears 
pretty  neoriy  the  mdw  nlabon  to  the  .  ugienta 
—  bopaiiMtX  £ldi»  ■•  Kookwall  bears  to  London 
its  larnst  seme.  It  ia  henoe  that  the  great 
nilway  tiuua  its  depaitore  for  '  Uis  North-waat 
ProvinCM. 

HOTTR-GIiASS,  an  inatrament  for  meaaaring 
intervals  of  time.  It  is  made  of  glaai,  and  oonsats 
of  two  bulbs  united  by  a  narrow  neck;  <ma  of  Uia 
bulbs  is  neariy  filled  with  dry  sand,  fine  enoush  to 
run  fredy  Uirongh  the  orifice  in  the  neck,  and  the 

Soantity  of  sand  ia  jost  as  much  aa  cut  mn  throng 
le  ori£oe  in  an  hour,  if.  the  iuatrument  ia  to  be  an 
hour-glass ;  in  a  minute,  if  a  minuta-gloss,  Ac  The 
obvious  defect/i  of  this  instrument  are  the  expaosioa 
or  contraction  of  the  caifioe  wodncod  by  heat  or  cold, 
amd  the  variations  in  the  omiess  of  the  aandl,  all 
of  which  prodooe  deviMions  amn  the  tnia  ines«ire< 
ment'  of  the  timth  Ute  hour-glaM  ww  almost 
umversally  employed  ir  -' ""^  -*"-""  ■••—  "'*'■ 


n  chorobea  during  the  lAth 


■tanda  d  elegant  workmuiahip  are  still  to  be  se 

HOUEATO'KIC,  a  river  of  New  England,  which 
..Mt  in  UassaohuaettB,  and  Sows  southwardly 
throng  CoDne($iaut  into  Long  Island  Sound.  Im 
leng^ia  about  iCO  milee,  thwu^  a  pictut««qne 
mtry,  and  Um  numeroua  fsUs  aSbrd  water-power 
„  manymanufaoturing  viUagee.  For  forty  milea 
its  course  is  followed  by  the  Hoosatonie  Bailway. 

HOUSE,  in  point  of  law,  hi  sn  EnalisJmian'a 
costly  though  nirt  a  Sootchman'a.  In  other  word^ 
when  a  man  shuta  himadf  up  in  hia  own  honae,  no 
bailiff  can  break  open  the  door  to  arrest  him,  or 


tyCuui^lt; 


HO08B  OP  COMMOira— HOUSEHOLD  TEOOPa 


■uie  hi5  good*  for  debt  in  £ii^miid  or  Inland,  and 
DO  oonrt  can  giTe  a  bailiff  nich  power ;  in  Scotiand, 
bowerv,  eren  a  man'i  own  hoiue  is  no  protectioD, 
for  leave  can  be  got  Eram  the  court,  often  called  on 
that  account  the  Qaeen'i  keys,  which  enables  the 
measenoer  to  break  open  the  outer-door  and  arraat. 
In  En^and,  therafore,  if  a  peraou 
proenre  lupplijca  from  without,  he  can  fortify 
■elf  againat  the  enemy  foT  any  length  of  time  ;  bat 
thon^  it  ii  not  competent  for  the  bailiff  to  break 
open  the  outer-door  by  foroa,  yet  aveiy  trick  or 
•tnitagem  u  fail  in  order  to  effect  a  peaceable  ent^, 
and  once  in,  he  oaimot  be  turned  out  When  the 
party  is  charged  with  a  criminal  offence,  a  cooitable 
armed  with  a  warrant,  or  in  «ome  oaaei  without, 
ia  entitled  to  break  into  the  house  and  arreat  him, 
both  in  EDolaod  and  SooUand.  A  man  ia  entitled 
alao  to  defend  hU  hoiue  againat  treapaners  and 
thieve*^  using  no  greater  force  than  ia  neoeaianr; 
and  if  neceBaary  m  that  sense,  he  may  even  kill 
the  intruder,  though  very  strong  circumstanoea  are 
required  to  justify  tlus.  He  may  also  put  ipring- 
pona  on  Uie  premise*.    In  Scotland,  a  peculiar  name 


a  his  0 


B  offence  of   telomoiuly  aasaulttog  i 


_..    _i  the   old  law   of   Engl , 

and  all  offences  committed  in  a  boose  are  gener- 
ally panished  more  severely.  Himiebreating  is 
a  technical  name  in  Scotland,  .but  in  Eaglaad  is 
a  popular  phrase,  the  legal  terins  being  lansenv  or 
robbery  in  a  dwelling-house,  or  burglary,  according 

HOUSE  OF  COMMONa    Sea  PiauinKiiT. 

H0U8B  OF  OOEHECTIOIT,  a  jail  which  U 

not  nnder  the  ordinary  charge  of  the  efaeii^  but  is 

Everned  by  a  keeper  ;  it  is  also  sometimes  called  a 
idewelL  These  houses  were  originally  intended 
for  Uke  detention  of  vigranfa  and  convicted 
persois,  and  compelling  these  to  workj  but  their 
purpose  is  now  extended  in  England,  and  the  dis- 
tinction between  jail  and  house  of  correction 
Abolished.  The  persons  who  may  be  committed  ' 
tiiea  are  prisoneis  convicted  of  felony,  or  m 
demeanour ;  persons  committed  on  chaivs  or  sua,.. 
cion  of  felony,  or  of  misdemeanonr ;  and  vagrants. 
And  any  justue  may_  commit  to  the  House  of  Cor- 
reotion  persons  awaiting  their  trial,  and  persona 
victed  oE  smslloffenoea.  The  prisonos  are  classified, 
and  the  regulations  are  mainly  defined  by  the  Prison 
Act  of  26  and  29  Vict.  □.  126.  In  Scotluid,  the 
regulation  ot  prisons  is  transferred  to  a  Board  of 
Direotors  of  Prisons  in  Sootland,  23  and  24  Vict  a. 
106,  28  and  29  Vict.  o.  6^  34  and  35  Vict,  c  112. 

HOUSE  OP  LORDS.    See  PiMJAioNT. 

HOUSEBOTE,  in  English  Law,  the  right  which 
A  tenant  has  to  cut  wcwd  on  the  land  to  rqiair 
tile  houM^  often  called  Ettovert. 

HOUSEBRBAKINO.    SeeHouHS. 


HOUSE-DOVES,  in  the  Law  of  Endand,  are 
protected  like  domesticated  animals,  and  thetaking 
of  them  is  in  general  larceny ;  and  if  the  offence  o( 
lartreny  cannot  be  made  out,  then  a  magisttate  may 
inflict  a  penalty  of  £2,  over  and  above  the  value  ot 
the  bird  (24  and  26  Vict,  c  96,  s.  23).  In  Scotland,  it 
la  also  theft  to  break  into  dove-cotes.  But  there  is 
no  summary  redress  for  the  leaser  offences. 

HOUSE-FLT  (Mvica  donalim),  on  insect  too 
well  known  to  need  description,  and  remarkable  for 
ila  extensive  distribution  both  in  the  Old  and  in 
the  New  World.  It  heloogi  to  the  vast  dipterous 
bnuly  Stfuadu.    The  maggot*  live  in  nunn  dang, 


in  heape  of  rotting  vegetables,  ka.   When '. 

become  annoying,  various  expedients  are  resorted 

to  for  killing  them,  aa  trapping  in  liaise*  partiallr 


Tarions  piita  of  Honae-Fly,  hiKhly  m 
Copied  rram  SuDutltpD'i  SariktxiTm  onJ  Oxhim  Sw*-t}f. 
0,  •wOloD  oF  ij,  •hewing  nciraiH  >r>l«m ;  t,  bsid  of  lun*- 

ftjr,  gbewlig  ibe  ooniiioDnd  eye*,  ud,  taieiitb,UuprBtia«elai 

I,  lut  joint  or  timu,  or  Coot  of  flf,  v[Iti  booki  ud  pada; 

tf,  proboHii  of  hooH-flj ;  v,  pdrtiDp  of  rHnfa  of  tta  pwi, 

to  ■!»*  tho  foppOKd  rnduTB ;  /,  Ic*  of  fl^. 

filled  with  some  sweet  viscid  fluid,  or  by  pieces  of 
paper  covered  with  a  mixture  of  sweet  and  poiaon- 
ons  substances.  Sweet  aubetancea,  however,  attrsct 
flies  into  a.  room,  so  that  the  benefit  of  fly-trapa  is 
often  doubtful ;  and  care  must  be  token  that  the 
poisons  used  do  not  endanger  the  Uvea  of  children 
or  otbet«.  Quassia  ia  safe  enough  in  this  respect, 
and  very  fatal  to  flies. 

In  addition  to  what  has  been  said  in  the  artido 
DlPTUU.  concerning  the  power  wMch  many  inaecta 
poaseaa  of  walking  on  perpendicular  walls,  ceiling 
AC,  it  may  here  be  mentioned  that,  according  to 
the  obeervations  oE  Mr  Hepworth,  who  has  carefnlfy 
investigated  this  subject,  although  the  membranooa 
disca  (puIvtUi)  On  the  foot  of  a  By  are  incapable  <A 
being  used  as  suckers,  yet   the   hairs  with  which 


not  viscid,   which   probably  serves   to   make 
adhesion  more  perf  eet 

The  proboscis  of  the  H.  is  a  vety  interesting 
microscopic  object.  It  ia  chiefly  formed  by  an 
extraordinary  davelopmait  of  the  UmgudA  or  bgula, 
the  upper  part  of  the  under  lip  (fuinim),  but  with 
this  are  combined  lancets  formed  of  the  metamor- 

E hosed  mitriUffl.  (For  tlieee,  see  Colkoptera.)  The 
ibes  of  the  ligola  are  much  enlarged  and  fleshy. 
They  are  surrounded  by  rough  hairs,  to  aid  in 
scraping  or  tearing  delicate  surfaces.  There  air 
many  rows  of  these  baiia  on  each  lobe.  In  using 
ita  proboaoii  to  feed  on  dry  subetaoces,  aa  sugar. 


To  aid  in  this  auctorial  aotion,  the  muaclfl* 
of  the  lobes  of  the  ligola  are  disposed  in  a  spiral 

HOUSEHOLD  TROOPS  are  those  troopa 
whose  especial  duty  it  is  to  attend  the  aoverragn, 
and  to  guard  the  metropolis.  Theae  f<n«es  com- 
prise three  re^rimenta .  of  cavalry — the  lat  and  9d 
IJfe.guards,  and  the  Royal  Horae-gnarda,  and  three 


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liooi),  iJie  Qreiudier,  Coldatroam,  tmd'  Scota 
irtunliar  Ouuds.  The  cost  of  these  oorps,  foi  pay 
and  alloiTBaoea  onl;,  reAchea  the  aum  of  £231,699  k 
year ;  and  they  nambet  in  all  ranka  1302  cavalry 
aod  S940  iafsotiy,  who  are  jnatly  held  to  be  the 
flower  of  the  BritUh  anny. 

HOnSB-LBEK  (,Sanpermvum), «  genng  of  plant* 


HoQie-Leek  iSempeniint^  iMforam). 

«t  the  natnral  order  OnutuloMO,  haviiiK  a  calyx  of 
6 — 20  lepal^  the  petala  eqnal  in  nomber  to  the 
■epala,  and  inaerted  into  the  base  of  the  calyx ;  the 
leaTes  generally  very  auccnlent,  and  forming  oloee 
rosettes.  The  Common  H.,  oi  Cttbxl  {S.  lectarum), 
called  Fous  or  Fouelt  in  Scotland,  imd  in  some 
conntnee  Jv.pUet'4  Beard,  grows  wild  on  tiia  rocks 
of  t^e  Alps,  but  has  long  Deen  common  in  almost 
every  part  of  Europe,  Ranted  on  wall^  roofc  oi 
cottages,  Ac  It  Beads  up  leafy  fioweriiig  item* 
of  6 — 12  inches  in  height,  bearing  braacheg  of  pide- 
Ted  star-like  flowers,  equally  ctuioua  and  beautifal. 

fm._  1 _..!   ._  ■bmiaed,  and  applied  to  bums, 

X  inuutxuate  ndief  j   ""  "■'        '~  -'---- 
bees  or  wasps ;  and  they 

nlcera  and  '   " 

high  eatee  ...    _   _ 

'  in  edict  of  Charlemagne  oontribntcd 
eitemive  distribation  of  the  plant, 
these  words  :  Et  habeat  qtiitque  tupra 
dtmmm  mum  Jomt  barbam  {And  let  ererybody  have 
the  Japiter's  beard  on  his  house). — Other  species 
possess  similar  propertaes.  S.  tobo^ferum,  with 
yellowish-green  flowers,  is  very  frequently  planted 
on  walls  in  Germany.  Some  of  the  spedea, 
natives  ot  the  aonth  of  Enrope,  Canary  Isles, 
&c.,  are  shrubby;  others  are  common  green- 
honse  plants. 

HOUBEMAID'S  SKBB  is  the  term  commonly 
applied  to  an  acute  inflammation  of  the  bona  or 
sao  that  intervenes  between  the  patella,  or  kae«-pan, 
■nd  tha  skin.  Homemoids  are  especially  liable 
to  it  from  their  kneeling  on  hard  damp  stones. 
It  causes  conitderablo  pam,  swelling,  and.  febrile 
disturbance.  The  only  disease  for  which  it  can  be 
mistaken  is  acute  iaflammation  of  the  synovial 
membrane  lining  the  cavity  of  the  joint ;  but  in  this 
disease,  the  patella  is  thrown  forwards,  and  the 
swelling  is  at  the  sides,  while  in  hoosemaid's  knee, 
the  swelling  is  very  snperfloial,  and  is  in  front  of 
the  patella. 

The  treatment  conaisto  essentially  in  tlie  means 
Dsnally  employed  to  combat  inflammation ;  viz.,  rest, 
leechE»,  fomentAtiona,  and  puigatrres ;  if  suppuration 


HOUSE-BEKTS,  in  Scotland,  when  the  lease  is 
verbal,  preaoribe  in  three  years — i  e.,  no  action  can 
be  maintained  after  that  time  ;  but  in  England 
an  action  can  be  brou^t  within  six  years.  "- 
Lakdlohd  ard  Tmnamt. 

HOTJBSA,  or,  aooording  to  Dr  Barth,  HitraA,  a 
district  of  AMca,  in  Sudan,  forming  a  portion  of  tfa 
empire  of  SSkoto  (q.  v.).  The  name,  however,  i 
nsed  to  designate  rather  the  race  inhabitiDg  the 
diatrict,  and  the  lan^age  which  there  prevails, 
than  to  mark  any  distinct  political  division.  H. 
Proper  oomprisea  seven  states.  The  country  o(  tha 
H.  IS  very  beautiful,  and  the  inhabitants  lively, 
spirited,  and  indnatriona. — See  Barth'a  Travdt  and 
DiKOveriei  tn  North  and  OtntnU  A/tko. 

HOU'BTON,  a  city  in  Texaa,  United  States  of 
America,  at  the  head  of  atesm-boat  navigation  o 
BnfTalo  Bayou,  45  milea  from  its  month  in  Oolvestoi 
Bay,  and  80  miles  from  Galveston.  It  has  iroi 
foundries,  machine-shops,  and  cotton-presses,  and  ' 
exports  cotton,  cattle,  and  agricultural  prodncta. 
Pop.  in  1870,  9382. 

HOUSTON,  Sam,  general  and  ex-president  of 
Texas,  was  bom  near  Lexington,  Rockbridge  C 
Virainia,  March  2,  1793;  enlisted  as  a  comin... 
Boliuer  in  the  war  of  1S12  ;  was  chosen  cnsigo,  and 
fought  under  Jackson  with  a  courage  that  won  hia 
lasting  friendship.  In  1823,  he  was  chosen  member 
of  congress,  and  in  1627,  governor  of  Tennessee.  In 
January  1829,  he  mamed  the  daughter  of  an 
ex-govcmor ;  and  in  the  following  April,  for  reasons 
never  made  puUic,  abandoned  wife,  conntiy,  and 
civilisation,  waa  adopted  as  a  son  by  the  chief  of 
the  Cherokee  nation,  beyond  t^e  liUsaissippi,  and 
was  formally  admitted  as  a  chief.  In  1832,  be  went 
to  Washington,  and  procured  the  removal  of  several 
United  Stipes  Indian  agents,  on  charges  of  fraud,  bat 
got  into  penonal  difficolties  with  their  friends.  The 
Texanwatofferedanewfieldtohiaambitiin].  H.wa8 
mada  oommai>der-in-chief.    The  Atneticona  ai 


for  nearly  300  miles,  but  suddenly  tnnung  o 

pursuers,   H.  fought  the  remarkable  and  decisive 
battle  of  San  Jacinto,  21st  April  1336,  at  one-blow 


elected  first  president  of  Texaa,  and  re-elected 
in  1841,  and  on  the  annexation  of  Texaa  to  the 
United  States,  in  1 84C,  sent  to  the  national  senate, 
where  he  remained  until  1859,  when  he  retired, 
and  was  elected  goTemor  of  Teiaa.  He  opposed 
secession,  but  retired  to  private  life  when  ha  found 
that  opposition  was  fniitTesa.    He  died  in  1862. 

HCVEK,  or  dist«n1Jon  of  the  rumen  or  first 
stomach  with  gas,  is  a  common  complaint  among 
cattle  and  sheep,  and  results  from  the  eating  3 
food  to  which  Uie  animal  has  been  unaccustomed, 
from  wet  olover  or  vetches,  or  from  any  easily 
fermentable  food.  lielief  generally  foUows  walking 
nxercise,  friction  on  tlie  belly,  and  a  dose  of  any 
>rdinary  stimulant,  which  for  a  cow  may  consist 
if  a  couple  of  ounces  of  turpentine,  whisky,  ether, 
ir  ginger,  to  which  should  siso  be  added,  in  order 
o  dear  the  bowels  of  the  offending  food,  a  laxative, 
such  as  a  pint  of  oil  or  a  pound  of  salts.  A  fourth 
if  these  quantities  will  suffice  for  aheep. 
The  introduction  of  the  probang,  with  t^e  small  end 
dowawards,  allowa  the  escape  of  gas  when  there  is 
little  food  in  the  atomaoh.  If  simple  remedies  fail, 
breathing  beoome  diatreased,  and  the  animal 
stupid ;  the  gaa  may  with  safety  be  allowed  to 
escape  bj  an  external  opening  made  at  a   point 


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interaifcdi»t« 


nfcdi»t«  betwMn  the  Iwt  ribL  the  lombar 
.  iam,  uid  the  prcmiiiience  of  the  h»nnnh,  etther 
with  «  OMtnlk  And  troohar,  or  k  Iwge  pookst  oi 
table  knUe.  For  MTOal  d*fi  aftsc  kn  atfakck  of 
hoTon,  tha  digeativ*  or^LM  arc  apt  to  he  eaaUy 
daansad,  and  the  animal  imwt  ban  loft  and 
digeabbls  food,  and  an  ocoaaionat  doie  of  li 


HOWABD.  The  noUe  Houw  of  H.  has  stood 
for  many  caQturieB  at  the  head  of  the  {^jDliah 
nobility.  The  Howard!  haTe  enjoTsd  Hie  Joke- 
dom  lA  Norfolk  einoe  the  middle  of  tiw  16th 

and  liave  oontzibntid  to  Oa  annala  of  the  natL 

terenl  penom  of  th«  moct  diitingniahed  obataoter 
both  in  politic*  and  in  Uttntnre.  Neither  Sir  W. 
I>agdale,  nor  Collina,  nor  Sir  Bernard  Bnrke  oUima 
for  the  Howarda  anj  man  aneiait  oiion  tbaii  Sir 
WiUiam  R,  a  leuned  Cliief-jtwtioe  of  the  Conunoa 
Pleu  imder  Bdwaid  L  and  Edwaid  H,  tiiough 
Dngdale  iuoidaatBllr  mentimii  a  tnt£ti<m  that  tbSr 
name  ia  of  Saxon  oiigin,  and  derired  either  from  an 
eminent  offi«e  under  the  crown  befcoe  Uie  Conqueet, 
or  from  Hweward,  the  leader  of  tboee  foroee  which 
for  a  time  defended  the  iile  of  Elj  to  raliantly 
againat  Williain  tiu>  Conqnercr.  Be  Out  u  it  may, 
it  ia  certain  that  Sir  John  H.,  the  rasndaon  of  the 
abore-mentioDed  jodge,  waa  not  omy  adnxind  and 
omtain  tA  tiie  king's  oavy  in  the  nortii  of  Bngland, 
but  iheii£F  at  Norfolk,  in  which  coiml^  be  held 
exteniiTe  property,  which  waa  snbeecmeoUr  in- 
CMaied  by  the  marriage  of  hi*  mndaon.  Sir  RobMt, 
with  the  Go-heireM  of  uie  ancient  and  notde  Houw  irf 
Mowbray,  Duke*  of  NoiMk.  The  only  eon  of  this 
anion  waa  Sir  John  H,,  one  of  &e  leading  anp- 
porten  of  the  Honae  of  York,  who,  ha<ring  guned 
eftrly  diatinotian  in  the  French  wars  of  Hemr  Tl, 
wa*  ooiwtitnted  by  Edward  IV.  oonetable  of  the 
imp<niant  eactle  of  Norwich,  and  aheriff  of  Norfolk 
and  Snffiilk.  He  anbaeqnently  became  treasnier  of 
the  Foyal  bonaeludd,  obtained  '  a  grant  of  the  whole 
benefit  that  aboold  accnie  to  the  king  by  coim 
of  money  in  the  Ciiy  and  Tower  of  Londoo,  a 
eUewbere  in  England;'  and  further,  waa  nuaed  uj 
the  peerage  aa  Lord  Howard  and  Dnke  of  Korfolk. 
We  find  him  in  1470  made  captaia-genenl  of  the 
king'a  force*  at  aea,  and  he  waa  mon  eirannotii  in 

"""'    ity  in  hia  renatance  to  the  House  of 

Finally,  he  waa  created  Earl  Uarihal 
of  England,  an  hononxy  diatinetioD  atall  bcane  by 
his  deMwndanta,  »nf  in  1481  waa  ccoatituted  L^ 


relaxed  not  hi*  effort*  to  deeerre  diatinction  by  hi* 


after  hi*  death,  hi*  honoui*  were  attainted, 
•Jao  ware  tiioaa  ol  hia  aoo  Tluxnaa,  who  had  been 
Oieated  Earl  of  Smrey,  The  latta,  however,  after 
anfferinx  tbtee  yeai*  of  impriaonment  in  the  Tower 
of  Lon£m,  obtained  a  reveraal  of  hia  own  and  hia 
father'a  attaindera,  and  being  restored  to  hia  honoon 
aocordjitgly,  became  diatinguiahed  aa  a  general,  and 
li  more  par&nlartf  oelebrated  in  history  for  hia 
defaat  <rf  the  Saot<£  at  noddeo  in  1SI&  Hia  aon 
Thomaa,  third  Duke  of  Norfolk,  waa  attainted  bv 
Henrr  TUL,  thoogh  aftorward*  reatcved  in  hlooa, 
and  oy  hia  marriage  with  a  daughtra  of  King 
Edward  IT.,  became  Hit  father  of  the  Ql-fated  and 
aceompliahed  Earl  of  Surrey,  whoae  execution  was 
the  laob  of  Hu  uuy  acta  of  tyranny  which  di^[race 
the  mcoiory^  of  ^nry  TUL  finiuent  a*  a  atates- 
man,  a  warrior,  and  a  poet,  Sorrey  it  thna  described 
l^  EUr  Egerton  Brydgee :  ■  Excellent  in  art*  and  in 
arm* ;  a  man  of  leaniin^  a  jrenina;  and  a  hero ;  of 
a  oenenHi*  tempv  and  a  rraned  mind,  be  onited 
alTtlie  nllantiy  and  nnbmktn  ajniit  of  a  mde  ^e 
■■■   aUtheeleg  ' '  '"    '      " 


TithOieneateati 
rf  the  highfft  ho 


hnioDn  aud  unbounded  wealth,  he 


of  tilt*  and  of  toomanAenta,  and 

with  akiU  and  brareiy  in  expeditdona  a^nat 

Soota  under  bia  f*th«,  he  suU  foond  tame,  at  a 
period  when  our  literature  ma  rude  and  barbanm^ 
to  cultivate  hi*  mind  with  all  tiie  ezqniaite  apirit  of 
the  chcucect  modala  of  Greece  and  Some,  to  catch 
the  excellencea  of  the  revived  moaea  of  Italy,  and 
to  produce  in  his  own  Ituiguage  oompoaitiona  whidi, 
in  limplioity,  penrpicnity,  n«cefnl  ornament,  and 
juat  and  natural  thought,  euibit  a  jTiining  contraat 
to  the  worka  of  his  predeceaaraa,  and  an  »»«iiipi» 
which  hia  anoceison  long  attuipted  in  vain  to 
follow.' 

^  The  Earl  of  Sumy  was  executed  during  the 
lifetime  of  hia  father,  on  whom  tbe  aame  aentmoe 
bad  been  paaaed,  when  the  death  of  tba  royal  tyrant 
aaved  him  from  the  block.  Hia  grandaon,  Tliomaa, 
fourth  Doke  jA  Norfolk,  in  like  mannm  aullend 
attainder,  and  waa  executed  on  Tower  HiU  for  high 
treason,  tor  hia  commnuication  with  Maiy,  Queoi 
of  Soots.  The  family  hononn,  however,  were  a^in 
restored,  partiy  by  Jamea  L,  to  hia  grandaon,  and 
jMitly  by  Cbarlee  It.  to  hia  great-great-gnndaan, 
Thomas,  who  tbns  became  eighth  d^e,  and  whoea 
consin  and  sucoesaor,  Cbarlee,  ninth  dnke,  waa  the 
direct  anceator  of  the  prveent  Duke  of  Norfolk. 

It  would-be  impoasibla  here  to  give  a  list  (^  all 
tiie  honours  which  from  time  to  time  have  been 
confened  on  various  brandiea  ot  the  ducal  House 
of  H. ;  it  is  sufficient  to  aay,  that  in  one  or  other 
of  thmr  widespread  twaoohee,  the  Howards  either 
have  enjoyed  within  thejaat  three  coitnries,  or  still 
enjoy,  the  eai" " 
Norfl 

alden,  Howard  of  CaaUe  Biaing,  and  Howard 

It  mQ  be  aeen  from  the  above  remariu,  Hiat  the 
ducal  Houae  of  Norfolk  ia  one  whose  f^  it  haa 
been,  be^nd  all  otheia  among  the  J'!"g<"*'  nobihty, 
to  find  :tB  name  iDt«rwoven  with  the  thread  of 
Bngliiib  history,  an 
The  acoompl^ 


son  ao  nobly  snSbred  by  Vb»  deatii  of  the  ai^^th 
Hat^ — are  *  hooaehold  woida'  in  the  pagea  ol 
Engliah  history ;  and  readem  of  Shakapeare  wiQ 
hare  other  reoollsotions  of  the  same  name  allied 
witii  other  hiatoiioal  events ;  while  thoee  lAo  are 
familiar  wiQi  tiie  writing*  M  Fojpe,  will  not  have  [ 
forgotten  how  tersely  and  poiuteoly  he  ^pifiea  tba  . 
^ory  of  anoeatral  pMigreea  by  I 

'  All  the  blood  of  ill  the  Hovards.'  I 

Other  membera  of  tlie  Houae  of  H.  ^ve  gained    I 

aplftoe  in  the  pagea  of  Endieh  hiatory.    Sir  Edwaid    ( 
El,  K.O.,  broOier  of  the  Irat  Eari  of  Sonvy,  waa    : 
made  by  Henry  TUL  the  king'a  atandaid^ieanr    | 
and  admjial  of  the  Seat,  in  which  capacity  he  lost 
his  life  io  boarding  a  E^ench  veoel  off  Brest  in    ' 
action  in  IfilS ;    his  brother.   Sir  Edmund,  acted 
SB  marshal  oE  the  hone  at  Plodden  ;  and  lua  half- 
brother.  Sir  lliomaa  H.,  waa  attainted,  and  died  a 
prisoner  in  the  Tower,  for  aapiring  to  the  hand  of 
the  Lady  Margaret  Bo     ' 
Queen  of  Sootland,  an 
□f  whoae  ill-fated  consort* 

HOWARD,  Jomr,  ■  the  phitanthn^st,'  waa  bom 
at  Hackney,  near  London,  about  ITaS.  Froan  bis 
father,  who  had  been  engaged  in  toad^  H.  iahentod 
aaa.    &  17M,  tlie  year  of  tke 


d  by  Google 


Mqqind  ma  o 
I,  detomiiiied  h 


that  eiCr>  On  UiU  Toyago  liii  TCMil  wu  taken  by 
a  Frcneli  priTatMr,  mnd  ba  ma  carried  into  tiu 
interior,  wnen  he  mSend  inmriaonment  tot  Kune 
tinwi  13i«  hardahipa  which  M  her*  nuderwMit^ 
combinad  with  ^e  knowledge  of  piaooa  and  the 

miaeiiMof  Toinm-lifewlualilM '  "■ 

■beiiff  in  1772  ai 


hia  jooTtieja  tlmmghont 
the  United  Kingdom  ancl  the  contJnent,  in  which 
be  Tirated  the  pnnoipal  priiona  and  hoapiealH.  Hia 
ohief  work  ii  An  AecounI  of  ikt  Laea»ttto4  in 
Siavpe,  (fe.,  uM  Bemartt  on  Oie  Prtttta  Stait  q' 
Ot  eriton*  te  Grmt  Britain  and  Irtkaid  <1788j 
H«  died  Jaiuu>i7  30, 171W,  at  Ehenon,  in  the  wnti 
of  Bnaraa,  from  having  caoght  infeoticai  from  i. 
fererad  patieot  for  whwn  he^iad  jneaeribed.  The 
fam«  of  K  ia  pecnliar.  He  ia  lemembered  r  ~ ' 
ao  mnch  for  his  talents  aa  lar  that  demotion 
hia  Eoffeiinc  fellow-men,  in  which  he  expended  hia 
loitnne  and  nia  life. 

HOWE,  Ea&l  (ILtohus  Hows),  Britiih  admiral, 
waa  the  second  son  of  Emanuel  Scrape,  seoond 
Viscount  Howe  of  the  Irish  peeiag&  He  waa  bom 
in  172G,  and  educated  at  Eton.  Having  a  boTiah 
passion  for  tbs  sea,  be  left  Eton  at  14,  and  went  to 
the  South  Seas  in  the  sqnodntn  under  Anson.  He 
waa  tdtli  AdminJ  Vernon  in  174G,  and  at  the  time 
of  the  Scottish  rebdlion,  being  in  command  of  the 
BaHimore  sloon  took  ^trt  in  the  ai^  of  Fort 
Williain.  He  alao,  witii  another  vesaat,  beat  off  two 
French  sbipa  convefiiia  troop*  and  ammunitaon  to 
the  Pretender,  for  wbi^  he  was  made  pOet-captain. 
In  lT6ti^  his  snij^  the  i>unH7^  captured  the  Aleide, 
a  French  6i,  off  Newfoundluid.  He  next  served 
under  Sir  E.  Hawlca  in  the  expedition  against 
Rochefort.  He  waa  ordered  to  attoclc  the  fort  on 
the  isle  of  Air  with  hia  ship  the  MagnanioM,  com- 
pelled it  to  surrender  after  an  hour's  oannonade, 
and  achieved  the  only  material  suooeea  which 
attended  the  expedition.  He  was  commodore  of 
the  sqoadron  irtuch  sailed 


.   .  _, folStMalo.    The 

troops  were  landed  Bnd  re-embsrked  withoat  loaa, 
after  destroying  all  the  magazines  and  ship^g  in 
the  port,  to  the  nmuber  oT  120  saiL  Id  vie  aome 
year  he  took  Cherbourg.  Neariy  300  jaeoes  of  iroD 
cannon  and  mortara  were  here  lendetvd  imservice- 
able ;  the  bnas  f— """"  were  brought  to  England ; 
the  cdebnted  basin  was  destroyed,  and  27  ebipe 
and  veMela  were  burned  or  sunk.  A  second  attack 
upon  St  Malo  was  less  tucceaifaL  The  French 
troo^  assembled  in  force  at  the  Boy  of  St  Cos, 
and  it  waa  only  by  the  inbepidity  of  H.,  who  went 
in  hia  own  botge  into  the  centra  of  the  enemy's 
fire,  that  the  re- embarkation  of  the  rear-guard  was 
effected,  with  great  loaa  of  life.  In  17m,  he  sao- 
ceeded  to  the  Inah  title  of  viscount  on  the  death  of 
his  brother,  the  brigadier-general,  who  was  killed 
before  Ticonderago.  He  took  part  in  the  defeat  of 
the  fleet  under  the  Uaninis  de  Couflsna,  and 
eaptored  ttie  Hero,  74  gnna.  In  1760,  he  was  made 
oolonel  of  tha  Chatham  dariaion  of  marines,  and 
afterwards  a  Lord  of  Oi»  Admiral^,  and  Treurarer 
of  tha  Navy.  In  1776,  he  commanded  a  fleet  on  the 
American  coast,  when  the  oonqneat  ol  New  ToA, 
Rhode  laland,  Fhilodelfbta,  aiul  eray  aetUement 
within  the  reach  of  a  naval  fcace,  teatified  to  his 
skill  and  energy.  In  1778,  he  defended  the  American 
coast  against  a  saperior  naval  force  nnder  D'&A^g. 
He  was  made  a  viscount  of  Oreat  Kifadn  in  17^ 
and  sent  out  witti  a  fleet  to  idiere  Oibndtar.  .  He 
sooceeded  in  diaembarkW  faooipi,  ■mmniiitjon,  and 
Bnppbes,  and  then  oflered  bmt*  to  tte  combined 
fleets  of   Fraaoa  and  Spain,  vUdi  declined  an 


engagement     Ha  waa   made   Fiiat  Lord  of   tha 
A£niralty  in  17S3,  and  noaived  an  T^g'"*'  earldom 

inl788.    Wh«  ..."--   ...       ..-    

he  took  tha  c 
next  year  gaii 

known  aa  that  of  'the  (^otiotti  fl»t  tt  Jnne.' 
Frmob  fleet  conasted  of  2S  ahm  of  the  line,  aod 
Hia  Wngli.h  of  2&  H.,  in  his  flag-ship,  the  Qitttn 
Chariotta,  ttigased  in  the  Bay  of  Biscav,  off  tllUiant, 
die  French  admind,  who  in  leas  uma  an  hour 
crowded  all  the  sail  lie  could  cany,  fallowed  by  a* 
many  (d  his  shipi  as  ocold  get  aw^r-  The  E><glBh 
capmred  two  ship*  of  «u^itj  gnna,  sjid  four  iermtjb 
fonn;  another  •«mnty-ioBr  sank  immadiatehr  aftw 
she  wsa  taken  posit wion  oL  Londini  was  iunmin- 
atad  three  mfm»  in  hoDonr  of  the  victory.  The 
tikanks  of  Mruameot  ware  voted  to  Howe;  Qeorge 
m.  visited  him  on  board  Uw  Qmm  (AorfeU^  gava 
him  a  swotd,  ***'i  mads  h»m  a  ttnigbt  <tf  the  Garter. 
Bia  l—t  aerrice  waa  in  biinging  back  tha  motinoni 
seamen  at  Portnnoath  to  ti>«r  dniyin  1797.  H« 
died  Awnst  6,  1799,  aged  74,  leaving  a  name  high 
in  the  rtle  of  Engliah  naval  worthiea. 
HOWE,  John,  who  has  been  called  the  FlaionU 
trOaa,  was  bom  17th  May  1630,  at  Longhborangh, 
LeicestershirB,  to  the  living  of  which  parish  his 
her  hod  been  presented  hj  Laud.    He  studied 


Torrington,  in  Devooobire,  he  waa  appointed  domest  Jo 
obaphJn  to  Cromwell  in  I6S6,  in  which  difficult 
situation  his  conduct  was  snch  as  to  win  praise 
even  from  the  enemies  of  his  party.  At  the  Restor- 
ation, he  returned  to  Torrington,  whera  the  position 
he  had  hdd  during  the  Commonwealth  made  him 
an  object  of  close  suspiciou  to  the  government.  Tha 
Ad  of  Viu^ormtt^,  however,  ejected  him  from  his 
parish,  24th  August  1662,  and  he  wandered  about 
preaching  in  secret  till  1671,  when  he  was  invited 
by  Lord  Masaazene,  of  An^im  Castlej  in  Ireland, 

to  become  his  -^ ""  -t.^i.:-      w™ 

the   " 


domesi^o  chaplain.  Enjc^^ing  there 
of  tlis  Ushop  of  tht^diocese,  and 
ach  in  aU  toe  chutchee  under  hii 


and  b^nn  his  greatest  woA,  Tht  Good  Mtm  Ae 
Lining  Ttmple  of  Qod  {1676—1702),  whicb  oocnpiea 
one  (A  the  liighest  plac^  in  Puritan  theology.  Id 
1676.  he  WB*  called  to  be  pastor  of  the  dissenting 
congregation  in  Silver  Street,  London,  and  went 
t^uier  in  the  beginning  of  1676.  In  1677  he 
pnblished,  at  the  request  of  M>  Bovle,  The  Rteon- 
caaOmat  tf  Ood't  rraeience  pf  Oie  Bbu  of  Mm 
u>UA  (As  Wiidom  of  Hit  Countdi  and  Bx}ior1a&on»; 
in  1681,  ThoughAOna*  for  the  Morrovi;  in  168^ 
Sttf-dtdieaHon. ;  in  1683,  fjnion  among  Protatantt; 
and  in  1684,  Tht  Bedeema'*  Teari  wept  over  LotL 
Stnde.  In  1686,  he  was  invited  by  Lord  Wharton 
to  travel  with  him  on  the  — ' *■   — '  -*'— 


. atUtrodit, 

where  he  was  adtuitted  to  aevenl  interriews  with 
the  Prince  of  Orange.  In  16S7,tIiie  DtdartiSon  for 
LiUrtfi  qf  Contciaux  indnced  liim  to  return  to 
England,  and  at  the  Revtdution  next  year  he  headed 
the  depntatdon  of  '^''""*'"g  olergymen  when  they 
broDght  thor  addreas  to  the  throne;  Beside* 
sma^  works,  he  pubUshed,  in  1693,  CamalU^  of 
SdiiAmt  (kmleaHon;  in  1694—1696,  several  toeatisca 
on  the  TriniW:  in  1699,  Th  Sed«tmti'*  DomMon 
OMT  Vu  /nsMMt  World;  and  lie  contiinwd  writing 
tin  1705,  when  h«  pnblishad  PaHmce  in  BmtdatiiM 
of  Future  Bletaednat.  He  died  2d  April  1706.— See 
Henry  Br^jen's  Ufg  and  Character  qfJtJmSowe, 
-lilh  on  AnalytU  <ifM»  WriUngt. 
HOWX,  Sixvn  Gridixt,  HJ>.,  an  Amerioaa 


jbjCuuyli 


Howrrr— HOT. 


pliyaici&ii,  ma  born  at  BoatoD,  Norember  10, 1801. 
uid  educated  at  tha  Boston  Latin  School,  and 
Brown  Umvenitjr,  where  he  graduated  in  1821. 
He  then  Btndied  medicine.  Bein^  an  admirer  of 
Lord  Bjron,  he  wished  to  join  hrni  in  aiding  the 
Greek  resolution,  and  embarlied  from  Boston  for 
Greece  in  1824;  volunteered  as  a  Burgeon;  served 
two  yean  as  a  guerrilla ;  organised  the  medical  staff 
of  the  Greek  army,  and  was  appointed  its  cbloF. 
The  Greeks  were  suffering  for  sapplies,  and  even 
for  food ;  and  he  went  to  America,  and  raised  large 
contributions.  Returning  with  food,  clothing,  and 
•applies,  he  formed  the  colony  of  Corinth,  in  which 
he  filled  all  offices,  from  governor  to  conrtabie. 
Taken  down  with  the  awamp-fever  in  1830,  ha  went 
to  Paris,  where  be  attended  medical  lectnrea,  and 
in  1832  retumod  to  the  United  States.  Having 
become  interested  in  the  education  of  the  blind,  he 
was  sent  to  Europe,  to  examine  the  best  institu- 
tions, but  volunteered  in  the  Polish  insurraction, 
and  spent  lix  weeks  in  a  Prussian  jtrison.  On 
his  rcmnti,  tb«  Hasaaoliiisetts  Institution  for  the 
Blind  wai  established,  and  placed  under  his  manage* 
ment.  He lUao established  a  school  for  idiots,  andin 
1828  pnblished  a  SteltA  of  the  Qreek  Hevatidion. 
He  revisited  Greece  in  1867,  bearing  supplies  to  the 
Cretans,  then  stmggling  for  their  independence. 

HOWITT,  WiLLUK  AMD  Masv,  two  Eniglish 
■wlhotB  that  may  moat  ■ptojraly  be  treated  to- 
getiier.  William  H.  was  bom  in  1700  at  Heanor,  in 
berbyshire,  and  was  educated  at  various  schools 
in  connection  with  the  Society  of  li^ends,  to  which 
pemiaaion  hia  family  belonged.  In  his  youth,  be  was 
fond  of  outdoor  sports,  and  he  celebrated  in  verse 
the  sceneiy  with  which  be  was  familiar.  In  1823, 
he  DMiried  Miss  Maiy  Botham,  a  Ind;  of  literary 
taste  and  acquirement,  and  whose  family,  like  hia 
own,  waa  attaehed  to  tiie  principles  of  Quakerism. 
Th*  FoTtsl  Mhutnl,  with  their  joint  names  on  the 
title-page,  wia  publiahad  during  the  year  in  which 
they  were  mamed.  For  three  or  four  yean  there- 
aft^,  they  employed  themselves  in  contributions  to 
annoals  and  ""g*""",  and  in  1827  a  selection  from 
tbeee  fugitive  pieces  appeared  under  the  title  of 
T^  Deflation  of  gyam.  From  this  date  up  till 
1837,  William  K  wrote  The  Book  of  Hn  Bfaiont, 
Popidar  Hutory  of  Prieilernfl,  and  Talt*  of  Che 
PaMila.  During  the  aame  period,  Mary  B.  pro- 
duced The  Seiiai  Temptatiotu,  and  a  oountrr  novel 
entitled  Iroo<^£<^A[on.  In  1837,  William  and  Maiy 
H.  removed  to  Esher,  in  Surrey,  and  at  that  place 
William  H.  wrote  BunU  lAfe  in  JAwIand,  Coimua- 
litm  and  Chrutianily,  Sojft  CoiaUry  Boot,  and  VitUt 
to  ItanartaiU  Plaeea,  tint  series.  Mary  H.  at  the 
aune  time  employed  herself  in  writing  Tales  for 
CtiUdren,  man^  of  which  are  popular.  In  1840, 
William  H.,  with  his  wife  and  family,  removed  to 


Mary  H.  made  hcnelf  mistress  of  the  northei 
Unauago,  and  translated  the  works  of  Miss  Bremer 
ana  Hans  C.  Andersen.  These  tranalations  appeared 
between  1S44  and  1862.  William  H.  waa  also  busy 
during  the  same  period.  He  wrote  and  translated 
1_     . 'Miahod  a  i 


novels ;  he  publis 


1  a  political  work,  entitied  7^ 


to  Australia,  where  he  remained  two  years,  and 
since  his  return  he  baa  published  the  following 
works:  Laie,  Labour,  and  Gold,  or  Tvm  Tean 
tn  Victoria,  mth  Vi»it»  to  Sydney  ajid  Van  Die- 
vm'*  Land;  The  Ittuttrated  Hwiory  °f  ^>^^and, 
6  vols.,  completed  in  18S1  ;  Hittory  qf  Oat  Super- 
rtaiural  in  oH  Aae»  and  Naiiont  (1863) ;  Ditcovery 
in  Aiulralia,  Taxmania,  and  New  Ztaland  (1866) ; 
and  The  Mad  War  Plana  and  otto-  Potmt  (1871). 


HOWITZERS  ue  enna  whioh  came  into  «■» 
early  in  the  history  of  field-artilleiy,  as  port*b)e 
instiuments  for   diadiarging   shdl  into  a  bcwlile 


lecessary,  a  Small  charge  (d  powi 
the  howitzer  could  be  made,  in  pnniortioD  to  it 
large  bore,  extremely  light.  It  oomDines  in  som 
degree  the  acontaoy  of  a  oaoson  with  the  calibre 
of  a  mortar ;  and  while  equally  effective  at  short 
ranges,  is  far  more  portable  thsji  either.  That  the 
powder,  on  its  ezpanaion,  may  act  with  full  (oice 
on  the  shell,  it  is  conOned  in  a  hemispherical  cham- 
ber of  imalleT  diameter  than  the  reat  of  the  bore, 
the  month  of  which  is  o(^pletely  dosed  bf  the 
shell  when  rammed  home.  Qlie  Coehom  howitirr. 
much  used  in  India  for  oonntain-service,  is  a  small 
sun,  light  enough  to  be  borne  by  a  horse  up  hilly 
defiles,  ftc 


drum,  which  communicates  with  the  larynx, 

a  conspicuous  external  swelling  of  the  throat,  and 
gives  prodigious  power  to  the  voice,  enabling  tiiese 
Bniroals  to  emit  hideous  sounds,  which  are  houd 
miles  away,  and  to  which  all  their  names  refer. 
They  live  chiefly  among  the  branches  of  trees,  and 
take  eittaordinBry  leaps  from  one  to  another,  taking 
hold  by  the  tail  as  readily  as  by  the  haoda,  and 
often  swinging  by  it  alone.  They  are  gr^arious, 
and  unite  their  voices  in  concert,  ho  aa  to  produce  a 
most  deafening  noise.  The  motJcns  of  utis  genus 
are  regarded  as  in  their  low  intelbgence  and  their 
fierceness  of  disposition  American  representatives 
of  the  baboons,  whilst  in  many  of  their  habita 
they  more  nearly  accord  with  the  gibbons  at  tha 


Howling  Monke)'  [Mytettt  ui 


Old  World.    They  inhabit  tbe  north-eaateni  patte 

'  Sonth  America.    They  are  the  largeet  monkeys 

the  New  World,    There  are  not  many  species. 

HOWTH,  a  small  pemnsula  on  tbe  east  coast 

of  Ireland,  forms  the  north  shore  of  the  Bay  of 

Dublin,  and  is  two  and  a  half  miles  longby  about 

two  miles  broad,  with  an  area  of  about  SCOO  actts. 

H  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  low  and 

narrow  isthmus,  and  its  insular  appearance  greatly 

enhances  the  pictnresque  effect  of  l>ublin  Bay, 

HOT,  a  small  vessel  differing  little,  if  at  all.  from 

e  sloop  or  smack.    Its  ordinary  emjdoyiiMnt  is  in 

carrying  goods  or  pasaengen  coastwise  froln  ooe 

^aoe  to  another,  and  particularly  in  inkts,  tUn 


tyCoogle 


where   longer   lighten   ftnd    other   Teaeela   could 
iDuueaTTe  only  with  difficulty. 

HOY,  one  of  the  Orkney  blandB,  Ilea  tonth-wett 
from  Pomouft,  or  the  Mainland,  irora  which  it  is 
■epanted  by  a,  puuge  tiboat  2  milea  in  width.  It  ii 
14  milM  long,  and  6  mQes  broad,  ind  ita  popnia- 
tion  in  1871  waa  13SS.  Unlike  the  moBt  of  the 
ialanda  of  its  gronp,  Hoy  riaea  abruptly  from  the 
aea,  with  precipitoua  clifla  1000  feet  in  hught  front- 
ine  tho  west ;  the  highest  eminence,  Wort  Hill,  ii 
]  Ss  feet  aboTO  aea-leveL  It  hu  in  the  sooth  the 
harbour  of  Lone  Hope,  >aid  to  be  the  flnert  in  the 
Oibieyi,  and  ddendM  by  a  fort  and  two  mortello 
towers.  Among  the  cnrinoitieg  of  the  ialaad  ore  the 
Dworfie  Stone,  a  block  of  aandatone,  22  feet  long, 
17  feet  broad,  and  7  feet  high.  One  end  of  it  hai 
been  hollowed  out  by  iron  tools,  the  marks  of  which 
are  still  visible,  and  a  hind  of  apartment  fonned.  In 
the  sonth-weBt  of  the  island  is  the  Old  Man  of  Hc^, 
a  pillar  of  nxl  300  feet  in  height. 

HO'YA,a  genos  of  tropical  planta  of  thi 
Atclepiadarxa,  baTins  a  3-cleft  wlteel-ahaped  corolla, 
and  a  S-leaTed  spreading  fleahy  corona.  Some  of  the 
spedea  are  common  in  botIians«a,  and  from  the 
•ppBarance  of  their  flowers,  they  are  called  Wax- 

HUAHBI'N^  the  moat  easterly  of  the  Sodety 
Ialanda  (q.  v.). 

HUALLA'OA,  a  rirer  of  Pero,  rises  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Andes,  near  Ut  11°  &,  at  an  elevation 
of  13,200  feet  above  the  sea.  After  a  northerly 
course  of  abont  500  milea,  during  which  it  presents 
many  considerable  falls,  it  enten  the  Amazon. 

HUAHA'NOA  (now  caUed  Atacucho),  a  dty 
of  Pern,  in  the  department  of  Ayaouoho,  stands  on 
nu  affluent  of  the  Apurimaa  It  was  foundad  by 
Pizarro  in  1539,  on  tiie  route  between  the  old  and 
new  capitala  of  the  country,  Cozoo  and  Lima.  It 
haa  a  po^lation  of  aboat  1^000,  wiUl  a  cathedral 
and  a  university.  Near  H.,  in  1824,  was  completed 
the  independence  of  Spuiish  Aioerica,  by  the 
deciaive  victory  of  General  Suor^. 

HUA'KAOA,  or  aUANACO  {AuiAmia 
Hnanaca ;  see  Auohikia),  a  species  oC  the  same 
genus  with  the  llama  and  alpsca,  of  both  of  which 
■ome  natoraliste  suppose  it  to  be  the  wild  original. 
It  is  found  not  only  on  the  Andes,  but  throughout 
great  part  of  Patagonia.  It  ia  of  a  reddiah-OTOwn 
coloor,  the  ears  and  hind-l^a  P*-J-  1^  generally 
lives  in  herds  of  ten  to  forty,  and  is  very  quick- 
sighted  and  wary ;  although  such  is  the  strength  of 
ila  curiosity,  that  hunter*  attract  the  herda  within 
easy  reach  of  their  rides  by  lying  down  on  the 
groond,  and  kicking  their  feet  in  the  air.  Like  ite 
congeners,  the  H.  is  ertremely  sure-footed  on  rocky 
ground. 
•  HUAHCAVBLI'CA,  a  town_ot  Pern,  about  80 
miles  to  the  west-n<vth- 


a  elevation  of  11,000  feet  above  the  sea,  on  ^ 
east  decliri^  of  tile  Andca.  Its  inhabitants,  said 
to  be  about  lOJXKI  in  anmbw,  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  working  of  the  neighbouring  mines  of  gold, 
silver,  and  quicksilver. 

HnA'NTJCO,  a  town  of  Peru,  on  an  affluent  of 
the  Huallaga  (q.  v.),  which  bears  ita  own  name,  is 
utnated  on  the  east  declivi^  of  the  Andes,  at  a 
distance  of  ISO  miles  to  the  north-north-eaat  of 
Lima.  It  contains  6000  inhabitanta,  add  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  pUc«a  in  the  connti?. 

HUABA'Z,  or  HITARAB,  a  small  town  oF 
Fmti,  sitoated  in  a  valleiy  of  the  Andes,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  Saati^  150  milea  aauth-caat  ot 
tlM  seaport  of  Tmxillo.    Pop.  6000. 


HUBBB,  FKAMioia,  a  Swiss  naturalist,  waa  bean 
at  Ooieva,  July  2,  1750.  At  an  early  age  he  lost 
his  eyeii^t,  and  soma  yean  after  thia,  married  a 
Mademoiselle  Lullin,  by  whoae  nrniintanrn,  and  that 
of  an  intelligent  domestio,  named  Bumens,  he  mads 
a  vast  variety  of  original  and  important  obaervatioua 
on  the  habits  of  bees, '  which  did  much  to  consci 
the  errors  and  imperfsctiona  of  previous  writers. 
K's  first  work  wb«  entitled  Lttlrea  d  Ch.  Bonntl 
(1792).  It  waa  reprinted  in  1796,  and  again  in  1814, 
under  the  title  of  NowxUa  Obaercaitoai  tur  ia 
AbaiUt.  Inhia  latter  yws,  H.  derived  important 
aid  in  hit  studies  fron  bis  son  Pierre  (bom  1777, 
died  1840J,  the  author  of  a  valuable  treatise  an  the 
Sabitt  of  ArUe,  and  of  aevsral  able  memoirs  relat- 
iog  to  Zoology  and  Meteorology,  which  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Mem.  Soo.  Qen^e,  between  the  years 
1821  and  1830;  H^  died  at  Lausanne,  2Ut  December 
l&^I. 

HUBITBR,  B.VD.  Jul.  Bimio,  one  of  the  moat 
eminent  painters  of  the  modem  German  school,  waa 
bom  at  Oels,  in  Silesia,  in  1806,  and  first  attncted 
attention  by  his  picture  of  *  Buth  and  Boaa.'  In 
1339,  he  settled  at  Dresden,  where  he  has  been  a 
professor  since  1811.  His  principal  produotionB  are 
— '  Samson  overthrowina  the  Pillars  of  the  Temple,' 
'The  Departure  of  Naomi,'  'Christ  and  the 
Evangelists,'  'Job  and  his  Friends,'  'The  Laveis 
of  the  Canticlea,'  '  Happiness  and  Sleep,'  '  Christ 
in  the  midst  of  the  People,'  '  The  Fisherman '  (from 
the  ballad  rf  Goethe),  '  The  Golden  Age,'  and  *  The 
Dimnte  between  Luther  and  Dr  Ect  at  Leiprig.* 


HDD,  EvARisTB  RioiB,  a  diitinsnished  mission- 
ary and  baveller,  waa  bom  at  Tououse,  August  I, 
1813.  He  was  educated  in  hi*  native  city,  and 
about  his  24th  year  be  entered  the  misaionan 
congregation  of  the  I^zarift  Fi^ien,  and  reoaived 
holy  ordeia  at  i^ris  in  the  fear  1839;  Almost 
immediately  after  hia  ordinabon,  he  joined  the 
missionaiy  expedition  of  hia  order  to  China.  Alter 
he  had  spent  about  three  years  of  missionary  life  in 
the  noTtaem  districts  of  China,  the  new  apostolio 
vicariato  of  Mongolia  was  founded,  and  H.,  m  oom- 
THuiy  with  a  priest  of  the  same  congregation,  Pii« 
Oabet,  and  a  siufde  native  Chinese  convert,  under- 
took to  explore  the  new  district,  and  to  ascertain, 
for  the  guidance  oC  the  mission,  its  extent  and  " 


some  months  in  one  of  the  Lamaseries,  or  Tartar 
monasteries.  Having  here  become  fanuliarised  in 
some  degree  with  the  Tibetan  language,  they  «iic> 
ceeded  in  making  their  way,  in  >^uaiy  1846,  to 
H'lassa,  the  capital  of  Tibet,  and  the  residence  <rf 
the  Grand  Idma  ;  but  scarcelv  had  they  settled  in 
that  city,  when  an  order  for  Uieir  immediate  ezpul- 
aion  from  the  oountiT  wss  obtained  from  the  Lama 
by  the  Chinese  reaident  in  H'lassa.  They  were  not 
permitted  to  choose  their  own  route  homewards, 
but  having  been  put  in  charge  of  a  Chinese  e»e<xt, 
were  carried  back  a  journey  of  nearly  2000  miles  to 
the  extreme  south,  and  arrived  in  October  1846 
at  Macao,  where  they  were  subjected  to  a  tedious 
trial  by  the  Chinese  tribunals.  In  the  end,  they 
were  permitted  to  return  to  the  miaiionaiy  station 
of  Si-wang,  from  which  they  had  criginaUy  taken 
their  depwture.  H.'b  health  having  be^  com- 
pletely broken  down,  he  sailed  from  Macao  in  the 
b^inning  of  January  1849,  and  in  the  antnmn  td 


t.LiOogle 


HTTCKABAQE—HUDSON. 


In  the 


ne  TMT  nftdwd  his  iwtiTe  oity  of  ToulooM. 
.  following  TOW  be  retnrned  to  P*ruL  wberc 
iUlili*d  Bouteitin  tTvn  Tosagt  dan*  la  Tar- 


IsTMM,  tt  IaCUi>ep«ndan(b*  JfMJMlSM 
— 18«e  (2  vols,  ^tan^,  im).  Thii  wh  f<illow«d,  in 
ISSi,  by  a  limilw  iwoid  <rf  hii  ChineH  eiperienoa 
(2,'AiipiM  OMiiot^  S  toIb.  3d  edit.  185?) ;  uid  in 
1S57  ay  an  eUbonte  hirtorloal  work  on  ChriS' 
tianH?  in  Ohina  [Lt  Ohrinianlmui  en  OAJm).  AH 
tbeas  woAa  liave  been  tosndated  into  fiigliih  and 
most  oQiM  EnTDi>ean  langnagei.  The  stnngeneaB 
of  aome  of  the  incidenta  lecorded  in  the  book 
on  Tibet  pnroked  aome  d^ree  of  incrednli^  in 
oeriain  qoarton ;  bnt  Captam  BMditon,  a  uttw 
trBTeller  in  the  aamo  ■nffoOM,  wfaiob  hare  hitherto 
been  almoit  a  terra  ine^ptila  for  Eanmeana,  bean 
nnboitating  teatiman^  to  the  fldelitj  of  P^  Hnc't 
narrative  and  deecription- 

DnriiiA  bia  latter  yeart,  Ftre  Hao,  in  order  to 
devote  ft"— if  more  fiMly  to  hia  litoraiy  oooana- 
tioni,  -withdrew  fnun  the  I^zariat  coomgaUott. 
Hi»  health,  however,  never  folly  reoovered  from  the 
fatifroea  of  bta  Tibetan  expeditian,  and  he  died  in 
Paru  Maieh  31,  1860,  at  the  early  age  of  46. 

HTTOKABAOK,  a  very  coane  kind  of  linen- 
oloth,  flgnred  ■omewhat  like  damaak ;  it  ia  ntnally 
employM  for  oommon  tonreUing, 


.     [inbatiiring  and  market  town 

,  _  the  Went  Riding  of  Yorbhtn,  is  aitaated 

OiB  midtt  of  a  fertile  diMrlct,  on  an  acclivity  rimng 
bom  the  left  bank  of  the  Colne,  16  milea  loatb-wot 
at  Leeda,  and  abont  29  milea  notth-east  of  Uan- 
(dteeter.  It  ii  remalkably  reg^ar,  ia  well  built  and 
drained,  and  very  healthy.  Upon  the  Holme  and 
theCf^^whi^Qmta  in  tiia  town,  mmMroaa  milla 
have  been  erected  for  Qie  mann&otaie  of  wooUeo 
bbiioa,  and  for  fnlling  and  waahing  tba  gooda 
f  aotmed.  H.  atanda  in  {be  oeotn  ot  a  diitri 
in  ooal,  and  Ha  natural  advantage*  are 
tbrongh  iti  direct  ooanaetiai  witfa  the  srindMl 
leata  of  manufaottna  in  tba  ncrth  of  Engkud,  \>y 
meana  of  Uie  Londtm  aad  Ncrth-Wotcni,  Lanoa- 
ihiie  and  YoAabire,  and  Hamiheater,  Sheffield,  and 
Linodlnahira  taihnqw.  Among  ita  ohnrchca,  aeveral 
are  nOtewottby  in  an  arohiteotnral  view.  It  haa 
a  proprieta^  college,  now  in  amneotioQ  wiUi  the 
London  Umverai^;  ft  ooU^iata  adiool,  and  manv 
other  educational  uwtitntitHUj  a  drenlar  olotb-hall, 
SMO  feet  in  eircumferaioe,  m  which  a  market  '■ 
bdd  ior  woidlen  good*  every  Tucaday,  and  f 
general  prodnae  ever;  Satoidn  J  an  infirmary ;  and 
'-  tbe  vicinity  the  Loekwood  Spa  Bathi^  where  the 


trade,'  eompriaing  ahairia,  waifteoatiiiga,  flnahinga, 
&c.,  of  the  moat  elegant  patfcma  and  the  finest 
fabrio ;  it  also  oarriea  on  eitenaive  mannfaotorea  of 
narrow  and  broad  wooUen  fabnoa,  keraejmerea, 
■ergea,  and  oorda.     It  ia  oonneoted  by  om^  witb 


Pop.  (1871)  74*868. 
HUDSOK,  GiOKOK,  WngtiiTi  railway  director 
and  •peonlator,  was  born  in  ISOO,  and  appren^oed 
to  a  linan'Jr^wr  in  the  city  of  York,  whne  he 
aubeeqnently  oarried  on  bnsinesi  for  himself.  He 
took  an  early  ihare  In  railway  ipecolatioD,  aod  was 
aKwinted  rhainnan  of  the  Ncrtb  Midland  Compaay. 
Hu  plana  at  management  were  carried  ont^  schemea 
of  railway  •nnezaUon  and  ezteoaion  ware  under- 
taken, iiiiilmiiMiiiT  linea  were  relieTed,  and  rivals 
were  snbdoed.  He  wai  elevated  into  the  diotator- 
■hipof  railwaTspecolation;  averytbing  be  tonohad 
tnniad  into  gold;  and  H.  '        ' 


'the  BaSway  Ejoa'  The  sharea  at  the  bnea  with 
which  be  conaented  to  beoome  connected  went  up^ 
and  be  was  aud  to  have  made  £100,000  in  one  day. 
He  bought  larae  eatateaj  waa  three  times  elected 
lord  mayor  of  ToA;  waaaent  to  parliament  by  the 
electon  of  Sanderland ;  and  fcond  bit  aoqnHntanoe 
conrted  by  pereons  of  tbe  highest  rank,  when  the 
railway  mania  was  at  its  height  a  statue  to  H.  was 
proposed ;  and  namea  ware  pnt  down  for  £2S,000 ; 
oat  before  tbe  money  could  De  collected,  the  popa- 
laiity  of  tbe '  Bailway  King '  waa  on  the  wane.  Hia 
u-_  ^f^  ^m  £aB()em  Ceuntiea  Kailway  led 


mattenl 


ihadbeeo': 


The 


;'  anddividendabad 


lepleaaant^ 

bees  paid  out  of  o^utu.    Snnociona  wen  ti'^t<n1 

fall,  the  bubble  bunt,  tbe  railway  monarch  was 
depoaed,  and  encountered  nothing  bnt  invective 
from  quuieiv  wbitib  had  punned  him  with  adulation. 
Every  board-room  was  doaed  against  him,  and  hit 
Buddeuly  acquired  rains  were  umoat  swept  away. 
The  constitusncy  of  ounderiand,  however,  oontinned 
to  elect  him  as  their  representative  untQ  Hatch 
1SS9.  He  afterwards  resided  abroad,  in  compara- 
tively narrow  circamstancea,  and  died  Deo.  14, 1871- 


.  .  HxHBv,  a  diatingmabed  oavigstor. 
Hia  eariy  histoty  it  noknown.  He  ondertot^  his 
first  voyage  ftv  Qie  discoveiy  of  a  nortb-eatt  paasage 
in  1607,  in  a  small  vessel  with  ten  sulon,  bat  luled 
in  this  attempt.  In  hia  second  voyage  in  1608^  he 
reached  Nova  Zambia.  He  undertook  a  third  vi^us 
in  1609  from  Amsterdam,  at  the  expense  of  ue 
Dutch  Esst  India  Company.  Giving  np  all  hope  of 
^ding  a  nortb-eatt  paaaage,  he  sailed  fd*  Drnvia* 
Strait,  but  earn*  upon  t£e  Ante...  . 
about  44*  N.  lat^  and,  tteming  aouthi 

covered  the  movQi  of  tie  river  which 

his  name.  He  sailed  upon  his  last  voyage  in  April 
1610,  with  23  tailMi,  Mia  readied  GreMdaod  in  Jnne. 
Steering  westward,  he  <Hscovend  tbe  strait  now 
known  at  Hodton  ■  Strait,  and  patted  Ukronsh  it, 
and  entered  tbe  ^eat  bay,  which  bat  reoeived  the 
ime  of  Hudson's  Bay.  AJthon^veryionfficaantly 
ipplied  with  piDviaiont,  he  adopted  the  reaolutioB 
wintering  in  these  desolate  regions.  In  order  to 
prosecute  bu  discoveries  further  in  the  following 
spring.  He  proceeded  to  cany  this  design  into 
execution,  but  his  provisions  became  so  much 
exhausted,  that  he  was  under  tbe  neomsity  cf 
rstuming.  An  incautious  utt«ianee  of  his  o[Hnion, 
that  in  the  destitute  condition  to  which  he  was 
reduced,  ha  would  be  obliged  to  leave  soma  of 
bis  people  behind,  led  to  his  death.  Tbe  sailon 
mutmiad,  and  placed  him,  witb  his  son  and  some 
others  who  adhered  to  hirn,  iu  a  small  boat,  at  tbe 
mercy  of  the  waves  and  of  tba  savag«a.  His  &te 
was  revealed  by  one  of  the  conspirators.  An 
ipedition  wst  sent  from  England  in  quest  of  him, 
ut  no  trace  of  htm  or  of  his  oompanions  in 
liafortuns  wss  ever  discovered. . 

HUDSON,  Sis  Janxb,  O.Oa,  diriomatist,  is 
lie  son  of  a  Yorkahire  gentlamaa,  and  waa  bom 
1  London  in  ISIO.  Be  waa  edncated  at  Bogl^ 
and  Westtoinster,  and  subsequsntly  ttndied  at  ^ru 
and  Rome.  He  waa  made  private  aecntair  to 
William  IV. ;  and  after  the  king's  death,  entered 
the  diplomatic  service,  and  became  Seeretaty  of 
Leaation  at  Washington  in  18^  at  the  Hagne  m 
18J3,  and  at  Rio  do  Janeiro  in  184S.  In  1850,  he 
8  appointed  minister  at  BJo,  bat  was  bansfamd 
..  Florence  in  1851,  sud  to  Turin,  Jannaiy  1S52. 
Bit  counsels  exenated  Rest  influenoe  ovsr  the 
Sardinian  government ;  aid  the  oooalulaa  of  a  ocn- 
meroial  treaty  betwem  that  eountiy  and  f 
ri. ;._  ^  Saniinia  to  tba  toealyof 


jbjLiOogle 


HUDSON—HnDSOirB  BA.T  OOUPANT, 


between  Eiiffluid  and  Fnnce  agKinirt  Biucdn,  and 
the  despetcb  of  k  Saidinian  army  to  the  Craoeti, 
were  eerricca  which  pvenred  for  him  the  dipulT 
of  K.O.B.  The  long  tnin  of  Btiiring ennt*  tiwt 
TCBolted  in  the  united  and  independent  kingdom 
of  Italy,  demanded  th«  watdtftd  vigilaDOe,  kmI 
■ometimea  the  aotive  int«cfraaioet<rf  tila  Kitidi 
imnister  at  the  eonit  of  Tnritt.  H.  nerer  forsot 
that  he  wBB  the  miniiter  and  ni«eMnt^Te  of  a 
oone^tntional  gorenunen^  iriiidi  ajmiialUaed  with 
the  upintioni  <A  the  Italiaaa  for  natimial  indopend- 
ence,  and  wliioh  had  theMtore  the  privilMM  to  warn 
and  conjuel  aa  weQ  aa  to  animate.  Ho  retired 
from  Turin  in  1883.  Hii  diplomatie  ooime  hai  not 
eecaped  the  animadTeraiim  iAM»  partiaana  of  thioge 
as  thcT  wen ;  bnt  it  ha«  otHDmsndad  tlia  approba- 
tion al  the  TMt  majority  of  bti  oonntoymeb 

HTTDSON,  a  city  of  New  York.  United  StatM, 
Aoteriea,  on  tka  east  bank  of  the  Hodion  EiTer,  one 
hiuidred  and  lixteen  miles  north  of  New  York,  and 
twenty-nine  mile*  aonth  of  Alitany.  It  is  a  bfauti- 
bUlj  aitnated  and  weD-boilt  city,  it  a  pent  of  entiy, 
andloRUBrlyliadalaKMaiaonuta*  '' 
in  foreigD  trade  and  tl 
""""■" —    gedinmai 

export  ot  t^ricoltoial  staplea. 

a  fin«  aanii-hoai^  eleven  ohnrchec,  public  litnary, 

OTobta  Mybon,  and  three  newspaper^ffioaa.     Fop. 

(mo)  seis. 


rises  in  &e  Adirondao 
monntuna,  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
its  head-streams  are  the  ontleta  of  many  monntaiti 
lakes,  in  the  north-easteiiL  portion  of  the  state.  At 
(Venn's  FaBs,  it  has  a  fall  <d  SO  feet,  and  soon  after, 
taking  a  aontherly  oonne,  rons  nearly  in  a  straight 
line  to  its  month,  at  Hew  York  dty.  At  "ftoy,  IBI 
mdea  from  its  mouth,  it  is  affected  by  tiie  tide,  and 
beoomea  a  broad  deep  river,  having  a  width  of  from 
900  to  700  yards,  and  deep  enongh  for  the  Urgeit 
river  steam-boats,  and  for  ships  to  Hudson,  116 
milea.  At  Newbnrg  61  milee  from  New  York, 
tbt  river  enter*  the  highlands,  which  rise  abniptly 
from  the  water  to  the  bright  of  ISOfr-ieOO  fort. 
Here  the  loenerT  la  of  great  bean^  and  mndeor, 
and  ia  admired  by  all  navellera.  EhrrerM  td  Qtt 
hmdtta  are  crowned  with  the  raini  of  tortifioatloiUk 
bniU  to  prevent  the  paaaage  of  Britith  ihlpa  is 
the  War  of  Independence.  Here  wm  the  loene  of 
Arnold's  traaiotL  and  the  sad  fate  of  Ha}<w  And/& 
Emerging  from  the  tiigW«nH»j  the  river  widens  into 
a  broad  expanse  oolhd  the  l^ipan  Zee.  Below, 
on  the  west  bank,  on  the  New  Jersey  shore,  rises 
an  almost  straight  and  perpendicular  wall  of  trap 
rook,  from  the  river's  tnink,  to  a  height  <rf  300 
to  SOO  feet,  called  the  Fallisades,  extending  IC  milea 
to  tiia  upper  portion  of  the  eity  of  New  York. 
"Die  river  is  here  from  one  to  two  miles  wide, 
and  here  it  falls  into  New  York  Bi,j.  Its  whole 
length  ia  about  300  milea,  and  its  principal 
tribntaiici  are  the  Hoosio,  Mohawk,  Walkill,  and 
Croton.  Hie  steam-boata  whidi  p^  <»  tho  H. 
are  amoog  the  finest  and  fastwt  in  tlM  worid. 
Some  are  more  than  400  feet  km^  are  fitted  m 
with  great  bxary,  and  attain  a  apitii  of  23  to  SH 
mile*  an  honr.  ^Hte  Bndson  River  Bailway  mns 
along  the  tmuvin  of  the  river  on  the  east  bank, 
to  jQbany.  W/  this  rivw,  and  the  Kie  Canal,  and 
■Bvttral  rulway^  New  York  ii  ooaneoted  with  tiie 
neat  lakea  ud  the  west  The  rivn  is  named 
bom  the  English  navigate*  who  disoomed  it,  ISOS. 
Dhe  fbst  •nooewfnl  erpaiment  ia  itemi-boat  navl- 

S&M  WIS  made  on  l£ia  rirar  by  fiobert  FoUon  in 
07. 


HUDSON'S  BAY,  a  q)acions  golf  in  the  north- 
eMt  section  ol  the  American  continent,  may  be 
nnwded  as  an  arm  at  onoa  of  Uie  Arctic  Bea 
and  of  Ow  AtUntio  Ocean.  With  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  it  oommnnioatei  Inr  meant  of  a  strait,  which, 
besidea  being  aoiidly  bridged  for  abont  ten  months 
of  the  ye^,  is  beaet,  even  during  itB  brief  period 
of  navigation,  by  detached  fleet  and  berga  ^  ice. 
Tlte  eastern  poitiim.  of  this  outlet  ia  broken  up 
into  two  bniM^UB,  ofiets  of  Davii^  Staait,  the  more 
northerly  bearing  the  name  ol  Frobiaher,  and  the 
more  lontherlv  that  of  Hndaon.  It  is  fnlly  400 
milM  long,  and  avoagee  at  least  100  milea  in  width. 
Willi  tho  Arctio  Sea,  again,  H.  B.  is  oonneoted  by 
channels,  whi<^  notwitnstsJiding  the  comparative 
lownest  ef  tbeir  latstoda,  have  proved  imt  leas 
naotioaUe  than  the  Aictia  Sea  itsdL  never  having 
Dean  navigated  throa^umt;  but  it  u  only  wiiJiin 
theM  twen^-fin  yean  iliat  this  hopeless  teanlt  has 
been  deflnitirelf  aooepted  by  the  world. 


Kl*  to  62}*,  and  in  W.  long,  ban  761°  to 
3  onnpared  with  tba  caiTespixtding  iwions 
astern   side  of  tiie  Atlantio,  the  shores 


la&  from  61'  to 

96°.  Whenorani  

on  the  eastern   side  of  tiie  Atlantio, 

of  H.  B.  poeseti  a  singularly  inhoaptaUe  oUmate. 
At  Yorif  Factory  lying  nearly  in  the  latitnde 
of  Aberdeen,  the  nnset  weather  of  snmmer  ia  liable 
to  a  wintry  temperature  throu^  a  mere  change  of 
wind ;  and  tiie  most  sontheify  extremity  of  the  ndf 
it  beset  for  numtha  by  snow  at  the  very  seaaom  when 
the  Aroe  Tslandi^  sketching  at  far  north  as  the 
parallel  of  its  opnomte  end,  yield  avoilabls  pasture 
to  sheep  and  cattle. 

Though  H.  B.  ia  not  partienlariy  lemarkatde  tor 
the  exMut  of  its  drainage,  yet  towards  the  aonth 
and  west  its  baslD  meets  at  once  tiie  waten  of  the 
St  lAwrenots  the  Miamssippi,  the  Columbia,  and  tlte 
MaokenMe.  Its  lamst  feeder,  the  Helton,  fills 
perhapt  a  fall  half  oTtiie  area,  touching  the  Bocky 
Moontains  on  the  west,  embtaclDg  IU£iy  Lake  on 
the  east,  and  considerably  overiapping  the  inter- 
national  boundary  on  the  sonth. 

HUDSON'S  BAY  COHPANY,  a  oorporation 
erected,  in  1670,  by  Charles  II.,  primarilr  consisted 
of  Prince  Bupert,  the  king's  consiD,  and  certain 
specified  assooato.  It  was  inveebed  with  the 
absolute  proprietorship,  subordinate  sovereignty, 
and  exotnsive  traffic  of  an  undefined  tercuory, 
wMoh,  under  the  name  of  Kapert's  Land,  comprised 
-"  the  regions  disoovered,  or  to  be  disoovered, 
.  _Jiin  the  entrance  of  Hudson's  Strait  Bnpart's 
Land  was  decidedly  the  most  extensire  of  the 
dependendes  of  England,  being  held  to  embrace 
air  the  lands  that  poured  water  into  Hudson's 
Bay  or  Hudson's  Strait.  For  more  than  a  cen- 
tury, howevsr,  the  grantees  confined  themselves 
to  Ihe  cosst  About  the  period  of  the  formation 
of  tiie  American  republic,  their  advance  into  the 
-_•-._-._  ^^^^  accelerated,  if  not  occasioned,  by  the 

_ature  development  of  an  ancient  rivatry. 

From  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  c — an  epoch 
antecedent  to  the  charter — New  France,  beaidea 
stretching,  in  name,  to  the  arctic  drcle,  had,  in 
reali^,  advanced  to  the  shores  of  Hndaui'a  Bay; 


exempted  from  their  operation  any  aotn^ 
siona  of  anr  Christian  prinoe  or  state.    Thou 

'    s  of  Franee,  after  being  confirmed  in  lS97  by 

reaty  of  Byswiok,  were  at  last  abandoned  in 

1713  by  Che  treaty  cf  Ufreoht,  yet,  in  punt  of  tact, 
odventaren  from  the  great  lakes,  while  Csoada  was 
still  French,  bad  pcnmiated,  in  quest  of  peltiy,  far 
~  ~  tiie  Saskatchewan  towards  the  Booky  Mountains. 

ch  overland  enterprises — interrupted,  for  a  lew 
years,  by  the  conquest  and  oeation  of  17W— 1763 


dbyGOOgh 


HDDSOira  BAY  COMPAKT. 


I   to  be   javMecnted,  with  more  syB- 
,..     Tj...nf_i      njpioea,   til'    -- 
the  North- 

Compaoj  of  MontreaL  After  an  age  of  Etubbom 
competiUoo,  tha  Hadson'i  Bay  Compui;  coalssced, 
in  1821,  with  ita  formidable  opponent. 

Bnt  the  two  memben  of  the  new  partnetship 
had  ab'eady  almoat  doubled  the  original  field  <M 
contention.  Tbe  older  awod&tioD  bad,  about  1770, 
traversed  the  baain  of  the  Ooppermina ;  and,  tally 
tweoly  f eora  later,  the  yonngcr  one  had  descend^ 
the  l£ickenzie  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  imd  had,  through 
the  baRier  of  the  Kocky  MonntaioR,  reached  the 
Fkcifio  Ocean.  Even  in  general  equity,  a  body, 
which  now  represented  all  tjie  diaooTeren,  had  a 
peculiar  right  to  the  diecoveriee  themselves ;  bat 
beyond  general  equity,  a  iecondary  proviaioa  of 
the  lettere-patent  ol  Charles  II.  had  regarded  sacb 
diaoovedea,  at  leaat  for  the  purposes  of  trade,  bk 
accretions  to  the  primary  grant!  Accordingly,  when, 
in  1821,  parliament,  in  view  of  the  intolerable  evils 
competition,    em 

encea    for    the   ' _  ,.. 

declared  to  be  all  the  wildemenee  of  Britiiih  N( 
America  to  the  wart  of  Bupert's  Land— the  govern- 
ment eierdwd  this  statutory  anthoritif  in  favour  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  as  leoMt  and  extended 
by  the  coalitian.  So  for  as  cmnmeroa  was  oonoemed, 
there  was  now  no  praotical  diffezanoe  bettreeu 
Bupert's  Land  and  the  Indian  Teiritoriea,  exoeptLng 
that  the  charter  of  the  former  was  perpetaal,  and 
the  licence  of  the  latter  was  to  be  for  20  year*  at  a 
time ;  and  thus  the  newly-modifled  association  virta- 
ally  ruled  the  western  world,  thiangh  75°  of  long., 
fnmi  Davis'  Strait  to  Monnt  St  Elias,  and,  tiirou^ 
2S°  of  lat,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Macketude  to 
the  boideta  of  Cahfomio. 

About  twenty  yeara  after  the  coahtion,  Or^on 
from  the  borders  of  California  to  the  parallal  of  49° 
N.,  which  had  always  been  opea  to  Americans  l^ 
intematioDal  arrangement,  waa  given  up  to  the 
United  States  by  the  same  treaty  which  sacdSced 
Bcctiona  of  Canada  and  New  Brunswick ;  in  1359, 
the  rest  of  the  trsmootane  tract  waa  brought  within 
the  pole  of  ciTilisation  OS  the  national  colanie^, 
of  Vanoouver'B  Island  and  British  Columbia ;  and 
lastly,  as  the  second  term  of  the  licence  waa,  in 
1359,  also  permitted  to  expire  without  renewal, 
the  remainder  of  the  '  Indian  Territories '  waa  then 
potentially  thrown  back  into  the  condition  from 
which  tbe  statute  of  1821  had  seen  St  to  rescue  it. 
— In  all  these  cases,  excepting,  of  course,  the  case 
of  Oregon,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  would  appear 
to  have  lost  rather  formal  privilege  than  actual 
influence,  retaining,  if  not  a  le^  monopolv  as  of  old, 
at  Icnet  a  commercial  supremacy  on  a  wii^r  basis. 

Though  the  withholdiDg  of  the  licence  neither 
afTectef  nor  professed  to  aSect  Bupert's  Land,  yet 
between  it  aod  the  remaining  portion  of  tbe  Indian 
Territories  the  difference,  so  ur  as  Hudson's  Bay 
Company-  wu  concerned,  was  little  more  than 
nommol ;  and  in  1809  the  company  made  a  formal 

;__   i-  y^g   British   ^vemraent    of    whatever 

ing  an  indemnity 

Canada,  to  whidi 

the  whole  territoriaa  were  forthwith  annexed.  So 
far  as  the  Indians  are  ooBcemed,  the  ultimate  results 
of  the  qntem  of  competition  thus  sanctioned  are 
fairly  omd  to  question,  "nie  methods  adopted  by 
specniMon  to  aeoore  natire  oo-operation  have  long 
condemned — eapecnally   that   free   supply  <3 

y  wfaioh  hM  hmi  *n(^  &  d€«i-  " "-  -*  — 

them.  > '  This  the  oompany  never  li 
to.  Beaidea,  tbe  company  nrnther  eztiipated  nor 
expatriated  the  tribes.  Their  great  infloence  for 
good  over  the  half-bnedf  alao  ia  not  to  ba  lotgc^ten. 


The  natavea  are  held  in  higher  esteem  <haa  theaa 
descendants  of  mixed  bloo(^  who  are  looked  down 
upon  by  both  the  white  fcjk  and  tha  abmi^nest 
This  matter  of  feelings  however,  has  not  prevented. 
the    holf-brecds   enjoying    tha    aame   nchla    and 

Erivilegea  as  their  white  neighbours.  In  uct,  they 
ive  been  elevated  under  tha  influenoa  and  care  of 
the  E.  B.  C,  to  a  higher  degree  of  civiUsatian  than 
the  same  class  has  elaewh^  attained.  Tha  oom- 
pany were,  while  holding  territorial  authority,  strong 
enou^  to  prevent  any  encroachments  on  their  lands. 
Occasionally  a  few  spaculatorB  and  their  emissaries 
would  attempt  a  settlement,  but  they  fonnd  it  use- 
less to  try  to  compete  with  their  formidable  rivaL 
Now  these  competitors  are  free  to  put  fnth  all 
their  energies,  or  to  fritter  them  away  ;  aod  in  such 
a  life  many  will  lose  all  relish  for  steady  occupation, 
will  operate  as  much  stfsinst  each  other  aa  against 
the  company,  leduoe  the  rate  of  profit,  and,  in  the 
absence  of  all  permanent  interest,  exhaust  both  the 
hunters  and  the  game. 

Fonoerly  there  were  but  few  immigrants  into  the 
Hudson's  Bay,  territory.  Most  of  the  settlen  were 
either  retired'  servants  of  the  company  or  their 
"■  .    The  few  iromigcanti  in  purmiit  of  a«ri- 

.._.  enterprise  were  sent  to  Rupert's  lAndat 
.  .  expense  of  otbeie,  such  aa  the  Earl  of  Selkirk 
(see  Red  Rfvee  8FTTLSME,Tr),  or  tha  company 
itself.  But  since  the  annexation  of  the  terrifa^  to 
Canada,  and  the  formation  of  the  province  of  Uani- 
toba,  there  has  been  an  influx  of  immigrants  into 
the  land  ;  and  this  influx  will  become  broader  and 
deeper,  for  a  flner  grain-growiog  country  than  that 
to  the  Dorth-weat  of  tiake  Superior  doe*  not  lie 
under  the  sun.  The  loss  ot  territorial  oontrol  tuw 
not  in  the  least  a^cted  the  H.  B.  C.  as  a  tndiiig 
oommnnity.  Its  organisation  is  still  eomp1et&  Ita 
share*  or  parta  are  indeed  now  quoted  on  the  atock 
exchanges,  an  arrangement  quite  recently  come  to, 
but  this  only  means  that  a  widw  public  may  enjoy 
ita  bene&ta  than  vFas  formerly  allowed  under  > 
very  cloae  corporation.  It  haa  still  ita  offioes, 
ita  outleta  for  young  energy  to  risk  itaelf  'over 
flood  and  fell;    but,  beat  of  all,  very  laiga  divi- 


the  proprietors,  ani  about  £32,000  to  tha 
partners.  This  income  arises  almost  entirely  from 
furs  ;  for  other  articles,  snoh  aa  tallow,  oil,  feathers, 
fish,  timber,  ko.,  have  never  been  of  much  account. 
The  working  organisation  of  tha  company  is  aa 
follows  :  A  young  man  commences  with  the  rank 
of  apprentice-clerk,  or  apprentice-postmaster.  These 
poatmasi«rs  are  those  in  charge  of  the  various  potts 
which  have  been  from  time  to  time  erected  atound 
the  central  one,  at  distanoes  varying  from  about 
aOO  to  600  miles.  Snoh  •ettlementa  are  supplied 
with  goods  in  sooordance  with  the  amount  of 
trade  hkely  to  be  done.  In  the  fall  of  the  year 
the  Indians  collect  snd  get  what  is  called  'debt' 
proportionately  with  their  known  qnalificatiooa 
aa  nunters.  They  than  depart  to  their  huotiiig- 
gtonnds,  and  are  visited  at  various  periods  during 
the  winter  by  the  servants  of  the  company  (gmer- 
ally  half-breads),  who  bring  back  wiu  tliMD  any 
pelbisB  (or  furs)  that  may  be  on  hand.  n«ss, 
in  tun,  are  made  into  pocks  and  tranamittsd,  in 
spring,  by  canoes  to  the  cenbal  past,  and  tram 
thanoe  aie  transmitted  either  to  Bnglaod  or  Canada 
••  the  caw  may  be.  These  skins  are  given  to  tha 
traders  in  rspaymeat  of  the  '  debt '  paid  to  tha 

?orfnither  psrtionlai^see  Fiti^enld'*  3aami»atio» 


t,  Google 


HOi— HUG. 


q/*  the  Charier  and .  Proceedingt  nf  the  Sudaon't 
Sav  CoBipang,  anil  Uantgomery  Martin'i  Hud- 
toa*  Sag  Compan^g  Terriioriea,  aitd  Vaticouver'i 
lilcmd,  both  pobluiliBd  in  1849— perhaps  tha  lead- 
ing irorks  on  oppoBito  aides  of  a  mnch.  vexed  con- 
troveray, 

HUE,  the  capital  of  CocIuq  China,  or,  more 
pmperljr  tpcaking,  Annam,  io  the  gulf  of  Tonquin, 
m  the  prefecture  of  Thiia  Thnan,  16°  30'N.  lat, 
107'  12'  E.  lonj.,  10  milei  from  the  month  of  the 
Hne  River,  ft  la  bnilt  almost  in  ths  European 
style.  Under  the  reign  of  King  Cia-lnng  (1801 — 
1820),  it  was  itrongl;  fortified  oy  Freni^  officers, 
to  whom,  with  a  French  hiahoj),  that  monarch 
was  indebted  foe  bis  throne.  It  is  accestible  only 
to  voagels  of  the  snulleat  cImb,  owin^  to  the 
■halloimesi  of  the  small  river  on  which  it  a  sita- 
atcd.    Pop.  VDiiouely  estimated  at  from  30,000  to 

ioo,ooa 

HUE  AND  CRY,  a  phraso  mad  in  EngUsh  law 
to  describe  Ihe  body  of  perBoas  joining  in  the  pur- 
snit  of  a  felon.  Whoever  arrests  tho  person  parBued 
is  so  far  protect«d,  that  he  requires  no  warrant  to 
justify  the  arrest ;  and  even  if  the  party  torn  out 
to  bo  no  felon,  no  action  can  be  brought  a  the  arrest 
waa  bondSdt.  But  it  is  not  only  a  gromid  of  actaoo, 
but  an  offence  subject  to  fine  and  imprisonment,  to 
maliciously  and  wantonly  raise  the  hue  and  ciy 
D^nst  a  person.  It  is  the  duty  of  all  penons  to 
jom  in  a  hue  and  cry,  and  if  a  person  who  baa  been 
robbed,  or  knows  of  a  robbery,  fail  to  raise  the 
hue  and  cry,  he  is  liable  to  fine  or  imprisonment, 
or,  according  to  some  authors,  to  indictinent ;  but 
these  pnnislmieuts  are  never  infiioted. 

HUEXTA,  a  maritime  and  tivding  town  in  tbe 
■outh  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  modern  province  of 
tha  same  name,  which  was  fonned  out  <^  a  portion 
of  the  Mici«llt  kingdom  of  Seville  (q.  v.),  is  situated 
at  the  oonfluenca  of  tbe  Odiel  and  the  Tinto,  63 
miles  west-sonih.west  of  Seville.  The  town  is  in 
constant  communicatioD  with  Portugal,  Cadiz,  and 
Seville ;  sends  great  quantities  of  fruit  and  floor- 
mattings  to  tbe  latter  places^  and  carries  on  an 
extensive  tunny-fishery.  The  remains  of  tbe  Soman 
aqneduct,  which  for  many  years  has  served  as  a 
quarry  for  tbe  rude  and  ignorant  inhabitants  of 
the  vicinity,  ore  now  fast  disappearing.    Pop.  7500. 

HITEBTA,  ViCBsn;  Gascia  bk  la,  a  Spanish 
poet  and  critio  of  the  18th  c,  was  bom  in  1720 
at  Zafca,  in  Eatremaduta,  but  n>ent  tbe  greater 
part  of  bis  life  in  Madrid,  where  be  held  the  office 
of  principal  librarian  of  tbe  Royal  Library,  and 
where  bo  died  on  12th  March  1797.  Hs  early 
distinguished  himself  by  his  poetic  talent.  Eis 
tragetfy  of  Saqud,  founded  upon  the  story  of  the 
love  of  King  Alfonso  VIIL  for  tbe  fail  Jewess 
Rachel,  and  its  tragical  catastrophe,  was  received 
with  great  entimsiaiin  when  first  produced  in  1776, 
and  IB  to  this  day  esteemed  as  one  of  tbe  very 
best  of  modem  Spanish  tragedies.  H.  waa  a  most 
zealous  bnt  not  alwaya  a  wise  or  akilful  defender 
of  the  ancient  Spauiab  national  ta>t«  arainst  the 
Gallicism  which  then  prevailed.  As  a  lyric  and 
dramatic  poet,  be  shews  great  command  of  language 
and  versification.  His  poems  were  published  in  two 
volnmes  [Obrat  PoeUau,  Madrid,  1778—1779).  B. 
edited  the  Ttatro  EtpaSol  (17  vols.  Madiid,  1765 
— 1786),  a  collection  of  tba  brat  works  of  the  cidttt 
Spanish  drainatasts, 

HUESCA  (the  0*ea  of  the  JUnnana),  a  very 
old  and  [nctniesqne  town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
modem  province  of  tiie  same  name  (see  Asaook), 
is  surrounded  by  old  walls  once  sunnonnted  by  09 
towers,  two  of  which  only  remain,  and  is  situated 
in  the  midst  of  a  plain  covered  with  vineyaids, 
237 


on  tha  right  bank  of  tbe  IsneJa,  60  miles  north- 
east of  Zaragosa.  Among  its  chief  buildings  are  the 
~\thedral,  built  in  1400,  a  beautiful  Gothic  edifice ; 
ity,  founded  in  1354  by  Pedro  IV. ;  and 
que  college  of  Santiago.  It  was  once 
seat  of  learning.  Tanning  and  manu- 
factures of  linens  are  here  carried  on  to  some  eitent. 
Pop.  10,066. 

HtJE'SCAR,  a  small  town  of  Spain,  in  tbe  pro- 
nee  of  Granada,  is  sitoated  75  miiea  nortb-eaatof 
tbe  city  of  that  name,  and  is  said  to  contain  a  popu- 
lation of  about  GOOO,  who  are  chiefly  emplt^ed  in 
the  mannf  octure  of  linen  and  woollen  goods. 

HUET,  Pktbr  Davtbl,  was  bom  at  Caen, 
February  8,  1630.  His  father  bad  been  converted 
from  Caiviiusm,  bat  died  while  H.  was  still  very 
young.  Tbe  latter  was  educated  in  tbe  Jesuit  school 
of  Caen,  and  waa  eariy  distinguiahad  by  hit  extra- 
ordinary progress  in  almost  every  department  of 
leanung.  Be  was  a  aealous  pupil  of  Descartes  and  of 
Bochart — the  latter  of  whom  be  accompanied  on  his 
visit  to  Stockholm  in  1652,  when  he  discovered  and 
transcribed  the  MS.  of  Origen,  which,  tnbsequently, 
was  the  basis  of  his  celebrated  edition  of  that  father. 
On  his  return  to  Caen,  he  gave  himself  up  entirely 
to  study ;  and  as  a  preiimioaTy  to  his  translation  of 
the  text  of  ORgen,he  published,  in  1664,  his  well- 
known  essay  De  IrUerpreUilioiK  ;  but  it  waa  only  at 
the  end  of  16  years'  stody  that  he  published  his 
edition  of  Origen's  Cvntmentaria  in  Sac  Scrlpfvraai, 
2  vols.  foL  (Roaec,  1668),  with  a  most  learned 
introduction,  entitled  Origanana,  which  has  since 
been  reprinted  in  the  great  Benedictine  edition  of 
that  father.  In  1670,  H.  received  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Law  ;  and  soon  after,  he  waa  summoned 
Paris,  to  take  part,  with  Bossaet,  in  the  educa- 
□  of  the  dauphin.  In  1679,  he  published  hit 
Dtmojutratio  Evangdica.  He  bad  an  active  part, 
moreover,  in  the  Delphin  edition  of  tbe  claaiics. 
In  1676,  he  entered  into  holy  orders  ;  and  in  1676, 
was  named  abbot  of  tbe  Cistercian  abbey  of  Aunay, 
from  which  place  is  named  bia  well-known  work, 
QutalioiKt  AiJidana  de  CoiKordia  EaUonit  et  Fida 
(1690).  Alaout  the  same  time,  also,  be  published  a 
work  On  liie  Site  of  tiie  Terratrial  Paradim,  another 
On  the  Vof/aga  of  Solomon,  which  were  followed 
later  by  his  equally  oelebnited  woii  in  classical 
geography,  HisUrrg  ^  iht  CoimiMret  and  Namgalion 
of  (Ae  AwAaiie.  In  1685,  be  was  named  Bishop  of 
Soisaons,  a  dignity,  however,  on  which  he  never 
entered,  being  transferred  to  the  see  of  Avranches 
in  1692,  He  was  as  zealous  in  tbe  discharge  of 
his  episcopal  dntiee  as  he  had  been  in  his  devo- 
tion to  literature ;  but  his  health  having  given 
way,  be  obtained  permission  to  resign  his  see  in 
16^,  and  ivtircd  to  tbe  abbey  of  Fontenay,  near 
Caen  ;  but,  in  1701,  he  took  up  his  residence  in  the 
Jesuits'  house  in  Paris,  and  published,  in  1717,  his 
autobiographical  memoirs — a  model  of  pure  Latinity 
as  well  as  a  most  interesting  record  of  the  history 
of  his  time.  E.  died  in  1721.  His  works  were 
publishel  in  a  collected  form  in  171%  and  a  volume 
of  Hjieliana  appeared  in  1722. 
HUFBLAND,  Chhibtophbb.  SeeSopp.,  VoLX. 
HUG,  JoRK  LaoHHAAD,  waa  bom  at  Comtanoe, 
June  1,  1766,  studied  at  Freiboig,  and  in  1789 
entered   into   priest's   order*.      In   1791,  be   waa 

rinted  professor  of  Oriental  laaanages,  and  of 
Old  Testament,  to  which  was  Mlded,  in  1792, 
tbe  profeesoialup  d  the  New  Testament  also.  Tbeae 
united  i«ofeasot«bipB  E.  cMittnned  to  hold  unin- 
termptedly  for  upwards  of  half  a  oentury,  with 
the  exception  of  some  brief  occaaional  visits  to 
tbe  great  lihiaiies  of  Munich,  Vienna,  Paria,  Milan, 
B«DiB,  and  Naples.    The  most  important  fndt  of 


hyGoogle 


HTTGO— HtTQUENOTS, 


hii  biblical  iweucliea  ■wu  hia  Intndueiitn  to  At 
Iftw  TeHamait,  which  mppMtnid  in  1S08,  ia  2 
ToU.,  uid  which,  bcndu  lerenJ  0«rd»d  editions, 
hu  been  bmiud>ted  into  tnort  ol  the  Eunipeaii 
langiugsB.  His  great  eminence  M  n  Idblickl  tchidu 
lad  to  hii  beiag  called  on  to  take  part  ia  the 
arrangtment  of  Su  newly  otgiaited  mAita  of  moit 
of  the  Qerman  nniTereitiee  a«  at  Bredan,  in  1811  i 
at  Bonn,  in  1816 ;  at  niUnsen,  in  181? ;  and  Mpun 
at  B^n^lD  1818  and  1831.  He  died  Ilth  Mai^ 
184&  Kb  worfci,  which  are  indiffoest^  in  Latin 
and  Qsnnan,  are  chie^  in  the  deptuiment  of 
l^blioal  criticiiin,  aa  OntXe  Age  of  (h»  KafMHW  US. 
(1810),  On  &e  CanUtie  tjfCon&iti  (1813,  and  again 
1818),  Oh  Oe  /mfiwaEuiitty  iff  Mamagt  (1816),  On 
Oe  Aleuaidriaa  Vtr»iM  (1818),  Jte^KwnuKKion  of 
Btrwui*  Lyft  nfJetut,  2  Tob.  <IS3&) ;  bvt  there  are 
inaubjecti  of  rlaaeical  ciinoiim,  especially 


IVrifil*  waa  Dompeaed.  B«tarnins  to  Parii  in  Jnlj- 
1671,  he  beaded  eameatly,  but  wiUumt  effect,  U» 
the  live*  of  tiie  CaaunaDiata.  H.  hoa  gtTen  ma 
account  of  bit  life  in  Act**  tl  Pan>k*,  1B70— 1872. 
1S62  witMtied  th«  pnblintion  of  La  Miafrablet,  m 
proee  romaooe  treatina  of  aodal  qoestitma ;  VScmmtt 

ri  Jiit,  ^ipeusdin  1869i  Q«airM>{iMt-(Kns  in  1874. 
collection  of  his  Sptteki*  was  pnSliihed  in  1873. 
H.'a  writingi  am  often  eztnngant  botik  in  fonn 
andmbatance,  and  aometuDM  murad  t^  an  affectad 
triviality  of  imasei  aod  hanhn««  of  venifioAtaoo. 
Yet  they  hare  ^o  great  eicellencaa,  the  oonunand 
of  language  ahewn  ia  wonderful,  and  aa  a  Ijrio  poei 
"  '  '  been  equalled  in  Fnoocu 


HUGHES,  Thohab.    See  8upp,  YoL  X. 

HUOO,  TlorOB  HASn,  Viooim,  one  of  the  moit 
diitangiililwd  IVencli  writers  of  the  preaentday,  waa 
bom,  36tii  February  1802,  at  B««aii;on,  where  hia 
lather  wsa  then  comnmndant  ol  the  garriuih.  His 
mother  wm  a  native  of  La  TeodSe,  and  from  her 
he  imbibed  romantio  royalist  sentJuenti,  although 


hii  father  Wat  a  mint  devoted  follower  of  N&polt 

His  youth  waa   spent  partly  with  his  mo^er  in 

Psris,  portly  in  Italy  uid  S^sia,  where  Ms  father 


held  high  appointments.  He  early  acquired  dilttnc- 
tion  by  his  poetic  efhuions ;  and  before  be  waa  30 
years  lA  age,  his  published  worha  were  numerous, 
and  his  name  famous.  Odee  and  baUoda,  romances, 
dramas,  Ac,  flowed  frran  his  prolific  pen.  Shortly 
before  the  reridution  of  1830,  a  UttOBiy  revoln- 
tion  took  plaae,  at  the  head  ii  which  was  Hiiga 
A  band  u  your ' .— .^—    —a—-,    —a 


departing  from  clsssic  rules  and  models,  substituting 
A  varied  and  very  irregular  verse  for  the  monoten- 
oos  Alexandrines  of  the  old  school,  and  makino  art 
niecisely  cmiform  to  nature,  which  th^  carried  ao 
far  ss  even  te  bring  inte  prominence  thin^  disagree- 
able, which  nature  herself  is  displeas^with,  and 
teaches  us  to  keep  out  of  sight.  The  new  school, 
la  jtune  Franu,  as  they  called  themselves,  formed 
the  Somaitlicittt,  and  HiAt  opponents,  the  Classicists. 
The  Utaniy  war  lasted  sevwal  years.  H.'b  drama 
of  JVorion  Ddorme  was  xeceived  with  enthuaiosm ; 
and  he  added  to  his  repotation  by  the  publication 
of  FaaUei  tPAvlomne.  In  1832,  the  ministry  sus- 
pended cme  ol  his  drsmas,  Le  Hoi  a'amuM ;  bnt  bis 
popnlarity  continued  to  increase,  and  in  1837  Louis 
Philippe  made  him  on  officer  of  the  Legion  oF 
Honour,  and  in  lS4fi  a  peer  of  Trance.  Alter  the 
revolution  of  1348,  he  was  elected  to  represent  Paris, 
both  in  the  Constitaent  and  in  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  In  which  ha  manifested  Democratic 
principles,  and  wss  one  of  the  members  of  the 
extreme  left  who  were  banished  from  France  for 
life  by  Lonia  Napoleon.  He  went  te  reside  in  the 
island  of  Jersey.  In  1852,  he  assailed  the  ruler 
of  France  in  a  political  juunphlet,  Nt^okoa  U 
Pedl;  and  next  year,  in  Let  CfUUimaat,  a  series 
of  poems  written  with  great  verve,  in  tlie  same 
spirit.  In  18S6,  he  pubhahed  his  ContenyfialiirM. 
He  refused  to  avail  himself  of  the  amnesty  o£ 
August  IG,  ]869i  but  on  the  fall  of  the  empire, 
hastened  back  te  his  native  country,  joined  in  the 
republican  movement,  and  was  returned  te  tlic 
National  Assembler  at  Bordeaux,  which,  however, 
he  soon  quitted  m  disgust  He  then  went  to 
Bmasels,  bnt  the  Bdgion  govanunent  expelled  htm 
from  thJa  oovntay,  and  he  had  to  seek  refuge  in 
Vianden,  a  viUage  of  Istzembtu^g,  where  UAimIt 


riven 
This 


swloaaMten,  a 

.in  Vraaoetol 


I  Franca  and  Qeimaw.  One  of  1^  matt  < 
mea  in  the  early  hiscory  of  French  FiiiLf  IsiiUsin 
that  of  Farel  (q.  v.),  and  one  ol  the  flnt  sdp- 
porters  of  its  canss  was  Uargaret  of  Talois,  qne^  of 
Navane,  the  sistm  of  Franoia  L  Subaeqiicaitl^  in 
the  time  of  C^vin,  many  of  the  nobW  »w^  middle 
nil  ism  embr^sed  the  reformed  nligioiL  Franoia  L, 
howevm,  opposed  it  with  great  severity,  sod  caused 
nULuy  te  be  burned  as  Earetics.  The  allianoe  ol 
Henry  U-  with  the  German  Protestanta  pTe  at 
first  an  impulse  te  the  cause  of  the  BefonoKtioa, 
but  tiie  aspect  of  thinss  was  again  changed  vrhea 
the  fanuly  of  Quise  obtuned  the  oscendsD^  at 
court  Under  Francis  IL,  a  chambec  (cAoimfs 
ordenfa)  was  established  in  each  pailiaincnt  for 
tJie  punishment   of   Protestante ;         ^ 


oU  parts  of  the  kingdonk  lie  Protestants  took  ^ 
Sims  ogunst  the  government,  chooditf  Looia  I^ 
Prince  of  Bonrbon-Coodfi,  for  lltdr  leader.     On 


Bonrbon-Coodfi, 
I,  1660,  in  a  m 
resolved  te  petition  the  king  for 


at  Hantea,  Uiey 

—  ._  , »dom  of  religion, 

and  for  the  removal  of  the  Guises ;  and  in  the 
event  of  his  refusal,  te  seize  the  kiiia  s  person,  and 

SrocLum  CondS  governor-general  of  the  kingdinn. 
:nt  the  courts  being  apprised  of  the  oonnorsey, 
Qed  from  Blois  te  Amboise,  and  the  Duke  of  Oniae 
was  appointed  govemor-generaL  Soma  banda  of 
Protestants,  approaching  Amboisa  with  weapons  in 
tlieir  hands,  were  essily  defeated  and  taken ;  1200 
died  by  Oie  hand  of  the  executioner,  ^le  Ediet  of 
Bomorsntin,  in  May  1B60,  took  tiia  proeecnticD  of 
bercticB  out  of  the  hands  of  tha -parliament  and 
gave  it  inte  those  of  the  bishops.  By  t^e  Asaonbly 
of  Notables  in  August,  it  was  resolved  that  tin 
whole  matter  of  religion  shonld  rest  until  the  next 
Asgembly  of  the  States.  Wliilst  the  Oaises  plotted 
the  death  of  the  Protestant  leaders,  ChuM  IX 
ascended  tha  throne.  ■  prince  not  yet  of  age ;  and 
the  queen-mother,  Catharine  de  M^ici  (q.  v.), 
having  removed  the  Onises  from  the  helm  of  the 
state,  was  compelled  te  seek  the  support  of  the 
Proteatonte  ogunst  them  and  their  p«rty.  In  Jn^ 
1561,  appeared  an  ediet  which  freed  the  H.  from 
the  poial^  of  de«th.  For  the  complete  terminstMB 
of  strifet  uie  court  opened  a  religious  ecnfsroie*  at 
Brissy  on  the  3d  of  September.  Hie  chief  dispnt- 
ants  were  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  on  the  one  nde, 
and  Theodine  Bea  (q.  v.)  on  the  other.  Hie  (fleet 
of  the  discussion  was  te  unite  and  embddcsi  the 
ProtcBtiuits,  with  whom  the  machinatioia  of  the 
Ouisee  forced  Catharine  inte  doaer  aHiaiwe.  On 
Jsnnaty  17,  1S62,  appeared  an  edicts  P*ing  noble- 
men the  right  of  the  free  exercise  of  Uieir  rdigioa 
on  tbcir  own  estate*. 

The  Qmtesond  tb«jr  partisans  became  exsaper- 
ated.  On  Much  1,166% 'company of  riiilselMils 
net  In  a  bam  at  Vaaaj  fat  leligioai  Miwiiu^  «■■ 


hyCiOO^It: 


HTOUBKOTBL 


■tUeked,  and  m*^  of  Umiu  were  muBaond  br  the 
followen  of  tite  Duke  of  OniM.  On  tiua,  Condi 
hwtmed  to  Orloani,  Mtd  aall«d  his  cc-rdigioniiti 
■gain  to  liii  itaodaid;  whil«t  the  Gniiea  to<dt 
powawton  of  the  pateni  of  the  king  utd  ld«  nother, 
and  ptooUimed  the  Protettanta  rebels.  ^  8ep- 
tember  11,  IS6!,  the  royal  troops,  after  nach  blaod- 
ihed,  took  Boueo,  ana  on  December  19  a  battle 
irai  fought  at  Dreux,  in  which,  after  a  hard  ttroggle, 
the  Protesttuita  were  defeated.  The  Dnke  of 
marched  on  Orleans,  but  was  aasaaainated 
camp  before"  that  dty,  FebrnarjrlS,  1G63. 
the  queea-mother  hastened  to  o^idode  the  peace 
of  Amboise  on  March  19,  hy  which  the  ftotestant* 
were  allowed  the  free  exercise  of  their  rehgiaQ, 
except  in  oertala  districts  and  towns.  CMharine, 
Iiowerer,  hated  the  new  faith,  and  fnaned 
alliance  with  the  Spaniards  tar  the  extirpi  .  . 
heresy,  rebenched  the  new  libertiea  of  the  Piotes- 
tanti,  and  made  attempta  npm  uie  liberty  and  the 
life  of  Condg  and  of  the  Admiral  Colign^  ' 
These  leaders  of  the  Proteatant  party  adopt 
resolution  of  taking  poMewicin  of  the  king't  person. 
The  court  fled  to  Paris,  xhich  Condi  invested ;  but 
on  lOth  November  1667,  a  battle  waa  fongjit  at  8t 
Denis  between  CondS  and  a  much  aux>eriorforce  under 
the  Comitable  Uontmorenc^  (^-'O'  in  conseqaence 
of  which  Condfi  fell  back  mto  Lorraine,  where  he 
effected  a  junction  with  on  aniiliary  force  of  10,000 
men  from  Oennany,  under  Prince  John  Casimir. 
After  this,  he  again  threatened  Faris ;  npon  which 
Catharine  concladed  peace  at  Lcngjumean  on  2Tth 
March  1568,  re-establishing  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  Amboisc.  Nevertheless,  she  proceeded  to  penie- 
cute  the  Protestants,  of  whom  3000  were  assasein- 
ated  or  executed.  The  Piotestsnts  having,  how. 
ever,  received  assistance  in  troope  from  Oermany, 
and  in  money  and  attillerr  from  England,  began 
tho  third  religions  war.  But  ort  March  13,  IHO, 
they  were  debated,  and  CoDdS  their  leader  slain, 
at  Jarooe  by  the  r^al  troop*  under  the  Dnke  of 
Anjou,  afterwards  Henry  DX  The»  miafortnnoj 
greatly  dispirited  the  Froteetants.  Jeanne  d'AIbret, 
queen  of  Navarre,  endeavoured  to  reanimate  them 
m  an  nssembly  at  Cognac,  and  set  up  her  son, 
afterwards  Henry  IT.,  as  the  head  of  the  Frotestant 
cause.  Ooligny  became  llieir  milita^  leader,  and 
having  received  farther  oasistance  of  troope  from 
Oermaoy,  he  laid  siege  to  Poitiers,  but  was  again 
defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Anjou  at  Moncontonr, 
on  3d  October,  Fresh  remforcements  from  Eng- 
land, Switierlan^  and  Gennany,  enabled  CoLgny 
ta  take  NImes  in  1969,  and  to  relieve  Rochdle, 
whilst  Lanoae  obtained  a  victory  over  the  royal 
troops  at  Lu^n.   Catharine  and  her  son  now  soaght 


8t  Qermain-en-lAya  on  August  8,  1 570,  gave  to  the 
Protestants  an  amnesty,  tho  free  exercise  of  their 
religion  eveiyvrtiera  except  in  Paris,  and  the  posses* 
sion  of  a  number  of  places  of  aacurity. 

Catharine,  having  failed  to  overthrow  the  Protes- 
tant canse  in  the  open  field,  sought  to  accomplish 
her  object  by  treocherj^  and  by  a  general  massacre 
of  Protestants  on  8t  BAJtmoLOimr'a  Da.t  (q.  v.) 
1572.  Althoagb  deprived  of  their  leaders,  and 
weakened  by  the  slau^ter  of  great  numbers  of  their 
best  and  bravest,  the  Protestauto  flew  to  arms.  The 
Duke  of  Anjou,  after  having  lost  hii  airay  before 
Bochelle,  took  odvmutage  &  hi*  deotaon  to  the 
throne  a  PidaQd,  and  on  June  21,  1S7S,  concluded 
a  peace,  by  which  the  footeataali  oblaiMd  the  free 
exerdse  <»  their  nligion  in  their ^aoes  of  •eoori^, 
Uoottmban,  Ntmes,  and  Soohelle,  and  ■  ceitam 
oonaettkn  of  liborty  (4  onuoieDoe.  A  Motion  of  flie 
Soman  tMhdtio  itoUfi^,  at  wImm  head  wm  tlw 


Dnk*  of  Alen^on,  the  youngest  bod  of  Catiiarins^ 
from  pordy  politioal  motives,  united  with  tlw 
PiotestBota  in  oppomtion  to  the  govsmmait  of  the 
^neen-mother  and  the  6uise&  Catharine,  thecefoia^ 
iDoited  her  third  son,  Henry  QL,  who  had  now 

hocmtise  against  the  Protestanta.  But,  oonlrwy 
lo  all  enetnation,  the  Protestant  cauae  was  iu  the 
highest  degree  prosperoui  during  the  year  167S.  A 
peace  was  concluded  at  Beaulieu  on  Sth  itt>y,  by 
whiidi  the  notestantavrere  freed  from  aU  rMtriotiona 
in  tiie  ezeroise  of  tiieiF  religion,  and  obtained  a 
number  of  places  of  seouri^,  ^le  king  idso  pud 
their  Owman  auxillariw.    Olie  I>ake  of  Quise,  Uiu* 


.  oalled  the  Holy  __„__,  _, 
the  head  of  which  tiu  .king  pnt  hnnaaU  in  th« 
Aasembly  of  the  States   at  BldB,   on  Norembes 


6,  1670,  and  then  the  sixth  relifooai  war  began. 
"  '  ^un  oonolacled  by  t^  Bng 


Peace  was,  howi 


himaalf  at  Bergerac,  m  SepttnobBr  1677, 

former  conditions ;  and  OatAorine,  to  Himiniali  a^^ 
power  (d  the  Dnke  of  Quisa,  entn«d  into  a  private 
traaty  with  Heniy  of  Nvraire  at  Kerac,  by  which 
•eveml  places  of  •ecority  wa«  made  over  to  the 
ProteetanbL  The  terms  of  peace  being  violated  by 
the  court,  Henry  L,  Prince  of  Condt,  son  of  Loun 
L,  and,  like  his  fatiier,  a  leader  ot  the  Protestant 
piirty,  oODUDenced  the  semjth  religions  war  (called 
the  guoTt  det  anumteux)  in  Norenber  1^9,  by 
the  oooapatioa  of  Laftre,  and  Henry  ol  Kavam^ 
in  April  1680,  took  Cahon.  But  Ccodt,  ksving 
been  driven  out  of  LaAte  by  Matjwin,  ud  Henry 
of  Navarre  vanquished  at  Mont-(%abtil  hv  Binm, 
peace  was  concluded  at  Keiz,  November  IMD. 

There  was  now  a  oompantiTdy  long  interval  of 
repose  till  1684,  when,  by  the  death  ti  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  (formerly  of  Alenjon),  ^niy  of  Navam 
became  hor  to  the  throne  id  f^nnoe.  HareinMm 
Henry,  Dnke  of  Ouissy  exerted  himself  fcrthersviTBl 
of  tlw  League,  entered  into  an  allianoa  with  Spun 
and  the  pope  for  tlie  extiipatitm  of  henn,  daelamd 
the  Cardinal  of  Boorbcnt  hair  to  the  wattm,  and 
began  hodalities  apdnat  the  Pnnteatants.  IU! 
war  ia  onnmonljr  known  a*  the  'war  ol  tba  tfarae 
*"  *   The  king  soon  made  teraks  with  hirn,  »nfT 

U  thTpnvaegts  of  the  tntttbmtt  to  be 
forfeited.  The  n^testants,  having  oUaiiied  boops 
from  Owmany  and  money  from  England,  eoteied 
on  the  eighth  religiona  war,  which  was  praaeonted 
witb  various  succesa,  Haniy  ot  Navarre  ounmand' 
ing  the  Protestant  army.  The  Duke  of  Oniae^  in 
the  midst  of  these  taonblea,  grasped  the  whde 
power  of  the  state.  But  hia  rtj«ign«  with  regaid 
to  the  throne  having  become  very  evident,  the 
king  oansed  him  and  nis  brother  the  cardinal  to  be 
aasaaeinated  at  the  Assembly  of  the  States  at  Bloii 
'     September  16S8.     In  leas  than  a  year,  the  king 

a  himeelf  assswrinsted  by  a  monk  named  Jaoques 
(Element,  and  Henry  of  naram  moaeaded  to  the 
throne,  and  signed  the  famous  Edict  of  Naxns 
(see  NAims),  on  I3tii  AiprH  1608,  I^  which  the 
'  "~    of  tho  Protertanfai  vat*  establiilnd  and 


righta 


x^  tl 

iter,  Sufly,  .      _ 

teettmts  lived  in  tnmqnilli^.  But  whan,  during 
tity  of  Louis  Xlit,  Mary  de'  Medici,  the 
qacMi  of  Eenrv  IV.,  uaumed  the  rains  of  govern- 
ment, the  independenoe  wliich  the  Ptntestanta 
enjoyed  stood  too  plainly  in  the  way  of  a  oourt  bent 
upon  abeolutiim.  llie  king,  indeed,  took  an  oath 
in  16U  to  maintain  the  Emct  <rf  Nantes,  but  the 
marriage  taeatiea  with  the  Sp^sh  court  axdted  the 
amwetienmonB  of  the  notestaati  ta  anoh  a  dwa* 
Iha^in  N«nuber  161^  thqr  made  esouMm  oawe 


,Googl 


HUQUBNOTB-HUILE  DE  CADE. 


vitli  th«  Prince  of  C<md6,  who  had  then  sot  op  the 
■Unianl  of  rebellion.  Thit  th«7  did  oonttmry  to  the 
kdTice  of  the  moit  oagicioiu  of  their  own  p«rty. 
jUthongh  bjr  the  traa^  of  Londnn,  4th  Uajr  1S16, 
they  obtained  a  new  oonfirnution  ot  tiunr  freedom 
of  ttonhip,  the  court  now  only  waited  for  an  opff<X' 
tnnity  of^  braaking  at  least  their  political  powe& 
In  June  1617>  a  n^al  edict  oommanded  the  entire 
■nppreffiioD  at  once  of  the  Froteatant  Chajoh,  knd 
of  political  privileges,  in  the  province  of  B6*m  ;  bat 
the  provincial  court  at  Fan  refused  to  regiater  the 
edict,  and  the  matter  lay  over  till  1G20,  whsti,  at  the 
inttigatioa  of  the  Jeeoita,  and  of  his  favourite  De 
Lnynet,  the  king  carried  the  edict  into  foil  effect 
bv  foroe  of  arms.  The  Froteatants  throughout  all 
tnnce  took  alarm,  and  hostilities  again  &oke  — * 
in  May  1621.  At  the  head  of  the  Froteil  .. 
were  l£e  two  brothers,  the  Duke  of  Bohan  and  the 
Pdnco  SoaUse.  Their  caose,  however,  was  feebly 
maiutuaed ;  Umost  all  the  Frotestant  towns  Uu 
into  the  hijids  of  the  king,  force,  stiatagan,  and 
bribery  being  equally  employed.  At  last,  after  the 
capitulatioa  of  Uontpellier,  Slst  October  1622,  there 
foUowed  a  general  peace,  by  which  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  was  confirmed,  but  the  light  of  prohibitiDg 
the  aasenbliee  of  the  Protestants  was  ssanmed  on 
the  part  of  the  crown.  The  court,  however,  paid 
little  atteatdon  to  the  atipolationa  of  the  treaty,  and 
when  the  govemmeDt  waa  involved  in  difficulties 
in  Italy,  the  Protestanta  took  the  opportunity  again 
to  rise  in  amu.  Sonbiae,  with  a  fleet  furnished  by 
the  town  of  Bocbelle,  oftener  than  once  defeated 
tbe  weak  royal  navy.  Cardinal  Richelieu  (q.  v.l, 
who  was  now  at  the  helm  of  affairs,  found  hjinaeif 
under  tbe  neoeaaty  of  »"«ifing  offers  of  jtaciScation, 
wbich  were  lejectM.  Hereupon  tiie  oardmsl  resolved 
upon  the  capture  of  BochdlB,  the  most  important 
stronghold  of  the  Protestants.  This  he  aooom- 
^ished  after  a  beroio  resistance  by  Uie  inhaUtants. 
The  fall  of  Bocbelle  was  speedily  ft^owed  by  that 
of  Ntmes,  Moatanban,  Caatres,  and  all  the  other 
Protestaat  atroogholds.  Now  left  defenceleet,  the 
Protestante  were  entirely  dependent  on  the  will  of 
the  conrt,  which,  however,  made  no  attempt  to 
deprive  them  of  their  liberty  of  oonseienee.  It  was 
Louis  XIV.,  when  he  becune  superstitious  in  his 
old  age,  who,  at  the  instintioD  of  Madame  de  Main- 
tenon  emd  bis  oonfeaeor  Tj^-linifn,  oommenoed  anew 
the  peneoatton  of  the  Protestants.  He  gradoally 
depnved  them  of  thrir  eqnal  dvil  ri^ita,  and 
endeavotired  to  put  down  the  Finteatatit  Qiorch 
•HogeUier.  Bodies  of  tTO<w  •ccompanied  hy  monks, 
pasaed  tt^ough  tbe  southern  piovmcca,  compelling 
the  iohabitaiits  to  r«noDnce  their  religioit,  damolish- 


preaehezs.  Hundreds  of  thousand*  in  Protestants 
Bed  to  Swiberland,  the  Netheiiandi,  England,  and 
Oertaa».  In  vain  was  it  attempted  to  restrain 
this  aelf'SXpatnatian  I^  oordoos  along  the  borders. 


These,  o 


the   slightest 


j,,_, e  put  to  death.     

,  Lotus  at  last  reveled  the  Edict  of 

Nantes.  (See  Bnlhiire,  BdaireiMmunU  Bittoriqita 
tur  la  Ctnua  eh  ta  BteoeatiM  Oe  Vtdit  de  IfaMf, 
2  vols.  Paris,  17S8.)  Herenpon  began  a  new  flight, 
followed  by  a  still  mom  fearfnl  penacnIiDn  of  the 
Protestant*.  Thdr  manune*  wen  deelarad  null ; 
their  children  deprived  in  the  right  of  inherit- 
ance,   and  finmb^   shnt   up   in   convents ;   their 


to  tbe  monntains  of  the  Cevennes,  and  continued 
the  exercise  of  their  religion  in  secret.  Amongst 
thwri  and  the  mounbinecrs   of   the  Cevennes,   a 


lemariuible  fanatical  enthuBiaam  displayed  ituil^ 
and,  uoder  the  name  ot  Camisards,  they  msintained 
for  a  number  of  years  a  wonderfully  saccessful  oppo- 
sition to  the  force*  of  tiie  great  moDamhy.  The 
War  q/"  tlie  Cmtana  (q.  v.),  or  Camitard  War,  waa 
not  terminated  till  1706,  tbe  snpproaim  of  the 
local  rebellion  being  attended  with  dronmituoea  of 
n'eat  cruelty.  Fnnoe  had  lost  by  Uiit  time  mora 
tbaa  a  million  of  her  roost  active,  ente^ising,  and 

pereeoutioDa,  aboat  two  millions  ctmtinued  to  adbera 
to  the  Protestant  religion. 

Tl)e  partial  repose  which  the  Protestants  enjoyvd 
for  moro  than  toi  yean  was  attended  by  a  >«vi*al 
of  their  worship,  especially  in  Provenoe  and 
pauphini.  In  1724,  th^efore,  Louia  XV.,  at  the 
instigation  of  the  Jesuits,  issued  a  seven  edict 
aguut  them.  Iba  spirit  of  the  age,  however, 
now  began  to  be  opposed  to  persecution.  An 
edict  of  1752  declared  mariiaffn  ood  baptiams  by 
Protestant  ministara  to  be  null,  and  required  tba 
repetition  of  them  b^  the  Bomao  CathoUo  cleEsy. 
But  when,  upon  this,  nuuw  began  a^in  to  &a 
from  their  counlzy,  the  diagust  o(  the  Bjimjn 
Catholics  themselves  was  ao  much  excited,  that 
the  conrt  recalled  tbe  edict.  Moutesqaieu  sucoeaa. 
folly  advocated  the  cause  of  toleration  ;  Voltaire 
did  much  to  promote  it  by  hia  exposore  of  tbe 
judicial  murder  of  John  Celaa  (q.v.).  At  last,  by 
an  edict  in  1787,  which  iodt^  waa  not  renatervd 
by  the  parliament  till  1789,  lauis  XVI.  declared 
the  Protestant  toarriaeea  and  baptismB  to  be  valid, 
and  restored  to  the  ftDtestaiita  equal  civil  rights, 
eicopt  that  ihey  might  not  be  advanced  to  public 
offices  and  dignitiee.  Even  in  17S9,  a  propoaal  for 
the  complete  emanci^tion  of  the  Protestants  was 
rejected  by  the  National  Assembly,  which,  bow- 
ever,  admitted  ProteBtonta,  and  even  Protestant 
treochers  as  membeis  witliont  objection  ;  and  in 
790,  it  paned  a  decree  for  the  restitution  of  all 
tbe  propertiea  of  non-Catholics  confiscated  since 
the  tune  of  Louis  XIV.  The  Code  Napiiierm  nve 
Protestanta  in  Eranoe  equal  civil  and  potiacal 
rights  with  Bomou  Catholics.  The  charter  grantod 
\iy  the  Bonrbona  acknowledged  the  freedom  of 
t^teatant  woraUp,  and  the  stato  pledged  itself 
for  tbe  maiuteiuuice  of  the  pastors ;  yet,  under  tin 
govemmeiit  of  the  lUstoration,  the  privileges  of 
Protestanta  were  in  many  waya  circumscribed.  After 
the  revolution  of  July  1830,  the  Reformed  Charter  of 
Fiance  proclaimed  univcisal  freedom  <A  couscdcDCF 
and  of  woiship,  which  princijde  has  been  maintained 
in  subsequent  changes.  Protestanto  are  not  now 
subjected  to  many  exce^itioual  hardships,  and  have 
various  important  instances  been  protected  by 
I  imperial  authority  from  the  arbitrary  exraciBe 
of  power  attem[)ted  by  iUiberal  local  magistntca 
adverse  to  their  religion.  But  the  rtevgiiit^ 
Protestant  Church— in  which  are  included  both 
R^ormtd  and  Lviherant,  and  of  which  the  paston 
receive  amaE  ealariea  from  the  stote  (see  TiuuTcn] — 
is  not  permitted  to  hold  synods  or  general  assem- 
blies ;  its  affairs  being  managed  by  local  oatitiMorirt, 
somewhat  analogous  to  kiA-seaeiona  and  mal^- 
teries  in  Presb^erian  churches,  but  of  whtdi  t^ 
law  those  members  of  the  congregation  are  manber* 
who  pay  the  highest  amount  A  taxes. 

HVILE  DE  CADE,  a  brownish,  inflammable, 
oily  liquid,  obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of  the 
wood  ot  jvnipmu  Oxycedrut.  It  has  a  strong 
odour  ot  tar,  and  an  acrid,  caustic  taste.  It  ii 
almost  entjrdy  manufactured  in  Franoe,  and  hence 
tme.    It  is  employed  externally  in  vetcsinary 

cine,  and  has  been  used  in  the  hnmsn  subject 

both  azbtnally  ud  internally,  but  chiefly  exter- 
nally in  duvnie  akin-disesaei.    It  i*  a  good  local 


Cntizodhy'L-iOOgle 


HULDA— HtTHBt&BEEl 


remedy  in  toothftchs.  It  haa  be«n  g^cn  intenuBf 
in  woims,  but  ii  a,  duigeroai  aoA  nnaertain  remedy. 

HU'LDA.  or  HOLDA,  'the  friendly,  the 
bmigntnt,'  well  known  in  old  Oenn«n  kutendB 
■od  traditifflu  u  JVou  ffolle,  wh  originally  a 
goddeaa  ti  marriage  and  fecundity.  Wontupped 
and  inToked  by  maidi  and  wives,  to  the  fontier, 
die  cent  biidtorooma,  to  the  latter,  children ;  great 
niunben  of  whom  nuTonDded  her  in  her  favourite 
hannta  in  Out  dcptha  of  the  aea,  or  the  hearta  of 
hiDa.  She  waa  alao  the  patronesa  d  ogricnltntB 
and  draneatio  life,  with  ita  manifold  empToymenta. 
Sometimes  she  waa  regarded  aa  a  oeleatial  being, 
and  long  ago  the  peojile  naed  to  aay  when  the  anew 
fell :  *  Holda  ia  mafcin);  her  bed.' 

HUIiK,  a  name  given  to  enj-  old  ship  nnflt  for 
aea-«ervice^  which  ia  naed  in  harbour  at  a  depAt  of 
•ome  tort.  In  the  great  nav^  horboara,  there  ore 
cool-hnlka,  powder-nolke,  oonvict-hulka,  and  hnlka 
i.  ..i-_i.  .!._ 1  — jjgjg  repairing  are  tnmed 


to  wiiich  the  a 


HULL.  The  hull  of  a  ship  ia  her  main  body, 
eicluaire  of  maata  or  rigging. 

HULL,  or  Km03T0N-0N-HULI^  on  impotent 
and  flonriahing  TJing^iwh  rlTer-port,  a  pariiomentory 
and  mnnicipu  bi»ondi  and  cotuty  ol  itaelf,  ia 
aitnoted  is  the  East  Riding  ot  Yorkuiint  in  a  low, 
level  plain  on  the  northeni  book  ot  the  Hnmber, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Hull  with  that  river,  53 
milea  eaat-aontb-eaat  of  York.  Of  the  eccleiiaatical 
ediBoea,  the  most  notable  are  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Trinity,  a  beontiful  and  ornate  Oothio  stroo- 
ture,  the  tnuisept  of  wliich  ia  the  oldest  T-^nglith 
brick-building  m  the  country ;  and  St  HoiVa 
Church,  Lowgate,  one  half  of  which  waa  mnoved 
to  moke  room  for  the  mansion-honae  of  Heiiiy 
VIIL,  who  oc<!saionally  resided  here.  The  most 
important  educational  ettaUishinentB  an  the  Hull 
Onmmai^sdiool,  and  ^ni^  Honae  School,  where 
36  boyareoeiTe  a  nautical  odneatiMi.  Anequeabi — 
Statoe  of  William  UL  Btanda  in  tlw  market-place,  a 
BstatneotWiIbetforG&  Among  many  other  btnet, 
lent  eataMJahmanla,  tiio  Xrini^  House,  iutitnted 
for  Um  talief  of  decked  «'M>m'Ti.  and  the  CSiotiw 
House,  an  endowed  inatitutiaik  for  the  poor,  ore  tile 
mort  worthy  ot  note.  A  ptettiljr  loid-oot  Feople'a 
PaikwotpieaentedtothetowuiQ  ISOObySirP.a 
Pearson,  then  mayor. 

Th«  docks— Uie  Old  Dock,  the  Eumber,  the 
Jnoction,  the  Boilway,  and  the  Victoria  Dock*-— «re 
very  extensiTe,  tiie  last  named  being  the  lamtt 
A  oitad^  with  a  batteij  of  21  ffnna,  used  to  mnd 
between  the  Hnmber  and  the  Viobnia  Docks,  and 
commanded  th*  entrance  of  the  Hull  Sooda  and 
the  Hmnber ;  but  it  was  removedi  in  1SB4,  the 
Victoria  Dock  extended,  and  some  elegant  *b«eta 
conatruoted  on  the  aite  of  the  old  dtadeL  A  new 
west  dock  wliich  greatly  inrrrurn  the  occommodo- 
tion  for  shipping  was  opened  in  1869.  A  town-hall, 
»  new  endwnge,  and  a  new  theatre  were  all  opened 
in  1S66.  A  ^aeioaa  borough  jail  was  bmlt  during 
1866 — 1868.  H.  is  a  principal  steom-pscket  station, 
and  ooMO-steuners  ply  r^nlady  along  the  eastern 
British  Goaata,  and  to  many  of  the  principal  pMrta  of 
Belgium,  the  NetberlMidB,  and  Denmark.  It  is  the 
great  outlet  for  the  woollen  and  cotton  eooda  ot  the 
midland  counties,  with  all  of  which  it  u  in  direct 
communication,  by  means  of  railway,  river,  or  oanaL 
Many  ship-bnUding  yards  are  in  operation  here,  and 
the  chief  maQufoonirea  are  these  principally  to 
which  a  flourishing  port  givea  rise,  as  ropes,  canvsa, 
chain,  chain-cables,  machinery,  Ac  Many  mills  of 
vniiouB  kinds  are  here  carried  on,  aa  well  aa 
chemical  factories,  tanneries,  potteries,  and  sugar- 
refineries.     Immense  commercial  intercotme  sab- 


liats  between  E.  and  the  countries  of  Northern 
Europe,  the  principal  ezporta  being  wooltm  and 
cotton  manufactuTed  goods,  and  tiie  imports  timber, 
com,  wool,  iron,  llaz,  hemp,  tallow,  hides,  pitch, 
bones,  and  horn.  In  1872,  9768  TtMels,  of  2,866,999 
tonnage,  entered  and  cleared  the  port.  H.  retunu 
2  memben  to  pariiauenL  Ptni.  (1871)  123,406. 
Constitu«cy,  19,012,  iaoluding  1296  freemen. 

HDL3SAN  LBCItJBBS,  fte.  The  Ber.  John 
Hulse,  of  HwoTth,  in  the  ooonty  of  Chester,  was 
bom  at  Middlewich,  in  1708,  and  waa  educated  at  St 
John's  Ccllegei  Cambrld^  Hanna  no  childra,  he 
bequeathed  the  bulk  ot  hu  pnrnrfy  to  the  unrrersity. 
His  will,  an  extraordinary  document,  containing 
400  pages  folio,  of  closely  written  mannampt,  with 
nine  codicils  appended,  provides  for  the  lotmdiiig 
of  two  dirinity  toholarsbips  in  St  John's  College, 
the  Hnlaean  Pme,  the  office  of  Christian  Advocate, 
ud  that  ot  Hnlseon  Leetorer  or  Ciiristian  iWcher. 
By  a  statute  oonflrmed  by  the  Queen  in  oonndl  in 
1860,  the  offioe  of  Christian  Advocate  waa  changed 
into  a  mofesaiashqi,  called  the  Hnlaonp  Frofcsaoiihip 
<rf  Divmi^.  Kaap  EUicot  was  the  first  nofessor 
under  the  new  statute.  The  <^cs  ot  Hnlaeali 
Leotorer,  or  I^Htcher,  is  an  """"^l  one;  and  the 
duty  o£  the  lecturer  is  to  preach  not  leas  than  four, 
nor  more  Uian  six  sanmrns  before  the  university  in 
the  course  of  the  year. 

HD'UANISTS  [I^t  Ultra  ftunuMlores,  poUte 
letters),  the  name  assumed  >o  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  c  bv  the  port^  who  devoted  ihemsdvee 
ipeciollv  to  toe  cultivation  of  claasicil  literature, 
kud  who,  as  not  unfceqaently  happens  in  the 
inthnsiaam  of  a  new  ponoit,  om^ed  themselves  in 
■ppositioD  to  the  received  system  of  the  schools, 
not  alone  in  the  study  of  Uie  classical  languages, 
'it  even  in  philosophy,  and  eventually  in  thralogy, 
UUMANITAltlANS,  the  name  assigned  to 
the  several  classes  of  anti-Trinitarians,  who  regard 
Christ  as  a  mere  man,  and  lafose  to  aacribe  to  bim 


— ,  -_, , of  origin 

eariy  Jodaising  sects  of  Ebion  ana  Cerinthns ;  bnt 
this  is  by  no  means  certain,  at  least  ss  ngards  the 
former,  irtio  tauoht  that  at  the  baptiam  in  the 
Jordan  the  Demiurge  dnsnmdrd  upon  Christ,  ~  ~ ' 


was  united  to  him.  The 
of  the  pnrely  Humsnitarian  theory  ia  llieodotus 
of  Byiantium,  sumamed  Hie  Currier,  wh&  having 
denied  Christ  in  time  of  persecution,  defended 
•umsalf  afterwards  by  deduing  that  in  so  doing 
he  had  denied  not  God,  but  man.'  A  ccntem- 
poraiy  of  Theodotua,  Artemon,  taught  in  like 
manner  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  and  anerted 
thati 

tiU  t ,-,         ,     .  .        - 

must  be  carefully  mstmgoished  from  the  doctrinea 
of  the  variona  sects  of  Aiians,  even  the  lowest 
schools  of  wliich  have  admitted  the  pre-esdstenoe 
of  Christ,  '^w'^  his  pre-eminoace  muong  the  creaturea 
of  Qod. 

The  name  Hununitaiian  is  also  sometiines  ap^ied 
_j  the  disciples  of  St  Simon,  and  in  general  to  those 
who  look  to  the  perieotibili^  of  hnman  nature  aa 
their  great  moral  and  social  dogma,  and  ignore  alto- 
gether the  dependence  of  man  vpoa  ■npematnnJ 
aid,  believing  ii?  the  aU-snfGciency  ol  his  own  innate 

HTTSIBBB,  the  continoation  and  estusfy  of  the 
river  Dose  (q-v.). 

HUMBLB-BEE  {Sombiu),  a  genus  of  wxaul  bees 
(see  But),  having  a  thick  and  vary  hairy  body,  the 
hairs  often  atruged  in  coloured  bands ;  and  alao 
differing  from  the  hcmey-bees  in  having  the  ttbi« 
of  the  binder-]^  terminated  by  two  qrine&    TIm 

— hCooqIJ: 


mJKBW^VS&SUVBOLDT. 


fomul  in  almoat  all 
puts  of  tike  -fforid,  ti«m  tiw  aqvator  to  the  ntmort 
polar  limita  el  TtgiMion,  bat  tb«7  aaem  to  aboimd 
moat  of  bU  in  temptnte  oUouitta.  About  for^  are 
uotiTW  of  Britain,  on*  of  the  Urgeat  of  which,  and 
of  Britiih  hymenopterDo*  inaeot*,  i«  the  iKonmon 
H.  (B.  lerratrit),  the  Bvmbte  (boom-bee)  of  the 
Sootoh ;  black,  with  a  tbUow  ring  b«£ore  the  wioca, 
and  another  on  the  abdomen,  the  apex  of  the 
^idomen  white.  Anoliier  of  the  Urgeat  ipedea  is 
the  ExD-TAiUED  Bn  (B.  larmdaTitu),  and  ooa  of 
the  moat  abondant  ia  the  yellow  and  onuue  Moae- 
xn  {B.  nMucorum),  the  Foggie  of  the  Sootch.  Same 
of  the  trc^eal  apetnea  are  much  larger  tbut  any 
fonod  in  tbitain.  The  name  H.  ia  luppoied  to 
be  a  modifioation  of  Hummd  or  Hvmmtr  Bee,  and 
t«  nfer  to  Um  lond  luun  produced  by  the  winga  of 
theae  inaeoti. 

HnmUfr-beea  do  not  fonn  commmiitica  ao  lat^ 
aa  thcae  of  haney-beea ;  aeldom  more  thta  two  or 
three  hnndred  oeonpyiiu;  one  neat,  and  in  aome 
■peciea  not  more  thui  finy  or  abdy.  The  femalea 
are  much  laM  prolific  than  thoae  of  honey-beea. 
The  community  ia  dinolTed  on  the  approach  of 
winter,  the  malea  And  worken  die,  and  onl^  femalea 
remain  in  a  torpid  atate — among  moaa,  in  rotten 
wood,  or  in  lotne  other  aitoation  wh«n  they  may 
enjoy  protectioii  from  froat,  and  eonaealment  from 
-~    ' '— '-  ^•-- by  fonnding 


oommunitiea  in  the  enauipg  apring,  The  neata  of 
aome  apeoica,  aa  B.  terralrit,  are  in  bolei  in  the 
gnmnd,  at  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more,  floored  with 
leaTea,  and  lined  with  wax,  and  often  entered  by 
a  winding  paaaage.  Othera,  aa  B.  la^idariiu,  make 
their  waxen  neata  among  atonea ;  while  othen  atill, 
tmiaconaa,  make  them  amone  moia,  which 
The    nesta   are 


they  1 


L   join   with  wax. 


I,  hnmUa  bH  uid  ni 


enlarged  aa  the  commnnity  increaaca.  Soaie  of  the 
eggs  are  depoaitod  in  balJa  of  minglsd  pollen  and 
honey,  on  which  the  Ufveb  Ised,  one  oall  containing 
•evenJ  larrn :  afterwords,  egga  are  alio  deposited 
in  wazan  oella.  Workers  are  chiefly  produced  in 
the  earher  part  of  the  aeaaon,  malea  and  perfect 
femalea  ;in  the  latter  part  of  it  The  famajee  are 
laiver  than  the  males  and  workera.  Hamble-bees 
diner  from  honey-beea  in  their  femalea  existing 
together  in  the  tame  oonminnity  without  aeeking 
to  deatooy  one  another.  There  ia  among  them 
nothing  analoeona  to  swarming  Their  combe  do 
not  euibit  the  beantifnl  rwoiarity  of  atmcture 
whidt  cbaneteriBea  those  of  noney-beca ;  but  cells 
of  a  oon^aiatiTelr  eoaite  appCMaiio*  are  dnatered 
together,  with  nikw  eoooona  of  pnpte,  balls   of 


the  kind  iUready  notioed,  and  t^on  «ella  oc  pota 
filled  witii  honey,  th«  frequent  prize  of  aehoolbt^ 
and  youthful  haymaken,  who  know  well  how  to 
open  and  plunder  the  munble-bee's  ntst.  Many 
animala  are  also  expert  in  this,  aa  badgan,  (ozea, 
rata,  ia^  which,  howcTer,  devour  the  brood  aa  well 
•a  the  honey. 

HTTMBOIiDT,  Fgiedbiob  Hcdibich  Alxx- 
ANQIB,  BasOH  ton,  one  of  t^  sreateet  of  natnr- 
alists,  and  who  has  ccntribnted  more  than  any 
man  of  modem  timea  to  the  progresa  of  acTeisl 
departmente  of  phymcol  adence,  was  bom  at  Berlin, 
14th  September  1769.  Hia  father,  whom  he  loot 
when  he  was  not  quite  tan  yean  of  a^  was 
chamberlain  to  the  king  of  Pmiaia.  He  studied  at 
the  imiTeraitiea  of  Fnioltfurt-on-the-Oiler,  BerLn, 
and  Qattingen.  Hia  love  of  natural  history  waa 
very  atrongly  manifestod  at  this  period ;  and  during 
hia  reaidenoe  at  Gtitfcingen  (1789—1790),  he  made 
viaits  of  Bcienti£o  exploration  to  the  Harz  and  tho 
banks  of  tiiB  Rhine,  the  fniit  ot  which  waaliii 
flnt  pahlication,  '  On  the  Basalts  of  the  Khin^,' 
ftc.  In  the  spring  and  anmnier  of  1790,  he  aauani- 
panied  George  Forster  in  a  tour  throng  Bdxinm, 
Holland,  Endand,  and  Fradoe.  In  Jane  1791,  he 
entered  the  Mining  Aoademy  at  Freiberg,  wha« 
he  enjoyed  the  private  inatruotionB  of  Werner.  Hi* 
eight  montha'  residence  here  led  to  the  anbaeqaent 
publication  of  hia  Flora  Bvbitrnaua  Fribergeiuit 
el  Aplurn*mi  a  Phytiologia  Chanira  Planiantm 
(BarUn.  1793).  He  waa  afterward*  amuiDted  to  an 
office  in  the  mining  department,  ana  qient  some 
Tears  in  thia  capaci^,  chiefly  at  the  Fiehtrigebirge, 
in  Upper  Franconia.  Hia  resaarohea  bans  reaultod 
in  a  work  '  On  the  Irritability  of  Oie  Hoacnlar  and 
Nerrona  Fibrea,  with  Conjeotorea  Maidirig  the 
Chemical  Prooeaa  of  Life  in  the  Ajumaland  VemA- 
able  World'  ( Udtr  die  Geraxlt,  ko.,  2  vola.  BerU, 
1797— 179B). 

The  deaire  of  vititins  b*opical  eonntriea,  how- 
ever, led  him  to  reaign  oia  offiaa,  and  derota  him- 
self entirely  to  the  (tudy  of  natore.  He  ^nat 
Uoee  montiia  at  Jena,  where  he  waa  Uls  mti- 
mate  aasooiate  of  Ooethe  and  Sohiller,  and  atodied 
anatomy  under  Loder.  Ciromnctaooe*  now  led  him 
to  Pani,  -where  he  oontnwted  a  fiieDdihip  witli 
a  diatingoished  yoniig  botaoirt,  Aim(  Btmplaad 
(q.  T.),  afterwanu  hia  companion  in  many  and 
varioua   scenes.      Some   time   aft^,   he   obtuned 

all  the  Spanish  settlements  in  Ameiioa  and  tha 
Indian  0»»n,  with  every  additional  favmr  which 
ooold  proBUto  hia  reaearchea  in  the  varions  depait- 


, obaervatiana.    On  ISth  July,  they 

ariivvd  at  Onmana  in  South  America,  and  in  tu 
coQiae  (rf  five  years  explored  a  vaat  extent  of 
territory  in  Vearanela,  Qranada,  Ecoador,  and  Ftm, 
whence  tiiey  sailed  for  Hexioo,  which  Uiot  nraaaad 
from  wBBt  to  eaaL  On  7th  Maroh  1801,  H.  Bailed 
froin  Vara  Gnu  for  Havana,  where  he  spent  t«<o 
months,  completing  the  preparation  of  nutenate 
afterwarda  employed  in  hi*  Btiai  PolUiqus  tar  tide 
lU  Cuba  (Facis,  1S28).  From  Havana  be  ptooeeded 
by  tea  to  Fhiladelphia,  and  thcnoe  to  Bcndaaax, 
where  he  aizived  after  a  comae  of  travcli  nnpar- 
alleled  for  variety  and  importanoe  of  soMiti&o 
results,  not  only  in  the  diSarent  dmartoteBt*  «f 
nntutml  history,  bnt  also  in  geography,  (fattii 


cheminal  ooMtitntion  of  the  atano^bwa.    Ekriikg 


,d[vCjOOglc 


Ibiigion  to  PtsnM,  and  obtained  leave  from  tlie 
njTenuneat  of  hii  own  ooontij  to  Temsin  there,  for 
ma  pablioatios  of  hia  traTels,  for  which  the  dia- 
torbad  atate  of  Qannanj  at  Uiat  time  did  Bot  allow 
proper  opportuni^.  Ha  c<»itini]ed  to  Tcaide  in  Paiia 
tm  IBST.  In  1807—1817,  hia  great  work,  embody- 
ing tha  atdt!  raanlta  of  hui  b^vda,  appeared  is  two 
forma,  folio  and  quarto,  in  each  coiutiaticg  of  29 
TolnniM^  and  eon^imng  142S  i»p^er-^l«e.  The 
viah  of  the  king  tiiat  he  (hoold  reeide  in  bit  natiTe 
Montiy  was  gratified  in  1827,  when  he  proceeded 
to  Beriin,  and  tiiat&  in  the  winter  of  1627—1628, 
he  gave  leottma  on  tike  Comuu,  or  physlatlnniTeiw. 

&  1829,  H.  again  beoame  a  trsvaUav  the  Emperor 
Kicholaa  Qnn  aending  out  a  wdl-aj^Minted  enedi- 
tion  to  the  north  of  ^ma,  to  ezplora  the  Ural  and 
Altai  Monntaina,  &«  Oluiuae  Daonnrm,  and  the 
Caapian  Sea,  In  thia  «zp«ditiDn,  H.  waa  aceom- 
ramad  by  hia  two  Menda,  Ehienberg  and  OwrtaTu 
Rose.  It*  principal  re*alt>  were  the  (dentiflo 
eutninatJOQ  of  the  bedi  whieh  produce  gold  and 
platina,  the  diaooTery  of  diamonds  in  an  extra- 
tlopcal  t^on,  the  aetronomical  detarmination  of 
nnM44rtnfl  «rtaf*nAt4rt  ^bferTationa,  l"»'^  geolorac^  and 
Hie  wlu^a  ionner  occnpied 
i,  and  extended  to  2S20  nnlM.    It  ia 

Boae'a  *  Hineralo^ical  and  Gaolo^cal 

IVarala  to  the  Ural,  the  Altai,  and  the  Caapian 
8ea'  {Uina-alogittA-geognoMUtcJia-  Rate,  ftc,  2  vols., 
Borlin,  1837—1842),  and  in  H.'»  AtU  CoitraU, 
Rtdterehtt  tur  Ue  Chainlet  de  Mtmtagna  et  la  OUtaa- 
lohgie  mrnmrte  (3  Tola.,  Paria,  184^.  Thia  expedi- 
tion mast  be  regarded  aa  himng  ailao  led  to  much 
increaae  of  onr  Imowledge  of  the  earth's  muneUnn, 
through  the  adoption  by  the  Emperor  of  !£uBia  of 
H.'s  propoBol  for  the  eatabliahmant  of  magnetio  and 
meteorotogicsl  statioiia  from  Pet^nbnra  to  Pekin ; 
which  waa  followed,  on  E-'a  applieaUon  to  the 
[hike  of  Snasex,  b^  the  estftbliannient  of  ffTniln-y 
atatdoni  in  tha  aonthem  hemisphere. 

The  politieal  chaqgee  of  the  year  1830  led  to  H.'a 
employnieat  in  political  aerricea.  He  had  been 
long  <m  friendly  terma  with  the  memben  of  tlie 
Honae  of  Orietna,  and  thersfore,  after  Looia  Phdippe 
aaoeoded  the  Fnnoh  throne,  he  waa  chosen  Vy  the 
king  of  Pmsria  to  cany  to  Paris  his  recognitioii  of 
the  new  sovereign,  and  waa  afterwords,  during  the 
twelve  yeara,  freqnenUy  sent  to  Pans  to 

n-  four  or  five  monuis.    He  accompanied  Hie 

king  of  Proaaia  alao  in  visits  to  England,  Denmark, 
£c  IDaring  thia  time,  ha  published  his  Examai 
OriUqua  dt  la  QtograpltU  du  youveau  ConHneat  (S 
vols.,  Par.  1836—1838^ 

S.  spent  tha  latter  yean  .... 
where  ne  occupied  a  high  position  at  the  Frussiai) 
court  Hi*  last  great  work,  Comot  (4  vols.  Stuttg. 
1846—1808),  hsa  been  uoanimoosly  rtcogniaad  aa 
one  of  the  greatest  loientifio  woAs  erer  pabHabed, 
ethfUting  ui  moat  tndd  anangement  many  at  the 
prindpal  facta  of  the  phyaioai  adencee,  and  their 
relationa  to  each  oiher.  l!t  haa  been  banslated  into 
all  the  langoagea  in  which  a  book  of  science  is 
required  "nie  germ  of  the  work  waa  the  author's 
Ytetm  of  Natan  (Anaichten  der  Natur,  StaUg. 
ISOS).    H.  died  May  6, 1S5A 

It  ia  not  easy  to  estiinate  Hie  amount  of  H.'s  con- 
tribotiona  to  wncnce.  The  gaogn^y  of  Spaniah 
America  was  most  impecfectfy  uiown  previous  '- 


wttii  meteoioleey.  To  him  ve  aie  indebted  for 
the  moat  impoiaiit  generalisationB  eonoeming  mag- 
netiam  and  alao  climate,  some  reanlts  of  which  are 
exhibited  in  the  isothennal  and  other  linea  which 
have  begun  to  be  drawn  in  our  mapa. 

Among  his  botanical  works,  thatonthe  cteography 
of  plont^  Be  Dittr^aHtme  Oeoaraphicd  Plantarwm 
tmindum  Caii  Temperiem  el  AUtludiatTn  Monlimn 
(Paris,  1817),  must  be  reckoned  the  most  important- 
It  was  preceded  by  an  St»fa  Bur  la  OtograpMe  dt* 
PlmUet  (Ports,  ISOfi).  The  botanical  disooveties 
made  by  h^'Tr'"*lf  and  BoopLvad  in  their  American 
travels  were  given  to  the  world  in  a  number  of 
worb  by  H.  and  Kunth,  published  at  Paria  from 
1809  to  1634.  He  gave  to  the  worid  alao  his  olser- 
ratiaaa,  many  of  them  mort  valuably  i^ch  were 
made  at  the  aame  time,  in  zoology  and  compantive 

OardiOirtt  el  Monrnnentt  da  Pea^a  Irtdigtna  de 
tAmeriqtie,  be  directed  the  att^tion  of  Eorope 
to  the  monuments  of  a  little  known  antiquity  m 
America,  and  shewed  for  the  first  time  the  poaai- 
bility  of  ccmbining  artlstia  beauty  with  scientific 
occnrsicy.  He  pnl^ahed  in  1823  an  JSaaii  Ceoaaoa- 
twue  (ur  It  OiiimeM  dt*  SoAet  don*  Is*  deux  Semi- 


he  pTodnoM  •  work  on  poUtiMl  aooBamj,  Btni 
Po&lMe  »w  b  Botmimu  de  ia  NomtBa  SMOne 
(2  vta.,  FHis),  kboimdin^  in  philoaofd^cal  leflao- 
tion*  M  w«U  M  in  itatistwal  OMta.  Be  obtainad 
distanetkHt  alio  by  hii  labonn  in  Hu  d> 


ensuing  t 
residefor 


were  likawJMTeiy  numerona, 

^  wdl  ai  bii  obaerTstiont  dd  all  points  connected 


ronng  crocodilea.      His  laboiu*  baTs  won  him  a 
gh  name  in  olmoai  eveiy  deputmoit  of  sdenoa. 
HUMBOLDT,  Kixj.  Wilekui,  Babo«  ton,  the 

r,  aathetioa,  and 

mt-on-the^Oder, 
and  GStliiigen.  He  eagerly  studied  antiquitiea, 
aadtatiea,  ud  the  Kantian  philoooidiy,  aa  wdl  aa 
law.towhiohhaprofeaaecUTcleTotedlumBelt  After 
travelling  in  Germany,  Eiauo^  and  Switsecland, 
ha  acquired  Uie  rank  of  oonnaeUtv  of  legation,  but 
shewed  little  inclination  £or  official  empl^nent,  and 
in  17B1  married,  and  for  tome  yMM  leaided  chiefly 
on  his  wife's  eatote  in  Thunagia,  and  afterwaidi 
in  Jena,  associating  most  iutiouilely  with  Schiller, 
and  deToting  himself  to  poetry  and  other  litenuy 
and  scientific  punuits.  A  valuable  memorial  of  lua 
Mendship  with  Sohiller  ia  the  oomaponduice  between 
them  {BrielioeehKi  vuitAm  SdOIer  md  R^iLUm  «m 
Hwaboldt,  Stnttg.  uid  TUk  1830),  pnblished  br 
him  after  Schiller*!  death.  From  1797  to  1709,  H. 
resided  portly  in  Paris  and  partly  in  Spain,  and  in 
1801  became  Frusaian  reaident  it  Itome,  where  ha 


1801  became  I 

remained  for  a  numbtz  of  v 


_   .  his  native  oonntry,  to 

fill  the  high  place  <^  flnt  Minister  of  Poblio  InttraO' 
tion,  in  which  oajiacity  he  did  much  to  promote 
edncotian  in  Fmsaia.  Tht  Berlin  university  owed 
its  «T^ri»in»  to  him.  In  1810,  he  went  to  vi«nno 
OS  miniater-idenipotentiafy,  and  fram  thia  time  be 
took  part  in  all  &e  moat  important  pditioal  afbiia 
in  which  hia  oonntry  waa  oonotneo.  After  1819 
he  resided  chiefly  at  T^sl,  idiere  he  Ivd  out  fine 
pleaaura-grounds,  and  formed  a  noUe  coUectioa  of 
iculptorea  by  the  greoteat  maaten.  He  died  8Ui 
A]^1S3S. 

Sm  eoriieat  Hterary  worka  were  collected  by  him- 
adf  vnder  tiie  title  of  '  .Xathetie  Esaaya'  LffOetf. 
,  «£«»  FsraucAos  Bmnawick,  1799).    Hi* 'CoOectad 


Coogh 


HTTMBOLDT— HDME. 


H.  devoted  himielf  with  the  nvateat  «^nias  and 
Buddoity  to  the  itadr  of  plmolDRj,  ana  prodnoed 
several  works  on  ue  Buqne  ttm^e,  and  the 
evidsncs  which  it  a&brdi  ooncemiog  the  aboruiiial 
inhabitants  of  Spun — the  languages  of  the  Sast, 
and  variona  qaeationi  eoimeoted  wnk  Oriental  litarai- 
tnr«,  and  tlw  lan^nagea  of  ths  South  8e*  lalandi^ 
One  of  hi*  moat  unp<atant  work*  i>  that  '  On  th* 
Kawi  Lancnasa  in  Uta  laland  d  Java'  (Uibtr  dit 
KavitpraiAe,  tc,  3  vol*,  Berlin,  1836— 1S40),  pob- 
lUhed  after  hit  death  hj  Edward  Biuchmann ;  the 
introiluciion  to  nhich.  On  the  Variety  of  Stmcture 
in  Huntaii  Speech,  ic,  and  iti  influence  on  the 
intellectual  progreu  of  mankind,  mav  be  said  to 
ma^  a  new  en  in  the  science  of  philolc^,  and 
ban  given  occsnon  to  many  further  reaearcSea  and 
publications.  WV}idra  von  Humbdd£i  BrWtn  an 
cine  Frtandin,  LeipL  1847  (Wilhehn  Ton  Hmnboldt'a 
Letters  to  a  Lady  Friend),  exhibit  hi*  character  in 
a  most  pure  and  amiable  li^t  "niia  work  haa  been 
tnmalatcd  into  T^gliJit^, 

HU'MBOLDT,  a  river  in  the  west  part  of  Utah 
Territory,  United  States,  America,  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  stt'eBms  which  rise  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Humboldt  Mountains.  It  is  a  small  and  rapid 
350  miles  in  length. 


oanoea,  strongly  i 


ipregnated 


with  lukahne  matter, 


and  after  a  westerly  course,  falls  into  a  lake  40 
miles  in  oirciunference,  known  as  the  Sink  of  Hum- 
boldt's BtTer,  whiidt  has  no  outlet.  The  bonks  are 
deatitnte  of  trees  or  shmbs,  and  the  r^on  through 
which  it  flow*  is  one  of  the  most  barren  in  tJt^. 
The  Paoi£o  Bailroad,  traveraing  the  United  States 
from  east  to  weat^  runs  through  the  valley  of  the  H. 
HDME,  David,  the  philosopher  and  historian,  was 
bran  at  EdinbnrEh  on  the  28t£  of  April  (0.  S.)  1711. 
His  faUter  was  Ue  laird  or  proprietor  of  the  estate 
of  NioeweUa  in  Berwiokahite,  bnt  David,  bdng  the 
younger  son,  had  to  make  bit  own  fortune  wiSi  no 
other  aasiatinec  than  an  edneation  and  the  inflnence 
of  his  teapeetable  funily.  He  wat  educated  at 
hom«  and  at  the  coDece  of  Edinhntj^h.  ICs  father 
designed  taw  as  his  prraeaiion,  and  he  submitted  to 
tl)o  mitial  steps  of  the  proper  practical  bwniog,  but 
it  was  not  a  porsnit  to  nis  liking.  Deserting  it,  he 
experimented  on  a  mercantile  house  in  Bristol,  but 
commerce  was  not  more  congent^  to  bim  than  juria- 
pradence,  and  be  gave  it  a  very  short  triaL  He 
now  became  a  mnaiy  student,  devoting  bimaelf  to 
books  with  no  settled  practical  object  beFore  him. 
He  has  recorded  his  sufferings  at  this  time  from 
despondency  and  depreaaion  of  sptritt,  caused,  appar- 
ently, by  the  effects  of  monotonous  study  on  the 
stomach.  At  23  years  of  age,  he  went  to  France, 
and  lived  some  time  in  La  Fleche,  where  he  describes 
himself  at  wandering  about  in  solitude,  and  dreaming 
the  dream  of  his  pMlosophy.  In  1739,  he  pnbiisbed 
the  first  and  second  book  of  his  TVtatiM  on  Hfimcm 
Natan — the  germ  of  his  philosophy,  and  still  perhapt 
the  best  exposition  of  it,  since  it  has  there  a  frt?Bli- 
noK  and  decision  approaching  to  paradox,  which  he 
modified  in  his  later  worki  Although  the  dawn  of 
a  new  era  in  philosophy,  this  book  was  little  noticed. 
It  was  a  work  of  demolition.  By  separating  Uie 
impressions  or  ideas  created  on  the  thinking  mind 
by  an  external  world  from  the  absolute  existence  of 
that  worid  itself,  be  sh«wed  that  slmott  eTeTything 
eoneemiDE  the  latter  wat  token  for  granted,  and  be 
demandea  proof  of  its  exittenoB  of  a  kind  not  yet 
afforded.  It  was  thus  that  he  set  a  whole  armv  of 
philosophers  at  work,  either  to  refute  what  he  h^ 
nud,  or  seriously  to  fill  up  the  blanks  whidi  he 
discovered,  and  hence  he  originated  both  the  Scotch 
and  tbe  Oerman  school  of  metaphysiciant.    In  1741 


and  1742,  he  published  two  small  volumea,  called 
Bnasa  Moral  taut  Potitieal ;  thej  were  marked  bf 
learning  and  thought,  and  elegantly  written,  bra 
are  not  among  the  more  remarkable  of  bis  woikt. 
He  felt  keenly  at  thii  tame  the  want  of  some  fixed 
lucrative  pursuit,  and  hit  longing  for  indepcodenM 
was  the  oanse  of  a  tad  interruraim  to  hit  stsdiout 
and  [duloBOphioal  pnrsuita.  He  wat  indnosd  to 
beoome  tiie  oompailion  or  guardian  of  an  insane 
nobleman,  and  had  to  mix  with  the  jeatonaiea  and 
mercenary  objects  of  those  who  naturally  gather 
round  snch  a  centre.    In  1747,  he  obtained  a  ratho'   ' 


L'Orient,  the  depAt  of  the  French  East  India  Com- 
pany ;  this  affair  had  no  important  naulta,  but  it 
Sve  E.  a  notion  of  actual  warfare.  Next  year, 
accompanied  the  general  in  a  dipknuatie  mitaoB 
to  France,  and  as  he  travelled  he  took  notes  of  hit 
impressions  of  Holland,  Oermany,  and  Italy,  whieh 
are  published  in  his  Li/e  and  Corn^tintkiiet.  In 
17G1,  be  published  his  Ingyiry  into  the  PrbuipUi  of 
MoToU,  a  work  of  great  origiiiality,  and  one  of  tM 
cleareet  expositions  of  the  leading  prindples  of  iritat 
is  termed  the  utilitarian  systnu.  At  the  ttua 
time,  he  iatended  to  publish  his  DiaiogMi  antOTnimg 
ifatuTiii  Jtiiigion,  but  his  friends,  alarmed  by  tbe 
scepticnJ  Bpint  pervading  Uiem,  prevailed  on  bim 
to  aij  them  aside,  and  they  ware  not  made  public 
until  after  his  death.  In  his  3Gth  year,  be  had 
unsocoesstally  competed  for  tha  chair  of  Hoisl 
I^iiloBopby  in  Edinburgh,  and  at  this  period  we 
find  him  unsncceisfnl  in  an  attempt  to  obtain  tbe 
ch^  of  Logic  in  Olosgow.  Next  year,  in  175!^ 
appeared  his  PolUkai  Diaantraet.  Here,  aoain,  ha 
,.  ,-.      ....    ,..  ., ,_   littio  work 


n  literature,  for  in  this  1 


fell  to  his  friemd  Adam  Smith  more  fdly 
prehenaively  to  developL  He  was  appointed  at  this 
iime  keeper  of  the  Aavocatea'  library,  wiUk  a  vetr 
small  salary,  iriiich  he  devoted  to  a  diaritaUs  pur- 
pose. It  was  here  that,  surroimded  with  books,  ha 
formed  ^e  design  of  writing  tbe  history  of  Eb^bimL 
In  1764,  he  iaai^  a  quarto  volume  of  the  BabtiTf 
of  the  Stuarta,  ODMaimng  the  Beignt  of  Jamm  I.  and 
C/taria  /.,  and  preaently  completed  this  portion  of 
the  work  in  a  second  volume,  brin^g  it  down  to 
tha  Bevolution.  He  then  went  bockvrardB  throng 
the  House  of  Tudor,  and  completed  the  work  from 
the  Boman  period  downwards  in  17G2.  While  eo 
employed,   ha    published    FcMr  DiaKriaHoiu .     '' 


Natarid  BiAory  x^  Setigion  ;  of  lie  Pattiona  ;  of 

Tragedy;  of  Ihe  Standard  of  TaaU  (1757).    Two 
other  (ussertationi,  intended  to  accompany  these. 


cancelled  by  b™  after  they  were  printed- 
they  are  On  Bttieida  and  The  Jvanortabtt  qT  ti^ 
Sofd,  and  were  inbsequently  printed  in  his  worka. 

In  1763,  he  want  to  Fiance  aa  secretary  to  ItsrA 
Hertford'a  embassy ;  here  he  was  in  his  elemsit, 
and  found  fame  it  last  He  b«»me  familiar  with 
the    brilliant    wits    and    savants  of    the    PtiisiBn 


Diderot,  BofFon.MsJeshcrbea,  Crabillon,  i 

as  well  as  witii  the  no  less  distinguished 

eminences.  Da  Boufflers,  Page  da  Boccage,  Geofiii^ 
Du  Deffand,  and  L'Stpmaaw.  His  eojoum  in  "^tr^m 
wsa  unfistnnste  in  bnusing  him  into  intimacy  with 
the  regtless,  vain.  Mid  teS-toHntmlJng  Ronssoau,  who, 
after  experiencing  much  substantia  kindnea  &om 
H.,  got  suspicious,  and  forced  him  into  a  manor- 
able  qnarroL  After  his  return  home,  in  17GS,  he 
accepted  the  responuble  office  of  Under-secretsry 
of  State  for  the  Home  Department.  In  his  own 
life  ho  lays :  '  I  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  1769  veij 


d  by  Google 


HtTUEUHTrMMINQ.BIED. 


opulent  (for  I  poMeued  »  rerenne  of  ^1000  a  yew), 
heklthy,  and,  though  wnnewhit  ittickea  in  yean, 
with  Uie  prospect  o!  enjojing  long  my  oaie,  aad  of 
■ecing  the  increMO  of  my  rapatation.'  Eajly  in 
1774,  he  waa  attacked  with  aa  intemiJ  diaeau, 
(or  which  he  in  vain  «ouBht  ■  remedy  in  the  Bath 
w&ten.  He  died  at  BcUnbwgli  on  the  25th  of 
Augurt  1776. 

HUME,  JosEFH,  politidtn,  was  born  Jantmty 
1777,  at  Montroee.    Hia  father 

narrow  oiwiunatance*.  He  was  educated 
locaL  schools  of  Montrose,  and  at  the  age  of  13 
was  placed  with  an  spatbecary.  He  itadied  for 
the  medical  profesnou ;  was  admitted  in  1790  a 
member  of  the  College  ot  Surgeons,  Edinburgh ; 
and  became  assistant-surgeaa  in  the  marine  service 
of  the  East  India  Company.  He  applied  himself  to 
the  aoqoiaition  of  the  oatiTe  laoguagea,  and  during 
tlie  Mahiatta  war,  from  1802  to  1807,  filled  the 
office  of  Persiaa  interpreter  to  the  anny.  He  also 
diachargsd  daties  comiected  with  the  prize  ageodes 
__3  .i_ 1 !j^  m^j  arrived  in  EnzUnd  in 


1812,  as  M.P.  for  the  borough  of  'Weymouth  and 
Melcombe  Re^s.  The  future  radical  was  then  of 
Tory  poliUcB,  and  paid  a  sum  of  money  for  his  sent, 
which  he  only  enjoyed  a  few  months.  He  ohttuned, 
in  1818,  a  seat  for  the  Aberdeen  district  of  burghs, 
comprehauding  his  native  town  of  Montrose.  In 
1830,  ha  had  sained  auch  distinction  as  a  radical 
reformer,  that  ne  wae  returned  without  opposition 
M  ona  of  the  membera  for  Middlesex,  which  he 
represented  until  1837.  In  1842,  he  was  again  chosen 
for  hia  natiTe  burgh,  Montrose,  and  remained 
tintil  hia  death  in  the  service  of  his  felloW' 
towDsmen.  All^ugh  by  no  means  a  man  of 
brilliant  abilities,  his  iodefatigabte  industry  in  hia 
pariiameatary  dnties,  his  plana  of  reform  in  every 
department  of  church  and  state,  bis  hatred  Ot 
sinecnrea  and  official  abuses  of  every  Icind,  and 
his  advocacy  of  economy  in  the  public  service. 
nude  him  one  of  the  most  oaefnl  and  influeniaAl 
members  of  the  legislature.  He  'noa  probably 
often  wrong-headed  and  mistaken,  and  as  the 
leader  of  the  Badicol  party  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, usually  found  biniBeli  in  active  conflict  with 
both  Whig  and  Tory  guvemmenta.  Yet  a  tardy 
but  mncere  homage  waa  paid  to  his  integrity  and 
public  seJTVicea  by  the  late  Sir  Kobert  Feel,  and  other 
poLtical  opponents.  He  died  Feb,  20,  IS56,  aged  78, 
leavine  a  name  venerated  by  bia  fellow-countrymen 
for  public  honesty  and  persooal  diainterestedness. 

HUHETTY,  a  term  in  Heraldry,  applied  to  a 
cross  or  other  ordinary  which  is  cut  aS,  and  nowhere 
reaches  the  edge  of  the  shield. 

HUMICAOID.    SeeHtmva. 

HUMMEL,  JouANM.    See  Swp.,  Vol,  X, 

HU'MMELER,  on  implement  or  machine  nsed 
for  ItumnKlling  barley — that  is,  removing  the  awn 
from  the  grain  after  it  haa  been  thrashed.  A  com- 
mon kind  of  H.  is  a  set  of  blunt  knives  fixed  in  a 
frame,  with  a  handle,  by  means  of  which  they  arc 
nsed  in  the  manner  of  stamping.  Another  form 
consists  of  blunt  knives  set  on  a  roller.  These 
implements  are  worked  by  the  hand.  But  hum- 
melleiB  of  various  construction  are  often  attached 
to  t.lii-iuiti  ing-mff '■*''"  "i  in  all  of  which  blunt  knivca 
ore  made  to  pass  frequently  through  the  grain. 

HUMMINO-BIBD  (TVocAAu),  a  Linnoon  genos 
of  birds,  now  oonstituting  a  family,  TrodaUda,  of 
the  order  Intatorti,  ftnd  tribe  Temtirottret.    The 


qwcie*  aie  numerou*,  mora  (ban  300  being  known, 
whilst  new  oaea  are  continually  being  disoovcred. 
They  are  found  only  in  Ameiioa  and  its  islands, 
ahhon^  represented,  both  in  habits  and  in  brillianoy 
of  plumage,  by  the  Sun-birds  (q.  v.)  of  eastern 
tropcal  regions.   Host  of  them  are  tropical,  although 


parts  of  America,  very  seldom,  however,  seen  beyond 
lat.  5T  N. ;  whilst  some  of  those  foond  only  withia 
the  tropics  inhabit  elevated  monntainoua  tracts,  even 
to  the  eonbnea  of  perpotnal  snow.  The  jl-T»i;ng 
brilliancy  of  bmnming^^rds,  the  extreme  mpidily 
with  whieh  titer  dart  tiirongh  the  air,  their  hover- 
ing above  the  flowers  from  which  they  obtain  their 
food,  with  hamming  sound  of  wings,  which  move 
so  quickly  as  to  Ira  indistinctly  visihle,  or  'Like 
a  mist,'  have  attracted  universu  admiration  since 
the  fiiit  discovery  of  America.  The  diminative 
sine  of  almost  all  of  them — some  of  them  being  the 
amnilest  of  birds,  and  if  stripped  of  their  faauien, 
iLot  larger  than  a  humble-bee^has  still  further  con- 
tributed to  render  them  objects  of  interest,  whilst 
the  plumage  of  the  different  speclea  exhibits  an 
almost  endless  variety  *>^  forms,  as  well  as  of 
coloon,  in  crests,  neck-tufts,  leg-tofts,  and  many 
an  extraordinary  development  of  taiL 

Eumming-binls  have  alender  bills,  which  are  also 
genenjly  long,  and  in  some  extremely  so,  the  form 
of  the  bill  ^ihibiting  a  wonderful  adaptation  to 
the  kind  of  flowers  from  which  the  bird  obtains  its 
food — straight  in  some,  curved  in  others.  Ham- 
ming-birds do  not,  as  was  long  enpposed,  feed  on 
'  'eraUe  extent,  and  some 
insects,  not   rejecting 


HuumiiDG'BiKt  anil  Kcat. 

spiders,  whilst  they  often  snatch  away  the  insects 
which  have  become  entangled  in  spidera'  webs.  The 
lower  mandible  fits  into  the  upper,  and  the  bill 
is  thus  adapted  as  a  tube  for  Bucking,  in  whicb,  as 
well  as  in  seixlng  small  insects  within  tbe  recesses 
of  fiowers,  tbe  tongue  is  also  a  very,  efficient  organ, 
^e  tongue  is  very  long,  capable  of  beicg  darted  out 
to  a  considerable  length ;  the  bone  of  the  tongue 
[hyoid  bone)  being  much  elongated,  and  its  brancbca 
passing  round  the  back  of  the  skull  to  the  fore- 
head, where  tJiey  meet  in  a  point  before  the  line 
of  ^e  eyes.  'Hio  tongoe  itself  consists  of  two 
filaments,  joined  together  for  the  greater  part  of 
their  length,  and  separated  at  the  tip.  The  wings  of 

Uiili.     llyGOOgIC 


HDUOEAL  PATHOLOOT— EU.NAIT. 


lerart  ahcottr 


with  nico  ui,  gecanlly  of  liolieiu  and  of  fil 
HibatancM,  inch  u  cotton.  They  do  not  by  more 
tluui  two  e^<.  They  sra  very  bold  in  defence 
of  their  necto  and  yonsKi  and  *fe  (aid  to  strike 
fearlenly  with  tbmr  needle-like  bilk  at  the  eye* 
of  birdu  of  pray,  wtuoh  tbey  far  aDrpaaa  in  agUity 
and  rapidity  of  fli^t.  Tbey  are  very  eaiily  tanud 
and  raoderad  familiar,  and  tiave  been  knoim  to 


had  been  allowed  t 


eaoape.     Attempts  to   keep 


only  on  honey  or  lyrup,  whsreM  inaect  food  leeiiiB 

wai  I  fill  Ihiiiii     Atteupta  made '^~  ' 

acfOM  the  Atlantio  hare,  in  '* 


We  oannot  propoae  to  deacribe  any  of  the  ap 
of  H.,  noF  to  pya  tile  oharaotera  of  the  nomi 

Kei%  into  indoh  the  family  boa  been  divided. 
m  alone  withont  oolonr  ia  manffloient  to  oonvey 
a  pmp^  idea  of  Ihor  metallio  and  nm-like  aplen- 
doDT,  which  in  many  oaaea  variea  with  every  change 


the  rally  apecdea  foood  in  the  Northern  Atlutio 
■tatea  «  North  Americ*.  II  ventures  even  intc 
the  re^ona  of  the  Endaon'H  Bay  Company. . 

The  akina  of  hnmming-birda  wera  employed  foi 
ornamental  pnrpoaee  by  the  more  dviliaed  Amari- 
can  raoee  before  the  discovery  of  Amerioa  by 
Enropeana,  and  Were  uaed  by  the  Mericana  for 
making  thoee  pictmes  which  ao  mnch  attracted  the 
admiration  of  their  Spaniah  cooqueroia. 

One  of  the  greateat  anthoritiea  on  the  H..B.  _ 
Oould,  who  haa  written  a  wort  upon  the  aubject, 
magntScenUy  iUoatrated, 

HUiaOBAIi  PATHO'LOOT.    See  Mkdicixz. 


may  be  divided  into  three  peat  rlaanm :  I.  Snnh  a* 
are  Bohible  in  water — cnwuc,  apocrenio,  and  nlmje 
adda ;  2.  Snoli  aa  are  iolnble  m  alkaline  icdntJona, 
but  not  in  pure  wat(a>-4ianiio  and  geic  adda  :  3. 
Such  aa  are  inaoluble  in    "  "■ —    "" — " 


All  of  theae  uo  amonilioaa,  rangins  in  coIodt 
£Him  a  brownlah  yellow  to  a  blaokian  Drown,  and 
non-volatile  ;  they  an  probably  all  eompoaed  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  they  are  aU 
remarkabfe  for  their  power  of  fixing  ammonia. 
'Tbey  are  all  pTodnota  of  the  deoompotitioa  of 
vegetable  mattera  in  the  aeO,  and  are  formed  during 
thor  decay  l^  a  aneoaaaion  of  cbutgM,  which  may 
be  easily  ti*Md  hy  obaerving  the  oonne  of  evoita, 
when  a  peee  of  wood,  or  any  other  v^etable  mb- 
•tMM*,  ii  enwaed  for  »  length  of  time  to  air  and 
moistiu&  It  is  then  found  gndaaDv  to  diaint^rste 
with  the  erolntion  of  cubomc  ado,  acquiring  flr«t 
a  brown,  and  finally  a  blaok  colour.  At  one  parti- 
colaj  stage  of  the  proceaa,  it  is  convertad  into  one 
or  othar  of  two  aubatances,  called  hnmin  and  "I'wiTi, 
both  inaoloble  in  alkalies,  and  apparently  identical 
with  the  inacdnble  hnmua  of  the  soil ;  (mt  when 
.the  daoompcaition  ia  more  advanced,  ime  produota 
beoams  aolnble  in  alkaliea,  and  then  oontun  kiunic, 
ulmio,  and  geic  adds ;  and  finally,  W  a  still  fnrthar 
proEraas,  orenic  and  apocKoic  adda  are  formed, 
aa  ue  nstilt  of  an  oxidation  occnrriDg  at  oertain 
periods  of  the  d*o»y.'— Anderaon'a  AgrieuUural 
OAmnufrV,  1860,  Pl  22. 


t  TfFMMHtltf 


onlv  in  the  mi&oe  Mil,  in  iriucli  its  qnaalaty  vi 


gradual  pasaaM  of  ooe  subatance  into  anotliCT,  they 
pteMnt  eonsMwable  diacrepanoiea.     According  to 
Mulder,  who  ia  jterhapa  the  highest  anthoritv  on  thia 
(nbject,  geio  add  is  repreaented  by  C,,H,,0,, ; 
humic    add,    by    C,gH,,0,, ;    nhnic    acu^    by 
C,,H,,0,,;   cronic    add,   by   3H0,C,-H:,,0i, ; 
spoGrenia  acid,  hy  2H0,0,,^Hi,0,^.     <Aenic  and 
apocrenic   acids  (which   derive  their  names  from    | 
ertni,  the  Greek  word  for  a  fprinq)  not  only  occur    ' 
in  combination  with  ammonia,  in  Uie  organic  matter    ; 
of  the  soil,  bat  are  likewise  foond  in  many  mineral    < 
waters,  and  in  the  ochiy  depoaits  that  aooomnlatc 
round  the  margins  of  ohalybeate  springs. 

All  the  above-named  aubstancea  doaely  reeemble 
in  their  composition  the  woody  fibre  or  cejloloee 
{C|4H,,0,,),  from  which  they  are  derived  fay  a 


Chemista  hold  very  difilerent  ojnnions  r^arding 
the  physiological  vslne    of   humus.      The   earliei' 


of  plants;  while  Liebig  a 

great  majori^  of  the  chemiati  of  the  prtemt  day 
r^ard  the  abuoaphere  (which  OMinata  (d  ft  mixtora 
of  nibogen  and  oxyffm  gaaea,  watery  Tttpoaz,  car- 
bonto  and  nitric  acid^  and  ammonia)  as  capaUa 
of  afordina  an  abundant  nqipfy  of  all  thoe  aob- 
stances.  The  latter  is  prabkbly  the  mora  eonect 
view  i  but  although  hmmu  is  not  a  direct  aonraa 
of  the  organic  conatitnenla  of  plants,  and  ia  noi 

absorbed  by  their  roota,  sa  —-  * ' • 

it  ia  ao  indirectly  in   at 

by  evolviiig  during  its  deoompodtdon  , 
qnantitr  of  carbooic  add  which  can  be 
and  by  ita  powar  of  abaorbing  and  i 
witb  ammonia,  and  with  oertain  aolnble 

constitneuta  01  planta.     Its   power   d  . 

■"""■""'*  ia  readily  ahewn  byponring  aome 

niacal  tolnldon  on  peat  (which  contema  the 

componnda  in  great  abundance);  the  pongsnt  nndl 
at  OOM  diaappeara,  which  ia  an  evidence  tlmt  oom- 
binstion  has  taken  place.  It  poMweMS  »  dmilar 
but  Imb  marked  powar  in  lefetwoe  to  potadi,aoda, 
lime,  and  magneaia,  and  Qiiu  playa  an  importent 
part  in  preventing  these  aubatanee*  from  bdns 
waahed  out  of  the  aolL  The  physical  pcopartaea  <3 
hmuns  are  alao  of  great  importanoe  in  relataco  to 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Hnioiia  is  oae  of  tits  meat 
hi^y  hygromebical  anbetanoes  known,  WUle 
•Qidoua  aaad  aboorba  only  one-fourth  of  itm  w«MA 
of  water,  and  again  give*  ef^  in  tiie  eome  c<  Mw 
]umrB,fbur-fiftha  of  ita  watn',  hunua  imtabeanMrir 
twice  iti  wdght  <i  water,  and  retain*  mM-teatta 
of  it  afto'  four  honrs'  espomra.  It  tliu  aontats 
on  the  aoil  tha  power  of  abaorbing  and  i«ti ' 
WAter,  and  thna  duoiuishea  ita  tenadtr,  md  t 
of  ita  being  more  easily  worl^;  aitd 
ally,  fram  ita  dark  colour,  it  cauaea  tba  moM  ra(id 
absorption  of  ^eat  from  'Uta  sun's  rayi.  Btat», 
although  not  contributing  directly  to  the  feed  tt 
plants,  it  is  in  moderate  quanti^  an  indincnB. 
aUe  constituent  of  a  fertile  soil  llie  beat  wtwaA- 
bearing  soila  contain  9  or  10  per  cent,  tt  hmn^ 
oompoonds. 
HU-K  AN,  a  pTovlnca  in  tlie  lake  diafariol  o(  China, 
t  the  aouth  aide  of  INmg-l^ig-hu,  the  laiseat  )ak« 
in  China.  It  is  a  fertile  region,  yielding  two  anpH 
of  rice  annually,  white  iti  ■MuntafB*  yiald  malinhif. 


.Lioo^le 


BoanndatlUxe, 


17,W,*SJ 


HUHDBXD— EDKGABT. 

inn,  lead,  aiid  ooiL     Are*,  74,890  iqaNM  milM:    (iriUi  Um  axceptiaii  of  Tnuu^Ta&w  ukd  of  tlu 
pop.  18,652,607.    Ita  cGpital  ia  Ohiiig-alu>fii,  otDBted    HiliUiy  Frontier} 
on  the  lirer  Siang. 

HTTITDBED,  ia  Bngluih  Law,  an  uideat  mb- 
divinon  of  comities,  Hu)  oTTfoa  of  vhieh  ia  not  Teij 
olearlj  Mttled,  thoogli  probaUy  the  name  oroie  from 
there  bdug  a  hnndntd  toreties  in  each  to  keep  the 
peace*  In  anoieiit  tunes,  if  &  crime  w>9  committed, 
nich  aa  rohbi^,  muminE  of  cattle,  bominz  <^ 
atacka,  fte.,  the  nondred  had  to  nuke  it  good.  The 
old  distinctioiiB  baTS,  howeTer,  now  len  aignifteancc. 
Bnt  the  charaoteriatio  of  a  hundred  ia  atill  tiua, 
that  it  baa  a  conatablo  or  boilifT,  and  vhen  any 
damage  ia  done  by  rioters  felonionaly  destroying 
prop^ty,  the  individnal  ovser  haa  hia  remedy  by 
iuing  the  hundred  for  Uie  dama^  In  order  to 
aecnre  this  remedy,  the  party  or  hii  aarrant  moat, 
within  (even  daya,  go  b^ore  a  justice,  and 

oath  the  namea  of  Uie  oSenden,  and 

secnte  them.    So,  where  there  is  i 

county.  Or  city,  or  town,  is  liulile 

and  ID   all  cases  the  ezpeoses  are    paid  by  the 

cottn^  rata,  or  a  late  in  the  nature  of  a  county  rate. 

In  the   northern  countiea,  a  hundred  is     ~    "  "~ 

called  a  wapenttke.      The  act  7  and  S 


dmga^top 
ao  hundred,  t 


HUTTDBEDBHS,    inhabitants    of    a   Huodrvd 

HU'NGABY  (Qer.  Ungam;  Magyar,  Magyar 
OrKAg  (I^nd  of  t^  Magyara),  a  portion  of  tiie 
Anatro-Himgarian  empire.  According  to  the  fanda- 
mental  lawa  <d  the  leahn,  the  emperora  of  Auitria  are 
kinga  of  Hnngarr,  which  formeriy  comprehended 
Hnngaiy  proper,  Croatia,  SlaTonia.  Dalmaiia,  the  It 
lyrian  aea-ooMt,  HtKOKjl^tiah,  and  the  whole  of  the 
military  frontier.  After  1818,  thaae  p«aidielM  wen 
diMociBted  adminisbstJTaly  from  Hmipuy  ftT*' 
and  coimrted  into  «KiwiilMidai  Since  1 867,  Hmwaij, 
Croatia,  81aT«iia,  I^Mwylnwia,  and  the  Himary 
Vrmtien,  here  oeailitBted  ibe  kingdom  of  Hiut- 
gary,  one  inamb«c  of  the  Inpartit*  oninre.  The 
two  knots  lAieh  tia  AaiAria  nopw  and  Htiit- 
gwy  togetlMr  sm  tba  panon  of  tnair  ocmmon  aove- 
icign  and  the 'Del^ataooa'— •  mdiamBitl  oonaistiiig 
of  190  mamben,  of  i4ich  (10  are  aapplied  l^ 
eitJisr  portiDa  of  the  empire.  13iia  body  l^itlatM 
far  war,  flnanoe,  and  foreun  aAiiB)  andthenuni^ 
ten  of  thnae  t^rea  dapannetiti  ara  reaponaible  to 
it,  or  to  a  oommitte*  of  its  monben;  Hodcht 
has  an  area  of  117,600  EoajMh  aqnue  duIc^ 
itli,  in  1S6%  a  popalatlon,  em  and  milttary,  of 


r  be  added  tiwt  the  aoil  of  the  v 


__     _iibmayL_  _ _ 

pl^na  oonaiaM  dbiefly  of  hnmtti  and  day,  and 
ia  of  great  f^tili^.  Hoge  traota  of  aaad  are 
to  faa  iMmd  in  wtmaI  paita;  there  an  alto 
■wampa  aU  almg  the  Theui,  but  both  of  these 


oairied  oa  with  great   anergy  and   , 

The  imwA  tnMti  ut  the  eartn  pari  of   B. 
anbjertad  to  p«riodiaal  dronglit,  and  to  freqnentiy 


■ereri^  of  sold  dnring  wintsr,  eanae   muoh 

ie^  to   fanaen,  and  mon    eapeoiaUy  to  the 

^...oennia  claas  of  nne-grawer&    In  regions  whero 

people  neglect  taking  propar  earoi  ago*  la  eoanmon ; 

althongfa,  acoording  to  Beodant,  the  dimate  of  H., 

the  whole,  is  to  be  regarded  as  haaUhfal,  and 


1 IHO  WM  •■  faUmrs  in  tite  kingdom 


Futnrs, r.«B,M* 

VinaTBida, I,4M.IU 

Firm-judiHidguddu,     ,  t83,MI 

FonRi, ll,fiai,887 

In  187Z;  the  soil  nnder  tillage  (with  the  same 
ezcbuioDB)  was  estimated  at  abont  22;613,00(^  and 
the  pastare-Iaod  at  about  6,76^000  English  acrea; 
Tka^EiT>winAB*«..'*A*,jm^Y  from  two  eirounatancea : 
liTsr  Tina  to  ita  pn^wr  channel, 

jamo  nadcT  ooltrntion.    2.  By 

tiie  parcelling  out  of  gnmndi  npon  the  principle  of 
modern  farmmg,  commnnal  pastnres  beMma  [«iTate 
proper^  in  many  places,  and  wen  thus  eonrerted 
into  sou  onder  nUiun  The  toil  under  ooltivBtion 
in  the  ^riiole  ti  flDnganr  in  1872  was  abont 
26,200,000,  and  the  pasture-land  about  8,100,000 
acres.  Agricnlture  in  H>  is  rapidly  improving 
and  T'!"gl''"  machiner;  is  bmng  extensively  intro- 
dnced  on  the  eatatee  ot  the  great  landed  praprietmiL 
According  to  reliable  calculation,  the  anniid  prodnoe^ 
in  grains  of  every  kind,  amonntB  to  239,3t>2,900 
imperial  bnshds,  leaving  a  yearly  sDrploa  for  ezport- 
atiOD  of  no  leaa  than  60,500,000  imperial  bushels. 
The  valno  of  the  crops  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley, 
and  muze  in  1872  was  estimated  at  Bboiit  £3,300,000. 
The  mineral  wealth  of  H.  may  be  aaid  to  be  inex- 
hanatible,  but  several  branchea  of  mining  are  as  yet 
in  their  in^cy.  In  1872,  the  mineral  prodnce  waa,  in 
gold,  2000  lbs. ;  ailver,  24,600  lbs. ;  qnicksilve^  3300 
cwts. ;  lead,  28,000  cwta.  (Austrian)  i  copper,  26,000 
}ig-iroD,    2,221,000    cwts.  ;    coals,    black, 

., ,._.cvrtB.:ooalB,brown,15,280,000cwta.  Rock- 

aalt  may  be  had  to  any  amoont  in  the  moun' 
tains  of  Marmaroa,  aa  also  in  Transylvania.  The 
qnantity  of  wine  ia  each  that  it  mi^t  anfflco  for 
anpplyins  the  half  of  Europe.  For  the  deeaert-table, 
Tokay,  Hfces,  and  Rtuat  ^dd  their  delidoos  liqiior, 
obtained  from  dry  grapes.  The  rod  wines  of  Emt 
(Erian),  Bod*  (OIm),  Viwmta,  KarlovitB,  Sieged, 
ftc,  may  be  said  to  eqtMl  the  bast  prodnce  of 
BargOB^I  iriule  tha  white  wines  of  Muyarfit, 
Nsssmdr,  SomlyA,  Peath,  Tinti^,  Honoszia,  ftc, 
rank  wiw  the  dioioMt  of  Bhenlah  wince.  Tobacco, 
bsnin,  flax,  n^i«  se«d,,timb«r  of  every  variety, 
would  be  extensively  exported  were  the  means  M 
commnnication  develtqied,  and  commercial  inter- 
conrae  gnided  by  a  more  liberal  policy.  F£nyes 
pot  down  the  nnmber  of  horses  Wore  1843  at 
1,200/100 1  in  1870,  there  were  2,168,810,  and  the 
breeding  has  mnch  improved.  The  oxen  of  H,  excel 
equally  u  sin  and  in  the  nonrishino;  qoality  of  the 
meat  um^  yield.  The  number  of  weep,  acoording 
to  F^nns,  waa  17,000,000)  in  1870,  thore  were 
15,076,wl7  (of  whioh  4)  millions  prodnoed  wool  above 
t^  average  qoalify),  and  672,061  goats.  Among  tbe 
4/100,000  of  swine,  the  Mangalion  breed  is  mnob 
praiasd  for  ita  lice,  and  for  the  hardness  of  the 
Urd  it  yislda.  The  rearing  of  beea  and  of  the  silk- 
w(«m  ia  oUeQr  cairied  on  in  the  Uilitan  Frontier. 
Industry  and  oommaroa  are  far  from  being  at  a 
level  tttbsr  with  the  wants  of  the  peoide  m  with 
the  natnral  richness  of  the  soil;  nevertiielees, 
great  progress  has  been  made;  thus  Peath,  the 
lital  of  H.,  has  been  brought  into  direct 
Iway  connac^n,  not  only  with  Vienna,  but 
with  Trieste,  Temesvtr,  Ajad,  Debroodn,  and 
Eassa.  A  main  line  has  been  carried  throogh 
Tnn^hrania.  Fiome,  was  next  drawn  into  Ue 
net,  so  aa  to  reader  it  an  ontlet  tar  tiie  inex- 
hawtOiIe  storaa  of  the  Banat,  of  SLtvooia,  and 


UjilliedbyGOO'^IC 


FnUio  b&nki,  ftnd  otiier  ertabltiluneiits  ol  credit, 

H6  tpringiag  into  life,  and  the  fatten  th&t  weighed 
upDQ  ia£iEtry  and  conunerce  Kv  being  removed. 
A  lOQDd  system  of  taintion,  together  with  the 
leTivil  of  conititutioiLal  righta,  woaJd  aooa  do  the 
raat.  Public  oducatioD,  especioUy  in  hi  lo 
brsDchea,  ia  rapidly  extending.  The  coUegea  ..  . 
□f  two  kinda — gjmnaiia  for  claniicol  ednotion, 
and  BchooLi  for  industry  and  commerii  "' 
hitler  branchea  of  learning  are  carried 
academiea  and  lyceuma,  as  well  a*  id  the  richly 
endowed  Soman  Catholio  univenity  of  Perth. 
Among  the  hi^ier  educational  institiitioiig  of  the 
Proteatania,   tboae   of   Debrecxia   and   Sirospatak 


(for  CalTiniata),  and  of  Eperjee,  Foaony,  and  i 
(for  Lntbcmn^,  occupy  a  ver^  high  ran) 
Academy  of  Scianoe^  the  Society  of  Katuralists, 


the  Agnooltnial  Society,  the  Natdonal  Mnienm  and 
Theatte,  the  Kiafalndy  Society,  together  with  more 
than  BO  peiiodicala  publiahed  m  the  Magyar  tongue, 
•peak  weU  for  tiie  intereat  the  Hungarian  nation 
takM  in  progreaa  and  civiliaation.  The  following 
taUea  ahew  tbe  ratio  of  population,  according  to 
religion  and  nationalitiea,  tmoagfaont  H.,  Croatia, 
Slavonia,  and  TniuylTaoia : 


3,lttS,0M         M-S 


According  to  Die   VBUxrUSmme  der  OalrdeA  ol 


W 


S.riiuu,  l,?U,l)Oa  (01ber% ' 

Then  are,  beudee,  a  few  thouaanda  of  Bnlgariana, 
Moateoegrina,  tVench,  to. 

At  tlie  head  of  the  Bomaa  Catholic  Church  in  E 
ia  tho  FiratM  Primate  the  An^biahop  of  Eaztergoi 
or  Oran ;  tbete  are  two  other  aichbisboprioa,  an. 
aeventeen  biahoprica.  Hie  Greek  CatluMiee  havo 
four  biihopa  ;  ue  Nou-anited  Oreeka,  a  patriarch- 
aicfabiahop  and  men  biabopa.  llie  two  Ftoteatant 
bodiea  an  divided  into  diatricta,  fonr  tor  each; 
the  head*  of  thoM  dlrtricta  bear  the  title  of 
SnperjntendentB. 

_Hi*lory.—lt   ia    generallv    admitted    that    the 

~  — — ' —    '-  'heir  own  lan) 


„ — _ —    — _ >gii*gc^  Magyara — are 

of  Scythian  origin j  their  indent  aeati  bemg  in  the 
enTirona  of  the  Caapian  Sea,  Part  of  the  people 
emigrated  in  the  direction  of  the  tJial  MoontainB, 
and  thence,  beinc  preaaod  by  the  warlike  awamu  of 
Faimacitae,  to  ue  regiona  now  known  ai  Moldavia 
and  the  TJhiMn&  In  889,  fraty  thooaand  famjlie*, 
«MUitin^  more  than  200,000  waniora  among  &em, 
left  their  hcmea  under  the  leadenhip  of  Almos,  and 
after  many  a  hard  battle  arrived  at  the  luirth- 
eaatam  fronlien  of  the  luid,  irtdeh,  under  the  name 
of  Pannonia,  contained  aeveral  independent  reolnia, 
•uch  as  Great  Moravia,  the  Slavo-Bolgarian  king- 
dom of  Zalan,  &c  The  great  task  of  oonqunt 
being  now  at  hand,  old  Almoc  resigned,  and  his 
aon  ArpCd  being  unanimoualy  eiecteif  aa  chief,  the 
armed  mvatlon  b^an  at  once  in  aeveral  directiona. 
At  the  end  of  8W,  Aiptd'a  away  extended  from 
tbe  Carptthiana  down  to  Servia,  and  from  the 
eoatwn  bordera  of  Tranaylvauia  to  the  foot  of  the 
Btyiion  monntaina.  Acoording  to  a  covenant  betweea 
Arpid  and  the  other  chiefa,  the  leadenhip  waa  to 
remain  with  tbe  deacendanbi  of  the  former  as  long 
aa  they  ihould  keep  faithful  to  the  nation.    The 


whieb  were  then  laid  for  the  political 
of  the  teahn,  have  been  devd<^iBd 
through  lapee  of  tame  into  that  ayatem  of  municipal 
independence  which  boa  outlived  tbe  atorma  of 
nearly  a  tbonaawl  yean,  and  containa,  even  after 
the  diaaatrana  iisae  of  18i9,  the  gBrma  of  future 
national  greatneia.  The  perioda  into  which  the 
luatary  of  H.  ia  divided  are:  1.  Period  of  chiefa 
of  the  House  of  Arpid  (801—1000) ;  2.  Period  of 
kinga  of  tbe  Houae  of  Arp&d  (1000—1301);  3. 
Period  of  kinga  from  different  (foreign)  families 
(1301—1520);  4  Period  of  king*  <^  the  Honao  of 
Eapabnig  (1E26  to  the  ^«ent  day).  The  fint 
king  of  E.  was  Stephen  L,  oalled  the  Saint ;  ha 
waa  crowned  in  the  year  1000  witb  a  crown  that 
bad  been  lent  to  him  by  the  pope,  Sylvater  n. 
It  forma  to-day  the  npper  part  of  '  the  aacred  crown 

With  St  Stepben,  a  new  era  began  for  H. ; 
Christianity  took  the  pUoe  of  he^han  inperatitiona ; 
the  aavage  incnmona,  by  which  (Ae  people  of  (Ac 
tati  became  a  aoontve  to  Deigbboariug  natiaiia, 
oeaaed  entirely.  The  Eouie  of  Arpid  gave  twenty 
kinga  to  H.,  the  ereateat  of  whom  ondoobtodly 
was  Stephen  L.  who.  beaidea  dividing  the  realm 
impletely  developed  tlie 


the  hardly  begun  Cluiraan  dvilimtJOB  •wunat  the 
rebellioua  attempt  of  a  numenm*  Vtxty.  Ladialoaa 
L  ia  renowned  for  wiaa  lu^alafaon  and  tor  (^eat 
personal  valour.  Sneh  WM  we  TOmra  <A  bit  dead^ 
that  at  the  council  of  PiaceuM  (109S)  be  waa  vnaai- 
monsly  elected  to  be  the  leadttr  of  tiie  oniBade  to 
Palestine.  Death  prevented  ttie  hero  fmn  aeMan- 
plishing  the  task.  Coloman  (1095—1114)  went  by 
tbe  name  of  ■  Leaned,'  and  many  of  bia  law*  shew 
how  much  he  waa  in  advanoe  of  the  an  Qejn  tl. 
(1141 — 1161)  waa  but  ten  years  old  when  motnad; 
nevertheleaa,  bis  reign  ia  wort^  of  mentioo,  for 
it  waa  then  that  otdcoiata  from  Flandcn  aottltd  ia 
Northem  H.,  aa  alao  in  l^anaylTania,  in  iiiami 
({uence  ot  wUeh,  mining  and  aevraal  hrnnrhf  of 
industry  mode  nmid  progresa.  Andrew  IL  (190$ 
— 1235)  ia  known  in  eonneotion  with  the  cniBdaa  ; 
the  Hungarian  Magna  Charta  (Bulla  Aurea),  foved 
from  bim  by  hia  nobles,  dates  from  1222.  BSa  IT. 
(123^1270)  ahewed  great  qnalitaea  in  anbduiag 
the  indomitiible  arroaance  of  the  otigaichy,  and  ia 
healing  the  wounds  ^  his  people  aft^  tlu  torilda 
invasion  of  the  Mongols  in  124Z  Andrew  ILL  wm 
the  last  mole  adon  in  tbe  Arp&d  line;  be  died 
without  issue  in  1301.  During  the  mixed  period, 
kinga,  beaidea  t^e  goveiiKir  Kmyady  (q.  v.L 
cspeci^y  diatdngni^ied  themaalviea.  ^  ' 

tbe  Great  (IS^lSSl),  waa  tbe 

theHonae  of  AntoVibMngl^hia^      .  „ 

oonneeted  with  tbe  ArpCd  dynasty.  Lewi*  estcnded 
the  away  of  the  Hnujarian  Boeptre  to  limita  fMnedy 
unknown ;  re-eatablished  at  home  the  antbon^  ot 
law,  tiodden  down  bv  the  mi^tj  oligarclw  nader 
1.3  1 . .  _^  promoted  aoienoe,  induatry, 

Ine  of  the  remarkable  epaodea  of 
bia  reign  waa  the  expedition  to  Italy 
'   "    "  ' !  nnf ortunato  hn  " 

:  Joan  of  Nafdea  , 

1437)  is  better  known  aa  ^peror  <tf  Qtnataj. 
I  incident  in  the  life  of  a  ■ '—    - 


.  LewUL,<aaied 


months,  isigismund.  waa  leleaaed  onl*  after 
taken  the  oatli  to  hia  Hungarian  aobjectB, 
fidelity  to   the  Mmatitntioa.      MathJaa   * 

known  by  the  name  of  Matbisa  Hnnyady  i 

Corvinus  (see  MjiTBll3)~may  be  said  to  have  been 
not  only  the  greatest  king  of  H.,  but  also  tlu 
greatest  aoveredgn  ot  hia  age^  By  bis  valour,  aagaritj. 


t.Google 


HmraARY-WATEB—HlJNINQTJE. 


protracted  agony,  preceding 
■-- "-pendenoe.     Anjong  the 
leign  of  VUdiiltu  n.  of 


.  „  t  lif 

ter/don.  Lewu  u.  wai  bat  ten  years  (Jd  at  tbe 
death  of  Mb  father,  VUdialaa  IL  Another  ten 
years  of  rapid  diaorganiaation  was  reqiiired  to 
make  a  diiaater  like  tliat  of  Mobica  pomUe.  See 
MoHacB,  Battlc  or.  The  further  history  of  B.  is 
indinohibly  coaneoted  vith  that  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  and  may  be  read  a*  to  ita  principal  feature! 
UDder  the  head  AusTBU. 

I^ndamatlal  Lattm  qf  Hungarj/, — 1 
Bull  of  Andrew  IL,  ^vea.  ia  the  yei 
the  ntom  of  the  king  from  PauiBt 
31  artidea,  of  which  article  2  ia  a  kind  of  Haheaa 
Corpoa  Act,  but  for  noblea  only.  One  clause  of 
article  31,  declaring  armed  reaistanoe  to  any  illegal 
acta  of  the  king  not  punishable  by  law,  ~~ 
uaneelled  by  aiHtie  4  of  the  diet  in  1687- 

2.  Treaty  of  Peace  of  Vienna,  1606.  It 
concluded  on  the  23d  of  June,  between  Matbii 
and  Stephen  Boeakay.  Article  1  enacts  freedom 
of  worahip  to  Prateatanta,  ai  far  as  ia  cunaiBteat 
with  the  eatabliabed  lighta  of  the  Soman  Catholic 
Church. 

3.  Treaty  of  Peace  of  Lioz,  enacted  during  the 
diet  of  1646—1647.  FobUo  worship  is  once  more 
■ecored  to  Protestants,  auch  freedom  being  for  tbe 
firat  time  extended  alio  to  the  pessanta.  Protes- 
tants were  to  be  admitted  to  xmblic  fooctiona  on  an 
eqoal  footing  whb  Catholics. 

4.  The  Fragmatio  SsJictioo,  coat^cd  in  article 
2  of  the  diet  of  1722—1723.  In  case  there  nhould 
be  no  male  iaaue  in  tbe  dynasty  of  Eapsburg,  tbe 
femalea  and  thair  descendaota  are  to  succeed  to  the 
Hnngarian  throne.  The  king  miast  be  a  Konan 
Catholio,  must  take  oath  to  the  constitution,  and 
■ign  the  Bo-called  diploma  inouifurale,  tbua  conJirni- 
ing  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  nation.  Should 
there  bo  no  desc^idant,  male  oi  female,  of  the 
reigning  House,  the  freedom  of  electing  their  king 


dangers,  won  the  love  of  the  Huogaiiao  nation  by 
fHY^nJT'g  to  their  just  and  legitimate  oloims.  The 
gOTomnent  of  H.  was  coofidea  to  Hungarians  only ; 
in  public  a&irs,  the  Primate,  the  Palatine,  and  the 
Ban  were  to  be  oonsolted.  Hungarians  were  to  be 
eligible  for  seats  in  the  miniatry.  Article  17  of 
1700—1791  renews  those  enactments. 

Article  10  of  1790—1791  establishes  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Hungarian  kingdom  with  ita  annexed 
parts.  Attide  12  qf  tht  laiae  year  dedam  thai  the 
poaer  of  nmJang,  dtanging,  aitd  iiUerpreting  laaa 
in  the  Ixigdom  qf  H.  be!oM$  to  the  tovereiffn  legiii- 
vtat^l/  crooned,  lofdher  with  (Ac  diet  UigtM]/  convatai. 
polking  am  be  done  m  H.  by  meant  of  royal  lellert 
poJent.  Article  13  orders  that  the  diet  shall  be 
cooToked  at  least  imce  evety  three  years. 

Artiole  16  enaranteet  tbo  nation  the  use  and 
cnUnre  of  tbe  Magyar  tongue. 

Article  19  aecnres  to  the  diet  the  ri([ht  of  voting 
taxes  Mid  of  fixing  the  number  of  recraits. 

Up  to  the  year  1S48,  the  nobla«  wen  free  from 
contribation  and  miUtaiy  swice ;  they  occaaiooally 
gave  vnbaidiea  ;  and  in  cose  of  cxtnone  neceBaity, 
rase  in  aim*  for  the  defence  of  the  coiuiti7.    Arttclo 


6  of  1347—1848  enacU  the  great  prinaple,  that  all 
classes  are  to  participate  in  the  public  bnrdens  o( 
the  realm.  Article  9  aboliabe*  statute  labour ;  the 
peasant  could  henceforward  become  owner  of  real 
property  ;  and  indemnity  was  given  to  their  former 
masters.  Article  5  of  1847—1848  establishes  the 
principle  of  popular  representation  upon  the  bosiB  of 
taiation. 

The  leg^tive  power  in  Hungary  is  intrusted 
to  the  kmg  and  tbe  Reichstag  or  Diet,  which 
consista  of  the  House  of  Magnates  and  tbe  House 
of  Bepreaentatives.  In  1872,  the  former  assembly 
counted  410  members — 3  princes,  31  archbishops 
and  bishops  of  tbe  Bamon  Catholio  and  Greek 
churcbea,  371  nobles  of  Hunrair,  2  deputiea  from 
Croatia  and  Slavonia,  and  3  from  Tnnsylvania. 
The  lower  House  is  compcaed  of  representatiTee  of 
the  towns  and  rural  districts.  It  is  elected  by  the 
votes  of  aU  citizens  of  age  who  pay  direct  taxes  to 
the  amount  of  16a.  a  year.  Neither  electors  nor 
tbeir  representatives  ore  affected  by  anv  distinction 
of  race  or  religion.  In  the  session  of  1872,  Uiere 
were  438  tnembeia.  The  towns  and  cities  of  Hun- 
gary sent  S8  depaties,  or  rather  delegates ;  from  coun- 
try district^  289;  29  from  Croatia  and  Slavocia; 
and  returned  by  ecclesiastical  and  other  bodies,  32. 
Ifrngariaa  Laagua^  and  Literature. — Notwith- 
standing the  genenl  nmpatby  that  ivevails  for  B., 
many  are  of  opmion  either  that  the  Hongaiians  arc 
but  a  half-civiliBed  people,  or  that  their  language 
and  literatnre  are  in  some  sense  or  another  Ger- 
manic or  Slavonic  The  Magyar  tonEne  is  as  mudi 
distinct  from  German  or  S^ve  as  la  the  French 
or  Italian.  The  language  of  the  Hnngarians  ia 
called  Magyar,  and  forms,  together  with  ue  Mogul, 
the  group  Ugri,  belonging  to  tbe  great  Fimiio 
Fami^.  As  to  its  syntu,  the  language  ia  nearest 
to  tbe  Turkish.  Among  its  charoctenatica  may  be 
noted  that  the  ChiiatJon  name  occupies  always  tbe 
second  place,  as,  for  instance,  Hunyadjr  J^oa  = 
John  Hnoyady.  "How  rich  in  expressions,  how 
ji  closaic  beauties  Uiat  li^ffuage  is,  may 
be  collected  from  tbe  circumstance,  uiat  altboush 
was  excluded  from  public  life  during  eight 
centuries  (Latin  beingused  in  tchools,  legislation, 
and  administration),  H.  poaaeaaea  to-day  a  litera- 
ture whldi,  both  in  regard  to  ita  quantity  and 
quality,  wUl  sustain  a  comparison  with  that  of  tbe 
■'■■'■     '  ■^'  ■  !rn  nationa.     " 

ames  of  Kis 
,    are   Well   worthy 
tt   in   other   lands. 
e  desirous  of  further  information  on 


published  both  in  Magyar  and  German. 
HUNGABT-WATER,a  very  celebrated  perfume, 
r  the  preparation  of  which  variooa  receipts  have 
been  given.  The  following  ia  one  of  the  beat :  Take 
of  fresh  rosemary  in  blossom,  4  pounds ;  fresh  aage 
' '  1  ooncea ;   ginger  in  slices,  2  ounces  ; 

small  pieces,  mix,  and  add  rectified 
apirit  12  poDnda,  and  oommon  water  2  pints.    Let 
ateven  pmta  distil  by  a  gentle  heat.     A  heimit 
kave  given  the  ongmal  receipt  to  a  queen 
„  ry,  ami  hence  it  waa   collol  the   Queen 
af  HmQar}fa   Water,  which  has  been  abbreviated 
"  Water.     It  is  employed  [oiacipally 


0  Hungary 


for  tile  toilet;   but  it 


and  stimulant,  and 


HCNOEB.    See  DiaRmoH. 
HUNINGITB,  a  amsll  town  of  Oennony,  in  the 
itrcme  south  of  Alsace,  is  situated  on  the  left 

1     :,     HyGOU^Il 


HUHS— HUNT. 


iMnk  <^  the  Rhine,  37  milea  MMith-aotith-eHtt  of  the 
town  of  Colmar.    Pop.  aboat  BOOa 

Thi*  jdMC  WM  fraineiij  lenurlubla  u  b«iog  tha 
eantre  of  tlw  Fnnch  aystam  of  [naaioiiltim.  A 
amies  of  bmldlnn  and  artifioiBl  pObd^  oo^niog  a 
■pace  <a  SBTentv  UDMrial  acna,  vaa  o«oted  in  18^ 
— 1664  tia  the  Drceding  and  accUmatinDg  of  tartiga 
SA.  Tha  total  coat  was  £10,607.  The  expenae  of 
MRTing  on  the  plan  from  1S53  to  1S62  unonoted 
(o  £13,SS7,  and  the  annnal  coat  after  the  latter  year 
averaged  about  £200a  This  establialmient  eaabled 
the  ^«nah  govenuneot  daring  the  aeoond  empire 
to  reatock  many  ot  the  barren  riTen  of  France 
with  valuable  &h.     See  Piboicultukb. 

HtTNB  (Lat,  HviuU;  Gt.  Ounnoi  and  CTotmoi}, 
tha  name  of  a  ooniiderable  nation  of  antiquity, 
which,  from  time  to  time,  made  inomnona  upon  the 
Soman  dominiona,  and  which  eventually,  under 
Attila,  the  moat  renowned  of  it*  leaden,  brought 
the  empiree  of  both  the  !Baet  and  the  West  to  the 
veiT  vu;ge  of  deatructioa. 

The  E.  were  of  Asiatic  origin,  and,  in  aU  prob- 
ability, of  the  Mongolian  or  l^uiar  atock ;  therafora 
akin  to,  and  perhapa  to  be  idantifled  with,  the 
Scythians  and  Tnrka.  Accordiiu;  to  De  Onignea, 
whose  theory  has  been  accepted  by  Oibbon,  the 
K  who  invaded  the  Roman  empire  weie  lineally 
descended  from  the  Eioag-noQ,  wioae  ancient  teat 
was  an  extenaive  but  barren  tract  o(  oonntn'  imme- 
diately to  the  north  of  the  great  wall  of  China. 
About  the  year  200  B.a,  these  people  orerran  the 
Cbioete  empire,  defeated  the  Chinese  armies  in 
numerous  engagements,  and  even  drove  the  Emperor 
Kao-ti  hims^  to  an  igoominiooa  capitalation  and 
treaty.  During  the  re;gn  of  Vou-ti  {141 — 87  B.a) 
the  power  of  the  H.  was  veiymOoh  broken.  Erent- 
ually,  they  separated  into  two  distinct  camps,  one 
of  v^ch,  amounting  to  abont  00,000  tamiliea,  went 
soiitbwarda,  while  uie  other  endeavoured  to  maia- 
toin  itself  in  its  original  seat.  This,  howeter,  it 
was  very  difficult  for  them  to  do ;  and  eventually 
the  moat  watlike  and  enterprialng  went  west  and 
north-west  in  search  of  new  homes.  Of  those  that 
went  north-west,  a  large  number  established  them- 
selves for  a  while  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga.  Then 
crossing  this  river,  they  advanced  into  the  territories 
of  the  AIb"!,  a  pastoral  people  dweUine  between 
the  Volga  and  the  Don.  At  what  perioa  thie  took 
place  is  uucvrt^n,  but  probably  it  woe  early  in  the 
4th  century.  The  Al»"',  who  had  long  dwelt  in 
these  plains,  resisted  the  incnirions  of  l£e  H.  with 
much  bravery  and  sonie  effect,  until  at  lencth  a 
bloody  and  decisive  battle  was  fought  on  the  bonks 
of  the  I>on,  in  which  the  Alan  king  was  ahtin,  and 
his  army  utterly  routed;  the  vast  nujority  of  tiie 
SOTvivors  joined  the  invaders. 

The  EL  are  described  as  being  of  a  dork  oom- 
pler;o[i,almoat black;  deformed  m  their  appeanuwa. 


man  species  by  their  broad  shmldsra,  flat  noees^ 

1  amall  black  eyes  deeply  '- — ''  '-  "--  '-  - ' 
d  as  they  were  almost  desl 


deadly  prMtaoM  had  been  driven  from  sooiety,  had 
oopiilat«d  in  the  desert  with  fnfenial  spirits ;  and 
that  the  H.  were  the  offspring  of  this  ezaorable 
oonjnnctiou.'  8oeh  was  the  origin  asidgnsd  to  them 
by  their  enemiet  the  Gotha,  whom  the  H.  now 
invaded  witli  fire  and  aword.  Hennanrio,  the  ued 
soveieim  of  the  Qoth^  wboea  dominions  reached 
from  the  Baltio  to  the  Boxine,  rowed  himself  to 
meat  the  invaders,  but  '  "' 


Withimir,  enooontend  tlie  H.  ia  a  ^tehed  bntUi, 
in  which  he  was  ^^"umlf  iJajii,  uid  h>  oonntrysMtt 
nttody  routed.  Uteae  now  thiew  themadvM  i^ob 
the  poteotiim  of  tha  Qiqienr  Vatcms,  irito  in 
37S  pm  penniariiui  to  k  gTMt  number  of  tluai 
to  orosa  the  Daunlia  atid  Mttls  IB  the  ooantaMa  en 
the  other  ude  aa  amdliariee  to  IJu  Tt^m^^  mnm 
aninst  fnrUisr  invasion.  The  S. 
^  the  t« 
the  Oflths^ 

revolted  against  Yalen^  tha  H.  also  1 1  iwaiiil  tlw 
Dannbe,  and  joined  their  arms  to  tjioas  of  the 
Oaths  in  hostalities  against  the  Hainan  enqiKh 
In  the  wars  that  fidlowad,  the  H.  were  not  so 
conspicnoDS  ss  tha  Gotha  their  fonnei  encmiea. 
Indeed,  vre  now  hear  but  httJe  of  the  H.  diuiog 
the  remainder  of  the  4th  oentuij.  It  ia  nq^wesd, 
however^  that  oaii^  in  tlw  foUmnBtt  ctaittzj  tlwy 
were  jomed  by  fresh  honUi  of  BMir  bretLtin^ 
a  <9tcumitanc8  whjeli  encoiu^ied  then  to  pnsa 
onward  towaidi  fottbw  oenqoest*.  In  the  NJgn  «f 
nieadodtia  tbe  yoonget,  ttuf  had  liiniiiasiiil  w 
oansidenUy  in  powar,  that  Huu  totamga  T^gjlw. 
or  Boaa,  waa  paid  an  anntial  toibnts  to  eeciue  the 
Roman  emjnre  from  fnrthor  iinniy. 
Rogilaa,  i^ing  in  ttis  {ear  484,  w 


the  B 


I,  was  aaeoeeded  ii 


WiUi 


year 

H.  by  his  ne^iewa  Attila 


(a.v.)and 

451,  the  power  of  the  H.  vraa  hrokea  in  pieoea.  A 
few  feeble  aovereignB  snooeeded  to  him,  but  tlwrs 
was  steife  now  evuyiriiere  amctig  IJie  aavenl 
natitns  that  had  ownsd  the  finu  away  i^  Attila, 
and  the  Huns  especially  never  Trained  their  power. 
Many  ot  them  took  servioe  in  the  anniea  of  the 
Romana,  and  others  amin  loined  fresh  hoidsa  of 
invaders  from  the  norUi  and  easl^  aiding  them  in 
their  repeated  attacks  npoa  tha  moribund  Roman 
empii«. 

HT7XT,  JuiB  HiNKT  htias,  poet  and  easayist, 
WW  bom  in  London,  IWh  October  1784,  ednulnd 
at  Christ's  Hospital,  and  first  attracted  notice  Ms  a 
writer  of  theatrical  and  literary  criticisaa  for  the 
Examiner  newspaper,  which  vras  started  in  1805 
by  his  elder  brother  John.  At  tiie  age  of  twen^- 
fonr,  he  became  joint  editor  and  pvprietor  of  the 
Sxaminer.  He  was  a  liberal  in  politica  befora 
liberalism  had  beoome  fashionabte)  and  for  tme  ol 
his  articles,  reSecting  on  the  obewtj  of  the  Prinoe 
Regent^-'  ■  fat  Adonis  of  fifty,'  B.  had  called  him 
—he  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  Stn  at  £S00,  and  to 
undergo  two  years'  imprisonment.  H.  was  h^ipy 
enough  in  his  confinement  j  he  hid  ijie  prison- 
ban  with  txnnsn,  and  reoeived  visits  fnan  Btiob, 
Shelley,  and  Keats.  On  his  releaae,  he  pnbliMKd 
I'he  Btoty  afltivmA,  which  he  had  written  m  piwn. 
and  which  ^ve  him  a  place  aauog  tha  pMts  ot 
the  day.  Ibliaga,  appeared  En  1818,  and  aboot 
the  same  time  he  stvted  the  Indicator,  a  aenal 
suKseated  bj  the  Spadalor  end  TVider.  In  1888,  he 
pnbUshed  Zonf  Bs/nm  and  Ait  ObnlemporariM^  the 
record  of  •  brief  and  not  yeiy  pleaaaot  omuMiiea- 


ship  in  Ibdy  with  his  lordship,  irtilch  gave  gt«Kt 
ofBmoe  to  Byron'a  frienda.  In  the  Huna  ye«r  he 
started  T%e  Otrmpaiao*,  a  eequel  to  Tha  IndiaOar, 
both  of  which  were  repnbUAed  as  one  bocft  in 
1834.  In  1838,  ha  pnbhshed  a  collected  edition  ol 
his  poetical  works.  In  I8S4,  he  started  tha  Lomdtm 
Journal,  wbidi  he  edited  for  two  y«an.  Hia 
—--"lal  works,  beaidia  flioea  ahmdy  mmtieDsd. 
raptain  8wrd  imd  Ooflai^  Pm  (ISSS) ; 
Ltgatd  of  FlarauK  [\Mini  TktBMt,  a  pnUiaatiou 
sunilar  to  Tht  Indicator;  n»  foMvy  (iMt);  Ak- 
Ralph  EAer,  a  novel  [1844);  ImoffimMtn  tatd 
F^mty  (1844);  WU  and  fftmwir  (18461;  Btorlti  of 
lb  Ilatlati  Petit,  vMh  Lim*  (1846);  JToi,  Womat, 
-- •   "--■■-  (18*7);  A  Jw  of  ffmeg  Jhm  Momu 


>,\jOOgk 


UUHT— UITNTEB. 


-. -    ^-  ■       ■•  ^-R*- 

fiOMo/&eHtart{lSSS);  toiTlit  Otd  Court  Suburb 
(\9SS).      In  1847  he  TecKiiTa>l_fr(nn  the  crown 


peDiiini  of  £200l    He  died,  at  Hi^gita,  Angnit 
1859.    A  eeledion  from  hia  L«ltart  and  Oorrtnond- 
nee  WM  pabliihed  bj  his  son,  Hf  Thornton  Hont, 


nnata  npon  hit  p 


Tht  BUn^  lifa^iM  ia,  oi  the  wh^eTperhna  the 
finart  nuTKlive  which  h>e  ^ipekred  nnoe  Dryden, 
and  his  P<^rq/  is  delightful  from  Iti  good  tpMm 
•nd  bridit  nnmy  glinjiaaa  of  landsoape  mnd  ohnr- 
Mtar.  Al  (D  MMTiit,  he  il  alwm  oheeiful  and 
ta&dfnl,  and  he  looka  detenniztedfy  st  the  bii^ 
aide  of  thinB,  The  ^  me;  be  gfoamj,  but  if 
thoe  fa  ft  M  (rf  Una  in  i^  he,  with  as  adminUe 
imeticBl  pfaikai^lqr,  eoMtantl^  tnrai  hi*  ejre  to 
OaL  He  deli^iti  to  wnath  the  porch  of  the  hamu 
dwdUng  wiUi  naM  and  houe;>iiokle&  Among  hi* 
poem*  am  to  be  found  Mnrenl  toeoalationi,  -miiah 
are  the  bert  thing*  of  the  kind  we  pOBML  He 
tnuwporti  the  wine  of  Qraeoe  and  Itdly  to  Rigland. 
and  tta  oolonr  and  flaTonr  an  rather  impiuved  than 
otherwin  ^  the  Toyaga. 

HUTTT,  WiLLUif  EouUH,  a  celebrated  English 
pninter  of  the  preeent  day,  was  bom  in  London  ir 
1S27,  and  aihibited  his  first  piatale,  entitled  'Earkt 


oonvictiona,  he  ootmneooed  a  new  ityle  of  taeat- 
ment,  hnown  aa  the  Prt-Bafiha^ite.  This  teim 
was  oridn&ted  by  H.  and  hi*  bienda,  and  wia 
employed  by  them  to  indicate  their  predileotioQ 
for  the  pajntera  who  lived  before  Bapliael,  noh  aa 
Oiotto  and  Fra-Angelico,  bnt  did  not  at  all  imply 
that  they  meant  to  take  the  prodnctiana  of  tJuae 
nuarten  as  technical  modelo.  It  w*«  because  of 
their  tmthfalnen  and  eainect  aimplidty  that  they 
admired  the  fathers  of  Italian  wi.  The  fint  of 
H-'b  worki  tlukt  shewed  the  new  inflaen<^  na»  his 
'  Converted  British  Family  dielteiing  a  Christian 
Missionary  from  the  Pereeontion  of  the  Druids ' 
(ISCO).  He  afterwards  produced,  among  otheia, 
'  Valentine  rescoing  Sylvia  from  Proteus,'  '  The 
Hireling  Sbephetd,' '  Oaz  Eoalish  Coajrta,' '  London 
Bridge  on  the  Night  of  the  Marriage  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales,"  'The  Afterglow,'  'The  PeBtival  of  St 
Swithin,'  '  The  Awakened  Conscience,'  '  The  Light 
of  the  World,' '  The  Scape  Goat,'  '  Christ  disputmg 
with  the  Doctors  in  the  Temple,'  and  the  '  Shadow 

of  Death'  (1873).    The  hist  foor  are  perhape  H.'b 

greatest ;  and  mnltitadea  who  do  n 

stand  the  vexala  qua  ''"     '  ''^    " 

been  moved  by  their 
HUNT,  WnojAM,  an 

n'ater-coloutL  was  bom 


ihpaintd 
1790, 


ftmong  theigreateat  colonrists  of  tha  English  school. 
Hie  snbjeet*  are reiy simple— 'Peaches  uid  Grapes,' 
'  Old  PcJlaid,'  '  Basket  of  Plums,"  '  Eoeoe,'  '  Wild 
Flowers,'  'Trampers  at  Home,'  'A  Farmhonao 
Beauty,'  '  JW;  Asleep,'  Ac,  bat  they  are  conceived 
in  a  finely  poetical  spirit,  and  present  the  perfection 
of  finish.    He  died  Tebniaiy  1864. 

HUNTER,  Jomr,  the  greatest  name  in  the 
oombined  chaiacter  of  physiologist  and  surgeon 
th^t  the  whole  annals  of  nsdieina  oan  furnish, 
-WM  bom  at  Long  OaldMrwood,  in  Lua^ahire, 
in  17ZS,  M>d  was  the  jnnu«ert  of  ten  diildivn. 
Oaa  of  his  bntbBi,  WiUiwi,  oUtaM  *  Mparita 


notica.  One  at  his  sicten,  Doiothei^  w*«  married 
to  Dr  Jamea  Bailli^  pro^saor  of  difioi^  in  the 
nniveiaity  of  Glasgow,  and  was  the  motJiei  of 
Matthew  BailUe  (q.*-),  and  Joanna  Baillie  (q.  v.). 
The  fact  that  hi*  father  died  when  B.  was  only 
tan  yean  of  see,  and  the  probability  that  he  was 
orar-indulged  by  his  mother,  explain  how,  at  the 
age  of  twenty,  he  oonld  simply  read  and  write, 
and  was  ignorant  of  every  langnage  beddet  his 
own.  The  fame  of  hia  brother  William's  auoceas 
an  ao  anatomical  lecturer,  made  H.  dasiroua  of 
entering  into  the  same  profession,  and  he  accivd- 
in|^  ^ifdied  for  and  obtained  tiie  aitaatioit  of 
asMstmt  in  tike  dissecting-roosn.  Hia  uopets  in 
aoatcny  and  coqcery  was  to  raidd,  that  in  the 
■eoond  ■■■■im  he  was  able  to  undertake  the 
directing  of  the  pnpils  in  thmr  '^'"■^m)^.  Ha 
studied  snrgmy  under  Cheaelden  (the  e^brated 
htbetonnct),  at  Chelsea  Honntal,  during  the  turn- 
m«r  neotba  of  1749  and  1700;  and  nibteqnently 
under  Pott. 
In  1763;  H.  entered  as  a  gentleman  commoner  at 
■"---•-""    ^ -•    '     -    t  finally 

nn'S'p^il  in 
the  office  of 
this  rear  <17H), 
biotMr  in  the 
eduxd.  After  ten  yean'  haid  woA  in 
tha  dineotiiu-raom,  hia  health  b^nm  to  give  way, 
and  in  1769  he  waa  steon^y  adnied  to  ae^  a  mon 
southerly  «ilimstw,  With  this  view  he  af^tlied  fbr 
an  npomtmsnt  in  Hie  army,  wa*  immadiatelT  n*de 
statfsnrgeon,  and  sent  out  to  Bellaisle,  and  aft«r< 
wards  to  the  Prainsola;  bnt  in  1703;  peace  haTLog 
been  proclaimed,  he  returned  homes  permanent^ 
settled  in  London,  and  with  nothing  but  hie  hiUf- 
pay  and  his  own  talents  to  sopport  him  started 
as  a  pure  surgeon.  For  a  while  he  had  not  a 
great  pnctioa,  and  oonaequently  devoted  much 
time  sjid  money  to  compaisiiTa  anatomy.  He 
wa*  in  the  habit  of  puichating  the  bodies  of 
animals  that  died  in  the  Tower,  and  in  travelling 
"•- napriee;  and  in  order  conveniently  to  CMry 
hu  auabnnioal  and  phyvologiaal  inquiriee,  he 
ptrohated  ,a  pieoe  of  ground  at  EaN't  Court, 
Brompton,  where  he  built  a  small  house,  in  which 
he  made  most  of  his  researches.  In  1767,  he  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society,  and  in  the 
followina  year  was  appointed  snegeon  to  8t  GaoTBe'e 
Hospital  This  appomtment  led  to  an  increase  of 
his  practice,  and  enabled  him  to  take  pupils,  each 
'  'horn  paid  him  500  guiikeaa.  Jenusr  (q.  v.)  wag 
of  tha  earlieat  of  these,  and  always  spoko  of  hit 
master  in  tarmt  tt  regard  and  afiectico.  In 
1771,  he  married  Mitt  Home,  titter  of  Mr  (after- 
wards Sir  Bvetard)  Home.*  Hit  pnctioe  at  tiiit 
time  was  increasing  rapidly,  but  hts  income  nem 
reached  £1000  a  year  until  1774.  In  1773,  he 
had  the  first  attack  of  a  diaaase  [angirta  peetorit) 
whidi  ultimately  proved  fatal  In  1776,  ha  wt« 
appointed  Esrgeon-ertraordinaty  to  the  kiug. 

In  1783,  he  determined  to  build  a  museum.    The 

building,  which  was  completed  in  178fi^  contitted 

of  an  traper  room  for  the  reoeptiai  <rf  hit  eolleation, 

02  feet  long  by  28  wide,  nndtr  which  were  a  Itotnra- 

room,  and  another  room  which  beiaune  the  place  of 

meeting  of  the  I^roeom  Medicnm,  a  society  ludab 

lished  by  H.  and  Fotdyoe.    It  wu  in  Deoembv  of 

^""t  year  that  he  pluned  and  carried  into  exeon- 

I  lua  famoua  iqwration  for  tha  cure  of  anenham — 

t  of  simply  lying  the  artery  at  a  ''■ft-fii'Mf  from 

Hn  Hunter  had  a  teste  (or  mnsie,  and  was  the 

■irther  of  ssvarsl  popular  scnigi.      JHjr  Motlttr  bidi 

—  *'"''  KL^*"  *■  ""  "*  "^  ***  *■•  *''**«"  tfl 


t/GOeyr 


HUNTER— HOHTmGDON. 


tb«  tomouT,  aai  between  it  and  th«  heart,  thus 
intradnoiiig  into  sur^eiy  la  impnivaiDent  nbich  has 
b«en  more  fmitful  m  importaat  remUta  tbaa  »nj 
ainoe  Ambrcns  Fart'a  ap^cation  of  ligatnrw  to 
diTided  uteriea.  In  1786,  H.  ww  appoint  depnty- 
anigBon-geneial  to  the  amy;  in  1787,  he  reoei*ed 
the  Cojdejr  medal  from  the  Boyal  Society.  He  ma 
now  nnivenally  ackDowled|^,  by  all  toe  younger 
■UTgeona,  aa  the  head  of  his  proieaaion ;  but  moat 
of  his  oontemporariea  looked  upon  bim  aa  little 
better  than  an  innovator  and  an  eathiuiaat.  He 
died  16th  October  1793,  and  was  buhed  in 
chnich  at  St  Mortin'a-in-the-Fielda,  from  wl 
hia  lemaina  were  remoyed,  in  1S60,  to  Weatminater 
Abbey,  where  a  mitabla  tablet  to  hia  memory  haa 
been  eracted  by  the  Council  of  Uio  !Bofal  College 
of  Sni^eona 

Some  idea  may  bo  formed  of  H.'b  exlreme  diligence, 
by  tiie  fact  that  hia  museum  eontatned  at  the  time 
of  hia  death  10,663  apecimens  and  preparaticaia 
illostratdye  of  human  and  comparatiye  anatomy, 
fbjwAogj,  pathology,  and  natural  hiatory.  He  died 
ID,  compar^ye  poverty,  and  hia  collection  waa  pur- 
chased, two  years  after  hia  deaUi,  by  goyemment  for 
£10,000,  and  was  presented  to  the  Boyal  College  of 
6iiif;aona,  by  whom  it  has  been  much  enlaived. 

In  addition  to  numerooa  papers  contributed  to 
the  TramaeUoju  of  the  Boyal  and  other  learned 


irunuin7'££fA(psi^L  1771 1  part  iL  1778);^  Trtatiae 
onUte  Vaterea.lI>iatiue{Yjifi);  QhtenxUiont onGsrtain 
PaHtof  the  Animal  Eamoniy{VlSQ);  ioAA  TreatUt 
on  the  Blood,  In^mmation,  and  0unsAol  Wound* 
(published  in  1794),  Mr  Palmer,  with  the  literary 
assistance  of  several  eminent  aiirgical  friends,  pub- 
liahed  an  excellent  edition  of  7Aa  Works  of  John 
HunUr,  FJt.S..  mlh  Nola,  in  4  volumes,  in  1835. 
To  thia  is  prefixed  The  Life  of  John  Bunler,  F.B.S., 
by  Drewry  Otley,  from  which  most  of  the  matariala 
of  this  sketch  have  been  taken. 

HUNTER,  WnJOUf,  M.D.,  the  elder  brother 
of  John  Hunter,  woa  bom  at  Long  Calderwood, 
in  the  parish  of  Kilbride,  Lanarkshire,  in  1718.  and 
died  in  London  in  1783.  After  atndying  for  five 
aooiona  in  the  univeraity  of  01sagow,with  a  view  to 
entering  the  church,  he  determined  to  devote  him- 
(elf  to  the  profeeaion  of  pln^aic.  Be  passed  the 
winter  session  1740_1741  in  Edinburgh,  and  in  the 
■ommer  of  1741  arrived  in  London,  where  he  resided 
with  Dr  James  Donriaa,  the  well-known  anatomiat 
and  obatetric  phyaician,  for  the  doable  purpoae 
of  assisting  in  diasectiona,  and  superintending  the 
education  <^  hia  son.  H.  waa  then  entered  na  a 
■urseon'a  pupil  of  St  George'a  Hospital,  and  as 
a  dissecting  puial  of  Dr  Frank  Nicholls,  who  was 
then  teachmg  anatomy  with  great  ancoess.  Tb 
teach  anatomy  waa  now  the  object  of  hia  ambition, 
and  in  1746  an  oyiportnnity  of  doing  ao  oocurred. 
A  aociety  of  naval  aurgeons  bad  for  aeveral  years 
engaged  Mr  Sharps  to  deliver  a  couibb  of  lectures 
on  the  operationa  of  surgei^,  and  on  hia  rewgna- 
tion,  H.  received   the  appointment.      He  gai"     - 


admitled  a  member  of  the  Corpontiai)  of  Smveons. 
In  tk6  earir  part  of  hia  career,  he  practised  both 
■mgory  and  midwifery,  but  he  giadaally  confined 
hiimelf  to  tha  latter  line  of  pmoticci  He  waa 
appointed  one  of  tha  aargeons-acooachanr  to  the 
Muldleasz  Ho;rpital  in  174S,  and  to  the  British 
Lying-in  Hospital  iu  1749. 

In  1762,  H.  waa  conanlted  by  Queen  Charlotte, 
and  two  years  afterwards  was  appointed  phyaician- 
eitraordinary  to  her  majesty.  In  1767,  H.  waa 
elected  a  Fdlow  of  the  Kc^al  Society,  and  in  the 


follovring  year  was  appointed  jmitaar  of  ... 
to  the  Bmal  Academy.  In  1770,  be  removed  to  Great 
Windmill  Street,  where  he  bad  built  a  honae,  in 
connection  with  which  were  a  roomy  amplnthi 
for  lectures,  a  diasectiBg-room,  and  a  -—jp'* 
room  wliich  vaa  to  form  his  museun^  which 
sisted  of  anatomical  prcparationa  executed  b^  him- 
self and  his  pupils,  purchases  from  oUler  mnsauma. 
also  minerala,  sheila,  and  other  objects  aS  natmal 
hiatory,  tocetber  with  a  very  rare  cabinet  of  anment 
medals  and  coini. 

'  An  estrangement  which  took  place  between  H. 
and  hit  brotber  continued  iiU  the  former  was  oa 
his  death-bed,  when  bis  brother  raqueated  that  be 
might  be  admitted  to  see  him.  This  wsa  acceded 
to,  and  be  oontinned  to  visit  him  daily,  sod  to 
afford  him  professional  asaistance,  until  his  death. 
Together  with  the  bulk  of  hia  fortune,  H.  left 
hia  museum  to  Dr  Baillls  for  a  period  of  thirty 
years,  after  which  it  'waa  to  be  handed  over  to 
the  univeraity  of  Glasgow,  to  which  institution  he 
bequeathed  £8000  for  its  mainteaouce  and  iocnaac 

B.  excelled  as  a  lecturer  in  clearness  of  arrange- 
ment, aptness  of  illuBtratiun,  and  elegance  oE  diction. 
'  He  was,  perhsps,  the  beet  teacher  of  anatomy  that 
ever  lived/  He  published  several  important  coutri- 
butions  to  medicine,  of  which  the  most  Important 
is  hia  Analomieal  Dacriplion  of  the  HvnutA  Gravid 
Uteru*  and  tla  Contentt,  which  did  not  appear  in  iU 
perfect  form  till  after  his  death. 

EtJNTER,  the  name  of  a  river  in  New  South 
Wales,  which  enters  the  FaciQo  75  miles  nortb  of 
Sydney. 

HUNTING  HORN,  or  BUGLE  HORN,  is  a 
frequent  bearing  in  Heraldry, 
When  adorned  with  rings,  it 
ia  stud  to  bo  aamithed.  If 
the  mouth  and  strings  of  the 
instrument  bts  of  a  different 
tincture  from  the  hom,  thia 
must  be  named  ia  blazon. 

HU'NTINGDON,  n 
market-town  and  parliament- 
ary and  municipal  borongh  of 
England,  captal  of  the  county 
of  the  some  name,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Oaae.  H.  is 
united  with  its  anburb  God- 
mao^ester  by  a  bridge  over  the  Onte.  The  Great 
Eastern  Baitway  and  the  Great  Northern  have  each 
a  station  here.  There  are  3  established  chiudes, 
4  dissenting  chqiels,  snd  numeroas  schoala,  one  of 
which  is  the  Qrammar-scbool,  with  an  endowment 
of  £100  a  year,  and  two  exhibitions  for  CaoUiridge 
University.  Large  brick-works,  two  breweries,  and 
an  iron-foundry,  are  sources  of  employipent.  Tha 
house  oE  Oliver  CromwaU  is  of  hiatoncsl  intenat. 
Pop.  of  paH.  bor.  (1871),  6606;  of  muu.  bor.,  4243. 

HUNTINGDON,  Skuha,  Cocwth  of,  wm 
the  second  of  three  dangbten  and  co-heireesca 
of  Washington  Shirley,  eeeond  Eul  Ferms,  and 
was  bom  August  24,  1707.  She  married,  in 
1728,  Theophilus.  Stb  Earl  of  Huntii^on,  and 
became  a  widow  in  October  1746.  Adopting 
the  principles  oE  the  Calvinistio  Methodists,  tUts 
founder  of  which  sect  wss  the  famous  Georgn 
Whitefield,  she  made  that  eminent  preacher  one 
of  her  chaplains,  snd  assumed  s  leadership  among 
his  followers,  who  came  to  be  known  as  "Tim 
Countess  of  Hnntmgdon't  CoDoection.'  On  White- 
field's  death  in  1770,  she  waa  appointed  by  lua 
will  sole  proprietrix  of  all  his  possenions  in  th« 
provinoe  <u  Georgia,  on  which  she  immediately  act 
about  organising  a  mission  to  North  Anusica.  Bvr 
'~*~~~iri  at  home  increased  with  her  years.    For  tha 


Hunting  Hum. 


Cglizodty  Google 


mnrrmoi>0N8BiatE-ttDRt)i.Ea 


education  of  nuaiEten,  she  Mt»bliahed  knd  main- 
tuned  &  ooUege  at  Trerccca,  in  W*le» ;  removed,  in 
1792,  to  Ohediant,  Eerts;  and  built,  or  becune 
pousBwd  of,  namerOTU  chupell  io  different  parts  oE 
the  country,  tbn  principal  one  being  at  Batli.  8be 
likBwiM  expended  lat^  ituni  in  the  rapport  of 
young  men  trained  la  itinerant  preacliiiig,  aa  well 
as  in  [oiTBte  ohari^.  Bnt  vith  all  ber  excellence*, 
she  irai  not  indi«poaed  to  pla^  the  part  of  a  female 
pope,  and  bad  quite  a  paanon  for  canyinK  ber 
pomt  She  died  Jane  17,  1791.  By  ber  inll,  dated 
Jannaiy  11,  1790,  she  created  a  trtitt,  bequeathing 
her  chapels  to  foor  peraona,  of  vrbom  Lady  Anne 
Enkine,  a  daughter  c^  the  Earl  of  Bucban,  waa  (me, 
for  tbeir  care  uid  management  after  bar  death, 
when  the  nomber  amounted  to  64.  Moat  of  them 
have  become,  in  doctrine  and  pnotice,  almcrt  iden- 
tioal  Willi  the  Cmgregational  or  Ind^cndent  bod^ . 
Then  were  latefy  aWe  100  ehapels  belonging  to  thia 
'    *1udan4  and  Walea. 


HCKTINQDOITSHnCE,  a  small  inland  county 
of  England,  is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Cambridge- 
tbtre,  on  the  S.  by  Bedfordshire,  and  on  tbe  W.  and 
If.  by  tbe  county  of  Northampton.  Area,  229,616 
acres,  almost  tlia  whole  of  which  is  in  arable  or 
pasture  lands.  Fop.  (1871)  63,708.  It  is  watered 
chiefly  by  tbe  Onse,  wbich  flows  nortb-east  through 
tbe  BOutb  part  of  the  county ;  and  by  tbe  Nene, 
wbi<^  skirts  its  northern  boundary.  In  the  southern 
districts  the  surface  is  diversified  by  low  hills  ;  the 
northern  portion  of  H.,  however,  is  included  in  the 
great  fen-connb;.  Tbe  soil  is  variool ;  clay,  how- 
ever, predominates  generally.  Onun,  with  beans, 
rape,  and  clover  are  the  chi^  crops.  Tbe  county 
'  *  "  —  '■o  the  impenal  parliament. 
'  etsed  by  two  Bom 
.  t  coiua,  pottery,  &«., 
uave  oeen  found. 

HTTNTIjT,  a  small  biu^  of  barony  and  market- 
town  of  Scotland,  in  tbe  north-west  of  Aberdeen- 
shire, dtuated  at  tbe  junotioo  of  tbe  B<^e  and  the 
Deveron,  20  milee  sootb-soutb-weat  of  BanC  In 
tbe  vicinity  is  the  ruiu  of  Hnntly  Castie.  PopL 
(1871)  8670. 

HU'NTSTILLB,  a  village  in  Northern  Alabama, 
on  the  Memphis  and  Chaileaton  Bailway,  United 
States  of  America,  10  miles  north  of  the  Teuuessee 
River.  It  has  tbe  nsnal  county  buildings,  aud  a 
large  trade  in  cotton  and  imported  goods  with  the 
surrounding  oountiy.    Pop,  (1870)  4907. 

HUHTADT,  JisoB  (Eng.  John(,  governor  of 
Hungary,  one  of  the  greatest  captains  of  bis  age, 
wsa  bom  towards  tbe  cloee  of  the  14th  cent>^. 
H.'s  orimn  is  wrapped  in  mystery,  the  moat 
accredit^  l^md  being  that  ha  was  a  son  of  the 
£knperor  Sigismund  t^  a  Wsllaobian  lady.  H. 
and  hia  deaoendanti  had  in  their  escutcheon  a 
raven — eorrus— bnoe  the  designation  of  Corvinus. 
We  find  H.  as  Ban  of  a  province  south  of  the 
Danube,  distiDguishing  ^ii^a^lf  against  tbe  Turks, 
who  at  tlwt  time  were  tbe  terror  of  the  whole  of 
Christendom.  Daring  the  period  1437—1466,  H. 
was  the  ahield  of  Hungary,  not  only  againat 
external  foea,  bnt  also  againat  the  lairieia  attompta 
of  tbe  oohloi.  Sncb  waa  tbe  renown  of  H.'s  arms, 
that,  after  t^  campaign  of  144^  the  TuAs  were 
glad  to  obtain  an  armistice  of  tan  yean.  Tlte 
vacillating  Vladislas  L  allowed  himself  to  be 
induced  by  tbe  papal  legate,  Julian  Ciesarioi,  to 
break  the  peace  ne  had  swam  to  keep.  H.  was 
defeated  in  the  bloody  battle  of  Vina,  1444;  the 
king  perished  in  the  fight,  as  also  the  cardinal- 
legate  ;  H.  was  captured  during  bis  flight  by  the 
voivod  of  WaUaahiA ;  bat  apon  ~  »--'--^—  "--■ 
T  wotud  I 


tbe  Ivbole  of  Hungaiy  v 


e  to  deliver  the 


noble  prisoner,  i 


LadisUus  V.  (i 


ly  «Bcort 
ne.  During  the  minority  of 
of  Vladislas  I.),  H.  was  eleoted 
by  tbe  nation  to  be  governor  of  Hungaiy.  Hm 
battle  of  Rigfimaci)  (1447),  one  (rf  tile  bloodiest 
ever  fousht,  was  lost  through  the  treaaon  of  the 
voivod  1^  Wallaohia ;  H.  had  once  more  to  go 
through  a  short  captivity.  But  the  mosi  splendid 
oE  his  deeds  was  the  storming  of  Belgrade,  where 
the  monk,  John  Capistran,  earning  tlie  holy  crots, 
raised  the  eDthnnasm  of  the  dhnstian  warriors  to 
anoh  a  height,  that  a  most  complete  victory  brought 
that  foitTMS   wain   into    the    possession   d   the 


after  a  abort  ilbieta,  fell  .. ,  .. 

Capistran,  seventy  yean  old,  followed  his  friend 
into  the  grave  two  months  l^er.  H.  left  two  mim, 
Iddislaua  and  Mathiaa  (q.  v.) — the  foimar  of  whom 
waa  treaoheronaly  in^nsoned,  and  beheaded  at 
Buda,  by  the  very  prince  whW  his  latiua  had  so 
faithfully  served,  Ladialans  V. ;  the  latter  was  givca 
in  charge  to  Qeorge  Podiebrad  (q,  v.)  of  Bohemia. 

HTTPB'H,  one  of  tbe  oantral  provinces  of  Ohina, 
reputed  the  most  fertile.  The  groat  river  Tangtse 
flows  throu^  the  south  of  the  province,  l^ere 
it  receives  rabutariea  with  various  lakes  on  either 
aide,  nearly  doabling  its  volume  of  water.  Area, 
70,460  J  population,  37,37(^098.  Wuchang  is  its 
capital. 

HUltA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
EupAorbiacta.  H.  creplbuu,  a  native  of  the  West 
Indies  and  tropical  Aimerica,  is  a  tree  abounding 
in  a  very  acrid  milky  juice ;  witji  stalked,  heart- 
shaped,  acuminate,  leatiiery  leaves.  The  froit  is 
a  woody  c^)aiiles  of  tbe  size  of  a  p-ctty  large  apple, 
very  much  flatteoed,  formed  of  12—15  caxi,  each 
containing  a  large  seed,  surrounding  a  common  axis, 
whioh  seniate  with  great  elastic  force.  Before  t^ 
use  of  blotting-paper  became  general,  tbe  capsiUe 
was  gaueraUy  need  in  the  West  Indies  as  a  sand- 
box—wbenoe  the  tree  is  called  Sakd-box  Tiin — 
for  powdering  letters  with  fine  sand ;  but  it  waa 
' — "* *"  bind  it  with  a  hoop  of  iron,  aa 


a  violent  dnutio  purgative. 
HURD,  RiCBUiD,  DJ).,  an  eminent  Aiglish 
prelate,  was  bom  at  Oongrave,  in  St^ordiuire, 
January  13,  1720,  and  studied  at  Cambridge 
University,  of  wbitui  he  became  a  fellow  in  \1&. 
In  1749,  appeared  his  first  notable  production, 
Commsniaru  oft  Sarace't  Art  PoOka.  In  1761^ 
through  warburton's  recommendation,  he  waa 
appointed  one  of  tbe  Whitehall  jnnachers,  and 
ultimately  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and 
Coventry.  He  died  May  28,  l80&  His  prindtMJ 
works  are — D'udoqua  on  5in«7ttft  SetirtmaU,  The 
OiMen  Age  of  Muabelh  and  the  Ocm^ituti»a  qf  At 
EngUA  Qaiienuaait  (1769);  LeUert  on  Chivalry  and 
Romanec  (1762) ;  and  An  IntTodiictionlo  lAs  Stadv 
qf  the  Propkeeie*  Concerning  the  Chrittian  Ohurw 
(1772).  HsUam  says  of  H.,  that  he  'has  perbspa 
the  merit  of  beiiu;  tbe  flfst  who,  in  this  county, 
aimed  at  pbiloaophioal  critidam.' — Literary  Hittmi 
o/Suropt,  4th  edit.  Lond.  1S64,  iiL  47G. 


long,  and  2  feet  9  inches  high.  The^  are  useful  in 
maiw  ways,  both  in  militaiy  and  mvil  life^  either 
aa  fencing,  as  barriers,  or  m  fortiBoation,  in  tbe 
construction  of  hur^-baUeriet,  These  last  were  the 
invention  of  Sir  William  Congreve,  who  devised 
them  as  the  speediest  means  of  throwing  up  earth- 
works :  Uiree  hurdles  are  fastened  at  tbur  ends  in 


tyCoogle 


EUBBWAS^EUSBAJn)  AKS  WUUt 


. I  of  m  Iiuu^Ia,  dud  ths  cantoal  Mpaaa  U : 

In  »  ah^  time  wtOi  wrth.     Theie  triaii^lfiB  can 
V ■ ..a  j^  jjjiy  grooad-plin,  »nd  with  thair 


■id,  k  Iwdr  of  addian  oui  entranalt  tii«mMlT«a 
«  fawnisntM.    Th«  huidla  is  oompOMd  <d  vattlM 
interwovn  (m  ihawu  ia  Qis  diignm)  toutd  tUkM 
Dt  picketi,  tiio  IttttM  dDiing  tfao  murafMtnN  btuig 
fliM  npri^t  and  fimly  in  the  ground. 

HURDWAIt,  perhaps'the  moat  funoiH  Ipi ' 
tha  Quigea,  rtends  on.  the  ri^t  or  wart  bw 
tha  river  at  tha  ptrint  where  it  snetgea  tnm 
■nb-Binulaya  into  the  plainB  of  Hindnrtan.  Firai 
ita  pomtioii  on  the  sacred  streun,  it  attracti  imiamM 
niunben  of  pilgrims  for  tha  porposes  of  ablataon. 
Iht  <nthodQX  Hason  comprises  the  end  of  March 
and  llie  b^nnios  of  April — a  great  fait  at  the 
•sine  tima  angraning  oonunaToe  on  leligion.  In 
(ndinaiy  Toan,  tha  attandanoa  anumnti  to  900,000 
aOO,OOOt  bat  on  tha  ocoasioB  of  mrtrj  twelfth 
tha  latart  haviBgoooniTed  in  1867,  tha  Tiaitoia, 
lanoanumt  to  tha  okaa  at  tha  faatiral, 

>TeraM  about  2,000,000.    Tha  plaoe 

is  10!M  feet  above  the  aea,  in  lat.  20*  67'  H.,  and 
long.  78*  14'  E. 

H  I)  kDT-  GTJBDT,  a  vary  old  mnaioal  initan- 
tnent  of  tha  atrlnged  kjbd,  which,  under  tha  name 
of  Lejer,  or  Banrenlejer,  qiread  from  ita  native 
oonntiy,  Oennany,  over  a  great  part  of  Eniopa.  The 
Hurdy-gurdy  conaiita  of  a  Eat,  oval-ahuad  sminding- 
board,  over  which,  the  strings  ate  atniched,  with  a 
bank  01  bottom  of  the  eama  ue  and  ahapa.  Thaaa 
an  boimd  together  by  tolerably  deep  lidM,  cr  riba. 
On  one  side  are  from  ten  to  twelve  finger-keya,  for 
shortening  the  sounding  lengths  of  the  nrinM  wbna 
Teqnirsd.  There  are  four  itrinniof  gnt-mich  are 
put  into  a  state  of  vibration  by  nina  rubbed  by  the 
edge  o(  a  snjaU  wooden  wheel  oharfed  with  roain,  and 
tunied  by  a  handle.  Two  of  the  stringi  are  toaad  in 
nnison  as  a  hev-note,  or  one  of  them  a  fiftfh  above  ; 
they  are  placed  out  of  reach  of  the  kejrs,  and  fonn  a 
sort  of  dKne-baas.  Tha  other  two  strings  are  acted 
on  by  the  key*,  and  produos  a  diatomo  scale  of 
from  ten  to  twelve  notes.  The  Enrdy-gnrdy  ia  aofy 
antted  to  simple  mniio,  and  waa  naed  for  aueh  as 
had  many  repetitions.  Its  simplioity  and  ohe^meas 
rendered  it,  at  one  time,  a  favourite  insbument 
among  the  pnsssntry  of  Ejorope.  The  instrument 
is  now  most^  to  be  »een  in  ibe  hands  of  Savoyard 
boys,  who  play  it  on  the  streets. 

HTJItON,  one  of  the  five  great  lakes  of  the  St 
Lawrenoe,  has  Soperior  and  Ifichigan  above  and 
Erie  and  Ontario  below  it.  It  Bcparates  Upper 
Canada  from  the  state  of  Michigan,  and  extenda  in 
N.  kt  from  43*  to  U*  SO',  and  in  W.  long,  tztm  70' 
to  80*,  and  hat  been  satiinated  to  contain  abont 
30,000  square  mUca.  Ita  sorfaoe  ii  S64  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  aea ;  its  deptii  abont  1000  task 
Ita  watan  an  rttmaAable  tor  dtefr  eleamsM  and 
pari^,  whenoa  tlte  lake  racaivad  from  the  Kreneh 
nraden  tha  name  of  Mbk  Hovax,  or  Tiedt  Sea. 
tlis  vsat  body  of  wakr  ia  aaid  to  coubdn  3000 
island!,  one  ot  than,  Qa  Qreat  Manitonlin,  or 
Beared  lalaod,  running  parallel  to  almoat  the  whole 
of  the  DOitham  oom^  vrtiiah  is  one  oontanuooji 
nuM  of  comparatively  banra  rocks. 

HUBBA'H,  a  ahont  «t  encouragement  and 
applauae,  peculiar  to  tiia  Bnglish.  It  serves  abu 
as  A  war.«r7.    As  an  engagement  at  sea  commcocea, 


the  erewa  of  tha  ^''j'gmb  veaaela  send  np  deafening 
hurrahs ;  in  a  chaTsa  on  shnrch  En^iah  soldien 
hurrah  as  they  rnsn  upon  the  enemy.  There  is 
sometjiing  strangely  exBitiJig  in  this  smude  sound, 
and  the  oombatanta work  tbemselvea, aathay  shou^ 
into  a  frenzied  forgetfolneas  of  danger. 

HU'BBIOAinS.    See  KiORMa  and  V/jmbl. 

HUBST,  a  oharge  in  Heialdry  representing  a 
small  group  of  trees,  generally  bomo  upon  a  mount 

HUSBAlfD  AifP  WIFE  are  tha  owraet  lapl 
aa  well  sa  popular  terms  to  denote  two 
marriad  to  ea(ui  other,  lite  mode 
marriage,  wiQi  tha  aooompaaying 
tha  irapedimanta  to  marriage,  wilTb*  mora  properly 
dweribed  nnder  the  head  of  Usrriaga  (q.  v.),  and 
the  mode  of  diiiolving  the  marriage  haa  been  alnady 
partly  desoribed  nndsr  DtToroe  (q.  v.).    Tba  r*-  -*- 


been  duly  cooatitubed.  And  as  tha  effect  ia  not 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
law*  of  Ensland  and  Ireland,  which  agree  in  tins 
reimeot^  will  Stat  be  stated,  and  afterward*  those 
of  Scotland  separately. 

The  effect  of  marriage  in  England  and  inland 
nuy  be  viewed  under  two  heads — first,  as  r^ards 
the  penona  and  the  peiaonal  righb  of  the  uuuriad 

r-sona;  and  second^  as  r^wda  their  property. 
As  to  the  peraoD.  So  far  a*  regarda  the  person 
of  the  htubuul,  he  remains  in  precisely  the  Bame 
position  as  before  marriaga  He  can  atie  and  be 
sued,  enter  into  oontroeta,  and  Innd  hlmaelf  as 
fully  after  aa  before  marriage,  and  he  can  even 
make  a  will,  and  bequeath  all  hi*  property  to 
strangers,  regardlees  of  the  wife.  As  reArds  the 
person  and  penonal  rights  of  the  wife,  howe' 


purposes  ^ey  are  treated  at  one  peraon.  in  the  e^e 
of  the  law.  Tho  meaning  of  &at  is,  that  the  wife 
is  under  many  disabilitieB.  She  canuot  enter  into 
contracts  in  hex  own  name,  and  for  most  of  the 
purposes  of  business  she  cannot  be  treated  with 
as  apart  from  fan*  bnaband.  Even  the  pnaonal 
property  she  had  before  nurriage,  nnlEM  aetUed 
upon   aer   by  some   settlement    made   before   the 


marriage,  becomes  hw  huaband'i  abeolotely, 
he  can  squander  it  at  will.  The  principal  t 
which  ths  wife  aan  do  in  the  way  (d  entering  into    ' 


iluteh-,  and 
napal  thing 

.  _,   ._  -itering  into    ' 

after  marriage,  is  to    ordtr  goods    aad    . 
I  for  the  n*e  of  herself  and  Simily  wmI 
for  houaehold  use  i  but  this  aha  doea  not  in  hv    ' 
own  ri^t,  but  merely  aa  tha  agent  gf  tha  1*7'*""''. 
who  ia  preamoed  by  uie  law  to  giva  her  an  im[died    I 
authority  to  that  eSed,  and  tnerefon  tta   wife,    ' 
wlian  ordering  gooda,  dioea  not  in  any  way  bii^ 
ho-self,  but  mandy  ber   husband.      Aa,  howsw, 
this  power  ia  oftm  abntad  by  exban^nt  wivi%   ' 
tha  Uw  qnaliflea  Uia  power  m  tiiia  w^,  that  th 
good*  and  naoaaMiiai  aoMderad  must  be  wianswhle. 
and  tnitad  to  tin  ank  and  poaitioa  in  Ufa  of  tiw 
hnaband.    If  gooda  an  thn^on  Oidered  whid  Me 
extravagant,  the  hasband  oan  repudiate  tha  oon- 
traet,  ud  refaun  them,  but  ha  cannot  kaep  tbe 
good*  and  refoae  payment  |  if,  for  example,  ha  has    I 
D  hia  wife  weanng  an  expensiva  drea*  whi^    ' 
know*  be  did  not  nimsalf  order  or  pay  for,  if 
he  do  not  at  once  repadiate  the  transaction,  and 
return  the  goods,  he  will  be  held  to  have  oonaented 
and  approved  of  the  purchase,  and  ha  cannot  afta^ 
ward*  escape  liability  for  the  prica.    This  poaitiaB 
of  boaband  and  wife  is  taken  advantage  of  in  the 
lower  walk*  of  life  by  meant  ot  the  tally  syatco. 


tyCoogle 


unsBAiTD  xsu  v/aa. 


h«  wile    ia    tlie   hiuibftud'* 

goodi,  -wbieh  Mn  genCTBUf 

lor  kt  >D  Bxorbitut  nte ;  bnt 

.._   _  _    take  pajnumt  hf  inatalmenta, 

•nd  M  tits  wifo  ii  adTised  fa>  pay  them  laaretlj, 
th*  naoH  n  that  ths  hnibanifa  moiuy  ia  irftui 
■qnaadned.  Tbtaa  taaniaetuHia  baing  a  fraod  od 
tEe  bniband,  oan  BBnaraUf  ba  obai^ad  if,  at  the 
fiztt  nwmeat  ha  Moomaa  smn  of  them,  tiie 
hatband  npndiatea  them;  and  a  ooimty  ooiir^  or 
any  •Masr  iwot,  would  siT«  him  eraiy  aaaiitanae  in 
gsttingrid  of  an;  Ualnb^  ao  inoaned,  if  heshonld 
sftcnnrdt  be  tned ;  bnt  it  genetally  li^i^aDi  Aat 
the  matter  hM  advanced  too  far  ialon  it  ia  dia- 
cororsd;  orliehudonesoniethiDgwMaliiaeonttnied 
into  an  adoptiotL  of  tli*  Mmteaot;  or,  what  u 
fraqoEDtly  the  oaae,  ba  ignorantly  nppoaei  tbst  ha 
haa  no  rranedy. 

The  hniband,  being  entire  maato  of  hla  own 
aetiona,  haa  the  power  to  decide  where  tb  lire,  and 
the  dn^  of  Cha  wifa  ia  to  live  with  him  in  the  aame 
booae.  If  ihe  rafniaa  to  do  ao,  and  lirea  Kiart  wltli- 
ont  jnat  eanae,  he  ia  not  bound  to  aoppon  her  eren 
with  Moeaaariea  1^  howeirer,  die  aeparataa  from 
him  far  jnat  eanae,  tiia  oaae  ia  otherwue.  lIuniKh 
the  hnaband  ia  bomid  to  maintain  bia  wife,  then  u, 
onrionaly  enongh,  no  direct  meani  in  ^England  of 
enforcilU|  tUa  dntj.  Dieia  are  oircoibniB  mcana 
only,  ^me  wife,  for  example,  oannot  eve  the  bna^ 
band  heraalf,  bnt  ahe  haa  an  implied  anthority  to 
(mler  naaeawriea,  and  the  tradceman  so  aapplyin^ 
theie  oao  ane  ths  hnibaod  for  the  prioa.  Hencs  it 
ii  that  when  a  badeaman  loppliea  a  wife,  who  la 
living  apart,  with  iiiii  iiamiia.  before  he  can  be  lore 
of  reooTCffing  Ibe  piioe  from  the  Imabaitd,  be  nuut 
■atiafy  blmnlf  that  the  wife  hai  Jnat  oanae  for 
Uvin^  aeparataly.  Tbvn  an  aereral  jnat  CMuea  for 
her  living  apart.  If  the  hnaband,  tor  example,  treata 
her  with  what  ia  deenad  omehy  in  the  eya  of  the 
law — aa  keeping  *  miatreaa  in  the  hooae,  atamng 
and  aannltitig  her— ihe  ia  entitled  to  leave  him,  and 
the  eaa  order  naeaaaaiiea  at  hie  ezponie  from  aoy 
tiadetnMn  willing  to  anjtply  her.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  degreea  of  oniel^  and  iQ-aBage  for  which 
the  wife  hsa  praoticelly  no  remedy,  and  of  which 
the  law  oan  take  no  ewniianos  ;  for  the  law  oannot 
remedy  a  tithe  of  the  ilia  of  life.  If  tiie  hnaband 
have  t  be  meana,  and  yet  rafnaaa  to  anppoit  hia  wife, 
or  irtiat  ia  the  a«me  thing,  if  ha  wiltolly  rafnaea  to 
work,  being  aUs  to  do  at^  and  ahe  becomea  diam- 
aUe  to  the  pariah,  ths  pariah  anthoiitiea  oan  eeiae 
the  gooda  of  ths  InubMia,  if  «n^,  and  adl  than  tn^ 
hermpport;  or benay beimpwniedbyjnatioaof 
the  peace,  aa  an  idle  and  diaoiderty  peraou,  tor  a 
montL  Bat  in  anch  ciroaiestancea  the  hnaband 
frequently  deaerta  hie  wife.    It  he  deaerta  her. 


and  VB^bond,  and  imprisoned  by 
Joatioaa  of  the  peaoa  in  the  honee  of  eorrectlon  for 
three  motrtlia.  If  the  deaertion  oontttrae  far  a  period 
however  long.  It  ia  no  gnnmd  in  E^Iand  for  * 
divopoe;  bat  if  it  is  oonpled  with  adultery,  and 
eoDttnnea  two  yeara,  it  wul  be  ao.  It  Bometimea 
happena  tiiat  after  a  hnaband  haa  deaertad  hia  wif^ 
ahe  maintains  hanelf  by  her  own  ezertiDDa,  and 
soqnirea  property  t  in  sndi  a  oaae,  her  eamingB  (nn- 
leaa  the  mwriage  took  jilaoe  after  ISTO)  bcdong  U> 
htm,  thougb  the  wife  mi^t  in  all  oaees  get  a  pro- 
tection Older  from  Jotticea  of  the  peace,  which  ex- 
olndea  bim  and  hia  orediton.  Btata.  20  and  21  Viot 
a  85,  sect.  21 ;  21  and  22  Vict.  o.  108,  sect  6,  7,  8  ; 
33  and  34  Viot  c.  93,  sect  1. 

Am  nearda  crimei  committed  by  a  wife,  ahe  ia  in 
genenl  fiable  to  be  punished  for  Uieae  in  tiie  same 


wa;^  ■*  U  ahe 

liariiy  aa  ragarda  crimi . 

and  wife  jointly.    If  the 


3at  there  ia  a  peon- 
bed  by  the  hnabsiMl 
and  wife  jointly.  If  the  erime  be  treaaoa  or  mnrder, 
both  are  ponished  predaely  aa  if  they  were  mmur- 
riad.  Bnt  in  all  l3ia  leaer  ciimsB,  the  thaory  aa 
well  as  the  piaotioe  ia,  that  if  ths  wife  waa  a  parlr 
to  the  Mime,  amd  ecmmitted  it  in  bm  hnaband^ 
preaenoe,  ahe  ia  preanmed  by  tits  law  to  have  ao 
acted  nnder  lite  ownpnlvon  or  ooeieion  erf  her  hna- 
band, and  ia  BoqdttM  aa  «  matter  ti  oontM.  And 
BO  &vonrable  ia  the  law  mi  thia  gnmad  to  mairiad 
wtmteo  who  eomnit  ettmaa,  tiiat,  in  the  abaenoa  (rf 
any  direct  svidsDoe  oae  way  or  ths  othra  aa  to 
mws  the  aims  waa  oomnuttsd,  it  will  atill  be 
pieanmed  that  the  wife  acted  nndar  this  marital 
ooardon,  and  ao  ahe  eacMaa  pionkhmeni  Another 
oDriooa  anomaly  arising  from  the  ■"«""!  that  hus- 
band and  wife  aze  one  peiwm,  is,  that  a  wife  cannot 
be  oonvioted  of  stealing  her  hnaband'a  gooda.  If 
ahe  abaoond  with  hia  property,  howavei  valnable, 
aha  cannot  be  pimiihed.  But  thia  rale  ia  again 
qoallfled  fay  the  oironniatance,  that  if  ahe  oommita 
adoltery,  and  afterwards  abaconda  with  the  adul- 
terer, both  taking  away  the  hnaband'a  goods,  the 
adulterer  m»  ba  aonvtcted  of  the  laroeny,  thon{^  it 
ia  doabtfol  if  she  ia  in  that  oaae  Itabls  to  ainr  pnniah- 
■nant.  And  where  ths  third  party  has  not  m  view 
any  adultery  with  the  wlfa,  Int  joina  ho;  in  taking 
away  the  hoaband's  goods,  in  many  oaaaa  "fi^Vr  he 
nor  the  wife  can  be  punished  orinunally. 

Husbanda  and  wivea  may  be  wftneases  for  or 
■gainst  oUier  parties  in  all  civil  easea,  i.  e.,  actions 
and  suits  relating  to  dabta,  oontracta,  and  wron^ 
whioh  are  not  crunea,  and  in  all  intjuiriea  of  a  dvd 
nature.  So  when  the  huaband  ia  himmlt  a  party  in 
a  civil  action,  his  wife  may  be  oompdled  by  the 
oppoaite  party  to  be  a  witneaa ;  but  in  all  anch  oaaea 
neither  onsband  nor  wife  can  be  compalled  to 
diadoae  any  commnTiication  made  to  him  or  her  In 
the  other  Bponae  during  ths  marriage.  Aa  regards 
all  oriminal  prooeedinga  inatitnted  ag^nst  ather 
iiHBbaiid  or  wife,  the  other  aponaa  ia  naithar  com- 
petent not  oan  be  compelled  to  be  a  witneas;  bat 
where  the  husbaod  and  wife  are  not  the  acinued, 
bat  the  prosecuting  pftrtiea,  then,  inaamuch  aa  the 
crown  is  presomed  to  b«  the  pnwacutor,  and  they 
are  not  puties,  they  may  be  both  witneasea,  subject 
to  the  qualiftcatioc  aa  to  not  being  bound  to  dia- 
close  oommnnioationa  made  by  and  to  each  other 
daring  marriage.  There  ia  an  ezoeption  also  to  the 
rnle&at  neither  can  ba  a  witneaa  againat  the  other 
in  criminal  proceedings — via.,  where  the  wits  charges 
her  hnaband  with  an  aaaaolt  or  other  crime  of 
greatw  degree  upon  her  peiaon,  ahe  ia  In  that  oaae 
only  a  OMnpetent  wltiieaa  agdnat  him,  tor  othsrwiae 
the  dime  might  go  nnpuniahed.  Moreover,  in  all 
jHWeedinga  inatituted  in  oonsequenoe  of  adultei7  of 
the  husband  or  wife^  neitlieT  of  the  muried  psrtici 
is  competent  or  oan  be  compelled  to  be  a  witneaa. 

2.  As  to  the  property  of  the  married  pemma.  Aa 
TMsrda  the  husband,  he  still  remains  sole  owner 
of  nis  prap^tr,  real  and  personal,  and  can  do  what 
he  likes  with  it;  and  he  may,  as  already  stated,  br 
win  devise  and  bequeath  it  all  to  atrangera,  regard- 
baa  of  the  wife.  He  can  alao  ana  and  ba  sued  sa 
before,  irreepeotive  of  his  wife.  Bnt  aa  regards  the 
wifcv  uie  eaae  ia  different.  Owing  to  her  incapacity 
to  oontraot  or  even  to  hold  penonal  proper^  inde- 
pendently ot  her  hoaband,  ahe  oan  neither  sue  nw 
be  aned  exoeiit  where  ahe  haa  aeparate  ■pTOpett:f 
Battled  upon  her,  as  aft«rwarda  er^dained.  u  ahe 
had  personal  property  before  mamagc^  Uis  whole, 
in  roarriagea  before  1870,  waa  tha  sole  and  abso- 
lute pTOiwrty  of   the    husband  immediately  after 

All  debts  -miiet  were  due  to  her  be^>i«  mairiage 


tyCUUl^k' 


HUSBAND  AKD  WIPE. 


■lao  become  after  muriage  debta  dne  to  him,  pro- 
vided be  ahoooea  to  reduce  them  into  ponnowi<m,  and 
■ne  for  tbem.  As  m  genenU  mle,  tiierefora,  the  wife 
ooold  not,  nnUu  nuuried  after  1870,  e»ra  and  enjof 
her  Mminn  •epuvtelr;  bat  this,  u  well  aa  legsciea 
ooming  toDor,  are  now,  by  the  sot  33  and  34  V  ict. 
o.  OS,  made  ^a  rale  in  all  caae«,  and  he  is  not  liable 
for  we  wife's  debta  contxacbed  before  marriage,  but 
m  lettlement  may  still  vorf  tbe  rale.  As  regards 
peisons  married  before  1370,  tbe  old  rale  remains, 
that  she  ooold  not  me  in  her  own  right  Hence,  in 
cBsu  where  k  debt  was  dne  to  her  before  marris^ 
or  the  money  olaimed  has  beoi  eaiued  by  her  during 
marriage,  botJt  die  and  her  hosband  may  me  for  it, 
or  he  alono  mtut  (oo  for  it,  aooording  to  cir 
ttMiCM:  la  like  nuumer,  when  the  wife  was  m 
debt  before  her  marriage,  ue  husband,  who  in  effect 
manied  her  debta  liio,  must  be  sued  jointly  with 
her ;  and  k^  if  she  oommitted  some  wrong,  as  a 
■lander  Ai  aManlt,  the  huiband  must  be  sued  jaintlv 
with  her ;  bnt  where  she  merely  ordered  goods 
whioh  were  supplied  to  the  bnshand,  he  akme  is 
UMe,  and  be  alone  oan  be  sued.  When  tbe  wife 
waa  onoe  sued  along  with  the  husband,  both  of 
tbem  oould  be  imprisoned ;  bnt  tbe  irif  a  was  imme- 
diatdy  disoborged,  as  a  matter  of  coune,  on  appli- 
cation to  a  indg^  provided  she  had  oo  Beparate 
property  of  her  own  out  of  which  tbe  debt  was 
payable.  The  old  rale  aa  to  the  wife's  penDiial 
property  becoming  tbe  husband's  absolutely  after 


tnarriag&  mffered  qualification  when  'such  property 
consisted  not  oif  money  or  chattels,  bat  of  — '--' 
are  called  chattels  res],  such  as  leases  and 


In  such  a  case,  they  become  I 

Sroperty  of  the  bnaband,  that  ha  oan  scu  tnem 
unng  ail  Ufe,  but  he  cannot  bequeath  them  by 
will ;  and  on  his  death  they  remain  hers,  while  on 
her  death  they  become  his.  Again,  where  tha  wife's 
personal  estate  before  marriage  consisted  of  mere 
rights  of  action  or  debts  due  to  ner,  th^  were  so  far 
his  that  he  could  at  any  time  sue  for  them,  and  so 
rednce  them  into  posBMsioii,  and  make  ihem  bi« 
own  absolutely,  but  coald  not  bequeath  them  by 
will ;  and  if  be  did  not  sue  toi  them  in  his  lifetime, 
they  iurrived  to  ^  wife  after  his  death.  As  regards 
the  wife's  real  e*tate~L  e.,  her  lands  and  houses 
hdd  in  fnehold— the  husband  does  not  acquire  these 
abeolntely  by  the  marriage,  bnt  he  thereby  becomes 
entitled  to  a  life.eatate  in  them.  He  cannot  sell  the 
proper^,  thongh  he  may  sell  his  own  Ufe-eetate 
m  it.  On  the  other  hand,  tboagb  the  real  estate 
■till  coatinnes  to  belong  to  tbe  wife,  she  csimot  sell 
its  like  an  ordinary  owner,  unless  she  separately 
ackiMwledge*  the  deed  of  tale,  which  is  ooiie  by 
her  iping  bef««  a  eommisaioner  or  a  judge,  who 
aramioea  her  in  iffirate,  and  explains  tbe  nature  of 
the  deed,  and  sees  tliat  ^le  nndrastands  ita  purport, 
and  that  (die  acts  free^,  without  the  coercion  of 
thebnsbaod. 
On  the  death  of  one  of  the  married  parties,  the 

S'Operty  is  dispoaed  of  as  follows :  if  the  husband 
as,  his  will  may,  as  already  stated,  dispose  of  bis 
wkds  property  to  strangen,  irrespective  of  the  wife, 
and  she  may  be  left  entirely  destitute  in  conse- 
quence. But  there  are  some  things  his  will  cannot 
take  away  from  her,  as,  for  example,  her  leases, 
■epatale  property,  ic,  and  her  real  estate.  To 
these  may  be  added  her  paraphernalia,  which  con- 
■!■(■  of  ber  personal  apparel  and  jewda  j  but  even 
Uieae  will  be  taken  by  her  husband's  ccediton,  if 
there  is  a  deficiency  of  assets.  If  the  husband  die 
without  a  will,  the  law  is  more  liberal  to  the  widow : 
she  is  entitled  to  one-thiid  d  the  husband's  paraonal 
estate  absolutely,  and  not  merely  to  a  life-interest; 
she  is  also  entitled  to  dowar  out  of  h  '  ' 
real  estate,  L  e.,  to  a  life-interest  of 


by  the  husband's  will    When  the  wife  dies  before    I 
the  husband,  he   becomes   entitled   to   nearly  all    , 
tier  peisonal  estate,  of  whatever  description,  even    i 
tboDgh  she  left  cbildrrai  of  the  marriage ;   and  it 
muat  be  recollected  that  she  can  in  goneral  make 
no   will   which   has    any  efiect,   if  the   husband    ' 
chooses  to  repudiate  it.    As  regards  the  wife's  real 
estate,  if  a  child  has  been  Imrn,  who  mi^it  l:^     I 
possibility  have  inherited  her  real  wtate,  then  the 
husband  has,  by  the  conrtei^  of  England,  an  estate     I 
for  life  in  the  whole  of  suoli  real  ertate ;  bnt  if  aa 
child  has  ever  bean  born,  the  real  estate  goes  to  the 
wife's  heir-at-law,  or  if  none,  to  the  crown. 

Tbe  common  law  of  England  bat  been  often  con- 
■idered,  especially  of  late  yean,  t»  unjust  towards 
women,  in  aubjecting  them  too  much  to  tbe  caprica 
of  their  husbands.  There  are,  however,  seveivl 
ways  of  avoiding  this,  but  they  are  only  available, 
as  will  at  ooce  be  seen,  to  the  rich.  The  most 
effectual  way  of  preveating  the  husband  having 
powers  so  aiMotute  as  the  law  gives  him,  ia  by 
executing  a  '  


which  she  expects  to  have  during  marriage,  may 
be  settled  upon  her  to  her  separate  use,  and  pot 
entirely  out  of  the  power  of  the  bnaband.  xhia 
is  done  by  the  agency  of  trustees,  who  hold  sod 
manage  her  property  as  their  own,  keeping  ihe 
husbuid  at  onus'  length,  and  yet  she  has  ^nost 
the  same  power  of  acting  indepemdantly  as  if  sba 
were  not  manied:  she  oon  draw  her  rents,  keep 
her  bank-aooonut,  enter  into  contracia,  and  boiid  hn 
separate  property,  and  also  execute  h^  will,  as  if 
she  were  a  man.  Sometimes  the  husband  and  wife 
both  settle  their  property  by  the  same  settlement ; 
or  if  tbe  wife  has  no  property,  the  hnsband  may 
settle  hia  upon  her  in  the  same  way.  She  is  in  Oiat 
case  generaJly  allowed  a  certain  sum  per  annum  as 
pio-money,  to  Spend  upon  hn  peratmsl  adommoit ; 
and  by  means  of  her  trustees,  ^e  can  sue  her 
husband  for  this  sum,  if  not  ponctusUy  paid.  Sonm- 
times,  by  tbe  marriage  settiement,  if  the  luufasnd 
had  no  money,  tbe  wife's  money  is  settled  partly 
upon  him,  ao  that  be  has  a  certain  allowanoa  p^ 
annum ;  but  in  tbe  event  of  his  becoming  insomat 
or  bankrapt^  the  money  is  not  to  go  to  his  creditos; 
but  to  remain  for  tbe  wife's  use.  In  short,  there  is 
practically  no  limit  to  the  variety  of  mutual  arrai^e- 
ments,  by  means  of  a  marriage  settlemenl^  for  pro- 
viding against  the  possible  hardships  of  the  comuioa 
law.  It  is  on  the  same  principle  that,  in  some  rinrn, 
the  Court  of  Cbanoery  has  interfered  to  ]Hevent  the 
husband  aoqniring  so  absolute  an  interest  in  the 
wife's  property  as  the  common  law  gives  him.  But 
a  great  step  towards  emancdpatlng  married  wonwu's 
property  fnun  their  husband  spoww  was  aobieTed  in 
1870  by  tbe  sot  83  and  M  Viob  o.  S3,  whicb,M  already 
stated,  made  the  wife's  earning  and  legacies  her 
separate  proper^,  and  enabled  her  to  make  depoota 
in  savinra-banks,  and  in  the  fimds,  and  to  irsnue  her 
own  or  her  husband's  life  for  her  own  exolnsiTe  { 
benefit,  and  so  that  she  can  sue  in  her  own  name 
for  her  separate  property.  This  act  bad  some  delecta 
which  tbe  l^iislatnre  most  sooner  or  later  remedy 
and  extend,  for  the  better  protection  of  women,  and 
unremitting  efforts  have  been  used  for  this  purpose. 
When  a  marriua  is  once  contracted,  Uie  JMrtiea 
cannot  of  themselves,  or  by  any  arrugsmeiit  they 
con  enter  into,  put  an  and  to  it ;  nothing  oan  do  this 
bnt  a  divorce,  or  the  death  of  one  of  (be  parties.  It 
'-  a  delusion  not  uncommon  among  tbe  working- 
le  parties  runs  away  or 
at  an  end,  and  the  pai^ 


classes,  that  if  cue   of  t 


t.LiOogle 


HUSBANDItT— HUSa 


I(A  behind  nui;,  at  l«Mt  after  >  tiiae.  many  agam. 
Thia  iS)  hmram,  not  tha  «Me.  It  i*  trne,  that  if 
ona  of  tk«  partia*  ha*  act  baaid  of  tlw  other  for 
•er^  7<an,  and  hat  reMon  to  btliere  that  that 
other  ia  dead,  the  fonoer  cannot  ba  oosriotad  and 
puniflhed  for  bigamy  in  marrnnit  aniiL  Bat  thia 
u  mvelT  an  exenae  foe  *— «r"g  *^  amal  poniah- 
rnent;  ue  aoixHid  mamage  <nly  remaina  good  if  the 
loat  party  in  really  dead,  or  norer  tnnu  up  again. 
If  at  any  time,  however  remote,  the  part^  aappoeed 
to  be  d^id  retuma,  the  fint  marriage  atill  remaina 
good,  and  the  aeoond  bigamona  mairia^  beoomet 
a  nullity,  and  the  ehildi«i  bom  of  it,  if  any,  are 
baatarda,  ■□  that  lO  long  aa  both  partita  live,  ttia 
only  way  of  diaiolviii^  Uu  naniage,  ao  aa  to  permit 
either  to  many  again,  ii  a  diTorce,  which  oan  be 
obtained  only  on  certain  F<"*  grounda.  There  ia 
an  intermediate  state,  ouled  Jvdieiid  BtparaSon 
(q.  T.]i  whieh  can  be  brought  abont  for  certain 
nounda  leaa  Utan  what  woold  wanant  divorce. 
Bnt  thoogh  a  wife  judicially  a^anted  may  enter 
into  coatracta,  and  is,  as  rwuda  her  dealings,  much 
the  aame  aa  an  imnuuTied  woman,  ahe  is  still  a 
wife,  and  oannot  many  again ;  and  if  the  partiea 
are  linns  aeparate  by  motttal  agreement,  they  are 
iier«atheMa  married,  and  have  moat,  though  not 


Aa  r 


Scotkaid.—'Ihh  law  of  hnabaad  and  wife  in  Soot- 
land  aa  r^arda  tiieir  penoaaltighta  and  disabilitiea, 
and  the  pi^er|^  dnring  the  marri 
aabstaotiaJly  differ  from  the  law  of 
Ireland,  bat  the  fallowing  pointa  may  be  noticed. 
igards  their  peisona  and  peiaimal  ri^ite,  and 
9,  the  law  ia  the  aame.  It  is  often  said  iJiat 
in  Sootland  the  movable  property  of  both  husband 
and  wife  become  a  tdnd  of  joint-stook  prop^ty, 
called  Qood*  in  Coimnwiaoa  {q.  v.) ;  but  tlua  phraae 
haa  no  meaning  exoept  with  reference  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  division  of  the  proper^  after  the  death 
of  one  of  the  parties,  and  the  diBwlntion  of  the 
marria^  As  lone  h  the  paitiea  live,  the  husband 
IB,  aa  m  Enghm^  entire  mastd^,  exoept  that  he 
oanDot  on  desthbrnl  bequeath  mora  than  a  share  of 
from  the  wife.  The  aame  rule 
'a  movable  proper^  becomes  the 
heritable  p         '  '      ' 

D,  subject  to  the  hnabamd'a  \ 


magistrate,  and  acknowledzJOK  that  she  acts  of  her 
own  free  wilL  When  the  niubaind  deaerta  her,  the 
wife  may  now  in  Scotland,  aa  in  England,  obtajn  a 
judge's  order  to  protect  her  earnings  and  monies; 
and  when  a  wife  sacoeeds  to  property,  neithar  her 
husband  nor  hia  creditors  can  take  this  until  a  leaaon- 
able  provision  has  been  made  for  her  out  of  such 
property,  (Coniogol  Kigbts  Act,  24  and  25  Vict  o. 
86,  and  Conjural  Bights  Aiuendment  Aat,37  and 38 
Vin,  c  31).  A  wife  has,  in  Scotland,  the  same  im- 
plied power  to  hind  her  huaband  for  necMiariea  j  bat 
in  Scotland  the  husband  can,  by  a  prooeu  of  inhibi- 
'  re  ageneral  Qotioe  to  tradeamen  not  to  aupply 


ordering  necesaones,  U  not  otnerwise  anp^ 
rich  wile  is  bound,  in  Scotlaud,  aa  in  England,  to 
maintain  bar  husbMid  cut  of  bar  separate  estate.  Id 
Scotland,  aa  in  EngUnd,  the  rights  of  the  parties 
may  be  varied  by  an  ante-nuptial  contract  or 
marriage  settlement;  buttbereisleM  needfor  it,for 
the  oommon  law  makes  a  provision  for  the  wife 
apite  of  bet  husband,  sinoe  ha  cannot  by  will  bequeath 
away  from  her  more  than  )-  or  }  of  hia  movable  nop- 
crty  reapectively,  aooordiog  aa  there  are  children 


or  no  children.  See  GoOM  nr  CoionnROii,  Wili. 
In  Scotland,  aa  in  England,  the  married  parbea  may 
also  ezeonte  a  post-nnptial  contract,  which  will  be 
binding;  if  tiie  huaband  waa  aolv«at  at  tb»  time  o( 
exeevtuw  the  dead;  but  thon^  in  Ki^aud  tt  will 
be  in  tEat  oaae  valid  both  aa  uainat  wife  and 
ohildrMi  and  creditors,  yet  in  Scotiand  it  will  bind 
the  wife  and  children  only  if  they  thereby  gst  a 
better  provision  than  they  would  have  beau  entitled 
to  independently  of  any  deed,  or  at  least  aomethina 
whioh  the^  accept  as  equivalent.  And,  M  a  genraiu 
rule,  nothing  oan  be  done  after  marriage  by  the 
partiea  so  as  to  settle  the  ntoperty  on  ta&tt  party, 
if  the  dfect  it  to  d^eat  their  tiien  eraditora.  The 
Scotch  widow's  tetce  correapooda  to  tiia  ^''"g"''* 
widow*!  dower,  and  the  role  aa  to  tiie  p«n{^emalia 
is  not  aubatairtiaUy  different.  The  law  aa  to  the 
diaaolnticn  of  the  nuvrii^e  and  bigamy  ia  tlie  Mme 
in  Scotland,  thontdi  tlis  grounds  of  divorce  are 
more  Ubeml  in  Scotland.  See  Ditobos.  f  ateraon'a 
CbmjMwfiwni  qfBngUA  and  ScoUA  Law. 

HU'SBAITDAY,  Sxrtajti  dt,  a  dMcriptkm  ti. 
agricultural  servant.  Such  a  sarrant  diffeis  frcoi 
ordinary  domeatic  servants  in  this,  that  if  the 
servant  in  husbandry  leave  his  or  her  work  without 
cause,  Ac,  he  or  she  con  be  punished  by  imprison- 
ment on  proceedings  before  a  justice  of  the  peace. 
Thia  is  BO  in  all  porta  of  the  United  ^- — ■ — 


HU9KI3SOIT,  Welluu,  an  eminent  Enslidi 
statesman,  waa  bom  at  Birch  Moreton,  in  Wor- 
cestershire, nth  March  1770,  and  in  1783  was  sent 
to  Paris  to  study  medicine.  He  took  part  in  the 
storming  of  the  Bostile,  and  as  a  member  of  the 
Club  of  1789,  attracted  attention  by  a  noinber 
leeches  on  subjects  of  political  eoonomy.  In 
,  he  returned  to  England,  received  a  anbor- 
dinate  appointment  under  the  Toly  sovemment, 
and  formed  on  intimate  acquaintance  with  Pitt  and 
Canning.  In  179G,  be  was  selected  by  Dundas,  the 
war  minister,  to  be  first  under-secretaiy ;  and  sat  in 
parliament  for  Uorpetb.  Be  subsequently  held 
several  offices  under  Pitt,  with  whom  he  retired 
in  1801,  and  on  the  disBOlution  of  paiiiament  in 
1802,  lost  his  seat  iu  the  Houso  of  Commons. 
In  18M,  he  waa  returaed  for  liakaaid,  and  was 
appointed  aecretary  of  Uie  treasury  in  Uie  new 
Htt  cabinet  .  On  Pitt's  death,  however,  in  1806, 
he  lost  this  office,  but  waa  restored  to  it  by 
Mr  Percival  in  1807.  He  sat  for  Harwich,  1807— 
1812;  Chicheeter,  1812—1623;  and  Liverpool,  1823 
—1830.  In  1814,  he  was  chief  ComnumioDer  of  the 
Woods  and  Forests;  in  1822,  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade  ;  in  1827,  secretary  of  state  for  the 
coloniea  ;  aod  in  1828,  secretary  of  state  for  foreign 
oS^jB.  But  thia  office  he  resigned,  and  retired 
from  tbe  ministry  the  same  year.  Through  his 
exertions  the  old  restrictioDB  on  the  trade  of  the 
colonies  with  fsreign  countries  were  removed.  He 
also  obtained  the  removal  or  reduction  of  many 
import  duties,  considerable  relaxation  of  the  navi- 
gation laws,  and  is  allowed  to  have  been  the  ^reat 
pioneer  of  free  trade.  He  received  fatal  iiuuries 
at  the  openioE  of  the  LivenKwl  and  Maacheataz 
Railway,  15th  September  1830,  and  died  the  aame 
evening.  A  collection  of  his  speeches  was  published 
in  1831.  Both  from  the  comprebenaiveness  of  the 
viowB  which  they  exhibit,  and  their  fulneas  of 
accurate  details,  they  aie  interesting  to  the  student 
of  political  economy. 

HUS8,  JoHJT,  the  Bohemian  reformer,  whose 
name  is  associated  with  that  of  Jerome  of  Prague 
[q.  v.],  both  on  aooount  of  the  work  which  they 
wrought,  and  the  death  which  titey  suffered,  waa 
bom  m  1373  at  Huasineci,  near  PrachatJoa,  in  the 
Bout^  of  Bohemia.    Ea  studied  at  the  nniTersity  of 


t.LiOOglc 


Prague,  wfaere  lie  toon  mmde  grsat  progren  in  the 
bmachea  of  leuning  moit  v&lned  In  thnt  age,  took 
his  degrea  of  Mutet  of  Arts  in  1396,  md  began 
to  lecture  pubUoly  in  L30a  In  1402,  ha  became 
pieaoher  in  the  BBthlehcm  Cbapel  in  Pi-agne,  and 
toboured  with  the  greatest  eameetneaa  for  tb» 
Instruction  of  the  people,  and  in  the  dlwharge  of 
tH  big  claiical  fonctiatuk  Am  %  preacher,  ha  VM 
creatly  eeteemed  both  by  the  oolmtion  pwpla  and 
by  the  itudenbi ;  whiUt  m  oonfeaeor  to  Queen 
Sophia,  he  obtained  aoceu  to  the  oourl  At  thia 
time  he  became  acquainted  with  the  writinga  of 
Wickliffe,  which  exercised  a  great  influence  over 
him.  Tha  monia  and  clergy  were  of  course  Tioleot 
enemies  to  H.,  as  he  denounced,  with  continually 
increasing  boldness,  their  corruptions.  Archbishop 
Sbinko  homed  tlie  writings  of  WioUiSe  in  1410,  in 
compliance  with  a  brief  ra  Pope  Aleiander  V.,  and 
complained  to  the  pope  of  H.  as  a  WicUiffite.  Here* 
upon  he  was  summoned  to  Borne ;  but  he  did  not 
go,  and  the  combined  inSuence  of  the  people,  the 
oourt,  and  the  nniversity,  compelled  the  artdibishop 
toiemove  apnjiibition  which  na  had  issued  Mjainat 
hia  preadiin^.  But  in  1413,  Pope  John  TUm. 
luTina  published  a  bull  ot  indulgenoe  in  otAbi  to  a 
CTuaatu  afiainat  TiadisJaujij  th4  estootumiuiioated  Idog 
ol  Naplea,  whoH  kingdom  tho  pope  claimed  as  a 
[lapal  fief,  H.  boldly  nised  hia  Toloe  ^inst  the 
whole  [HMKedure  as  unohlistdan,  whilst  Jerome  of 
Prague  also  stood  forth  to  condemn,  in  the  strongest 
manner,  both  the  bull  and  the  vendors  of  indul- 
^ances.  An  interdict  against  H.,  In  1413,  was 
Qie  couilequenco.  H.,  however,  appealed  from  the 
pope  to  a  geon^  council  and  to  Christ,  and  wrote 
a  book.  On  the  Chvrch,  in  which  he  condemned  tike 
abuses  of  the  papacy,  and  denied  the  unconditional 
Bupremacy  of  the  B«man  pontiff.  Thinking  himself 
no  longer  safe  in  Prague,  he  now  retired  to  hia 
native  place,  where  he  preached  the   gospel  with 

Ct  power.  In  1414,  he  went  to  Constance  to 
general  council,  summoned  thither,  indeed,  on  a 
charge  of  hereey,  but  under  the  protection  of  King 
Wenceslaus,  and  having  a  safe-conduct  from  tha 
Emperor  Sigismund.  I&ving  reached  Constance  on 
the  3d  of  Novembei',  he  was,  on  the  2Sth  of  the  same 
month,  apprehended  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances 
of  the  Bohemian  and  Poush  nobles.  His  trial  was 
conducted  with  little  regard  even  to  the  appeamice 
of  equity.  On  the  6th  of  July  141G,  thirty-nine 
ohargea  were  exhibited  ^idnst  him,  some  of  which 
he  Bcknowlcdged  as  exhibiting  his  doctrine,  whilst 
othera  he  utti^ly  denied.  Being  required  t«  recant 
his  alleged  errors,  he  refused  to  do  so  till  they  should 
be  proved  to  be  errors.  He  and  his  writings  were 
now  condemned  to  the  fire,  and  in  spite  of  his  safe- 
conduct,  the  sentence  was  carried  out  on  the  Same 
day,  and  the  ashea  of  the  martyr  were  thrown  into 
the  Rhine. 

HUSSA'R,  k  light-cavolrr  trooper,  draaed  in  a 
loom  jacket)  with  otiier  artidea  of  attire  Biav  in  set, 
and  a  fur  cap;  wmed  usually  with  a  sabre  and 
pistol.  The  idea  of  these  troops,  now  in  every 
army,  came  OTifnnolly  from  Hnngary.  There  were 
13  regiments  ol  Hussoia  in  tho-  IJritlsh  army  in 
1873-1874 

HU'SBITEH,  the  followers  of  Huia  [q.  v.). 
Honouring  him  and  Jerome  of  Prague  aa  martyrs, 
they  despised  the  decrees  and  amttfifmaa  ot  the 
Council,  and  took  terrible  revenge  on  the  priests 
and  monks.  The  symbol  of  their  confederacy  was 
Vtt»  cop,  the  nse  of  which  in  the  Lord's  Supper  they 
extended  to  the  loity,  as  James  de  Wsa  had  already 
dons  with  llie  approbation  of  Eusa.  In  1417,  King 
Weuceslaus  was  constrained  to  grant  them  the  use 
of  many  churchEs;    After  his  oesth,  13th  Angost 


1419,  the  majority  of  the  atatee  refsMd  to  tcbn- 
ledge  his  brotiier,  the  Emperor  Si^onnd,  i^  bj 
broken  his  sofa-condnct  to  Hnas.  And  lie  pni 
Insb-uotion*  to  the  fVmtlimi  L^ats,  Jidm  Dnim^ 
requiring  him  to  empl^  TioUot  metsans  tor  St 
conversion  of  the  Hussrot,  an  iniorrosliM  nud, 
and  tha  war  b«Mn  wUoh  ia  kaowB  in  hiOiT}  a  ti< 
HuseitoWar.    Oonvarta  and  abnndm vera ndnd 


knOTm  by  Uia  name  of  'Calixtuui  (q.  v. 
more  extreme  by  that  of  TbiorUes  (q.  v.). 

HUSTINGS  (of  donbtful  derivaticnl,  s  ^  n 
temporary  platform  where  members  ot  piniiirat 
are  formily  proposed  or  nominated  for  electioiL 

HU'B0U,  a  amall  town  of  Prussia,  in  tlu  pt^ 
vinoe  of  Sleavig-Ealsbein,  and  22mil«s  weaicJUti 
town  of  that  name,  is  situated  on  tlia  cent  of  ttc 
Korth  Sea,  at  the  month  of  a  small  Hwr.  It  n 
fonnerly  strongly  fortified,  and  j 
ships.  Pop.  (187"  ■ —  '  -  - 
and  tobacco,  and 
and  some  trade  in 

HCr,  in  army  s 


who 


when  the  sojon 


M&rtblo^ 


hut,  however  rode,  which  it  viat  >d 

water  tight,  b^ng  m  superior  in  canfrat  l«  >  Mt 
aa  the  Latter  is  to  the  open  air.  Enla.mi/i) 
made  of  almost  any  sims  and  are  sonutiiiia  fun 
offlcer;  ab  otiier*,  tor  ■■  many  m  100  men.  Ttt 
loincipal  hat  encampmenta  atpresent in  the CdM 
kingdom  are  at  Alderahot,  f&omoli^  Cokkota 
and  the  Cnrtsgh  ol  Kildar* ;  in  BribA  SaOi 
America,  but-campe  ore  mtuated  at  intwnli  i^  i 
day's  march  on  tha  ront*  from  Hew  BKmnick  b 
Quebec,  and  the  troopa  who  made  that  wills' 
march  in  1861—1863,  found  tiieir  sheltB  tn^ 
weloome. 

As  the  hut  is  U  uMfnl  toths  isMer  ia*"" 
country  a«  it  is  to  a  ooldier,  we  give  smm  rf  fc 

erticiuori  ol  their  mann&atore  in  difedl  6na 
Its  ore  of  four  sorts ;   1.  The  lo?  hnl;  i  I^ 
fi-am«d  hut ;  S.  The  pM  hut  (of  tempeied  Aj). 

The  log  hut  it  formed  of  rough  iaff  » trub 
of  trees,  laid  crosswise   in  tters  to  tb>  nqoiin 


heirfit,  aa  in  flg.  1,  the  angka  W««J*?V 
iTfig.  2,  by  a^notah  on  S^  ^'t^J^ 
abont  one-third  of  its  diameter  in  °-'r\'^ 
few  inches  from  the  ertremity.  Tb»  ^  "r^ 
tha  logs  ia  tkM>  nudo  waM-tigU  -^  >^^ 


HUTOHESOK— HUTCHINSON'. 


lined   with   Utos,  or  the   irhole  „    ._ 

boarded  with.  inoh-pUnks,  if  bucIi 

^rst^hiSjg^^   mre  attainalilft    The  roof  should  be 

^^sSKpSl   ■°PPO'^°<^    ^    *    Bcaatlius    (Bee 

"^S^^^^K   Roor),  and  may  comiat  of  over- 

Vdi^^^^  lapping  boardi,  or  boards  laid  flush 

Kg.  3.  "■"  ahmgled,  or  Utha  and  shioidei, 

OF   eran  buiih-bark   alone.      The 

door  ii  Btuallj  ledged,  and  there  are  one  or  two 

vindowB,  -with  glased  aMhe*  and  shatters.    These 

ahonld  he  made  hy  regular  earpenteis,  and  taken 

to  the  place  of  building  ready  for  use,     A  hut 

thns  funned  makoa  a  mag  habitatian,  and  will  last 

for  many  years ;  exclusive  of  the  uahes,  two  men 

can  tsnct,  in  about  a  week,  a  hut  of  rough   logs 

which  shall  be  •nfficieotly  large  for  their  residence 

— that  m,  with  an  interior  area  of  about  IB  feet  by 

10  feet 

Whon  eircmnatanoea  permit,  the  logs 
Bonally  squared,  which  enables  them  to 
more  accnrately  to  each  other,  and  adds,  of  course, 
to  the  BoUdity  and  flniah  of  the  whole  structure,  na 
well  as  to  Ita  dorabililiy,     lo  this  case,  the  comi 
Inga,  insttBd  of  aroniag  each  oUier,  are  joined  b; 
dore-tai),  «r  by  oattiiig  the  eiid   of   each  to   a 
ando  of  AF. 

The  fia77t*i  hnt  has  the  advanfaue  over  the  log 
hut  of  allowing  more  ezactneis  of  """^i  and  from 
its  l^itneM  and  portability  beina  easily  tranaported 
to  any  place  where  logs  for  hut-building  might  not 
be  forthooming.  It  consists  of  a  i ' 
work  of  aljiiared  wood,  properly  fitted  logeuier,  ana  ^l 
corered  with  overlapping  plaoks  or  weather'btMuds.  — 
The  aide  of  a  framed  hut  is  shewn  in  fig.  3.  "It 
pieces  should  be  sawn  to  the  proper  nze,  fitted  1 
each  other,  and  numbered ;  tnen  packed  togetht 
in  small  oompass  for  conveyance  to  the  intended 
rite,  where  the  structure  can  aoon  be  erected.  No 
one  pieoe  need  exceed  11  feet  in  length,  6  inches 
in  l^eadtb,  and  2  iaahtu  in  depth.  The  uprights 
■faonid  not  be  more  than  from  15  iiich««  to  18  inches 
apart,  and  should  be  firmly  held  W  diagonal  tie- 
roda,  aa  in  the  illuatration.  The  fir«t  step  ia  to 
carefully  lerel  the  ground  ou  which  the  hut  ia  to 
■tand,  and  if  a  dwMf'Wall  of  stone  or  brick,  8  or 


K»  3.— Side  of  a  framed  Hut. 


be   laid  .  . 

latter  the  uprights  are  placed,  the  binding  tie-rods 
fixed,  and  tJie  cap-aiU,  oarreapondins  to  &e  frame 
below,  placed  above  afl,  every  Joint  being  carefully 
mortiHod  and  tenoned.  The  weather-boards  esa  now 
be  nailed  on  the  outaido,  and  when  the  roof  la  put 
on,  the  hat  is  complete.  The  breadth  should  not, 
for  stability,  exceed  16  feet;  and  when  the  hut  is 
of  any  cotuoderable  length,  croaa-beams  should  bb 
thrown  from  side  to  dde  at  the  top.  The  roof  ahoold 
be  made  of  ordinary  icautlisg,  m  described  nnder 
Roor.  It  ia  nsually  estimated  that  One  of  these 
huts,  30  feet  long,  16  broad,  aad  10  high,  makei  a 
good  bairack-room  tor  SO  soldiers.    The  eampa  at 


Aldenhot  and  the  Curragh  are  mainly  formed  of 
framed  hut*.  Where  extra  warmth  is  desired,  the 
spaoes  betweea  the  Qprishts  are  built  up  roughly 
with  brioka,  burned  or  uobamed. 

Pitt  huts,  common  in  the  south  of  Prance,  and 
very  nseful  where  wood  is  scarce,  aa  well  as  very 
comfortable,  are  walled  with  blocka  of  dayc^  earth, 
rammed  'with  great  pressure  Into  wooden  monlda 
until  they  assuma  ths  forms  of  stonea.  These  ara 
laid  one  above  each  other  much  as  ttoam  Uiem- 
Selves  would  be  by  a  nuuon,  and  the  i^  so  fomied 
ia  both  durable  and  sightly. 

The  most  cHticaJ  operation  for  the  luni-profes- 
donal  hut-bnilder  is  roofing.  This  is  ngually  of 
thatch,  shingles,  paper,  or  feh,  if  lightness  be  na 
object;  and  of  atones,  bricka,  or  tiles,  if  the  walls 
be  caloulated  to  bear  their  preasnre^ 

HXJT0HE80N,  FsAsaa,  a  diatingukhed  phil- 
oaopher  of  last  century,  was  the  aon  of  atresbyterim 
minister  in  the  north  of  TreUnd,  where  ho  was  bom 
in  IS94.  He  studied  for  the  ohuroh  at  the  nniv«isity 
of  Qlaigow,  but  shortly  after  the  completion  of  his 
theological  conrse,  he  was  itiduced  to  open  a  private 
academy  in  the  oity  of  Dublin,  which  proved  highly 
BuooesaftiL  In  1720,  he  published  his  ItKndry  into 
Oit  Original  qf  tmr  tdvu  of  Beauty  and  rtrftie,  ic., 
which  was  the  means  of  introducing  him  to  the 
notice  of  many  influential  personaeea,  such  as  Lord 
Granville,  then  lord-lieutenant  rf  Ireland,  Aroh- 
biahop  King,  Primate  Boulter,  and  othera.  Thiswork 
was  followed,  in  1728,  by  his  Euay  on  the  2fatun 
and  Conduct  of  the  Paaknuj  and  in  the  year  after. 


was  appointed  professor  of  moral  phifosophy  in 
raity  of  Glasgow.     Here  he  died  in  1747. 


His  largest  and  moat  important  work,  A  Syttan  of 
Moral  Philosophy,  was  published  at  Glasgow  in 
1765  by  hia  aon,  Franda  Hutcbeson,  M.D.,  with  a 
Preface  on  the  Life,  WritingB,  and  Character  of  the 
Author,  by  Dr  Leech  man,  professor  of  divinity  in 
the  same  univeraitrj'.  As  a  metaphysician,  H.  may 
be  considered  a  pioneer  of  the  so-called  'Scotcn 
school'  From  the  period  of  hia  lectnrea,  according 
to  Dugald  Stewart,  may  be  dated  the  metaphysical 
philosophy  of  8cotland,  and,  indeed,  the  literary 
taste  in  general,  which  marked  that  country  during 
the  hut  century,  although,  as  Stewart  acknow- 
ledges and  Hamilton  shews,  tracea  of  the  Scotch 
phfloBophr  appear  in  earlier  writers.  But  it  ia  as  a 
moral  philoaopher,  rather  than  as  a  metapbyaiclan, 
H.  shines.  Hia  ^stem  is,  to  a  large  extent,  that  of 
Shaftesbury,  hot  it  ia  more  compleite,  coherent,  and 
clearly  illustrated.  H.  is  a  strong  opponent  of  the 
loetrlae,  that  benavolenoe  has  a  selfish  origin.  The 
faculty  by  which  moral  distinctions  are  recognised, 
H.  (^ter  Shaftesbury)  terms  a  moni  mate.  Bee 
•"rmcB. 

HUTOHIVSON,  Jotof,  an  English  Uteolodoal 
ritsr,  bom   1674  at  Spennithome,  in  Yoriiahire! 

e  WM  for  some  time  steward  of  the  household  of 
the  Duke  of  Somerset,  and  left  bis  serriee  to  devote 
himself  to  his  rehgioua  atudias,  the  duke  noonriDg 
for  him  a  sinacura  appointment  of  £SOu  a  year 
from  Kovomment.  In  I7£4,  he  published  the  fltft 
m  a  WOTk  called  Motti  Priiieipia,  in  which  lie 
delstided  what  tie  n^pnded  m  the  Mosate  eoamogony, 
and  assailed  Kawton'a  theory  of  gravitation.     He 

— ij — 1  ^ i.i;.v ._n  1^  vorka  till  his 

,    ^ Aiigiutl7S7.    His 

retlgkFOB  system  is  btat  axhiluted  in  hia  Thoui^ 

■--  '•Hgiort.    Thelewling  prificipls  a*  '■ 

y  Scriptures  contain  the  •Teoian 


which,  however,  was  to  be  derived  only  frao  tl 
original  Hebrew ;  and  it,  for  that  pnr 
je(^£ed  to  strange  oritieal-or  rather  fm 


uoiizcdtfGooble 


HUTCHINSON— HUT. 


Hit  iroAa  >t  one  time  exercised  a  conrndenble  infln- 
•nee.  Hii  followen  were  called  HnroHiNgDHiAHH, 
and  unong  them — strange  a*  it  may  seem — were 
penoni  of  consLdBnible  learning  and  celebrity. 

HUTOHINSON,  Ashe,  a  r^gioiu  enthiuiast, 
of  Americas  celslmiTi  emigrated  from  Lincolnshire, 
England,  to  Boston,  UasaaohnsettB,  in  1636.  Living 
in  a  community  prone  to  religious  excitement,  she 
clumed  to  be  a  mediom  of  divine  revelations,  and 
held  meetings  for  women,  in  wliich  she  lidd  forth 
Antinomian  doctrines.  Great  controvenies  arose, 
and  a  synod  was  called,  in  which  her  teachings  were 
condemned,  and  she  was  banished  from  the  coloDf, 
She  and  her  friends  now  obbuaed  from  Uie  chief  of 
die  Nanaganaetts  liberty  to  redde  in  Rhode  Island, 
where  th^  set  np  a  community  on  the  highly  coU' 
mendabla  principle,  that  no  one  wui  to  be '  accoonted 
a  dalingaent  for  doctrine.'  After  the  deaUi  of  her 
hnsband  (who  shared  her  opinions),  she  removed  to 
a  Dutch  settlement,  in  the  colony  of  Hew  Yorlc, 
where,  in  IS13,  she  and  her  whole  family  of  IG 
persona  were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Indians,  and 
all  bnt  one  daughter  barbanmaly  murdered, 

HUTTBK,  Ulkioh  ton,  famooa  in  the  history 
of  the  Befonuatian,  was  descended  of  an  aninent  and 
noble  family,  and  waa  bMn  at  the  family  caatle  of 
Bteckalbei^  in  the  eleotoiata  of  Hease,  April  1488. 
WheB  he  waa  ten  yean  of  age,  he  was  placed  in 
the  monastery  at  Fmda ;  bnt  disliking  this  mode  of 
lifo,  he  fled  to  Erfurt  in  1604,  where  he  associated 
wiUi  scholars  and  poets.  He  then  lived  at  varioua 
[dacea  in  Northern  OermanytiUabout  1512,  when  he 
went  to  Pavia  to  study  law.  After  passing  several 
years  in  Italy,  he  returned  to  Gennany,  and  made 
himself  conspicnooi  by  hia  publications,  especially 
thoae  concerning  ilie  afiair  of  Heuchlin  uid  the 
Dominican  Ho<^gstratcn,  in  Cologne,  in  which  he 
came  to  the  support  of  Bencblin,  and  displayed  no 
small   learning   and  groat   po' —   -'    — ' —      ^~ 


in  1SI7.  He  waa  crowned  with  the  poet's  laurel 
crown  at  Aog^burg,  and  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
conferred  on  bun  the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  the 
same  year  he  edited  a  work  of  L^urentios  Yalla, 
found  in  a  convent,  Dt  FaUd  Crtdild  el  EmmtiiA 
Honaiiimt  CoiuUuUini  JUagni,  and  in  1513  acoom- 
panied  Albert,  Archbishop  of  Ments,  to  the  diet 
of  Augsburg  where  Luther  had  bis  famoas  con- 
ference with  Cajetan.  Subsequently,  he  established 
a  small  jirinting-prees  of  his  own,  and  employed 
himself  m  writmg  and  diueminnting  pamphlets 
fully  exposing  the  arntgance  and  wickedness  of  the 
Eoroish  clergy.  The  Archbishop  Albert  denounced 
him  to  Rone,  whereupon  he  entered  into  nn 
immediate  and  avowed  oonueetion  with  LuUier, 
whom  he  had  hitherto  despised  At  tiiis  time, 
also,  be  began  to  write  in  the  Qaiman  langoage, 
instead  of  Latin.  Ferseouted  by  his  enemiai,  ne 
availed  himself  of  the  protection  of  Franz  von 
Sickii^en,  but  was  soon  forced  to  flee.  Rmn  this 
time  H.  was  compelled  to  adopt  a  wanderinv  life, 
and  died  31st  Aogust  1S23,  in  the  Isle  of  nfenan, 
in  the  Li^e  of  ZUrich.  H.  was  balder  and  more 
open  in  the  expression  of  hia  opinions  than  almost 
any  man  of  his  age.  He  did  much  to  jnepare  the 
way  for  the  Beformation,  and  to  promote  it.  It 
may  be  attributed  to  him  as  a  fault,  that  he  was 
too  reckless  of  oonsequancos,  and  not  sufficiently 
tender  in  dealing  with  things  that  had  become 
venerable  in  the  eyes  of  many ;  but  he  was  a 
maa  who  feared  nothing  even  when  almost  all 
his  friend*  trembled.  He  waa  a  master  of  the 
Latiu  language.  He  left  45  diff»rent  worka,  of 
which  a  collective  edition  waa  published  at  Bwlin 


I  1821- 


1827,  in  6  volumes.    The  bat  life  of  H. 

ibliahed  at  Leipaio,  in  1S58,  by  Dr  Darid 

-     ""ih  trani'  ■'-   ■"■"' 


Friedri«li  SUauss  (English  translation,  1874). 

HTJTTON,  CHASura,  an  emini 
waa  the  son  of  a  superintendent  oi  mines,  ana  waa 
bom  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  14tli  August  1737, 
and  in  176S  becam«  teacher  in  a  sotuxQ  at  Jeamcnd, 
and  afterwaida  at  Newcaatle,  till  1773.  Purii^ 
this  period,  he  published  hia  TVeiKte  on  .inlimAe  | 
and  BtxA-iMpbig  (17M) ;  TreaHat  on  MetnuraSm 
(London,  1771);  and  Prindpla  of  Bridgtt,  <md  ■ 
AfaAemalkal  Danemarulion  of  iht  Late*  ^  Ardut 
(Newcastle,  1772).  In  1773,  he  was  appMnted  to 
the  professorship  of  mathematios  at  the  BotsI 
Military  Academy,  Woolwich,  and  in  Novanbsr 
1774  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Boyal  Society. 
Soon  after  this,  he  waa  selected  to  perform  ^ 
necessary  calcnlationB  for  determini  "  '  *^- 
of  the  earth  from  Dr  Maskelyne's 


_ .  reived  the  Ai 

Edinburgh.     He  died  27th  Januaiy 

most  important  works  are — Tablet  qf  j 

Pimerl  of  Numbrra  (London,  1781);  MaOemalual 

TaMa  (London,  17S6) ;  Ma&emaHeai  and  PkOan- 

phkai  Diftionary  (London,  179S) ;  Oovras  nf  Malke- 

maHo  (London,   1798—1801);   and  JlEcrsatisiss  ss 

MaViemalia    and    Natural    PhilompKg   (4   ti^ 

London,  1803) ;  the  last  bong  a  most  iDtereating 

and  instructive  work-    B«aidea  these,  he  Tesoliriy 

contributed  mathematical  papers   to   the  LadM 

Diary,  at  which  he   was   for   some   time   editor, 

and  siao  to  the  PkHotapltieid   Tratitaelioiu.      His 

biography    has    been    writtco    by    Dr   OUnthw 

Gregory. 

HUTTON,  Jixta,  a  celebrated  getJogist,  was 
the  son  of  a  merchant  in  Ediubutgb,  and  waa  bom 
there  3d  June  1726,  He  studied  in  his  native 
city,  and  afterwards  at  Leyden,  when  he  toi^ 
the  decree  of  M.D.  He  devoted  himself,  however, 
not  to  the  medical  profession,  but  to  agricultural 
pursuits  and  to  the  science  of  chemistiy,  ii^m 
which  he  waa  led  to  mineralogy  and  geolof^.  He 
contributed  much  to  the  improvement  of  ^ncnltnre 
in  Britain.  Ho  made  some  chemical  discoveiiea, 
sod  is  the  author  of  a  Theory  of  the  Earth  and 
of  a  Theory  of  Rain.  His  Theory  of  Run  haa  been 
since  acknowledged  by  men  of  science  as  general^ 
corivet,  although  at  first  it  met  with  Bom«  mipca- 
tion.  His  Theory  of  the  Earth  has  for  its  aiatio- 
guishing  feature  the  supposed  agency  of  a  canljal 
heat,  ■-  -"---^  '■--  -'— '^ ' -■ 


—  it  may  be  regarded  as  now  also  substantially 
admitted  by  all  geologists,  although  for  a  time  it    ■ 
was  combated  by  the  followers  of  Werner,  who 
sousht  to  explain  everything  by  aqueous  solution    { 
andccystollisation.    Dr  E.  waa  mdaed  too  extreme    | 
in  hia  theoretical  views,  and  some  of  his  followers    ' 
were  still  more  so.     He  was,  however,  not  Mily 
a  theorist,  but  an  observer,  and  his  discoverr  of   ', 
granite  veins  is  of  no  small  importance  in  the  hiafany 
of  geology.     He  died  Maroh  28,  1797. 
HtJXLBY,  Thomas.    See  Supp.,  YoL  X.  ) 

HUY,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  Belgium,  in  , 
the  province  of  Liege,  is  romantically  dtuated 
amid  lofty  rocks  on  Imth  banka  of  the  Ueaee,  and 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  fioeat  soeoety 
of  that  river,  17  miles  south-west  of  Lic^  Its 
citadel,  the  works  <A  which  are  partly  excavated  in 
the  solid  rock,  oommand*  the  passage  of  the  Hvcr, 
The  church  of  Notn  Dame,  a  graceful  Gothic 
un  in  1311.  In  tiie  vicinity  an  iron- 
-minee,  in  the  producta  of  whick  tha 


as  bwnn  it 
d  coal-mini 


tyCoogle 


HUYGHENS  TAN  ZUTLICHIOI— HYACINTH. 


inhabitMitB  earrj  on  &  UtbIj  b*de  by  mMUig  of  the 
Liege  mi  Namnr  Bailwaj.  The  princqi*!  inuiQ- 
fsctnres  are  paper,  leather,  zuic.  beer,  Bpirite.  and 
Ml  inferior  kind  of  wine.    Fop.  (1870)  about  ll.OOa 

Peter  the  Hermit,  on  jbia  return  from  the  first 
CniBftde,  tonnded  here  the  fonner  abbey  of  Nenf- 
moastier  {Ifovum  Monasterium),  and  was  himaelf 
interred  within  it.  H.  hu  been  frequently  taken 
doling  the  wars,  of  which  tiug  region  has  tMtea  the 
■eat.  It  was  last  cAptnred  by  UBrlborough  knd 
Coehoom  in  1703. 

HUTOHBH8  VAS  ZUYLICHEM,  Cheib- 
TUS,  one  of  the  great  philoeophen  of  the  17th  c, 
waa  bom  at  the  lugue,  April  14,  1639,  and  wu  the 
•eoond  Bon  of  Constantine  Huyghens,  secretary  and 
connaeUor  to  the  princea  of  Orange.  E.  itndjed  at 
Irf^diVk  and  Breda.  Hii  firat  work,  TTKortmala 
tU  Qumfnituni  Hyperbola,  Eliipeie,  et  CiTcuii,  ex 
Data  PortioKum  Oravibaie  Ceniro  (Leyden,  1651), 
ia  an  exam[de  of  that  powerful  geometrical  talent 
which  lay  at  the  fonndatioa  of  all  hia  acientific 
achierementa.  Soon  after  this,  he  eonBtnicted 
the  pendDlom-clook,  foJlawing  out  the  idea  first 
■uanited  by  Galileo  (q.  v.\,  A  complete  description 
of  H.'a  inatmmeDt  is  contained  in  his  great  work, 
llorohgium  Oit^alorimn,  tive  d*  Mola  Pendvtontm 
[Haene,  1658). 

Thia  work  contains  ezpodtions  ot  many  of  the 
caaee  of  oonstiained  motion,  eepecially  thoae  applic- 
able to  the  construction  of  tjnie-keepers.  H.  has 
also  derelt^ed  and  giren  precisian  to  the  inveeti- 

r'  Lona  of  Galileo  apoa  accelerated  motion  under 
action  of  gravity ;  and  there  is  no  doubt,  that 
to  tiie  deamen  of  hia  demonabationa,  his  great 
•uocenor,  Newton,  in  preparing  hii  magniGcent 
development  <^  the  princi{^e  of  accelerating  force, 
was  Iwgely  indebted.  Newton  waa  a  student  and 
admirer  of  his  works,  and  assigns  to  him,  along  with 
Sir  C.  Wren  and  Waltis,  the  distinguished  epithet 
of  Am'us  alaiu  geomeCrarum/aeiiepnneipei. 

By  means  of  an  improved  t«lcacope  of  his  own 
construction,  H.,  in  1655,  discovered  the  ring  of 
Satnm  and  the  fourth  satellite  of  that  planet.  In 
1669,  he  published  an  account  of  these  discoveries 
in  a  work  entitled  Sy^ema  Satumiam,  the  de  Cautit 
Momndorum  Batunu  Phmomemm,  et  Comitt  g'M 
Flarteld  i7ovo.  In  the  end  of  this  work  is  described 
an  invention  of  great  importance  in  astronomy — 
namely,  tiie  Micrometer  (q.  v.),  by  whioh  small 
angles  between  objects  viewed  by  a  telescope  are 
accurately  measured.  In  1660,  H.  visited  Endand, 
where  ho  waa  admitted  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Society.  He  discovered  the  laws  of  collision  of 
elastic  bodies  about  the  some  timo  with  Wallis  and 
Wren,  and  also  made  a  material  improvement  in 
the  air-pump. 

In  1666,  H.  received  an  invitation  to  sBtlle  m 
France,  with  the  promise  of  a  pension  from  Colbert, 
then  all-powertuf  in  that  country.  He  repaired 
to  Paris,  whecB  he  remained  till  1601,  having  been 
admitted  to  the  membership  of  the  Bi^al  Academy 
of  Bcienoes,;  bnt  alarmed  at  the  danger  which  seemed 
impending  over  the  Protestants,  he  returned  to  his 
own  country.  After  his  return,  he  still  oontinned 
hii  bvourite  pursuits  till  his  death  at  the  Hague, 
8th  June  169a 


They  are  chiefly  remarkable 
theory  of  Ugh^  which,  opposed  aa  it  was  to  the 
then  mfut  popular  theory  of  Newton,  is  substan- 
tially tiio  tama  with  that  which  is  now  called  the 
.  _j_.i_. —  ^1 D _«  jjj,  theory,   he 


uaAdotory  Aaory.      By  > 

explained  tha  ordinary  phL 

i^ncHim,  aad  further  succeeded  in  a  ■atisfactory 
arplanaitton  of  the  plieDonienon  t£  double  refraction, 
wuch  N«wton'i  them?  failed  to  account  for. 


HUTSUM,  Jah  tjji,  a  celebnted  Dutch  painter 
of  flowers  and  fmita,  WH  born  at  Amsterdam  in 
1682,  and  acquired  the  mdimenta  of  his  art  from 
his  father,  a  Uadsouie-painter  of  very  conaideratde 
talent.  H.  ■urpuBedTaU  hia  piedeoenor*  in  mdlow- 
nesB,  purity,  and  delicacy  <d  colouring;  the  eiqnisite 
disposition  of  hia  lights  and  shadows ;  and  above  all, 
in  his  miraonlouB  rendering  of  dew-drops  and  the 
>ns  of  insects.  He  died  at  Amsterdam  in  1749. 
H's  master-pieoes  are  to  be  found  in  the  galleriea  of 
Vienna,  Munich,  Dresden,  and  St  Petersburg. 

HWANG-HO,  HOANG-HO,  or  YELLOW 
RIYEB,  one  of  the  principal  riven  of  China,  about 
2400  miles  in  length,  the  area  of  its  basin  being  not 
less  than  700,000  square  miles.  It  rise^  in  a  marshy 
>lain  lying  between  the  Bayan-ka^  and  Kwanlun 
Mountains,  in  a  lake  called  Ala-uor,  in  Lit.  35*  Stf 
N.,  lonz.  96°  K  Its  course  is  so  crooked  that, 
after  it  leaves  Ala-nor,  it  turns  Scst  south  30  miles, 
then  east  160,  then  westward  120,  winding  about  the 
gorges  of  tiie  Kwanlun,  then  nortli-sast  into  the 
Tirovince  of  Kansnh,  next  it  proceeds  northward 
for  430  miles,  till  it  is  bent  eastward  hy  Inshan, 
on  the  edge  of  the  table-land,  where  it  enclosea 
within  its  great  bend  the  country  of  the  Ortoua 
Mongols.  At  the  Peh-ling  it  is  deflected  south, 
where  it  divides  the  provinces  of  Shanse  and  Shense 
for  500  miles.  At  the  south-western  comer  of 
Shanae,  it  receives  ita  largest  tributary,  the  Wei-bo, 
400  miles  in  length;  from  this  point  the  Yellow 
River  flowed  until  recently  eastward  to  the  ocean, 
650  miles  distant,  in  lat  34°.  It  is  little  used  for 
navigation,  Chinese  vessslB  being  unable  to  stem  ita 
impnaons  current  In  some  porta  of  its  eastern 
course,  it  is  above  the  great  plain  through  which  it 
passes.  The  embankments  requisite  for  averting 
mundations  are  a  source  of  never-ending  expense 
to  the  government,  and  their  yielding  to  floods  a 
frequent  cause  of  desolation  to  extensive  districts  of 
country.  Dr  Macgowan  announced,  some  year»  ago, 
in  the  N'orth  China  Herald,  that  this  wayward  and 
turbulent  stream  had  suddenly  shifted  its  course, 
turning  off  near  Kaifung-foo  in  a  north-easterly  direc- 
tion, discharging  ita  waters  into  the  rivers  <rf  Chih- 
le,  whioh  disembogue  in  the  Gulf  of  Fehchele,  the 
mountainous  province  and  promontory  of  Shantung 
intervening  between  ita  former  and  its  present 
mouth,  a  distance  by  coast-line  of  about  500  miles. 
More  recenUy,  it  was  announced  that  the  bed 
of  the  Ydlow  River,  for  more  than  two  hundred 
miles  from  ita  mouth,  was  a  belt  of  sand,  which, 
since  the  spring  of  .1853,  has  been,  to  use  tiie 
Chinese  term  applied  to  it,  'as  dry  as  dntb* 
The  change  seems  to  have  been  graduBl.  Aa 
then  Vvere  frequent  slight  shocks  oi  earthquakes 
in  the  Great  FLain  of  China  in  1852—1853,  Dr 
Macgowan  suggestB  that  these  contributed  to  effect 
the  phenomenon,  another  cause  being  nwlect  of  the 
dykes  by  the  imperial  government.  Its  present 
channels  are  not  precdsdy  known,  but  thc^  are 
probably  the  same  aa  in  ancient  times;  for  it  haa 
shifted  its  bed  at  different  periods  of  Chinese 
history.  The  vast  quantity  of  sediment  conveyed 
to  tiie  sea  hj  this  nver,  giving  it  its  colour  and 
name,  is  taken  up  in  that  part  ol  ita  course  which 
lies  between  the  provinces  <d  Shanae  and  Shanse ; 
beyond   that   region    its  water*   are   remarkably 

HTAOINTH,  a  name  given  to  the  brilliantiy 
coloured  varietiea  of  the  gem  called  Zircon, 
also  to  fine  red  Cimuunon-stcme  (q.v.)  or  Pyrope 
(q.  T.) ;  and  sometime!  to  ferru^nons  qnarti  of  a 
Uood-red  colour,  which,  from  its  oocurnng  abnnd- 
anUy  in  gypsum  at  Compoatella,  in  Spain,  is  called 
H.  qfComtmttJia. 


hyGoogle 


HYACINTH— HYJMA. 


HTAOIITTH  {Hyaeinthtu),  »  getma  of  pJ&nts  of 
th»  natural  order  Litiaeta;  bolMiu-iooted  pUnti 
-Willi  ooTolla-Ske,  Inll-ihaped,  6-deft  periastli,  ui 
ttamena  fixed  In  tlie  tabs  of  the  pematli,  (md  dry 
capmLu-  fmit— The  (MvUal  H.  (ff.  orimlalis),  one 
of  the  moat  favourite  ot  florittB*  flowers,  ia  » 
ikative  of  Asia  MInot,  RjiiA,  and  Penia.  It  u  now 
oaturaliaed  in  Kme  parti  of  the  aonth  of  Europe. 
It  hia  brottd  linear  leaives,  and  ft  ioape  with  a 
raceme  of  maur  flowen  pdntii  '~  "  "  '' 
The  fi  ■ 


i  and  vary  oagrant.  The  fragrance  ia 
(trongeat  abont  or  aner  deven  o'l^ock  at  night. 
Among  cultivated  hyscintha,  are  mai»'  with  double 
flowers.  The  H.  baa  been  cultivated  from  a  remote 
period,  but  about  the  beginning  of  the  19th  c,  it 
attained  almoat  the  fint  place  aa  a  fioiiata'  flower. 
Great  attention  waa  beatowed  on  the  prodaction  of 
new  varieties  and  anonnoua  prices  were  given  for 
bulba  of  Bome  of  them.  A  price  equal  to  £300 
tterling  waa  aometimea  paid  for  a  liable  bulb.  The 
pcind^  Beat  of  the  cultivation  of  hyaciotlha  waa 
and  atill  i*  at  Haarlem.  At  present,  however,  more 
than  £10  ia  seldom  aaked  for  the  finest  new  variety 
ot  H.,  but  although  Hie  trade  is  conaidered  aa  now 
much  depreaaed,  the  Haarlem  gardenan  still  aell 
bulb*  to  the  value  of  £2000  or  £3000  yearly.  H. 
bulbs,  planted  in  pots,  readily  produce  beautiful 
flowers  1  and  flowen  almost  equally  beautiful  are 


obtained— for  o 


>  year,  however,  only- 

them  in  water  in  S^.  gUuta, 
in  which  they  form  a 
favourite  onuunent  of  apart- 

ivstin,-  •■-- 
1  this  way.  rajn- 
shotdd  be  used  for  filling 
the  glaasea  in  preference  to 
spring-  water.  The  roots 
snooM  never  be  diatnrbed,  if 
pooaible,  and  therefore  the 
water  should  not  be  cbaoeed, 
but  the  ^UsB  must  be  ^ed 
up  oocanonally  till  it  almoat 
tooDb  the  bulb.  A  piece  of 
charaoal  may  be  placed  in  it 
to  purify  it.  Tba  glasses 
ou«it  to  be  kept  in  a  dark 
eod  plaoe  till  the  bolbs  have 
■ent  oat  roots.  Hot  rooms 
an  ^>t  to  intke  the  stems 
long  and  the  flowor-spikes 
smalL  The  cultivation  ol 
the  H.  in  the  open  gntanA  is 
much  mora  difEcnit,  if  ihA 
varietiea  are  to  bo  preserved 
from  degenerating  A  light 
Orients!  sandy  aud  yet  noh  soil   is 

Hyacinth.  requisite.   A  compost  of  oow- 

dung,  rotten  leaves,  and  fine 
sand  is  nsed  at  Haarlem.  New  TaiietJes  are  raised 
from  seed.  Several  other  speciea  of  H.  are  ostivea 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  Africa,  kx. — The  Giupi- 
HrAonrra  and  OLOBi-HTioiNTH,  frequently  cul- 
tivated M  garden  flowen,  are  now  referred  to  the 
runs  MnKori,  of  which  the  periaatli  is  merely 
toothed.— A  common  British  plants  growing  in 
woods  and  copses,  with  beaatJfal  blue  floweia  very 
like  those  of  the  Orientel  H.,  but  all  drooiHiiK  to 
cna  mde  {S.  non^criptut,  also  known  m  Sma 
mOant,  Bndymton  nutans,  and  AffmjAi*  ffOoM),  it 
sometimes  otlled  the  Wild  H.,  ud  sometime*  the 
Blux-bkll.  The  bulbs  were  used  in  the  time  of 
Queen  BQixabetb  for  starching  the  ruffs  then  worn, 
and  the  atarch  of  them  waa  otherwise  naed  instead 


of  paste  or  glae.    The  fresh  bolba  are  said  to  b* 

poisOTions. 

HVJSTSA,  a  senuB  of  digitigrade  camivoroni 
quadrupeds,  included  in  the  genus  Crtnis  by  Linmens, 
and  by  some  naturalists  referred  to  the  family 
Caaida,  but  now  more  generally  to  Viverrida, 
whilst  the  dentition  ccnnects  it  even  with  Fiiid/e. 
HyEenas  have  six  incisors  and  two  canine  teeth  in 
each  jaw,  five  molars  on  each  side  in  the  upper  jaw, 
and  four  in  the  under.  They  seize  an  object  with 
BO  firm  a  bold,  that,  among  the  Arabs,  they  are 
proverbial  for  obstinacy.  Toe  rertebne  of  the  neck 
Bometimea  become  ankylosed  in  old  hysnas.  The 
hind-quartera  are  lower  and  weaker  than  tite  fore- 

Juartera  of  the  body,  ao  that  hyienaa  more  with  a 
lambliug  gait.  The  body  ia  covered  with  rather 
lone  coane  hair,  forming  a  mane  along  the  neck  and 
bsck.  The  feet  hare  each  four  toes.  The  claw*  are 
strong,  fit  for  dicing,  and  not  retractile.  The  tail 
is  rat£er  ahorL    Beneath  the  anna  is  a  deep  ^andnlar 

?ouoh,  contributing  much  to  the  oflimBive  odour 
y  which  hytenas  are  characterised.  Hyxnal  eat 
carrion,  as  well  aa  newly-killed  prey,  and  are  of 
much  use,  like  vnltnres,  as  acavengers,  clearing 
away  the  laat  remaants  of  carcases  that  If  left  to 
rot  would  greatly  pollute  the  air.  They  sometimee 
attack  cattle,  especially  if  they  flee,  but  rarely  man, 
though  &.ey  aomdimei  seise  children.  Dnting  the 
day,  they  hide  tbemeelves  in  caves,  old  rock  ttrmbe, 
rumed  edifice*,  Ac. ;  by  "i^t,  they  roam  singly  or 
in  yaoka  in  quest  of  prey.  They  prowl  abont  towns 
and  villages,  and  often  dig  up  corpses  that  hare  not 
been  very  deeply  buried.  This,  together  with  tlicir 
aspect  and  manners,  has  caused  them  to  be  generally 
regarded  with  horror,  and  very  ezsKerated  acconnts 
of  their  fierceness  have  been  prev^ent.  Instead  ot 
being  untamable,  as  was  long  the  popular  belief 
ihej  are  capable  of  being  very  completely  tamed, 
and  show  on  attachment  to  man  similar  to  that  of 
the  dog ;  they  have  even  been  used  as  watcli-d<>g«. 
Hjrmaaa  are  found  only  in  Africa  and  the  south  of 
Asia,  not  extending  to  the  farthest  east  ot  the  latter 


Spotted  Hysna  [B,  enKnla), 

oontinani — The  Snurro  H.  {ff.  vulgari*  or  strioJa) 
is  tonnd  both  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  than  aro 
several  varietiea  considerably  diSerent  in  ■ ' 


do.    The  smalleat  h 


nof  a 


dtw.— The  Spotted  H.  (H.  oroaOa)  inhabita  S 
A&ca.  It  is  rather  smallez'  than  the  larniat  varieDeB 
of  the  Striped  H,  but  is  more  GsMa  aim  daageroiBi 
It  it  oalled  TiaiK-wou  by  the  aotomata  of  tha 
Ca^  of  Oood  Hope.  Beaidea  its  ordinanr  howtiag, 
which  it  emits  very  fraely  In  its  n nnturnaf  nmiatngr. 
this  H.  often  indolgca  m  an  iiniiii«iiiii  «f  gralu- 
passion,  rssembling  '  -  '  ■ 
has  acquired  the  na 


laughter,  whsnoait  has  acquired  i 


aot  tbs 


hyGoogle 


HTA-HTA— HYBBID, 


I    grar,  with  thinlr  auttoMd  imBll  ronnil  brotm  tpcti, 

I     ud  KNTtr  mnnle  ud  fc«(.— The  Woour  H.  (H. 

I    HUom)  it  *  UMller  SonUi  Africftn  Bpaeiea. 

I  In  «oiiMqneDM  ot  the  bonM  which  hjwtau  Mt^ 
their  dung  fomi  wdid  rdlowiih-iAit*  b«lli,  <rf 
oompaot  Mrtli;  fwotnw,  um  ^fiiH»  ffrvKm 
old  lUKtariA  uMiok 

HTA-HTA.  See  Cow  Tkkb. 
H YBERSATIOB .  See  HimurATloK. 
HTB0D17S  (Gr,  hmtp-looA),  ft  ganiu  of  lamal 
fiih,  whose  tevth  and  omboiw  fiu-t^i  are  fomid 
in  ftU  tha  Seoondtuy  i«cha  icom  tba  Triaa  to  the 
Chalk  iitclniiTe.  llieKaiMt  with  the  email  fKdljr 
of  HybodoDta  to  wUaa  U  btJonn  oooapy  a  place 
betwMB  the  CeetfMooDta,  with  their  pairenent  of 
flat  enuhing  teeth,  and  the  Rbarki  with  tiieit  «harp- 
pojnied  outting  teeth.  The  teeth  of  the  Hybodonta 
are  oonieal,  but  broad  and  bltmt ;  from  tbs  Iwdf 
of  Un  tooth  rise*  a  large  central  oone,  and  Mveral 
email  latent!  ones,  deoraaiijs  in  nxa  aa  thty  lecede 
from  the  |9indiMJ  ocae>  The  enmoel  ii  ttrowl} 
madied  by  longitudinal  MooTea  and  folds,  'nit 
oweou  nya  of  the  doiMd  flna  are  the  odIt  other 
preeeiTod  partita*  <d  these  foaeila  Like  the  Port 
Jaokson  ina^  the  H.  had  each  U  tbe  two  dtneal 
flnt  fnmlihed  with  a  lar;^  aod  atcong  acui&  one-thkd 
of  whose  lenf^  was  boned  in  the  iUah.  Kearlyfifty 
i^eoes  itf  Una  getuis  Itare  bean  diMribed 

UyUBID  (4^.  Mrld,  from  hi/bris,  ertravaganoe, 
UeendanaiMaB)  ia  the  term  applied  by  nahiraliria 
to  the  of&prlDg  of  different  but  general!;  nearly 
allied  species  of  «■"""»>'  and  pUnta,  and  most 
he  dislinguiBhed  from  the  word  mangnl,  which  ia 
applied  to  the  (rftspring  of  different  varieties  of  the 

M.  ^ocs,whoee  memoir  on  Hybiidity  of  Antrtnlir 
ia  tho  nuat  oom^ete  tiiat  has  vet  appeued,  remuki 
that  thi*  oonditacat  may  be  [1)  natmal,  (2)  excited 
(pmvoqui^,  or  {3)  artifioiaL  The  flnt  rariety  is 
Bueh  as  occors  spontaneonaly  amonest  ^niirifclM  in 
their  wjld  state ;  Hie  second  includes  thcae  eaees 
in  whioh  domesticated  animala,  which  wonld  not 
natorally  cross  with  one  another,  do  so  under  the 
inflnence  of  rn»n,  and  in  opposition  to  their  natural 
initiiictB ;  while  the  tlum  Tsriety  is  due  to  the 
artiiicial  admixtnre  of  the  male  and  female  gene- 
latire  elements,  and  as  far  aa  is  yet  known  occnn 
only  In  fishes,  and  In  the  Tegetable  kingdom.  The 
seoond  variety  ie  by  fu  the  most  common  and  the 
most  miportmt. 

When  the  male  of  tbe  Bwdc*  A  ct ,.__, 

the  female  ot  the  tpeoim  B,  it  may  happen 
the  process  can  be  iorerted,  and  that  the  male 
B  can  impregnate  the  female  A.  In  other  cases, 
howerer,  whfle  the  male  A  con  readHy  impregnate 
the  female  B,  the  male  B  cannot  trnpreKtiate 
the  female  A.  In  the  fliet  CMe,  the  hybridAy  is 
termed  itialeral;  in  the  second,  unUaUraL  Tbn 
foTmer  Is  rara  and  even  when  it  does  ooenr,  the 
cross  In  one  dinetlon  is  mom  common  and  more 
prodoc^Tc  than  in  the  other.  Tbna,  the  ordinary 
mole,  the  offspring  ol  the  male  sss  and  the  mare, 
is  mnoh  mote  MmBI*  obtained,  asd,  phynidogioally, 
is  less  inperfeot  toMi  tiie  ooirespunding  animal, 
the  hiony,  wUcb  ocoMioiially  molts  &dib  the 
anion  of  Mm  stallion  Mtd  female  an.  Bee  MtTU, 
Hnnrr.  Onr  dnoiestio  Bheep  Ud  ooata  afford  an 
eutnple  <d  the  UMet  (onOatrnd)  kind  of  faybridity. 
The  nnion  of  Oe  he-goat  uxl  the  ewe  is  fmnently 
pTodDotfre,  wUh  tbe  nnkn  of  tiw  ram  with  tbe 
she-goat  is  dways  vnprodnotrre. 

In  the  prsaent  state  ot  oor  knowledge.  It  is 
imposcibk  to  predleate  in  wkat  eaaea  the  crassinD  of 
diserent  ipeoMa  will  be  prodnotire,  ud  in  what 


■  it  will  be  barroL    While  some  cloaely  allied 
des  do  not  admit  of  a  oroas,  other  specnea,  fsi 


BB  one  another,  not  only  yield 
hybrid^  but  even  buitftd  hybrids,  Thne  Is,  lunr- 
eytt,  a  limit,  bnond  vrtnch  the  ohanoe  «f  oOpring 
beoomee  ledueed  to  lero,  and,  aeooding  to  Broca : 
'  If  the  oooing  of  aniniaU  of  diflersnt  gmera  ii 
now  an  inconteetable  fact,  Oiete  is  no  authmtio 
svidenee  that  olU^iaa  ha*  reaultsd  team  the 
crossing  ot  "'»■"'■  of  duterent  ordsn.' 

have  been  lebned  to,  m  shewing   that 


sati*fM)toriIy 


may  cross,  but  n 
"Tho* 


eof 


^ip*nat  case  ot  bybndi^ between  difi^otwd^ 
i*  uiat  of  the  JmarU,  which  were  ssid  to  mult 
from  ths  tmion  of  the  boll  and  the  maK^  or  of  the 
Btalhon  and  tbe  cow.  Thes*  jomact*  wn«  believed 
in  from  tbe  time  of  Colnmella  to  that  of  Bnffon, 
who  folly  farreatigatsd  the  milrieat,  and  tbond  that 
they  wei«  mtmy  Wrniiw  the  offlijning  at  the 
etaUioQ  and  tbe  she-SML  Amow  ■««»»■«— ii-  hybrids 
have  been  obtained  between  we  different  spedes 
of  the  genns  Bqwut.  So  far  as  eiperiments  go, 
the  hoiM^  the  as*,  tbe  febra,  tbe  qnagga,  fto.,  breed 
freely  M«r  m,  bnt  the  degrees  A  fertility  among 
their  oSspiii^  have  not  been  folly  determined.  The 
dog  has  been  made  to  breed  with  the  wolf  and 
the  foi,  the  Hon  with  the  tiger,  the  he-goat  wMi 
the  female  sheep,  the  ram  wiU)  the  fsaiale  roe- 
deer  {Cervat  CapTtoM),  and  the  hare  with  tiie 
rabbit.  {See  ProfeMoc  Owen's  article  'Hybrid,' 
in  Brande's  Diclioiuay  o/'  Sctmce,  LiUratwn,  and 
Art.}  A  oaae  wa*  recorded  some  time  ago  in  77k 
I'idd  newspaper,  ia  which  a  prolific  onion  took 
place  between  a  mastiff  dog  and  a  lioness  that  bad 
been  broDght  np  together. 

Amoiu  Birds,  hybiidity  is  not 
swan  wSl  breed  witJi  <£e  goose,  tbe  groose  with 
the  blaokoock,  tiie  dieasant  with  the  common  tow^ 
the  goldfinch  with  the  canary,  Ac  Among  reptiles, 
hybrid  c&pring  has  been  oheerred  between  the 
toad  and  the  frog.  Amons  fishes,  hybrids  have 
been  obtained  by  artificial  impregn»tioa  between 
different  species  of  the  genns  CS/primt*. 

Uany  hybrids  have  no  pnmagatiTe  power,  while 
1  others  it  is  so  far  limited  as  to  admit  o^y  of 
reversion  to  tiie  original  spsoifia  form.  When  a 
hybrid  possesses  generative  power,  it  breeds  more 
readily  with  an  mdividoal  of  one  of  its  parent 
stacks  than  with  another  hybrid  Ukfl  its^  The 
most  remarkable  exsmple  on  reoord  of  generative 
power  in  bybrids  i*  afforded  by  tbe  ezpetiments  of 
M.  BoDZ  of  Ai^onltaM,  who  find*  that  De  can  orosa 
haree  and  rabbita  to  any  extent,  and  who  has  tbns, 
by  breeding  leporidu,  eetablished  a  new  and  locra- 
tive  department  in  sgricultore.  For  a  fnll  aoconnt 
of  these  experiments,  whioh  are  well  deserving  of 
a  trial  in  this  conntry,  tlie  reader  may  consult 
Brown-Sequard'a  Journal  dt  la  P/ivMogie,  voL  iL 
pp.  374— 3S3.  These  experiments  have  inffioted  a 
blow  on  tbe  popular  doctrine  of  tbe  per- 
«of  spedes. 

Kiperiments  on  tbe  bybridisatioD  of  plants  have 
been  very  far  from  conflrmins  the  bybnd  origin  of 
forms  afpacently  intermediate  between  other  species, 
and  which  were  once  regarded  as  probably  l^brids 
produced  in  a  state  of  nature,  "nie  intenerence  of 
man  is  usually  necessary  to  effect  on  intermixture, 
and  In  many  cases  ia  which  It  has  been  toDnd 
poadble,  it  is  by  no  means  of  easy  accomplishment. 

ITie  predileetion  for  pollen  of  the  i """""■* ~ 

■'--■-  ■  -      "       iNiui  Ot  the 

„  a  ot  a 
a  as  if  ita  own  pdlen 

le.     I.W  '^-'^-■" 

most  est  away  the  il 


*,L,oogle 


HTDASPBS— HTTJE 


the  piatil  ii  to  be  impregiutted,  uid  orefo]]? 
tmreiit  all  Mcew  of  polfen  other  than  that  which 
he  hriiua  to  it.  Eren  wiUi  Uiese  precantioni,  it  la 
fonnd  impoMihle  to  produce  hybrids  between  some 
planta  of  the  eame  funily,  and  not  \erj  diimmilar. 

Hybrid  planta  are  said  to  partake  generally  of 
the  characteta  of  the  male  more  thau  of  the  female 
parent.  It  is  mora  certain  that  valuable  results  are 
often  obtuned  aa  to  size  and  abundance  of  fruit, 
brillianoy  of  flowers,  hardiness,  and  ot^er  qnalitiea. 
The  qoMtion  of  the  oontinaed  fertility  of  true 
hybrids  ii  one  having  most  importuit  celationi  to 
the  great  questiona  concemiiig  speciea.  Soine  Msert 
that  nmthcr  among  animal*  nor  among  [daatt  are 
hybirids  fertile  for  more  than  one  or  two  generations, 
if  kept  by  themMl?ea;  although  they  are  readily 
fertile  with  eitiier  of  the  parent  apeoua,  to  whicn 
they  become  again  aaaimilated.  But  this  opinion  ia 
-  ■^-'  -■-'  )jie  qiuation  must,  of  cooise,  be 
ktion  of  facts,  injud^ng  of  which, 
I  of  no  little  difficulty  must  often 
are  and  what  are  not  different 

planta  was 
widlgreat  care  and  very 
[periments,  by  KUlreater,  ia  the  end 
of  the  18th  c,  and  has  been  more  recentiy  studied 
with  much  attention  by  Dean  Herbert  of  Manchester, 


distinct  objects  of  a  veeicular  or  o^t-like  choractGr, 
which  are  found  in  the  bodies  of  men  and  certain 
mammalw.  Tnie  hydatids  were  formerly 
as  cyrtio  Entozoa  (q.  v.),  soch  as  Cy 
CiBnoraa,  and  Echinococcus,  but  all  these  animal 
forms  are  now  discovered  to  be  larval  stages  of 
tttnia  or  Tapo-wonn  (q.  v.).  These  ivdatids  may 
occur  iu  almost  any  part  of  the  body,  and  they 
have  been  observed  in  man,  Hie  ape,  the  ox,  the 


decided  by  obs^atian  of  facts, 
however,  qnestions  '--  ""^'- 
ariae  aa  to  what 


Hydatids ; 
Copied  from  Rrnui  Jontt'i  Animal  EingioH. 
1,  Cmstirtu  OnlmU*,  nUnn!  tlig ;  t,  ona  hnd  mignlllnl : 
a,  onldnsUl  of  hooki ;  i,  nsken :  I,  CjiUecniu  Tnnulconii, 
nilDTsl  il»i  4,    hmd   sminlOtd;   n,    Direln  of   lunks; 
f,«wkgrt. 

sheep,  the  hoiae,  the  camel,  the  pis,  the  kangaroo, 
and  some  othw  Tegetebls  feedco^  but  thev  appar- 
ently do  not  ODcnr  in  eamivoTona  animaJs  or  in 
the  rodents.  They  are  generally  endoeed  in  an 
external  sao,  whi^  is  i^aohed  to  the  Uaaae  of 
«a 


Uie  organ  in  wUch  it  ia  utuated,  and  whuli  ia 
freijaently   common   to   many   bydatida,   e«^   of    | 
which   has  a  distiiict  envelope.     The  fluid  in  the 
interior   of   the   Ig^datid  itself   ia   almost   always    | 
colourless  and  limpid,  but  the  fluid  in  the  enmoon    I 
cyst   in  which  the  hydatids  float  is   often  of  a    \ 
yellow  colonr.    The  Cananu  eenbralU  is  found  in    l 
the  brain  of  rarioos  ruminants,  and  girea  rise  to 
the  disease  in  sheep  known  as  'Uie  stagers.'  Wlien 
the  hydatid  occurs   in  the  fonrth   ventricle,   tlie    I 
animal,  instead  of  turning   round   and   ronnd   in 
one  direction,  springs  in  tBe  air,  and  this  variety    i 
of  the  affection  is  bonce  distinguished  by  German 
veterioarianB  as  da»  Epringen.      Whenever  any  of    I 
the  above  forms  of  hydatids  ore  swallowed  by  man  or 
the  lower  animala,  they  may  proceed,  iind«r  favour-    ' 
able  circiinutances,  to  be  developed  into  the  higher    | 
atagea  of  tape-worm.    Two  apecies  of  Echinooocciia    | 
ve  nsually  noticed,  namely,  the  E.  htmuim,  «^ch     . 
baa  been  occaaionaJly  met  with  In  the  brain  and 
abdmnen  of  man,  and  the  E.  mttritioranL,  which  is 
of  common  occnrrfnce  in  variona  parta  of  the  body 
of  the  pig,  and  aeveral  other  mMnnnU,  but  it  is    i 
by  no  means  certain  that  they  are  really  disliiict. 
llieae  Echinococci  do  not  become  developed  into 
tape-worms  unless  they  reach  the  intestinal  canal 
of  some  animal,  by  b^g  taken  aa  food ;   and  in 
ordinary  cases  of  hydatids,  consisting  of  Echino- 
cocci, the  cysts  and  their  contents  undergo  a  kind    I 
of  degeneration,  becoming  in  soma  cases  converted    j 
into  fatty  or   calcareous   matter,  while   in   ottier 
cases  the  contents  beoome  granular,  the  peculiar 
booklets  (which  will  be  described  in  the  article    i 
Tafe-woui)   which   occur   in   them,    and    which 
remain  unaltered  for  a  long  time,  revealing  their 
true  oiigirL 

The  so-called  acephalocytt,  or  oommon  globular 
hydatid,  which  sometimes  attwns  the  size  of  a  child's 
head,  is  probably  a  degenerated  or  abnormally 
developed  echinocoocus.  i 

Hydatids    aometiniea    occasion    so   little    incon-   1 
venienoe,  that  perBOoa,  in  whom  they  ai     " 
after  death,  have  not  suapected  any  di 

organ  in  which  they  are  fonnd.    On  other  o* ,   , 

they  grow  rapidly,  and  cauae  so  much  initstion  that 
suppuration  is  excited  in  or  around  the  common  sac, 
which  may  either  burst  externally,  or  into  a  mnoam   '■ 
canal  or  a  aerouH  cavity.     In  the  first  or  aecand    '. 
case,  the  hydatids  will  be  dischaned,  and  recovery   ' 
may  take  place ;  in  the  third  case,  Utal  inflammatMn 
will  ensue.    Little  can  be  done  for  the  beatment  ol 
this  aOection,  except  that  occasionally,  if  the  cyit 
is  near  the  surface,  it  may  be  carefully  punctnn^ 
The  means  of  preventing  the  affection  will  be  notaced 
in  the  article  Tapi-wohii. 

False  hydatids  are  simple  seroug  cys^  either 
occurring  alone  or  in  clust^s,  whose  mode  of  origia 
ia  not  distiiiGtly  understood.  Structures  of  Haa 
kind,  on  a  Bmall  scale,  are  common  in  the  choroid 
large  scale  ther  are 
arian  dropsy.    Xhcae 

occurrence  in  the  utu-us,  which  they  mi 
BDch  a  aize  as  to  simulate  pregnancy. 

HYDB,  an  important  manufactnriDg  town  id 
England,  in  Cheenire,  is  situated  seven  miles  east- 
south-east  of  Manchester,  and  about  the  aamr 
distance  aautb-«utoCUidhun.  Until  a  oomparativdv 
recent  period,  it  was  a  mere  village  ;  bnt  aince  the 
extension  of  the  cotton-trade,  on  which  it  munij 
depends,  it  has  rapidly  increased  in  aire.  Its  papa- 
labon  in  1871  was  14,223.  Beaidn  the  numeroa 
cotton-factoriee,  iron,  water,  and  print  work*  an 
carried  on.  Coal  abounds  in  the  neuhbonrlwod 
The  district  in  which  H.  is  ritnateaia  denady 
peopled,  and  is  furnished  with  abundant  means  vL 


\ 


tyCoogle 


HTD&-H7DRA. 


eommmicatioti,  b^  nalwa:r  uid  ettatl,  with  all  the 
importuit  tomu  m  the  Tionit;. 

HYDE,  EswARii.    See  Cu.RENiioir,  Earl  of. 

HYDE  PARK,  a  noble  enclosure  of  nearly 
400  acieB,  extending  from  the  western  eitremity  of 
London  to  Keniingtoa  Gardens,  which  detivea  its 
name  from  having  been  the  manor  of  the  Hyde 
belonging  to  the  Abbey  of  WeatmitiBtot,  It  became 
the  property  of  the  crown  on  the  dissolution  of  the 
monast^ies,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VUI.  A  canal 
or  sheet  of  water,  called  the  Serpentine,  although  in 
the  form  of  a  parallelonam,  was  made  in  iL  P., 
between  1730  and  1733,  by  order  of  Queen  Caroline. 
At  the  eastern  end  of  it  is  an  artificial  waterfall, 
constructed  in  1S17.    On  the  south  side 


barracks  of  the  Life-guards.  It  was  in  H.  P.  that 
I  great  Internationa  Exhibition  of  ISSI  was  held, 
aaystal"-' =  " ■"-    .-^ 


Intematioi 
in  a'Crystal  Palace  specially  erected  for  the  ocoasioo. 
We  do  not  clearly  leam  at  what  time  the  public 
began  to  have  free  admission  to  Hyde  Park.  But 
Ben  Jonson  speaks  of  the  ahow  of  ooachee  which  it 
presented  in  his  time;  and  we  know  that  it  was 
constantly  resorted  to  on  the  morning  of  May-day 
for  the  sports  comprehended  under  the  term  Maying. 
Till  the  middle  of  the  17th  a.,  there  was  a  part  of 
it  which  contained  deer.  Abont  that  tin^LC,  it  began 
to  be  a  place  for  ntcea  and  military  reviews.  It 
was  also  leaorted  to  for  dneU.  After  the  Restor' 
ation,   it   appears   to  have   become   the  favourite 

fromenade,  which  it  has  ever  sinco  continued  to  be. 
t  has,  however,  undergone  many  changes  of  bouud- 
ary  and  division  ;  a  large  part  of  Kensington  Gardens 
has  been  taken  from  i^  mIbo  an  angle  at  the  south- 
east comer  on  which  Ap«ley  House  now  stands. 

HTDEB  AI<1,  ruler  of  Mysore,  and  one  of  the 
greatest  Mohammedan  princes  of  India,  was  bom  in 
1728.  His  father,  who  was  a  general  of  the  Bajah 
of  MVBor^  afterwards  obtained  Bangalore  in  fief, 
and  both  of  these  honours  descend^  to  his  son. 
H.  A.,  in  1759,  dispoaaesaed  his  master,  allowing 
him,  however,  to  retain  his  title,  while  he  himseu 
took  that  of  dalva,  or  regent.  He  then  conquered 
Calicut,  Bednor,  Onor,  Cananor,  and  other  neiuh- 
bonring  stateg ;  and  in  1766,  his  dominions  iDcluded 
more  than  84,000  square  miles.  He  waged  two 
wars  against  the  British,  in  the  Hist  of  which  he 
was  completely  successful,  and  dictated  terms  of 
peace  under  the  walls  of  Madras,  but  died  before 
the  terminatioa  of  the  second,  in  which  he  was 
aided  by  the  French,  He  also  joined  in  a  native 
confederacy  for  tha  expulsion  of  the  British  from 
India.  He,  besides,  wiUiheld  the  coatomary  tribute  , 
from  the  Mahrattas  Jq.  v.),  and  waged  a  successful 
war  against  them.  ^  his  wars  he  displayed  ^eat ' 
resolntioii  and  perseverance.  He  died  in  1 782.  H.  A. : 
waa  lemarkabla  amongst  Asiatio  princes  for  the  | 
mildneas  of  his  character  and  govermoent,  and  was 
much  beloved  by  hia  people.  He  promoted  agri- 
culture, commeroB,  and  the  arts,  and  protected  all 
religions,  requiring  only  submissioa  to  his  laws. 
His  son  and  successor  was  Tippoo  Sabib  (q.  v.). 

MYDKKABA'D,  mora  properly  Haidaiubad 
(from  Haidar,  lioo;  and  bad,  town),  Uie  capital  of 
tha  Nizam's  Territories  (q.  v.).  stands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mussi,  in  lat  17°  22*  N.,  and  long. 
78°  37  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  1800  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  contains,  with  suburbs,  200,000  inha- 
bitants. On  the  oppositB  ride  of  the  river  is  the 
British  Beaideaoy,  the  stream  being  here  bridged  by 
nine  spacious  ar<:jiea  of  squared  granite.  Beeides 
these  erections  and  the  palace  of  the  native 
sovereigns,  we  may  mention  the  principal  mosque 
which  liaa  been  fashioned  after  the  model  of  the 
Kaaba  at  Mecca ;  while  at  the  meeting  of  the  four 
principal  itreets  of  the  city  rises  another  remarkable 


edifice,  with  four   minarets  resting  on   four  o 

nected  arches,  on  which  run  tiie  loor  couTCrgiiig 
thoroughfarea.  The  neighbourhood  abounda  with 
huge  tanka.  One  of  them,  close  to  the  British 
cantonmrait  of  Seounderabod,  measnrea  tiiree  milea 
by  two ;  and  another,  ilill  larger,  is  aaid  to  be 
twenty  miles  round. 

HYDERABAD,  the  chief  city  of  Sinde,  stands 
four  miles  to  the  east  of  the  left  Dank  of  the  Indus, 
in  Ut  26-  22"  N.,  and  long.  68°  28'  E.  Pop.  about 
24,000.  The  place  is  famous  for  the  manufacture  of 
arms  of  various  kinds,  such  as  matchlocks,  swords, 
spears,  and  shields.  As  against  a  native  force,  it  is 
tolerably  strong,  occnpying  a  somewhat  steep  height, 
;  and  having  a  rampart  flanked  by  round  towers. 

HyDHUM,  a  genus  of  fungi  (ffymemttnuMfct), 
having  the  under  aide  of  the  pHait  oovered  with 
soft  spines  which  bear  the  spores.     The  species  are 
pretty  nmnerous,  some  of    them  Britiidi. ;    among 
which  is  H.  re^ndvm,  more  common  in  some  port* 
of     the     contuienC     of 
Europe,  and  much  used 
as  an  esculent  in  France,  r 
Italy,  and  Germany.    It 
grows    on   the    ground, 
chiefly  in  pine  and  oak 
woods,  either  solitary,  or 
in  clusters  or  rings. 

HY'DRA,  Thb,  or 
Fresh-water  Polype,  is 
the  type  of  the  class 
Hydrozoa,  which,  with 
the  Abthozoa,  form  the 
sub-kingdom  CtelaUe- 
raia  of  recent  zoologists.  Hydnaiii. 

See  Zoopnvns. 

The  H.  possesses  a  gelatinous,  sub-cylindrical 
body,  which,  from  its  contractility,  undergoes  various 
alterations  of  form.  One  end  expands  into  a  disc 
or  foot,  which  adheces  to  a  leaf,  twigs,  &c ;  while  a 
mouth,  Eorronnded  by  ft  circlet  of  tentacles,  vaiying 
from  five  to  twelve  or  more  in  number,  is  situated 
at  the  opposite  end.  These  tentacles  are  eicaediogly 
contractile,  at  one  moment  thrown  out  as  long 
delicate  threads,  at  the  next,  drawn  up  into  minute 
wart-Hke  knobe.  Kumeroos  thread-oella  project 
from  their  snrface,  the  larger  oaea  possessing  a 
sheath  and  throe  recurved  darts  or  barbs,  and  tei^ 
minating  in  a  long  and  extremely  slender  filament. 
The  mouth  leads  into  a  capacious  cavity,  excavated 
throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  aiumal,  which, 
exclusive  of  its  tentacles,  sddom  exceeds  three- 
fourths  of  on  inch.    On 


autely  e: 


gthe 
.  ly  member  of 
the  class  Hydrozoa,  the 
body   is    found   to    be 

hranes,  ou  ectoderm  and 

an  endoderm,the  former 

constitnting   the    outer 

layer  of  the  animal,  and 

having  one  side  always 

in     contact     with     liie   . 

water,  while  the  other  Hydra: 

aide  is  in  close  contact  ^  Hjdra  Tnlgiitl.,  sttuhtd  to  a 

with      the      endoderm,      piece  ot  illck—s  yooai  potf pa 

whose  free  surface  forms      JL"'"'"'"*  ^.  "?  "^  ^ 

the  lining  of  the  gr^t      ,h,  £^  ,Cldii|^•,™  iw 

mtemol     cavity.       The      ihna  resnmd  turlii. 

food  of  the  H.  consists 

of  such  minute  hving   organisms  as  come  within 

the  reach  of  its  tentacles,  and  by  these  apparently 

fragile  threads,  which  the  animal  projects  like  a 

lasso,  cmttaceana,  worms,  Ac.,  are  snzed,   which 


tyCoogle 


EYDRA—HYDRiLTES. 


would  be  dwnud  at  firrt  mglit  nipuiiu  to  their 
Mpbv  4IL  atrangth  and  activity.  Ih«  tent  '" 
appear,  bomrrer,  to  poaiow^  throng  tke  aetic 
tb«  thread-oilli,  a  powerM  bennmbliu  or  panljniiw 
iiiflneiMa,  for  it  hat  been  obaamd  toat  lOft-bodied 
finiTnt't  vhich  hare  mooeeded  in  eeoaping  from  thi 
graap  (rf  Uie  H.  freqaentlj  die  tw7  ihcntly.  Hu 
prey,  when  niastered,  but  often  when  itill  alive,  k 
urnit  into  tlie  internal  oavity,  when  the  nutritiTe 
puti  are  ahaorbed  by  the  H^  while  the  iodige«tibl< 
portioDi  are  expelled  throogh  the  moath. 

Althoi^  tlie  H.  ia  nau^y  found  adhering  by  ita 
tnieolar  foot  or  diM  to  aulmieTged  leaves,  twigs,  dko., 
it  it  tut  mrmanemtly  fixed.  It  often  moro  on 
tortaoM  under  vatei  lonwwhat  after  the  manner  of 
ft  leecb,  both  uida  taking  apart  in  the  movement, 
and  occaaionally  the  diK  le  protruded  above  the 
water,  and  Uuu  acta  as  a  float. 

Bometinu^  etipecudly  in  the  autumn,  true  repro- 
dnctiro  organi  may  be  observed,  boUi  mole  and 
female  otnna  beina  usually  dtnated  on  the  nme 
<LniTn«l  Frc^Mgatioa  by  gemmation  ia,  however, 
the  moat  common  mx>da  of  incieaae.  Minnte 
tabttdaa  appear  on  the  body  of  the  permit  animal, 
irflioli,  aa  uEay  in(B«aM  in  aiza,  gradually  reaemhle 
it;  beccouing  pexforated  at  their  &ee  extnmity,  ai~  ' 
tentacles  graAially  being  formed,  ^ib  pedicle  1 
which  th^  ongjnata  by  degree*  beeomee  thinni  . 
and  finally  DveB  way,  leaving  the  yomig  H.  perfectly 
independeni  One  of  the  ouitt  remarkablB  pointi  in 
the  history  of  Uiia  animal  ii  ita  power  of  being  multi- 
plied by  mechanical  diviaion.  If  aH.be  cut  into  two, 
or  even  more  pieces,  eveiT  one  will,  in  time,  »» 
the  form  and  fonotions  of  the  original  animal. 

Sereral  Bpedefl  of  H.,  aooh  u  R.  viridit., 
valgaru,  H.  fiuea,  ke.,  have  been  described,  which 
dil^  in  site,  colour,  Ac.  When  living  hydne  are 
reaortid  from  the  water,  they  appear  like  minute 
specks  of  jelly,  which  qoicUy  reoovar  their  true 
form  on  bems  restored  to  their  proper  element.  The 
ereat  anthonty  on  these  singmar  »"''"»1"  is  Trem- 
bley,  whose  Mtmoint  pour  trrir  A  f AMotrs  <fun 
Genre  de  Polj/pe*  iTeau  douee  was  paUished  in  1?^ 

EYDBA,  a  fahulwu  moiuter  ol  the  audmit 
world.  Mid  to  have  inhabited  the  manhet  of 
Lenuaa,  in  Aigolis,  not  fu  fiom  the  sea-ooast. 
Aoootmti  vary  botli  ai  to  it*  orij^  and  >ppBannc& 
Some  make  it  the  ianu  of  ^n  and  the  Titan  Pallas, 
and  othen,  ol  '*''■•*■'■<"»  ana  Typhon.  It  ia  rapra- 
smted  aa  having  Mretal  he*di,  which  immediately 
grew  np  apin  at  dtea  aa  they  were  out  c^  The 
nnmber  ganeially  muod  from  teven  to  nine,  ihongh 

"'- 'iea  Dves  it  SUf,  and  oertain  hiatoriana  a 

1,  and  even  mor&i  Itt  moutluh  whioh  were 
~  I,  disohamd  a  tubtle  and 
motion  <u  thit  reptile  was 


hundred,  and  even  n 


The  destmotion  o 


HTDRA,  an  idand  of  Greece,  is  aitoated  ofF  the 
eaatem  shore  of  Uia  Peli^onneaa*  (now  tiis  More*), 
about  S  ndlea  distant  from  tlie  coaat  of  the  dqiart- 
msnt  of  Andis  and  Corinth.  It  it  about  13  miles 
long,  and  3  miles  broad,  and  hat  an  ar«a  of  38 


dsatitnte  ctTesemtic 


.  and  of  water.    On  the  norili- 


.  _.-, 1  of  which, 

the  harbour,  climb  np  the  Mde  of  n  hill.  The 
itreeti,  owing  to  the  uregiiUril?  of  the  site,  are 
tteep  and  uieven,  bat  remarkably  clean.  Thii 
town,  the  only  one  in  the  Island,  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  tiie  whole  of  Qreece.  Pop.  [1871)  11,684, 
who  are  chiefly  employed  in  cotton  and  silk  weaving 


33m 


imp,  an 


of  H.    was    uninhabited  tn  andent 


tunea.  The  nnolena  of  tiia  town  wat  formed  fay  a 
few  fishermen  and  peasant*,  Th(^  suflering  from  tbe 
oppreaaion  of  the  Turka,  croaaed  over  from  the  mi^- 
bouring  mainland,  and  were  afterwarda  followed  1^ 
crowds  from  AlbAoia,  Argolis,  and  Attioa,  in  the 
IGth  tnd  Ifltli  centuries.  In  the  Qiecian  war  of 
independence,  the  Hydrlote*  took  a  moat  actiro 
part ;  and  none  were  more  liberal  in  their  coatribn- 
tiont  to  the  patriotio  cause.  In  1625,  the  r"rnlrtiitli 
was  estimated  at  40,000,  and  about  that  One  the 
islander*  were  considered  the  riofaeet  in  the  aidii- 
pelsgo.  Theypoaaeuedciclntivelytiiecarrying'taa^ 
of  the  Black  Sea  Bui  the  Uediterranean,  and  badad 
to  England,  the  Baltic,  and  even  America^  Snes  the 
revolution,  however,  more  aaaeaaible  ports  have 
risen  to  be  the  central  of  Greek  oommerce,  and  B. 
has  considerably  declined. 

HYDBA'OIDS,  or  HrDaOQElf  ACIDS,  a  name 
giv,en  to  adds  in  which  the  acidifying  prinmile  waa 
supposed  to  be  hydrogen.  Bes  Amna,  Hie  flivium 
of  adds  into  tasaeidt  and  hudmoidt  beloi^  ntiiB' 
to  a  past  tJian  to  the  prettot  atate  of  chtnutby. 

HTDRAOOOUBa  are  those  aotiv*  pnrprtivM 
which  prodnee  a  great  flax  hoA  the  lnliaJiiiaT 
membruie,  and  which  coiueqaaitly  glva  lias  to  vor 
watery  stools.  They  are  ti  enreme  nse  in  some  ctf  tlw 
variebes  of  dropey,  bein;  the  most  dfootoal  Beans 
of  HiTniniahjng  tne  liquid  poured  into  IJia  **ii»*Iit 
tiisae  and  scions  eavitiet  ofthe  body. 

Jalap  (eepeoiaUy  when  combined  with  bUartnte 
of  potash)  and  elateriom,  a  medioina-wlilefa,  frooa  it* 
extreme  power,  must  be  given  in  voy  anall  dnan* 
(one-eighth  to  one-tbird  ■»  a  grain],  and  wHh  great 
caution,  are  perhapa  the  beat  examples  vt  thit  data 
id  purgatives. 

HYBRA'NOBA,  a  Kenui  of  plant*  of  Uie  natanl 
order  ffydrangeaeea,  which  many  botanists  make  a 
sub-order  of  Saxi/vagea,  distingnlthed  by  having 
4—6  petals,  6 — 12  or  many  stamena,  a  mora  or  haa 
inferior  ovary,  and  2 — B  styles.  Hfdmtgtaetm  an 
■hrubs  with  of  poaite,  or  sometimes  iriiorlsd  leave*, 
deetitate  of  stipules.  In  the  genus  H.  the  flowm 
are  tn  cytnee,  the  exteritn'  flowras  sterOe  and  dilated. 
Few  species  are  known,  and  they  are  chiefly  nativta 
of  the  touUiern  parts  of  Norui  Amerioa,  and  «t 
China  and  Japan.  The'apeoiea  popnlariy  kaowa  at 
the  HvDiujrau.  {H.  Aortaula),  is  a  nabv«  of  Ghiaa 
and  Japan,  and  hat  long  been  in  ooltivation  tho* 
at  an  omameatal  planC  It  was  intiodneed  Into 
Britain  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  in  1TS8,  and  apendily 
became  veiy  popular,  being  readily  propacated  l^ 
lajren  and  cuttings,  so  as  to  be  not  only  a  mwmrite 
green-house  plant,  but  a  frequent  omamert  of  ' 
cottage  windowa.  In  the  south  of  England,  H  ' 
endures  the  open  air.  It  seems  almost  tmpeaaiUe 
to  water  it  too  freely ;  a  laive  plant  ha*  beea 
known  to  recdva  wiu  advanuge  one  hmdnd 
galltmt  of  water  daily ;  and  in  bvooraUe  tarana- 
stance^  it  becomea  a  msimifieent  thmb.  A  iJant 
in  Devonshire  hat  had  IwO  large  cyme*  of  Ihnnn 
expanded  at  tmM,  The  llowen,  gencnlly  pink,  are 
aomelimea  Una ;  the  blne.oolont  it  owing  to  pecu- 
liaritiea  of  soiL  Peat  and  iron  ore  an  said  to  be 
produotiva  of  Una  flowen  in  die  Hydrangea. — B. 
Japonlea,  intradnced  into  Eunpa  fnm  j^)aa  by 
aiebold,  is  remarkable  tor  it*  vmy  larga  oymea  ol 
flowen. — H,  aloM  and  H.  guanyblia,  Amrneaa 
tpedea,  are  not  nnfieqnently  to  be  ssan  in  flower-  ' 
gardens  in  North  Amniea.  i 

HTDRATSS  an   snbstanon  In  whloh  a  d^    I 
cite  quantit?  of  water  it  chemicallT  combined  wHh 
a    d^nita    quantity    of   some   other   ooottr' 
Although  water  it  a  perfectly  indifferent  (nb* 
poesessmg  neither  acid  nor  basio  propertiei^  ' 


tyLiOogle 


HYDRAUUO  LtUEa  ASS  MOBTABS-HTDBn)^ 


Imhi,  and  tiiiu  Ibrmi  ibe  bodie*  termed  hydntca. 
Tkw,  when  an  mod  hM  onee  been  allmred  to  oom- 
Mne  with  mttr,  Uie  (otin  MptntuMi  of  the  water 


exunple,  we  distil  dQnted  •nlpki 
expelled  up  to  a  oerteiii  poiiit,  when  both  aoid  and 
water  are  dutdllad  togeUut'.  The  liquid  now  oon- 
taini  one  wniralent  of  water,  aad  one  of  add 
(HO;BO,),  ana  ia  termed  hydiated  sulphano  add. 
and  tiiii  sqniTalent  of  water  ooo  only  be  diaplaoed 
by  an  aqmralant  of  potuh,  or  eome  otherv  baie. 
Water  whicli  thus  mppliea  the  place  of  a  bau  in 
oombination  with  aoids  il  termed  bado  water. 
Hydrate  of  baryta  (BaO^HO),  hydiate  of  lime  or 
■laked  lime  (CaO,HO),  hydrate  of  uaqniozide  of 
iron  (Pe,0,,SEO),  and  hydrate  of  oxide  of  copper 
(CaO,HO|,  are  minilar  caice,  ezoept  that  here  the 
water  is  diaplaoed  by  an  odd  instead  of  a  baae. 
The  above  are  examples  of  hydrates  of  adds  and 
Oynnm  (CaOBO,,2HO)  u  an 
rate  of  a  salt. 

s  MORTARS.    See 


HTDBAULIO  PBB83,  oalled  alio  Bramah's 
Presa,  from  the  name  of  its  inventor,  depends 
on  the  prindple,  that  a  preuui«  exerted  on 
any  port  of  the  surface  of  a  liquid  is  transmitted 

direotioos.  See  Hvdbostaticb.  The  annexed  figure 
represents  the  essential  puts  of  the  machine,  the 

caTi^  of  a  strong 
metu  cylinder  E^ 
into  which  Uie  pis- 
)  toiiJ>,paSBea  water- 
tight through  the 
top.      A  tobe,  O, 
leads      from     the 
cylinder  to  a  force- 
pump  B;   and  by 
.    means  of  this,  water 
:  is  driven  trom  tho 
'tank   T   into   the 
f  cavity  F,  so  ai  to 
'   force    the    piston, 
tJ,  apwarda.    The 
piston  supports   a 
table  on  which  are 
placed   the   bales, 
books,     or     other 
artioles  to  be  pressed ;  and  the  rising  of  the  table 
presses  Idiem  against  the  entabUturs  AA,  which  is 
Lwtaiud  to   the  pillan  B,  B.      The  power  of  the 
bNSi  ia  teadUy  cdcnlated.    Suppose  that  the  pump 
has  only  ane-thoasaadth  of  the  area  of  D,  and  that, 
by   means  of  its  lever-hwidie,  the  piston   of  tho 
pump  is  pressed  down  with  a  fo«»  of  600  pounds, 
the  piston  of  the  barrel  wiU  rise  with  a  fonie   of 
one  thousand  Idmes  fiOO  potmds,  or  more  than  200 
tons.      The  rise,  however,  will   be   slow  in  pro- 
portion to  the  power.     The  enormous  multiplying 
power  giyen  by  this  machine  has  bean  employed  for 
a  great  variety  of  useful  purposes,  saeh  aa  com- 

truBsing  bales  of  ootton,  paper,  Ac,  aipreaHing  oils, 
ending  iron  plate*  and  tisj^  and  roiaing  weights. 
This  was  the  means  employed  for  laonchlng  tho 
Grtat  Eaalern  at  KliUwali,  and  for  raising  to  their 
position  the  tnbea  of  the  Britannia  Bridge. 

HYDRAULIO  RAM,  a  simple  and  conveniently 
applied  mechsoiim,  by  whioh  the  momentnm  or 
weight  of  falling  water  can  be  made  avnilable 
for  raisi^  a  portion  of  itself  to  a  considerable 
hdght.  &  the  annexed  figmra,  which  represent*  a 
section  of   Mont^lfier's   hydraolio  ram,  £  is  the 


reservoir  from  whiidi  tha  water  fslli,  BS  the  hd^t 
of  the  fall,  and  ST  the  horizontal  tabt  which  eon- 
dndis  llie  wata  to  the  engine  ABHTa  B  and  D 
are  two  valyea,  the  fonnsr  at  whiidl  closM  its 
cavi^  by  ssonndina  the  latter  by  desoanding ;  and 


tain  pdnt  by  a  knob  abore  mm.    'When  the  « 

is  allowed  to  desoeckd  from  tba  nssrrair,  sfter  fill- 
jDg  ^a  tuba  BBS,  it  rdihea  ont  at  the  ^Kvture  mn, 
11  its  velocity  in  desooidiDg  BBT  beoomes  so  great 
I  to  force  Dp  the  valve  B,  and  close  the  means  of 


thsvalvaD.   A 

portion  of  water 
being  admitted  ' 
into  the  vea- 
sel  ABC,  the 
impulse  <^  the 

colomn  of  fluid  is  expended,  the  valve*  D  and  E 
fall ;  the  openingat  D  bdng  thns  dosed,  and  that 
at  mn  op^ied.  The  water  now  roshca  ont  at  mn 
aa  before,  till  its  motion  is  again  stopped  by  its 
carrying  up  the  valve  'E,  when  the  opention  i* 
repeated,  the  fluid  impulse  opening  the  valve  at 
D,  through  which  a  portion  of  tl^  water  posiea 
into  ABC.  'nie  valve*  at  B  and  D  thus  alter- 
nately closing  and  opening,  and  water  at  evei^ 
Znmg  of  D  mokiiiE  its  way  into  ABO,  the  air 
rein  iAondeneed,  for  it  has  no  oommnnication 
with  the  atmosphere  after  the  water  is  higher  than 
the  bottom  of  the  pipe  FG.  His  condensed  air, 
then,  eierciiieB  great  force  on  tha  surface,  op,  of  the 
water,  and  raieee  it  in  Uie  tube,  FO,  to  a  height 
proportioned  to  the  elasticity  of  tiie  imprisoned  air. 
The  priudple*  of  the  hydraulic  ram  are  snseeptible 
of  a  very  eitensire  application.  In  well-eonttmcted 
rama,  the  mechanicsT effect  obtained  has  been  found 
to  be  about  f  of  the  energy  in  the  falling  water. 
For  railing  comparatively  small  qnantities  of  water, 
such  as  ore  necessary  far  the  supply  of  single  hooses, 
farm-yards,  Ac — where  water  at  the  lower  level  is 
plontifnl  and  cheap — the  hydraulic  ram  is  a  most 
useful  piece  of  mechanism.  Its  detuls  have  been 
eatly  improved  since  the  time  of  MontgotGer. 
UYD'RWM,  a  family  of  eerpenta,  sometimes  so 
defined  as  to  include  mimeioiu  fresh-wator  inokas 


whioh  are  not  venomous,  and  soinatime*  limited 
to   ymomous  lea-serpents,  inhabiting  the  Indian, 


tyCOOl^ll? 


HYDBIDE8— HTDEOCEPHALna 


OhineM,  uid  tropfoal  AnrtnliBn  . 
■BTpeoita,  fonning  the  geniu  HydrojMt  (or  Bydnu), 
■nd  othe^  genen  reoently  lepamtod  from  it,  have 
the  tail  oompremed  and  the  belly  keeled, 


abla.  for  the  laiss  Die  of  their  nual  shields ;  they 
tie  aenerally  <»  a  yeUowish-OTeen  colour,  Taried 
with  idaokiut  rin^  or  lozen^-uiaped  ipotl.  Their 
loDM  are  often  prolonged  mto  a  TeeerToir  of  air 
■a  1st  as  the  oraomeiLoemeDt  of  the  tail.  They 
are  often  fzam  tvo  to  five  feet  loag.  They  are 
frequently  Been  asleep  on  the  surface  of  t^  sea, 
and  are  easily  caught  in  this  oondition,  in  which, 
apparently,  they  often  fall  a  prey  to  shu4<s.  They 
are  supposed  to  live  oa  tinall  fishes  and  crustaceans. 
They  are  aometimes  fonnd  coiled  np  among  sea- 
weed on  the  shore,  and  am  much  dreadM  by 
fishermen.  In  aoma  places,  they  are  rety  ntunBrooa. 
One  species,  at  least,  is  esteemed  good  food  by  the 
Tahitiaiu.    More  ihan  fifty  spedea  are  hnown, 

HVDRIDES.  This  term  is  appUed  both  to  com. 
binations  o(  hydrogen  with  metala,  and  to  stmilar 
combinatioDs  with  ornnic  or  compound  radicals- 
Hydrogen  form*  hydridet  with  at  least  four  metala 
— TIE.,  anemc,  antimony,  copper,  and  potassium. 
The  first  two  of  these  are  the  well-known  gases, 
araeniuretted  hjrdrogen  (AaH.)  and  antimoninretted 
hydrogen  [SbH,).  The  hydride  of  methyl  or  marsh- 
gas  (C,H.3),  and  the  hydride  of  ethyl  [C,H„K), 
are  ezam^es  of  the  second  variety  of  hydrides. 

HYDHOCAHBONa    See  CiSSOHYDRoOKNS. 

HT'DSOOBLrE  (Gr.  Ajrfor,  water,  and  fate,  a 
■welling)  is  the  medical  torn  for  a  dropsy  of  the 
tunica  va^nali^  a  serous  membrane  or  sao  mvesting 
the  ttatia.  Hydrocele  oocura  as  a  smooth,  pear- 
shaped  iwelling,  flaotaating  wlien  pressed,  '' 
of  DMB  or  tendemeas,  bat  mid-'™'—  —" 
sliiAt  nneanneaa  from  ita  weight. 

The  quantity  of  senua  fluid  in  the  sa^is  niuall; 
from  ttx.  to  twenty  ounces,  but  it  occaaionally 
exceeds  a  hundred  ounces.  Hydrocele  may  occur 
as  a  result  at  acnte  inflammation,  but  it  moat 
oommonly  comes  on  without  auy  apparent  local 
osose.  It  is  most  frequently  met  with  about 
or  beyond  the  mid^e  period  of  life,  and  genersjly 
in  penons  of  feeble  power,  or  with  a  tendency 
to  goat ;  aometimes,  uoweTer,  it  oocurs  in  yonng 
ohiOren,  cither  in  Uie  same  form  as  in  adults,  or 
as  what  is  termed  amgaiiial  hydrocele,  when  the 
communication  between  the  tunica  vaginalis  and 
the  abdominal  peritoneum  is  not  oblit^ted,  as  it 
nonnallj  should  be. 

The  treatment  is  divided  into  the  ■paBialive  and 
the  euroftiv.  By  (he  fanner,  the  sui^eon  relieves 
the  present  annoyance  of  bis  patient,  while  by  the 
latt^  he  aims  at  the  permanent  removal  of  the 
disessa  The  palliatiTe  treatment  conaista  in  the 
use  of  sospenaory  >ifnH«go«^  evaporating  and  dis- 
cntimt  lotirau,  and  tapping  with  a  fi^  trochar. 


oaosmg   a 


T^ftBg  iddimi  gives  more  than  temporary  relief, 
the  swelling  usually  again  regaining  its  former 
balk  in  three  or  four  months. 

Tiui  oorative  toeatmeut  conusts  in  setting  up 
BufficiMlt  inflammation  in  the  tunica  vi^nalu  to 
deatroy  its  nndne  secreting  faonlty.  This  is  most 
commonly  done  by  the  inj^on'of  ttuotore  of  iodine 
into  the  sac,  la  by  the  paaaage  tA  a  flne  tetou  or  an 
iron  wire  (as  pn^osed  by  Dr  Simpson]  Uirougii  it. 

HTDBOOBTHAI'ns.  Under  this  term,  iriiich 
litenaiy]neMisual(rintAeJU<id,«n  indoded  three 
distiitct  diseasM — viz.,  aoate  hydiooephalua;  ohronic 
hydioeephalns,  and  sporiooa  hydrooephalua.  or.  as  Dr 
HatshaU  Hall  tanned  it,  hydrbce[Jiidoid  disease 

By  Aeaie  Hgdroe^AahiM  is  rignifled  inflammatian 


of  the  brain  as    it   naualfy  oocnrs   _ 

children.    The  name  is  not  a  good  one,  h 

merely  refers  to  a  frequent  effect  of  (Iw  dia , 

not  to  its  cause  xa  eaasnos ;  and  beoaiiM,  fortliBr. 
a  similar  effect  may  leanlt  bom  other  moriiid 
oonditioEis :  it  is,  howev^  so  muvenally  liopttA, 
that  it  would  be  inexpedient  to  ohange  ik  Hie 
disease  is  one  of  so  dangerous  a  nature,  that  it  i« 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  detect  it  in  its  earlieai 
stage,  and  evan  to  look  out  for  indioations  of  it* 
approach.  The  premonitory  aymphnns  (which,  faow- 
ever,  do  not  occur  in  all  caacs)  consist  chiefly  io 
a  morbid  state  of  the  nnfaritive  fonctions.      Tha 


ofiensive,  the  b     ,  „     . 

and  the  evacuations  nnnatnral ;  and  the  ''^^^'^  is 
heavy,  langnid,  and  dejected,  and  beoomea  eatlter 
fretful  and  irritable,  or  (bown- and  listUos.  BeaUesa 
sleep,  attended  by  grinding  of  the  tseUi  i 


frequent  sadden  i  ,  ^  .        . 

a  turning  in  of  the  thnnb  towards  the  palm  e^  Uie 
hand,  are  dso  important  premomtory  wainin^ 

After  these  symptoms  nave  lasted  for  t«na  d^ya, 
severe  pun  in  the  head  comes  on;  itis  generally  of 
a  shan>  shootmg  oharaoter,  recnrring  at  internla, 
and  often  during  sleep,  and  causing  the  child  to 
shriek  in  a  very  cbatscteristia  manner.  Coma  or 
morbid  drow^in^fls  now  snpervenea,  aod  tha  sfarid- 
ing  is  replaced  by  ntoaning.  Vomiting  is  a  frequent 
concomitant  of  this  stage  of  the  diseaae.  In  this 
fiist  stage  of  hydrocephalns,  which  most  oommoaly 
lasta  two  or  dree  dan  tlie  pnbe  is  atfti,  and 
the  symptoms  generally  are  taoiw  of  "~"'  — 
In  the  second  stag^  tiie  polst 
variable,  and  itften  slow.  Qfneral 
stiqxir  come  on.  The  li^t,  which  annoyed  ike 
child  in  the  fint  ^tue,  is  no  longer  a * 


annoyance ; 


B  pupiji  become  dilated,  the  power 
IS  imperiect  or  lost,  and  aqntntii^  is 
almost  always  to  be  observed.  The  litlie  |ial  iiail 
now  lies  on  his  back  in  a  drowsy  oondttiaB ;  and 
at  this  period  spasmodic  twitchings,  otmvnlsiaaa,  or 
paralysis  may  coma  on.  The  ercretions  are  paased 
unconsciously.  This  seooud  stsge  may  last  a  wedt 
or  two,  and  is  often  attended  by  deoaptdvB  appcar- 

tcgaining  the  use  of  ita  senses  for  a  day  or  twit, 
bnt  then  Teliqaing  iato  a  deeper  atopor  than  befots. 
The  symptoms  in  the  third  or  last  stag^  which  may 
last  only  a  few  hours,  or  may  extend  to  a  fcitei^it, 
are  very  siioilar  to  those  in  the  second,  except  Otat 
the  pulse  again  beoomss  very  rapid,  beating  aoaie- 
times  ao  qmokly  that  it  caa  aeavody  be  oonnted, 
and  gradiully  gets  mora  and  man  w«ak,  till  the 
patient  eijfares.  The  obanotttistio  ai^ManDoaa 
after  death  are  softening  of  tbe  oeotnd  put  of  tlia 
brain,  with  the  effusion  at  serons  fluid,  nraally  to  tlie 
extent  of  seveial  ounces,  into  the  veathoka ;  aad  a 
'  '  '  '  pcait,  in  the  shJ^  of  SDutt  ^nnala^ 
3en  the  membianea  of  tha  btaia. 
_  disorder  with  iriuch  aoate  hydro- 
cephalus can  easily  be  oonfoaiidad  ii  iniantik 
remittent  fever ;  bnt  wa  have  not  spaoe  to  aoties 
the  various  pointa  whidi  enaUe  as  to  dwetimiaBts 
between  these  two  complsinta.  Aoate  hydro. 
cephaiua  is  essentially  a  diaease  of  dlildhood;  tt 
scarcely  ever  ocean  after  tiie  twelfth  y«ar.  Half  I 
the  cases  that  occor  are  in  children  betwetm  thn*  | 
and  six  years  of  age.  I 

As  the  treatment  should  be  left  entdrdy  to  ^^ 
phyudan,  it  is  nonecessary  to  notice  it  f  orthei,  I 
to  state  tjiat  strong  sntit^ogistio  i 
ooU  to  the  head7  leeching,  and 
ipplied  in  the  first  stage  of  the 

three  C( 


^.-^SS^ 


vLiOOgIC 


BTDEOOEABIDEA— HYDBOOHLOBIC  ACID. 


Chrome  Hyd 


rydroetpAaJtu  ii  a,  perfectly  dirtiiiat 
acute  bydracepbalni ;  while  Qm  Utter 
ia  ma  inflammation,  the  former  is  a  dropay.  Id 
chnmia  b  jdrocephalnn,  a  watery  fluid  oollecta  within 
the  aknll,  before  the  bono  have  united  to  form  the 
salid  bnin-caae,  and  by  preianrs  ootwarda  caosea 
the  l>OD«a  to  separate,  uia  ioareasM  the  siie  of  the 

David  Monro  relatea  the  oaae  vi  a  ^iil  nx  years  old 
whose  head  measured  two  feet  four  lUohM  in  drcum- 
fecMice.  While  the  skull  is  rqndly  enlarging,  the 
bones  of  the  face  ^row  no  faster  than  wuS,  and 
the  mat  disproportaoa  ti  uze  between  the  head  and 
the  uee  la  at  ooce  diagnoetio  of  the  Hinrium  This 
dasher  sometimes  oommenoee  before  birth,  and 
abnort  always  in  esrly  childhood,  before  the  f<mtsn- 
elles  and  satnrea  of  uie  skoll  have  dosed.  In  some 
rare  Cues,  it  has  occnrred  later,  as,  for  example,  at 
leven  or  nine  years  old,  and  the  closed  sntntee  have 
opeoed  undo:  Ike  anranenting  preasnre.  Wlien  Ike 
antures  will  not  yieQ,  deatk  from  preMnre  on  the 
brain  apeedily  ensnea.  Moot  children  with  chronic 
hydrocepkalos  either  recover  or  die  in  infancy;  but 
a  few  siirvrre,  bearinztheir  complaint  to  adult  life, 
or  even  to  old  age.  Blindneas,  deafness,  palsy,  and 
idiocy — one  or  mora — are  commonly  aaeociated  with 
this  disesse,  bnt  occasionslty  the  intellect  and  senses 
are  anffidently  perfect  for  the  ordinary  reqmrementi 
of  social  life. 

The  treatment  may  be  attempted  by  internal 
remedies  or  by  Botgiaal  appliances.  The  medical 
treatment  mnit  w^tby  of  trial  oomdst*  in  the 
administration  of  dinretica,  pnt^tive*,  and  eneeially 
mercmr,  which  m^ay  be  given  in  the  form  of 
calomel  in  minute  doeaa,  and  applied  as  oinlmcait 
externally.  The  mrgical  eipedienta  are  bandying 
and  pnnctnring  the  head.  The  former  has  in  some 
cases  eflected  a  po-manent  core ;  the  latter  has  in 


ly  cases  eertauily  prolonged  life,  altbongb  the  dis- 
)  nas  finallT  oonqnore"'      "'    ''  '  " 

ible  after  the  bor 

(tiseano   oocasionally   ocea 
in   adTonaed  life,   after  enurgerai 


«  finaUy  oonqnored.     Neither  of  theee  m 
ilieable  after  the  bones  of  the  sknll  have  ouited. 
oocasionally   oceim   in   adnlt    or 


^     -,  paralyaiB,  and 
r  ot  unwillingnera   to  speak,  are  in  thi 
le  most  prominent  symptom*.    Dean  Swift's 
M  due  to  this  diaease,  ai  "  ' '  '  '   >  .  i   .i 


■jfi' 


hydrocephali 
often  been  : 

being  an  inflammatory  disease,  it  is  a  rtisnartn  of 
debifity,  and  is  due  to  a  defioieDt  supply  of  blood 
to  the  brain.  The  following  are,  aooording  to 
Watson,  Ha  dittinulive  charaetet*  of  this  spurious 
hydrocephalus :  the  pale,  oool  cheek ;  the  hslf-shnt, 
~;mudlesB  eye;  the insenaibia  pupil;  theintnmpted, 
igoii^  le^nratdon ;  and  the  stste  d  the  unolond 


kydraoephslns,  the  surfacA  tA  tha  footanelle  will  be 
coniwc  and  prominMit;  while  if  they  are  due  to 
spurion*  hydrooeidialus,  and  oiinnata  in  emptiness 
and  want  m  sapnTt,  IJie  fontanaDe  will  be  eoncave 
and  depressed.  The  remedies  in  tiiis  disease,  which 
readily  yjrida  to  tocataMsit,  an  nourishing  diet, 
■msll  dcaes  ol  wise  or  even  of  bnndy  in  snow-root, 
decoction  of  bark, 


HTDROCHLO'RIC  AOID  (tymbol,  HCSi 
equivalent,  36-0)  is  one  of  the  most  trnpoitsBt 
compoDnds  in  inorganic  chemistry.  If  the  two 
gasea  which  enter  mto  its  oompositian  (hydrogen 


and  chlorine)  be  mixed  in  eqnal  volumes,  they 
will  remain  withoat  action  upon  each  other,  if 
kept  in  the  dark ;  but  as  soon  as  they  are 
brought  into  direct  cunlif^t,  they  unite  with  a 
loud  ezploaion,  and  hydtwJiloriii  acid  ^  is  tba 
result.  The  princii»l  characters  of  tbw  gas  are, 
that  it  ia  ooloorless,  intensely  add,  irrespiiable,  and 
even  when  largely  diluted,  is  very  irritating  to  the 
lungs  and  eyee,  and  very  injurious  to  vwetatjon  i 
that  it  ia  heavier  tlian  atr  (its  apecitic  gravity  being 
1-2474,  air  being  taken  at  I'OOO) ;  that  it  can  be 
condensed  into  a  colancless  liquid ;  that  it  ia  very 
soluble  in  water,  and  that  it  Is  neither  oombuatible 
nor  a  supporter  of  combustion.    When  allowed  to 

-nto  the  air.  it  produces  white  fumes,  by 

ing  the  atmospheric  moiature.  If  the  air  be 
'"  dried,  DO  such  fumes  ore  spporeot. 
itioni  of  this  gas  in  water  form  Uie  add 
which  was  flrst  known  as  Spirit  of  Sait,  then  as 
Jtfttnofu  Add,  and  which  is  now  termed  Hydro- 
e/Uoric  or  CUorkydrie  Add.     A  aatorAted  watery 


previonaly  dj 


dissolved  in  S  equivalents  of  water.  It  forms  a 
colourlcea,  fuming  liquid,  which  acts  as  a  caustic 
On  heating  it,  the  gas  is  evolved  abundantly  until 
"~~  *«mperature  slightly  exceeds  212*,  when  there 
a  over  a  diluted  solaldon,  having  a  apeciflo 
gravity  of  I-I,  and  consisting  of  1  equivalent  of  the 
gu,  and  IB  equivalents  of  water.  It  is  to  these 
■olutioiia  of  hydrochloric  acid  that  the  tenn  kydro- 
chloric  add  is  far  more  commonly  applied  than  to 
the  gas  itaelL  They  possess  the  ordinary  ohanuiters 
ot  an  energetio  acid,  and  neutralise  the  strongest 
bases.  The  neutraluation  i^  however  not  in  con- 
sequence of  the  acid  combining  with  the  oxide, 
but  is  dne  to  Uie  simultaneous  decomposition  of 
the  add  and  of  the  oxide,  water  and  a  metallio 
chloride  being  farmed-  If  U  represents  the  metal, 
"-ereactionisaxpreMed  by  the  equation  MO  +  HOI 
MCI  +  HO.  All  metaU  vbidi,  at  a  red  heat, 
deoompoee  water,  also  decompOM  this  add,  and 
""IS  an  evolution  of  hydrogen,  the  reaction  being 
ressedss  fallows:  H -f- HCl «  MCI -t- K 
iydrochlorio  add  gas  i*  a  oomfflon  gaasont 
volcanio  product.  Pt«a  hydroohloiia  add,  in  a 
very  dilute  form,  is  also  a  constitnent  ot  the  gastric 

ice  of  man   and  animals,  and  pUys  an  essential 

irt  in  the  digestive  process. 

Commerdaf  vturiatic  Ofid — to  use  the  name 
employed  by  manufacturing  ohemiats — is  made  by 
beating,  in  iron  t^lindera,  common  salt  (ohloride 
of  sodium)  and  oU  of  vitriol  (hydrated  sulphurio 
acid),  and  condenaing  the  evolved  gas  in  water 
contained  in  a  sa-ies  of  stoneware  Wolfe's  Bottks 
(q.  v.],  the  reaetimi  being  explained  by  the  eqnatitm: 

CmT  +  H0,80,  -  Hcl  +  HaO,SO, 
This  commercial  add  may  contain  various  impuri- 
ties— as,  for  example,  iron  (which  gives  it  a  bri^t 
deep  ydlow  colour),  the  chlorides  of  sodium  and 
arsenic — the  latter  being  derived  from  the  oil  of 
vitriol — sulphuric  and  aulpburous  adda,  chloritic^ 


.  'tbe  acid  should  leave  tio 
hen  evaporated  ;   on  saturating  it  witli 

,  it  should  rive  no  predpitate  of  oinde 

of  iron;  volphuTetted  nydn»en  ahoidd  produce  no 
turladity  in  it,  which  would  be  the  case  if  arBeni& 
free  chlraine,  or  sulphuroui  acid  wera  present ;  u4 
im  dihitioii  with  three  at  four  timea  its  bi^  of 
water,  no  white  dond  of  sulphate  of  baryta  should 
be  produced  by  the  addition  of  chloride  ol  barium.' 
The  prcwnee   of  hydrochloric  acid,   or  of   the 


lyCuui^le 


HTDEOOOTYLR-HTDEOCTAHIO  ACH). 


Mlabl«  xUoridM  in  wlvtioii,  nu^  ba  deteotad  . 
ths  addition  ot  •  fav  drop*  of  s  lolntion  of  nitrate 
of  ailrar,  which  oootsionE  the  formation  of  a  whits 


Liquid  hydroohlorio    add  (under  the 


iraa  composed  of  cluoriae  and  hydrogen. 

In  many  of  their  propertiea,  the  analogona  adds, 
hjdrobromic,  hjdroiBuorio,  and  hTdhodio  aoidi 
resemble  hydrochloric  add. 

HYDROCOTYLB,  a  genns  of  nmbellilerons 
plants,  having  simple  umbels,  entire  acute  petals, 
and  fruit  of  two  flat  orbicular  carpets,  wiUi  five 
more  or  less  distinot  threadlike  ribs,  and  no  vittn. 
The  speoiea  are  nameroaa,  genvaUjr  more  or  leu 


Hmh  Femiywort,  or  White-tot  (ffydrodXyb  nUnarU). 


aqnatio,  wid^  distributed.    One  only  i< 

of  Britain,  S.  vaigarit,   i  ' '  '    ' 

'  '    called  Utxt 


mmhy 

, , _       PhwYwoet  from  the 

ortuolar  leaTea,  and  sanietima  WUte-rot,  81ieep» 
bam,  Flowb-irort,  Ik.,  from  a  notion  that  it  is 
injarious  to  sheep  whioh  eat  i^  causing  foot-rot  or 
flake- worm— eflects  rather  to  be  aKtnbed  to  the 
monh;  situations  in  vLich  it  grows. 

HYDEOCYA'NIO   ACID    (C,N,H    or   Cy,H), 
known  bIbq  as  PrusBic  Add,  from  its  having  oeen 
first  obtained  by  Scheele,  in  1782,  from  the     '    ' 
knowa  u  Prussum  or  Berlin  Bhia, '-  "•  -'" 
interest    to   the  chemist,  the  obyna 
toxiailogiBt.    We  shall  notice  (1)  lbs 

ite  medicin*]  value,  and  (3)  its  actdoi , , 

uid  its  antidote*. 

1.  lit  Cfeniirtro.— Pure  anhydrous  h^droojaiiie 
add  is  a  liinind  volatile  fluid,  with  a  speciflo  gravity 
of  MVJ  at  04*  F.  It  bdli  at  80*,  and  toUdiflea  into 
a  eiystalline  mass  at  6*  F.  Its  volatility  is  so  gmt, 
that  if  a  drop  be  allowed  to  faD  on  a  pieoe  of  ^asa, 
part  of  the  acid  becomes  frozen  by  the  oold  praduoed 


la  of  almost  eqnal 
d    the 

17- <^ 


»  oil'of  bitter  almonds.  It  boms  with  a  whitiah 
flame,  reddens  litmo*  paper  sUghtly  (its  add  pro- 
pertiM  being  feeble),  and  ii  very  soluble  in  water 


and  aloohoL  Fore  hydrocyanic  add  may  be  k^ 
unchanged  if  excluded  bom  light,  which  oocaaions 
its  deoomporition,  and  the  formraon  of  a  brown 


kinds  of  stone-fruit,  from  the  leaves  and  Sowan  ot 


obtained  by  tlie  reaction  of  concentrated 
hydrochloric  add  on  cyanide  of  mercury. 

The  preparation  of  the  dilute  add  ia,  however,  of 
much  greater  practical  importance.  The  London, 
Edinburgh,  Dublin,  and  United  States  phanna- 
oopoeias  agree  in  recommending  that  it  sHould  be 
obtained  by  the  distillation  of  a  mixture  of  dilute 
(olphuric  acid  and  farrocyanide  of  potassium  {known 
also  as  pruBitate  of  potash).  The  distillate  should 
contain  nothing  but  hydrocTanio  add  and  water, 
so  tiiat,  by  the  addition  of  more  water,  we  can 
obttdn  an  add  of  any  strength  we  pleaae.  Some- 
timea,  however,  a  Moond,  or  even  a  third  distil- 
The  dilute  acid  of  the  PA. 


nther  more, 

per  cent  ;  while  what  is  known  aa  Soheele's  add 

H  very  variable^  but  aveiagaa  4  per  cent,  al  tbe 

adtmumaacid. 

The  ordinary  teats  for  hydrocyanic  add  ar«  I, 
tlie  peculiar  odour ;  2,  the  nitrate  of  rilv^  taat — 
Uiere  being  formed  a  white  predpitata  of  cjanide 
of  diver,  which  ia  aoluble  in  bouing  nitaio  acid ; 
3,  the  fbnudaon  of  Pmsaian  blue,  by  "^■i'"g  to  tfas 
fluid  nnder  examination  a  solution  of  some  pioto- 
and  per-ialt  of  iron,  bv  then  saturating  wiUt  canatic 
prtash,  and  fintJly  addii^  an  excess  of  hydmcUooc 
add ;  when,  if  l^droi^yanic  add  is  prMoat,  we  have 
a  oharaotenstio  Una  predpitate ;  4,  the  an^drar 
tea^  which  ia  the  best  and  moat  accurate  that  has 
yet  been  dJsooTend.  Let  the  snspeoted  liqaid  ba 
addulated  with  a  few  dropa  of  hydrochloiio  acid ; 
place  it  in  a  watoh-glaas,  and  let  a  Moonl  watch- 
glass,  moiatened  with  a  drop  of  a  solution  <it  hydn»- 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  be  inverted  over  it;  after  a 
few  minatet,  let  the  upper  gLua  be  removed,  and 
the  moistened  spot  be  gently  dried.  The  whitiak 
film  which  is  kot  ma^  oonsist  merely  of  ealphar; 
whmi  hydroeyanio  aad  is  preeeat,  it  rontiata  of 
snlidtoeyMwte  <4  ammonia.  Let  this  lendne  ba 
treated  with  a  drop  of  a  weak  solution  of  perehloride 
of  iron,  when,  if  indiocyanio  add  wm  pteasn^  a 
blood-red  tint  i»  dsveloped,  whioh  diaiMean  on 
the  additJoQ  of  one  or  two  drop*  «t  a  Mdiitinn  of 
irroaive  subhrnate.  ^lit  is  known  as  liebig'a  teat 
S.  It*  Mtdkmal  Usea— We  an  indebted  to  tbe 
Italian*  for  ths  intandnotion  of  hydrocTanio  acid 
in  the  matcm  medioaj  aad  it  was  flnt  eiiqilo7«d 
at  the  begiiuin^  c(  the  preaent  c«ntury.  Thne  an 
no  easei  in  iriuch  it  is  to  Mmo«*bfe  aa  in  thoas 
t^eotiMU  e(  the  sionMoh  in  which  pain  ia  a  Irilii^ 
ton,  »•  in  gastn^nia,  water-hraah,  aad  ia 
of  inteue  Toniting.    Httiea  it  ia  oflin  oaef  ol 


&ilad.  In  pufanooary  iisnUTia.  it  doea  not  ni  rwlia  m 
ths  ^ood  eAolB  that  were  lorm^  aaoibed  to  it ; 
but  it  ia  amnntimns  oaeful  in  allayiaa  irmwrntdir 


a  somenmsa  oaetiu  m  allayiag 
eoogh.  It  baa  baan  csnploved  with  M* 
ofaroDte  skin-diaeaasB,  to  allay  pain  and  inita 

re  of  two  drachms  a  w  dilute  aeid  (of  S 
pec  cent.  atnngUi)  with  half  apint  of  Toee-watw,  se^ 
half  an  oonce  of  rectified  spirit,  fbnns  a  good  lotkiL, 
When  given  internally,  the  avenge  daw  u  frmn  3  to 
"  ~  '  ima  ot  the  2  pv  oenl  dilute  add,  three  or  bar 
a  day ;  it  moat  be  administered  in  aoaia  ntilk 
vahiale,snch  as  rinqde  water,  ot  oiange-Sower  water. 
3,  Ai  a  Poiton. — Hydiocyaaio  aoid  ia  one  at  oar 


t.Google 


HTDEOOYAKIO  ACID— HTDR0DTNAMIC3. 


mort  etuagfUo  poiMni,  »nd  ia  freqnently  earployei 

botli  in  morder  knd  inicide.  When  a  tmaU  poiBon- 
oiu  dose  (aboaC  half  a  drachm  of  the  2  per  cent 
acid)  has  been  taken,  the  fijEt  symptonui  are,  weidit 
and  pain  in  the  head,  with  confnmon  of  thoui 
giddmeoi,  nausea  (and  lometiniM  vomitiiig),  a  qnick 
polne,  and  Ion  of  muscular  power.  It  death  result, 
thil  is  preceded  hj  tetanic  spaams  and  involuntary 
evaouatioti*.  When  a  iargt  dose  has  been  taken 
{as  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce  of  the  2  per  cent 
acid],  the  symptoiuB  may  commence  instantaneonily, 
and  it  ia  seldom  that  their  appearance  ia  delayed 
beyond  one  or  two  minutes.  'When,'  says  Dr  A. 
S.  Taylor,  *  the  patient  has  been  seen  at  this  period, 
he  has  beisn  perfectly  insensiMe,  the  eyes  fiiad  and 
olistening,  the  pupils  dilated  and  ouafTected  by  licht 
the  limbs  flaccid,  the  skin  cold  and  covered  wiUi  i 
cUmmy  penpiration ;  there  is  convulsive  respiratioi 
at  loDS  intervals,  and  the  patient  appears  dead  ii 
the  inuimediate  time;  the  pulse  is  imperceptible 
and  the  respiration  is  slow,  deep,  gasping,  and  some 
times  heaving  or  sobbing.'  liie  patient  snrvivei 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  according  to  the  doae. 
According  to  Dr  Loaadale,  death  has  occurred  as 
early  m  the  tteond,  and  aa  late  aa  the  forty-JifVi 
minute. 

The  part*  apecificaUy  affected  are,  the  br^n  and 
the  apinal  syatem.  The  affection  of  the  respiistory 
system  aeams  to  be  due  to  the  influence  ol  the  acid 
on  thoM  parts  of  the  nervona  syatem  from  which 
the  re«pii«tory  organs  derive  their  nervoua  power. 
Tb«  immediate  cauae  of  death  is,  in  meat  cases,  the 
obatractioiL  of  the  respiration ;  bat  in  some  cdSee, 
the  stoppage  of  the  heut's  action. 

Where  U»  fatal  action  is  so  rapid,  antidotes 


the  level  of  the  liqiud  to  C.  Now,  the  velocity 
acqoired  by  a  body  m  falling  is  aa  tM  time  of  Uie 
(alii   but  the  ipace  fallen  through  being  ta  the 


cold 


rapid, 
omparatLvely  little  value.    Chlorine,  a 
affiiaion,  and  artificial  respin 


are  tho  moat 
the  treatment.    The  firet  two 
■honld  be  oied  with  great  caution,  and  only  bv 


rtitioner.     Cold  affuaion  o 


1  asseitod  that  its  efficacy  ia  almost  certain 
when  it  ia  employed  before  ue  convulsive  i 
of  poisoning  is  over,  and  that  it  is  often  succc 
even  in  the  stages  of  inaenaibility  and  paralyua. 
Artificial  respiration  (aee  Eisfibation,  Abtuioul) 
should  never  be  omitted.  Dr  Pereiia  states,  that 
he  ones  recovered  a  rabbit  by  this  means  only, 
after  the  convulsions  had  ceased,  and  the  animal 
was  apparently  dead. 

HTDROpTHA'MIOB  treftta  of  the  laws  of  the 
motion  of  liquids  ;  the  Sow  of  water  from  orifices 
and  in  pipes,  canals,  and  rivers ;  its  oscillations  or 
wavss ;  ud  its  reaistanoe  to  bodies  moving  through 
it  The  term  hydraulics  ia  sometimes  applis  ^  ^ 
tho  same  aubjecta,  from  the  Greek  word  a 
a  pip&  Tb«  sppUoktion  of  water  as  a  moving 
power  tanoB  the  practical  pwt  d  the  snbjeei— In 
what  fotlowa,  tbe  iUnstntiMU  kre  mo«t^  taken 
from  the  cms  of  water,  b«t  the  priiwiples  astab- 
lislMtd  we  true  of  liquids  in  gmeraL 

JMhk— If  three  apertures,  S,  C,  E,  are  mode 
at  Cerent  heights  in  the  side  of  a  vewel  (fig.  1) 
filled  with  water,  the  liquid  will  ponr  out  with 
greater  impetaceity  from  C  than  from  D,  and  from 
S  than  from  C.  The  velod^  does  not  inoreaee 
in  the  aimple  ratio  of  the  depth.  The  «aot  Uw  of 
dependenos  is  known  as  the  theorem  of  Tcerioelli ; 
the  demonstration  is  too  abatrusa  for  introduotion 
here,  but  the  law  itself  ia  aa  foUowi ;  '  Partida  cf 
fiaid,  on  ittidng  front  on  opcrftrrs,  pomim  the  tame 
dtgree  o/DthcUy  a»  if  Ihey  hadfal^/ndg,  in  meao, 
from  -a  htlgitt  enuti  to  Ii*  didanct  of  IA*  i^jfi^f  <^ 
the  fluid  laove  the  eentre  of  lAe  apa-ture.'  The  jet 
tma  C,  tat  inetau*,  hsa  ths  same  vsloaity  m  if 
the  particles  composmg  it  had  fallen  in  vacuo  from 


Fig.  L 

sfuiirs  of  the  time,  it  follows  that  the  velocity 
acquired  is  ss  the  sqnare  root  of  the  apaoe  fallen 
thniogh.  In  the  firtt  aecond,  a  body  faOs  16  fe«t, 
and  acquires  a  velocity  of  32  feet.  If  £,  then,  ia 
16  feet  below  the  levd,  a  jet  from  E  fiowi  at  the 
rate  of  32  feet ;  and  if  D  ia  at  a  depth  of  4  feet,  the 
velocity  of  the  jet  at  D  will  be  half  the  velocity 
of  that  at  E,  or  16  feet.  In  general,  to  find  the 
velocity  for  any  given  heif^t,  multiply  the  height 
by  2  X  32,  and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  pro- 
duct. This  rule  may  be  expressed  by  the  formula 
/i*  in  which  v  signifies  the  velocity  of  the 
g  the  velocity  given  by  gravity  in  a  aecond, 
feet,  and  h  the  height  of  the  water  ia  the 
reservoir  above  the  orifice.  This  laat  qnantity  is 
technically  called  the  lieod  or  charge. 
That  this  ilieoiy  of  the  efflux  of  liquids  is  correct, 
ay  he  proved  by  experiment.  Let  the  vessel,  MB 
g.  1),  have  an  orifice  situated  as  at  o ;  the  water 
ight  to  issue  with  the  velocity  that  a  body  would 
acquire  in  falling  from  M  to  the  level  of  o.  How, 
it  IS  established  m  the  doctrine  of  Projectiles  (q.  v.j, 
that  when  a  body  is  projected  vertically  upward 
with  a  certain  veloci^,  it  ascends  to  the  same 
height  fr«n  which  it  would  require  to  fall  in  order 
to  acquire  that  velocity.  If  the  theory,  then,  is 
correct,  the  jet  ouvht  to  rise  to  the  level  of  the 
wat«r  in  the  vesaef  at  M.  It  is  foond  in  reality 
to  fall  short  of  this ;  but  not  nuwe  than  can  be 
accounted  for  by  friction,  the  reaistanoe  of  the  air, 
in  endeavouring 


by  the  side  of  the  ascending,  ten  inohes  of  head  of 
water  may  be  made  to  give  a  jet  of  niue  iDOhea.  A 
stream  of  water  spouting  out  horizontally,  or  in  any 
oblique  direction,  obeys  the  laws  of  projectiles,  and 
moves  in  a  psn^tolai  and  the  lanoe  of  the  jet  for 
may  Eiven  velocity  tu>d  angle  of  direotion  may  be 
cahndated  preoiBa^  as  in  projsetilea.  The  range  of 
horizontal  jet*  is  reBdil]|  determined  by  pnwtioal 
geometn'.  On  AB  desoriba  a  semioircle ;  from  D, 
Uie  oriSce  of  the  jet,  draw  DF  perpendicular  to 
AB,  and  make  BK  equal  ta  twice  DF  ;  tbea  it  can 
be  proved  by  the  laws  of  falling  bodiea  and  the 
properties  of  the  circle,  that  the  jet  must  meet  BL 
IB  tbe  point  K.  If  BE  is  equal  ia  AD,  the  perpen- 
dicular EH  is  equal  to  DF;   and  therafore  a 


U  BE 

-  "    — -    "  "    "  '  'i? 

will  have  the  same  range  as  tliat  from  D, 
perpendiculars,  CO,  drawn  from  the 
middle  point  C,  is  the  greatest ;  therefore,  the  jet 
from  C  has  tbe  longnt  ponible  rmga. 

Ths  area  of  the  orifloe  and  the  velooity  of  the 
flow  being  known,  it  >■  eaa^  to  calculate  the  quantity 
-"■■ — id  in  a  ^veo  time.    Thus,  suppoee 
sqiuue  inch,  and  the  velocity  20 


bolizedtgCoOgl 


ETDEODYNAMICa. 


le«t  ft  Mcond,  it  u  erideot  that  there  iaanes  in  ft 
teconil  ft  cylinder  or  n  piiinn  of  water  1  tquarc  inch 
in  aection  and  20  feet  loag.  the  content  of  wliich  ia 
1  X  240  =  240  cuhic  incbeii.  In  any  given  time, 
then,  •■  three  minutea  (=.t80  aecondii),  the  di>- 
chuse  ii  240  X  180^  43,200  cubic  inches. 

Jt  has  u  jet  been  uiaumed  that  the  water  in  the 
Teaael  or  reaerroir  ii  kept  conatiuitly  at  the  utne 
height,  and  that  thus  the  velocity  ia  constant.  We 
have  now  to  consider  the  case  of  a  veescl  ollon-ed 
to  empty  itself  through  an  ori£ca  at  the  bottom. 
As  the  surface  of  the  water  sinks,  the  velocity  af 
the  discharge  diminishes  or  is  retarded ;  and  when 
the  vessel  is  of  the  same  area  from  top  to  bottom, 
it  can  be  proved  that  the  velocity  is  uni/oi-mly 
retarded.  Its  motion  follows  the  same  law  as  that 
of  a  body  projected  vertically  upwards.  Now,  when 
ft  motion  uniformly  retarded  comes  to  an  end,  the 
■pftce  described  ii  just  half  what  the  body  would 
have  passed  over,  had  it  gone  on  uniformly  witii 
the  velocity  it  hsid  at  the  outset.  Therefore,  when 
the  vessel  has  emptied  itself  in  the  way  anppoeed, 
the  quantity  discharged  is  half  what  would  have 
been  discharged  had  uie  velocity  been  nnifonn  from 
the  beginning. 

The  '  Contradion  of  (ht  Veia.'—'Whea,  by  means 
of  the  area  of  the  opening  and  the  velocity  thus 
determined,  we  calcuhtte  the  number  of  cubic  feet 
or  of  gallons  that  ovghl  to  flow  oat  in  a  given 
time,  and  then  measure  the  quantity  that  actually 
does  flow,  we  find  that  the  actual  flew  foils  short 
of  the  theoretical  by  at  least  a  third.  In  fact,  it  is 
only  the  central  port  of  the  jet,  which  approaches 
the  openiji^  directly,  that  boa  the  velocity  above 
■tateiL  The  outer  particles  approach  from  all 
sides,  with  less  velocity ;  they  jostle  one  another, 
OS  it  were,  and  thus  the  flow  is  retarded.  In  conse- 
quence of  thia  want  of  imiformity  in  velocity  and 
direction  unong  the  component  iayem  of  the  jet. 
as  they  enter  the  oriGce,  Uiere  takes  place  what  is 
called  a  '  contraction  of  the  vein  '  [vena  contracta) ; 
that  is,  the  jet,  after  leaving  the  orifice,  tapers,  and 
becomes  narrower.  The  greatest  contraction  is  at 
ft  distance  from  the  orifice  equal  to  half  its  diameter ; 
and  there  the  section  of  the  stream  is  about  two- 
thirds  the  area  of  the  opening.  It  is,  in  fact^  the 
'  section  of  the  contracted  vein_  that  is  to  be  taken 
aa  the  real  area  of  the  orifice,  in  calculating  by  the 
theory  the  quantity  of  water  discharged.  If  the 
wall  of  the  venel  has  considerable  thickness,  and 
the  orifice  is  made  to  widen  gradually  inwards,  in 
the  proportions  of  the  contracted  vein,  the  stream 
data  not  suBer  contraction,  and  the  area  of  the 
orifice  where  it  la  narrowest  may  be  taken  as  the 
ftctiul  area  of  discharge. 

Adjittagt*.-^lt  has  as  yet  been  supposed  that 
the  issue  is  by  means  of  a  simple  opening  or  hole 
in  the  side  or  bottom  of  the  vetael ;  but  if  the  flow 
takea  place  through  a  short  tube,  the  rate  of  dis- 
charge is  remarkMdy  affected.  Throngh  a  simple 
openmg,  in  a  thin  plate,  the  actual  disdiftree  is  only 
about  M  per  cenL  of  the  theoretical ;  through  a 
oylindrical  conducting-tube,  or  adjutage,  as  it  is 
wled,  of  like  diameto',  and  whose  length  is  four 
timet  ita  diameter,  the  discharge  is  A  per  cent. 
The  effect  is  still  greater  If  the  discharge-tube  is 
made  conical  both  ways,  first  contracting  tike  the 
contracted  vein,  and  then  widening.  The  effect  of 
a  condneting-tube  in  increasing  uia  dischai^  is 
ftccuunted  for  by  the  adhesion  of  the  water  to  ita 
aide*,  which  widens  out  the  coliunn  to  a  greater 
area  than  it  would  natnrally  have.  It  has  thus  a 
tendency  to  form  a  vacnum  in  the  tabe,  which  "*- 


like  s 


vessel,  than  in  the  side  on  a  level  with  the  bottom. 
If  the  discharge-tube  is  made  to  project  inwards 
beyond  the  thickness  of  the  walls  ol  ^e  veaeel,  the 
velocity  is  much  impeded,  owing  to  the  opposing 
currents  produced  by  the  water  approaching  the 
Opening. 

Pipu,— When  a  conduit  pipe  is  of  any  canai' 
derable  length,  the  water  issues  from  it  at  a  velocity 
less  than  that  due  tO  the  head  of  water  in  the 
reservoir,  owing  to  the  resistance  of  friction.  With 
a  pipe,  for  instance,  of  1 J  inch  in  diameter,  and  30 
feet  long,  the  discharge  is  only  one  half  what  it 
would  be  from  a  simple  oridce  of  the  some  diameter. 
The  rate  of  redaction  depends  upon  the  diftmeter 
of  the  tube,  its  length,  the  bendings  it  undergoes, 
kc  The  resistance  to  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes 
does  not  arise  properly  from  friction,  as  understood 
of  solids,  but  from  the  adhesion  of  the  water  to 
tho  sides  of  the  pipe,  and  from  the  coheaion  of  ttie 
watery  particles  among  themselves  ;  it  makes  little 
difference,  therefore,  whether  on  earthenware  pipe, 
for  instance,  be  glazed  or  not.  Largs  projections 
form  an  obstacle ;  but  mere  rouchneas  of  anrface 
is  filled  up  by  an  adhering  film  of  water,  which  is 
aa  good  as  a  glaze.  The  resistance  incrtaaea  greftUy 
wiui  the  narrowness  of  the  pipes.  Engineers  have 
formnlas,  deduced  in  great  part  from  experiment, 
for  calculating  the  discharge  through  pipes  of  giveD 
length  and  diameter,  and  with  a  given  head;  but 
the  subject  is  too  complicated  for  introdnction  here. 
If  watu*  flowed  in  a  conduit  pipe  without  friction 
or  other  obstruction,  so  that  its  veloci^  vere 
always  equal  to  that  due  to  the  head  of  vrater, 
there  would  be  no  lateral  or  bursting  preeatue  cat 
the  walls  of  the  pipe ;  and  if  the  pipe  were  pierced, 
the  water  would  not  aquirt  out.  Accordingly,  with 
a  short  tube  or  adjutage,  which,  instead  C>f  obstfuct- 
ing,  increases  the  fiow,  there  is  not  only  no  iBteia] 
outward  pressure  on  the  walla  of  the  tube,  bnt  there 
is  actually  a  pressure  inwards.  If  a  hola  it  made 
in  the  wall  of  a  cylindrical  adjutage,  A  (fig.  S),  and 


the  one  end  of  a  small  bent  tube,  t>c,  ia  i™ |^«j 
in  the  hole,  while  ita  other  end  is  dipped  in  a  n  i  aai  I 
of  water,  V,  the  water  will  be  sucked  up  the  taht, 
shewing  the  tendency  that  the  odjutaffe  has  to  fona 
a  vacuum.  Bnt  when  the  velocity  of  diacharge  ia 
diminished  by  the  friciaon.  of  a  long  pipe,  or  bj 
any  narrowing,  bending,  or  oUier  obstruction  in  tlw 
pipe,  then  that  portion  of  the  wessure  of  the  h^ 
of  water  that  is  not  carried  off  in  the  disehane, 
becomes  a  bursting  preMore  on  the  walls  of  aw 
pipe.  Thia  pressure  is  uneqaat  at  differmt  parts  cf 
the  pipe.  At  the  end  e,  where  the  water  issocs  bca 
and  unobstructed,  it  ia  next  to  nothing  and  gradn- 
ally  increases  towards  the  reservoir  at  d,  when  it 
is  equal  to  the  differenoe  between  the  head  ol  w>tn 
in  Uia  cistern,  and  the  head  doe  to  the  vsloatT 
with  which  the  water  i*  aetoally  flowing  in   tl»» 

pipe.     The  principle  now  explained  a —    '- 

the  fact,  thftt  pipes  often  bant  or  bwii 
the  motion  of  tne  water  in  them  bemg 

SSmnet  of   Waltr  (o   Budut  menng  thv^k 


hyGoOgle 


&n>so>FLnoRio  aoid— htdbogen. 


it. — TluM  i>  gncUy  aftoted  hf  Hm  ih^ia  of 
hodv.  iriuch  OD^t  to  lutve  ■]!  iti  niriaoel  obli. 

directiim  of  the  motion.    When  >  t^linder 

■tea  in  fnmt  ir   "  ""  — '""'" "~"  "" " " 

iaonly  one-Iulf  wtut 
wiiwtee  in  m  i^uia  lorface  a* 

tion  H  mn  eqiiil«ta«l  cone,  tbe  reeigtonce  ie  only 
one-fonrth.  If  •  globe  ii  eat  in  halTse,  mnd  a 
cylinder,  whoea  lengUi  and  the  diameter  of  whoes 
uie  ere  each  eqnal  to  the  diameter  of  the  slohe, 
il  fixed  between  them ;  thii  cylinder  with  hemi- 
•pherical  endi  ezpeiiencea  leei  leeiitanoe  than  the 
^be  alime,  tiia  diminution  beina  about  one-Gfth 
of  the  lenitance  to  the  globe.  Abo  the  naiitanGti 
jmaeMee  is  ■  hi^ier  nbo  tlian  the  limple  one  of 
the  vehwity.  One  part  of  the  reaietance  aiiaea  from 
the  mnaentam  that  the  bodj  has  to  give  to  the 
mtor  it  dispUceo.  Moving  at  a  certain  rate,  it 
diaplatxs  a  eertajn  qnaotitjr ;  moving  at  twice  that 
rate,  it  diaplacee  twiOBtheqaantit;r"  "" '^ — 


ire  of  tl 

il  tfaoe  Dot  merel;  donliled,  bat  qnadzupled  or 
■qnared.  SisuUl'ly,  when  tbe  velocity  is  tripled,  the 
resiituioe  arisinx  frtan  the  mmple  diaplacement  of 
water  becomea  nine  times  an  great.  Another  part  of 
the  naiitauce  of  liquida  to  Mdiea  moving  in  them 
is  owinK  to  the  coHeaion  of  the  particles,  which  have 
not  to  be  thrown  aside  merel;  aa  separate  grains, 
but  to  be  torn  asunder.  In  addition  to  this,  when 
the  velocity  ia  cooaiderable,  the  water  becomes 
heaped  up  in  front,  and  depreesed  at  tbe  other 
end  from  not  having  time  to  close  in  behind,  thus 
CMUinc  an  excess  oE  hydroetatia  presiure  against 
the  direction  oC  the  motion.  Owing  to  the  com- 
bination of  these  causes,  the  raal  law  of  the  increase 
io  ioveatiaite,  and  the 
not  a  litue  discordant 
See  Watbr-poweb,  Wavis. 
HTDRO-FLUCmiC  ACID.  See  Fluokini 
HVDBOOBN  (evmbol  H,  eqaiv.  1),  so  called 
frnn  the  Qreek  wnds  kyder,  water,  and  gauUIo,  to 
generate,  ia  an  elementu?  substance,  which  eiista 
m  the  fcnm  of  a  pemument,  oolouriesa,  and  inodor- 
ous gas.  One  of  its  most  rtrildng  peooliaritiee  ia 
its  specific  gravity,  it  being  the  lightest  of  all  known 
bodies.  Aaauming  the  weight  oi  a  given  volume 
of  atmoapherio  air  to  be  1,  the  weight  of  the 
■ame  volume  of  hydrogen  nnder  similar  conditions 
u  IKI692;  hence  hydrogen  ia  I44  times  li^^ter  than 
atmoaphcric  air ;  while,  on  the  other  hnnd,  it  ia 
241-573  times  lighter  than  platinum,  the  heaviest 
body  known.  Its  refnctive  power  is  gi  ' 
that  of  any  other  gas,  and  ia  more  than 

Kit  as  that  of  atmoapheiic  air.  It  is  co! 
t  is  to  s^,  it  is  capable  of  combiniDg  with  oxygen, 
and  derelopiiu  li^t  Bad  beak  W^hen  a  lighted 
taper  is  paseminp  mfa>  an  inverted  jar  of  hydrogen. 
the  gaa  bums  quietly  with  a  paie-blne,  aca>«ely 
liiil&  flame,  and  the  taper  is  eitingnished.  The 
flame  only  occurs  at  tbe  line  of  janctioii  of  the 
hydrogen  and  tbe  external  air.  If  the  hydrt^n  be 
roizad  with  ur  or  oxygen  prior  to  the  apphcation 
(j  the  taper,  the  whole  miitare  ia  nmultaneonaly 
inflamed,  and  there  is  a  lond  explosion,  which  u 
most  violent  when  2  volnmea  of  hydrogen  are 
mixed  with  1  volume  of  oxygen,  or  with  6  volumes 
of  atmoapherio  air.  The  ^drogen  and  oxygen 
in  these  oases  oombioe  to  fram  watery  vapoi 
or  steam,  which  suddenly  expands  from  the  hi^ 
tonpersture  attendant  on  the  combustion,  bnt 
immediately  afterward*  beoomea  condensed;  this 
condensation  oaosea  a  partial  raennm,  into  which 


.  and  by  the  "'I1'tmh>  of 
ita  partidea,  ^oduoea  the  report.  At  otdioaiy 
temporaturee,  water  diasolves'  rather  lees  than  2 
—  oent.  of  ita  volume  of  hydrogen.  It  is  one  of 
.__  (aw  sasea  irilioh  lias  never  yet  been  liqneflod. 
Pure  hy£ogen,  thou^  it  caimot  support  life,  ia  not 
poiaonooi,  and  when  mixed  with  a  sufficient  qoaa- 
tity  of  atmospheric  air  or  oxygen,  may  be  breaUied 
Cor  some  time  without  inconvenience. 
Hydrogen  does  not  posaeas  very  marked  cheniosl 
opertiea.  The  only  lubstanceB  with  which  it 
mbines  directly  at  ordinary  tempemtorea  are 
chlorine  and  oxygen.  Eydn^en  and  chlorine,  mixed 
together,  and  eijioBed  to  direct  sunlight,  combine 
with  explosion  ;  m  diffused  daylight,  they  gradually 
unite ;  but  in  the  dark  do  not  act  on  one  another. 
Hydrogen  and  oxygen  do  not  comlune  spontaneously 
even  in  direct  siumght,  but  rcqaire  the  presenoe  of 
a  red-hot  solid,  of  flsjne,  or  of  spongy  platinunL 

■"■  •■ 'ly  stated  that  hydrogen  does  not  exist 

pure  or  uncombined  state,  but  Bunsen 
_  presence  in  variable  proportions  in 

the  gaeea  evolved  from  the  soIfatarBS  of  Iceland, 
and  it  will  probably  be  detected  in  other  localities 
where  similar  geological  relations  hold  good  In 
combination  wiui  oxygen,  as  water,  it  not  only  forms 
.  very  considerable  part  of  the  earth,  and  of  the 
.tmosphere,  but  enters  largely  into  the  structure 
if  every  animal  and  vegetable  organistn.  It  is  an 
essential  ingredient  of  many  inflammable  mineral^ 
such  as  coa^  amber,  and  petroleum  ;  and  of  certain 


enters  int«  the  composition  of  a  large  number  of 
manufactured  substaDcea  and  products  nsed  in  tbe 
arts,  medicine,  kc,  aa  for  instance,  sal-anunouiac, 
starch,  sugar,  vinegar,  alcohol,  oleflant  gaa,  aniline, 
indigo,  morphia,  strychnia,  hydro<^nio  acid,  io. 

There  are  namcrous  waya  in  which  hydrogen  may 
be  prepared,  but  the  usn^  and  moat  convenient  pro- 
ceaa  ia  by  the  action  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid  on  imc 
About  half  an  ounce  of  gnnnlated  zinc  ia  placed  in 
a  retort,  and  a  dilute  acid,  ^repwed  by  gradnally 
f 'iriig  an  ounce  of  oil  of  vitriol  with  aix  ouncea  of 
eold  water,  is  poured  on  the  line.  Hydromn  gas 
is  rapidly  evolved  in  great  abundance,  but  the  £st 
]K>rtionB  should  not  be  eoUaoted,  since  tbey  are  mixed 
with  the  atmospheric  air  which  was  contained  in 
the  retort.  The  rest  of  the  gaa  may  be  oollected 
in  the  ordinary  way  over  water.  In  this  process 
the  zinc  takes  oxygen  from  the  water,  and  forms 
oxide  of  zinc,  which  combines  with  the  sulphuric 
acid,  forming  sulphate  of  zinc,  which  remains  in 
solution,  while  the  hydrogen  of  the  decomposed 
water  eacapea.  The  reac^n  is  shewn  in  the  for- 
mula, Zn  +  EO.SO,  .=  ZnO,SO,  +  HI  A  precisely 
similar  reaction  ensuea  if  we  use  iron  in  place  M 
zinc,  but  in  this  case  the  sss  ia  generally  leas  pure. 

Eydrcgcu  ^u,  under  the  name  of  combuatibte  air, 
was  obtained  in  the  16th  c  by  ParacelBos  by  treating 
certain  metals  with  dilute  acida,  and  waa  more  Or 
leas  known  to  Boyle  and  othera  ;  but  Cavendish,  in 
hia  paper  on  'Factitious  Airs,'  published  in  the 
Traiuaciioai  ^  the  Royal  Soddy  tor  176G.  waa  the 
firet  to  describe  accurately  the  properties  of  this 
gas,  and  the  methods  of  obtainiog  it ;  hence  he  is 
usually  mentioned  ss  ita  discoverer. 

HYDaOQEIf.  BiHoziDE  or  (symb.  E0„  equiv. 
17).  is  a  colourless  liquid  of  a  i^rupy  consiatencc^ 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  l^iC  (water  being  1), 
and  a  peculiar  odour,  something  like  that  of  very 
dilute  chlorine.  It  Ueachea  Vegetable  colours,  and 
when  applied  to  the  tongoe  or  tbe  akin,  produ 


a  white  spot,  and  excites  considerable  pain.  From 
the  readiness  with  which  it  gives  off  its  oxysen, 
it  is  a  powerful  oxidising  agent.     The  method  of 


h.CoogI' 


HYDK0ORAfHT>-HYDB0PAXHT. 


ipliOBted  and  difficnlt.  Thii 
ducoTsred  in  181S  bv  llienMd,  who 
liwd  water.  Dr  B.  W,  Kicluu^l■<m, 
tu  aninent  London  pbjnoUn,  hu  Imtelj  exunined 
its  Tiloa  ^_  Bolnticm]  m  %  tbanpautio  amt,  and 
lua  found  it  to  be  (4  extreme  tue  in  Juxnwig- 
ooiwh,  in  oertun  fornu  ot  AvamttiMm,  lud  (u  a 
pkUutiTe)  in  the  Inrt  (taget  of  eonnunption. 

HTURO'GRAPHT  (Or.  hj/dO-,  water,  j/ra^ift-, 
to  write)  a  a  description  of  the  Burftce  waten  of 
Uie  eartli,  partitinlaTly  of  the  bearings  of  coaata, 
□f  wutentii  aonndinga,  iaUuds,  ahoals,  to.,  and  of 
anythinK  the  knowled^  of  which  maj  be  useful 
fcHrpnrpoMscf  aavintion.  It,  consequently,  inoludea 
the  eonstrvotioa  ol  chart*,  nspa,  ftc,  in  which 
tbeM  paitiinilan  are  detailed.  It  is,  in  fact,  to  the 
M*  wut  geography  is  to  the  land.  The  fLnt  step 
in  the  enntion  of  hydro^^phy  into  ■  edenoc^  was 
made  in  the  ISth  c  by  Henry  the  Navigator,  who 
was  the  flnt  to  eonitmct  a  lea-chart  worthy  of  the 
name.  Among  the  maritime  nations  of  Europe,  it 
is  now  made  a  matter  ol  prime  concern ;  the  hydro- 
gi^ihic  office  being  an  important  branch  of  the 
nanl  administration.  The  head  of  the  hydrographic 
department  in  the  British  tervice  is  osually  a  cap- 
tam  in  the  royal  i;avy.  The  ofBoen  surveying  in 
different  part*  of  the  world  lend  their  obaervatioiis, 
soundings,  &0, ;  and  it  is  the  btuineu  of  the  hfdro- 
napher  to  oonsolidate  these  into  availabls  maps. 
The  hydiopapher  t«ceiTei  £800  a  year  in  addition 
to  his  balf-p^'  !■'  proof  of  the  value  attached  to 
these  Adnin^  chart*  among  the  marine  of  " 

land  and  even  id  foreiga  naSons,  it  may  be 

tiooed  that  many  thouund  charts,  besides  books  of 
sailinK  direddons,  aie  sold  annaally. 

HyDBOUANOT.    SeeDmMinoir. 

HYDBOXAiriA.    See  Fzlligsa  and  SinciDc. 

HTDBO^ETEB.     See  Akbouktrb. 

HTDBOMY8,  a  genus  of  rodent  quadmpeds,  of 
Um  family  3luriJa,  of  which  there  kre  only  two 
known  speoM,  Tory  similar  to  one  another,  oativaa 
of  Tan  Diemen's  Land.  They  have  two  iuoison 
and  four  mc4ara  in  eaoh  jaw.  They  are  called 
BiaTXB  Bats  in  Van  Diemen'e  Land ;  are  nootomal 
and  very  shy  ;  inhabit  the  banks  botii  of  fresh  and 
salt  water,  aol  swim  weU.  The  largest  ipecias  is 
twioB  ths  size  of  ■  oommon  rat.  One  of  them  has 
the  beUy  white,  the  other  yeUow, 

HYDROTATHY,  or  HYOHrNIC  MEDICINE, 
arly  termed  the  Wi.TKB  Cdbje,  Under  the 
of  Baths  and  Bathing  (q.  *.),  an  aoeoont  has 


popularly 
head  of  1 


been  given  of  the  bath  in  Bcneral, 

—■ iserving  health.    We  havenere  to 

its  manifold  uses  as  an  engine 


oombination  of  hraemo  appuanoea  which  gatm  to 
make  up  hydiopa^y  as  at  pie«ent  practUM.  (In 
accordanoa  with  the  plan  followed  in  other  cases  of 
the  kind,  tiie  Tiew  exhibited  it  that  of  an  adherent 
of  the  system.) 

The  efficacy  of  water,  in  the  core  of  numerous 
fonns  of  disuse,  has  longbeen  recognised.  Water 
was  largely  em^yad  by  Hjiipocratea,  the  '  Father 
of  Medidne,'  more  than  SSOO  years  ago,  in  the 
treatment  of  many  kinds  of  disease;  and  along 
with  a  refuted  diet,  and  an  implicit  belief  in  the 
vis  mtdicalnx  Itatunt,  it  appears  to  have  formed  the 
chief  element  in  his  medical  armoun*.  Horace  has 
enshrined  the  memory  of  Antonins  Musa,  the  hydro- 
patiuo  phrsioiaD  ol  the  Emperor  AnjgiutDS  (Epist 
L  IS).  Both  Celtoa  and  QaleD— who  flourished, 
the  one  abont  60  yean  Kft,  and  the  other  in  the 
2d  (b--spaak  bTonraUy  in  thsiT  writings  of  the 
asa  «f  water  in  ths  car*  of  disease,  reganling  it  as 


ol  hu^  valne  in  the  twtmaii  of  Mote  eomnlsiata, 
partmlarly  of  {even.  Throne^toiU  the  lliddle 
Ages,  likewiast  many  ^i^iiiciaDa  of  nsms,  inctadjng 
Astint  sad  Panlna  .£gineta,  and  the  moM  «d«- 
bnted  Psnedant,  wws  advooatsa  of  tha  raosdial 
nrtnss  ol  wateri  all  ot  thsm,  howsw,  hanng 
fsith  in  its  nsss  in  ths  tteatmsnt  nthcr  of  aoots 
than  of  ohzonio  disoidsrs*  In  1738,  Niobhi  ^  ■■■'**"*  ^ 
a  NeapolitsiL  physician,  paUishsd  a  leftmed  toeatue 
<m  the  subject.  In.  oar  own  ooonby,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  ISth  c.  Sir  John  Vlcvsr  and  Dr 
Baynard  made  a  lann  use  of  water,  l^sir  a>4|Miit 
work,  danosninatad  AyeftroIaaMta,  or  ths  'Bistavr  of 
Cold  Bathinfl,  both  Aneiant  and  Modsni,*  it  ra[data 
with  qnrintTaamiag  awl  pnotacal  shiewdMaa  and 
BBgsrai^.  Bat  the  most  able  and  soieatifia  wnKna 
the  ohur  trMtiaea  that  hare  amssnd  in  Thtftiin 
on  the  anbJMt  of  the  water  tMatansnt,  U  the  woA  of 
the  wsll-bunm  Dr  Cnme  (q.  t.),  the  buonphcr  ol 
the  poet  Bomi,  poUithad  m  1797.  and  eotitied 
Jttduai  Jtqiord  on  lie  BfteU  of  Wattr,  OM  amd 
WanM,  M.  In  this  imk,  Dr  Carrie  Noraanaends 
the  ctAi  affusion  in  ty|dias  and  oUisr  fsrcra,  and 
giret  practioal  diraotaont  in  regard  to  dM  caaaa 
and  tlu  times  whsn  it  may  be  osed  with  adTan- 
tage.  Fkninent  phystciaiu  of  the  pnaent  day  have 
admittad  that  these  visws,  to  fsr  as  they  went,  woe 
as  seivitifia  in  principle  as  they  were  nov«l  in  their 
application ;  but  the  practice  founded  on  than  was 
ooQsidered  too  daogerona  by  Carrie's  oontempcwmriea, 
and  fell  into  speei^  neglect.  It  is  worthy  ef 
remark,  that  Omria  appears  to  hare  limitnil  hia  nse 
'  water  to  aoiite  ailments  exclusively. 
We  have  thus  seen  that  up  to  the  beginning  of 
century,  I^  sMna  of  these  iriia  em^t^ad 


exteimal  appKoatian  in  tile  varioas  ftsma  of  the  bath, 
but  never  in  all  the  manners  otmibined.    13iia  oen- 
binatiOD  was  first  effected  by  the  original  gesuna 
Vincent  Friessuits,  a  Silesian  farmer,  wiui  wlu 
began  a  now  era  for  the  water- 
we  are  told,  to  his  sooosBsful  tav 
one  bodily  mjnry  which  he  had 
—won  that,  about  the  year  1820^ 
fOrtifled  in  his  ctmvictions  as 
powera  of  water  as  to  devote  himaelf  to  enpl^  it 
medically  in  the  cure  of  othara.    Beginning  wiA  the 
external  apphcatica  irf  water  for   *"*'''^    ''  — 


intaodneiDg  t 
tialUthsi^al 


the  doochs  bath,  putial 
ing  prooees,  the  wet  sheet,  togeUier  with 
ooiHous  drinkmg  of  purs  water.  In  addition  te 
water  in  all  these  forms^  he  inslrted  on  tiw  nine  <j 
ezerdse,  diet,  Iresh  air,  and  mental  rspoMt  in  the 
cure  of  disease ;  thna  praotioaUy  ealling  to  his  aid 
the  entire  rssoarcea  of  hygiene,  and  sttablishiag 
by  a  simple,  yet  thoroughly  or^nal  ecmhination, 
lothing  lesB  thMk  a  new  system  of  medical  treat 
nent.  As  to  the  snoeeM  whioh  attended  riiiMsiiili'ii 
practice,  it  is  a  historioal  fact  that  of  7S0O  p-tiintr 
who  had  gone  to  Griifsnberg  lor  advioa  and  treat- 
ment, up  to  the  year  1841,  or  within  the  spaos  at 
about  20  yean,  there  had  been  only  39  deaths  and 
some  of  these,  aocarding  to  the  re^try  uf  the 
Austrian  police,  *had  died  before  commenciug  the 
treatment,  while  some  others  WM«  reported  In  a 
forlorn  state  before  anythinc  was  attempted.'  It  is 
to  be  regretted,  however,  that  the  foandsr  «f  the 
new  system  was  not  himtelf  an  adooated  phy^statt, 
so  that  he  could  have  tmdecstood  bottar  to*  ^sil- 
osophy  of  his  own  nraotaos,  and  anl^nad  it  mors 
oorractly.    He  would  not  hava  taUsd  bis  QitaBa  ths 


LL|IL.JL,'C00glC 


HTDBOPATOT. 


'Wrtar-cnw,'  i 


a,'  »  name  MMotifiMlly  ona-iidad  mnd 
....  and  UunfoM  ■»'■'—*■"£     It  ia  aqnaU^ 

tob«i«gratt«dthatnao7ollh*iMiMdiat-'-" 

of  PriManit^  irloU  dwtitiite  U  hb  i 
■igMitj  and  gBMDi,  ahanM  h*Ta  ba«n 


.  _.  ._.  andsoMfal, 

In  tpite  at  all  dmvbaoka,  bomrar, „ 

merit*  of  li;tlrapathv  st  langth  callad  to  ita  dafenoe 
many  men  of  atanoii^  in  tba  piofWon,  wha 
aHowing  lor  Mme  irf  ita  earfy  flxtamTuuKwi,  itOTpad 
foitii  to  exidaiii  it  adantincally,  and  ro wad  it  on 
tha  aee^tanea  of  thair  brathran ;  and  from  their 
adroeaej  baa  apnmg  up  in  Eu^d  a  achool  of 
brdmpathk  pbyahattu,  the  pb^wophy  of  wboae 
1^  ol  toeafanant  we  ahall  now  briefly  deaoriba. 

FbyBdIfwy  teadm  nt,  that  the  variona  oreaiu 
of  our  bodwi  eaaoot  be  kapt  in  a  healthy  Aate 
-withont  the  obaervano*  of  eertyn  remlatioDa  oallad 
the  ^inaiy  'Lawa  of  Haahh.'  Wbv  tbeae  ar« 
broken,  tiie  T«aitlt  to  tlie  offender  ia  dianaan  in  one 
<rf  ill  mai^  foma.  Until  the  appaaranoe  of  hydro- 
pathy, phyaieiaua  atbampted  to  coneot  tiu  aril  thna 


eanaed— udthe  n«st  majori^do  ao  ataU~-by  Hie 

on  of  one  or  other  of  tba  dmgt  which 

to  form  the  medleal  Tepertoiy  known  m  the 


adminiiteation  o 


phannamptma ;    and  the  argument  on  which  tiiia 

praetieo  haa  been  baaed  ia  the  rery  aimj^e  one,  that 

e^ierieDM  baa  proved  the  mediciiie 

be  effioaoieoa  in  a  large  proj 

Hydtopatbr  procaeda  aoeon 

method.    UkinsaaUacent 

firat  proponndad  by 

own  atnrinp  after  _  .  _  .  _  

that  really  core  Uie  patiimt  when  he  ia  onred, 
fnnotion  of  ait  being  mainly  to  remove  obatacua, 
the  hydropathic  pbyiiciati  avoid*  nnng  all  means 
with  lirtiaaa  effect*  M  i*  not  thonnglily  oonvaiaant, 
or  which  may,  at  leaat,  interfere  with  nature'* 
own  operation*.  Bence,  as  a  mle.  he  eschew*  the 
nse  of  drug*,  and  betakea  bimaelf  to  thcae  mote 
simple  natoisl  omenta  which,  in  their  totaU^.  receive 
the  name  of  hygiene.  The  conditions  of  health,  as 
nnfolded  by  physiology,  may  be  briefly  stated  to 
consist  of  &re  necessary  reqmremaDta— air,  ezerciM, 
water,  diet,  and  nervous  rapoe&  Tbeae  are  ondeni- 
"ibly  essential  to  the  "  ~    ''  '     '" 


e  of  them.  Iliia  propootion,  irtii^i  may  ba 
~d  as  axiomatic,  fotana  the  atarttng-potnt  of 
■  •        .a.    AiwtJedthat 


regai    .     

hydiopathy  in  the 

certain  asenciea  are  necaaaary  to  the  pKaervation  of 
health,  the  hydropathic  jmndple  ia  rimp^  this, 
that  the  very  aama  agencua,  iiuinitely  modified  of 
coorse  according  to  the  reqmremoitn  of  each  parti- 
cular cases  ""I  genenUy  much  intenaiflad,  aie  not 
onlf  dke  aafeat,  but  I7  far  the  anreat  means  of 
conns  dironio  diaeaae ;  or,  to  pot  it  more  correetly, 
are  the  beat  meaneiriudi  can  be  brought  to  nature* 


aayinffthi 

£((  when  they  Bie  need,  not  for  Uiapreaervationof 
«Ith,  bat  the  onre  <rf  diaeaas ;  or,  m  other  worda. 


instance,  one  <^  the  moat  powerfol  hydn^thio 
agencies.  livery  one  know*,  althooxh  bat  few  act 
eystematicall;  on  the  knowledge,  that  a  certain 
amonnt  of  eierdae  is  neeeeeai^  to  maintain  tbe 
body  in  health  t  the  bydropal^  doctrine,  aocord- 
ing1y,_  i^  that  hi  tbe  cute  ^  dmnie  diaeiws  this 
ezereiae  must  be  intenrifled— ioereaaed  to  tbe  fall 
extent  which  tba  patient's  aboigth  will  wanant. 
80,  main,  aa  to  the  naa  of  vstor ;  *  aertain  amoont 


__.  bberal  oae  of  ue  aam 

el^aent  in  both  w»y*  te  neciMwy  to  the  cure  0 
dtasaaa  Tbe  nader'i  epedal  att«ktun  i*  called  i 
thia,  irtndi  in  fact  i*  tbe  ncy  keiiM^  of  the  bydro- 


wbich  it  idle*.    Diaeaaee  mav,  for  gencnl  puipoaaa, 

two  great  otMsee :  those  m  which 

the phyrician  t* aaUedoa  to  lower 


be  divided  into  two  g 


atai^ard  of  health ;  and  tboae  in  wHcb  the  object 
of  his  endeavour*  is,  on  the  other  band,  to  aasist  in 
dmatmg  to  the  aame  etaodard.  In  the  former 
category,  raose  themaelvea  all  ttioaa  diaoaaca  which 
an  nuued  by  a  platluric  or  inflammatory  type — 
by  an  ovcoplna  of  mal-directed  atien^  in  the 
the  latter,  thoaa  diatlngmshed  by  a 
^  diminution  in  the  vital  powwa.  It 
may  ba  inly  affirmed,  that  to  mctify  both  tbeae 
abnorm^itiea,  and  to  realon  the  eqnilibrinm  «l 
health,  ia  tbe  graat|objeet  of  mtdioal  treatment. 
The  ndinaiy  jHactioe  aeeka  to  achieve  thi*  object 
mainly,  in  both  instinrra.  by  meane  of  drag*, 
respectively  adapted  to  the  two  dasaea,  and  t'"-^''^g 
to  lower  in  the  one  caae  and  to  exalt  in  the  other. 
Tbe  bydzopathio  praotaoe,  with  the  aame  object 
view,  employe,  aa  already  stated,  the  natnral 
mediea — air,  exartsae,  water,  diet,  and  repoaa, 

plainta,  and  the  whole  ordei  of  diaaaaaa  raaaing 
nndsr  tiie  former  of  the  diviaiona  ]un 
the  element  whioh  enaota  by  far 
m*  part,  and  tlie  application  of 
it  moat  aervioaabla  in  tbeae  eaae*  is  the  lotf  aUet 
<w  poab  Indeed,  the  diwoveiy  br  Prieeanita  oi 
tbia  apidicatioD  of  water  was  parhapa  tbe  mott 
important  eonbiboliink  which  be  made  to  tbe  new 
Bytt«m  ci  which  be  wa*  the  practical  fonndw,  inae- 
nob  aa  it  at  cooe  anpplied  one  of  the  moat  powtv- 
1  and  at  the  aame  tooa  one  of  the  aafeat  metboda 
of  oombating  afaooet  every  bum  of  acute  di*eas*. 
'^'-  tbe  moat  diatinctiv*  of  bydropaUtic  ap^- 
mav  be  tbu*  described  1  Over  the  mattnaa 
bed  or    lofa  is  extended  a  etout    blaoket, 

. . 1  thia  is   spread  «  linen  abee^  well  wnmg 

oat  of  oold  water,  eo  that  it  is  only  damp. 
On  this  the  patMit  i*  laid,  and  immediately 
enTeltnmd  tiditly  with  a  bean  weight  of  '''*"^'t- 
npon  Um,  mdnd  in  ao  eloaely  aa  to  completely 
exeloda  all  air.  Tbe  body'*  "-*"»*i  *»-»*  mr*^^ 
a,  gtooate 

.._.   patient  fo_._    ..  ..   , 

oold,  bnt  in  «  comfortably  wann  vi^iour 
bathr— in  a  novel,  bot  bv  do  mean*  wnpleaiant 
fonn  lA  body  poaltioe.  llie  effecte  of  this  prooeaa 
on  the  eooncmy  aeam  to  be  plain  enough.  It 
ia  clear,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  porta  o(  tbe 
■kin,  ao  nmnarona  and  parfbrming  ao  imptstant  a 
fnnotion,  mnst  thereby  be  tboronuily  cleansed,  and 
the  blood  itaelf  depurated  ;  with  Uie  eqnaliaation 
of  ttoapentnie  ovw  ti>e  entire  aurfaoe  of  the  body, 
will  USioiw  a  oortenonding  egoaliaatiun  in  the 
diabibntion  of  blood  tbroiif^unit  tne  ayatem,  thereby 
telieving  internal  congeation*  wberever  oocurring 

aadlaa^,  from  the  aootlu ""^ —  ''^ 

system,  ud.  the  alluring  of 
not  only  the  alleriamon  of 

tbe  hearfe  action,  and  wit . . ._ 

tbe  blood,  of  auch  incalculable  importance  in  tbe 
treatment  of  many  form*  of  diseaaa,  and  eapecially 
of  fevera.    Snch  is  the  wet  sheet. 

»  aame  order  of  remedy,  althongb  in  many 
very  different  from  it,  ts  the  Twcisfa  batli, 
teoantfy  mtrodnoed  into  AigUad,  and  now  fairity 


bintizsdb 


yCOOgi 


HYDBOPATOT. 


otataliBhed  throDghoiit  tha  oountiy.    In  thu  bath. 


imporUnt  Boiiliuy  in  tha  . 

of  diBoasB,  bat  in  an  cspecuJ  munar  ot  tbe  kind 
mors  puticalurlv  under  coniidBTation  at  praaeut, 
taoh  «■  gont,  rhenmmtiBni,  branchitJE,  and  othor 
eomplaiuta  of  an  inflammatoiy  or  f  ebciis  ohaiacter. 
Tho  nme  aid  at  diaphoreda,  la  awoatinff,  is  ■eenied, 
althonglt  Dot  so  affidenUy,  b^  mtani  <u  the  vaponr 
iMtit  as  lued  by  tho  Boauani,  and  br  hot  air 
aa  gmfratad  by  the  spint-lamp.  The  latter  has 
the  adTHitage  o!  being  le*a  ezpeniiye,  and  the 
bather  not  being  required  to  breaths  the  heated  air 
many  persona  can  nae  it  who  would  be  quite  unabii 
to  respire,  without  faintness,  the  highly  heatee 
atmosphere  of  the  Turkish  bath.  In  addition  to  tlu 
above,  matt  be  mentioued  the  ose  of  warm  fomenta- 
tions, ID  the  form  of  flannels  wruns  out  of  boiling- 
water — a  kind  of  application  much  relied  on  toi 
subduing  local  pain  proceeding  from  whatever  cause, 
for  rdieving  oongestion,  and  abvlan^  and  checking 
So  mnch  fiH' the  prioapal  hydropathic 


matory  disesscS'  proeassss  correspoading  in  their 
umi  and  effects  to  antiplilogistic,  diaphoretic,  and 
sedative  drags. 

We  have  now  to  spesk  of  the  hydropathic  ageotn 


is  at  all  appropriate.  In  those  we  i 
dealing  wiQi,  water  certainly  plays  an  important 
psrt,  bnt  it  is  only  in  its  combination  with  good  air, 
exercise,  regulated  diet,  and  nervous  repose,  that 
ilisnssia  are  cured  as  they  are.  As  an  illustration 
A  ooid  bath  is  given  in  the  usual  way  as  a  tonic 
ItseT 


the  first  and  chief  of  thssa  bains  thst  a  good  reaoticti 
takes  i^ace ;  that  the  Uood,  which  had  bean  driven 
fay  the  constringent  ffieota  of  the  oold  water  from 
the  snrfaos  of  the  body  into  the  innn  parts,  shoold 
Mtnm  in  incressed  force  when  the  stimulus  of  cold 
is  withdrawn.  But  to  this  end,  in  all  bat  yexy 
penona,  eiercise  immediately  after  tiie  bath 
'>1y  necessary,  and  must  follow  it  as  a 
mazier  oi  course,  or  the  Mth  csnnot  be  administared 
with  comfort,  or  even  with  safety.  As  mnoh  might 
be  said  for  the  oo-operatave  importance  of  pure  air, 
of  diet,  and  of  nenona  repose,  all  of  them,  if 
prossrration  of  health,  of  tenfold 
e  core  of  disesH.     Thus  the  highly 

^_.^ of  the  bath,  administered  in  its 

▼arioos  forms,  snd  followed  by  a  dne  proportion 
of  exercise,  more  especially  in  strong  bncing  air, 
prodooe  at  once  a  marvellDiu  effect  m  sLarpeniog 
1^  appetite  and  improviiig  the  powers  of  digestion, 
so  that,  if  simple  and  DourishinD  diet  is  administered, 
better  blood  will  be  ekborateo,  and,  oonaeqnently, 
every  tissDe  of  the  body  be  more  h^hly  nourished 
and  invigorated.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say, 
that,  in  all  cases,  this  is  and  must  always  be  a 
gisdiaal  pcfKfas,  for  it  is  evident  that  the  treatment 
porsiied,  whether  in  reference  to  exerciH,  diet,  or 
the  oae  of  the  atimnlus  of  water,  must  bear  an  accu- 
rate relatiim  to  the  invalid's  strength.  little  by 
Uttle,  however,  and  in  most  esses  mimh  more  rapid^ 
tban  midit  be  imagined,  improvement  be^na  to  take 
plaoei  Fnnn  the  grsat  actaon  brought  to  bear  on 
the  akin  by  meana  of  the  different  applications  of 
water,  the  prudent  use  tJ  the  Turkish  bath,  and 
the  effecta  of  full  exercise,  a  rapid  change  at  the 
partiolea  of  the  body  take*  place— ao  rapid,  that, 
according  to  Liebig,  '  by  means  of  the  water-cure- 


treatment,  a  diange  of  matter  is  effected  in  a  peater 
degree  in  Hx  weeks,  than  would  happen  in  the 
otdiuary  ooutee  of  nature  in  thjee  yean' — while, 
at  the  same  time,  the  effete  matter  thrown  off  is 
replaced  by  the  heitlthier  material*  su^ilied  to  the 
ecaoamy  by  ao  inproved  quality  of  blood,  itasU  the 
resnlt  of  an  inwroved  digeatioik,  and  thi^  again, 
nsnlting  from  ue  heightened  n*  eita  niiA  the 
oombined  hydropathic  agenoiee  have  laodueed.  The 
forms  of  tlie  bath  may  of  course  be  varied  ad 
mfautum,  ta  well  aa  it*  power  aocording  to  the 
temperature  of  the  water.  Xhe  hatha  most  in  miKwe 
in  doily  practice  are  technically  d^aimiinated  the 
Wath  dotm.  Dripping  theet,  SAaloa,  £itz  baJi,  and 
jpoueht,  together  with  the  Padc,  or  Wet  tliea  befon 
mentioned  ;  in  addition  to  which  tha^e  is  a  eatalogiie 
af  local  applications,  too  ext«niivB  to  ennmente. 
These  vanoos  appliances  of  water  ai«  cepable  of 
producing  extraordinary  effects  on  the  eoonomy, 
constituting,  as  they  do,  especially  when  oimjoiiiad 
with  ezeroue,  the  most  powerful  tonica,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  meet  safe  and  agreeable,  that  can  be 
brought  to  bear  on  the  body.  It  might  truly  be 
added  that,  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  -lis^asT. 
this  same  element,  water,  ia  capable  of  becoming. 
according  to  the  manner  and  quantity  of  ita  use, 
internally  and  externally,  an  alterative,  derivative. 
diuretic,  and  diaphoretic.  It  is  as  a  touic  and 
stimulant^  however,  that  its  virtues  are  nuMt  ' 
conspicuous,  and  most  called  into  requisition  for  : 
the  cure  of  chronic  ailments. 

From  a  variety  of  circmnBtances,  the  system  of 
hydropathic  medicine  has  been  greatly  miaunda.   I 
■food  and  miajudged  by  the  general  pulJie.  For  one  | 
thing,  the  name  uf  '  water  cure,'  or  '  hydropathy,' 
adopted  by  Friessnit^  has  been  veiv  prejudicial,  as  I 
leaiung  to  the  false  inference  that  wb  one  element 
of  water  alone  ooostitutea  the  bone  and  marrow  of  ' 
the  eystem,  playing  the  port  of  a  panacea  for  tn/trj  ' 
form  of  human  aiJmeDt.    Such  a  notion  has  uera 
been  maintained  by  the  practitioners  of  scientiGe 
hydropathy,  snd  it  i*  matter  oC  r^ret  that  some 
more   comprehensiTe   and   catholic   title,   aa   that  j 
of  '  hygienio   medicine,'   boa    not   long   since    been 
adopted.    As  it  is,  the  prejudice  against  the  aj-stew 
is   gradoolly  giving  way ;   it  is  no  longer  treatfd  | 
ss  heresy  by  the  orthodox  profession ;  and  many  ' 
enlightened  practitioners  are  in  the  babit  of  sending;  - 
certain   da^e*  of    tbeir  patients  to    hydiopathii.'  | 
""'"'"'""' '"     — '    subject   themselve 


the  princi^ee  od  which  hydropathy  is  based.  A 
mamfest  mspoeition  exists  on  the  [art  of  the  more 
enlightened  memben  of  the  profession  to  rely  much 
less  on  art  and  much  more  on  nature  in  the  treat-  I 
ment  of  diseases  of  evei?  ^pe,  but  especially  those  I 
of  a  chronic  obaracter,  Uian  was  formerly  the  case ; 
and  OS  the  practitioners  of  sdentiCc  hydropathy 
by  no  means  exclude  the  use  of  drugs,  when  they 
appear  to  be  necessary,  it  would  seem  that  a 
convergence  of  opinion  is  really  coming  about. 

Hydropathy,  hitherto,  has  been  almiMt  exclnsitely 
practioea  in  uj^  estafaliahmonts,  presided  over  by 
competent  medical  men,  and  dedicated  to  a  thorough 
and  systematic  carrying  out  of  the  pnnciplea  on 
which  the  system  of  cure  is  founded.  There  can  ba 
no  question  that  this  is  by  far  the  moat  oolajilete 
and  satisfactoiy  arrangement  when  it  can  be  accms- 
plished.  But  the  power  of  leaving  tbeir  daily  vroik 
for  the  purpose  of  seeking  health  is  whiUiaU*  t« 
the  lot  of  very  few ;  and  if  the  hydropathic  b«*t- 
ment  were  to  be  absolutely  limited  to  ita  rViiiii 
retreats  in  the  couutry,  and  incompatible  with  the 
business  and  work  of  town-life,  it  would  be  ahom 
of  half  its  utility  as  a  remedyt  vut  be  a  Inzor^  to 


ItizodhyCuU^li: 


HYDHOPHOBIA— HTBBOPHYLLACE^ 


-vhieh  ml^  the  rich  and  di«ailg>f^  oonld  man. 
Bdl  tawcae,  moniiBg  «nd  eTming,  can  nnudfy  be 
hid  hj  most  penoDK.  The  came  applies  to  the 
%y*teaa,tie  and  p««Ut«iit  ^e  of  the  bath, 


.  pwaUtent .    .__ 

ngtUation  of  diev  tod  the  obMrauioe  of  eu-ly  honra. 
By  ttwM  DMuu,  evtD  without  oo«titt7  air  and  other 
hfjidiM  adionct*,  no  doubt  a  vast  deal  might  be 
done  both  for  the  — '  ■'' '  '*" ~- 


tion  of  healUi.    Towanlt  eSeotin^  the  latter  object, 
at  leart,  no  one  will  d&a.y  the  muneiiae  valoe  Ot 


hydropathy.  Ho  one,  hairng  any  praotioal  acquaint- 
Raoe  with  it,  can  doabt  ita  influence  in  the  promo- 
tioD  of  thoae  habita  of  temperance,  deanlineai, 
■df-denial,  and  genend  obedience  to  the  lawi  of 
heiltti,  irhich,  while  they  tend  ao  maoh  to  the 
happincM  of  the  indiridnal,  go  do  leaa  to  lecnre  the 
itrength  and  proaperity  of  natioiu.  To  thon  who 
would  inqnire  further  into  the  Hnbjeot,  we  may 
recomnMnd  the  work  of  Dr  Oally,  entitled  Tht 
Wattr-airt  kt  G/irojiie  Diaea»e;  that  of  Dr  Jaaea 
Wibon.  called  iVinefofa*  and  Praetiu  of  l3w  WaUr- 
enTtj  the  tevet^  work!  of  Ih- Edward  JohnBon ;  and 
Dr  Lane's  \tr»timt,Hydropathy,  or  Hygienic  Mtdidne. 
HYDROFHCyBIA  (derived  from  Sj/d*-.  water, 
and  phBboa,  fear)  ig  one  of  the  diaeaaee  Uiat  are 
produced  by  animal  poiaone.  A  person  ia  bitten  by 
a  mad  dc«  or  other  aniraaL  The  wound  gradually 
heals  in  ue  ordinary  manner.  After  an  uncertun 
interval,  niually  nuging  from  six  weeks  to  eighteen 
monthi,  whioh.  is  termed  the  period  of  tneiMotion, 
the  following  syroptoins  appear  :  The  patient  expe- 
riences diaeomiort  or  pain  at  tbe  seat  of  the  bite. 
The  cicatrix  tingles,  or  feels  stiff  or  numb  ;  some- 
timea  becomes  swelled  and  livid,  and  occasionally 
reopena,  and  discharged  a  peculiar  ichor.  The  morbid 
sensations  gradually  extend  from  the  original  seat 
of  injury  towards  the  tmnt  This  period  is  termed 
the  stage  of  reerudacena.  Within  a  few  hours,  or, 
at  longest,  a  vei^  few  daya  a^ter  the  exhibition  of 
this  local  irritation,  during  which  time  the  patient 
has  a  sense  of  general  discomfort  and  illness,  the 
specific  constitntionai  symptoms  begin  to  manifeat 
tLenuelvei ;  be  complains  of  pain  and  stifFaess 
about  the  neck  and  throat,  finds  h™«»l*  nnabie  to 
awallow  floida,  and  every  attempt  to  do  so^ofteu 
even  the  sight  or  the  sound  of  fluids — brioga  on  a 
terrible  paroxysm  oE  choking  and  Bobbins  ;  and  this 
continuea  for  two  or  three  days,  till  Ute  patient 
dies  from  pure  exhaustion.  Tbe  jnaaage  of  a  gust 
ot  wind  across  the  face,  or  the  wftving  of  a  nuiror 
before  the  eyes,  is  often  snfficient  to  excite  these 
pttroxTtms.  The  mental  condition  in  the  last  stage 
of  this  disease  varies  ;  tbe  patient  may  be  calm  and 
tamqail ;  generally  he  is  irritable  and  apprebsosive. 
and  siupicioos ;  and  in  most  cases,  a  certain  degt«e 
of  delinum,  or  even  mania,  is  associated  with  tbe 
irritability.  Death  most  commonly  takes  place  on 
the  aeoond  or  third  day  after  the  commencement  of 
the  apecific  n^ptoms. 

Some  medical  writers  have  maiutained  that 
hydrophobia  may  ocoasioDallT  be  spontaoeonaly 
developed  in  man,  aa  is  ondonbtedly  toe  case  ocea- 
aionAllv  la  the  lower  animals  (tie  dog  and  wolf,  for 
example] ;  bnt  even  if  this  ever  occmrt,  the  instance* 
HTB  BO  extremely  rare  aa  not  to  affect  the  general 
statement,  that  in  man  the  disease  is  iJie  resoit  of  an 
animal  poison,  which  is  most  commonly  communi- 
cated by  the  bite  of  the  dog,  but  which  has  also 
been  prvdneed  by  the  bite  M  the  wolf,  ihe  jaekal, 
the  racoon,  and  Che  cat.  The  poisonous  asliva  is 
perfectly  inaocnoua  when  applied  to  the  unbroken 
akin  ;  to  prodnce  its  effects,  there  must  be  some 
abraaion  of  the  cuticle ;  bot  according  to  the  late 
Mr  YouJttt,  it  may  enter  the  tystwn  by  mere 
contact  with  mncoiis  membranes. 

The  disease  is  said  to  have  been  canted  by  the 


•  Km^cA  of  a  cat ;  bat  as  b 


[jata  and  does 
r  montha,  & 
a  thia  way  by 


may  be  iatrodnced 
the  claws. 

Iliere  has  been  much  diacuasion  as  to  what 
beoomea  of  the  podaon.  Is  it  immediately  taken 
into  tbe  amtem  generally,  or  doea  it  Temain 
imprisoned  in  the  wonad  or  cicatrix  for  a  timet 


la  * 

the  poiaou  any  time  between  tbe  infliction  of  the 


poison  is  thus  locally  retained  seems  more  tjiao 
prob^de  from  the  fact,  that  at  this  period  mttrbid 
phenomena  of  various  kinds  exhibit  themsalve*  at 
the  aeat  of  the  wound,  and  that  these  jJieuomeoa 
are  speedily  followed  by  the  dianeteristic  symptoma 
of  the  disease. 

Little  need  be  said  of  the  treMtment  ol  hydro- 
phobia, for  there  ia  no  well-authenticated  case  of 
recovery  on  reoord.   The  most  distresamg  ajniptams 


cannot  be  cured,  its  devdopment  may  be  jirovented 


the  lute  allows 
the  knifa.  '  If,'  says  Dr  Wataon, '  tbe 
injury  be  so  deep  or  extensive,  or  so  situated  that 
you  cannot  remove  the  whole  surface  of  the  woand, 
cnt  away  what  yon  can ;  then  wash  the  wound 
thorou^y  and  for  aome  hours  together,  by  meant 
of  a  stream  of  warm  water,  which  may  be  poured 
from  a  tea-ketUa  ;  jdaca  an  exhausted  cupping-glass 
from  time  to  time  over  the  exposed  woimd ;  and 
finally  ^iply  to  evoy  point  of  it  a  pencil  of  lunar 
caustic.  If  you  oannot  bring  the  aohd  canatio  into 
contact  with  every  par^  you  had  better  m^e  nsa 
of  some  liquid  eacharotia ;  strong  oitrio  aoidi,  for 
example.'  Early  exciiion  ia  the  rally  sun  preven- 
tivB,  but  if,  for  any  reaaon,  the  opoiitioD  haa  b««i 
omitted  in  the  first  instance,  it  is  advisable  for  the 
teaaons  already  given  regarding  the  pmbabla  latency 
of  the  poiaon,  to  cut  out  the  wound  at  any  period 
before  symptoma  of  reomdeaoence  wpear.  The 
reason  why  many  neclect  to  have  immediate  recourse 
to  eiciaion  probably  is,  that  hydrojdMibia  by  no 
means  follows,as  a  matter  ol  certainty,  the  bite  of  a 
rabid  '"'I"*!  John  Hunter  states  mat  be  knew  an 
instance  in  which,  of  twenty-one  persona  bitten  by 
a  mad  do^  one  alone  was  infected.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  have  evidenoe  that  of  one  hundred  and 
fourteen  penona  who  woe  bitten  by  labid  wolvee, 
aiity-seven,  or  mora  than  one-baU,  wow  Tictima  to 
tills  diaeasa,  Althoi^  wo  havo  no  vety  trustworthy 
evidenoe  on  a  large  scale,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the 
majority  of  persona  who  are  bitten  by  a  mod  dog 
do  escape  the  diseaae,  even  without  taking  any 
j^ecaution.  In  many  of  these  cases,  the  vims  is 
probably  removed  by  the  teeth  passing  through  tbe 


HYDROPHTLLA'OHf,  a  natural  order  of 
exoeenons  tdants,  ooDtaining  about  80  known 
Riecin,  natavea  chiefly  of  the  colder  parts  of 
America.    None  of  them  are  of  importance  for  any 


remedy  for  snake  bites,  and  Uie  leaves 
of  IT.  Firgiraeutn,  or  Shawanese  Salad,  are  eaten  by 
the  Indians,  both  raw  and  boiled  ;  but  some  ot 
them  are  fa-roorite  omameuti  of  our  flower-borders, 
particularly  difierent  qtede*  of  ^anophUa.  The 
order  inclndes  aome  small  trtaa  and  bnshea  aa  weU 
as  herbacBoua  [danta.  They  are  often  hiqid,  lik« 
the  BDropinaceo. 


hyGoogle 


HTDBOSTATIOa. 


n  of  tbe  egoiliM 

H  on  the  w^  of 


[uiUbriiuii  of 


HTDROSTATICa  treat*  of  the 
liquid^  *m<  of  thoir  praaiizM  on  tho  ^ 

In  whidi  the  molecoleB  of  ft  liquid  tonn.  B 
mtdar  the  aotioin  of  gnvity  mnd  molecolkr  attno- 
tion,  tbe  Istter  of  irAioli  ib  so  modified  in  liqaidi 
■■  ia  give  than  their  atate  of  liquidity.  While 
the  -particlM  of  a  liquid  cohere,  tfae7  ue  free  to 
■lide  vpon  one  anottiGE  irithoat  the  leait  appareat 
Motun ;  and  it  ii  this  perfect  tMbUUf  that  giTea 

l^diottatiae. 

The  fundamental  peapatj  may  be  thni  itatad 


djr 
>iiwq  ueuoH  of  tluB  tnith.   Thi«  is  a  pbytical 
azuun,  put  in  tnttb  may  be  experimenbJly  proted. 
SuppoM  a  oloae  box  fi  filled  with  water,  and  baring 
a  tniie  a  inaeited  into  the  upper  cover,  of  an  inch  in 
ana,  and  with  a  ping  of  piston  fitting  into  it.    If 
the  piiton   a   i>   now 
prened  down  upon  the 
water    with     a     force 
equal  to  a  poundweiaht, 
the  water,  being  unable 
to    cacape,   wifi    react 
upon  the  piston  with 
the  same  force ;  but  it 
obviously  will  not  prest 
cig,  1.  moie   against    a   than 

■gi^inat-  any  other  pvt 
of  Hm  bco,  tbarefwe  eroy  aqnare  inch  of  t^e 
interior  surbM*  of  the  box  is  pressed  outward  with 
'     '  '  ^    If,  then,  there  is  another  tube 


its  plaoe.  (We  leave  out  of 
pressure  npon  b  arisins  from 
m  the  box  above  it,  ai^  con- 
)  propagated  by  the  fiucing 
However  rasoy  plugs  of  the 


..  large  ping  of  four  times  the  area,  as  at  e,  it  would 
be  pressed  cot  with  a  force  of  four  pounds.  We  hare 
only,  then,  to  oBlarga  the  area  n  the  piston  e  to 
obtun  any  muttiplication  of  tbe  force  exerted  at  a. 
If  tbe  area  of  c  is  1000  inohes,  tliat  of  a  being  one 
inch,  a  p«ssnre  of  one  pound  on  a  beoomea  a 
ptTMura  td  1000  pnmds  on  e;  and  if  we  mske  the 
pressure  on  a  one  ton,  that  on  c  will  be  IDOO  tons. 
This  seeminBly  wonderful  mul- 
tiplication oipower  haa  raoeivod 
the  name  el  the  ^jfrfmsfctHf 
paradox.       It      is,      nowsver, 


ponnd  on  the  long  aim  is 
made  to  balance  100  ponnd*  on 
the  short  arm. 

If  tiie  prennie  we  have 
nippoeed  exerted  on  the  piston 
a  acoee  from  a  pound  of  water 
poured  into  the  tube  above  it,  it 
would  oontinne  tiwsame  t' 
the  ptaton  were  nraoved. 
ponnd  of  watw  in  the  tube 
then  pTMsing.  with  it*  whole 


bough 


Fig.  2,  weight  on  every  square 

the  inuM-  tBrfaoe  of  the  box — 
downwards,  sidewias,  and  npwaida.  The  affiantaa 
oallsd  tha  hudrotbOie  b^iowt  neta  on  this  prindple 
^aa  fift  S].    It  conaista  of  two  stout  cinmlar  board* 


connected  togetbei  by  Uatber  in  thm  "■"■""■  of  a 
bellows,  B.  Tbe  tube  A  is  connected  with  the 
interior  ;  and  a  person  standing  on  the  upper  board. 


i  is  iC" 


Fi»3. 


the  upper  board 
of   tiie  tubei  an  ounce  of  water  in  the  tube  will 
support  lOOO  gunoes  at  W.      It  is  on  the  same 
pnnci^e  that  the  Hydraulic  Press  (q.  v.)  dependa. 

1.  EguUibnaai  of  Liqtiidi. — After  this  explaa- 
stiou  of  the  fundamantal  propertiee  of  V'^'^'^*, 
it  ma^  be  enough  to  state  the  two  nnpHitjnnt 
of  fluid  equilibrium  which  directly  Sow  irom  it 
(1.)  Svery  molecule  of  the  liquid  must  be  solicited 
by  equal  and  contrary  pressores  in  evBry  dir«c- 
tidi.  This  is  a  corolluy  from  liqnid  mohali^. 
{2.)  The  upper  molecule*  of  a  liquid,  which  are 
fra*,  must  form  a  surEsce  perpendioolar  to  the 
impreaeed  force.  Xhs  truth  oi  this  will  sufSciently 
appear  from  the  proof,  that  the  snr&tce  of  a 
liquid  at  test  under  gravity  must  be  what  is  called 
horisontaL  It  oan  be  shewn 
of  the  primary  proper^ 
of  'pressing  eqoally  in  all 
directions.'  For  let  da  and 
ot  he  vertical  lines,  or 
linee  in  the  direction  of 
gravity ;  and  ah  a  plane  at 
right  angles  to  that  direction, 
or  hotizoutaL  A  particle  of 
the  liquid  at  a  ig  pressed  by 
the  colonuL  of  particles  above 
it  from  a  to  <f ;  and  the  like 
ia  tbe  case  at  h.  Now,  since 
the  liquid  is  at  reet,  tlicse 
pressures  must  be  equal ;  for 
if  the  pressure  at  b,  for  in- 
stance, were  greater  than  at  a,  there  would  be  a 
flow  of  tbe  water  from  a  toward*  b.  It  fcIlowB  that 
the  line  ad  is  equal  to  be,  and  hence  that  dc  w 
parallel  to  oi,  and  therefore  horitontaL  The  sane 
might  be  proved  of  any  two  pointB  in  the  sarboe ; 
therefore  the  whole  is  in  tha  same  hotitcmtal  plane. 

%  Prtuurt  of  Liquidi  on  Swfacei. — The  genenl 
proposition  on  this  point  may  be  stated  thns :  7k 
prtMfrt  nf  a  Uq^id  oa  any  tur/aee  immerttd  in  it,  it 
equai  to  tAt  weiglu  of  a  eoivmn  of  iM  liquid  nAate 
bate  U  the  lurfaet  prated,  ojtd  Khott  lu^/lil  is  tke 
perptndiaiiar  deptS  qf  Ikt  centre  of  granlg  ^ 
tie  turfaee  ieloai  (ht  turfaae  tifthe  Hquid.  See 
article  Ctotbk  or  FsMnnn.  Xhe  preesnie  thu 
exetted  i*  independent  i^  the  shape  or  siu  of  ths 
vessel  or  cavity  containing  tiu  liquid. 

3.  Juoyinny  ami  J?o<aliaii.~-Aj  a  t 


d  in  a  liquid,  it  loses  a*  much  w_„ 
(tof  au  equal  bulk  of  the  liquid  wd^Ls.  Itb 
it,  if  a  cubic  foot  of  the  liquid  and  ol  Uie 

ve  equal  weights,  the  solid  will  lose  all  its  wi 
~  ]  liquid  wherever  it  is  put ; 
nid  weigh  more  than  <um  o.  —^ 
1  not  coiy  lose  all  its  wd^t, 
but  will  rise  up,  and  that  with  a  force  equal  to  tbs 
diSarence ;  if  a  cubic  foot  of  the  lioaid  weidi  lev 
than  one  of  the  solid,  the  solid  will  use  miig^t,  but 

When  a  solid  swims,  or  rise*  and 
fioait  on  the  surfaos  of  a  liqmd, 
the  next  problem  ef  l^^aetaties 
is  to  detmmine  how  mneh  of  it 
will  be  below  the  *nr&e&  We 
have  already  seen  that  taf  solid  ^^^^^^ 
in  a  liquid  is  pressed  unwanl  with  ^^^"^^^ 
a  force  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  n^  4 

water  whose    room  it    ooeupiea 
Now,  a  floating  body  mntt  M  [tMSiiI  vf  with  a 


hyGuUl^lc 


HYDE08TATI08— HTDBOBULPHURIO  ACID. 


foToe  equal  to  itt  own  wdght,  otharwiia  it  woold 
■ink  Icwer ;  ItenM,  a  Jhating  body  dirptaee*  U*  oun 
vxight  of  the  liquid.  A  lolid^  u  AB  ia  fi^  4  nnks 
unlal  the  a]Mce  occupied  by  the  part  B  unmened 
would  coatiun  an  amount  of  water  eqnal  in  weight 
'-  the  whole  (olid  AB. 

a  bodjtlinB  de| 

reisht  and  the  woght  i 

equal  bulk  of  the  liquid,  Sie  same  body  wiU  be 

or  leg!  buorant,  acoording  to  the  denntf  of  the 
liquid,  in  which  it  ia  immereed.  A  piece  of  wood 
that  mnkji  a  foot  io  water,  will  link  barely  an  ini ' 
in  nercuiy.  Mercurr  buova  up  even  iron.  Also 
body  whidh  would  nnk  of  itself,  ie  baoved  up  by 
attaching  to  it  a  lighter  body;  the  bulk  ii  thus 
incToaaed  without  pra^ortioaaflr  increasing  thi 
wei^t  Thia  ii  the  principle  of  life-piesBrrera  o;. 
all  kioda.  The  heaneat  Bubatances  may  be  made 
to  float  by  ihaping  them  lo  as  to  make  them  dis- 
place more  than  their  own  weight  of  water.  A  flat 
plate  of  iron  ainka ;  the  same  plates  made  concave 
like  a  oop  or  boat,  floatt.  It  may  be  noted  that  the 
buoyant  property  of  liqiudt  is  independent  of  their 
depth  or  ezpanae,  if  there  be  onlv  enough  t( 
surround  the  object.  A  few  pounds  of  water  mighi 
be  made  to  bear  iqi  a  body  <rf  a  ton  wdght ;  •  uip 
floata  as  hifh  in'a  email  dock  sa  in  the  ocean. 

4.  SliMlity  qf  FtoaSrtg   Bodiea.—CoDetave   «bd 
(flg.  S)  to  D«  h  [«rtion  of  a  liquid  turned  sdid, 


Hg-B. 

bat  unchauf^  in  bulk  ;  it  will  evidently  remain  at 
rot,  aa  if  it  were  atill  liquid.  Its  weight  may  be 
represented  by  the  force  t^,  actdng  on  its  oentn  of 
levity  i; ;  but  that  force  is  balanced  by  the  upward 
pressure  of  the  water  on  the  different  parts  of  the 
under  snrtaoe  ;  therefore,  the  reaoltant  of  all  these 
elementary  pressnrea  must  be  a  foroe,  es,  exactly 
equal  and  opposite  to  q/,  and  acting  on  the  same 
point  t^  for  if  ft  acted  on  any  other  point,  the  body 


would  not  be  at  rest  Now,  whatever  other  body  of 
size  and  shape  we  suppose  substitiitea  tor 
of  Bohd  water  abd,  me  supporting  pres- 


sure or  buoyancy  of  the  water  around  it  miutt  . . 
the  same  ;  hence  we  conclude,  that  iMsn  a  body  u 
im-merged  m  a  liquid,  the  bu<n/an£  pmgurt  it  a  fitrtt 
equal  to  Ae  weight  of  the  liquid  duplaetd,  and  honing 
iu  point  of  applkation  in  the  tmbre  ofgranio  of  One 
Iptutfrom  tAidt  Uie  liquid  U  ditplattd.  This  point 
m^be  called  the  centre  ofbaoganey. 

We  may  snppoee  that  the  spaoe  abd  is  occnpjsd 
by  tiie  immened  part  of  a  floatmg  body  (uM  (Bg.  6). 
Hie  suppmiing  forots  a>,  is  still  the  same 
as  in  die  former  case,  and  acts  at  c^  the 


the  weidit  of  the  body  must  abo  be  the 
same ;  but  it*  point  of  applioation  ia  now 
</,  the  centra  of  mvil^  of  the  whole 
bod^.  When  the  body  u  floating  at  rest 
or  m  a  state  of  equiHbrinm,  this  point 
Yjg_  e.  mnrt  evidently  be  in  the  aome  vertiMJ 
line  with  e ;  for  if  the  two  foroM  wet*  in 

'g.  6),  they  would  tend  to 

[Qte  line  paaing  through 


the  c(mla«  of  gravity  ti  a  floating  body  and  tha 
centre  of  gravity  of  tha  displaced  water,  is  called 
iiiA  aaimffiotailoiL 

The  equilibriam  of  a  floating  bod;  is  said  to  be 
itaMa,  msn,  on  sufoinx  a  slijpt  disolaoemeut,  it 
tends  to  r^ain  its  original  poaituni.  The  conditions 
of  stability  will  be  nndentood  from  the  aooom- 
ponying  figures.    Fig.  7  represents  a  body  flaktasg 


in  equilibrium,  O  being  its  ocotra  of  gravity,  fi  ita 
oentrc  of  buoyancy,  and  AQB  the  azia  of  dotation, 
which  ia  of  oouise  vertioaL  In  fig.  8  the  same  body 
is  represented  as  pushed  or  drawn  sli^tly  from  the 
perpendicular.  The  shape  of  tha  immersed  portion 
being  now  alt^ed,  the  osntre  of  buoyancy  ia  no 
longer  in  the  axis  of  figure,  but  to  one  side,  as  at  B> 
Now,  it  ia  evident,  that  if  the  line  of  direction  of  the 
ipward  preanire — that  is,  a  vertical  line  through  B 
-meets  the  axis  above  the  oentre  of  gravity,  as  at 
H,  the  tendency  of  the  two  lotixa  is  to  bring  the 
axis  into  its  loiginal  position,  and  in  that  cose,  the 
equilibrium  of  -£0  body  ia  st^e.     But  if  BM  meet 

ftuthv  nd  fnr^ci  from  the  vertic^  until  the  bodj 
get  into  soma  new  poaition  of  equililnium,    Th«re  u 


another,  and  the  body  remains  in 
i^ch  it  is  put ;  this  ia  called  iml^- 
fertM  eqnilibrinm.  In  a  floating  eylinder  of  wooi^ 
for  inatuHM,  B  is  always  right  under  G,  in  wbatevsr 
way  tha  oviindfr  is  turned.  When  the  onglea  throUKh 
which  a  floating  body  is  mode  to  roll  ara^aaall,  the 
— -'  ^1  is  nearly  a.to>Bt»Qt.  It  is  called  the  mda- 
.  and  ita  position  may  be  calculated  for  a 
body  of  pven  weight  and  dimensions.    In  tha  oon- 

-' ^ -id  lading  of  ships,  it  is  an  object  to  have 

at  gravity  ae  low  aa  poasiUe,  in  order 

that  it  may  be  always  below  the  metacentra  With 
thia  view,  heavy  Tn«iari»la^  in  the  ah^M  of  ballast, 

ilaoed  in  the  bottom,  and  tha  heaviest  portions 

■towed  low  in  the  hold.      See 

and  Arbomxtza. 

HYDBOSULPHU'BIO    AOID    (HS),    known 

jta  *a  StiiplaTtUtd  Hydrttgtn,  Sv^nifine  Acid,  and 

SjitiroMimio  Add,  is  a  natnnl  gsssona  constituent 

'    iisny  muMTsl  wsteit,  m,  for  exunpU,  tiuse  of 

'Is-Chspelle  iu  Osrmsny,  Bsrtges  in  FroiKe, 

AbsBO  in  Italv,  snd  Hsirogste  in  Aigland,  and  is 
evolved  from  fomaroles  and  volcanoes.  It  is  fonoed 
spontsneonsl^  whsrerer  solphoroni 


-.„ __..._    —    — pools,    and    in   waters 

chuged  with  oivMiio  matter  and  sulphates,  espe- 
oially  sulphate  oflime. 

There  ore  sevenl  ways  of  preparing  this  gas, 
whidh  is  vvry  extensively  used  in  laboratory 
opaiabkaiB.  The  following  is  that  which  is  moat 
commonljr  employed.  Sulphide  (the  old  sulphuret) 
of  iron,  in  small  fragments,  is  placed  in  a  bottle, 
sad  dilate  «nltihutio  acid  is  added.  Water  is  decom- 
posed, ita  hydrogen  oombJuing  with  the  sulphur  of 
the  sulphide  to  form  hydronlphnria  add,  whicii 


HYCBOTHORAX— HYQROMBTEK. 


(FeO),  which   uDltes  with   ths  inlphnric  uid  to 
form  the  ardia&ry  protoenlpbate  of  iroa  or  ^een 
vitriol,  which  remuDB  in  solutioiL    Tlie  n«cticm  ia 
ezpnoed  by  the  equation  : 
5^^  SoipSorii  *.li  Hjdnjrtjlinil.       ioipj„wrfIro., 

FeS     +     HOfSO,      =         HS      +     FeO,80, 

Hydromlphnrio  acid  ia  k  colourleBS  ffu  of  & 
BtroDg  And  very  nauaeoua  odonr,  refiemUing  that 
of  Totten  eggs.  It  coDiiata  of  two  volumes  of 
hydiCTCD  ana  one  volume  of  Rulphnr  vapour  con- 
daiuad  into  two  volamei,  which  form  its  combin- 
ing measure.  It  is  about  ieventeen  times  heavier 
than  hydrogen.    By  preuuce,  it  i> ,  liquefied, 


digjiolvea,  at  69°,  3'S3  vidumes  of  this  gas,  but  the 
■olntion  aoon  becomes  millcy  when  exposed  to  the 
•ir,  in  ccaiiequence  of  the  oiygea  of  the  air  com- 
bitung  with  the  hydrogen  of  the  gas,  and  sulphur 
bedng  precipitated.      It  is  highly  combustible,  and 


bomi  with  a  pale  bl^e  flame,  producing  water 
•nd  anlphnnmi  acid,  and,  generally,  a  deposit  of 
■nlpbttr.    It  has  a  weak  acid  reaction,  and  forms 


__D  of  the  bydracidl.    Although  a  feeble  acid, 
combines  reamlj  with  bases. 

Its  nae  as  a  reageot  is  dependent  on  the  fact, 
that  many  of  the  sulphides  which  it  forms  with 
metallic  oxides  are  insoluble  in  water,  and  are 
thrown,  dovm  from  solutions  aa  preoipitates  with 
ohoraoteriitio  eolours.  Thus  the  gas,  or  a  watery 
■olutioii  of  it,  g^vea  an  orange  [necipitate  with  the 
compounds  of  antimony — whOe  witii  thoea  of  atsanio 
it  give*  a  yellow — with  those  of  lead  and  of  silver, 
a  Mock — and  with  those  of  zinc,  a  white  precipitate. 

The  air  of  a  room  slightly  impr^ated  witn  this 
gas  may  be  breathed  with  impunity,  but  a  small 
gnaDti^  of  the  undiluted  gas  inspred  prodnco 
taintoess,  and  its  respiration,  in  a  very  moderate 
proportion,  was  found  by  Thenard  to  prove  fatal — 
birds  perialiing  in  air  which  contained  rAi^i  ^"d  a 
doK  in  air  containing  rrTt^  P"^  "^  ^'>  S"-  Its 
pouonooa  effects  are  best  counteracted  b^  ue  inlial- 
ation  of  very  diluted  chlorine  gas,  whicli  may  be 
readily  obtained  from  a  little  chloride  of  lime  pUoed 
in  the  folds  of  a  napkin  moistened  witli  vinegar. 

A  very  minnte  trace  of  this  gas  may  be  detected 
by  placing  a  piece  of  paper,  moistened  with  a 
strong  solntion  of  sugar  of  lead,  over  the  vessel 
or  aperture — as,  for  instance,  over  an  opening  in 
a  drain — tntm  which  we  think  it  is  escaping.  If 
it  be  present,  a  more  or  less  black — often  only  a 
brown — tint  is  developed  after  a  few  minutes,  in 
consequence  of  the  formatiDn  of  sulphide  of  lead. 

HYDROTHO'RAX  (derived  from  hydSr,  water, 
and  IkomXt  the  chest)  ia  the  term  applied  to  dropai- 
cal  ooUections  in  the  Pleura  (q.  v.),  a  closed  serous 
MC  eoTelofing  the  lung  on  eiUier  side.  When  it 
«xifts  to  any  extent,  the  pressure  which  it  eierts  on 
the  Itmgi  impedes  tisa  passage  of  the  blood  through 
them,  and  oocaaionB  difficulty  of  breathing,  lividity 
of  conntenaoce,  Ac  ;  and  more  or  lessdrojisyin  tlie 
face,  ankles,  Ac,  soon  appears.  The  physical  signs 
by  which  the  disease  can  be  detected  are  too  pnnly 


or  blue  pill,  which  nuut  be  oontinnad  till  di^t 

symptoms  of  salivation  manifest  theoMetves. 
HYDKOZO'A.    See  Zoopettd. 
STEBBS,  or  EI^iRES,  a  small  town  of  Fraooe, 

in  the  department  of  Var,  is  situated  3  miles  from 
the  Meditecianean,  and  S  miles  east  of  Toulon.  It  is 
celebrated  for  the  beauty  of  the  situation  and  the 
mildness  of  the  climate,  and  is  therefore  much  re- 
sorted to  by  foreiguers  suSeriog  from  chert  or  nerr- 
ous  compUints.  Pop.  (1872) 
6137.  near  ^  the  coast  lie 
the  lies  d'EiSrea,  called  by 


which,  with  the  exception  of 
the  military  garrisons  of  a 
few  forta,  are  uninhabited. 
Here,  the  beat  of  the  climate 
is  tempered  by  the  sea-breezes, 
and  the  season  seems  an 
eternal  spring. 

SYGIEI'A~in  the  clasn- 
cal  mythology,  the  goddeaa 
of  Health  — the  dan^ter  of 
^Jlsculapius.  She  was  wor- 
shipped at  Athena.  Corinth, 
Argos,  and  other  important 
cities,  and  in  works  of 
art  ia  usually  represented 
HS  a  blooming  virgin,  with 
a  snake,  the  symbol  of 
health,  which  drinks  from 
a  cup  held  in  her  hand. — 
Hyoieu  is  the  name  of 
one  of  the  newly-discovered  Planetoids  (q.  r.). 

HYOKO'METEB  (Or.  hygnu,  mmst,  nMdya, 
measure),  on  instrument  for  measuring  the  qoanti^ 
of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  The  earlis  forma 
of  hygrometer  depended  upon  the  property  possessed 
by  some  substances  of  readily  aboorbing  moistme 
from  the  air,  and  being  thereby  changed  in  dimen- 
dons   or  in  weight      Of   this   kind  was   the   hair 


Theoi       .         .  

depend  upon  inflimimation  of  the  secreting  mem- 
brane, or  it  may  be  a  consequence  of  ormuiic 
disease  of  the  heart  or  lungs.  With  regard  to 
treatment  when  the  disease  seems  to  depend  upon 
inflammation  of  the  pleoxa,  great  advantage  may 
often  be  derived  from  ocoasionol  capping  and 
repeated  blistering.  The  most  popular  internal 
ninedy  is  a  combination  of  squill  and  either  calomel 


a  similar  instrument  was  the  whalebone  hygrometer 
of  Delnc ;  bat  as  other  causes  aa  well  aa  mtttstnn 
affect  sach  inatruments,  they  afford  no  aocmte 
indications.  The  moat  perfect  hygrometer,  theo- 
reticoUy,  is  that  of  J.  F.  Daniell  |q.  v.).  It  conaista 
of  two  bulbe  connected  by  a  bent  tube,  as  repie. 
sented  in  the  flgure,  and  enclosing  a  thennometm, 
together  with  some  ether  and  vapour  of  ether,  the 
air  having  been  expelled. 
The  bulb,  b,  is  covered 
with  muslin,  and  a  is 
either  blackened  or 
coated  with  metaL  The 
observer's  hand  is  placed 
for  a  short  time  on  b,  to 
drive  the  ether  into  a, 
leaving  b  and  the  tube 
filled  with  vapour  of 
ether.  A  little  etber  is 
then  dropped  from  a 
fiask,  of  the  form  e, 
on  the  moalin-covered 
bulb ;  evaporation  in- 
stantly takes  place,  and 


vapour   inaide ; 


temperatnre   of   a   is'so   reduced 'by 
evuorationa  (see  Evitokatiov],  that  deu  bc^tB* 
to   be   formed  on  the   outsida  of  the  bolK      At 


.yCOOgIC 


HTKSHOS— HTLAOSAUEUa 


the  instaot  this  occnn,  tiia  height  of  the  meronr; 
in  the  two  tharmonuWa  u  acouratelr  noted,  the 
one  giving  the  dew- point  temperature,  and  the  other 
the  tampetittit«  of  the  ftir.  The  aotiul  qnuitity 
of  moistnt*  cantained  in  a,  oabio  foot  of  air  <wa 
now  be  rakdily  found  from  the  following  eminrical 
fbrmola :  weight  of  moiBtara  in  griina  - 

where  f  ii  tiie  temperstore  of  the  kir  at  the 
of  obserrktion,  and  p  (foand  from  tables)  th« 
elaMicity  of  vapour  at  the  tenipentnre  of  the 
dew-point  The  evident  defecte  of  this  inatra- 
ment  are,  fint,  its  rapidity  of  operatioii,  ao  that 
no  time  ii  allowed  for  the  gW,  ether,  and 
thermometer  to  come  to  the  aajne  tempeiati 
and,  in  eonaeqaeDce,  the  dew-point  ia  eivea  hig 
than  it  actually  ia ;  secondly,  iti,  coatlmeet,  ow  ^ 
to  the  great  couBumption  of  ether;  and,  thiriily, 
its  nieleameaa  ia  tropical  coontriea,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  preserring  the  ether  in  a  fluid  etate. 
Daniell'a  hygrometer  was  naed  at  the  Boyal  Obeerr- 
atoiy,  Greenwich,  from  ISM) — tiie  conuneQcMnent  of 
meteoTolosical  obaervationB — till  184T,  when  it  wai 
anper^eded  by  the  more  oonvenient  inetrnment,  the 
Wet  and  Dkt  Bitlb  TBXtMOitxnaa.  This  ioBtm- 
ment  conriata  of  two  ordioacy  thermometen — one 
haa  ita  bulb  bare,  and  thus  ihswi  the  temperature 
of  the  air ;  the  other  haa  ita  bulb  covered  with 
mnaltn,  which  ii  kept  wet  hy  a  cotton  wick  dipping 
into  water.  The  evaporatioti  from  the  muslin, 
and  oonseqnent  cooling  of  the  bulb,  being  in 
proportioii  to  the  dryneaa  of  the  air,  the  difference 
between  the  readinga  of  the  two  thermometen 
ia  greatest  when  the  air  ii  diiest,  and  zero  when 
it  i«  completely  satunkted.  The  tetdiogs  of 
the  thennometers  being  takeD,'^tbe  elaatio  force 
of  vapour  at  the  dew-point  is  calculated  by  the 
formula  of  Dr  Apjoho  {Proeeedmgi  of  (A«  Royal 
Indt.Aead.,\9ASiy. 


^:{2)F=/- 


(I)  ^  =/- 

the  first  formnla  to  be  nsed  iriien  the  wet  thermo- 
meter ie  above,  and  the  second  when  it  ia  below, 
the  freezing-point  (32*).  In  these  formuhe.  F  ia 
the  elaatio  force  of  vapour  at  the  dew-point,  whioh 

a  been  determined  for  different  temperatures  by 
BegHBoIt  from  carefully  conducted  experimeuts  ;  /, 
the  elaaljc  force  at  the  temperature  of  evaporation 
.  T  reading  of  wet  bulb) ;  a,  the  difi^rence  between 
the  dry  and  wet  bulbs ;  and  A,  the  height  of  the 
barometer.  From'  this  the  quantity  of  moiature  in 
a  cubic  foot  of  air,  &c  can  be  found  aa  before.  To 
diapenie  witii  these  troublesome  calcnlatioas,  the 
Hygrometrie  TabUi  of  Mr  Glaisher  may  be  u»ed. 

HTICSHOS,  the  name  of  an  Eeyptian  dynasty, 
generally  known  aa  the  Shephera  Kings,  derived 
From  kyh,  a  ruler,  and  ^los,  a  shepherd  ;  or,  according 
to  another  vereion,  from  hyi,  a  captive,  and  sAd*,  a 
shepherd.  According  to  Joeephns  and  A&icanoa, 
they  conBiBted  of  six  or  eight  kings,  named  (1), 
Salali*,  Silitie,  or  Sutee,  who  reigned  19ar  ISyears; 
(2),  Beon,  Baiion,  or  Bnon,  who  reigned  43  or  44 ; 
J3),  Apachnaa,  Apachnan,  or  PochnBB,  Who  reigned 
36  or  61  yean ;  (4),  Apophii,  Aphoais,  who  reigned  61 ; 
(5),  Ansa,  or  Anan,  who  reigned  60;  (6),  Arehlea. 
who  reigned  49 ;  (7),  Aasia,  or  Aasetb,  who  reigned 
49  yeora  and  2  monthi ;  and  (S),  Apobis,  who  reigned 
61  yeora.  The  greatest  discrepancy  exists  in 
the  names  and  their  arrangement,  and  aa  to  the 
total  number  of  years  of  tiie  dynasty.  Manetho, 
ocoording  to  Josepbus,  states  that  they  reigned  fil  1 
yean,  but  the  total  of  the  reima  he  cites  amounts 
to  imSj  269  years  10  months ;  while  Africanua 
mokea  their  doraldon  284  years,  and  Eusebins  KKL 
Afrioaana   makea   the   Shepherds   consist   of   the 


Ifith,  16th,  and  ITth  dynastiet,  and  to  have  ruled 


them  more  correctly  the  17tb  dynasty.  They  ore 
stated  in  the  Egyptian  annals  to  have  been  a  race  of 
ig  from  the  East,  who,  under  Solatia, 


their  firet  king,  took  Memphis,  and  rendered  tribu- 
tary the  whole  of  ^ypt,  and  fortified  the  city  of 
Avaris,  on  the  east  ofthe  Bnbaatite  arm  of  the  Nile, 
where  he  maintained  a  garriBon  of  240,000  soldiers. 
Their  oppreealon,  however,  drove  the  Egyptiana 
to  revolt,  and  under  Toakao,  the  predecessor  of 
Aahmes  or  Amaeia  I.  of  the  18tb  dynasty,  a  reli- 
gious quarrel  about  the  temples  of  Ba  or  tiie  sun, 
and  of  Set,  the  god  of  the  E.,  seems  to  have  com- 
menced, when  a  long  war  broke  out,  which  ended 
under  Aabmes,  with  iJie  siege  of  Avaris,  and  a  king 
who  is  called  Miaphrogmuthosis,  mnioted  to  be 
a  Thotbiuea,finaUy  drove  them  oat.  lite  moDiunaiit 
of  an  officer,  named  Aahmes-PennebeD,  at  El  Eab, 
reoonntatliiaBiegeandhisexpIoite.  Fioolly,  aooording 
'  ~  Manetho,  they  departed  under  treaty-  The  great 
_terest  attaching  to  the  H.  ie,  that  they  were  con- 
founded with  the  Hebrews,  or  supposed  to  be  the 
monarchs  under  whom  Joseph  entered  Egypt,  by  the 
old  ecclesiastical  writere.  In  the  monuments  and  the 
papyrus  of  Turin,  in  which  portions  of  their  names 
occur  in  the  list  of  the  kings,  they  bear  the  full 
titles  of  monarchs,  althoiuh  the  papyri  state  that 
there  were  no  kings  in  Egypt  at  tiie  time,  and 
that  Taakaa  was  only  himseU  a  het,  or  prince  of 
the  sDDth-  The  H.,  on  a  contemporary  inscription 
remaining  at  El  Kab,  ore  called  Jfcno,  or  Shepherda. 
The  H.  were  by  no  means  the  devastating  conquerors 
desorihed  by  the  hiatorian.  They  entered  Egypt,  it 
appeara  from  the  monuments,  about  the  14tliBgyp- 
turn  dynas^,  and  were  content  with  inscribing  Ueir 
names  and  titles  on  the  monumenta  of  their  prede- 
cessors, iUxe  name  of  Appapus  having  been  found 
1  a  cabssus  of  Sebakhetp  UL  of  the  13th  dynasty, 
.  id  on  that  of  a  king  of  the  14th  dynasty  at  San. 
Traces  of  that  of  Saites  or  Salatia  have  been  also 
found  at  Tei-Mokdom  or  Cynopolis.  The  greatest 
divergence  of  opinion  has  prevoUed  amongst  authors 
OB  to  their  race  and  origin.  Josephus  calls  them 
Hebrews  or  Arabs;  Uie  Syncellus,  Fhcenieian 
shepherds.     They  have  also  been  supposed 


exhibit  no  foreign  peculiarities  ;   some  are  pnn^ 
Egyptian.    As  regards  the  date  of  the  E.  domtnion, 


Lepdus,  1842  B.  c.  Placing,  however,  the  discovered 
date  of  Thothmes  IIL,  1445  B,  c,  in  his  ISth  year, 
the  ckiee  of  H.  dominion  must  have  ended  abimt 
ICOOs-c 

Bunsen,  Egypt »  Flaee,  vol  iL  pp.  40S,  678  j 
Lepsios,  KSmgtbaeK;  Bolkh,  Manetlio,  pL  231 ;  De 
Verria,  J?eii,  Ardt.  (1861),  voL  iv-  p^  249;  Uariette, 
Rm.  Arch.  (1861),  vol  ill  pp-  97,  247,  337. 

HYL^OSAU'RUS  (Or.  forest-lizard),  a  huge 
dinoaaoriaa  reptile,  found  in  the  Wealden  strata  of 
Kent  and  Snasei.  Fra^ents  of  different  indi- 
viduals have  been  found  snfficient  to  give  an 
approiiniate  notion  of  the  affioities  and  great  size  of 
this  reptile.  The  bones  of  the  head  have  not  yet 
iDeen  observed ;  its  teeth  were  comparative^  small, 
and  close  set ;  they  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  a 
vegetable  eater.  The  body  was  broader  than  high, 
and  terminated  in  a  long  slender  flexible  tail ;  Uie 
Hmbs  were  relatively  short ;  the  skin  was  covered 
with  scutes  and  tubercles ;  and  a  row  of  very  large 


„,z.,dty  Google; 


ETUEH—HTHEIUGSS'mESU. 


thin  Big^if  hony  spiiua  extended  domi  tlie  back, 
and  formad  a  lerrated  dermnl  crest,  like  the  horn; 
■pines  of  the  modem  isnui&i      It  it  iappoeed  ' 
hftve  attained  a  length  3[  2S  feet    The  remaiw 
only  one  ipedei  have  been  foaud ;   it  haa  b« 
named  S.  Oiomi. 

HT'MEN,  or  HYMEIf^nS,  in  Grecian 
nqr^bology,  the  god  of  marri^ ;  but  originally,  the 
wMd  Mens  to  nave  denoted  only  the  bridal-aong 
wfaidh  wai  tang  by  the  oampaoionB  of  the  brido  ~ 
■ike  went  fnun  Mr  fatbei'^  house  to  that  of  t 


#  oonceming  him  a 


of  Apollo  and 
represented  as  a  boy 
with  wina  and  a  Ksrlaod,  a  bw[er  and  graver 
Cnpid,  wiu  a  bridal-toroh  and  a  vul  in  hlg  bsndg. 

HTMBKOTTBiBA  (Gr.  membrane-winged),  an 
order  of  inaecrti,  contaimng  a  very  great  Dumbn  of 
■peciea,  estimated  at  aboat  one-tourth  of  the  whole 
dan,  and  of  which  wnne,  M  ants  and  bees,  are 


tearing,  but  the  other  parta  of  the  month  are  adapted 

for  suctian,  and  are  geDerany  nurow  and  elongated, 

often  united  into  a  kind  ot  proboeds,  a*  in  bees. 

Sea  Bkx.     The  antennn  are  generally  slender,  bat 

often  exhibit  differencee  in  tne  sexes  of  the  nme 

■pBctes.     The  wings  are   fonr 

^^L  in  number,  the  tirst  pair  larger 

^^^^  than  the  seoond,  the  wins*  td 

V^k^      the  same  aide  nnitsd  in  flight 

^^■^r      by  little   hcxike.    -The   wings, 

^^^         when  at  rest,  are  laid  one 

Winit  of  Hone;  Bee.  another  horieontallr  ovei 


membianoiu,  i 


body.     The  m 


bodv. 
^eulat 


le  Nevreiptera, 

bnt  with  oompamtively  few  nermrBS,  the  arrange- 
ment of  which  is  so  constant  in  the  whole  order, 
that  particiilar  names  have  been  giTsn  to  thou  and 
to  the  spaces  between  them,  and  their  diversities 
luve  been  mode  use  of  in  classification.  The 
winfa  are  wanting  in  the  imperfectly  dersloped 
fem^aa  (Muleri)  of  some.  Besidea  Uie  ordinaiy 
eyu,  d  the  E.  hare  three  small  siinide  (or  Man- 
rnoUc)  eyes  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  abdomen 
U  gcmeralty  united  to  the  thorax  \^  ■  dender 
pedicle,  llie  abdomen  of  the  femalea  is  gmemtlh 
Amished  with  an  organ  capable  of  being  protruded, 
bi^  for  different  purposes  in  different  seetions  of 
the  order,  it  beiju  in  some  of  tiie  hymenoptenms 
tribe*  an  oripositor  or  borer,  and  in  oBieii  a 
sting.  The  H.  in  their  perfect  state  genenilly 
feea  on  honey,  bat  name  of  them  prey  on  other 
insects,  which  ore  the  food  at  the  lame  of  a  greater 
number;  whilst  the  larne  of  Bome  feed  on  various 
vegetable  substsnoea.  The  metamorphoeee  of  the 
inActa  of  this  onier  are  perfect ;  the  lam  He 
gensndly — although  not  in  all  the  families — desti- 
tnte  ot  feet ;  the  pupn  take  no  food.  The  H.  are 
remaricAble  for  the  dilatation  of  the  (racAea  or  air- 
tubes  into  vencles,  and  the  ^erol  perfection  of  the 
respiratoi7  system.  The  instmeta,  and  even  apparent 
Intelligence^  din^yed  b^  soma  ri  them — poitieu- 
lariy  ue  wcfoJ  kinds,  which  live  i>  ecmmaiiities — 
have  eoceited  adniiralion  fnxu  the  eariiest  times. — 
tba  order  i*  divided  into 


■ting.     To  the  fotmer 
flies,  sall-ffiea,  ichnemaons,  &a. ;  to  the  latter 
ants,  beM,  wasps,  ftc 

BYME'TTTTS,  a  monntoin  in  Attica,  now  called 
Tielo  Vouni,  situated  to  the  sonth-east  of  Athena, 
and  famona  among  the  ancients  for  its  honer  and 
Ha  marble.    The  honey  still  retuns  its  reputation. 


HTHN,  a  canticle  of  pmise  or  of  [smyar  addiaaed 
to  the  divine  honour.  The  word  in  its  strict 
aooeptation  supposes  a  certain  meteical  stmctme, 
or  at  least  some  kind  of  rhythmical  r^Ht^tr^, 
The  use  of  hymns  dates  from  the  eslieat  days 
of  Chrirtianity  (Uatt  xxvL  30;  CoL  iii.  16); 
but  ouf  information  as  to  the  hymna  of  the 
early  ana,  and  still  more  as  to  their  anthrax  is 
extremely  imperfeot.  The  Te  Daan  is  vaiionslj 
aaoribed  to  St  Ajabnwe,  St  Hilary,  to  AbondinA, 
monk  named  SissabuL     To  Pmdentins, 


oft 


M  I>ui  IfwUbu.    Even  the  m 


•m  of  the  aathoffs 


nystny. 

are  known  as  the  prodactlona  of  Sednlio^  of 
Fottnnatua,  of  Paul  the  Deacon,  of  3t  Bernard, 
and  St  Thomaa.  The  nmnber  of  hymn-wtiten  in 
the  mndem  laueuagea  is  so  great  as  to  predoda 
the  possibility  of  any  eniunemticsi.  The  moat  oom- 
plete  modem  ooUaction  of  medieval  Latin  hymns 
IS  Uone's  Hytrnii  Lafiai  Medii  Mm,  3  vols,  flvo., 

Friburg,  laae. 

HYOSOY  AHUB.    See  Hkitbaks. 

HTPATIA,  dAoghter  of  Tbeon,  an  Mtronomer 
and  mathematician  of  Aleiondrio,  and  head  of  the 
Neo-Platonio  school  in  that  city,  was  born  in  the 
latter  port  of  the  4th  ceutory.  She  was  emully 
remarkable  for  her  lieant^,  her  wisdom,  and  luf 
tragic  fate.  From  her  eorEeat  yontb,  she  exhibited 
">  Mnamng  intelligence,  in  consequence  of  wliieh, 
father,  one  of  the  moat  erudite  savani  of  his 
time,  resolved  to  give  her  genius  a  thonni^klj 
philosophic  culture.  She  auoxeded  her  father  in 
the  chiiir  of  philosophy  at  Alexandria;  and  the 
fame  of  her  lectures  drew  round  her  students 
from  oil  parts  of  the  East  where  the  influence  of 
Oicek  thought  and  knowledge  was  felt.  H.  scuus 
to  have  be^  worthy  of  the  lofty  eult^ea  she  haa 
received.  Amid  the  widespread  corrupttons  of  Alex- 
ived  as  spotless  aa  a  vestal ;  a>d  if 
was  not  one  that  oould  lay  a  stmnfi 
vices  ot  heathenism,  and  anrest  tbeir 
N  at  least  soffident  not  only  to  pre- 

_ .  -   from  pollution,  bnt  ^so  to  insiwe  bo' 

with  a  love  of  l>eanty,  truth,  and  goodness,  that  was 
Christian  in  its  spirit  and  earnestness,  if  heathen 
md  limitatioDS.  The  citizens  of  Alex- 
andria were  proud  of  her ;  and  such  relionca  was 
plaoed  on  hv   judgment   and  sagacity,  that  tha 

'--' — '-~  used  trsquentlyto  oonault  her  on  impot- 

Among  those  who  were  most  intimate 
with  her  was  Orestes,  prefect  of  tike  d^.  At  this 
time,  the  Kstiop  of  Alexandria  waa  Cyril  (q.  v.),  a 
fierce  hater  of  heathens  and  heretics.  Detesting 
Orestes,  whom  he  sospectad  of  being  no  tme  Chris- 
tun,  and  who  had  drawn  l^l  an  aocusation  aninst 
i-_  , -^ . 1.  1. ___.  __  ^  „j 


him  bx  exciting  a  tumult,  he  ti 


deserts,  who,  headed  by  one  Peta. 
a  reader,  attacked  H.  in  the  streets  as  she  was 
returning  from  her  lecture-ioom.  The  maiden  was 
dragged  from  her  chariot,  hurried  to  the  Cnsarian 
Chuich,  where  she  was  stripped  naked,  and  murdersd 
with  tiles,  after  which  she  was  tem  to  pjeoca,  nnd 
her  limbs  carried  '^"  "  -'---  — "-'  ™ 
there  burned  to  aal 


s,416l. 


hyGOOglO 


HYPERBOLA— HYPEETROPHT. 


nerm.  Hni«naiUi«au  of  tba  cntaneoni  nerra*  i« 
namfasted  by  jAin  in  iti  Tuioni  modi&otions, 
which  ii  BOmttaaea  intenaely  nrere,  >■  in  1^ 
Donlonroni  (q.  v.),  while  hTpenestheaik  o(  the 
nerres  of  ajjecuJ  seiue  ii  mknifeated  b^  phvi' 
tasms,  iUaDonB,  JEC  The  following  points  ue 
eammon  to  Uie  whole  cUei  of  these  Affectum*:  1. 
Periodici^,  or  the  iltemationfl  of  piroiyanu  wid 
intermiiBioDS ;  2.  Uniformity  and  peniitenee  of 
the  BTmptonu,  however  long  the  dniv^Dn  of  the 
diauae;  S.  So  danger  to  uFe;  4.  Freedom  irvm 
thJM  clan  of  diieaaM  in  early  Uf  e.  Of  Vb»  diteaaes 
prediiposing  to  hjpenMtheaia,  hTiteri*  la  far  the 
nioet  irsqtient;  Imt  it  ia  aometiinea  Indooed  hj 
rheomatiam,  gont,  akin-diaeaaei,  fta 

HTPEHBOLA.  If  two  similar  conea  be  placed 
apex  to  apex,  and  with  the  linea  joining  the  apex 
ud  centre  at  baie  in  each,  in  a  atxught  line ; 
then  if  x  plane  which  doe«  not  paaa  thtoogh  the 
apex  be  made  to  cut  both  conea,  each  of  the 
two  aeddoni  irill  be  »  %)«rioZa,  aa  FBN.  FA]?-. 
It  ia,  viewed  ut^rtically,  the  kxnu  of  the  point  to 
whidi  the  stiai^t  lines  EP,  FP  difTeiiiig  hy  a 
constant  qoaatitjr  are  dmwn  from  two  jirenpomta, 
E  and  P.    TheM  giren  pomti  are  called  tlie  /oci. 


ddwy  I 


hypertxilm.  A  line  throiu^  O  ptcpendioalar  to 
the  tranavene  uda  ia  called  tiie  OMfrn^ote  axit;  and 
a  cirole  described  from  cmtra  B,  witit  •  ndioa 
eqaal  to  P(>,  will  oat  tli«  conjn^te  axis  in  0  and  D. 
If  O  be  taken  for  the  origin  of  oo-ordinateB,  and  EM 
and  ET*  for  flie  axes,  the  hjpeAok  ia  axpresMd  by 

the  equation^ -^  =  I.  (GB  =  o,GC  =  &).  The 
hyperbola  is  Hhe  only  eonie  section  which  has 
Aaymptotea  (q.  T.) ;  in  the  flgnre  thew  are  OT,  QT* ; 
GS,  OS'.  It  also  appeals  t^t  if  tha  axes  of  co- 
onUnatas  b«  toniad  at  right  aa^ea  to  their  former 
pootion,  two  additional  corfea,  UCK,  HDE',  will 


be  formed,  whoae  eqnatioa 


-^=1.     These 


two  are  called  coi^ugate  haperboltit,  and  hare  the 
same  atymptotea  aa  the  original  byperbolas.  Theae 
aaymptotee  hare  the  following  renutfkable  property : 
If  t*tAH^g  from  O)  the  asymptotes  be  mviaed  m 
continned  proportdon,  and  from  the  points  of  eeetion 
lines  be  drawn  parallel  to  the  other  amiqitoteh  the 
areas  contained  Dy  two  adjacent  paraUels  and  the 
correspondins  parts  of  the  asymiAoto  and  enrre  are 
equal ;  also  tinea  dnnra  from  tb«  centra  to  two 
odjaceotpoints  of  section  of  the  cmre,  enoloae  equal 

iri ^_.  --fl  tiie  iqrperbols  when  refarted 

y  a  ni ;  which  shews  that  as 
')  geometrical  progression, 

HTPBTlBOLfi  (Gi 
tbrow)  is  the  name  gi?  ,    , 

whicli  erprtssioss  are  employed  tnat,  taken  literally. 


signify  more  thu  is  reslly  meant.  The  nse  of  the 
flgnre  it  to  arrest  tha  attention.  Hyperbole  ia 
the  basis  of  many  metaphors.  Thni^  we  call  Nero 
a  'monster;'  Tamerlans,  a  'tiger;'  and  so  on. 

HTFEBBCRKANS  <tlwt  is,  dwellers  biyond 
Boreas  or  the  North  Wind),  B  name  given  l^the 
aodenU  to  all  the  unknown  peoples  of  the  West 
sod  North.  Tha  Greeks  imagined  the  country  north 
of  the  Rhipfean  (generally  snppeeed  to  be  the  Ural) 
Moimtains  to  I^  inhabited  by  the  H.,  and  their 
residence  was  gradually  refecred  to  more  distant 
regions;  bat  it  was  univenally  supposed  that,  as 
the  lavoaritee  of  Apollo,  they  enjoyed  a  tAirartrial 


North  Amarioa.  The  leaves  are  generally  oovaied 
with  pellocid  dots,  and  the  edges  of  the  leaves:, 
sepsis,  and  petals  bordered  with  Uaok  glands. 
The  staaxens  are  united  at  the  base,  and  groiq>ed 
6  bondlea. — The  speoies  of  Vimitia 
-  "'  '  Many  ot 

r  8t  John's 


of  Britain,  adorning  woods,  bsaths,  &«.,  wiUi  their 
bri^t  yetiow  flowen.  S.  eal^eimmt,  a  spreading 
■hrabt^  apadco,  natonlised  m  aonis  plaoea  in 
Britain,  has  Ainm*  moie  tikaa  two  mohia  in 
diametar.  S.  pa-firahMit,  the  oooimon  or  true  St 
John's  Wor^  has  astringent  propertieis  and  is  uaad 
for  gafslea  and  Ibtiona,  and  internally  in  dysente^, 
Ao,  al&DD^  not  noognised  in  the  phaimaoqMBUii 
SnperBldtaoDB  notima  aM  eonneotad  with  it  in  many 
ports  «i  Europe,  partisnlarly  when  gathered  on  the 
day  of  St  Jobi  the  Bi^tisb — S.  Androtasmtttn  {ta 
JndroKmwon  qftcsnol^,  commonly  called  Tutsan,  a 
pre|bfy  «ogunon  nativa  of  Britain,  with  beny-l^ 
iniit.  was  nnea  in  great  esteem  as  a  vnlnmry. 
Its  fWith  name  is  Tultim,  froa  the  rtenak  (mt 
taint.  Ml  whole. 

HTPEIUON.    See  Tttaub, 

HT-PEBSTHENE,  a  mineral  closely  related  to 
■ngito  and  dlsQage.  It  is  a  bisilicate  of  iron  and 
— ~  — '"    It  is  ctystalljne,  bat  often  foond  granular 


Viewed  in  one  directioii.  with 
reference  to  its  cleavage  planes,  it  is  copper-coloored, 
in  another  it  ia  dark  brown.  When  cut  and  polished, 
it  is  cherry-ted,  with  ■  peaily  histre^  and  U  valued 
for  rinn,  brooches,  fto.  The  finest  ■pectmens  ore 
broo^t  fram  the  coast  of  Labrador,  although  it  is 
found  in  Norway.  Sweden,  Germany,  flooUaud,  ft& 


..    .   .  found  in  connection  wHh  felspir, 

forming  Hyperdhene  mek,  a  rare  kind  of  trap  rock. 

HTPE'BTBOPHT  (Gr,  over-nonrisbment)  is  the 
term  apf^ed  in  medlciue  to  the  enlargement  of 
certain  o^ona  of  the  body.  The  best  examples  of 
this  change  are  seen  in  the  motcnlar  Efatem,  where 
it  may  occur  altogether  independently  of  disease. 
The  huge  bossca  ot  2esh  that  stand  prominently 
forward  m  the  arm  of  a  blaokamlth  or  ol  a  pugilist, 
and  in  the  leg  of  an  opn«-daacor,  sie  illuatrations 
of  hyperbophy,  where  the  general  health  nay  be 

Srfect.  In  double  organs,  such  oa  the  kidaeys  and 
[iga,  if  the  organ  on  one  side  d^nerates  through 
disfann,  the  organ  on  the  opposite  side  is  often 
found  to  enlarge,  and  carry  on  double  work.  In 
these  cases,  hypertrophy  ia  an  effect  of  disease, 
but  is  at  the  same  time  a  resource  of  nature  to 
preserve  fifcL 
There  ar^  however,  cases  in  which  the  hyper- 
I  trophy  has  a  hurtful  instead  of   a   conservaUva 


tyCuui^le 


effeat,  at,  for  eiiniple,  b< 


hypertrophj  of  t] 
i£aeue  known  % 


o  typCT- 


Hr  P&get,  ths  conditioni  which  _ 
trOTihy :  1.  The  increased  exercise  oC  a  part  in  in 
heuthj  function ;  2.  An  increued  accumtilation,  in 
the  blimd,  of  the  paiticnlar  materials  which  a  '■pt^ 
appropriate*  in  its  nutrition  or  in  secretion ;  3.  An 
increaied  afflnz  of  healthy  blood.  In  hypertrophj 
of  the  moMnlar  tiiune,  the  fint  and  thira  of  these 
conditions  are  present.  In  hypertrophy  of  the 
fat^  tissoe,  oonstituting  obesity,  there  is  on  excess 
cf  ut  or  of  its  chief  element*  in  the  blood. 

HT'PHASIS.    8ee8uTLEJ. 

HT'FHBN  (Qr.  t«ether,  in  one),  the  name 
SiTen  to  a  mark  in  wribng,  thus  (■),  indicating  that 
two  wotda  or  ayllables  are  to  be  connected;  e.  g., 
bnll-fi^t. 

HT'PNOTISH  (fnnn  the  Greek  word  hypTiot, 
sleep)  i»  a  t«nn  ioTeated  by  the  late  Mr  Biaid,  of 
Manchester,  to  designate  certain  phenomena  of  the 
nervous  system  which  in  many  respects  resemble 
those  which  are  indaced  bj  animal  mignstiain,  but 
which  dearly  arise  from  the  physical  and  psychical 
oonditioQ  of  the  patient,  and  not  from  any  eman- 
ation iSDceedin);  from  others.  The  following  are 
his  directions  for  indoctng  the  phenomena,  and 
«specially  the  peculiar  ueep-like  condition  of 
hypnotinn.  Take  a  silver  lancet-case  or  other 
bnghC  object,  and  hold  it  between  the  fingers  of 
the  left  hand,  about  a  foot  from  the  eyes  of  the 
penoD  exporimented  on,  in  such  a  position  above 
the  forehead  aa  to  prodnce  the  greatest  stiain  on 
the  eyes  compatihle  with  a  steady  fixed  stare  at 
the  object.  The  patient  must  be  directed  to  rivet 
his  mind  on  the  object  at  which  he  is  gazing.  His 
pupils  will  first  contract,  but  soon  dilate  conaider- 
ablv;  and  if,  after  they  are  well  dilated,  the  fint 
and  second  fingers  of  the  operator's  right  hand, 
extended  and  a  little  separ^ed,  ata  carried  from 
the  object  towards  the  eyes,  the  eyelids  will  most 
probably  dooe  with  a  vibratory  motion.  After  ten 
or  fifteen  seconds  have  elapsed,  it  will  be  fonnd 
that  the  patient  retaiiu  his  aims  and  legs  in  any 
poation  in  which  the  opentor  places  them.  It  will 
also  be  lonnd  that  all  the  special  seoses,  excepting 
light,  are  at  first  extremely  exalted,  as  also  are  the 
mnacnlar  sense  and  the  seDsibUity  of  heat  and  cotd ; 
but  after  a  time  the  exaltation  of  function  is  followed 
by  a  state  of  depression  far  greater  than  the  torpor 
of  natural  sleep.  The  patient  is  now  thoroughly 
hypnotised.  The  ripdity  of  the  muscles  and  the  pro- 
foond  torpor  of  the  nervous  system  may  be  instaatly 
iwooved,  and  an  opposite  condition  indocad  by 
directing  a  current  of  air  against  the  moscles  which 
we  wish  to  render  limber,  or  the  organ  we  wish 
to  excite  to  action ;  and  then  by  mere  repoee  the 
senses  will  speedily  regain  their  original  condition. 
If  a  current  of  air  directed  against  the  face  is  not 
snfficient  to  arouse  the  patient,  pressure  and  friction 
should  be  applied  to  the  eyehda,  and  the  arm  or 
leg  sharply  struck  with  the  open  hand. 

From  the  careful  analysiB  of  a  large  number  of 
experiments,  Hr  Brifd  is  led  to  the  conclusion,  that 
by  a  continual  fixation  of  the  mental  and  visual  eye 
npon  an  object,  with  absolute  repose  of  body  and 
genend  qnietude,  a  feeling  of  stupor  supervenes, 
which  render*  Uie  patient  liable  to  be  readily 
affected  in  the  manner  already  described.  As  tha 
experiment  succeeds  with  the  bhnd,  he  considers 
that  '  it  is  not  so  much  the  optic,  as  the  sentient, 
motor,  and  ^fmpathetio  nerves,  and  tie  mind, 
throng  whioli  the  impremon  is  made.' 

ISa^  of  the  minor  opentioat  of  mgnj  have 


been  performed  on  patients  in  the  hypnotiaad  atati  I 

without  pain,  and  hypnotism  has  besm  ancccBsfoDy  I 
employed  aa  a  Uierapeutic  agent  in  nnmenma  foma 

oE  disease,  especially  such  ss  have  their   Mat   tm  ^ 

H]/pnoUe  Tlurapmtic*  was  published  by  Mr  Bt«id 
in  the  ITth  volume  of  The  MimMv  Jomnud  of 
Mtdiad  Seieim  (IB53).  I 

HY'FOOAUST,  a  foim  of  furnace  mneh  oaed  hj 
the  Bomans,  for  the  purpose  of  heating  ittbt  a^ 
apartments.     The  fad  is  placed  in  a  chamba  nndcr  I 
the  fioor,  and  the  «nioke  and  heated  air  are  mwb  j 
to  circulate  round  the  walls  and  under  the  fioor,   | 
by  means  of  hollow  tnhea,  or  a  hollow  lioiDjt     Hie 
full  benefit  of  the  fire  is  thus  obtained,  in^Laee  tt  I 
a  large  portion  of  the  heat  being  allowed  to  escape, 
OS  it  does,  in  the  case  of  an  open  fireplace,  up  Uie  I 
chimney.    The  Komans  invariablr  used  this  form 
of  furnace  for  heating  their  dwellmg-hoiuies,  snd  in  i 
aU  the  Boman  houses  which  have  been  disoorcitvd  I 
in  this  country,  remains  have  been  fonnd  of  the  i 
hypocausL     It  is  now  coming  again  into  ose  for  | 
heating  the  so-called  '  Tnikish  Bauis.' 

HYPOCH^^RIS,    a    genns    of    plants    of    the   I 
natural  order  Compotiia,  sub-order  Ctc/toraeea,  o( 
which    one   species,   S.  radicata,   or   Long-rooted  I 
CatVear,  is  extremeW  common  in  meadows    and 
pastures  in  Britain.    Its  leaves  sra  all  tadicsl,  and  i 
spread  on   the  ground,  resembling  in  form   those  ' 
of  the  dandelion,  but  rou^;  the  stem  is  branched,  i 
the  Uowers  not  unlike  those  of  the  dandelion,  bat 
smaller.      Cattle   eat   this  plant   readily,   and   its  ' 
abundance  is  not  deemed  mjuriona  to  pasture  or  j 
fodder.  I 

HTPOCHLO'ROtJS  ACID  (CIO)  is  m  imik  red  j 
fluid,  which,  at  a  temperature  of  aboat  70*,  becosDM  ' 
converted  into  an  orange-coloured  gaa,  which  veir  j 
readily  explodes  into  its  ultimate  constituents.  A 
watery  solution  of  this  gat  has  a  penebstiu^  ' 
chlorine-like  odour,  a  caustic  action  on  the  toagae,  \ 
colonrs  the  skin  brown,  and  if  applied  for  snj  I 
length  of  time,  causes  it  to  ulcerate.  It  is  the  j 
active  ingredient  of  the  different  bleaching-powden  i 
and  salts.  Its  salts — the  hypochlorites^ — present  I 
very  much  the  same  odour  as  the  acid.  Thcai  j 
solutions  Ueach  organic  pigments,  such  as  Utmst 
and  indigo,  and  are  employ^  largely  as  bleaching   j 


HYPOCHO'NDBRg  (Or. Aww, under;  cAoatfrut. 
a  cartilage]  are  the  two  lateralanid  anperior  regiosv 
of  the  Abdomen  {q.  v.)  under  the  cartiljtgca  of 
the  false  ribs,  and  to  the  right  and  left   <rf  the 

HTPOCHONDRI'ASIS  (u  calU  from  its  sap-  i 
posed  connection  with  the  hypochondriac  regiosis  td  I 
the  abdomen),  a  diaaaaa  chaiaeteriaed  by  ezln^>  | 
increase  of  Bensibility,  palpitationa,   minlikl   feel- 
ings that   simulata   the  greater  pari  of   iliwsis. 
exi^gerated    ""»"'"»"   and   anxie^,    chiefly    in 
what  concerns  the  health,  to.     In  eittmia  esses 
it  becomes  a  species  of  insanity  (see  below^     "Urn 
disesse  is  intimately  connected  with,  if  not  csnscd 
by,  disorder  of  the  digestive  functions.    See  bnl- 


Hypodumdriaeal  Iruanity, — Wben 
disposition  and  anxiety  concerning  peieonal   txta- 
fort  become  exaggerated,  and  attention  ia  dira:tcd   ! 
chiefly  to  the  state  of  the  health,  it  amoanta  to  | 
common  hypochondriasis.    When  it  passes  b«ynad 
the  control   of  the  will,  when  the  whde  ami  a 
directed  to  the  state  of  the  system,  or  to  psiticiilar  i 
organs,  and  exalts  and  mtainterprets  sensatiuis,  tbe 
condition  is  designated  hypochondriacal  inssnitj. 
Hie  disease  may  oe  described  u  the  engrossment 
of  the  attention  by  false  iffiprossiona  oonvfrysd,  er 


tyCoogle 


HTPOSTASm-HYPOTHISia 


oonceived  to   be   coaveyed,  front  iatemal  organs. 
ThoK  MiimtioDa  au-j,  in  sum;  ioBtoncea,  be  real, 

and  pmoaed  from  ootiul  altemliioiu  in  <Jie  strac- 
tar«  or  {unctioaA  of  the  parta  Bupposed  to  ba 
affected;  but  theymay  likewise  congist  of  ordmary 
nDsationi,  excited  and  intensified  by  the  act  of 
attention  which  makes  them  known  to  the  patient. 
Neither  the  experience  nor  the  aufTeiings  of  the 
Tictimi  are  imaginaTy,  howeret  aheurd  their  errors, 
and  howsrer  gRMmdleaa  their  appreheimoiia  caay  be ; 
the  diieaae  conaista  in  the  ezaltatioa  of  tensibility 
and  attention,  and  in  the  deluiiona  which  originate 
in  that  morbid  atate.  A  man  lives  in  constant  fear 
id  death ;  he  ia  firmly  convinced  that  he  laboun 
under  oanoer,  oonsumpdon,  diaease  of  the  heart,  and 
livei  npon  ^ugs ;  that  hia  stomach,  or  bowels,  are 
ccDtracted,  or  the  abode  of  frogs,  a  fcetus,  or  aa 
army  of  soldiers  ;  that  his  legs  are  transEormod  into 
dssB  or  ice;  that  his  whole  body  has  assumed  the 
uiape  of  a  teapot,  or  the  magnitude  of  a  hippopotamus. 
It  ui  often  a  precoiBor  of  melancholia,  as  m  the  case 
o£  Cowper  the  poet,  and  other  kinds  of  alienation ; 
bot  it  must  likewise  be  regarded  aa  a  distinct 
and  independeiit  ^Section,  traceable,  generally,  to 
dyipepeia,  or  disorder  of  the  digestive  and  assimila- 
tive  apparatus.  It  is  probable  that  shades  and  deneea 
of  thjs  malady  may  constihite  those  links  \rtiich 
connect  partially  healthy  from  absolutely  unsoand 
minds.  In  females,  thare  aro  often  added  to  the 
phenomena  already  described  many  of  the  eymp- 
toma  of  hysteria  and  great  impressionability,  and 
vven  convulsivo  affections ;  there  ia  likewise  encoun- 
tered the  simulation  of  diseases,  the  tendency  to 
deceive  others  after  having  deceived  themselves  into 
the  belief  that  they  are  invalids,  and  labouring 
under  grievous  and  incurable  disorders.  Th^  crave 
sympaUiy  and  support,  as  subject  to  auctions 
of  the  spine,  the  jomts,  the  lungs.  They  abstain 
from  food,  or  devour  inedible  and  disgoatiDg  sub- 
stances ;  ^ey  writhe  in  what  appears  eioniciaiting 
pain,  and  they  voluntarily  sustain  great  suffsring 
during  the  treatment  of  their  fancied  ulmenls.  A 
patient  of  Dr  Pa£e,  Carlisle,  underwent  amputation 
of  the  finger,  wnst^  forearm,  and  ultimately  of  the 
arm,  in  otder  to  be  relieved  of  sores  which  she  pro- 
duced. Certain  of  the  maladies  which  ore  pretended, 
or  feared,  or  fonded,  appear  to  be  called  into  exist- 
ence under  the  morbid  inSuence  of  volition :  and 
there  are  strong  grounds  for  believing  that  the 
coDcentration  of  attention  upon  a  particular  function, 
not  merely  interferes  with  its  exercise,  bot  disturbs 
the  phyaicol  condition,  and  leads  to  degeneration  of 
the  tissue  of  the  organ  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  capillary  congestion,  or  evolution  of  nerve-foroe. 
— Foltet,  De  VHjwodumdrie  et  da  Suicide  (1822)  ; 
Andrew  Combe^  On  Hvpoohondriaais,  Phrenol/igicai 
Jfmnuii,  voL  iiL  p.  61  >  Cheyne,  The  English  Malady 
(1733)  ;  Arnold,  Obttrtjotioru  on  Naiare,  Kinds,  Ac, 
o/IiuKOtUy  (1782). 

HYPO'STASIS  (Gr.  Hypotlatit,  subsisteace),  the 
term  employed  by  Qreek  theological  writers  to 
designate  the  distinct  subsistence  of  the  three 
persona  of  the  Trinity.  Originally,  the  meaning  of 
the  word  was  unsettled.  It  was  used  by  the  Fathcra 
of  tbe  council  of  Nice,  in  the  sense  of  ovMa,  essence 
or  substance,  and  this  confusion  of  phraseology 
onpplied  the  most  fonnidable  weapon  to  tbe  semi- 
Arians  in  the  coutroversy  about  the  Homoomdan 
(q.  v.).  The  use  of  tho  word  hypostasis,  however, 
was  settled  at  a  synod  held  by  Athanosius  in  357, 
in  Trhich  it  was  fully  distinguished  from  otwio, 
and  explained  as  synonymous  with  prompon,  which 
tbe  Tj.tiTi«  rendered  by  ptnana,  person.  From  this 
time,  the  word  was  adopted  into  tho  theol<%ical 
lan^a^  of  the  Latin  Chnroli,  in  which  it  is  used 
mdisonnunately  with  oerKmo. 
240 


HTPOSTA'TIO  UNION  (Gr.  HypaHatit. 
person),  ■  onion  of  natures  or  subatencea  so  inti- 
mate aa  to  constitute  one  undivided  person.  The 
term  is  used  to  describe  the  mystermus  union  of 
the  divine  and  human  natures  in  Christ,  in  virtue 
whereof,  while  each  nature  is  complete,  even  after 
1,  yet  each  merges  its  separate  personality  in 
mdivided  person  of  the  God-man,  to  which  all 
ictioDS,  whether  divine  or  buioan,  are  ascribed. 
This  form  of  expreesion  was  devised  for  the  purpose 
of  excluding  the  doctrine  of  a  mero  moral  union  held 
•"■  NeatonuB.      See   MoNOFHYSiiia,   NsaTOBiiSfl, 

HYPO'TBNUSE,    or    HYPO'THENUSE,    the 

ime  of  that  side  in  a  rifdit-aogled  triaagle  which 
opposite  to  the  right  an3e.  'Hie  well-kaown  pro 
perty  of  the  hypotenuse,  Uiat  the  square  describee 
on  it  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  tquares  described  oi 
the  other  two  sides,  is  proved  in  the  famous  47th 
pr^jsition  of  the  first  boot  of  Euclid's  Element*, 
and  has,  in  the  sixth  book,  been  generalised  ii 
the  following  form  :  The  figure  described  on  I 
hypotenuse  is  equal  to  the  similar  figures  described 
on  the  other  two  sides.  It  is  said  that  the  47tii 
proposition  was  discovered  by  Pythagoras,  who  was 
so  overjoyed  at  his  cood  fortune,  that  he  sacrificed 
~  'lecstomb  to  the  Muses.  Camerer,  in  his  edition 
Euclid,  gives  seventeen  different  demonstrations 
of  this  proposition, 

HY'POTHBC,  a  term  in  tbe  law  of  Scotland, 
it  not  used  in  England,  to  denote  a  lien  or  security 
er  goods  in  respect  of  a  debt  due  by  the  owner  ' 
the  ^ods.  Thus,  a  landlord  has  a  hj^pothec  o 
the  lumitoro  or  crops  of  his  tenant  in  respect  of 
the  current  rent ;  so  a  law-agent  or  attorney  has  a 
^pothec  over  the  title-deeds  of  hia  client  in  respect 
:  nis  Bocount  or  bill  of  oosts.     In  England,  these 

Shti  are  called  liens,  and  are  not  so  liberally 
owed.  See  Paterson'a  Comp.  qfE.  and  S.  Law, 
C94.  There  is  also  a  hypothec  in  favour  of  ■ 
en  over  the  freight  in  reelect  of  their  wages. 
HYPOTHECATION  is  the  pawning  of  a  ship 
for  necessaries,  or  to  raise  money  in  some  criticfd 
emergency. 

HYPOTHESIS.  In  endeavouring  to  explou 
natural  phenomena,  we  have  often  to  assomo  o 
ine  a  cause,  which,  in  the  first  instance,  we  d 
now  to  be  the  real  cause,  but  which  may  be  estab- 
i  as  such  when  we  iind  that  its  consequences 
agree  with  the  phenomenon  to  be  explained.  Every 
genuine  theory  was  at  one  stage  a  mere  conjecture, 
and  became  a  true  theory  in  consequence  of  being 
proved  or  verified  by  the  proper  methods.  Thus, 
when  it  occurred  to  Newton  that  the  force  of  gravity 
on  the  earth,  oa  exemplified  in  falling  bodies,  might 
extend  to  tho  distance  of  the  moon,  and  mi^f  *" 
the  power  that  compelled  it  to  circle  round 
earth,  instead  of  going  off  in  a  straight  line  through 
space,  the  suggestion  was  only  an  hypothesis,  until 
such  time  ss  he  was  able  to  shew  that  it  accounted 
eiactly  for  the  facts,  and  then  it  became  a  theory. 

constitutes  a  legitimate  hypothesis,  there  being 
manifesUy  some  necessary  Umita  to  the  process  (^ 
imagining  piifisihle  causes.  The  case  that  bos  chiefly 
conbibuted  to  make  this  a  question  is  the  celebrated 
undulatory  theory  of  light,  a  theory,  or  hjrpothcsis 
rather,  remarkable  not  only  for  tho  ^lent  to  wt '  ' 
it  explains  the  facta,  but  for  having  led  to 
discovery  of  new  facts  by  way  of  inference  from  the 
theory  itself.  Notwithstanding  all  this  amount  of 
coincidence,  the  ethereal  substance  whose  uudula- 
tions  are  snppoaed  to  constitute  light  in  ita  passage 
from  the  sou  to  tbe  earth,  is  not  known  to  have 
a  real  existence.      It  is  an  imaginary  element, 


CglizodtyL-iOOgle 


HTFOZAinmilE— HTBAOOTEEBinM. 


happily  ooootiyeA  u  to  expreu  with  fidelity  a  seriea 
of  extremely  complicated  phenomena.  Thla  wai 
not  the  character  of  INewtou'i  hypothesis  at  to  the 
notioa  of  the  moon ;  the  power  supposed  by  him 
(the  earth's  nari^)  was  an  aotnal  or  eiistiiu:  force, 
aod  all  he  did  was  to  rogeeet  tliat  it  eiteDded  as  far 
ai  the  mooo.  AocardineJy,  M.  Augoste  Comt«  and 
Mr  J.  S.  Mill  have  laid  it  down  as  the  condition  of 
a  sound  scientific  hypotbeaiB,  that  the  eaoHe  asBJAned 
to  the  phenomenon  in  quBatiDn  nhonld  be  either  a 
real  cause,  or  capable  of^  being  ascertained  to  be  a 
real  cause,  and  that  the  liberty  ^Tcn  to  the  scientiSc 
inquirer  should  be  oonSned  to  miOKining  its  opera- 
tion in  a  particular  sphere,  and  the  Taw  and  amount 
of  ita  operation,  since  both  these  could  be  verified 
by  experiment  and  calculation.  On  the  other  hand, 
J)r  Whewell  has  contended,  that  an  amount  of 
agreemeat  with  observed  facts,  such  as  has  been 
exemplified  by  the  unduhktory  hypothesis,  is  suffi- 
cient to  establiah  not  merely  an  hypothems,  but  a 
theory,  at  least  until  such  a  time  as  some  discordant 
facta  arise,  when  the  theory  must  be  modified  or 
abuidoned.  But  whatever  name  be  given  to  this 
class  of  suppositions,  it  is  evident  that  tlley  most 
be  deemed  mferior  in  scientific  value  t«  t^e  other 
class  of  suppositions,  where  no  cause  or  agent  is 
assumed  but  what  is  actually  known  to  exist,  and 
where  the  only  question  is,  the  presence  of  that 
aj^nt  in  such  manner  and  amount  as  to  tally 
with  the  observed  (acta.  Gravity,  heat,  eleotrioity, 
magnetism,  are  eetabliahed  natuial  agents,  and 
when  we  assume  any  one  of  these  aa  the  cause  ol 
some  phenomena,  we  are  on  safe  gronnd  so  far, 
that  if  it  he  once  shewn  that  they  are  actually  oper- 
ative in  the  case  we  are  dealioD  with,  and  that  their 
calculated  effect  exactly  coincides  with  the  obsn^ed 
effect,  the  explanation  is  complete  and  final ;  no 
gubseijuent  djocovery  can  disturb  a  conclusion 
eatablished  in  this  way.  But  if  we  have  to  assume 
the  very  agency  itself,  or  to  imi^ine  a  power  that 
we  have  no  experience  of,  the  coincidence  between 
the  laws  of  the  asanmed  agency  and  the  laws  of  the 
phenomena  producoa  at  best  but  a  temporary  or 
provisional  evidence,  which  is  liable  to  be  superseded 
whenever  a  still  better  imagined  machineir  shall 
ba  brought  forward.  Tbua,  in  the  case  of  light, 
the  first  hypothesiB,  that  of  Newton  himself  was  a 
stream  or  shower  of  oorpnscles ;  this  gave  waj^  to 
the  andalatory  ether,  whine  merit  lay  in  embracing 
the  facts  more  closely ;  but  we  have  no  security 
agunst  the  ultimate  preference  of  some  third  sap- 
position  wbiah  shall  displace  the  second,  a>  that  did 
the  first ;  while,  perhaps,  a  day  may  come  when  an 
agency  shall  be  proved  to  exist  cap^le  of  explaining 
the  phenomena.  Evan  granting  that  we  must 
sometimes  aasome  an  unsown  agent  (when  an 
effect  snrmn  to  be  beyond  the  power  (^  all  the 
recognised  forces),  yet,  in  ordinary  researchM,  it  is 
considered  a  grave  objection  if  the  assomed  agent 
be  of  such  a  subtle  or  occult  nature,  or  so  Ear 
removed  from  observation,  that  its  existence  does 
not  admit  of  being  proved.  Such  was  the  doctrine 
of  the  Cartesiaa  vortices,  and  such  are  any  hypo- 
theses as  to  the  shapes,  sizes,  and  distanoes  of^  the 
ultimate  atoms  irf  matter.  Such  also  is  the  doctrine 
of  nervous  fluids,  whereby  the  impulses  of  mind  are 
supposed  to  he  propagated  between  the  brain  and 
the  other  parts  A  Uie  body. 

HTFOXA'BTHIITE,  a  substance  toond  in  the 
■I^een  and  mnscles  of  the  heart  of  man,  and  in  tbe 
qtleen  and  blood  of  the  ox.  It  is  a  white  crystalline 
powder,  almost  insoluble  in  cold  hydroohloric  acid, 
very  sightly  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol,  and  requir- 
ing for  solution  in  water  109$  equiralenta  of  odd, 
«r  ISO  of  boiling  water.    Its  solution  has  a  neutral 


HTPSIIiAlTTia.    See  Yrvcuxit. 

HYRA'CBUM,  a  peculiar  substanoe  foond  in  the 
crevices  of  tbe  rocks  of  Table  Mountun,  Ciq>e  of 
Good  Hope.  It  is  one  or  more  of  tbe  excrements  of 
the  Cape  Hyrai  {ffyrax  CapmiU).  HylAceam  ia  a 
blockish- brown  viscid  matenal,  not  unlike  soft  pitch, 
having  a  strong  and  offensive  taste,  not  "ulifc* 
caatoreum,  for  wbich  it  has  been  used  as  a  substitate 
in  medicine.  At  one  time,  so  Urge  a  ijnaotity  waa 
found  OS  to  suggeet  the  idea  of  its  being  nsed  as  a 
.manure,  bat  the  supply  was  soon  exhausted,  amd 
only  a  small  qiioutity  is  now  imported  to  meet  tl>e 
demand  of  the  curious  phannaceutiHt. 

HYBACOTHE'EIUM,  a  genus  of  fossil  Paohy. 
deimata,  belonging  to  the  division  Ferrysodactyfa, 
the  gpinials  of  which  are  characterised  by  haviiu;  an 
odd  number  of  toes.  The  genus  was  founded  t^ 
Owen  on  the  fragmentary  remains  of  two  speciea 
found  in  Lower  £ocene  strata ;  a  third  species  fnmi 
the  same  beds  has  been  since  described  by  him 
from  more  complete  materials,  under  the  najoa 
Pliolophiit  vxiipvxpt ;  he  considers  it  only  a  mib- 
genus,  and  as  we  can  see  no  characteristics  to  aeponte 
it  generically  from  the  other  two,  we  place  it  hen 
aa  a  true  hyincothere.  Tbe  fosmi  was  discovered 
In  a  nodule  from  the  Roman  cement  bed  of  Vtte 
London  Clay  near  Harwich.  It  is  the  most  complete 
Eocene  mammalian  fossil  of  the  Loudon  Clay.  It 
consists  of  an  entire  skull  and  a  portion  of  the  nst 
of  the  skeleton,  including  the  nght  humenu  and 
femur,  a  great  port  of  the  left  femur,  the  left  tdbia, 
and  three  metatarsal  bones,  apparently  of  the  same 
foot,  besides  fragments  of  pelvis,  libs,  and  vertebrs. 
The  bead  [fig.  A  1  and  A  2)  is  5  inches  long 
and  2  inches  2  lines  broad ;  it  is  slen'"   '~~ 


^P 


gradually  from  the  Eygomatiu  region  to  the  luawfe  ;  I 
the  upper  outline  ia  s&aight ;  the  bony  rim  of  tbe  , 
orbit  IS  incomplete  behind  for  abont  one-fifth  tt 
its  circumference.  The  nanow  skull  and  ineeaa- 
idete  orbit  ally  it  to  the  Palnothere ;  the  same 
lonn  of  oibit  occurs  also  in  the  rhinoceros,  and  BMre 
exactly  in  the  tapir.  The  straight  contour  of  the 
sknll,  and  the  structure  of  the  nasal  aperture,  ahew 
alBnitiea  with  the  horse  and  hyraz.  The  thM 
molar  of  the  upper  jaw  (flg.  A  3}  Aews  Uia  sttm-twg 


t.Gooi^lf 


HTEAX— HYSSOP. 


of  the  teeth.  Tb«  t««U>,  m  weD  m  tiie  foRn 
of  tiis  lower  isT,  t«U  pUinljr  o(  the  berbiTi^oot 
chantcter  of  ^  hyr»o<ith«ni.  The  bon«s  of  the 
le^  exhibit  nngulste  kfBnitiea,  and  thnr  lorn  sad 
proportknu  ue  between  thoM  of  the  hTrai  and 
the  tapit.  The  Becood  ipecie*  wu  founded  on  a 
mutilated  craniam  (fig.  B  I,  B  2),  rather  larger 
tlian  a  hare's,  found  id  the  cliffii  of  L<indon  C\aj  near 
Eerne  Bay.  It  ehewg  a  «kaU  very  like  the  fint 
«peci««,  Qiongh  brooder  at  the  orbital  region.  The 
third  molar  tooth  (fig.  B  8)  haa  a  Uraer  number 
of  conea  than  the  aame  tooib  in  the  fint  opedea. 
The  third  ipeciea  waa  founded  on  aerenJ  te«th 
which  belonged  to  a  Bmaller  animal  than  either 
of  the  otheiB,  found  in  the  Eocene  sand  miderlying 
the  Red  Cru  at  Kyson,  in  Suffolk.  The  molar 
(fig.  C  2)  exhibiia  a  Etnicture  Eimilar  to  that  of 
the  othen  figured.  From  the  same  deposit  were 
obtained  two  teeth  belonging  to  a  lower  jaw,  one 
of  them,  tiie  third  molar,  >til]  in  its  socket,  and 
having  a  fragment  of  Uie  jaw  attached  to  it 
(Gg-  C  1).  Theee  teeth  were  considered  by  Owen 
to  belong  to  a  quadmmanous  animal,  and  were 
deecribea  by  him  as  Macaeus  Eoctaaa,  '  at  once 
the  &rvt  terrestrial  mnrnmnl  which  has  been  foond 
in  the  London  Clay,  and  the  first  quadruman- 
oua  animal  hitherto  discovered  in  any  country 
in  Tertiary  strata  so  old  as  the  Eocene  period.' 
Since  ita  publication,  speculative  geologista  have 
made  good  service  of  this  '  monkey.'  Owen  has, 
however,  nnce  stated  {Ann.  Nat.  SuL,  Sept. 
1862),  that  the  two  teeth  belong  to  the  third 
spedea  of  hyracothere. 

HTBAX.    See  Daman. 

HTBOA'NIA,  a  diatriot  of  ancient  Ama,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Odnu 
(sometiatM  eaUed,  in  conaequenc^  Hyreatuait  Mart), 
on  the  E.  and  8.  t^  the  Ellmrz  Mountaiu,  which 
separated  it  from  Partbia,  and  on  the  W.  by  Media. 
It  oorresponds  with  the  modem  MamndBtto  and 
Aetatabad.  With  the  exception  of  the  coast  diatticta, 
and  the  valleya  among  the  hills,  which  prodoced 
com,  oil,  and  wine,  it  was  not  ■  fertile  region ; 
dense  forasti  prevailed,  timngh  which  roamed  mnlti- 
tudea  of  savage  mirnal^  the  Hyrcanian  tiger  in 
particular  bong  celebrated.  The  inhatritanta  were 
'  "  '         iB  the  FMrtiiians,  and  wen  Dot«d 

nda  ehanoter. 

HTKOA'nnS,  the  name  of  two  Jewish  high- 

trieata  and  tnincea  of  the  Aitmonean  family. — 
,  JoANNls  H.,  son  of  Simon  Maccabeus,  who 
mled  13S— 106  B.C.,  was  at  first  tributary  to  the' 
SyrionB ;  but  on  the  death  of  AntiochuE,  made 
himself  independent,  snbdued  the  Samaritans  on 
the  north,  and  forced  the  IdumEeana  on  the  aonth 
to  adopt  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  Jews.  He 
also  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  fiomons,  or 
rather  confirmed  that  which  his  father  Simon 
had  previonaly  made;  built  the  strong  fortreaa 
of  Baris  on  the  north-eastern  angle  of  Monnt 
Moriah,  and  extended  his  territaries  almost  to  the 
ancient  limits  of  the  Davidion  monarchy.  He  la 
also  ropposedto  have  founded  the  Sanhemm  (q.v.). 
Ori^natly  a  Pharisee,  he  tnbeeqnentJy  attached 
himBelf  to  the  party  of  the  Soddncees,  who  were 
anxious  to  keep  on  good  terms  wiOi  the  Romans, 
and  who  discountenanoed  the  turbulent  religious 
patriotiim  of  the  Jewish  fflames.  H.  wsa,  compara- 
tively speaUng,  a  jnst  and  enlightened  ruler,  and 
the  country  enjoyed  great  prosperity  during  hia 
rein).  He  laft  fire  aons,  two  of  whom,  Ariitobulus 
andAlexander,  governed  with  the  title  of  kino. — 
£  Htbqahitb  IL,  son  of  Alexander,  and  grandson 
of  the  pieoeding,  w>a  a  feeble  prince.  On  the 
dMtb   of  his   father  (78  b,c.),  he  wm  appointed 


faigh-jmeet  by  his  mother  Alexandra,  who  ruled 
Jodna  henelf  for  the  nait  nine  jreart.  After 
her  death  (69  i.  a],  his  younger  brother,  Ariato- 
bulua,  t,  braver  and  mora  energetio  man,  seized 
the  govemmeat,  and  forced  H.  to  withdraw  into 
private  life.  Induced  by  the  Idnmnan,  Antipater, 
and  aided  by  Aretaa,  king  of  Arabia  Petnea,  he 
endeavonred  to  win  back  his  dominions,  but  was 
not  anceoaaful  ontil  Pompey  began  to  favour  his 
canae.  After  aome  yean  of  tumultuous  fighting, 
Ariatoboloa  was  poisoned  by  the  partiuns  of 
Ptolemy  (49  B.  o.),  and  H.,  who  had  for  some  time 
■Bed,  if  he  had  i 

„  -jmert  and  ethnarcb,  was  _. 
latter  of  theee  offioee,  tor  which, 

'loUy  incompetent.  Coaar  (47  B.  c.),  on  account 
the  servicea  rendered  to  him  by  Antipater,  made 
the  latter  proonrator  of  Judiea,  and  thna  left  in  his 
haoda  all  the  real  power,  H.  busying  himself  only 
with  the  afiaira  of  the  priesthooa  and  temple. 
Troablea,  however,  were  in  store  for  him.  Antipater 
waa  aasasainatad,  and  Antigonus,  son  of  Ariitobulus, 
with  the  help  of  the  Parthian  king,  Orodea  L, 
invaded  the  land,  captured  H.  by  treachery,  cut  off 
hia  ears,  and  thus  diequalified  turn  for  the  office  of 
high-pnest,  and  carried  him  off  to  Seleocia  on  the 
Tigris.  Some  years  later,  Herod,  son  of  his  old 
friend  Antipater,  obtained  supreme  power  in  Juds^ 
and  invited  the  aged  H.  home  to  Jerusalem.  He 
waa  allowed  to  depart,  and  for  some  time  lived  in 
eaae  and  comfort,  but  falling  under  sus[ncion  of 
intrigoing  sgainst  Herod,  he  was  pat  to  death 
(30B.C). 

HTBTL,  JoBXPH,  a  distinguished  anatomist,  waa 
bom  in  ISll  at  Eisenstadt,  in  Hungary,  studied  at 
Vienna,  and  early  acquired  eminence  both  as   a 
Bcienti£o  anatomist,  and  upon  account  of  the  extreme 
beauty  of  his  anatomical  preparationB.     He  become 
Professor  of  Anatomy  in  Irugue  in  IS37,  and  at 
Vienna  in  1S46.    Whilst  yet  a  student,  he  coriclied 
the  Anatomical  Museum  of  Vienna  with  many  pre- 
parations.   He  has  contributed  not  a  little  to  the 
progress  of  comparative  anatomy,  eapecially  that  of 
fishes,  and  has  made  the  anatomy  of  the  ear  a  sab- 
ject    of   very   particular   inveatigation-      He   haa 
written  many  books  and 
articles  on  uie  subjects 
above  i[idicated,of  miich 
the    two   principal  are 
Lehrbueh  Oer  Anatomic 
da  Mentchen  (1847 ;  »th 
edit.  1866),  and  Hand- 
Iruch   der   Topograpku- 
chea    Analomie    (1847 ; 
5th   edit    1865).      The 
former  is  a  text-book  in 
all  German  universities, 

and  has  been  translated  ' 

into  various  languages. 
H.  formed  a  museum  of 
iporative  anatomj'  at 
Vienna,  and  is  rector  of 
the  academy  there.' 

H¥'SSOP{ff«wop«(*), 
a    genua   of    plants    of  , 

the  natural  oidor  Labi- 
aUe,  distingnished  by 
four  straight  diverging 
stamens,  uid  a  calyx 
"".  1»  "l*  ."'•^™  Ommi..  H|«™ 

KS»""(5.   .£       »"»".*»«■ 
nofu)  is  a  native  of  ^  sooth  of  Europe  and  the  East. 
It  is  foond  on  the  Alps  of  Ansbia.    It  ia  a  half. 
shrubby  [Oant,  about  11  feet  high,  the  npper  part 


hyGoogle 


EYSTEEIA—HYTHB  SCHOOL  OF  BfUSKETnT, 


of  the  items  qtudranguUr,  the  leftvei  eveigreen 
and  Imnoeolate,  the  flowers  in  one-nded  wtwcled 
racemes.  The  flowen  ore  generally  of  a  very  beau- 
tUul  blue.  It  has  an  a^;rGeable  aromatic  odoor.  Jt 
has  long  been  in  culbvation  for  the  aake  ot  iti 
leaves  and  young  ihoots,  vhich  are  iKHDetiinei  used 
for  culinary  purposes  as  a  seaioniug,  but  more  geDe- 
rallj  in  a  dned  state  as  a  stomacEio  and  cannina- 


oiL — It  is  very  doubtful  what  plant  is  tha  H.  of  the 
Biblo.  It  hoi  been  supposed  to  be  some  species  of 
PkyioliKea  (q.  v.),  as  P.  adruMO,  a  native  of  the 
Himalaya  ;  but  of  late,  strong  argumcntA  have  beea 
advanced  in  favoor  of  the  common  Caper  (q.  v.] 
Hedge  H.  is  Qrai(o!a  offidnaiit.    See  Qhatioli. 

HYSTE'BIA  (so  caUed  from  the  Greek  word 
hy^era,  the  womb)  is  a  disease  which  simolatea  so 
many  other  diseawa,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  describe 
it  with  the  brevity  wHch  the  limits  of  this  work 


The  hysterical  fit  or  parozvEm— the  most  marked 
form  or  manifestation  of  the  disorder — is  almott, 
though  not  exclusively,  confined  to  women,  and 
chieUy  to  jroung  women.  In  a  severe  case,  the 
tnink  and  hmba  are  etrongty  convulsed  ;  the  patietit 
strnggles  violently,  retracfing  and  extending  her 
le^  and  twisting  her  body  with  such  force  that 
the  aid  of  three  or  fonr  atrons  persons  ia  often 
reqiiired  to  prevent  a  alight  ood  apparently  feeble 
girl  from  injuring  herseu  or  others.  '  The  head,' 
says  Sc  Watson  iu  his  Lecturea,  'Is  generally  thrown 
backwardB,  acd  the  throat  projecta  ;  the  face  ia 
flushed  ;  the  eyelids  are  closed  and  tremulous  ;  the 
nostrils  distended  ;  tho  jaws  often  firmly  shut ;  but 
there  is  no  dlstortioa  of  the  countenance.  If  the 
hands  are  left  at  liberty,  she  will  often  strike  her 
breast  repeatedly  and  quickly,  or  cany  her  Gngen  to 
her  throat,  as  if  to  remove  some  oppression  there ;  or 
she  will  sometimes  tear  her  hair,  or  rend  her  clothes, 
or  attempt  to  bite  those  about  her.  After  a  shrnt 
time,  this  violent  agitation  is  calmed ;  but  the  patient 
lies  panting,  and  trembling  and  starting  at  the 
slightest  noise  or  the  gentlest  touch ;  or  sometimi 
ah«  remams  motionless  during  the  remiaeion,  with 
fixed  eje ;  till  tJH  at  onee  the  convulsive  movements 
an  renewed;  and  this  alternation  of  spasm  and 
c^oiet  wiJl  go  on  for  a  space  of  time  that  varies  con. 
tideiably  in  different  casee ;  and  the  whole  attack 
frequently  terminates  in  an  explosion  of  tears,  and 
sabs,  and  convulsive  laughter.' 

In  another  less  frequent  form  of  the  aSection,  the 
patient  suddenly  sinks  down  insensible  and  without 
convulsions  :  after  roniaiaing  for  some  time  iu  this 
state,  with  flashed  cheeks,  a  turgid  neck,  and 
iiTcgiilar  breathing,  she  recovers  consciousness,  but 
remains  for  some  time  depressed  in  spirits  and 
fa^pied. 

During  the  attack,  especially  in  the  first  variety, 
the  patieat  complains  of  uneasmcss  in  the  abdomen, 
and  of  a  sensation  as  if  a  hall  were  rolling  about, 
and  rising  fint  to  the  region  of  the  stomach,  and 
then  to  the  throat,  where  ahe  feels  as  if  she  were 
boi^  choked.  The  abdomen  is  distended  with 
wind,  which  moves  with  a  loud  rumbling  sound 
•long  ttie  intestinal  eannl,  and  is  often  discharged 
by  oruotation.  Towards  the  dose  of  the  fit,  but 
more  commonly  after  it  is  over,  a  large  quantity  of 
pale  limpid  urine  is  diachuged. 

In  many  respects,  this  affection  resembles  Epilepsy 
(q.  v.).  Aocotding  to  Dr  Marshall  Hall,  the  most 
essential  difference  is  this  :  that  in  hysteria,  much 
aa  the  larynx  may  be  aObcted,  it  u  never  closed  ; 
while  in  epilepev,  it  M.  clos^  Hence,  in  the 
former,  we  have  heaving,  sighing  inspiration ;  nud 
in  the  Utter,  violent,  ineSectiul  efforts  at  expiration. 


rariee  in  dnration  from  a  qnarler 
ui  ou  uuiu  ur  isiB  bu  many  honn. 

The  persons  who  suffer  from  hysteria  are  com- 
monly young  women  in  whom  the  proccas  of  mea- 
stroatioQ  is  disordered,  and  who  are  either  naturaU; 
feeble,  or  have  been  debilitated  by  disease  or  want : 
and  in  patients  of  this  kind,  tlie  hyateria,  or  the 
hysterical  tendency,  is  apt  to  shew  itself  in  mimii^- 
ing  so  faithfully  many  of  the  most  import&nt  dii- 
eases,  that  the  physician  has  often  great  difficulty  iu 
determining  the  true  nature  of  the  case.  Arrmng  the 
disorders  tnat  may  be  thus  simulated  by  liysteiu 
are,  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum  (or  Feritoikiti&, 
q.  v.),  various  forms  of  palsy,  inflanmiatiaa  of  tht 
larynx  (or  LarjTiBiliB,  q.v.),  malnlity  to  swallow  (.-* 
Dysphi^),  painful  affection  of  the  bre«at,  dkea« 
of  the  hip  and  knee  joints,  and  disease  of  the  apiK. 
Many  of  these  cases  of  pseudo-disease  eome  ti  i 
sudden  favourable  termination  under  nome  stfoo; 
mental  or  moral  emotions.  Those  who  are  idi! 
enough  to  recollect  the  morbid  religions  excite&HLt 
that  prevsjled  at  the  time  when  Irving  and  his 
followers  believed  in  the  'unknown  tongoes,'  cas 
haidly  fail  to  remember  tiie  remarkable,  or,  as  manj 
reRBrded  it,  the  mitaculous  cure  of  a  young  paialyti; 
lady,  who  was  made  to  believe  that  i^  on  a  cenaia 
day,  she  prayed  for  recovery  with  suflScient  faitii. 
her  prayer  would  be  answered,  and  she  woulJ 
recover  at  once.  She  did  to,  and  her  palsy  instantlj  ' 
disappeared  This  case,  which  was  regarded  bj 
the  believers  in  the  movement  as  a  direct  anawer  Ci 
prayer,  and  as  inaugurating  a  new  eta  of  nuiacnkiu 
curea,  admits  of  easy  and  rational  exidaiuttiiHi  bj 
some  psychologists.  There  are  various  inatODces  ec 
record  where,  in  a  similar  way,  an  alann  of  fire  hu 
instantly  cured  an  hysterical  paralysis  tltat  lui 
lasted  for  yeai«. 

In  the  cases  already  noticed,  tlie  patient  is  wt 
guilty  of  wilfully  deceiving  the  physioism  ;  bat  is 
other  instances  they  are  found  to  pnctiaa  tila  moil  ' 
remarkable  impositions,  pretending  by  varwna  fnaib 
to  be  suffering  from  Sfutting  of  blooijt  bmu  atoae  is 
the  bladder,  £c,  or  to  be  living  wiUiovt  food  of  aor 

Hysteria  is  a  very  troublesome  aSactian  to  dr^ 
witt  because  it  is  very  readily  induced  by  cxanfli. 
or,  as  Dr  Watson  terms  it,  is  propagable  by  mKiI 
contagion.  If,  in  a  hospital  ward  or  in  a  &m«T 
where  many  young  women  are  congi^aied,  one  fin 
goes  off  in  a  fit,  all  the  others  who  may  lutppai  t.' 
have  a  hysterical  tendency  will  probably  follow  hrt 
example.    In  such  cases,  a  decided  order  ti—^  tin: 


often  have    i 

spread  of  tJio  disorder. 

During  the  fit,  the  treatment  to  be  adtqited  u  i ' 

:ovent  the  patient  from  injuring  hersdf,  to  looac: 

IT  dress,  and  to  admit  an  abundance  of  b^h  tni 

r ;  to  dash  cold  water  upon  the  face  and  che?: ; 

id,  if  she  con  swallow,  to  administer  a  conrde  .-^ 

ounces  of  the  asafottida  mixture,  or  a  drachm  of  At 

ammoniated  tincture  of  valerian  in  a  win^glaea  ■  f 

water.    After  tho  paroxysm   is   over,  the  patKu 

should  have  on  activo  puive,  and  the  bow«la  BbocU 

be  kept  properly  open  by  Noetic  aperients  ;  and  11= 

shower-bath,  preparations  of  iron,  and  tonic  tr^- 

ment  generally  should  be  adopted,  and  all  atmmm: 

bodily  and  mental  excitement,  Buch  as  late  parties 

'~i  hot  rooms,  novel -reading,  Ac,  should  he  carefuOv 

HT'STBIZ   AMP  HTSTBI'Cm.£.      See   Poa- 


hyLiOOgle" 


B  THB  ninth  letter  in  the  alphabetB  of 
'  Western  Enrope,  was  caU&l  by  the 
(I  Greeks  Iota,  alter  its  Shemitio  nnme 
l)  (Heb.  Jo(l\,  which  aignilics  '  hand.' 
■  The  oldest  forms  of  the  lottcr,  as 
I  in  the  FtusDiciaD  and  Samaritan, 
"e  s  rude  resembliuice  to  a  hand  with 
'  three  fingers;  but  by  gradual  simplifica- 
'ion,  the  character  came  to  bo  the  amallest 
0  the  alphabet,  and 


languaiges  except  Engliah, 
in  mt ;  with  tlus  power,  it  forma  one  of  the  funda- 
mental vowels  I,  a,  u  (see  A  and  Lettebs).  What 
is  called  the  lon^  sound  of  i  in  Eng.  is  really  the 
diphtbonc  oi  rapidly  pronounced.  The  power  that 
the  Towd  i,  followed  b;  another  vowd,  has  of 
turning  the  preceding  conabnont  into  a  aibilant,  has 
been  noticed  in  r^id  to  the  letter  C  (q.  t.)  ; 
further  instances  may  be  seen  in  snoh  fVench  worda 
M  ro^r,  tm^  from  Lat.  rnUu,  stnuo.  In  Lat., 
there  was  but  one  character  for  the  vowel  (  and  the 
Bemi-Towel  now  denoted  by  the  character/.  See  J. 
TA'MBIO  VEBSG,  a  term  applied,  in  elassio 
prosody,  and  sometimea  in  English,  to  rerscA  con- 
sisting  of  the  foot  or  metre  called  laaJaoi,  con- 
Bisting  of  two  lyllablea,  of  which  the  first  is  short, 

and  £e  second  long  { ).    Archilochua  (q.  t.)  is 

the  reputed  inventor  of  iambic  veise;    The  En^ish 
language  runs  mOTe   easily  and  naturally  in  this 
metre  Uian  in  any  other.    See  Mzib^  VmsK. 
Th>itag|tlt«TelhlddranklhIs  flU. 

lA'MBLICHUS,  the  proper  name  of  several 
persons  in  classical  antiqui^,  sa^I.  A  king  of  Emeao, 
nho,  in  the  civil  war,  took  the  part  of  Antony. — 
2.  A  Syrian  freedman,  who  flourished  at  the  end 
of  the  reign  of  Trajan  and  bwinning  of  that  of 
M.  Aurelius  (117—169  a.d.).  Ha  was  instructod 
by  a  Babylonian  in  the  luiguage,  manners,  and 
literatnre  of  Babylon,  and  wi^e  Uie  Babyioniai,  or 
Lores  of  Bhodanes  and  Sinonis,  in  16  or  39  books, 
which  has  been  preserved  by  Photios,  &  xciv.,  and 
Leo  Allstius.     It   is  the  oldest  of  the  novds  of 


3.  A  philosopher  who  flourished  under  Constan- 
tine  about  310  A.D.,  bom  of  an  illnitrioua  and 
wealth}'  familv  at  Chalcis,  in  Ctele-Syria,  pupil  of 
AnatoBus  and  Porphyry,  and  of  the  Neo-Platooic 
school  of  Plotinns,  whose  doctrines  he  eiitended. 
Little  is  known  of  his  life  ;  but  he  was  followed  by 
a,  numeroos  school,  who  listened  with  enthusiasm 
and  respect,  and  who  thought  that  ho  was  inspired, 
had  intercourse  with  the  gods,  and  could  divine  and 
pcrforai  miracUa.  Iliis  gave  him  immense  crodit. 
His  doctoines  were  a  syncretic  mixture  of  Pjrtha- 
gorean  and  Platonic  ideas,  mixed  with  supcrstitiOD 
and  magic,  and  the  supposed  manifestation  of  Ood 
by  ecstasies,  and  a  oonunnnicatdon  with  the  spiritual 
worid  by  ceremonies.  One  of  his  great  woi£s ;  On 
the  Choice  of  Pythaooraa  {Peri  Aireieoi  Pythagorou) 
consisted  of  10  books,  of  which  there  ramnins  the 


1st,  A  Lite  of  PythagORW,  filled  with  prodigies,  and 
evidently  written  ngainat  Christianity.  Sd,  An 
Exhortation  to  Philosophy  (PmtTeplHan  Logoi  eii 
Ptilotop/iiaa),  an  ill-arranged  introduction  to  Plato. 
3d,  On  the  Common  Knowledge  of  Mathematics  (Peri 
Koiaet  ifat/ientatiixa  Epitlana),  full  of  fragments  of 
Pythagoras,  Philolaus,  and  Archytas.  4th,  On  tho 
Arithmetical  Introduction  of  Nicomachna.  The  Sth 
and  6th  books  arc  lost  The  7th,  Tho  Theology 
of  Arithmetic  (Ta  Theolagaamtna  ta  AriOimetika); 
the  Sth,  The  Historv  of  Uusic ;  the  9tb,  Geometry ; 
tho  10th,  On  the  ^tudy  of  Heavenly  Bodies  He 
also  wrote  a  work  on  the  Soul,  commentaries  on 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  another  on  the  complete 
ChaldiDan  Philosophy,  another  on  Beginnings,  and 
one  on  Sacred  Images,  in  which  he  affirm«i  that 
the  gods  resided  in  their  Btatnea.  His  celebrated 
work  on  the  Mysteries  (Peri  Mu*(eri6n)  is,  how- 
ever, disputed;  it  ia  supposed  by  Meinen  not  to 
be  written  by  L ;  but  IB  ssserted  by  Tennemann 
to  be  the  work  of  this  author.  It  ia  drawn  up  as 
the  answer  of  Abaniiuon,  a  priest,  to  a  letter 
addressed  to  his  pupil,  Anebo,  by  Porphyry.  It 
contains  manv  Egyptian  doctrines,  and  esoterical 
explanations  derirea  from  the  Hermetic  Books,  the 
WTitinga  of  Bitys  and  others,  mixed  with  Pytha- 
gorean and  Neo-Platonio  ideas.  The  style  of  L 
IS  not  careful,  and  inferior  to  PonihyiT.  I.  is 
supposed  to  have  died  at  Alexandria,  333  A.l>. — 
Several  other  writers  of  this  name  are  known,  as 
a  younger  philosopher  of  the  Neo-Platonio  school, 
born  at  Apamea,  and  supposed  to  be  a  nephew  of 
the  prece^ng,  praised  by  Libonius  to  Julian  the 
Apostate;  another,  son  of  Himerius,  mentioned  by 
tho  some  author,  and  a  physiciao  at  Constantinople. 

^do<^  Vioietam,  p.  244 ;  Eonapios,  Vit.  Phiio- 
taph.,  p^  20 ;  Hebensbrcit,  De  lamblieho  (Leip.  1744) ; 
Smoker,  HiiL  Crii.  PhiL,  iL  p.  260 ;  lambCu^  a 
Gale,  fo.  (Ox.  1678). 

IBA'BRA,  or  SAN  MIGDEL  DE  IBARRA,  a 
town  of  Ecoador,  South  Ammca,  In  the  department 
of  Quito,  and  60  miles  nortll-eaBt  of  tho  town  of 
that  name.  It  is  situated  on  the  northern  base  of 
t^e  volcano  of  Imbahnro,  is  well  built,  and  catries 
on  manufaatures  of  woo!  and  cotton.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  about  10,00a 

IBE'RIA.    See  EiBFAitu  and  Oboboia. 

IBE'RiS.    See  CAXDyTDTT. 

I'BBX,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Bouqnetin  (4,  t.), 
or  Steinhock  of  the  Alps ;  and  now,  acoording  b) 
some  zoologisfa,  of  a  genua  of  the  goat  family,  or 
Eub-genuB  of  goat,  having  the  boms  fiat,  and  marked 
with  prominent  transverse  knots  in  front,  wbra«as 
those  of  the  trae  goats  ore  compressed  and  keeled  in 
front,  and  rounded  behind.  The  species  are  ell 
inhabitants  of  high  monntainons  regions.  The  L 
of  the  Caucasus  and  the  I.  of  the  Pyrenees  differ  a 
little  from  the  L  of  the  Alps,  and  from  one  another, 
but  the  difFerencea  may  perhaps  be  i«garded  as 
those  of  varieties  rather  than  of  species. 

The  conventional  ibex  represented  in  Heraldry 
resembles   the  hcraldio   anteloj  "  ' 

except  that  the  horns  1 


telope    in   oil   respects, 
night  and  serrated 


t.Googlc 


IBICUI',  or  IBICTJY,  on  imporbuit  ttlQaent  of 

the  Druguay  (q.  v.). 

I'BIS,  »  genua  of  birds  o£  the  family  Ardddce,  or, 
according  to  tome  omitbologista,  of  SixilopaadiB,  and 
perlikp«  to  be  rrairded  u  a  oonnacting  link  between 
them.  The  bill  is  long,  slander,  curved,  tbick  at 
the  base ;  the  point  rather  obtius ;  the  ''^V?^'' 
mandible  deeply  grooved  throughout  its  length.  The 
fikCB,  and  generally  the  greater  part  of  the  head,  and 
■ometimes  even  the  ne^  are  deetitnte  of  feathers, 
at  least  in  adult  binla.  The  neck  is  long.  The 
lecB  are  rather  long,  naked,  above  the  tarsal  joint, 
witb  three  partially  united  toes  in  front,  aad  one 
behind ;  the  wings  are  moderately  long ;  the  toil 
is  very  short 
axD  L, 


grating 


Saond  Ibii.  aionally  ween  ii 

Britain.      It  ii 

alio  a  North  American  bird.    Its  habits  reaembh 

thoae  of   the  sacred   ibex.      Its   colour   is    black, 


varied  with  reddish  broim,  and  exbibitiog  fine 
puttie  and  green  reSectiona.  It  baa  no  looee 
pendent    feathers.— -The    Whtts    L    (/.    idba),    a 


'.  the  birds  wimihipped  by 
d  called  by  tiiem  Bah  or 


species  with  jnire  white  plumage,  abounds  oi 
coasts  of  Florida.  Audubon  saw  multitudes 
low  islet,  and  counted  47  neati  on  a  sin^ 
The  SciKiir  L  {I.  raber)  'la  a  tropical  An 
species,  remarkable  for  its  btilliaot  plumage,  which 
is  scarlet,  with  a  few  patches  of  glossy  blink. — The 
Stsaw-keckkd  L  (/.  or  OeroniKu*  tpirtiaoUu)  is  a 
large  Australian  bird  of  fine  plumage,  remarkable 
for  BtiO'  naked  yellow  feather-abaft*  oo  the  neck 
and  throat. 

The  S1.CBB0  Ibb,  one  of  the  birds 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  called  b; 
Uib,  and  by  the  modem  &yptiana  Abu-Hannet 
(L  e..  Father  John},  is  a  birdwith  loog  beak  and 
legs,  and  a  heart-shaped  body,  covered  with  black 
and  white  plumage.  It  was  supposed,  from  the 
colour  of  ita  feathers,  to  symbolise  the  light  and 
ahade  of  the  moon,  its  bod;  to  retoveent  the  heart ; 
its  legs  described  a  triangle,  and  with  its  beak  it 
performed  a  medical  operation  ;  from  all  which 
esoterioal  ideas  it  was  the  avatar  of  the  god  Thotb 
or  Uerme*  (see  Hw-Mm),  who  eocaped  in  that 
ahape  the  purmit  of  Typhon,  as  the  hawk  was 
that  of  lU,  or  Honu,  the  sun.  Its  feathers  wer« 
•uj^Kwed  to  scare,  and  even  kill,  the  crocodile.  It 
appeared  in  Egypt  at  the  rise,  and  disappeared  at 
the  inundation  of^the  Nile,  and  waa  thonzht,  at  that 
time,  to  deliver  EgjjA  from  the  wingea  and  other 
serpeota  which  ome  from  Arabia  in  certain  narrow 
passes.    Aa  it  did  not  make  its  neat  in  Egyi^^  it 


waa  engendered  by  it.  It  was  celebratad  for  its 
pnrity,  and  only  drank  from  the  purest  water,  and 
the  moat  strict  of  the  [oiesthoad  only  drank  of  the 


pools  where  H  had  been  seen ;   beaides  irhidi,  il 

was  fofaled  to  entertain  the  most  invincible  km 
of  Egypt,  and  to  die  of  aelf-atarvatioo  if  trsiuponnl 
elsewhere.  Ita  flesh  was  thought  to  be  inciimiiidtk> 
after  death,  and  to  kill  it  whs  punishable  with  deatiL 
Ibiaea  were  kept  in  the  temples,  and  oninoleBtfld  -^ 
the  neighbourhood  of  cities.  After  death,  they  wnt 
mimimied,  and  there  is  no  animal  of  which  ao  msmj 
remains  have  been  found  at  Thebes,  Memphis,  He:- 
mopolis  Uagna,  or  Eshmon,  and  at  II»d  or  Ibenm. 
fourteen  miles  north  of  the  same  place.     They  tn 


the  left  side,  and  the  beak  under  the  tail ;  win 
prepared  sa  other  mmnmiea,  and  wrajqted  up  ii 
hnen   bandages,  which  are   sometimea    pbited  i: 

patterns  eitemaUy,    At  Thebes,  th ' -"   - 

linen  bandages  only ;  well  preeervec    . 

in  wooden  or  stone  boxes  of  oblong  form,  ar 

in  form  of  the  bird  itself,  or  the  god  Thoth ;  »i 

Memphis,  in  conical  augar-loaf-ahaped  red  eaitboi- 

nare  jart,  the  toil  downwards,  the  cover  of  convu 


corncrake,  very  black,  and  the  other  black  ui 
white — the  Ibu  IfvTnaiiu)^  or  Ibu  rdifficua.  This  las: 
ia  usually  found  sometimeB  with  its  f^ga,  knd  w.ii 
its  insect  food,  the  Pimtlia  p^ota,  Ati*  rrfiaz. 
and  portions  of  snakes,  in  the  stomach.  It  ii  iul 
to  resemble  the  I.  of  India  rather  than  Africa,  fij 
the  Jews,  it  was  held  to  be  an  unclean  bird. — VC- 
kinson,  iSaaatxi  ontf  Ciutmnt,  v.  7,  SIT ;  Faaaoloc^iu. 
Calaiogue  Saiiotmi,  p  255;  Pettu^w,  Hitbrry  •' 
Mumitua,  p.  205 ;  HorapoUa,  i  c.  30,  3& 

IBBAHIU  PASHA,  the  adopted  mi  «' 
Mohammed  Ali,  the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  waa  ben 
io  17SQ,  and  gave  the  firat  proofs  of  hii  galtmoi 
and  generalsQip  in  1819,  in  quelling  the  aaa- 
rectjon  of  the  Wahabia.  He  afterrarda  lab- 
dued  Sennoar  and  Daifur.  He  invaded  the  Urns 
at  the  head  of  on  Egj^tiaa  »rmj  in  IS25,  with  tit 
view  of  reducing  it  uuder  the  power  of  HohanuBni 
Ali ;  but  the  mt«rvention  of  the  great  powers  in 
the  aSaira  of  Greece  compelled  liim  to  abudon  tlis 
enterprise  in  1828-  M<dianimed  AJi  faKvins  <va- 
ceived  the  design  of  adding  Syria  to  his  doamimii. 
Ibrahim  crossed  the  Egyptian  bonier  with  an  amj 
in  Ootober  1831,  took  Acre  by  stonn,  aod  qoicUr 
made  himself  master  of  the  whole  of  Syriik  A  peaM 
was  oc«icladed  on  4th  May  1833,  tha  Tb^ls  d« 
only  consenting  to  give  up  Syria,  bat  alao  makii; 
over  Adana  to  Ibrahim  peraon^y,  od  a  kind  of  leaM- 
Wben  war  broke  out  again  between  Mahammtd 

Blicceaafid,  totally  routing  the  Tnrks  in  tha  gn« 
batUe  of  Niaib  oo  24th  June.  The  intcrfinw* 
of  tha  great  powers,  eventually  oompellad  him  ti> 
relinquish  all  his  Syrian  oooqnesls,  and  to  reton  to 
Egypt,  tofiering,  during  his  passage  thraogh  tb 
desert,  the  most  terrible  nardahips  and  Insarai.  wbil* 
the  attempt  to  elevate  E^pt  to  complete  init- 
pendence  came  to  an  end.  In  IMS,  whui  Uu  aged 
pacha  had  sank  into  absolnte  dotage,  I.  ireat  to 
Cooatautinople,  anJd  waa  inttalled  by  the  Ptate  •< 
Viceroy  of  I^pt;  but  on  9th  November  lSW.k 
died  at  Cairo.  He  waa  aueceoded,  not  br  any  i 
his  own  children,  but  bv  Abba*  Faih^  Uia  uvouhU 
grandson  of  Mobammea  Ali. 

IBRAI'L.    See  Bkikilov. 

lOE  ia  water  in  the  solid  form.  It  is  «pecificaIlT 
lighter  than  water  which  is  just  about  to  beexe,  ana 
therefore  awima  in  it.  Water,  in  beconiiig  soliil. 
expanda  about  Jth  of  it*  volnme  or  balk.  The 
formation  of  ice  takes  place  gener«Uy  at  the  aorfaix 
of  water.  -  This  ia  owing  to  the  peciJiarilj,  that 


"Google 


_j 


when  witer  boa  coined  down  to  within  7*'4  ot 
freezing  it  oesM  to  oontnurt;  M  before,  with 
increue  of  cold,  and  begins  to  expand  until  it 
freezes ;  which  caosea  the  coldest  portiou  of  the 
water  to  be  alwaya  floating  on  the  mrface.  In  some 
ciiciimBtanoea,  howcTer,  not  veiy  well  explained, 
ice  formi  at  the  bottcm  of  riven,  ami  ia  called 
ground-ice. 

Water  in  ordinuy  cases  freeiea  at  the  degree 
of  heat  marked  3Sr  on  Fahimheit'B  Ihsnaometar, 
and  0°  OQ  the  Cantigrads  and  Reanmnr's  ;  but  if  it 
is  k^>t  perfactlj  ami,  it  mar  bo  cooled  to  nearly 
22°  F.  below  freezing,  and  still  remain  liquid.  The 
least  shake,  however,  or  the  throwing  m  a  solid 
body,  makea  a  portion  at  it  freeze  inatanUy.  and  its 
temperattira  rioei  immediately  to  3T.  ^-woter, 
and  ult  water  in  general,  freezes  at  a  lower  tem- 
perature than  pore  water ;  in  doing  which,  port  of 
the  Bolt  separates,  and  the  ice,  whrai  melted  gives 
water  that  is  fresher  than  ths  onginaL  The  colour 
of  pnre  ioe  is  deep  blue,  which  is  only  discernible, 
however,  when  it  ia  in  large  nutsses.  x*  '  '  ' 
seen  in  the  clefts  ol  a  glacier  or  an  icebeis. 

In  the  neighbonrhowt  of  the  poles,  and  i 
tains  of  a  certain  height  in  all  latitudes,  there  exist 
immense  masses  of  permanent  ice;  and  even  in  some 
districts  of  Siberia,  where  a  kind  of  eolture  is  proc- 
ticabte  in  snnnner,  there  aie  found  at  a  certain  depth 
below  the  Boifoce  of  tiie  earth  sbata  of  ice  mingled 
with  sand.  In  sinking  a  well  at  Yakutsk,  the  soil 
found  frozen  hard  to  the  depth  of  3S2  feet,  and 
ime  parts  entirely  of  ice.  These  per- 
uiaucub  miuiBia  of  ICO  muit  be  clsssed  with  rocks 
and  mountains,  as  among  the  solid  constituents  of 
the  globe.  In  the  lower  regions  of  the  torrid  zone 
there  ia  no  ice,  and  in  the  temperate  zones,  it  is  a 
passing  phenomenon.  From  the  polar  ice-fields  and 
glaciers  which  are  alwaya  protradmg  themselves  into 
the  sea,  great  floating  masaee  become  detached,  and 
form  ieaerffi,  floea,  and  drifUice.  Theae  beras  or 
mouatains  of  ice  are  someldmaa  more  than  260  feet 
above  the  sea-leTeL  Thm  present  the  appearance 
of  dazzling  white  dialk.clifls  of  Uie  most  fantastic 
shapea.  Ireah  fracturea  have  a  green  or  blue  colour. 
From  the  apeciflo  gravity,  it  is  calculated  that  the 
volume  of  an  iceberg  below  the  wat«r  is  eight  times 
that  of  the  protrodmg  park  Icebergs,  and  floes  or 
ice-Gelds,  are  often  laden  with  pieces  of  rock  and 
masseH  of  stones  and  detritus,  which  they  have 
brought  with  them  from  the  coasts  where  they 
were  formed,  and  which  they  often  transport  to  a 
great  distance  towards  the  equator.     These  floating 

The  hardness  and  stcBugth  of  ice  innreMe  with 
the  degree  of  cold.  In  the  severe  winter  of  1740, 
a  bouse  was  built  of  the  ice  of  the  Neva  at  St 
Petersburg  50  feet  long,  16  wide,  and  20  hixh, 
and  the  walla  STipportea  the  roof,  which  was  ^bo 
of  ice,  without  the  least  injury.  Before  it  stood 
two  iCB-mortora  and"  six  ice-cannon,  made  on  the 
tnming-latbe,  with  carriagea  and  wheels  also  of  Ioe. 
The  cannon  were  of  the  calibre  of  S-pounden,  bat 
they  were  loaded  with  only  ^  lb.  of  powder,  and 
with  hemp-boUs — on  one  occasion  with  iron.  The 
thickness  oF  the  ice  was  only  four  inches,  and  yet 
it  resisted  the  explosion. 

About  twenty-toor  -yeara  ago,  Faraday  called 
attention  to  a  remarkable  property  of  ice,  since  (in- 
correctly) oalledlUgBlation.  He  cudeavoored  to  ac- 
count for  the  fact,  that  two  slabs  of  ice,  with  flat 
surfaces,  placed  in  contact,  nnite  into  one  mass 
when  the  temperature  of  the  surronnding  sir  is 
considerably  aoovt  tfae  freezing-poiDt,  by  assuming 
that  a  small  quantity  of  water,  surrounded  on  every 
side  by  ice,  has  a  natural  tendency  to  become  ice ; 
and  the  fact^  that  two  blocks  ot  ioe  placed  in  contact 


considerable  pressure  bet 
his  point  of  view  the  phen 
with  the  making  oE  snowl 


do  not  unite  nnless  they  are  moitt,  seema  to  bear 
out  thia  idea.  But  J,  Thomson  gave  a  totally 
different  expluiation  of  thia  phenomenon.  Re 
shewed  that  the  capillaiy  force  oi  the  film  of  water 
between  the  plate*  is  snfficieDt  to  account  for  a  very 

""   ■■'--•'        between  them;  so  ihat  from 

__  lenomenon  would  be  identical 
kking  oE  snowballs  by  prssaure ;  and  the 
fonnation,  by  a  hydraolio  press,  of  dear  blocks 
from  a  moss  of  pouaded  ioe,  on  observed  faot,  the 
explanation  of  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  property 
of  ice  menticHied  below.  See  Proeetding*  y  lot 
Boyal  Sodei!/,  1S60~I861.  Faraday,  taking  up  the 
(^neation  again,  showed  that  the  (ac»oalled)  regela- 
tion  takes  place  in  vxiier  aa  readily  aa  in  air,  a  fact 
qoite  inconsistent  with  the  actioii  of  capillary  fta'cea. 
To  this,  J.  Thomson  replied,  shewing,  very  ingeni' 
Doaly,  that  the  capillaiy  forces  he  at  first  assumed 
are  not  necessary  to  a  complete  explanation  of  ths 
observed  phenomena.    See  reference  R]ior& 

Other  views  of  the  question  are  numerous,  for 
stance,  that  of  Persoz,  adopted  by  Forbes,  in 
which  ioe  ia  considered  oa  essentially  colder  than 
passing  through  a  sort  of  viacoos  state 
before  Uqnefymg,  aa  metob  do  during  the  procesa 
of  malting.  This  idea,  however,  has  not  of  late 
Eoond  much  support ;  and  it  is  probable  that  th* 
true  solution  of  the  question  is,  aa  J.  Thomaon 
has  lately  pointed  out,  to  be  found  in  the  analogy 
of  the  crystallisation  of  salts  from  their  aqueous 
solutions. 

However  tbiA  may  be,  there  is  no  doubt  about 
the  foUowinff   propo^  of  ioe,   theontically  pre- 
dicted   by    J.    iWnson    from   the    eiperim^tal 
'-  -it  of  ita  expanding  in  the  act  of  frMong,  and 
nonatrated  by  means  of  the  Piezometer  by  Sir 
.  Thomaon — viz.,  that  the  freezing,  point  of  water, 
the  meltins-point  of  ice,  ia  ioaeredbyprttnrt; 
and  the  bromers   have,  with  sinKuhut  ingenuity, 
pplied  thia  to  the  explanation  of  the  motion  ot 
^lacima.    That  a  mass  of  glacier-ice  movea  in  its 
channel  like  a  viscous  fluid,  was  first  completely 
established  by  Forbes.     Thomson's  explanation  ol 
's  of   the  following  nature:   In  ths 
ot  the  glacier  (even  if  it  were  homo- 
geneous, much  laon  so  when  full  of  oraoks  and 
'--aores,  as  it  alwaya  it),  there  are  portiont  snbjeoted 
a  much  gretttw  (train  than  othen.    Vie  pressnn 
which  they  ore  anbjected  ii  locb  as  corresponds 


of  the - ,.    .-., 

oe  melts,  the  strain  is  reheved,  and  the  whole 
is  free  for  an  instant  to  move  nearly  as  a  fluid 
would  move  in  ita  place.  But,  the  strains  being 
thus  for  an  instant  removed,  the  tamperaturs  and 
of  the  water  are  again  conaistent  with 

-the  thin  layer  of  wwer  quickly  solidifies, 

and  then  matters  proceed  aa  before.  Thus,  at  every 
instant,  tho  strains  at  diSerent  porta  of  the  mass 
melt  it  at  those  plaoes  where  Qiay  are  greatest, 
and  BO  produce  the  extraordinary  phenomenon  of  a 
mass  irtiicb  may  in  dHnmon  langokge  be  termed 
tolid,  and  even  rigid,  slowly  creeping  down  ita 
rocky  bed  like  a  strastn  of  tax  or  treacle. 

/(X-Tmde  and  3lamffaelun.—Tha  trada  in  £m  ii 

_  jw  one  of  great  and  inar«Miiig  importance.   Ice  has 

alwaya  been  iisliii  mi  il  as  a  luxury  m  warm  westheri 

and  thia  early  led  to  the  storing  of  it  in  winter 

'  preserving  it  for  oununar  use.      The  Greeks, 

^terwards  the  Bomans,  at  first  preserved  snow, 

closely  packed  in  deep  underground  cellars.  Nero, 
at  a  later  period,  eetablished  ice-houses  in  Borne, 
similar  to  uioee  in  use  in  most  European  countries 
up  to  the  ^esent  time.  Bnt  these  means  ware  not 
enon^  to  supply  the  luxurious  Bomans  with  ice 
Ua  ooalii^  beverages,  and  they  actually  established 


t.LiOogle 


ICBBEBG— ICELAND. 


&  trade  in  snow,  which  wu  brought  to  Borne  fmn 
libs  Bummits  of  distant  mountains. 

The  trade  in  ica  in  this  countiy  has,  until  lately, 
been  veiy  limited,  having  been  chiefly  confined  to 
the  snpply  reqnired  by  a  few  of  the  iirst-class  Gsh- 
mongen  and  ccmfectianerB— the  private  residences  of 
the  more  opulent  families  being  furnished  with  ice- 
houses in  which  a  sufficiency  is  kept  for  private  vae. 
But  the  North  Americans  have  started  a  trade  in 
this  article  in  their  own  cities,  which  has  extended 
to  Europe  and  Asia,  and  has,  in  on  incredibly  short 
space  oftime,  attained  a  surprising  magnitude.  The 
export  of  ice  frOm  America  was  commenced  about 
1S20,  by  a  merchant  named  Tudor,  who  sent  ii 
from  Bwton  to  the  West  Indies.  After  persevering 
agunst  many  losses,  he  ancceeded  in  establi ' ' 
a  trade  with  (^cutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay ; 
now  not  only  is  it  seat  in  vast  quantities  to  those 
j^aoec.  but  also  to  Hong-kong,  Whampoa,  and 
Batavia.  About  fifteen  years  since,  the  Wenham 
Lake  Ice  Com^ny  commenced  sending  ice  to  this 
country  from  Boston,  which  is  the  great  Amerioan 
port  for  shipment  of  this  material ;  and  since  then, 
not  only  has  there  been  a  cootinually  increamng 
supply,  but  the  success  of  the  Company  has  been 
so  great  aa  to  tempt  others  into  the  market,  and 
the  snpply  for  Great  Britain  now  oomea  chiefly  from 
Norwayj  139,421  tons  having  been  imparted  from 
thence  in  1872,  of  the  value  of  £128,196,  whilst 
only  100  tons  was  received  from  other  conn'  ' 
Ten  or  twelve  years  previous  to  this,  America  hod 
sent  to  Great  Britun  on  on  aver^^  20,000  ' 
annually,  costing  as  manjr  thonsand  pounds. 

In  America,  the  ice  is  chiefly  collected   in   

neighbourhood  of  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Woshin^n,  and  New  York,  and  the  lakes  which 
supply  it  form  no  small  part  of  the  property  of 
those  whose  lands  border  thereon ;  these  have  all 
been  carefully  marked  out,  and  the  right  secured, 
eo  that,  when  the  winter  comes,  ana  the  ice  is 
formed,  the  harvest  b«f;ins  with  great  regularity. 
The  ice  is  cleared  from  snow  by  means  of  an 
implement  called  tbe  plan&  An  ice-plough,  drawn 
by  horses,  and  driven  by  a  man  riding  upon  it, 
is  tUen  made  to  cut  deep  parallel  grooves  in  the 
ice,  and  these  are  again  crossed  by  other  grooves 


little  more  than  three  (eet    A  few  of  thwe  tgi 

blocks  being  detached  by  hand-saws,  the  remainder 
are  easily  broken  off  with  crowbars,  and  floated 
away  to  the  ice-storehouses,  which  are  nsually  built 
of  wood,  on  the  borders  of  the  lake.  Some  of  theae 
are  of  vast  dimensionB,  and  contain  vaults  of  great 
depth  ;  the  walls  are  double,  and  semetimos  treble, 
bemg  ftllogether  as  much  aa  fonr  feet  in  thickness, 
and  having  hollow  spaces  between  to  render  them 
less  heat-conductinK.  The  blocks  of  ice  are  covered 
np  with  sawdust,  a  layer  being  placed  between  each 
'faer  of  blocks.  Many  of  these  ice-houses  ore  mode 
large  enough  to  hold  from  40,000  to  50,000  tons 
of  ice.  WTien  fnlly  stored,  a  largo  quantity  of 
dried  matsh-grsss  is  trodden  in  ujiou  the  fop,  to 
the  thiekneai  of  several  feelj  and  the  doors  are  lien 
securely  closed.  The  total  value  of  the  ice  which  ia 
stored  in  America  has  been  computed  at  £900,000, 
and  if  to  this  we  add  the  ice-trade  of  Norway, 
Sweden,  Kussia,  which,  from  the  slight  data  we 
possess,  is  estimated  at  £600,000,  we  have  tbe 
astoimdiog  fact,  that  a  value  of  one  million  and  a 
half  sterling  is  added  to  a  comparatively  small  body 
of  water  by  the  mere  act  of  freeiing. 
NotwithstandiDg  the  facilities  for  importing  ice, 

there  is,  and  always  will  be,  a  neceisily  ' 

curing  it  locally  if  posajbte.     Hence  there  1 
much  talent  brougat  to  bear  in  devising  u 


artificial  freeang.  See  Fkekimo  Hixtcbsb.  Bat 
until  raceutly,  tbe  modes  of  producing  ioe  arti- 
ficially were  too  costly  to  be  practically  nsefoL  The 
desideratum,  however,  may  now  be  considered  as 
Hopplied ;  for  machines  are  ooosbucted  by  Mr  Sicbe 
of  Lambeth  capable  of  produdug  ten  tooa  per  dn^. 
Such  a  machine  requires  steam-power  to  wtot  it, 
and  its  action  oottsists  in  evaporating  ether  or 
any  similarly  volatile  liquid  in  vacuo,  and  again 
condensing  the  vapour  to  liquid,  so  as  to  be  used 
afresh.  By  this  machine,  20°  P.  below  »ero  (52"  of 
cold)  has  h^en  eovly  obtuned,  and  such  a  macbuie  is 
now  reKnlarlf  producing  large  quantities  of  ice  neuly 
under  the  equator  in  Peru,  when  pnvioadr  ice  had 
never  been  seen ;  and  others  are  in  use  in  Indi«  and 
at  the  Cape  intheserviceof  UMg;oyeiiimeiit,for  the 
use  of  the  troo^ia  and  bospitnls.  Another  rnachma 
was  fiist  shewn  in  the  London  Exhibition  of  1862  \^ 
tbe  Prench  firm  of  Corrd  and  Co.,  which,  frosa  its 
extreme  simplicity,  and  the  fact  that  it  can  be 
adapted  to  the  humblest  kitchen,  has  led  to  its 
extensive  appljoation.  The  price  is  from  £4  np. 
wards ;  and  as  the  volatile  liquid  is  only  the 
aqueous  solution  of  ammonia,  the  cost  of  working  it 
is  very  slight.  The  importance  of  low  tempesBtare*  { 
in  inMi]t  mannfMtuns  has  latdy  increftaed  tlw 
demuid  for  ftee^ng-maohine^  and  they  bis  now  I 
made  of  great  tiie  aod  power.  Tlia  machine-ioade  i 
ioe  hM  tbe  saine  valuable  quality  that  distingniahes 
the  imported  lake  ioe,  via.,  its  perfect  purity,  aa  Uiat 
pieces  can  be  pnt  into  the  drink  that  is  to  be  cwded.  ' 
ICEBERG.    See  ICB.  I 

ICE  PLANT  (Sfaanbrj/anUianum  [q.  v.]  eryital- 
linum],  an  annual  herbaceous   plant,  »  UBtive   ol 
Africa  and  of  the  south  of  Europe,  remariuble  fcr   i 
the  watery  vesicles  {papuJa]  with  which  its  whole   I 
surface  is  covered,  and  which  have  the  Appearance   I 
of  granules  of  ice,  and  sparkle  in  the  same  nuuUMT 
-_  .L.  —      -rj.  -_  i^nmjon  ^   ^  tender  «m»»i«>    ' 

the  pcculiarily  from  wUch 
derives  its  name  making  it  an  object  of 
Tbe  seeds  ore  used  foe  food  in  the  Madeira 
Islands.  Hie  ashes  supply  barilla,  and  tbe  plant 
is  burned  on  this  account  in  countnea  where  it 
abounds. 

CELAND,  an  Island  in  the  northernmost  pari 

of  tbe  AtloDtio,  ou  the  conlines  of  the  Arctic  Ocean; 

■     N.  lit  63°  23'— 66:"  33",  aud  W.  long.  13°  22'— 34'   t 

',  distant  about  600  miles  from  Norway,  aod  230   ' 

from   Greenland,  250  from  the   FarBe   Isles,   and   I 

above  COO  from  the  north  of  Scotland.    It  belonf^s   ' 

tbe  kingdom  of  Denmark.    Its  extent  is  «bout 

1,307  square  miles ;  ita  extreme  length  from  east 

west  is  upwards  of  300  miles,  its  greatest  breadth   1 

from  north  to  south  about  200.    Its  coasta,  porticn-    | 

larty  on  the  north  and  west,  are  very  mnc^  broken 

by  bays  oi_fiordt.    In  some  of  the  bays  are  niuneroos    I 

Bmall  islands.     I.  is  in  many  respects   one   of  tlB 

moat  interesting  parts  of  the  world.     Its  physical 

features  are  veiy  remarkable,  and  not  leas  so  its    ' 

history  and  the   character  of  i(A  inhabitants.     It 

conslsta  in  great  port  of  lofty  mountains,  niKiy  ol 

which   are   active   volcanoes ;    only   certain   lord 

districts   along  tbe  coasts,   and  a  few  dalo^  an 

u.i.;*,!.!. ^y  degree  capable  of  cu]tivi>ti<m. 


9  to  be  s 


Tbe 


habitable,  oi 

whilst  even  there  scarcely  a 

and    the    climate    is   unsuitable   for   grain. 

interior  of  tbe  island  is  almost  ontirdy  oocnr-~ 

with  rugged  tracts  of  naked  lava  and  other  T(4c*iue    ! 

prodacta,  vast  ice-fields  in  many  places  connecting 

its  high  mountain  summits,  among  whiob  are  pn>- 

digiouB  ^aciers,  in  tome  instances  deac^idina  even    I 

''  "-  -  coast,  they  and  the  torrents  which  gn£  trout    \ 


jbjCjOogle 


Tet  liere  has  civiliKttion  boon  loog  eatabliihed,  aod 
thfl  people,  neooBBarily  Tory  poor,  li«ve  eoltivited 
poetry  imil  other  deportmenta  of  literature  with 
great  auoceaa. 

Ths  hiffheEt  mountain  in  the  island  i>  OerUfa 
Jokol,  which  attaina  a  height  of  6426  feet  above  the 
level  of  tho  sea.  It  is  mtuated  in  the  south-east, 
and  is  connected  with  a  vast  monntain  mam,  of 
which  several  of  tho  Bummits  are  actively  TDlcania, 
no  leas  than  3000  sqnare  miles  being  perpctnalty 
covered  with  ice  and  snow  at  an  elevation  varyine 
from  3000  to  above  6OO0  feet,  whilst  aU  underneath 
seems  to  be  full  of  either  active  or  smouldering 
volcanio  fire.  The  most  celebrated  volcano  is  Hecla 
[q.  v.).  Siafla  is  perhapa  the  most  oot«d  of  a  creat 
gronp  of  active  Tolcanoes  in  the  north  of  the  island. 
The  emptions  of  Hecla  have  caoaed  no  little  devas- 
tation, but  «till  more  terrible  and  destructivo  have 
been  uoie  of  S^pt&r  Jiikul  and  other  volcanoes  of 
tho  same  monntain  mass,  whioh  burst  forth  for  the 
first  time  within  the  historic  period  in  1362.  In 
repeated  instances,  Tolcaoic  isleta  have  been  thrown 
ap  in  the  bays  and  near  the  coasts  of  L,  which 
have  gener^y  disappeikred  again  wilhin  a  short 
time.  Connected  with  the  volcanic  Sres  arc  also  hot 
springs  in  great  number,  some  of  which  flow  gently, 
andotheTB,calIedG'eywr«(q.v.),gaah  np  at  intervsls 
and  with  ebuUitiona  of  great  Tiolencc  Numerona 
hot  springs  may  in  many  places  be  seen  sending 
up  their  steam  in  a  sin^  little  valley,  and  the 
IcelaodeiB  are  accustomed  to  avail  themselves  of 
them  for  the  washing  of  clothes  and  other  purposes. 
The  water  of  some  is  merely  lokewarm,  whiist 
that  of  others  is  boiling ;  some  are  pure,  and  lome 
Buluhnreooa.  They  are  subject  1«  great  variations, 
and  appear  and  dry  np  very  suddenly.  Earthquakes 
are  frequent,  and  the  island  suffered  very  severely 
from  this  cause  in  1756  and  176a  The  winter  is 
not  generally  mora  severe  than  that  of  Denmark, 
although  more  protxacted,  and  it  is  rather  the  short' 
ncss  of  the  summer  and  the  insnfficiency  of  summer 
heat,  with  the  mperabimdaDce  of  moiaturo,  than 
the  severity  of  the  winter,  which  la  unfavourable  to 
tho  growdi  c^  com  and  pUnta  of  many  other  kinds. 
In  l£e  Bonthem  portiona  of  L,  the  longest  day  lasts 
20  honrs ;  the  shortest,  4  hoara.  In  the  northern 
districts,  the  sun  never  seta  for  a  whole  week:  in 
midaommer,  and  in  midwinter  never  rises  above 
tho  horison  during  an  equally  long  period  of  time. 

About  20,000  oxen,  30,0()0  horses,  and  400,000 
eheep  constitate  the  duel  part  of  the  wealth 
of  tne  inhabitants.  The  horses  are  small,  bnt 
vigorous  and  active.  They  receive  little  att^tion 
from  their  owners,  whose  oxen  require  almost  all 
the  hay  and  other  fodder  they  can  stOTe  up  for 
winter.  L  ponies  have  now  began  to  be  imported 
into  Britain.  Beiudeer  were  introdnced  into  I. 
by  a  public-spirited  governor  in  1770,  and  have 
become  naturalised  in  tbe  uninhabited  tracts  of 
the  interior,  where,  however,  their  presence  is  of 
littlo  importance.  Seals  abound  on  the  coasts, 
where  sea-fowls  are  also  eitfemely  numerous,  and 
their  flesh,  eggs,  and  feathers  are  mnch  sought 
after.  Sirens,  uid  other  AnaUdce,  frequent  the 
lakes.  The  Eider  Duck  is  plentiful  on  many  parts 
of  the  ooast,  and  its  down  is  a  principal  artdole 
of  DommarDe.  Pish  of  many  kinds  are  abundant 
on  the  coasts,  sahnon  and  trout  in  the  rivers. 
The  food  of  tiie  people  consials  in  great  port  of 
fish.  The  cod-fishei7  is  extensirely  prosecuted  bv 
tho  French,  from  two  to  three  hundred  French 
vessels  and  about  7000  seamen  being  emplOTed  in 
it,  nnder  the  immediate  patronage  of  the  ^French 
government,  which  aims  at  thus  trainii^  seMnen 
tor  the  navy.  The  salmon-fishery  of  some  of  the 
riven  has  b«giio  to  be  prosecuted  for  the  inpply 


of  the  London  market.  The  berring-fishery  has 
not  hitherto  received  special  attention,  bnt  vast 
shoals  of  herrings  frequent  the  fiords.  The  most 
important  ogiicnltural  operations  are  those  of  the 
hay-harvest  The  seeds  of  tho  Utlvr,  or  Upright 
Sea  Lyme  Grass  [Blymui  arenarnu),  are  gathered 
and  used  for  making  pottue  and  cakes,  and  are 
mnch  relished ;  bread  made  of  imported  groin 
being  rather  a  luxury  in  the  houses  of  tho  com- 
mon people.  Meal  made  of  Iceland  Moss  (q.  v.) 
is  used  m  a  variety  of  ways,  and  this  lichen  is 
gathered  in  large  quantities  both  for  homo  use 
and  for  exportation.  Potatoes,  tnmips,  kale  and 
cabbage,  spinage,  parsley,  radishes,  mnstajid,  cresses, 
&c  are  produ^  in  gardens.  The  mineral  wealth 
of  I.  has  only  begun  to  be  developed.  In  no  part 
of  the  world  is  sulphur  found  in  such  abundance 
Iron  ore  is  also  fonnd.  There  is  a  peculiar  kind 
of  brown  coal  called  BKTtarbrand  (q.v.),  which, 
along  with  drift-wood,  is  much  used  for  fnel  on 
the  northern  and  eastern  coasts. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  population  of  I.  wm  once 
100,000,  but  it  subsequently  dintinished.  ^ca 
1840,  when  it  amounted  to  S7,094,  a  gradnal  increase 
has  taken  place,  until  in  1870  it  had  reached  60,763. 
Tho  people,  who  are  of  Scandinaviau  origin,  are 
distinguished  for  honesty,  purity  of  morals,  and  a 
wonderful  love  of  education.  ITotwitbstanding 
their  poverty  and  other  adverse  mrcamstances,  it  ia 
rare  to  find  an  Icelander  who  cannot  read  and  write. 
They  belong  to  the  Protestant  Church.  The  clergy 
are,  like  their  parishioners,  very  poorj  they  are 
under  one  bishop.  Tho  Icelanders  are  strongly 
attached  to  their  native  country,  and  delight  in 
the  study  of  its  history  as  set  forth  in  ancient  tagitt 
and  poems.  Their  langu^e  is  the  old  Norwegian, 
presraved  in  almost  its  pristine  purity.  See  Scan- 
sdAvuit  hixaxaata  and  LmciuTtmK  They  are 
rather  a  small  race,  and  seldom  attain  to  a  great 
age.  Scurvy  was  a  very  common  disease,  and  cases 
of  elephantiasis  were  frequent,  probably  owing  in  a 
great  measure  to  the  nature  of  their  food,  and  still 
more  to  their  miserably  crowded  and  unventilatod 
dwelling,  which  are  mostly  cottages  of  the  bnmblest 
description,  built  of  turf  or  of  pieces  of  lava,  the 
crevices  stuffed  with  moss,  and  the  roof  formed  of 
tnrL  The  former  of  these  diseases  has  now  entirely 
disappeared,  and  tbe  latter  is  becoming  very  rare. 
The  knitting  of  stockings  and  gloves  is  a  common 
kind  of  domestic  industry,  and  with  the  sale  of  skins, 
wool,  feathers,  eider-down,  flsb-oil,  ftc.,  enables  the 
peasantry  to  procure  a  few  articles  of  foreign  pro- 
duce. The  chief  imports  are  rye,  barley,  flour,  coffee^ 
liquors,  tobacco,  sugar,  coal,  iron,  ftc  Some  years 
uo,  upwards  of  40,000  Danish  barrels  of  gram  (of 
^  kinds)  were  imported;  also  about  427,000  IIm. 
of  cofTee,  448,000  quarts  of  various  liquors,  109,000 
lbs.  of  tobacco,  457,000  lbs.  of  sugar,  and  32,000 
chaldrons  of  coal  The  annual  exports  are  valued 
at  4,000  000  ivksdalor  (£900,000),  and  coiftist  of 
dried  fish,  wool,  hosiery,  tallow^  train-oil,  lard,  and 
preserved  meat.  The  destruction  of  meadows  by 
volcanic  eruptions,  and  the  interruption  of  filing 
by  drift-ice,  have  sometimes  caused  great  dis- 
tress. Since  1853  free-trade  has  been  in  force :  32 
authorised  trading- places  have  been  opened,  of  which 
Jieytiavik,  with  a  population  of  2024,  and  situated 
at  the  head  of  a  bay  in  the  soiitb-west  of  the 
island.  Is  the  most  important  Here  the  governor 
resides;  \hxAltMiig.  a  kind  of  parliament,  is  held; 
here  are  a  pnbLc  Ebrary  of  8000  volumes,  a  Koyol 
Icelandic  Society,  and  an  observatory ;  Mid  news- 
papers and  Icelandic  books  are  printed.  There  is 
regular  steam-communication  during  sommer  with 
Leith  and  CopenhageiL 

The  authentic  history  of  I,  be^ns  with  the  latter 


tyCoogle 


rCELAin)  M08S-ICHHE0M0N. 


half  of  Ibe  Sth  c,  when  emigruits  from  Norwky 
■ettled  here.   The  lAndnMiu  Kwk,  however,  one  of 

the  earliest  of  the  records  of  the  ieJand,  at&tea  that 
the  Chriatiaii  relics  touod  here  by  the  Norwegiuii  on 
their  Mrival — u  wooden  crouei^  ftc— h&d  been 
erected  previoiul;  by  Irish  (ettlera.  However  thia 
may  be,  it  ii  certain  that  the  first  authentic  auccesa- 
fnl  ■ettltnoeot  of  L  was  made  under  Ingolf,  a  Nor> 
wegian,  who,  after  a  fruitleM  attempt  on  the  south 
ooaat  in  870,  luooeeded  in  establiahing  himself  at 
Reikiavik  in  87i.  The  ahangea  introduced  in  Nor- 
way by  Huald  Haarfaffer  caused  maoy  who  oonld 
not  endure  them  to  Betake  themselves  to  other 
countries,  and  particularly  to  L,  .all  the  habitable 
ooaat  diatricta  of  which  ware  occupied  within  aiity 
years,  and  the  old  Norwegian  institutions  were 
tranafeired  to  it  anmodiiied.  The  government 
waa  at  flnt,  in  the  timea  of  psgauiim,  hierarchic 
and  aristocratic ;  it  became  uterwaras  a  kind 
of  nristocratio  repnblic  The  Althing  met  eveiy 
summer  in  the  valley  of  Thii^alla.  Christianity 
was  not  established  by  law  till  1000  A.  D.,  and  tben 
not  without  much  opposition.  Schools  were  then 
founded,  and  two  bishoprics  in  Holar  and  Skalholt. 

The  Icelandeni  were  enterprising  sailors  in  the 
early  periods  of  their  history,  and  discovered  Green- 
land about  the  year  992,  and  a  part  of  the  American 
coast,  which  they  called  Vtntland,  about  990.  They 
made  voyages  also  to  the  south,  visiting  the  furthest 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  m<Mt  Nourishing 
period  of  Icelandic  literature  and  commerce  wu 
from  the  middle  of  the  12th  to  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  c,  when,  in  consequence  of  domestic  broils, 
Haco  v.  of  Norway  succeeded  in  reducing  the  whole 
island  under  hia  sway  in  1262,  and  a  declension 
began,  which  coatinnad  till  a  new  impulse  was  ^ven 
to  the  minds  of  men,  here  as  elsewhere,  by  the 
Keformation.  When  Norway  was  uiiited  to  Den- 
mark in  1380,  L  shared  its  fate,  but  was  not  trans- 
ferred along  with  Norway  to  a  new  allegiance  in 
1814.  The  Proteatant  religion  was  introduced  la 
1640,  but  not  fully  eatabluhed  till  15S1.  In  the 
17th  c.,  the  island  suffered  much  from  the  ravages 
of  Algerine  pirates,  who  carried  away  many  persons 
to  slavery.  In  1707,  smallpox  carried  off  18,000 
persons;  and  in  17S1— 1785,  about  9000  died  of 
famine. — The  Althicg,  after  it  bad  subsisted  for 
folly  900  yeara,  was  suppressed  in  the  19th  c,  hut 
wsa  reorganised  in  1843.  By  the  near  consti- 
tution for  Iceland  of  Jan.  187^  the  Althing  has 
obtained  leeislative  powers  in  all  matters  concem- 
ins  Iceland— See  Von  Troil,  LtUart  on  IcelaTid, 
ITTS  i  Sir  George  Mackenzie,  Travett  tn  laiaiid, 
1810  (cheap  edition  by  W.  and  E.  Chamber^  1851) ; 
HeoderaoD,  Joarrud  'of  a  Stndenee  in  leetand,  1818  ; 
B.  Chambers,  Tradngt  of  leAmd  and  the  Farilt 
lArndt,  1856 ;  0.  S.  Forbes,  Ictland,  U»  Voleanou, 
Qeyttra,  and  Glaaert,  1880. 

ICEI.AND  MOSS  [Cftratia  Itkadtea),  a  lichen 
found  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  and 
valuable  on  account  of  Its  nutritiona  and  medicinal 
piopertiea.  It  is  collected  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce in  Norway  and  Iceland.  In  very  northern 
ngions,  it  grows  even  near  the  level  of  the  sea  ;  in 
more  southem  countries,  it  is  found  on  mountains. 
It  is  not  unconunon  in  the  mountainotis  parts  of 
Britain,  although  not  turned  to  any  economic 
account.  In  Camiola,  it  is  used  for  fattening 
cattle  and  pigs.  It  ktowb  in  extreme  abundance  in 
Iceland  on  tracts  otherwise  desert ;  and 


tenta,    and    provisions,    _    ._. , 

for  the  sole  purpoM  of  gathering  it,  aa  an  article 
of  commerce,  and  for  food.  In  many  places,  this 
lichen  thickly  covers  the  whole  nirfaoe  of  the 
gnnmd,  growing   about   14 — 4  inches   high;    and 


onsisting  of  an  almost  erect  ThalAit  (q.  v.).    It  ia 


lijeland  Hois  {Cetraria  Itlandiea). 


Sounded  and  made  into  brestd  ;  or 
y  boilinf,  the   first  water    being 
rejected.    It  is  often  boQed  with  milk,  making  a 


I  prepared  I 


1  northern  oonntries. 


hind  of  jelly,  either  with  milk  or  water.  It  ia  a 
agreeable  uticla  of  food,  and  very  sniteble  fnr 
invalids.  It  contains  about  80  per  cent,  of  »  kind 
of  starch  called  i/icAea  Siia^  or  lAdiann,  and 
owea  its  bitterness  to  an  acid  priiuuple,  erratic 
Aeid. — An  allied  species,  dtraria  mvaiit,  growing 

:_ 1.1 J ..  "=— il^r  propcrtieii 

of  ^eUuul,  Ii 


the  Icelaoden. 

ICHNED'MON  (.?<rpe<<«),  a  genna  of  dipti- 
grade  csmivoroua  quadnipeda  of  the  family  Viwa- 
rida  (q.  v.),  having  a  much  elongated  body,  mull 
head,  Bharp  muzzle,  rounded  ears,  and  Bhort  legi. 
The  species,  which  are  pretty  n —  ---..  - 


EgTptiui  lohnetuDon  {Hrrpeiltt  /chMiiBwit). 


M«)raaumi  or  Muhous  (/f.  (rrueiu)  of  India,  have 
boen  greatly  celebrated  as  destroyers  of  serpents  a^ 
other  noxious  roptUes,  many  wonderful  fables  being 
superadded  to  the  truth  on  this  ribject  The  ^yp- 
tian  L,  the  I.  of  the  ancients,  is  laj'ger  than  a  c^ 
gray,  with  black  paws  and  mnzzla,  and  a  black  tnft 
of  diverging  haira  at  the  end  of  the  tail.  It  aboyndi 
in  Lower  ^ypt,  but  in  Upper  Egypt  it  is  compar- 
atively rare.  It  often  eaten  honsea,  and  devDOii 
poult^  and  their  c^gs.  With  noiseless  Rlidinj 
motion  it  advances  on  serpents  nntil  it  CHi  saidtalj 


CglizcdtyL-iOOgle 


lOHNBDMON— ICHNOLOOT. 


■eiza  thsm  behind  ths  howl,  when  it*  loog  ihaip 
teeth  inOict  »  fatkl  tromuL  It  icntiAea  up  tha 
Hud  tor  the  egm  of  erooodilea,  which  it  Mti  with 
grett  sridity.  It  WM  K  norad  animal  uunu  the 
ancieat  E^yptiMu ;  the  killing  of  it  waa  forbidden ; 
and  indindiul*,  for  the  maintenance  of  whioh  fnndi 
were  let  apart,  were  objecta  of  worahipL  The  I.  ia 
easily  dnneatioatad,  and  forma  a  cat-like  attach- 
ment to  the  place  of  its  residenoe.  It  is  uiehil  in 
keeping  houaea  free  of  nta  a4id  other  Tennio.  It  i> 
therefore  not  nnfreqaently  domeBtioat«d  in  EgTpt, 
M  the  manooaate  ajao  ia  in  India.  Ihii  ipeciea  ia 
rather  amal^,  of  a  lighter  eoloor,  and  has  a  pointed 

ICHITEUMOK,  a  Tiinntean  genua  of  insects,  now 
constitating  a  family  or  tribe,  l^jiainumida,  of 
the  order  Sj/menoplera,  section  TerdiraTtiia.  The 
lAntvjnonida  are  eitremely  □omerous.  Graven- 
horst's  ItAmutTumolo'pa  Eumpita  describea  nearly 
1650  European  species,  and  they  are  eqaally  abund- 
ant in  other  parts  of  the  world.  JAuit  of  them 
are  minute,  othen  are  large  insects ;  a  few  of  the 
tropical  species  ore  amongst  the  lai^eat  of  insects. 
They  have  the  abdomen  united  to  the  tborai  1^  a 
pedicle,  which  is  often  very  slender.  The  abdomen 
itself  is  slender,  and  the  whole  form  attenuated. 
The  antenna  are  generally  thread-like,  composed  of 
a  great  nnmber  of  Joints,  and  ore   kept  in  very 


constant  Tibration.   ' 


e  ovipoiitor  in 


of  the  insect,  and  encloeed 
formed  of  two  parts,  ooneave  on  their  inner  surface, 
from  which  it  is  disengaged  when  about  to  be  used, 
the  whole  then  often  seeming  as  three  threads 
proceeding  from  the  eztavmity  of  the  abdomen.  All 
the  ItAnrttmonida  deposit  their  eggs  eiUuir  in  or  on 
— generally  in — the  bodies,  eggs,  or  larvEe  of  insects, 
or  in  Bpideis.  Some  of  them  deposit  their  eggs  in 
aphidea.  They  are  thus  extremely  useful  to  the 
farmer  and  gardener.  Particular  species  of  Tchnea- 
■Btonida  are  Qie  natural  enemies  of  particnlar  kinds 
of  other  inseots.  Thus,  Mierogailer  glam^atvt  and 
Pimpla  iii^igator  lay  their  eggs  in  tJie  cateipillars 
of  the  cabba^  butterfly.  %me  species  OBposit 
only  one  egg  m  the  egg  or  larra  which  is  destined 
to  afford  food  to  their  own  larva  ;  others  deposit  a 
number  of  eggs  together.  Those  which  have  a  long 
ovinositor  use  it  to  reach  eggs  or  larvn  under  the 
bark  of  treee,  in  holes  lA  wood,  Ac  The  L  larvse 
KeneraJly  consume  only  the  fat  of  lie  larva  on  which 
they  feed,  which  continues  to  subsist  and  so  to 
sustain  them  till  they  are  ready  for  transformation 
into  pupn.  In  their  perfect  state,  the  Irhnewmonida 
feed  only  on  the  joieei  of  flowers.  They  ore  very 
often  to  De  seen  flying  about  umbelliferous  flowers. 
T^a  L  larvM  ai«  witliout  teeb    The  pupa  of  many 


determini^  from  the  fcam  of  tha  oup-liki 
whether  or  not  the  rain  was  aooampaoiad  by  a  bn 
for,  by  obaerving  the  amotmt  of  difference  in 
aides  of  the  enp^  and  the  poaition  of  the  highest 
side,  the  direction  of  the  gale  and  its  velocity  may 
bs  ^ipnnimately  detsnnined.  Though  the  fcrce  or 
body  forming  the  imprssaion  has  i>aen  removed 
immediately  after  it  baa  made  the  presanre,  yet  in 
these  prinbi  the  evidences  of  animal  life  and  of 
the  activity  of  physical  forces,  have  come  down  to 
us  from  the  remotest  periods. 

The  impressionB  occur  a^ost  invariably  on  rocks 
that  have  been  deposited  as  mud ;  only  in  a  few 
oases  have  they  been  noticed  in  sandstone.  Some- 
times the  srgillaceons  deposit  is  a  thin  layer  between 
two  sandstone  beds ;  it  is  then  difficult  to  obtain 
a  clear  surface  in  the  abalei  bat  the  details  are 
carefnllv  preserved  in  relief  in  tbe  natural  cast  on 
the  under  snrface  of  tha  snperimpoaed  sondstonsi 
In  this  manner  the  footprint*  are  preserved  at 
Stoorton  in  Cheshire. 


mpressions  were  made  on  this  plastic  surface  would 
e  Dsked  and  hardened  by  the  mfluenoe  of  the  sun, 
'  a  sufficient  time  nnoovered  by 


ICHNCCLOOr  (Qr.  science  of  footprinU}  is  the 
name  given  to  that  section  of  FaheoDtology  which 
treats  of  the  impressions  made  on  mod  or  sand,  now 
indurated  into  rock,  by  the  'tni'nalu  of  the  period  to 
which  the  rocka  belong,  or  by  meteoric  or  other 
tranmtory  physical  toroes.  The  actual  reouins  of 
the  hard  portions  of  the  nn^mftlif  Uiemselyes  are  the 
materials  on  whioh  chiefly  rests  our  knowledge  of 
the  former  inhabitants  of  the  globe ;  but  of  many 
animals  we  know  notbing  more  than  the  more  or  less 
distinct  impressions  made  by  theru  as  they  moved 
over  the  surface  of  a  muddy  shore.  And  in  some 
beds,  not  only  is  tiie  evidence  of  the  shore-wave 
preserved  in  the  lipple-mark,  and  the  influenoe  of 
the  sun's  beat  exhibited  in  the  superflcial  cracks, 
but  frequently  the  passing  hail-storm,  or  the  sudden 
and  heavy  thunder-shower,  has  left  its  impress  upon 
Uiem,  and  this  so  perfectly,  that  it  is  not  difficult  to 


the  water ;  and  when  the  tide  ogun  flowed,  the 
hudened  mad,  resisting  its  influence,  would  receive 
another  film  of  sediment,  which  would  apeciolly 
deposit  itself  in  the  depressioati,  and  thus  secure  the 
permanence  of  the  impressions.  Thcae  influences 
wonld  operate  moi«  powerfully  on  portiona  of  the 
shore  which  were  under  water  only  at  spring-tides. 
The  impressions  of  numerous  wadmg  birds  are  pre- 
served m  this  mamier  at  the  present  day,  on  the 
plastic  mud  which  covers  the  flat  shore  of  the  Bay 
of  Fundy,  where  the  tide  rises,  it  is  said,  as  much  as 
70  feet.  Both  Qould  obd  L^all  have  given  detailed 
accounts  of  the  process  as  it  goes  on  there.  The 
'other  method  is  one  independent  of  the  sun's  influ- 
enoe, where,  ou  an  ordinary  muddy  shore  during  the 
recession  of  the  tide,  the  depressions  ore  filled  up  by 
blown  sand,  and  the  tide,  on  its  return,  flows  over 
a  level  surlace,  on  which  it  depoaits  a  fresh  layer 
of  aUt. 

The  study  of  iohaology  carries  us  bock  to  the 
remotest  known  period  3  animal  life  on  the  globe. 
Tho  deposit  Irom  which  has  been   obbunod  the 


Eun-dropa.  In  strata  of  tllB  same 
period,  but  a  little  later,  series  of  reeularly  recurring 
gronpa  of  markings  are  considered  by  Mr  Salter 
as  having  been  produced  by  the  sharp  claws  of 
crustaoea  in  waUiing;  while  other  aets  he  refers, 
with  oonsiderable  show  of  probability,  to  the  strokes 
of  the  bifurcate  tail  of  an  nokaowB  crustaoeaD 
as  it  swam  through  shaUow  water.  From  the 
AmericoD  repnwentatives  of  the  same  rocks  (Pots, 
dam  Bondatonea),  Professor  Owen  has  described  a 
nnmba  of  impresskms  made  apparently  by  different 
animals,  to  which  he  haa  given  the  generic  name 
ol  Protichnites.    The  slabs  diew  that  Uie  animals 


,,Google 


ICHNOLOQY— ICHTHTODOEULITE. 


nude  at  each  ttep  14, 16,  or  more  intptCMiona.  They 
were  moet  piobAblv  cnuUoea,  fiin]uh«d  with  three 
or  four  pain  <rf  tnfureating  liiubi,  like  the  modem 
IdDK-craD.  Similw  impicaioiui  have  heen  obaerred 
in  Ae  Lower  Silnma  rooka  of  Eakdale  in  Sootland, 
and  haTe  been  nuoed  P.  ScoUaa.  The  tracka  of 
lelida  oeenr  aJao  in  tlteae  locka.    They 


limali  punng  tof^her 
ertnary,  to  »omo  freqae  ' 
songht  for  Food  or  piMBi 
whatever  have  been  found  aasooiated  witfa  ttien ; 
they  teem,  howBTer,  to  belong  to  foniiB  of  tortint 
The  slab  GganA  ia  a  portion  of  the  track  jnti- 
ably  of  a  long-tailed  Chelonian,  with  a  (tndf  i 


exhibit  the  impreuions  of  the  creaturea  as  {hey 
moved  along,  or  aometimae  throi^li,  the  soft  mud, 
and  they  frequently  tenuinato  in  a  distinct  im- 
preasion  of  the  form  of  the  worm  itself,  produced 
perhaps  by  the  dead  body,  although  no  twio  of  the 
body  itself  is  preserved  (fig.  2]. 

llie  footprints  of  a  smAlf  nptilo  hod  been  observed 
on  the  sandstone  of  a  qmury  near  Elgin,  which 
moat  probably  belongs  to  the  Old  Bed  Sandatono 
Meaanrea.  In  1851,  it  was  discovered  that  they 
were  produced  by  a  little  reptile  (Tderptlon  Elgiti- 
tntt),  whose  remains  were  there  found.  And  more 
recently.  Professor  Hutley  has  referred  a  different 
set  of  impressions  to  the  remarkabto  fish-like  rep^ 
tile,  Stagonolepis,  which  be  deioribes. 

The  QobI  Measares  ol  oar  own  country  and  of 
Qermany  have  disclosed  the  footprints  of  different 

The  Hew  Bad  Sandstone  strata  abound  in  foot- 
tke  Permian  or  lower  division  of 


evidences  to  the  mind  of  Dr  Duncan — a 

who  deaervea  to  bo  remembered  lees  for  his  worlcs 
in  natural  history,  important  thoogh  they  were,  than 
for  his  eminent  services  to  his  country  as  thefounder 
of  savings-banks.  The  tracks  he  described  occur  On 
the  layers  of  onctuons  clay  which  Eeparate  the  beds 
of  sandstone  in  the  quarries  at  Corncockle,  Dom- 
friesahite ;  they  frequently  ore  clear  and  delicate, 
ns  at  the  moment  when  they  were  iraprtsaed,  and 


'•t-  -^ 


^  =^. 


] 


are  repeated  bed  after  bed  on  the  fresh  tablets  as 
they  were  prepared  for  their  reception.  Prom  thoir 
number  and  direction,  they  seem  to  be  the  tracks 


ohei:  The  pad  of  the  foot  mi  nft 
,e  light  impresatonB  of  Um  fdre-foM 
>literated  by  the  hind-fodt,  vlieh 


ably 
little 


were  nearly  obliterated  1, 

was  furnished  with  four  claws  (fig.  3).  oir  numa  > 
Jordine,  on  whoso  property  the  OomcocUe  qua™ 
are,  haa  made  these  b^ks  the  subject  of  a  nlusUE 
and  elaborate  moaogtaph. 

In  the  Tiisssic  roclu,  the  well-known  foat-tnib 
of  the  Labyrinthodon  (q.  v.)  occur. 

The  earbest  evidenoe  of  Uio  existence  of  bbdi  m 
the  traces  of  their  feet  in  the  areillaceons  ssoddOH 
of  Conneetlcnt,  which  ore  now  Known  to  be  of  Uk 
Lower  Oolitic  age.    The  _ 

structure  of  the  tridac- 


..lese  impressions  cxhi- 
\ata  the  regular  progrea- 
sion  in  the  nttmber  of 
the  toe-jointa  from  the 
innermost  to  the  outer- 
most toe  peculiar  to 
birds,  and  they  must  be 
taken  as  evidencing  the 
occurrenoe  thus  eai^  of 
the  class,  althou^  a  con- 
siderable interval  elapsee 
before  the  fint  true 
fossil  of  a  bird  occun; 
namely,  the  remarkable 
long-tailed  bird  from  the 
Upper  Oolite  rocks  of 
"olenhofen,  recently  de- 


scribed    by 

Owen.     Immense  tridoc- 

tyle  footprints  have  been 

known   for   many  years 

ia  rooks  of  Wealden  age 

in  the  south.esat  of  Bng.  . 

land.  At  first,  tliey  were  ' 

supposed  to   be   birds; 

but     a     more      caiefol 

examination  has  shewn  them  to  belong  to  refUs ; 

and  tiio  disoovery  in  the  same  strata  of  the  ^ed*^  \ 

foot  of  a  young  ieuanodon,  measuring  21  iiimai°  | 

length,  and  fumiabed  with  three  too,  which  TceU  . 

form  a  print  precisely  dmilar  to  tiie  tracks  » '^  ' 

known,  shews  them  to  have  been  certainly  prodnsu  -■ 

by  the  Iguonodon  [q.  v.).  1 

ICHTHYODOItULITE  (Qr.  fiah-Bp»Mto«t , 
the  name  ^ven  to  foseil  fish  Bpinee,  uat  are  iM  ; 
uncommon  m  the  stratified  rocks.  PlamoitoBinx  | 
fishes  have  their  dorsal  fin  fumiabed  in  front  villi 
a  strong  bony  spine.  The  fin  is  connected  iriUi  thf 
spine,  and  is  elevated  and  depressed  by  its  hki'^  ' 
ment.  It  seems  also  to  be  employed  by  tbc  £>)"■ 
a  defence  against  ita  larger  foes.  Some  bn^  ^^  ' 
have  similar  spines,  as  the  Sticklebaoka,  Silnn^^  1 
The  spines  are  most  frequently  unoBociated  «i" 
anv  fish  remains,  having  belonged  to  plagioiUincn 
Gbu,  in  which  the  spine  is  simply  implanted  is  w  | 
flesh,  and  consequently  would  be  speedily  sepw™  ,i 
from  the  body  of  the  fish  when  it  bi^  ^  ' 
daoompoao. 

The  earliest  certain  evidence  of  vertebrate  ■unik  , 
is  the  spines  of  plsfiostamons  cartila^om  i^  , 
which  occur  in  the  bone  bed  of  the  Ludlov  ^'^  i 
the  uppermost  of  the  Silurian  depoeibL  Swm 
belonging  apparently  to  three  anecies  have  tea 
foimd;  they  are  imaD,  comiiressad,  slightly  caiteJ.  , 


hyGOO^^IC 


ICHTHYOLOGY— ICHTHYOSIS. 


uid  fiikoly  groored  lengthwise,  nnd  belong  to  the 
genua  OdoIiub.  Along  with  them  have  been  found 
petri lied  portions  of  tobercular  and  prickly  skin,  like 
the  sha^een  of  the  shark. 

The  Old  £ed  Sandstone  has  supplied  such  a 
vanety  of  s[>iiiee  as  to  have  afforded  the  materials 
far  establishing  fourteen  geaara,  and  in  tba  Coal 
Measures  they  are  more  numerous,  belonging  to  no 
lua  than  twenty-one  g«nent. 

JOaTHTO'LOOY  (Or.  ichtAyt,  a.  fish;  logos,  a 
disonrve),  that  bnmch  of  natimd  histoiy  which 
treats  of  fishea.  Aristotle  is  the  moat  ancjent  author 
having  any  elaijn  to  be  noticed  in  a  histoiy  of 
ichthyoloer,  nor  was  this  science  mnch  indebted 
to  any-  other  of  the  ancients.  In  modem  timeii,  it 
beean  to  be  cultivated,  about  the  middle  of  the 
IGtti  c,  by  Belon,  Bondelet,  and  SalvianL  Towaids 
the  dcm  of  the  17Ul  c,  it  made  great  progreas 
through  the  labours  of  Wilbughby  and  K»i  in 
tha  18th  c,  throuah  those  of  Artedi,  Klein,  lAaai, 
(ironow,  Bmnich,Scopoli,  andBlooh;  in  the  begin- 
ning of  tha  I9th  c,  through  those  of  Cuvier  and 
Dc  la  CEpide;  whilst,  more  recently,  Valenciennes, 
MUllcr,  Agaasia,  uid  Owen  ore  eminent  amongst 
mnny  who  have  proeecuted  the  study  of  ichthyology 
with  ardour  and  Huccess.  The  name  of  YarruU 
deacrvcB  to  be  partioularly  mentioned  for  his  work 
on  Brrtiah  Fiahes.  The  earlier  ichthyologists  cene- 
rally  included  the  Cttaoea  among  fish^  Linni 
rpmoved  tha  Cdaera  to  their  proper  place.  He  also 
placed  the  Cartilaijinout  Fuhes  with  Reptiles  in  his 
class  Aii^>k^na,  from  which  they  have  since  been, 


by  the  common  consent  <A  naturaliatiL  bnmght  back 
to  their  place  in  the  class  of  Fishea.  LinneTsystcm 
of  ichthyolo^  is  almost  aa  artifiaial  as  his  system 
of  botany.  It  is  founded  on  tha  relive  positioiu 
of  the  peotond  and  ventral  fins,  without  reference 
to  any  miportant  point  of  comparative  anatomy  or 
animal  economy.  Other  ichthyologista,  both  before 
and  sinoc,  have  laboured  to  disoiver  a  natural 
arrangement,  to  which  the  progress  of  compar- 
ative anatomy  has  greatly  contabuted,  althoi^ 
success  is  still  confessedly  very  imperfect  Even  the 
system  of  Agasaiz,  founifed  on  the  external  covering 
of  fishee,  is  not  wholly  artificial,  and  is  of  very 
convenient  application  to  fossil  ichthyology. 

lOHTHTOSAU'RUS  (Or.  fiah-r«ptile),  a 
remarkable  eenus  of  reptiles  which  inhabited  tlio  sea 
during  the  depoeitioo  of  the  Secondary  strata,  Like 
the  modem  Cetoceo.  their  structare  was  modified  to 
suit  their  aquatic  life.  The  bodv  was  shaped  like 
that  of  a  fish,  the  limha  were  developed  into  naddlca, 
and  the  toil,  long  and  lizard-like,  was  furnished,  it 
is  believed,  with  a  fieahy  fin,  as  in  the  dolphin, 
except  that  its  position  was  vertioaL  The  head  was 
large,  and  produced  into  a  lona  and  pointed  snout, 
reBcmbling  that  of  the  crocodile,  except  that  the 
orbit  was  mnch  larger,  and  had  tha  nostril  placed 
close  to  it,  as  in  the  whale,  and  not  near  the  end  of 
"-  >  anoab  The  jaws  ware  furnished  with  a  large 
iea  of  pa4erful  conical  teeth,  lodged  close  together 
a  continuous  groove,  in  which  ^e  divisions  for 
sockets,  which  exist  in  the  crocodile,  were  indi- 
cated by  the  vertical  ridges  on  the  m&xillary  bone. 


forward,  until  they  finally  displi 
long  and  slender  jaws  were  strengthened  to  resist 
any  sndden  shock  by  being  formed  of  many  thin 
bony  plates,  which  produced  light  and  elastio  as 
well  as  strong  jaws.  The  most  remarkable  feature 
in  the  bead  was  the  eye,  which  was  not  only  very 
largo — in  some  specimens  measuring  13  inches  in 
di^cter-^bnt  was  specially  fitted  to  accommodate 
itself  for  vision  in  air  or  water,  aa  well  as  for 
speedily  altering  the  focal  distance  while  pursuing 
its  prey.  The  structure,  which  thus  fitted  the  eye 
so  remarkably  to  the  wants  of  the  animal,  consists 
of  a  circle  of  13  or  more  overlapping  sclerotio  bony 
plateo  Burroundina  th'' ■'    -~  —   *■■"■-      'vw.. 

and  accompanied  by  the  extraordinary  amount  of 
light  admitted  by  the  large  pnpil,  enabled  the 
ichthyoBBums  to  <Uscover  its  prey  at  great  or  little 
diitancea  in  the  obscnrity  of  the  night,  and  ia  the 
depths  of  the  *e«.  The  neck  was  so  short  that  the 
body  was  probobly  not  in  the  least  constricted 
behind  the  head.  The  backbone  was  fiah-like ; 
each  joint  had  both  its  sorfoces  hollow,  making  tha 
whole  column  very  flexible.  The  small  size  of  the 
paddles  compared  with  the  body,  and  the  stiShess 
of  the  short  neck,  seem  to  snggest  that  the  tail 
mnat  have  been  an   important  org&n   of  motion. 


Profeeaor  Owen  is  satisfied  that  it  was  furnished 
with  a  vertical  tail,  becaose  the  vertebm  ore 
compressed  vertically,  and  also  because  the  toil  is 
frequently  found  disiirticulated  a  short  distance  &om 
its  extremi^,  as  if  the  weight  of  the  upright  tail 
had  caused  it  to  fall  when  the  noiTnal  had  began  to 
decompose.  The  fish-like  body,  the  four  paddles, 
and  eepedally  the  powerful  toil,  would  make  the 
ichthyosauri  active  m  their  movements  ;  and  conse- 
quently, with  their  predaceoua  habits,  vety  dangerous 
enemies  to  the  other  animalg  that  inhabited  with 
them  the  Secondary  seas.  That  their  principal  food 
consisted  of  fiahes,  is  evident  from  the  massss  of 
broken  bones  and  scales  of  contemporary  fishes  that 
have  been  found  under  their  ribs  in  the  place  where 
the  stomach  of  the  animal  was  situated. 

The  remains  of  ichthyosauri  are  peculiar  to  the 
Secondary  strata,  occuirmg  in  the  various  membert 
of  the  series  from  the  Lower  Lias  to  tha  Chalk,  but 
having  their  greatest  development  in  the  Lias  and 
Oolite.  More  than  30  spades  have  been  diacovered ; 
they  difier  from  eaoh  other  chiefly  in  the  form  <H 
the  head,  some  having  a  Ions  and  slender  snout,  like 
the  gavial  of  the  Qai^^,  while  others  had  short  and 
broad  heads,  more  like  the  common  crocodile. 

The  great  repository  for  iohtbyooauriau  lemains 
hitherto  has  been  the  Lias  at  Lyme  Segis. 

lOHTHYO'SIS,  or  FISH-SKIN  DISEASE,  is 
characterised  by  a  hardened,  thickened,  rough,  and 
almost  homy  state  of  Uw  outiolc^  which  breaks 


dbyGoOgl 


lOICUS-IDEA. 


into  inull,  imgoltU',  •cale-Iike  pecea,  vhioh  do  not 
reiidily  exfoliirte,  but  which,  if  removBd,  are  speedily 
reprodaced.  The  dimtae  may  affect  nlmoet  the  vhole 
■tuface,  or  mur  be  confioed  to  a  siiigle  part ;  nod  in 
most  freqneDtlyi  btit  not  always,  coogenitaL  It  is 
attended  vith  no  constitutioaal  disturbance,  and 
the  general  health  is  often  very  good.  The  df 
is,  however,  aitremely  obatinate,  and  when 
genital,  may  be  considered  as  incurable. 

The  treatment  coDfdsti  in  tlie  frequent  n*e  of  tile 
warm  or  Tapour  bath,  so  lu  to  soften  the  thichened 
epidernuB  uid  to  facilitate  its  remoTil,  and  friction 
by  means  of  a  piece  of  flannel  may  be  conjoined 
with  the  bath.  The  employment  of  ■□tphnieona 
baths,  such  as  those  at  EsirDgate,  has  ocoanonaUy 
been  fonnd  of  temporary  use ;  and  the  iMterniu 
administratioa  of  tw,  ood-liver  oil,  fto.,  aometimes 
gives  relief. 

I'CICLES,  in  Heraldry,  are  charges  of  the  si 
shape  M  drc^  in  the  bearing  called  OuttS  (q. 
but  reversed,  ^ey  have  a&o  been  called  Cli 
Locks  of  Hair,  and  QuttSs  reversed. 

IGIXltr»,the 
which  produced  a 

name  of  one  of  them  is  anociated  with 

most  touching;  incidents  in  the  l^endary  history  of 

Roma.    See  Xiricm  CLanmuR 

ICOT>,  or  ICOD  DE  LOS  VINOS,  a  small  town 
on  the  north-west  coast  of  Tenerife,  one  of  the 
Canaries  [q.  v.).    Pop  abont  S500. 

ICOLMKI'LIi.    Seelon.1. 

ICO^IUM.    See  Eonibb. 

lOCflfOOIjABTS  (Or.  «>i»n,  image,  and  Uazc, 
I  break),  t^e  name  need  to  designate  thoae  in 
the  church,  from  tile  Sth  c  downwards,  who  have 
been  opposed  to  the  use  of  sacred  images ; — that 
is,  of  statues,  pictures,  and  other  sensible  repreeeii- 
tations  of  sacred  objects ; — or  at  least  to  the  paying 
of  religions  honour  or  reverence  to  such  represen- 
tatiooa.  The  iconoclast  movement  had  its  com- 
neocement  in  the  Eastern  Church.  Opinion  is 
divided  as  to  the  origin  and  antiquity  of  the  prac- 
tice of  Image-wmihif  (q.  v.)  in  toe  chnrch;  but  it 
is  certain  &at  in  the  6th  and  Tth  centuries  it  pre- 
vailed extensively,  es^eciaU^  in  the  Eastern  Empiie, 
and  that  practices  eusted  m  some  chnrche*  wbioh 
were  a  sonroe  of  mnch  snqncioii,  and  even  of  poaitive 
otteuoi.  Many  biabopa  interposed  to  correct  these 
aboses ;  but  1^  ioonoolast  tnoTcment,  strictiy  so 


forbidditig  the  honour*  p«ud  to  sacred  inuM  ami 
even  *wwifc—iT^Hinp  the  FeDM>va]  from  th6  cnnrohos 
of  all  images,  tStt  of  onr  Loid  alone  suspted. 
Tins  WM  followed  l^  another  decree  in  730.  wUeh 
latdiibitad,  imder  pain  <A  death,  as  ainfnl  and  idola- 


un^cs,  and  directed  that,  wherever  such  imsg«B 
■honld  be  found,  they  ahonld  ftnihwiUi  be  removed 
or  destroyed.  The  attempt  to  enforce  tiiis  decree 
oocanoned  great  wtation,  espsoiBlly  in  the  Greek 
islands  and  in  Itsfy.  The  popes  Gregory  IL  and 
Qregoiy  in.  protested  vehemently  aoamst  it,  repn- 
diatod  the  imputation  of  idolatry,  and  Bzidained  the 
natnra  of  the  hononn  to  inu^  for  irtiich  th^ 
contended.  Leo  pefMvend,  nevarthedsss,  in  his 
oppoattian,  whidi  wm  oontiiiiMd  by  his 
Constantine,  "     ' 

jsi  in  which  the  ioonoolast  decrees  were  affirmed 
in  their  fnllest  extent:  and  Constantine's  son, 
Lao   IT,  renewed,  on  Si*  accession  in   773,  the 


enactment*  of  bis  predeoeeton.  Dnder  the  widow 
of  Leo.  the  Empress  Irene,  a  council  waa  hdd  itt 
Nice,  786  (*e«  Ikaob-wobshif),  in  which  theiio 
proceedings  were  condemned  and  revoked ;  bat 
other  taeceeding  eanperoia,  Nionihcans  (802---811I, 
Loo  the  ArmenuD  (813—820),  Michael  the  Stam- 
and  Theophilns,  returned,  with  neatsr  or  less 
last  enqMton. 


severity,  to  the  poLoy  of  i 


Ah  repirds  the  Greek  Chnreh,  the  o  _  , 

be  said  to  have  beoi  fin^y  settled  under  the  Eai- 
press  Theodora  in  a  council  held  at  ConstantiMipk 
in  840,  or  at  least  hy  a  subsequent  one  of  8701  ^fiia 
modem  usage  of  the  Greek  Church  permits  pietiireL 
hut  rejecta  graven  or  sculptured  rnpTinrinfitinns  M 
sacred  objects.  Except  in  Italy,  the  ieonoclaat  con- 
troversy created  bat  fattla  sensation  in  the  Westerm 
Church  until  the  movement  in  the  time  of  Chari» 
nuwne  and  his  suocesaors,  whi(^  shall  be  notiosd 
under  iMAdB-woBaHip. 

In  the  modem  ohoroh,  the  popular  violeneea 
directed  in  Switserland,  Great  ^tain,  and  sosae 
puts  of  Germany,  s^Mnat  nnoiflxes,  images  ot 
saints,  and  other  objeots  assooiated  with  wlut  has 
been  stigmatised  as  the  idolatry  of  Home,  have 
sometimes  been  described  nndsr  the  name  of 
Iconoclaam. 

ICY  GAPE,  a  headland  of  North  America, 
in  the  71st  degree  of  north  latitude,  about  the 
middle  of  that  long  reach  of  the  arctic  coast  between 
Cane  lisburne  on  the  south-weet,  and  C^e  North 
or  Point  Barrow  on  the  north-east.  It  was  discovered 
bv  Cook  in  1778,  and  was  his  furthest  point  north 
of  Behring's  Strait. 

I'DA,  a  high  mountain  range,  in  Aaia  Miniv, 
extending  from  I^irygia  thronah  Mysia  into  Troaa. 
The  city  of  Troy  was  sitnat^  at  ita  base.  It  is 
the  scene  of  many  ancient  legends.  The  southcni 
part  of  the  range  was  called  Qargarus,  the  highest 
peak  of  which  is  about  4700  feet  above  the  sea. 
Here  there  was  a  temple  ot  Cybde,  who  therefme 
was  called  the  Idaan  SfotXrr.  From  Ida  flow 
several  famous  streams,  aa  the  Granicua,  Simois, 
and  Scamander. — There  is  another  Ida  in  Crete, 
extending  from  west  to  east,  and  now  called 
PsiloritL  On  this  Ida,  according  to  an  ancient 
legend,  Zens  was  educated. 


Ide  [Ltuateu*  Idiu). 

chub,  ke.     It  is  a 

porta  of  Eupope,  ^ ^ 

'-  spawn.    The  ide  i*  one  of  tiioee  fishes  which  it 

xos  both  ea«y  and  desirable  to  introdnoe  into 
British  waters. 

IDSA.  This  word  ha*  borne  very  distinct 
meauino  in  the  history  of  philosa)ihy.  Down  to 
the  l7uL  c.,  it  had  tha  njEtuifleation  given  to  it  by 
Plato,  and  referred  to  the  flatonio  doctrine  of  ctamM 


framed.     Plato  made  a  grand  distinction 


:binn  wen 
ion  between 


tyCiOogle 


nnSNTITY,  OONTaABIOnON,  AND  EXOLTTOED  MIDDLE. 


The   fonni 

1  nfttora  were  prodaced  from  a  pre-aiistiDa  

circle  holding  a  place  in  tbe  DiTine  iotBllisenpe : 
the  »otDBl  men  -wen  genented  from  an  ideal  man, 
The  vord  ww  uaed  m  this  Bsnae  in  litaKtoTe  ai 
Well  aa  in  philtMophT  down  to  the  17th  a.,  ■«  ii 
Bpeaeer,  Shakspeare,  Hooker,  and  Hilton.    Ibus  ii 


Sir  Vf.  Hainilton  dates  tha  change  th&t  oame 

the  appUcation  of  the  word  irom  the  publication  of 
Deacutea'i  DitamrM  on  Afetliad  in  1637,  remarking, 
however,  that  in  a  treatise  by  David  Bucbanan, 
published  at  Faiii  Hia  year  bef  ot^  the  new  meaning 
had  been  intrvdnoed.  '  The  fortune  of  this  word  a 
curioDB.  Employed  by  Plato  to  eTpreta  tbe  real 
forma  of  the  intell^ble  world,  in  lofty  contrast  to 
the  unreal  iHLagea  of  the  aenmble,  it  waa  lowered 
by  DeMsrtea,  vmo  extended  it  to  Uie  objects  of  our 
consciousnen  in  genatsL  When,  after  Oassendi,  the 
■chool  of  CondiUac  hod  analysed  our  highest  faciUtiet 
into  oar  lowest,  the  idea  was  EtiU  more  deeply 
degraded  ftom  iti  high  originaL  Like  a  fallen 
angel,  it  WH  relegated  from  the  sphere  of  Divine 
intelligence  to  the  atmoBphere  of  human  senae  ;  till 
at  last  Ideologie  (more  correctly  Idealogle),  a  word 
which  could  only  properly  Buggeat  an  d  priori 
schema,  deducing  onr  knowledge  irom  the  intellect, 
has  in  Fivnce  become  the  name  peculiarly  distinc- 
tive of  that  philoaophy  of  mind  which  exclnsively 
d«rivefl  out  knowledo^  from  lliH  iwTiiuie.' — Hamilton^ 


derives  onr  knowledge  frou 
IHtautimu,  p.  ^0. 

In  speaking  of  the  mental  representatio 


L  of  external 


image,  tpeaa,  pharUana,  tic,  whu^  had  been 
the  woTdB  farmerlf  in  use  for  that  particular  signifi- 
cation, used  the  word  idea.  In  this  he  waa  followed 
bj  other  philoBophen,  as,  for  example,  Locke,  who 
states  Qiat  he  has  adopted  4be  word  to  stand  for 
'whatever  is  iho  object  of  tbe  understanding,  when 
a  man  thinks.'  Tbns  the  nteatal  impression  that 
we  are  supposed  to  have  when  thiokine  of  tbe  sun 
without  seeing  the  achial  object,  is  clSed  our  idea 
ol  the  sun.  The  idea  is  thus  in  contrast  with  tbe 
■msation,  or  the  feeUng  that  we  have  when  the 
senses  are  engaged  directly  or  immediately  upon 
the  thing  itaell.  The  sensation  is  what  constitutes 
Qie  Oiing,  the  reality :  the  impression  penisting 
after  the  thing  has  gone,  and  recoverable  by  mentu 
causes  without  the  original,  is  the  idea.  Although 
the  word  in  this  amdication  may  be  so  guarded  as 
to  lead  to  no  bad  consequences,  Dr  Reid  waa  of 
opinion  that  it  gave  oonntenanoe  to  the  setting  up 
IS  a  new  and  flctitionB  element  in  the  operations  of 
the  mind.  This,  however,  raittea  the  gr^  question 
at  met^hyncs — namdy,  the  ezaot  nature  of  our 
knowledge  of  an  external  world.  8e»JPKiicBFTT0H. 
It  is  difBonlt  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  word  idea, 
and  yet,  owing  to  tbe  looseneas  of  its  applicatioD, 
thcie  is  a  danger  of  its  not  conveying  a  deMite 
ngniflcation.  we  need  a  geneml  word  to  express 
the  oonirast  to  sensation,  or  to  actuality ;  and  no 
better  term  has  yet  been  found  than  idea,  being 
what  is  ooramon  to  memory  and  to  imagiDation, 
mind  as  not  nnder  the  present 


Thn^  aU  ma 
■auations,  whether  of  s^t,  hnaiing,  tou<^  taste, 
Dr  mdl,  and  aU  the  fec&iga  Uiat  wa  bave  in  tlie 


exercise  ot  our  movmg  energies,  beci 
into  ideas  when,  without  Oie  real  . 
original  agency,  we  can  deal  with  them  in  the  way 
ot  pursuit  01  avoidance,  or  can  discriminate  aad 
compare  them,  nearly  aa  if  in  their  fint  condition  M 
sensation.  Sir  W.  Bamiltcm,  in  his  Leetumt  ow 
Logic  (L  1S6),  has  endeavoured  to  avoid  employing 
the  word,  bnt  other  writers  on  mental  philoeophy 
have  freely  adopted  it  in  the  above  acceptation. 
See  also  GDmui.iaATioiT  and  iMAoraATiON'. 


IDEIiEB,  CBKlsnAN  Ludwio,  an^eminent  astro- 
nomer and  chronologiet,  was  bom  Slst  September 
1766,  at  GrosB-Brese  near  Perlebeig  in  FruBOa,  and, 
after  holding  various  offices,  received  a  professorship 
at  the  Duiversity  of  Berlin  in  1821.  He  died  Aogust 
10,  184S.  L'b  moat  important  works  are,  /TtsAi^eAs 
UiUerguehtatgen  <i6«r  Ju  Atlnmomueken  Stobachtan- 
gen  dr^  Alien  (Leip.  1S06) ;  Untermdatng  flier  dm 
Urrprung  wtd  die  Bedeuiung  der  Stmmamai  (Berlin, 
1309) ;  HantSmeh  der  MalAentalitdiea  und  Techni- 
»Aim  CAronologie  (2  vols.  Berlin,  1825—1828),  the 
last  of  which  was  the  first  work  that  presented  a 
clear  view  of  the  reckoning  of  time  among  the 
aocienta ;  and  Dit  ZtUTtehnung  der  ChiatKn  (Ber- 
lin, 1839). 

IDBM  HO'NASS,   a  term 
T'i")Tl"J'  law,  where  a  mistake  as 
made  in  a  legal  document,  to  deno 
Dsed  by  mistake  was  of  a, 
case  the  mistake  is  generally  treated 

IDB'NTITY  of  person  in  point  of  law  most  often 
be  proved  in  legal  proceedings,  as  in  proving  a  mar- 
riage, proving  a  pedigree,  proving  a  thief,  fto.  The 
usual  proof  is  tbe  oath  of  some  one  who  knew  OBWas 
co^iizant  of  tbe  facts  at  both  the  times  refeired  to. 
Afavaurii«  defence  of  thieves  and  persons  accnsed 
of  crime  is,  that  it  is  a  case  ot  mistaken  identitv,  in 
which  case  the  prisoner  most  generally  establisn  an 
alibi — i.  e.,  that  he  was  in  some  other  place  at  the 
time  in  question. 


considered  a  necessary  troth,  that  two  straight 
lines  cannot  enclose  a  space ;  that  the  less  cannot 
inclnde  the  greater ;  that  a  man  cannot  be  in  two 
places  at  the  same  time.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
not  necessary  that  gold  should  be  yellow,  or  water 
transparent :  these  facts,  we  conoetve,  nu^t  have 
been  otherwise  arranged.  There  has  beat  much 
controversy  aa  to  this  character  of  necessity  that 
distiikguisheB  some  of  our  beliefs  from  others  See 
Niacmrry.  Tha  schoolmen  laid  down  three  prin- 
ciples, involving  what  they  considered  the  widest 
->eneralisations  of  our  necessary  beliefs :  these  are 
he  laws  of  Identity,  Contradiction,  and  Excluded 
Middle. 
The  law  of  Identity  is  expressed  thus :  '  Whatever 

Bis ;'  a  proposition  justly  considered  ss  irreaietibie. 
any  objection  lies  agamst  it,  it  is,  that  nothing 
ippears  to  be  got  by  affirming  it.  When  we  eay 
;hat '  Water  freezes  at  32°,'  there  is  a  piece  of  new 
information  conveyed ;  bv  merely  knowing  water 
in  its  liquid  state,  we  should  not  know  that  at 
32°  it  became  solid ;  the  affirmation  is  something 
reaL  But  when  we  say  that  'Water  is  w^ter/ 
there  is  tbe  form  ot  information,  bnt  nothing  is  con- 
eyed  ;  the  proposition  belongs  to  the  class  termed 
idanticaL'     We  roerely  re-affirm  what  is  already 


•  gtren ;  that  is  to  tay,  we  ahould  be  oonaisteat 


lyi^ioogle 


IDEHTITY,  CONTRAMOTION,  AMD  BXCXUDBD  MIDDLE. 


leofb 


It  ii  B  Uw^  not  of  thinfiiH,  bot 


.   .  .  thst'the 

bate  uumot  be  both  affirmed  and  deniad  of  the 
atine  anbject ; '  or  fhnt  a  thing  comiot  be  And  not 
b«  ai  the  eama  timeL  In  oilier  worda,  two  affirma- 
tioii«  thkti  contradict  each  other  cannot  be  bath 
tnie.  We  cannot  say  both  tiiat  the  '  Son  baa  diwii,' 
Hid  the  '  Sun  haa  not  risen ; '  '  Qold  u  heavy,'  and 
'Qold  ia  not  heavy.'  Here,  alao,  one  might  Buggeat 
the  remark,  that  the  propooition  ia  an  identical 
one;  for  the  uae  of  the  word  'not'  can  only  mean 
that  tbe  propoaition  to  which  it  ia  coupled  cannot 
be  held  ^ong  wiUi  Wte  propoaition  to  which  it  ia 
not  coupled.  That  if  the  offinnative  be  true  the 
D^^tive  muat  be  faUe,  and  if  the  negative  be  true 
the  affirmative  must  bo  falae,  are  but  the  aame 
thing  differently  eipreaaod.  The  word  '  not '  ia  an 
abbreviation  for  wnat  would  otherwiae  be  a  more 
ronndabout  eiprcaaion.  Inatead  of  saying:  'I  dia- 
believe,  and  d^y  that  gold  ia  white,'  we  any :  '  Gold 
ia  not  white.'  So  far,  therefore,  the  principle  of 
contradiction,  like  that  of  identity,  ia  not  a  law  of 
things,  but  of  the  uae  of  language  ;  implying  aimply, 
that  when  we  have  affirmed  a  fact  m  one  form  of 
worda,  we  muat,  in  varying  our  terma,  adhere  to 
tbe  aama  affirmation. 

Bnt  tbia  lemark  doca  not  eihooat  the  scope  of 
the  pnnoi]^  It  has  already  been  obaerved  [see 
CoimmoHXD),  that  our  knowledge  can  never  be 
confined  to  one  abaolute  property ;  in  other  worda, 
to  know  a  thing,  we  muat  Icnow  lomething  different 
from  it.  We  cannot  even  be  conscious  of  one 
unvarying  impression ;  animals  that  live  in  total 
darkness  are  not  ooiucioas  oE  the  darkness,  they 
would  beeome  so  only  io  psaaing  into  li^t.  It  is 
tnie  that  wo  are  conitantty  in  tbe  habit  u  mention- 
ing a  single  property,  and  leaving  out  of  account 
the  related  &ct  hut  for  which  the  first  wonld  have 
no  eziHtence ;  we  ma^  talk  of  light  without  alluding 
to  dajkoew.  But  it  la  not  the  Ues  certain  that  the 
alternative  circumatance,  for  the  time  suppressed, 
ia  a  real  part  of  the  case  ;  and  there  are  many  occa- 
sions, when  OBT  meaning  cannot  be  fully  imparted 
witbont  actually  quoting  tbe  alternative ;  and  to  be 
li^icaUy  or  formally  complete,  we  ought  at  all  times 
to  state  the  two. 

There  are  many  qualitie«  the  very  mention  of 
which  brings  vividly  before  the  mind  on  opposed 
couple ;  as,  u^  down ;  stiaigbt,  crooked ;  deaire, 
aversion ;  &o.  But  beyond  these  cases,  it  is  a  tenable 
assertion  that  every  aci  or  property  recognised  by 
the  human  mind  most  be  recognised  witb  relation  to 
Borne  other  fact  or  proper^,  its  contrast  or  oppoaite, 
bat  for  which  as  an  altenuttive,  the  mind  would 
not  have  that  opportnnity  of  IrantUion  essential  to 
conacioosness  itself.  Take  rrdneu,  which  does  not 
suggest  to  tbe  mind  an  opposite  in  the  same  mani- 
feat  form  aa  in  the  above  inttanceB.  If  all  light 
wcstt  red,  there  would  be  no  designation  of  redi^ ; 
the  only  terms  wonld  be  light  vid  dark.  But  as 
there  are  varietiea  of  U^t,  that  is,  as  we  rjqK- 
lienoemental  ahocks  or  mipreaaions  by  tranaitiona 
ooouring  nnder  the  Inminoaa  agency,  we  are  made 
alive  to  subordinate  diflerences,  which  wo  mark  u 
M  many  diatinot  [oopertiea.  Whsn  white  and  red 
•re  presented  to  the  m  in  succession,  there  is 
imputed  a  shock  of  ditference,  developing  an  item 
of  knowledge,  whioh,  to  be  fnlly  oipreased,  would  be 
'  white-red*^  White  would  then  mean  tbe  oppoaite 
of  red,  and  red  the  oppoaite  of  white ;  to  the  af&r- 
nation,  ■  Snow  is  white,'  tliere  would  correspond  aa 
as  wnntinl  and  inseparable  part  of  the  aama  fact, 
'  Snow  ia  not  red.'  Bnt  as  there  an  a  creat  many 
tranaitiona  of  colour  Uiat  make  tbe  mind  ssnsibfe 
to  diffnenc^  Um  menUon  of  cue  colour  ia  attended 


with,  not  one  simple  dmial,  but  maay  ■**-'^'-  ' 
We  have  red-green,  red-yellow.  red-Une^  ftch  ;  and,    I 

before  the  view,  we  are  further  stmck  witli  the  . 
fiict  of  agreemeTil  in  tbe  common  effect  '  Trdnraa '  I 
Thus,  the  fact  or  property,  '  redness,*  is  tha  name  t 
for  the  common  element  in  certain  Conines,  ^rhich  ' 
element  it  affirms,  while  denying  in  each  caae  the  I 
contrasting  element ;  it  is  not-white,  not-greeo.  not-  | 
yellow,  not-blue^  and  not  every  other  colour,  irtiich   . 

S laced  side  by  side  with  it  made  the  mind  olive  to   ' 
ifference.     When,  by  differences  and  agreements   ' 
OS  now  described,  a  class  cf  colours  is  constituted,   , 
the  mention  of  one  is  the  denial  of  every  otbei  . 
member  of  the  class;   and   the   denial  of    one  is 
the  mention  of  some  other  or  others,  provided  we   1 
are  keeping  our  attention  confined  to  that  class.   , 
Professor  de  Morgan    introdnced   into    lo^o    tbe 
phrase  '  universe  of  the  proposition,'  to  intimate  the   , 
class  of  objects  implied  wnen  an  affinnation,  with 
its  corre^MHiding  denial,  is  given  forth.   Thos, '  Sack   | 
a  thing  is  red,'  implies  as  the  universe  of  tbo  pro- 
position the  class  of  coloius ;  '  A  rose  smella  sweet '   ' 
is  in  the  nnivene  '  odourk'  ' 

Uany  other  examples  might  be  qnoted  in  JOna-   I 
tration  of  the  general  principle,  and  alao  to  shew   i 
that,  in  the  case  of  amlnguity  or  uncertainty-  m  the 
meaning  of  a  positive  t^m,  the  proper  rcniedy  is   I 
to  demand  au  explicit  statement  of  the  quali^,  ra   \ 

C'lties,  denied.  Thos,  if  a  thing  ia  spoken  of  as  . 
ntifnl,'  which  contrast  is  intended  I  for  then  ' 
are  several  implied  in  the  name.  Is  it  '  beantifnl,  I 
not  ugly  or  deformed,'  'not  indifferent  or  inoijad,' 
'not  siiblimel'  ftc.  The  important  function  of  I 
dt/itiiag  terms  is  thus,  in  the  last  resort,  to  bring  I 
into  open  statement,  what  is  usn^f  left  in  the  iorm  > 
of  a  tacit  understanding,  the  denial  corresponding 
to  each  afGrmation.     See  also  CoNnrnoNED. 

The  principle  of  Excluded  Uiddle  is  another  form 
□f  the  principle  of  Contradiction,  implying 

reiw  fact,  and  resting  on  the  same  loi 
is,  that  of  two  contradictories,  both  cannot  tie 
folae,  or  one  must  be  true.  Any  giveu  ■stcrtjon 
muat  be  «)lAer  true  or  false ;  either  the  affinnativa 
is  true,  or  otherwise  the  nwitii 
means  that  the  affinnative  is  lalsi 
either  mine  or  not  mine  ;'  '  Qold  is  yellow,  go 
not  yellow,'  cannot  bo  both  false,  one  moat  be 
There  is  no  tatddU  eourit  in  such  an  altartu...  . 
But  on  examination,  it  wiit  appear  that  this  ptin- 
oiple  does  not  hold  in  tfae  tame  unqualified  soue 
aa  the  principle  of  contradiction ;  for  the  atbribnte 
affirmed  or  denied  must  be  Bometldng  intelligibls 
and  definite,  as  well  as  relevant  to  the  sidiject  in 
hand.  We  often  say  such  a  thing  ia  neither  big 
nor  little,  implying  that  there  ■-  -  — '■-'-  ~  — 
point  that  excludes  t~ 


'This  house  11 


entita  c 


d  yet  thoee  ti 


condition  of  the  piincijile  Uiat   : 
the  universe  oE  the  propoaition  should  be  dntincily   , 
understood  and  kept  in  view.    If  we  aay  '  this  is 
either  red  or  not  red,'  the  alternative  is  indiapatahb 
witbin  the  universe  '  colour,'  bnt  not  othemriae ; 
tbe  taste  of  an  orange  ia  neither  red  nor  not  red  :   ' 
if  we  jump  over  the  boundaries  of  the  class,  tbe 
princijde  no  longer  holds  Rood. 

The  three  principles  ol  Identity,  Contradiction,   i 
and   Eiclnded   Middle,  are  usnaUy  talked   of  aa   ' 
neceaattiea  of  the  human  mind,  from  which  thsra  is   i 
at  in  thecaas   I 


ofU 


it  we  have  ji 


and  evmi  the  principle  of  o 

flatly  met  by  Hegel,  who  laya  it 

<d  tus  philooophy  that '  being '  and  '  not  being '  are 

the  aame,  and  deduooa  important  infenncca  thsra-    , 

from.    Ail  tbia  should  m  *~  


t.LiOogle 


•By  fonnolk  or  taij  dootrina  to  b«  abaohitely  neoM- 
Miy,  <c  impwitira  on  tha  hwnui  mind. 
IDEB.    BaaOALEwnt. 

'development  of  the  meiitil 
I  deprived  of  powen  vluch 

._      ,      .        ,        idiot  never,  or  only  imper- 

feotlf,  pcwuHea  sach  powers,  la  certain  cum,  the 
himuui  form  HipeuB  •caroely  to  be  mninuted  by 
iateUif^anoeatilr;  itii  '  "    ' 

to  wbich  tha  apemal  w 
an  eztenul  world,  and 


of   1  ,  , 

peroeptioo.  The  degrees  of  deprivatimi  are,  bow- 
ever,  very  nnmamiu  and  aharpjy  defined,  lo  as  to 
suggest  dlffennt  modes  of  management  uid  tuning, 
ana  different  degreaa  of  moral  reaponaibility  in  the 
individnala.  The  genanJ  charactariatica  of  the  vaat 
majori^  of  idiota  may  ba  held  to  be  dimioutivc 
atature,  srotceque  appearance,  inactivity,  uncleanly 
haMta,  wittony,  oHosa  or  acate  aenaibih^,  inability 
to  r^uate  movements,  to  articolato,  to  count, 
degradation  of  pmpen£tiei,  and  helplemneAS.  The 
variona  degrees  of  their  dependence  upon  others  baa 
been  eetinutted  thus :  of  574—53  were  »a  helpleffi 
ai  infanta;  74  as  children  of  two  yean  old;  94  aa 
children  of  sevco  yaaia  old;  133  could  engage  in 
simple  work  with  simiB  amall  profit,  if  carefnlly 
watched  and  directed;  179  could  nearly  earn  their 
bread;  and  36  could,  under  due  discipline,  m^n- 
tain  themselves.  In  this  calculation,  imbecilea  are 
included.  The  anastment  (^  the  evolution  of 
intelligence,  in  whole  or  in  part,  may  commence  and 
be  consummated  previous  to  birth,  in  consequence  of 
moial  impressions  or  accidents  or  diaeasea  on  the 
part  of  the  mother ;  during  infancy,  from  defective 
nutrition  or  Injudicious  management ;  and  during 
childhood  ap  to  puberty,  from  scrofula,  rickets, 
hydrocephalus,  and  from  unwise  interference  with 
the  facmtiea  in  process  of  growth.  A  Urge  number 
of  idiota  ari  microcepluuoas,  or  present  heads  of 
very  small  dimensions ;  and  though  they  decay  and 
die  at  to  early  age,  they  ore  apparently  healthy. 
But  a  much  larger  number  are  not  merely  eiamplea 
of  imperfect  growth ;  they  labooi  nnoer  positive 
disease  ami  dezeneration,  and  present  symptoms 
either  of  constitutional  taint,  or  of  those  speoillc 
aSections,  snch  as  convulsions  and  paralyns,  aa  are 
referred  to  the  nervons  stmotim. 

i^a  amelioratioal  which  occasionally  toke  place 
uadar  jadicknu  treatment,  and  the  educability  of  a 
few  individaal*  within  a  certain  ran^  have  sug- 
gested to  physidans  and  phUanthropuits  the  pro- 
priety of  attempting  to  rooie,  direct,  and  api^y  such 
powers  aa  may  aziat.  The  first  attempt  to  give 
r^ular  instoiction  to  idiots  was  mode  in  the 
BicAtre  at  Paris  many  yean  ago.  A  ma^ficent 
-b-oitUDg-sohool,  now  nnmbering  abont  600  inmates, 
haa  been  some  tdm«  in  operation  at  Earlswood, 
B^inta ;  and  there  is  a  Bmilar  insti'~-^'~  -*- 
X-arbart,  Stirlinmhire,  while  a  amaUsr  sch . 
at  BaldoTon,  FoRarahir&— Segmn,  TraUaneta  Moral, 
Ac,  da  liioU  ;  Ait. 'WMmioo,'  Diet  deJiUikeine; 
Abbots,  BcMiboai  qf  Idiocy ;  Buckminster  Brown, 
TretUmeiU  and  dure  qf  CrelBi*  and  IdioU. 

IDIOSTKOSASY  (Gr.,  a  pecnliar  tempera- 
ment), th»  name  given  to  any  constitutional  peon- 
liarity.  Urns,  thran  are  persona  who  have  a  gteat 
dialike  to  particukr  kinds  of  food,  imella,  sounds, 
ftc,  which  to  moat  ■gttmxK  are  agrerable;  and, 
on  *^**  otiiar  hand,  a  deairv  is  fimntimwi  mani- 
featad  for  thin^  geDeroHy  diabked.  la  ^wrtieular 
individuals,  asain,  an  emptian  of  the  skm  wiU  be 
caused  by  eating  strawbatiaa,  or  swooning  by  tha 
amall  of  a  rase,  and  that  quite  nnooniMcMd  with 
any  liking  or  dialikiog;   and  aooh  effeets  are  pro- 


dnoad  when  tha  pation 
Idioay&WMiea  also  ooonr,  in  eonieqaenoe  of  whkh 
cartain  medieinea  bacMna  inopentiv^  or  certain 
poisona  hamlaai.  IdiosyneiMMa  ore  uUier  perma< 
nant  or  tamporMy,  MooetiniM  arising  from  mar« 
morbid  omiditiotw,  and  dist^ipearing  along  wHli 
thenn. — The  tannia  also  tsa^oyed  to  denote  fB«n(a^ 

well  aa  jiA|«ic((I  peooliaritiea. 

I1>0CRASK    See  Vbutuk. 

IDOIi  m.  ddeton,  on  inuM),  IDOTiATBT 
(worship  ^atr6a[  ot  images).  By  the  name  idol 
is  meant  an  image  istandad  to  rqireaent  a  divinity, 
and  to  ba  adorea  aa  anch.  The  act  of  worahipping 
an  object  as  a  divinity  is  called  idolatry. 
prindplaa  of    leaaon  anggeat 


socb  an   object  oa  a  drnn 

Althoush  the  fint  prindpl 
to  mon^  mind  the  idea  of  o: 


of  all  existing  things,  and  the  nigin  of  all 
„....  .see  God),  yet  the  very  eorliaet  niatorioal 
records,  saured  and  profane,  teran  inth  evidancea  <d 


into  which  men  quickly  fell  through  ignor- 
ice  and  jmsaion,  changing  '  the  ^ory  of  thie  unoor> 
_  ..ptible  God  into  an  image  made  like  to  corruptiUa 
miao,  and  to  birds,  and  fooi-footed  busts,  and  creep- 
ing IJiings '  (Rom.  L  23).    To  Uieae  imagea,  aa  wdl 
as  to  the  images  of  inanimate  objects,  or  of  the  ideal 
powers  or  forces  supposed  to  be  embodied  in  Snch 
objeota ; — aa  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  stars,  air,  water, 
and   other  natonl  elements — divine  honoon 
.  .  paid  tiy  moat  of  the  ancient  notiooB  ;  to  which 
hoaoora  the  name  of  idolatry  has  been  given.   Hence, 
each  of   these  corrupt  worships  had  its   own 
,    Tilinr  symbols,  the  idolatry  of  the  andcnt  Gentila 
religiona  may  be  reduced  to  four  claBses:  1.  The 
idoUtry  of  nature-worship,  which  was  of  tiro  kinds 
-^ths  first  of   inorganic,  nature,  which  consistad 
chiefly  in  LiAoUitry,  or  the  worship  of  stones  or 
mentioned  in  Leritiaus,  zivL,  and  in  Hunh 


ToUars,  n: 


.   .  ,  ,.  .  _  the  worship 

of  tiees — under  wluch  form  were  symbolised  tha 
productdva  or  generative  powers  of  nature,  and  to 
which  the  moat  modem  investigators  of  Pbcanioian 
antiquities  trace  the  origin,  as  well  of  the  grossly 
'  the  .i4  sAeaniCA  of  the  Pluemaians, 
woTship,  which  found  iti  way, 
under  various  forma,  thnragh  all  the  kindred  Tseee, 
both  in  the  West  and  m  the  Bast  2.  The  idolaby 
of  animal-worship,  which  we  find  as  wdl  in  tha 
(perhaps  originally  symbolical)  worship  of  the  sacred 
oieo,  the  crocodilen,  and  serpents  among  the 
Egyptians,  oa  in  that  of  the  still  more  dt^rading 
forms  of  animal  life  which  constituted  the  objetS 
of  adoration  with  other  nations.  3.  A  higher  form 
of  idolatry,  which  prevailed  among  tile  rsoas  of 
Chaldean  origin,  was  Attrcilatry,  or  star-WMship, 
which  is  irften  designated  Yiy  the  name  of  Bahaitm. 
There  was  one  form  of  &hseiam  which  oannot 
strictly  ba  called  idolatoy,  as  it  did  oot  invoha  the 
nsa  of  idds,  bnt  addreased  itself  diraot^  cither  to 
tha  haaven^  bodisa  thamaalvei^  or  to  tna  elemcmt 
of  fire,  with  which  they  vara  sssodated.  Bnt  tha 
ssme  object  of  religions  vwaliip,  oonidad  wit^  tba 
USB  of  idolatrous  repreaentstions,  is   found  in  th« 


later  period  of  the  ancient 

Anthropolatry,  or  the  worship  of     ,  

the  hmnon  form.  It  is  chiefly  familiar  to  us  throufh 
the  mythology  of  Greece  and  Bom^  bnt  it  abo 
f  oond  a  place  m  most  of  the  other  reli^ous  systems, 
in  some  of  which  tha  representatjons  of  the  human 
form  were  variously  modified,  so  aa  to  symbtdiae 
titoae  spaouJ  ottribataa  whioli  farmed  the  pecnduur 
objects   of  the  wotalupp«ss'    adoratiim.      Of   this 


t.LiOogle 


maiAi-icoTATins. 


[n  tiia  EgTptuoi  nl^on,  indeed,  end  in  tlie  Utar 
Onoun,  many  of  tiw  id(U  were  imiMwttatioM  of 
pme  ababMinon^  M  o(  Mrtain  faooniM  or  aflbetiMU 
otUw  mhuL  4rf  nrtaioiu  deiiMe,  or  of  eril  iHMtimi 


I  mhuL  of  nrtaioiu  deiiMe,  or  of  ewU  iHMtimi 
aorcta  itbe  donbted,  that  amona  thi  ~ 
nted  nlinmi.  tbtn  were  indivldiuli  bj 


I  donbted,  that  amona  the  mwe  onlti- 
'     e  were  indivldiuli  b 

fnUy  QodcMtooiL  I 

tiie  cnJde  ididatey  of  tite  smititiide 
toldy  M  *  daviee  ad^ted  to  tbar  n 


TheJowi,  notwithitudilig 
r  wbkb  Qm  belief  d  tlw  on 


BoL^cenLe  Being 
wccihip  of  the  Qentile 


o<  the  mott  TCma^nUe  among  ti 


'  protraotad  Babyl 
ottptiTity,  bom  wlueh  tiiaa  ii  irai  maintained,  not- 
wUhttanding  the  eOort  oi  Aatioohot  IMphi 


teteodnoe  t&  Qreek 


idolatardli 
Lord.    The  ii 
diffeient  p 


oomiiu;  of  onr  Lord. 
the  Jem  &1  at  diffeient  periodi  wa 
flnt  and  the  third  foime  dwribed  al 


The  id<^ttyaf  the 


MTa««  ti 
for  the  in 


tribsa  of  the  A&vu 
moat  part  of  tbe  (dau 
deMribed  nnder  Uie  head  gwiCHMii. 

IDRLA,  a  email  bat  important  town  of  Austria, 
in  the  crownlaiid  of  Cantiol^  celebrated  for  its 
onickiilTeT  mines  (diecoTered  in  1497),  ia  dtnated 
m  a  deep,  ealdroa-diaped  Talley,  on  a  liveF  of  the 
■ame  name,  22  milea  wvst-aoiith-weat  of  Idibaeh. 
The  deacent  to  the  minea  i«  by  TS7  (tepa,  hewn  in 
the  rock,  and  ia  eaay,  and  free  from  daiigeT.  They 
an  laid  to  be  the  richeat  in  Europe.  tTpwardi  at 
I2S  toni  ot  qniokailTer  are  prodaoed  hsre  annnaUy, 
and  about  06  tons  of  cinnabar  (red  snlphnret  of 
t).  Pcm.  (1889)  SgeO,  about  400  of  whom  are 
^  employed  as  minara,  tiie  otjim  ohieiSy 
Dunnlactnre  ot  linan  and  ailk  fabrioa  and 

IDtJBfB'A.    Bee  Edok. 

IDUH,  or  IDUS&,  th« 
the  aortheRi  mvthology.  She  wm  the  daughter  of 
the  dwarf  SnOd;  bnt  beinj  -  =  ' 
.dUr,  ihe  beouM  the  wife  ot 
pndona  appla^  by  the  uae  ol 
aerred  Uieir  {Nmtnal  ^ontiL 
by  tiie  giiint  Thiatr.  with  the  aanatanoe  of  liohi ; 
bat  Uie  soda  aent  the  lattv  afbr  hw,  to  biing  her 

falooD,  and  L  into  a  nttt. 

IDTLIi  (Gr.  ddvUion,  LaL  idfUium,  a  little 
Image),  a  tno  generally  naed  to  '''"E"*t*  a  apeejca 
of  poem  lajtMraiting  IJm  entile  aoenea  of  paatonl 
lif«  It  ia,  howercr,  am  enor  to  aiumaae  that  the 
i^l  ia  asoIndTely  paatotal;  aertaiDly,  tJtne  ~ 
wamwt  for  m^  a  mtiDii  in  iSm  naws  eiUi 


Oftheaicty.Wjy{tia 
than  one-halt  aia  oMtotal 
in  thdr  dwneter.  Aiterthenaemadaaf  the  word 
by  Taanaon,  in  hii  /f^A*  </  (ia  Sktg,  idiuh  are 
eplo  in  mil  a^e  and  tiitment^  and  nxnaotio  and 
teagie  in  their  rnddenta,  it  becomea  ray  diffloult  to 
aay  wliat  ia  not  an  idyE 

rQLATJ,  a  Tery  old  walled  town  of  Anatriaj  in 
the  proTince  of  Moravia,  ia  aitnated  on  the  rem 
Iglawa,  cloae  to  the  Bohemian  boundary,  49  mil«a 
wcBt-north-weat  of  BrflniL  It  oonaiBta  of  the  town 
proper  and  of  three  anbnrba.  In  the  midat  of  the 
apaciona  and  beautiful  town  aqnare,  atanda  the  gnaid- 
hoaaa.    J.  eaniea  on  apinning,  dyeing  and  brewing, 


and  of  maohlnery.  Ite  taade^     , 

ia  very  important.    Several  very  paodnctiva  sli 

wodjatvuiopenlaonhere.    Fop.  (1SG9)  30012. 

IGLOO'LIS,  an  iaiud  of  iome  hiatotical  infanat, 
liaa  near  the  east  end  ot  tlw  Strait  of  the  Eter  and 
Heola,  in  lat  69*  21'  N.,  and  kno.  81*  83'  W.  It 
was  'named  afber  an  intelligent  SSquimanx  w<nnu^ 
Panjr'B  guide  and  pilot  tmliii  aeoond  Tojyage  ;  and 
hnrr  that  nariritiiT  jamil  thmrintg  nf  Iffff  IflTT 
lnaa  80th  October  to  12&  Angnat  Dninc  tkb 
time,  Qie  tempoafam  ranged  betwoan  —  4F  and 
S9*  of  F.,  thna  yielding  a  mean  of  7*  above  SMe^ 

ION A'TITTS,  St,  BialK^  of  Antioeh  aftar  69  ajl, 
ia  aajd  to  have  bean  a  diampla  of  St  John,  ai^  ia 
reckoned  one  of  the  apoatolical  FathmL  ^Ha  born 
the  aomame  of  TBappforoa.  ■  .L  a.,  one  triio  caarica 
God  [or  as  I.  explained  it,  'Chriafjin  hla  kMit; 
or,  again,  aa  aoms  (Jerome  amongat  tiiem)  imai0^ 
inppoaed,  *  one  who  waa  oarried  by  God'— -L  e^  Quid 
(at  iStA,  ix  361 — whom,  hoirara',  aoooraing  to 
St  Chiyaoatom,  L  never  saw.  Ihia  legend  that  he 
waa  tb  little  child  whom  Jemi  aet  in  Uib  midat 
of  fail  diaoi^si^  may,  bowarar,  like  the  oth^  tiadi- 
tion  of  bia  rdatdonahip  to  St  John,  ba  takcai  aa 
■ymbtdio  of  bia  winning  affbotionato  nabir&  L  ww 
a  true  alutliierd  ot  bw  pai^Ie,  one  of  T 
eamert,  loving  niiitB  to  whoM  oeantifal ' 


me^  dluiiliani^owed  ita  fitet  and  beat 

Domitian'a  paraecution  ot  the  cbnreh  of         

proved  Turn  to  be  no  lew  conrageooa  than  piooa,  and 
when  that  atorm  had  P*<aed  over,  the  eeoond  and 
fiercer  persecntiim  of  Trsjan  mtiSed  L'a  wieh  ti 
being  taciificed  for  hia  flock.  The  story  of  bia  inter- 
view with  Trajut  liaa  come  down  to  ui.  That  strong 
raler,  foil  of  worldly  wgacity,  jiut  and  virtnooa  after 
bia  fashion,  conid  not  undenUod  a  man  bo  ntteriy 
unworidly  aa  IgnsUoe:  He  contemptaonaly  ealkd 
him  a  iaiodabnoit,  or,  aa  we  ahonlil  aay,  'a  poor 
devil,'  and  in  the  end  condemned  him  'to  be  led  u 
a  priicner  to  Borne,  there  to  be  made  tlie  food  ot 
wild  beasta  for  the  amnatment  [ad  debdoMMwMi]  of 
the  peopl^'  The  lentenoe  waa  ezecnted  107  ^  dl, 
or,  acocoding  to  other*.  118  iJ>.  In  th«  Cbnrch 
of  Borne,  his  roartyidom  ia  oommemcarated  on  tbe 
1st  of  Febrtuuy;  in  tho  Greek  Church,  on  Uta  SDib 
December. 

The  genuineneea  of  the  wriion^  (a  Utnicy,  aitd  a 
little  work  entitled  PidaeM,  quoted  by  IAitbu- 
torn)  and  epistles  aecribed  to  *<"". — of  whkit  fifteen 
(twelve  in  Greek  and  thrae  in  Laiin)  are  now  aztant 
— and  some  of  which  are  quoted  in  the  2d,  3i^  and 
4th  omtoriea,  and  were  widely  read  in  the  am  hail 
chnroh,  haa  been  eagei^  diacnaaed  and  mnok  dt*- 
puted  nnce  the  I6Ql  centory.  Tb»  common  cjuiua 
of  aohcdHi  (nntil  perbapa  the  last  tw«n^  J""*) 
waa  in  favonr  xit  toe  gennineneaa  ^  aerea  of  the  I 
Greek  epiitlea,  which  are  extant  in  two  radkctaoat  . 
at  diffenmt  length,  and  in  two  oonemoaidiag  I 
ancient  Latin  tranalaticna — 4hoae  to  the  i^^»fc*^a*«  f 
Magneman^  FhUadelphiani,  naDians,  b^mamM. 
Bomaos,  and  to  Pdyoarp,  hia  conten^arair;  bat  | 
ere  rwaided  as  apntions  ^  ItaSUk 
ann,  !E&eati,  and  otheta,  witt  whou 
Neander  ooncma.  Hie  eentrevaisy 
reoejved  a  new  in^etna  by  thepablkat&w  A 
Bnnaen's  IgnaUat  umd  aami  Zeit  (PkmK  ISfT),  ia 
irin<b  that  writer  endeavoured  to  artaUiah  the 
gcminnMaB  of  Hiree  ot  the  mma  qpiaUa%aad  ^ 
apmionaneaa  of  the  otben ;  hia  oonoloaiDiai  wan, 
bowever,  aaaailed  by  tba  great  leader  of  the 
aohool,  F.  a  Banr,  in  hia  iKa  /«». 
Bri^  (Old  Mr  ntmtiUr  XrilBter  (TUl 
1848).  Hie  moat  probable  view  of  tba  asvoi 
ii  that  whicdi  eonaeivaB  them  to  bar*   a 


1848). 


b,Coo^lc 


IQNATnTff  BEAHS-IOSra  FATUTJS. 


labsMM,  but  to  IwTe  nfibred  niaudTe 
Hm  won  wl^  Umm  ^utlfB  luf« 
an  liit««a^  OTwouJlx  I — 
tiMqiuitioB  of  dtBToh 


or  liMing  that  imgnljr  ■inlifltaiUon  which  tuT  be 
••—  In  modam  lark.    IHuT  klao   ooonr  m  njoight 
I  or  djkcB,  fllling  up  cneki  m  Qm  aadimaQtuy 

'  clwlfleaUon  of  the  ignsoiu 


Tooka  U  baaad  upon  t! 


IgnMaa  orwo,  whila  fwby  leriani  have  aa  wannlv 
aftadted  it.  Ilia  diacovsn,  in  an  Egyptian  conrent, 
of  a  Sfiiao  rariion  of  three  of  the  epistles — thoae 
to  the  Romana,  the  Epheaiana,  and  to  Folycarp 
(publiahed  by  the  Rev.  W.  Cnreton,  formerly  of  the 
Britiah  Unaaom,  under  the  title  of  The  Anekttl 
SynoB  VtTKon  if  &*  Epi4lkt  of  31  Ignathu,  &&, 
I^md.  184fi),  haa,  oo  account  of  ite  poaaeaang  higher 
olaima  to  be  conaidend  BMmine  uiao  any  " — *- 
MSS.,    led  ■ 


— the  ioteipolatioDa  oouaiBtuig  often  ol  paaaama 
enfotoinK  epiaoopal  antlkoii^,  and  aaserting  xhe 
dMty  of  Jena  Cludat 

Tlie  beat  editiDD  cf  llM.wiiting^  aaoribed  to  L  ii 
tained  in  the  Patrtt  Apo^iilei  of  Cotelerma 
edit  Amat  1724) ;  of  thoaa  commonly  held  to  be 
nioa,  by  Jaoobaon  (Oxford,  183S) ;  Tarions  tnna- 
aoM  at  tha  aeran  epiatlca  have  b«en  made  into 
the  beat  known  ia  Ihat  by  Amhbiahop 


ddeat  or  OnMiHia  aeriaf  {q.  v.)  an  genarally  aaao- 
dated  witii  tbe  Ftdaozdo  atrata,  bnt  am  auringlj' 
fdond  m  Um  Seoondary,  and  eren  in  the  Tertiary 
'  iticma.  Tbo  ipecial  psonliaritT  of  tha  gramtia 
I  ia  the  great  abtmdaaee  of  aiboa  oontamed  in 
;  it  tmna  not  onlf  a  oooaidaable  amount 
of  the  oonititacnki  of  tha  hfvnUaida  and  felcpar, 
hnt  anPttaUiaea  free  in  the  lock-maai  aa  i«ck  emtaL 
Tht  tfia^i^aan  Booka  <q.  t.)  are  aaMoiatad  wiui  the 
Palnoccao  and  Seeondary  itnta.  ad  are  ooupMad 
of  wyatala  of  fel^ar  and  luKnhbikd^  myiiu  in 
Stmt  (dkaiBoter  aoo^ding  to  Hna  lattdcauaanoe  oT  the 


IGNATIUS'    (9t)  BEA2(S,  the    aeeda   of  the 

IgnaHa  avuira,  fotmarly  Strychno*  Ignatii,  a  tree  of 
the  natnral  order  Xoointaera,  and  nearly  allied  to 
that  which  prodooca  JTua  mmka  {q.  tJ,  a  native  of 
Cochin-Cbina  and  of  tha  Fhilippme  '■i*"'**  The 
fruit  ia  at  the  aixe  of  a  large  pear,  and'  oontaina 
abont  twenty  biowi^  aeetS,  of  abont  the  aize  of 
olivea,  rounded  oa  one  dda,  and  aomewhat  angular 
on  the  other.  Theaa  aesda  oaioe  into  the  Dntch 
ehopa  nnder  tJiair  praaent  uaoeabont  theendof  the 
17th  0.,  bat  thoe  M  aome  rsaaca  to  think  that  they 
are  the  MM  verniid)  of  earlier  writcn.  Tbe^ 
ttrychnia,  and  their  medioinal  — —  — ■  — ' 
thcaa  of  AKZ  vomwa 
IQKATTOS  LOTOIiA.  SmLotoj^ 
rGNEOTJB  BOOKS  are  thoaa  which  have  been 
prodnoed  izom  materiala  fnaed  by  heat.    They  differ 


I  are  nnilar  to 


jpirardi,  meaking  throng  tlie  older  loiia.  The 
materiala  <rf  aeSimentary  atrata  are  fragmsnta  of 
pra-eziiting  rooka,  worn,  by  the  action  of  water, 
either  into  a  fine  mud  or  into  roonded  paitiale^^of 
greater  or  leaa  aiae;  whcreaa  i^eona  rocki  exhibit 
either  a  vttreona  atrnotnrtu  aa  men  they  hare  bei 
qnidJy  cooled;  or  a  graniUar  ctmctnrs,  compoaed 
mote  or  leB  mitiute  cryatala,  aceoiding  to  the  is 
of  cooling;  or  a  veajoulw  atraotnre,  when  tiiey  hare 
been  expuided  1^  Ute  oontaiDad  gaoe^  or  by  bdng 
brought  into  oontaot  iriOi  water.  Soma  io«>  are 
erroaeonaly  oalled  igneon^  whoae  material!,  though 
origintdly  obttdned  froon  foloaooei  or  other  anbt^ 
ranean  lonroe,  have  yet  been  uKmatoly  airangi 
water,  like  the  matraiala  tt  Qialuune'a  Iiland  (< 
When  tUa  taet  raaeiTea  dne  couideTatiaii,  manv 
igoeoni  rocka,  whoae  pontatoi  ia  now  a  pn^e,  will 
be  better  undantood.  Soma  ot  tlie  rooka  compoaing 
Arthur's  Seat^  near  Ediubm^  are  nndonbtedly  M 
thi>  character,  and  before  a  n^t  theory  of  the  *""'" 
caa  be  conabiicted,  theae  mnst  be  separated  £ 
the  trnly  isieooa  rocka.  In  poaitian,  alao,  the 
igaeona m«be diitingniahed troa  the  sedimentary 
rocb,  fOTUiCT  aeldom  occur  r^pilarly  abatified, 
iT^  a  pMsSel  upper  and  nnder  aiuuiie,  bnt  are 
gHiaralfy  local,  thinniug  out  into  wedga-ihaped  beds. 


othar  ct  thtae  ingredienta.    The  Vckanio 
(q.  ▼.)  are  the  neweat  igneona  rooks  |  thar  balong 
■eaent  period,  or  tha  TerlauT  rtiatfc    The 
In^ediuta  are  tbe  aame  aa  tboae  that  oon- 

le  Trappean  rooka,  bnt  tberan  aoBiawliat 

difflnmtly  boilt  op^  anzite  being  the  peooliat  fonn 
the  ailinate  (d  »n«g~»i»  md  Imia  ■Miiima  ia  Hks 
newer  look^  iriiila  it  appeaia  aa  honkbleoda  in  tin 
oldor  or  Trappean  anriw. 

~'ONIS  FATUITB  (Ia*.  't^  or  fooliA  fin')  li 

— : tqipaatauoa  freqnently  aeon  ia  manhr 

ehyarda,  and  over  stagnant  pmJa,  wUob 

(. pUloacipbeia  from  Qia  r 

It  ftaiMrally  apptan  a  tittle  after 
blnish.oolonma  flame,  VBrriiiK  in  Bze  and  shape; 
sometimaa  it  ahines  steadily  fill  morning  at  otoar 
time*  diaappean,  and  reappeaia  within  3>ont  lull- 
boorly  interrala.  It  floats  m  air  at  about  two  faet 
frnn  the  gronnd,  is  aometimea  fixed,  and  ■omettmea 
travels  with  great  rapidity.  In  genaial,  it  reoedsa 
on  being  approached,  and  via  tisnil,  though  •arersl 
soooaMnil  attempta  have  been  made  to  H^t  a 
{deoe  of  paper  by  ik  Many  (Aorta  hare  bean  made 
to  diaoorar  ita  oanae  ;  bnt  m>  raiiad  are  its  iqipaar- 
ancea,  and  ao  nud  ol  any  oommon  ninoiplst  that 
theaa  attonpta  have  tata%  failed.  Of  thevariona 
theoriea  adTaosed  wa  need  mention  only  two.  The 
fiift  is,  that  tlie  ignia  fstnna  is  due  to  photpkunUtd 
Aydnvn  yoa  (PH,),  which "^ 


kgdrogm  gia  (FH,),  which  vommtm  the  power  of 
yatanaona  iaitionOB  eomfiig  in  oantaat  wHh  dry 
ahnoapharieair;  t^iagsawmdd  be  generated  by  the 


deoonuioaitioD  of  aniiul  mattw  prawal  in  a  maniiy 
sodL     The  motioo  lA  the  ignii  utoas  ia  aaeo«nted 

for  br  tba  flame  beiBg  I -j— --»  -> — .>._  l-__ 

of  a  itieam  of  tlw  - 


mawmai 
Ik*  Moosil  ii^  tha*  it  is 
doe  to  tbe  oomboitua  of  K^  eariwtUtd  ivdngm 


(C^J,«raingfiMn  the  deMa^oattion  oi  TaRst- 
aoie  matter;  I'"'  Umb^  tida  iuppodtioa  Mtinao- 
torilj  aoeomti  for  many  jf^eanaoea  oo 
with  tta  Ignia  fatsm^  the  gas  MmU  ia  not 


neooalT  oombnstiM^  and  an  adiWinnal  auwuaitiim 
reqaJrea  to  be  mad*  to  aeeount  for  Vm  i^iition. 
The  p«bable  oimtdnaiMi  la,  that  a  nnmber  of  ^uno- 
msaa  nnilar  to  the  ey«t  but  aiiaiag  from  diOHOTt 
oaoMi^  an  ^gngatad  nndar  the  t«m  i^ua  fatons. 
TU  wnJt  /almu,  hoieeeer,  Ana  msw  httn  produced 
ar<iltete%;  Eleotrii^  and  phoa^iareaoanoe  can 
piodnoe  tha  iDmiBona  mearano^  bnt,  aa  far  aa 
onr  wwi*  kunriedga  anaUca  ua  to  jndga,  Ui^  an 
unaSle  farther  to  imitate  it 

It  is  not  a  common  phenomenon,  mai^  diatin- 
goiahed  natnralista  never  having  seen  it ;  but  it  is 
not  onfreqnently  seen  in  the  north  of  QeimaOT,  the 
Ewunpy  and  moorland  diatncta  in  the  sonth  and 
north-west  of  England,  and  in  the  Lowlanda  of 
Sootland.  It  is  seen  in  the  above  placea  from  like 
*U 


IGNOHAMUS— lOnANODON. 


of  NoTember. 


r  lONOR- 


diddle  of  antnnm  till  the 
In  fonner  timw,  the  ignu  fitnTU, 
WiU-o'-tAe-witp,  Jadc-a-Umiern,  SpmlM,  Ac,  was  an 
object  of  mpeiMition  uaong  tjie  inhabitants  oC  the 
diitrids  wlieni  it  appean,  and  was  beliered  to  be 
due  to  the  ageniiy  i^  evil  apirits  attemptiiig  to  tore 
the  traveller  to  bu  destniction  ;  and,  nnfortunately, 
there  are  too  many  iiutancee  on  reoord  of  travellera 
ini«fa.Ving  the  JgTii"  fatunfl  foT  a  lamp,  aod  being 
thua   deooyed   into   manhy    plaoeo,    vhera    they 

laNOBA'MUS  (Ut  ve  do  not  kuov),  the  void 
foimerlj  written  l^  a  grand  J1117  on  the  Wk  <£  an 
indictanant,  meaning  that  they  rejeoted  ib  The 
voidfl  now  ojKd   are  'Not  a  true  bill,'  or  'Not 

IQNORA.NOE  OF  THE  IiAW, 
A'NTIA  JnitlS,  ia  held  in  Uw  to  be 
»cy  breach  of  oontract  or  duty,  nor  for  crime  or  othsr 
onenoe.  It  ia  abeolntety  neceaaary  to  start  with 
thia  maiim,  otherwise  it  would  be  quite  impouibte 
to  administer  the  law,  for  if  once  a  contiaiy  maiim 
were  allowed,  it  would  not  only  be  a  preminin  to 
ignorance,  but  would  lead  to  endleee  and  abortive 
inqoiriea  into  the  interior  of  a  man'*  mind.  Ignor- 
onoe  of  a  fact,  however,  ig  a  different  thing.  Another 
kindred  maxim  of  the  law  in,  that  every  man  intendB 
the  oonaaqnenoeA  of  hia  own  act.  Thus,  if  he  shoot 
at  or  give  poison  to  a  penoo,  it  ia  preanmed  that 
he  intended  to  ^iH  snch  person.  So,  if  he  leave 
a  trap-door  open  in  a  street  or  thoronghfare,  it  ia 
held  that  he  mtended  people  to  fall  into  it  uid  be 

S'ured.  There  is,  however,  a  doctrine  called  bona 
tt,  which,  in  the  case  of  petty  offencea  poniahable 
by  jiutices,  oft^i  tempera  the  strict  and  rigid  appli- 
cation of  the  nuudm,  ignoruntiajuTit  ntnunrm  txauat; 
and  even  in  ciimee,  a  jud^  always  takes  into 
consideration,  when  passing  judgment,  whether  the 
prisoner  or  defendant  was  an  ignorant  or  intelligent 

IOIfOBA.'NTINBS  {Fr.  Frira  Ignoraatiiu},  a 
religiaus  congregation  of  men  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  associated  for  the  gratnitoua  initznctioD 
of  poor  children  in  sacred  as  well  as  secular  learning. 
It  was  fonnded  in  !Fnuice  in  the  early  part  of  the 
18th  &  (1724),  by  the  Abb«  do  k  Salle,  and  has 
gradually  beim  mtroduced  into  every  Catholic 
country  of  Europe.  In  France,  thia  congregation 
ahared  at  the  Aevolntion  the  fate  of  all  the  other 
religionB  bodies ;  but  the  bretiuen,  under  the  name 
of  BrotheiB  of  ue  Cfariitiaji  Schools,  were  recalled, 
and  re-established  under  Napoleon  in  1806.  They 
are  now  exceedingly  nomeious  in  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany,  and  many  branches  exist  in  Inland  and 
Ireland.  In  the  latter  country,  they  possess,  espe- 
cially in  DnbliiL  Cork,  Limenck,  Waterford,  luge 

for  the  use  ot  tiieir  schools  a  series  of  school-booka, 
which  are  AeapieA  to  combine  with  aeoular  know- 
ledge information  on  the  aubject  of  religion,  specially 
deogsed  for  Boman  Calliolio  pnpiU. 

lOUALADA,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  modem 
■pnuiaot  ol  Bucelona,  and  sitnated  abont  40  miles 
weat-north-weet  of  the  dty  of  that  name,  on  a 
rising  noond  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Noya. 
It  ia  lor  the  moat  part  closely  bnilt,  dark,  and 
diri^;  carria  on  manufaotures  of  cotton  and  woollen 
goooa,  hata  and  Srearma,  is  the  seat  of  considerable 
tt»i»,  and  contains  a  population  of  10,000. 

laVATSA,  a  genua  of  murian  reptile  the  type 
of  tike  family  Iguanida,  a  family  which  coutuna 
many  genen  and  speciea,  and  to  which  belong  some 
of  the  largert  sannana  now  existing  except  those 
lA  the  crccodile  family.  Far  larger  sanrians  allied 
to  tham  sorted  in  foimer  geological  periods;    See 


lavjLSQDO's,  The  Jaitanida  have  a  Uouil-like  form  , 
and  a  long  tail  The  tongue  is  thick,  fleshy,  not  . 
eitensile,  and  is  notched  at  the  tip.  The^  have  ' 
rows  ot  small  teeth  ou  the  palate,  and  tbeir  jaw-  . 
teeth  are  remarkable  both  for  their  form  and  mode  1 
of  insertion,  not  being  lodged  in  distinct  sockets. 
but  fixed  in   a  kind  ot  furrow  along  the   internal    | 


Iguana,  < 

back  exhibits  a  TOW  o[  elevated,  compressed,  pcnnt«d   , 
scales  along  its  whole  length,  and  which  is  conttDiwd 
to    the    enremity   of  the  tail ;    whilst  under  the   ' 
throat  is  a  great  dewlap-like  pouch,    lio  feet  ban  . 
long  toea,   not   webbed,  with   sHiup   clawa,    weD 
adapted  for  climbing  trees,  while  the  oomprened   , 
tail  is  the  organ  of  pnigiesBion  used  in  awinuning. 
The  CoMUON  L,  or  Quina,  is  abundant  in  the  VitA   . 
Indies  and  tropical  parU  of  America,  living  mostly 
among  trees.     It   attains    a  length  of  four  or  five 
feet.     It  ia  of  a  greeniah-yellow   colour,   mottled 
with   green,  the  &il   ringed  with  brown.      It   ii   I 
esteemed  a  most  dehcata  article  of  food,  and  is  used 
by  all  clasaea  of  persons.    It  ia  often  oan^t  by 
means  of  a  noose  Uuiiwn  over  its  head  ;  dogs  bare 
alao  been  trained  to  hunt  it  on  some  of  the  Wto* 
India  ktyt,  where  it  has  not  opporianity  of  takiaf 
retiige  in  trees.     The  eggs — which  are  abont  the 
vaie  of  those  of  a  pigeon,  but  have  no  hard  shell,  and 
are  laid  in  the  sand — are  alao  eaten,  and  are  very 
pleasant.    Other  spedes  of  L   and    nearly  allied 

riera  are  eaten  in  tropical  America,  as  the  Homed 
[/.  camvia  or  Mdapocerot   tormitau]  of  Hsyti 
The  true  ignanas  are  all  American. 

IQUA'NODON  (Iguana,  and  Or.  (xfoks;  tootii),  a 
genos  of  remarkable  rigantio  dinoaaurian  nqitdes,   , 
more  abnndont  in  the  W^den  beds  of  Kent,  Snasex, 
and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  than  any  other  geuna  of  aaoci-   i 
ated  sanrions.    Their  singular  structure^  differing  in 
many  important  particulars  from  any  known  reptile, 
long  caused  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  their 
true  position.    Dr  Mantell,  their  original  discoverer, 
and  their  teamed  expounder,  first  knew  of  their  I 
existence  from  soma  enormous  bones,  whi^ootwith-   ' 
standing  their  colossal  siie,  he  considered  m^ihan. 
A  large  tooth  next  tamed  up,  whoas  smooth  worn  , 
crown  attested  its  having  belonged  to  a  harbirDroits 
«niin«l     Nmnerons  other  specimena  of  teeth  wetv  in  ' 
progress  of  time  discovered,  and  Br  MantcH  found 
tlmt  they  corresponded  in  a  rsmarkaUe  manner 
witii  the  teeth  of  the  amoU  American  lixatd,  the 
iguana,  althongb  they  eihiUted  reiy  atiiking  and 


hyt^iOOgle 


importftot  differencei.  Smee  the  otiriiud  diEooveiy 
of  tha  t«etli.  leveral  other  portioni  of  this  rem&rlc- 
able  reptile  have  been  found.  The  fragmentftry  and 
imperfect  matcrisli  irhicb  have  yet  tnrnetl  up  make 
any  e«tiiiiate  of  the  Bize  of  this  animal  porely 
hypothetical,  Dr  Illantell'i  ertimate  is  as  mutm 
aa  70  feet  in  extreme  length,  while  ProfeBaor  Owen 
conaiders  it  to  livre  been  not  over  28  feet. 
The  itractnre  of  the  akeleton  is  very  remarkable. 


-which  inpported  a  Dual  hora.  The  vertebnd  column 
was  Bomewhat  fiah-liks;  the  jointa  being  alightly 
concave  on  both  unrfsces,  yet  it  had  lony  neural 
archei,  aud  the  Bacram  was  compoaed  of  five  anchy- 


(Otoe  distance  frcm  the  gnnind.  The  largest  femur 
yet  foond  meaaurea  fonr  feet  eight  inches  in  length, 
aud  the  shaft  baa  a  circumference  of  tweotry-five 
inches.  The  leg  terminated  in  a  three-toed  foot, 
which  produced  the  enormous  tridaotyle  impretsioos 
on  the  ar^illaceoDi  Wealden  beds  that  were  for  some 
time  considered  to  be  the  footprinte  of  huge  birds. 
The  discovery  by  Professor  Owen  of  all  ^e  bonea 
of  a  perfect  foot,  however,  conoInsiTely  oonnecti 
these  impresaions  with  the  iguauodon.    Mis  figote. 


Footprint  of  iKnuodon,  from  the  oUS  tt  HaiUliai,  a 


in  n  recent  volnioe  of  the  Faheontographical  Society's 
publications,  exUbita  a  foot  21  inches  loiu;  by  9| 
inches  broad,  trhile  our  figure  is  reduced  from  a 


le  teeth  of  the  iguanodon,  while  bearing  a  general 
I  resemblance  to  thoee  of  the  iguana,  were  much  mote 
complicated  both  in  extemal  form  and  internal 
structure  than  in  any  other  known  reptdlo.  In  all 
other  known  rBptfles,  the  verticaDj'  Sat  teeii  are 
always  shani-ed^ed,  and  fitted  only  to  out  off  the 
plants  on  which  they  feed,  but  the  worn  crowns  in 
this  animal  shew  tiiat  the  iguanodon  thoroughly 
triturated  its  food  before  swallowing  it. 

IHRE,  JoHAir,  an  eaunent  Swedish  scholar  of 
Scottish  extraction,  was  born  at  Lund  in  1707,  and 
educated  at  the  univenity  of  Upaala,  where  be 
acquired  a  great  repntation,  and  carried  off  the 
highest  bonours.  He  subsequently  travelled  in 
France  and  England,  was  appomted  under-librarian 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  on  his  return  to  Sweden, 
and  rose  through  a  variety  of  offices  to  be  professor 
of  belles-Iettret  aiid;<^tical  economv  (1748).  He 
died  in  t78(K  L's  prmcipal  work  is  his  QtonarimH 
BuiofMicum  (17w),  a  work  of  grest  talent  and 
«raditioii,  which  loay  be  ngaided  ■■  the  fcnadation 


of  Swedish  philology.  It  was  got  up  at  the  cost  of 
the  state,  which  gave  L  10,000  dollu*  to  execute  it, 
""'  I  nomerouB  academical  disputations,  amounting 
upWBids  of  450,  are  still  valuable,  espeeially 
thoee  on  the  Mocso-Gothic  version  of  the  Oospwi 
byUlfilas. 

lEUPA,  the  principal  river  of  Madagascar  (q.v.). 

rLOHBSTBB,  a  small  and  decayed  town  of 
__  Dgland,  in  tiie  conntv  of  Somerset,  is  situated  in 
the  rich  valley  of  the  Teo  or  Ivel — from  which  it 
derives  ila  namo— 33  miles  eonth- south-west  of  Bath, 
The  principal  building*  are  the  parish  church,  an 
ancient  structure  sntmounted  by  a  low  octagonal 
tower,  and  the  county  jaiL  I,,  sappcsed  to  be  tha 
Ischalia  of  Ptolemy,  was  the  prindpal  station  cut  tha 
Romans  in  this  r^on,  and  was  fortified  by  them 
with  a  strong  wall  and  ditch,  both  Etm  traceable. 
ITnmerouB  Soman  remains  hare  been  found  here. 
L  is  the  biriiplace  ot  Boger  Bacon.    Pop.  (1871)  741 

ILE-DE-FRAKOE,  one  of  the  old  provinces  of 
France,  haying  Paris  as  its  capital,  and  now  mostly 
oomprised  in  the  departments  of  Seine,  Seine-et- 
Oise,  and  Oiae.  During  the  last  centtii^  of  the 
Carlovingian  dynasty,  the  De-de-F.  was  possessed 
b^  a  race  of  powerful  nobles,  who  latterly  took  the 
title  of  Dukes  of  France.  One  of  the  moat  able  of 
these  was  Hugo  or  Hogaee,  sumamed  Le  Blano,  or 
Le  Grand,  who,  for  20  years  previous  to  hia  death 
(906),  virtually  wielded  the  sover^gn  power  under 
the  Carlovingian  kings  Louis  IV.  and  LoUiaire.  Hia 
son,  Hugo  Capet,  eventually  became  the  actual 
sovereign.    See  Cjlpitux  Dtkisit. 

IXETZK,  or  ILETZK  AlA  ZASHCHITA,  a  Koall 
town  and  fort  iu  Eastern  Russia,  on  the  bonier  of 
Kirghiz  territory  {govenunent  of  Orenbnrg), 
_  .  ,ted  on  the  river  Ilek,  near  its  confluence  with 
thetlral,inkt  61°9'K,,Iong.  Bi'SyE,  The  town 
was  founded  by  Cossack  emigrants  in  1737,  and  con- 
tained in  1867,  a  pop.  of  2493  inhabitants.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  quarries  of  rock-salt,  the  richest 
in  Russia.  The  salt-beds  of  L  were  formerly  worked 
by  the  native  Bashkirs,  but  since  1764,  both  the 
extraction  and  sole  of  the  salt  are  monopolised  by 
the  government,  and  are  the  source  of  considerable 
revenne.  All  the  country  round  L,  especially  aloug 
the  river  Solianka,  is  one  continual  layer  of  salt, 
covered  with  a  sandy  or  clayey  alluvion,  3^  to  4^ 
feet  thick.  The  thickness  <n  the  salt  bed  is  not 
yet  thoronghly  ascertained,  notwithstanding  many 
mvestigations,  fnmi  Pallas  up  to  the  present  time. 
The  L  salt  is  considered  the  beet  in  Rnsoia.  On  the 
surface  of  the  bed,  cubic  blocks  of  salt  ore  found, 
pure  aud  transparent  like  crystal,  and  weighing 
from  8  to  30  lbs.  each.  Tarioua  sm^  articles  are 
manufactured  out  of  such  blocks,  and  the  common 
people  ascribe  to  them  a  healing  virtue  in  ophtbalmie 
disease.  Near  L  there  are  two  lakes,  one  of  whieh 
is  salt  and  warm,  the  other  acid. 

I'IjGUM.    See  DiannoH,  OBOAm  or. 

I'ljBtTB,  or  TT.TAf!  PASSION,  is  rmrded  by 
some  writers  as  a  distinct  diaeaae,  but  IM  in 
reality  the  closing  stage  of  the  severest  fonus  of 
ententds,  or  of  couc,  and  is  often  connected  with 
some  irremovable  mechanical  obatraotioa.  It  may 
indeed  occur  in  any  case  in  which  the  contents  in 
the  bowel  cannot  find  their  way  onwards.  The 
peristaltic  action  of  the  intestine  i*  inverted ;  there 
is  intense  vomiting,  and  even  feculent  matter  is 
discharged  by  the  mouth.  Desperate  as  the  condi- 
tion of  tiie  patient  is,  his  case  is  not  absolntely 
hopden;  bnt  as  recovery,  when  it  ""' — '  ""  '~' 
rather  to  nature  than  to  art,  it  is  ' 
oitei  into  the  subject  of  treatment. 


]  lized  b.:/ 


Google 


TT  .UTT—TT  ,T  .TVIWB. 


IIjEX,  a  tras  <tft«it  named  in  tb«  Lttin  cbMica, 
tiM  Brargnen  Oak  <*  Holm  Oak  {<Jmpm«  lUtt, 
Bm  Oak.    It  ii  a  nativa  of  mart  mtU  of  the  kriw 


kt»«bIoiig,  acuta,  leathoy,  hoar;  beneath 
bat  Quj  -ray  much  in  amia  reapaoti,  fran  the  «ze 
ol  a  aloe-laaf  to  t^t  of  a  baeeh,  and  mm  being  Tcrj 
■pnj  at  tbe  adga  to  parfirt  ennneM.  It  u  a  vair 
enununtal  trae,  and  naa  not  beta  to  nuiali  planted 
in  Britain  a«  it  dcavTta.  Ita  wood  it  very  haid  and 
biaTf ,  toogh,  dnraUt,  and  nieful,  partiauUrly  for 
nde^  pall^&  tonwi^  and  ^latarer  it  to  be  tub- 
JaetadtoinndibiaMon.  Tha  aoCTu  an  of  mioat 
qnahty,  aomatinua  litter,  and  icnneliniat  iwast  and 
«^b& — InmodtmbatMi7,  ilsiithegenerioname 
ofthaHoU7(q.T.)- 

FUBAOOHBE,  a  tmall  tnarket-town,  teaport, 
and  vaAwing-plaoa  of  T'l*lg1wn<^  on  tht  nc^tii  ooatt 
id  the  aoo^  of  Daron,"]!  dnaly  ntaattd  amid 
notnMtqua  uMgnlai  hiUii,  on  a  oora  or  inlet  of 
iha  Brittol  Ohanntl,  II  milM  norUL-norUi-weft  of 
BBra«t^>l&  The  haibour  it  foimad  by  lan^iatlB 
of  iMk,  and  fSRUtbad  wiUi  a  li^i^hoiiae,  tnd  a  ditt 
SfiO  faat  in  iM^th.  "Bm  batiiing  attaUithmmt  it  a 
Dorio  building,  enotod  bara  in  UISS,  and  nppliad 
with  aaa-watm  from  tlia -ihora  by  meanl  of  a  tonnaL 
nia  towo  it  ahiafly  dcpandant  npcm  itt  woalthier 
nridentt  and  ita  anninur  Tjaitrai  j  bat  an  aotave 
fialwry  and  ooaating-tndo  are  alio  oaniad  on. 
Pop.  (1871)  4721. 

I'LIAO  AUTEBIKa.  Km  Aoita  (q.  t.)  diridea 
at  itt  loweat  point — wbicb  it  onaUj  on  tba  left  tide 
of  tha  bodj  A  the  fourth  lumbal  Tertebn— into  the 
two  oonunon  Hiao  arteoet,  whioh  patt  downwwdt 
and  ontwaida  on  ta<di  aide  to  tha  margin  of  the 

Silna  fm  abont  two  iin*hf^  mi*^  ^  half,  and  thai 
Tide  into  tha  azttra^  *ml  intatn^  iiiyi  axteiy 
of  tttJief  tide.  Tba  eztemJ  illao  paanTa  obliquely 
dowDinrda  and  outwarda  to  tha  fsmoial  aroh,  wlun 
ittnttn  tlwth^h,  andbeoonea  tha  fnnonl  aitery. 
Hm  intanud  Hum  ia  a  abort  veaael,  abont  an  inch 
tad  abalf  in  leosth,  which  dividoa  into  an  antorior 
and  a  poaterior  nank.  Ti»  anterior  tnmk  dividea 
btoaefeialbranohta,  whioh  nipply  the  bladder,  tha 
notomf  the  gtneiafaTe  ccsant,  *"*^  mnadaa  both 
within  and  on  tha  oat^da  of  tha  palria,  wiUi  artaiial 
blood;  wliila  Iha  ksutehea  of  uia  poatvior  trank 
mainly  aapidy  mnaolcv  witbin  *^  on  Ibe  mtaide 
of  tba^TU.  Iba  imporUnoa  d  tba  intenial  iliac 
aitwy  in  cairying  on  tlie  ciioQlatiMi  in  nt«dno  lifo  ia 
notioed  in  tba  araela  Faroa. 

ILTSBUS.  8te  Xyhxhb,  and  Anvu. 

I'LIITH.    Baa  PnTm 

ILIITU.    SmTeot. 

niKE8TOIT,athlinuniaAet-townof  Oi^and, 
in  tbe  ooTtntrof  Derbr,  and  aitoated  ten  milea  nortb- 
eaat  of  the  tovn  of  tut  name,  on  an  eminmce  in 
the  Talla;  of  tike  &«waah>  Maunfoctoica  at  tumery 
and  laea  an  haf*  oanritd  on,  and  a  nunber  of  the 
inliabitania  an  ■noised  In  tba  ooal  and  iron  wad« 
of  tha  vioinity.    Pop.  (1871)  96» 

ILItfi-BT-TIIiAINl^  a  maittima  departaoent  in 
the  iu»tb-wart  of  Vianoe,  (ormod  ont  ol  a  pottiou 
of  tlu  old  pHirinoa  of  Bietagne,  ia  qiiadraDgalar  in 
ahape,  and  UNbatwean  the  At^abCbannal  and  tite 
departmant  of  X-oiro'InflriBiira.  Aiaa,  2ST8  aqoare 
miW  or  IJM6,670  tqnaje  aana,  of  wbicb  1J)1&SB0 
BOM  an  anble  land;  pop.  (IS72)  S8SLSS2.  It  it 
wrtN«d  «liitdT  by  tha  nren  fiom  whioh  it  dsivta 

ita *»"  Tilaine,  and  ita  tiibatary,  tba  Hie. 

The  naul  gtaiiwaopa  an  raited  in  aofflolaat  qnaa- 


nand  in  grew 
mmea  an  wonao,  aod  paat  THietir 
woollen  fabriea   are  mflUfaotond. 
ia  diTidsd 


and  tba  aidtr  erf 


■■to-BoB 


Fongteea,  Homtfort,  8t  Malo,  TittC,  and  Sadm!   | 
Pjfiwff  ia  tba  aaint^  — wl  fit  Malo  tike  vny^al  i 

ae^mrt. 
IliIiBaiTIMACY.  See  laoiTiiuaT;  BuxAXM. 

ILLl'CnJM,agatinaof  ta«aaoflbenatam(»dar  | 
liagniMaeea,  having  flowen  with  thne  or  aix  petal- 
like aepala,  nnnKMoa  pet^  amn^ed  in  aerenl  i 
rowB,  and  niinieroaa  abuneaa  and  [salila;  tb*  en-  , 
aolea  amnged  in  a  atar-likB  foim,  opuiing  spwarda,  | 
and  ea^  oontaining  a  aiiucla  aeid.  Tba  apeaaa  an  . 
few.but  TasTwide^diatrbnted.  The  moat  import-  \ 
ant  ia  /■  eautaiuta,  the  &nit  of  wbicb  ia  known  aa  i 
Star  Aoiae,  or  Chineae  Aniie.  SeeAtnaa.  Tbiatoee  ' 
ia  held  in  bif^  eatimation  among  tbo  Japaneae,  | 
and  it  planted  near  their  templea,  aa   tbcu-  godi  1 

e  nppoted  to  delij^t  in  it— Amons  ttw   ol 


riucbUeUaTeaanTenl  ^ 
capaolea  alao  Tn^llfTift  ^  aniaa,  thfuigh  moro  £aint^ 
tli*n  tboae  of  tbe  CS^uae  tiaa  fliwifl**  in  &nfi|nDce 
ia  I.pan^onan,  aootber  FlMidian  apadea. 

IIiIiIHAIfl,  one  of  the  prinoipal  moontaina  ctf 
the  Bobvian  Andea.    See  AHsn. 

ILLINOI'B,  a  river  of  North  America,  ia  famed 
in  tbo  north-anat  portion  of  the  ttate  of  nlnvfii.  by 
the  onion  of  the  Eankakaa  and  D«t  lEIainea,  flowi 
tonth-wett,  and  joint  tha  WwtdKd  20  milca  »boTt 
the  montii  of  the  Mittoori.  It  la  SOO  mileB  kmg, 
and  ia  navigaUa  for  SU  milta.  It  it  tmiad,  deem 
and  alnggiah,  and  wf dana  oooaaionally  into  lalrct  Titr 
ezpanaae.  It  ia  connraoted  hj  a  canal  witb  Ijake 
Michigan. 

ILLINOIS,  one  of  tbe  United  Stataa  of  Anaica. 
eKteodlng  from  SG*  SS*  to  ^  SVN.  lat,  and  ST  37 
to  91*  4d  W.  long.,  being  38S  mike  long,  and  213 
-wide ;  containing  an  ana  of  C5,MS  tqnan  mika,  cc 
36,4«9,200  acret.  It  ia  boonded  N.  ty  Wiaoomi ; 
E.  by  Lake  Michigan,  and  like  rtate  irf  Indiana, 
from  whioh  it  it  partly  aepanted  Inr  tba  Waba^ 
rivm';  8.  hj  the  coovwginc  riven  Uitriaaqipi  and 
Ohio,  whioh  tepantte  it  frmnHittouri  and  EantD^7; 
and  W.  by  tbe  MiaiiMiKii,  whioh  ■mantaa  it  bom 
Minoori  and  lowh  Tha  itato  it  divided  Into  103 
coontita;  tba  capital  it  8^1ngfield,neartbe  omtnot  . 
the  ttate,  and  tbe  mortimponant  townt  an  Cbicaga,  { 

a  piinapal  port  on  Lake  Mintiig»n,  Oalsia  ai^ 

ton  tm.  the  HiMtdppi,  and  Cairo,  at  tbe  aonUtern  1 


—    pc^mlatica  | 

marvdloaB  rutdity.  > 
:8Sa  SG,2n  ;  in  ISM  * 


terminna  of  the  CentaM  Btilway,  Ukd  tba 
of  the  Ohio  and  Miadttippi  rireta.  Tba 
of  tbe  atata  bat  increaaedTwith  marvdloa 
In  1810,  it  waa  13,382 :  bk  t8Sa  BS^W  :  n  i 
107,446;  in  1840,  476,183;  in  1860,  851,470 
1360, 1,711,753;  and  in  1870,  2,011,0901  Hon  1 
balf  the  peinde  of  L  wen  born  in  otbw  ttatea  at  I 
fonign  conntriea,  a  la^  nnmber  being  Iridk  and  ' 
Germana.  In  IStft  than  wan  bnt  707  panpan  in  a 
popnlation  of  851,470.  Hit  atata  of  Lla  genenfly  , 
level,  baviog  few  biUa  and  no  uoantaina.  IW  < 
lowert  partNn  ia  bnt  340  ftai  and  i^  bia^rt  only  ' 
800  feet  above  the  OoU  of  Ueiiao.  It  it  nmly  | 
cowed  by  lerMla  pniriea ;  while  river-bottoma,  ' 
withaadlof  vegetable  mould  40  taet  in  depth,  bave  I 
pndaead  heavy  erope  of  main  for  many  taeenaive 
"-'■*  Hie  oouBby  it  ao  Irrd 

aa  Lake  Uiohimn  witb 
and  the  MinitBipid  ia  fed  Mr  water 
the  lake  to  a  b«v^  of  twdn  iMt. 

I   I    iiyGoogle — ' 


ILLUMINAIED  lUlHTBOBmS-ILLVaTBATXD  FCBUCATIOKa 


ipal  rircn,  b«ndN  thma  whioh  form  Uib 

I,  ■!«  ttiB  CUiiioU  uid  Hook  liTon,  uid 

tiudr  tribt^uiML    Tha  wkob  «teta  ii  of  limMtone 

fmmi&iD,  with  nob  lakddipanta  in  tlu  noith-vart, 

'  a  kmpaction  of  tiw  great  Utauninoiw  «Md 

ittiok,  370  mON  Imig  wd  200  wid«^  Ifiag  in 

.  and  ib»  adjaiBJutaWw.    Iha  oliiiiato  u  wiM, 

wiUt  aa  »mt»t»  of  77*  Talv.  w  miuMr,  and  83(° 

ia  'wiatar,  bat  langins  fawoi  S0°  below  to  100*  aboTo 

xcco;  it  fa  alao  haalthj.  ezo^  in  nrainp-landa  or 

liTer-battama,  irtiiah  an  aabjaot  to  iem  and  ague 

■nd  tnliona  diaaaiM.    The  piodnotdona  are  wltMt^ 

mtiaa,  tobaoqch  oattb,  hogf,  ap^deo,  p«ua,  paaoliea, 

grape^  fto.    tbtm  inm  pS72)  o72&  milea  at  nil- 

way,  indudiqg  the  Illinois  Oaitral,  70S  miUi,  and 

the  Galena  a^  Ouewo,  4S9  milea. 

In  1870,  L  oootamed  1I,0S0  pnblia  ichoota, 
6  nnivenitiea  and  779  otber  i^iooIe.  In  Uie 
fame  year  it  prodnced  30,I28,40B  bndieli  of 
nliBa^  129,&21,39G  bnahela  Ot  Indian  cant,  ami 
42,7S0^1  bnibeli  of  oata.  In  1830,  the  Moi- 
mona  bnilt  the  dty  of  Nanroo,  cm  tiie  Hluii- 
aippi ;  bnt  in  1844,  their  pnmheit,  Joaeph  Smith, 
was  killed  by  a  mob ;  and  bis  foQoirera,  20,000 
in  numba,  made  their  exodui  bcxob  the  plain* 
to  tiia  teniiciiT  of  Utah. — L  wai  fint  explned 
b;  La  Mle,  and  the  Vnaah  miMionariee  and 
Indian  tcadeia,  who  iFonnsd  the  earlieat  aettlmieut 
at  £adLaakia,ial673.  Ceded  br  France  to  Great 
Britain,  and  zbea  to  the  United  State*,  it  lemained 
portion  of  the  North-weat  TerritoTj,  •antH  ita 
""""'""" "  atate,  with  a  govamot  and  k^- 


onamaanm 
laSire,inll 


HAITUBOBIPTS. 


See 


ILLUMEN'A.TI,  a  name  which  has  at  diSgiont 
peiioda  been  bmne  hf  fonr  diffenmt  aodetiGa — that 
of  the  Alpoiimdo*  in  Spain,  in  the  end  of  ^e  ~'~ 
teenth  oantniy;  that  A  tbs  OvtrtattM 
about  the  ^eai  1684,  enthnMiata  and  ' 
an  aaaodatuxi  of  Ujalica  la  Belgiiun,  In  the  latter 
half  U  the  ISth  cantoiy:  and  the  Order  <^  At 
Itliuniitali,  whioh  was  fonnaed  at  Inoolatadt  on  May 
1,  1776,  Mid  soon  iinead  over  ainuwt  all  the  Bomao 
Catholic  parti  of  Oermanf.  It  ii  this  whioh  ia 
now  Gonunonlr  meant  when  the  name  Ulominati  in 
employed.  It*  fonnder  at  flnt  called  it  the  Older 
of  the  Ferfaetilnliita.  It  owed  ita  ed*teuee  to 
Adam  Wdihttapt,  Prrfeara  of  Oancn  Iaw  at 
Ingolitadt,  a  man  of  anperior  alnUtie*  and  much 
beneTolenoa,  bnt  defldeotin  practical  knowledge  ol 
mankind.  nUed  wit^  dsteautiou  of  Jenntinn,  and 
in^tiaot  of  the  reataaint*  wlii^  wwa  at  that  time 
impoeed  on  the  human  mind  in  Boman  Cath<dio 
Getmanv,  and  in  no  put  of  it  more  than  ia  Bavaria, 
tinder  the  Ugoted  admlnlabation  of  the  Elector 
CbariM  TheoMrsy  he  ocmceiTed  the  idea  of  fonaing 
an  aaioaialion  wiAaii  ahonld  extend  il«  ramiBcafiona 
eTerrwhert^  and  ihoald  Moaiit  of  the  ahcaoeat  qbite, 
abooJd  labour  lofl^  tutaMiaT—wt^ '^  the  dominion 
«f  T«a*on,  and  nmnote  rdigioua  and  poUtioal 
enHiditenment  BAo  anancteatlr~     w>^-i;_j— _  a_- 


if  woidlh)  ware  to  be  rajeoM,  a  aritem 
wa*  to  be  propBatad,  and  repnUioan 
opinion*.  Hw  aooeaalon  A  the  Banm  Tcai  Enigge 
"' '  "  ~w  Older,  and  the  (apport  whidi  it  raoaived 
-  I  to  ita  rnid  extowion, 
1  ttkan  SOOO  of  the  noat 
Dany  were  lotBibeai  of  it. 
WsaliM^I^  knoiriadge  of  the  eidai  of  the  Jeamta 
led  him  to  boRsw  mbbo  of  thdr  uMiodM  fw 
tha  aocompliahnient  <j  what  he  reguded  aa  the 
moat  oMonte       '  ...     -^      ....  . 

invcdTediina*,  .. 

aod  the   Ukey  aMntfaUy 


freedom,  bnt  oaleolated  to  plaoa  the  t^r^tdff  all  in 
□na  hand,  by  iriiiah  the  holy  legion  w*a  to  be  led 
on,  aa  it  waa  imimned,  to  the  benefaction  ol  man. 
kind.  Bnt  from  {hi*  oau(^  the  diiaolntioD  of  the 
order  aoon  ananad.  Waiabanpt  and  Enian,  ita  two 
"  '      '■'  tother.  TChe  order 

dangenrai,  a&d,  on 
inaiaanea  by  the 


j^rh 


tha  22d  of  June  1784^  an  edifft  n 
Elector  of  BaTaiia  Im  it*  mppn  .  ^  .  _ 
followed  by  another  on  2d  Maridi  17S5.  Weiabaiuit 
WBB  dwaoed  and  baniahad.  He  letjied  to  Halle, 
where  £e  died  in  1830,  at  the  ife  of  83:  Tarioo* 
other  mambaiB  wme  aereiel^  pnnlehed,  and  the 
form  of  Juatiae  waa  not  atnouy  obaerred  in  the 
proceeding*  (ninat  tLem. — Great  importance  waa 
at  one  tame  attaohad  to  the  oidai  ot  the  nianunatij 
who*e  aeoret  inflnenca  wa*  regarded  a*  a  principal 
canae  of  many  ot  the  poUtiou  STtnt*  of  the  tmte 
of  the  French  SsTolntion,  sod  the  work*  of  AbU 
Bormsl  and  of  Prafaasor  Bobiaon  ot  EdinbDrt^ 
Q|)On  Oila  (abject  were  eageiiy  re^  bnt  tte 
highly  BiaKerated  character  of  uteir  view*  ia  new 
generally  acknowledged. 

ILLUFIE.    SeeBAMU. 

ILLUflORT  APPOIHTMBNT,  a  le^  phiaae 
^neh  danotaa  that  whaie  a  peiRon  ha*  a  powv  or 
faoolly  to  dirlda  piupo^  among  aerml  otheis, 
neh  aa  (diOdran.  ud  ha  ^re*  one  or  moi*  a  *my 
email  fum,  and  tiM  bulk  iri  the  pr(rp«aty  to  Uka  raat, 
*!..  * ;.  _!!_.  ._  ilh»ory  eppoiatMit.     In 


Tulinr  pariaoecL  It  i*  I 
ohira  wHha  ihilHna.  1 
both  in&kgla&d  and  Sec 


-  . In  ganaial,  it  i*  oompetoi^ 

both  in  Bigbad  and  SooUand,  to  Buk»  an  iUnawy 
appdntment,  but  much  depmida  on  tka  peouliar 
terais  of  the  deed  or  will  originally  giTing  this 
power  to  appoint  or  divide. 

ILLUSTRATKD  PUBLICATIONS  are  a 
remarkable  feature  of  the  literabue  of  otu  times. 
The  employment  of  illiubationj  or  pictorial  sketches 
to  render  bo<^  mi»e  Intelligible  and  attraetire, 
haa  long  been  common,  but  haa  of  late  yean  bewi 
caiTJed  to  an  extent  prerioualy  unknown.  There 
are  two  method*  of  illaatration :  by  copper  or  steel 
plate  engraTisgi,  which,  being  on  leaves  apart  from 
the  tex^  are  executed  separately ;  and  by  wood- 
engravings,  which,  inserted  as  blocks  Id  the  lypo- 
graphy,  are  printed  as  part  of  the  work.  Wood- 
engraving  is  not  new,  hut  it  waa  little  employed 
for  general  illDStration  until  eomparatively  recent 
time*.  Thronghoot  the  18th  and  the  first  quarter  of 
the  19fh  0.,  iUuftiation*,  for  the  moat  put,  ctadirted 
of  eeparate  eugravins*  on  ooppw.  See  ENaBAvniB. 
In  the  eariy  pMt  of  tho  19th  c  book*  of  tniv^ 
and  workfl  of  a  taneifot  kind,  and  also  In  natnnd 
history,  limed  in  London,  w«re  illuatrated  chiefly  by 
aqnabnt  engraving*.  Among  the  artiats  who  were 
-  "  '  forthuapeaeaof  illuabation  were  Kowland- 


iiait  waa  ptmopall r  e 
,  „  _  and  ttsvda.  bi  the  piepu*- 
tion  of  dsdgna  for  tboae  iUoatntioaa,  tlie  antbr  of 
the  woA  wa*  nsnal^  nndh  indebted  to  the  artia^ 
who,  in  mai^  caae*^  waa  fnmialied  with  only  a  few 
snrstf  bna  tn  iiitfle  Inm  In  hia  mail  in  Islam*  Ilie 
use  of  aonatint  (ograviiwi  was  at  length  avptt- 
eededlrrlillioip^il^l  bntbdote  tin*  new  qMOiMt  of 
llhi*tsati<m  eame  a«atlr  into  Tiww^  wood-Migraving 
took  the  plaoa  cf  all  kinda  of  illnabatian  exoqit 
that  of  thebigh-claa*  line  steel-eagtav^OK  wtuohare 
•tin  i«  use  ftir  coatly  pibHcatitniA  The  taate  for 
illnsbated  wvifca  firsl  arrung  up  i»  England,  and 
thenoe  it  axtcuded  to  fisnee,  Qcrmauy,  and  the 
United  StatM.  Vma  1S20  to  about  1890,  was 
the  great  era  ot  lUnstrated  *  — — '^  (q.  t.}.    Iba 


dbyCod«^le 


nXTBICtnt— QCAaS-WOBSBIP. 


tuts  for  Qiess  iUmtnted  TMr-booka  ultimately 
wora  itnlf  oat,  and.  iraB  nooecNled.  by  a  denuuia 
tor  highly  illoitrated  books  of  poetry  by  popolar 
authon,  luch  «a  Bweis,  ^ron,  and  Cunpbell, 
and  in  the  diipoaal  tn  thiae  el<^ant  work^  loniB 
pnbliihen  reahaed  haDdaome  fortaneB.  Latterly, 
ulmtntiiMi  haa  oonaiated  for  the  greater  part  m 
TOod-engivrinaB,  for  they  poaaeaa  the  huetimable 
advantaoe  of  being  printed  vith  the  letto^preiB, 

and  ezecution  id  these  embelliahments  have  reached 
eitrauntinary  perfeotdon.  Ezecated  with  compare- 
tdre  chaapneoa  and  rapidity,  irood-eogravingg  hsTS 
bean  largely  tmplc^ed  to  iUnatiate  popnlarperiodi- 
<alM,  encyolopodiaa,  and  newapapen.  Tat  Itlnt- 
trated Londion  2feiB»  waa  the fintilliutnited  paper; 
The  Orapltie  came  next ;  and  theae  t»o  are  the  best 
in  EngUnd.    See  Woon-xHOBAVdo. 

ILLyBIOTTM  (Or.  Iij.TBia,  Illtkia)  ia  the 
Boman  name  of  a  conntry  whoae  limits  in  andflnt 
timea  varied  Tsry  coniiderably.  In  the  4th  a.  B.O., 
the  Ulyriana,  who  are  the  ancestor!  of  the  modem 
race  generally  known  aa  Albanians  (sea  Albabu), 
inhabited  the  whole  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea  and  adjacent  i«1aT^l^■^  with  the  western  parte 
of  Macedonia  aa  far  aa  Epiroa.  Philip  of  Macedon 
itry  aa  f ar  aa  the  riTer  DriloD 
1  uence  ai> 

rSyrJ*  Gnaw  and  lUyrit  Bariara  or  Jtomana. 
The  forauT,  now  Albania  (q.  t,),  was  inoorpomted 
with  Uaoeoonia.  IlhrU  Barbara  or  Ronta»a  waa 
dirided  into  lapydia,  libnnua,  and  Dalmatia.  "nie 
UlyriMU  ware  much  addicted  to  piracy,  which  loon 
bnnuht  Uteai  into  collision  with  ihe  Bomana,  and 
lad  V)  their  aabjngation  about  two  centnriea  B.C. 
They  made  nomeroua  effbrte  to  shake  off  the  Roman 
Toke,  but  were  always  defeated,  and  the  country 
becazne  a  most  important  province  of  tiie  Bonuts 
empire,  comprising  the  territory  t«p>eaented  in 
modem  timea  by  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  Henegovina, 
Montenegro,  nearly  all  Bosnia,  and  a  put  of  ^bania. 
On  the  diTision  of  the  Boman  empire,  I.  sliared  in 
the  Tidssitndee  that  foUowed  that  act.  A  decree  of 
Napoleon,  on  14th  October  1809,  gave  the  name  of 
niyrian  PmTinaea  to  Catniola,  DaLnatia,  and  other 
oonntiMi  fiom  the  Adriatic  Sea  to,  the  Save,  then 
belonging  to  the  French  eminre.  At  his  f^ 
thcM  provinoM  were  united  as  a  kingdom  to  the 
Austrian  empire,  and  some  alterations  were  made 
in  ita  boundaries,  eapedally  by  the  restoration  to 
Bongary  of  what  had  formerly  belonged  to  it,  and 
the  annexation  of  the  whole  of  Carmtiiia  instead. 
The  kingdom  wsa  divided  into  the  two  governments 
of  Laibaoh  and  Trieste,  Laibach  being  the  capital, 
which  arrangement  subsisted  till  1840,  when  it  wat 
subdivided,  for  administratiye  purpoaes,  into  the 
dnohiea  id  Carintbia  (q.  v.),  Cormola  (q.  v.),  and  the 
coast  district,  cont^iung  iiie  ooontjes  of  OUrz  (q.  v.), 
Qradiska,  and  Ittria  (q.  v.),  with  the  dty  and  terri- 
tory of  Trieste  (q.  v.). 

I'LMEN  (formerly  Moi/A),  a  lake  in  North- 
westeiiL  Kosua,  government  of  Novgorod,  27  inilea 
loDft  20  milee  bi^ad,  and  10  feet  deep.    The  lake  ' 

-* — '  — "-  ' '— '^m  J  ita  bottom  ston;, 

a,  and  aaveral  others, 
flow  into  the  lak^  whieh  diacharges  ita  waters 
thrao^  the  river  Yolkhof  into  Lake  Ladoga.  The 
lake  abonudt  in  fish,  chief^  landrea,  bream,  and 
smel^  and  fishing  on  its  bsnks  ooevidea  a  popula- 
tion ot  abont  aO.OOa  The  lake  L  la  historically 
ramarkaU*,  beoaiise  it  w«a  on  its  banks  that  tb« 
SUvaman  tribes  lived,  who,  a  thousand  yeara  ago 
(862),  invited  the  Yariafjo-RoM  to  coma  and  nUe 
ovD'  them,  from  vrtiioh  tune  datei  the  origin  of  the 


ILHE'NIUH.the  name  miUadbyB< 

anewmetalanakgoaatotantMnm.  Heol 

oxida  from  a  minwal  to  whiah  ths  vaiiona  naoMS  tt  ' 
nTtmo-tantaiiU,  SamanMli,  and  TUroBmmitt  bwe 
been  nppiitd,  and  which  «oe<us  in  ths  Ilniaa  Uoon- 
*.:-.  m  Siberia.    Its  eziftenee  •■  an  liiilwiimhMl 


right  bank  of  the  Isle, 
of  Bath.  Hie  Free  Grammar  and 
Schoola,  with  an  endowmeot  of  nearij  £1000  a 
year,  were  founded  in  lfi8&  Soma  manafactnres  d 
woollena,  silka,  and  lace  are  carried  oa.  Vop.  (1S71) 
2431. 

lli  OBEID,  or  EL  OBEID  (pnmoMnoed  LtAtU). 
an  important  trading  town  of  AMu,  eaintal  of 
Kordolan,  is  situated  in  lai  IT  11'  N.,  Ibnz.  ST 
35'  K,  at  the  foot  ot  a  lang  and  sradually  wfiag 
plain,  the  drainage  from  -Mich,  aftar  hevry  raina. 
frequently  inmidMea  the  [rin^palabeeta.  ibtowa 
consists  of  a  number  of  villages,  originally  anparstt. 
and  inhabited  by  distiuot  races,  but  aow  joned 
"ler,  and  only  distinct  enough  to  tona  aepante 

irs.    The  bousea  and  mcsqac "  --  "* 

iment  offices,  are  almost  all 

ola^,  and  the  general  appearance   ._    ^ 

uninviting,  ghtuny,  and  dirty.  The  toag,  or  nuaket- 
place,  contuns  lour  rows  of  booths,  and  fridt 
vegetablei^  tobacco,  and  manufactnrea  in  inn  ^ 
wood  are  bete  sold.    The  wholesale  trade  ia  oaRied 


very  lar; 
Fnlbe,ii 


and  oatvidh  feaUien,  are 

Population  estimated  at  about  30,000: 

ILCBI,  HjO'BIN,  or,  more  property,  Al.o>3,  a 
large  town  of  Africa,  the  great  cenbe  of  tiit 
i,  in  Yeniba,  is  situated  in  lat  S*  30*  N".,  and 
4°  33"  E.,  4«  miles  aontii-wMt  of  the  bufcs 
ot  Ue  Niger,  and  about  ISO  miles  notth.-eaat  fcm 
the  shore  of  the  Bight  of  Benin.  Nothing  wy 
daEinite  seems  to  have  been  published  nigar&ig  it 
l>r  Barth,  in  conversing  alioat  I.  with  an  intelli- 
geot  native  who  had  lived  for  a  long  tame  in  Cob- 
stoutliiople,  was  told  that  it  was  '  without  the  least 
doubt  Ivger  than  the  latter  dty.' 

IIjBLEY,  East,  a  small  bnt  aneient  market'tovn 
of  Berkshire,  England,  is  situated  in  a  aetJaded 
ToUey  amid  bleak  and  dreary  downs,  about  56  mila 
west  of  London.  It  is  remarkable  chiefly  for  ita 
sheep-markets,  which  are  among  the  most  impiviaiit 
in  the  kingdom;  CO.OOO  sheep  have  been  known  to 
be  penned  for  sole  here  in  one  day.  The  ordinary 
sheep-fairs  are  held  m  every  alternate  Wednesday, 
from  the  Wednesday  fortnight  before  Easter  tul 


July.  The  downa  in  the  'Vidni^  of 
are  oelebnted  aa  tiaining-gronndi  lor  r 
About  amile  distant  ia  tiia  village 


._ „.  _  West  Ed«y. 

Pop.  (1871)  608. 

JMAQE-WOBSHIP  (Oi;  iconolairia,),  the  nae,  in 
public  or  private  worship,  of  graven  or  paisied 
repreaentatums  of  sacred  penona  or  tk!iu>H  asJ 
especially  the  exhibiti(»i  of  hooi 

worship  to  or  toward*  soch  rspr  

practice,  in  the  various  degrae*  id  which  it  ia  sat- 
ceptible,  haa  fonned,  tea  many  oeuturies,  ao  fnntfol 
a  subject  of  controvsny  among  Gbriatiana,  t£«t  we 
think  it  expedient  first  briefly  to  detail  the  hirt«My 
of  the  use  ^  images  in  Christian  wotabip  dnriu  tlie 
•evend  periods,  and  secondly  to  state  smnmuily 
the  o^iomte  views  of  this  history  whkh  are  taken 
h^  the  two  great  putiea  into  which  ChristianB  an 
divided  on  t£e  question. 

'  Neither  in  the  New  Testament,  nor  in  any  gemniae 
wnUngs  of  the  first  ago  <d  Chriatdaiu^,  can  any 
toace  M  discovered  <^  &a  nw  of  statoea  oi 


tyCooi^le 


IUAOB-W0BaEIF-DU.aiKAllT  QtTAnnTT. 


in  the  inMhip  of  ChrMiaiu,  irbetber  paUio  or 
priTwttt  The  earliert  alliuion  to  meh  repreami- 
tetiana  ii  found  in  TertnUun,  who  qipeala  to  tb« 
inukge  id  the  Good  Shejiherd  u  cngrkvad  upon 
the  chaliwL  A  tctj  ourioni  pa«ut  ctmMan  of 
Chiutuni^,  of  tiis  vorr  Mine  ^^  Itteb  diwonred 
Bcr»t^«d  npon  the  mQ  <rf  »  room  in  the  piQMe  of 
th«  CMMnjiee  CUunni},  whkdt  mdel^  le^retoiti 
»  man  «*«»hW  in  the  attitnde  of  pnTW,  with  ovt- 
irtretclMd  hano,  b«dbn  ft  gcotetqne  Mnestim  of  ilie 
cmcifi^on,  ■■"'^  irineh  bMn  the  titie  *  Ale^tuaenni 
wonh^  Ood,'  lus  betateecnQTallBgedby  Cmtholici 
'""  il  iadioatJOD  of  &t  taut  »  oortun 
uooDtf  Qm  Christieni   of   the  3d 

of  .-w^dh  an  of  e  date  uiteriot 


,  nunr  otirhuui  an  of  e  date  uitenot 
iti&e,  neqnoitly  have  gtartgi  vpm  them 

„ tiima  ot  the  Soye,  of  the  Cro«,  of  the 

■Tinbolioel  Fiih,  of  the  Ship,  of  Adun  and  tin,  of 
MoMi  itTikinB  the  look,  of  Jodm,  <rf  DMnet  in  the 
lion*'  den,  of  the  ftpoetlM  Petcc  jluA  Panl,  and 
abore  ell,  of  the  Good  EOte^Hrd;  ittd  thoee  oom- 
putnuDta  of  the  Mtaeombe  vhkih  mte  uwd  m 
ohspeb  He  (rftcoi  ^ofoMlf  deoonted  with  ncmd 
repwentetiotws  the  i^  of  lAich,  however,  it  ia  iwt 
ea^  to  deterniine  with  aoonnuiy.  Bat  whaterer 
opiwon  nuy  ba  fonaed  a«  to  particiUu'  iiutanoei, 
saoU  M  tbcM,  it  i*  admitted  by  Catbolica  tbemtdree 
(who  explain  it  by  tiie  fear  of  perpetaatiiig  the  idol- 
abtMU  notione  cJ  the  eu^  oonTerta  from  pUMUoni) 
tiiat  for  the  fint  three  oanturiee  the  oae  ofunMM 
waa  nre  and  ezo^tionat;  aor  wai  it  nntil  after  the 
eataUJahment  of  GhiiatdanitT  nnder  Gonatantinet  and 
paitionlvlr  after  the  omdcnmatkin  U  the  Nee^rUn 
heraay  in  431^  &at  atatnea  and  pictnna  lA  our  Lead, 
of  the  Tirain  Hary,  and  the  Semb,  were  commonly 
introdnoed  in  ohnrchea,  eapeciaUT  in  the  £ast  and 
Italy.  And  yet,  eren  in  the  Sth  e.,  the  [oaatioe  had 
alr^dy  reached  a  gi'eat  height,  a«  we  learn  from 
the  church  htatorian,  Theodorat,  for  the  East,  and 
from  Faulinua  of  Note,  for  Italy;  and  itt  the  6th 
and  7th  oeuturi««,  m&ny  popular  practicaa  prevailed, 
vhich  called  forth  the  coDoemnatiioii  of  learned  and 
piooB  biBbope  both  in  the  East  and  in  the  Weat.  It 
woa  nmial  not  only  to  keep  lights  and  bum  incei 
before  the  imaeeB,  to  kiia  them  teverently,  and 
hiieel  down  lud  pray  before  them,  but  tome  vi 
10  ior  aa  to  make  uie  imagea  aerre  aa  godfathem 
and  godmothers  in  baptism,  uid  even  to  mingle  the 
dust  or  the  oolouring  matter  scraped  from  the 
imagea  with  the  Eachariitic  elementa  in  the  Holy 
CommDniont  Thia  use  of  images  by  Chriatioua 
VM  alleged  as  an  obstacle  to  the  oonvenioa  of  the 
Jews,  and  •■  one  of  the  causes  of  the  pi 

deacribed  above  provoked  the  reaction  of  loonoolasm 
(q.  v.).  In  the  aetxmd  Council  of  Nice,  787,  the 
doctrine  aa  to  the  woiahip  of  images  was  carefiilly 
laid  down.  A  distinction  was  di«wn  between  the 
npreme  worehip  of  adoration,  which  ia  called  iairaia, 
and  the  inferior  worahip  of  hononr  or  leveience, 
called  dotilaa;  and  atall  more  between  abtolnte 
wcnhip,  which  ia  direct^  and  nltitnately  rendered 
to  a  penon  or  thing  in  itMff,  aad  rdaUve,  lAieh  ia 
but  addreaaed  AraufA  a  perw 
another  penon  or  thing  repi 


the  Coniunl  of  Nm«,  hy  which  it  m«ared  tlkat  tiie 
aame  adoratjon  wa«  decreed  by  that  oonnoil  to 
inuun*  'which  is  TMidend  to  the  Holy  Trinity 
itae^'  led  to  a  vdiement  agitation  in  Franoa  and 
Germany  onder  Chi^emagne,  "«^  to  a  ooDdemna. 
tioD  by  a  aynod  at  Ftankfiirt  of  the  dootainea  of 
the  Coondl  of  Nice.  But  an  azplanation  of  this 
error,  and  of  the  false  taanalation  oa  which  it  was 
baaed,  waa  immediately  afterward*  given  by  the 
pope ;  and  eventnaUy  the  Nicene  ezpontion  of  the 
oootriDe  waa  muTeraally  accMitcd  in  the  Western 

well  aa  in  the  Eastern  Churdx 

At  the  Befonnation,  the  refonoing  party  geuenJly 
rejected  the  use  of  imagea  «a  aa  nnaoriptonu 
novelty,  irteoondlahle  aa  well  with  the  prohilntion 
ti  Qm  old  law  as  with  that  chaiaoteriatic  of  '  rairit 
and  tmth'  'riiich  is   laid  down  by  our  Lord  aa 


_,  ,_„ ™actie 

aapBwtitionii  and  even  idolaboaa.    The  Zwinglian, 
ana  anhaeqaeatir  the  Calvinistio  ohnrclus,  abao- 


1^  thintb  ultin 
antedtbereby. 


ultimately 


iiy.  ■ 

and  does  not  rest  npon  Uie  images  themaelvea,  but 
relatiM^  that  ia,  only  addreaaed  through  them,  or  l^ 
Ion  ot  thenL  to  the  original  which  they  lepte- 
TkoM  explanation  of  t^  dootrine  and  the 
ioe  WM  tJimceforth  geatnSfy  reedved;  but  a 
[e  error  in  tbe  tnndMoD  ^  the(^«ek  aoti  of 


1  down  by  our  Lord  aa 


while  he  condemned  the  Boman  worahip  of  imagea, 
reprded  the  mnpla  nae  of  them  even  in  the  chnrch, 
for  the  pnnioae  of  inatruotion,  and  aa  incentives  to 
faith  and  id  devotion,  aa  one  of  those  odiapAoro, 
or  iMttfimil  thingl^  which  may  be  permitted, 
aHhoD^  not  of  iienwaiii  institution ;  henoe,  in  the 
Luthenii  ehnrehe*  of  Oermany  and  the  northern 


an  atiU  freely  retained.  In  the  .  _ 
Chnnih,  the  p«otice  li  itill  a  anhjeot  of  contrO' 
veny.  In  the  Fteet^teriai)  Church,  and  in  all  ^ 
other  froteatant  eonununiona,  imagea  are  entirely 


The  Boman  Catholio  Chnrbh,  throu^  the  decree 
ot  the  Conncil  of  Trent,  disolaima  the  imputation, 
comiuoDly  made  against  Catholics,  of  the  idolatrous 
wonhip  of  imagea,  'as  tbouAh  a  divinity  dwelt 
in  them,  or  as  tiiough  we  [CotholicaJ  asked  any- 
thing of  Uiem,  or  trusted  in  them,  as  the  heathens 
did  m  their  idola'  It  renews  the  Nicene  distluc- 
tioQ  between  dbtolvU  and  rtlaUve  worship ;  the 
latter  of  whioh  alone—'  whereby  we  worship  Christ 
and  the  aainta,  who  are  the  prototypes  of  tiieae 
imagea ' — it  lanctions  or  permits ;  anil  it  contends 
for  Uie  n«at  advantage,  especially  for  the  rude  and 

leanm  people,  to  De  drawn  from  the  use  of 
r.^tore*  ana  statuas  in  the  ehurche*  as  *  memoriala 
of  the  snfferings  sod  of  the  mercy  of  our  latA,  as 
inBtruotrre  reorads  of  the  virtues  of  the  saints,  and 
exhortatiauB  to  the  imitation  of  their  ezam^e, 
incentives  to  the  love  of  God  and  to  the 
of  piety'  (S«a.  xrv.  On  rte  InoocaHon  ^ 
'SaitiU).  In  many  foreign  churches,  especially  in 
Italy,  in  Southern  Germany,  and  in  France^  are  to 
be  lonnd  images  which  are  popularly  reputed  a« 
espedallT  aacied,  and  to  which,  or  to  praj^erB  oBered 
bjoie  whidi,  miraonlous  effeota  are  ascribed.    But 


instructed  Catholics  declare  that  the  legends  con- 
nected with  ineh  images  form  no  part  of  Catholio 
belieL  Host  Catholic  books  of  inatniction  contain 
canlioDa  against  attributing  tueh  efibots  to  any 
■pedal  virtiy  OF  the  imasea  themaelvea,  rather  than 
to  tiie  special  fkith,  fausflnlneat,  and  fervoor  irtiich 
are  stirred  up  I7  their  [veaence,  and  by  the  lecorded 
examplea  of  the  mercy  of  God  with  which  they  are 
Bssocialad  in  the  minds  of  the  faithful. 

IMA'GINARY  QUANTITY.  In  the  working 
of  many  algebraic  problema,  it  often  happena  that 
the  root  of  a  negative  quanti^  most  be  eoc^adedi 
if  the  toot  ia  odd,  the  operation  oan  be  performed 
(see  IirvOLOnOK),  but  if  ev^  tiie  root  can  oolf  be 


n  only  b 
called  ai 


hyGoo^fe 


XHAQlRA'nOH-nU.tnL 


oobe  not  of  —  U  n  not  mi  imaguiu;  qvuttir,  for 
-4x-'ix-4=~64,Midaun&>N^~M--4; 
but  the  tqiure  root  of  —  84  if  im  impoMiUe  quan- 
tity, for  no  i)a«bl>qiuuitity(wtistliar  it  b«  -t-  or— ) 
moltipUid  Sv  itnlf  can  iMdiica  a  DsgatiT*  qaan- 
ti^;  uiiiiWlT«iidil/>rtiori,  thefonrtlirootof^M 
i*  u  imponble  qnantity,  and  the  lame  it  troe  of 
all  BTen  roota.  Imaginaiy  quantities  an,  huwetor, 
gtparally  redneed  to  one  danomination  aa  nmltipUa 
of  *y  —  1,  in  th»  foUowing  manner:  ^  —  64  =• 
%/M"ir^=VB4x  V"^  =  8V'^i  andigais, 
V^n^  =V9tt*x-2B  =- N/5a*  X  ^^x  vCT= 
Sa*\/2aiv/— L  nuM  foima  Tei7  freqiwDtiy  oecnr 
in  hij^liw  algebn. 

IMAOIKATION.  Tba  mMning  of  tbii  wtnd 
«at«n  into  ouot  rdationaUiM,  ud  ia  tkanl^ 
rend«addiffl«iilt  10  daOna.  Tne  rarinoipal  maanmg 
ia  doahtlaia  what  Donnaota  it  with  Povin  and  Fine 
Alt,  from  iriiioh  tiia  other  Eianlfieatima  bnnch  oS 
The  aimideal  OHMie  of  enilaoiiu  *^t  nflmptiflated 
relationa&p  -will  be  to  itsle  in  aqanUoo  the 
diSerant  conititiienta  of  Uia  pow*  in  qontion.  We 
■ball  then  aaa  why  and  whsra  it  tonohea  nnm  M)ik 
fwnltiM,  which  atill  raqnira  to  be  diitangniahed 
from  it^ 

I.  TiMgitiattnn  bH  for  ita  objeota  the  eatery  ilie 
mal,  or  tM  indiyidajd,  a*  oppoaad  tcahatoacticn*  and 
senttalitiaa,  irinoh  an  tho  natter  of  aoieiMa.  Hba 
nil  ookoringof  nalilr  it  fnipUed  in  ou  '— f  ■*- 
Hon  of  asjr  Mioa  of  native.  In  tiiii  tentet,  Sun 
ii  •Muedung  oommon  to  inagiaation  ana  nunoiy. 
U  w»  «nd««Tonr  to  imagine  a  Toloano,  aoooiding 
aa  wa  anooaad,  w«  h«Ta  bttoa  Um  mind  •ray- 
thing  that  a  ipeetator  wonld  obaarre  on  the  ipot 
Thoa,  leMation,  memoiy,  and  imagmatioa  alika  omI 
with  tta  fulncM  of  tba  aotnal  worid,  aa  oppoacd 
to  lb*  abitmotioQa  of  icieoM  and  the  raaaimiim 


o  to  do  with  thii  oona^ite  riiliiii.  although, 

in  what  Sir  Williun  HamiHon  '^^'tt'W  the  origin^ 
and  moper  nuaaing  of  Uwt  wotd,  tbia  power  ia 
ftxoladatL  In  popolar  language  and  in  the  pbil- 
OBophy  of  DngaM  Stnnut,  otmeeptkMi  ia  amlied  to 
tba  oaae  of  our  willing  anj;  d«aoriptioa  in  aotnal 
Ufa,  aa  giran  in  biitoiy  at  in  poeby.  Vban  we 
oompletdy  aitw  Into  a  aoane  ponnyad  by  a 
wiiMF  or  apeaktf,  and  approach  the  Btnriion  of  Uie 
actoal  obairvM,  wa  an  cdton  Mid  \ojumemtt  what 
ia  meant,  and  alao  to  imagine  it:  Qia  beat  word  for 
thia  rignifloation  probabfy  u '  naliae.' 

2.  M  ia  forthfr  Maantial  to  imagination  in  ita 
itrioteat  wnae  that  Uian  ahonld  be  aome  oruinal 
oonatniotion,  or  that  what  i*  ima^ned  ahoahl  not 
be  a  men  pctora  <rf  what  ws  bava  annn 
rauinaf  "     '         ""  '" 

igtheas 


or  the  Ukaral  iqm>dnoti<m  of  paitatparii 
arturt  ia  aaid  to  bare  iwaginattmi  aeci 


what  he  bM  fmnd  in  hi*  aotnal  ohsarratioa  of 
nature.  A  Utanl,  m»Har-<4-faM)t  hiatorian  woold 
bo  aaid  to  b«WM^ng  in  tbe  bao^  T!b»  exact 
ocpjing  of  naton  may  ba  my  mantoiiona  in  aa 
araak  and  T«y  aoMable  aa  an  aAet  bat  wa  aboold 
not  deaignate  it  ey  the  leim  ima^nation.  Thise 
an,  bownar,  in  tba  aoi«oaa,  and  in  all  the  edoimam 
att^  atrclua  <rf  inTviiion  and  new  oonatnoticcai  to 
■ '  ■  "'  '"""  "'  '  ^  mfair  to  refiua 


wbioh  it  might  itaa  at  fint  n^  mfair  1 
tiie  tam  in  omMou,  if  oii^^ity  be  a 
fgatanmitBdifinition.   Bnt  itiD  we  do  do 


notion  a  tba  mind,  to  ^atiiyMufa  all  ito  c 


betweitt   tt  ud  tba  onatJTaaaai  « 


a  maatary  «i  aoana   , 

t  00,  t£o;^   >a  , 

jiriiat  atiw 


an  nndar  tba  i 
•taro^  enution,  the  onrant  i 
aSeotad  and  eoloitrad  by  that  * 

in  wiih  it  ia  rataiaa^  attl  otiMT  winp  xapc  voa  «   i 
•IghL  We  alao  form  new  wmitfQotiau  that  anit  Ik  , 
attfte  of  tha  mixnant    I1in%  m  faai,  m  vm  aw 
whelmed  by  objaeta  of  alaim,  and  « 

fpeotnt  tfaat  hare  do  axlatoioo,    £_.  . 

eoam^  of  all  ii  piWMited  to  na  by  Um  e 

tiMW  (d  fine  ar^  whidi  an  detarminad  I7  t 


plaaaiDW  td  taata;  they  an  a 

•tyled  '  oleaanrea  of  the  imaginatinn '     Tha  artirt 

hM    in  Vima*1f  thoaa  Tariooa  aonaiMlitian    to    aa  ' 

enationi  w^  tha  view  of  gntifyiiu  tbent  to  tba  '. 
vtuMt.    Thna  it  h^pena  that  fine  art  and  ii 
tion  an  rebted  together,  irtiila  •■ 


irtiiah  may  abo  be  faeaWea  of  inTentaan.    K  ii 
deviation  bom  tba  ccnact  naa  of  langow^  and  4  , 
conf oooding  of  *i™f  enmtially  JiafiiwA^  to  at^ 
that  a  man  of  loianoe  itanda  in  need  of  imi^jnaln 
aa  well  aa  powan  of  naaon;  b«  naada  &a  poww  rf  1 
ornriMl  CMWtnMtiEN,  bat  hia   inrentiona    wa  not  ^' 
famadtoMtii^pfiaint  amotiona,bttttoboiBatin-  , 
mental  in  remota  aidii^  which  in  their  iMiiiitMiw 
may  asmte  fiftthing  tiiat  ia  nanally  imdMtood  aa 
onotiMi.    EreiyaJtiata^anBaaa  thafaonftyinyie^  I 
titrn,  if  ba  prodnoaa  anytUng  anginal  in  lua  nrt 
Tha  name  'Fanoy'^haa  •nbafawtiallT  ti>a  nuan-  ' 


from  the  Qnek  fiatatia.  It  Iwi  now  a  dinda  of  ' 
meaiung  aomewhat  diffnonit  being  i^fdied  to  thoae  1 
ereatioDB  that  an  moat  widely  NOMTtd  ttoai  1h* 
world  of  reality.  In  tha  exeidaa  of  our  '~*tr~-  ' 
Hon,  w*  may  keep  doaa  to  naton,  and  only  >>BnIgB  ! 
&a  liberty  of  ra-oomlnniiv  what  wa  find,  ao  aa  to  1 
anrpaaa  tha  ori^nal  in  aose  pmnta,  withoaEt  fonav  . 
tcgethw  what  ooold  not  o»4z)*t  m  mality.  U> 
ia  tbe  aober  aMe  <d  art.  Bat  n^m.  In  cvd«  to  ' 
gtati^  tha  anDonnded  '"■■"gf  of  tM  mindi,  wc  , 
etmatniot  a  fair^and  with  tmanotariatiaB  aUogrthd 
bt^ond  ithat  bmnan  lits  can  faniah,  wa  an  ndd  ia  ! 
eidar  the  rerions  of  fancy  and  tile  botawtieaL 

Tha  'ideal,'  and  'idMlity,'  an  riw  arnca^  tk  I 
■TiMmyma  of  jmw'natinn,  u>d  Ihw  oioal  1 
tion  iUnatntea  ■all  farther  tba  vmtwhi  n 
oDaaed.  Tht ' i^^ttl '  Ji  tnrr-*" — <i—ii* — ^ 
mind,  or  giatifiea  aome  of 
oraTinga,  when  rsality  ii 
DcBiing  iomathing  to  1 
^lat  ua  worid  oan  aapply,  we  abika  «at  • 
tbade£atoaf< 


IIAAVU,  Um  appaDatioa   giran   to   Oe  meal 

wn«Hll*«mlllii«  l3   WiAnw^AMli^a;,       Hib  w«td 

AnUc,  and  dgnifiaa  a  diraotor  or  taachar.  It  ia 
oommcoly  amptoyed  to  daaignate  ur  of  Uw  perwaa 
behogiiw  to  the  Htdiimmisdan  'Ulema  (&  t.L  «r 
vriarthlMdT.  Th^y  an  diaUnnUad  fa»  «• 
laity  by  a  fanban  aomairiiBt  Uf^er  than  aaid. 
iMy  an  hdd  in  graat  nrcrenoe  Wtha  paenla. 

~--'^-  '-■-- "^-ffii  mil  ifTMHii.Mlbi 


.,Gooyli^ 


ntAUB-^IlflTATnnEE  DtSANITT. 


IUAUB:    Sm  HonA-KAiK. 

IMBA'TTLBD.    Bm  EmAnUD. 

IMBEOIXnnr  moit  not  l«  conloniultd  with 
idiooT.  In  Hie  formar,  th«re  i«  ths  imperfiet 
derelaimeDt  of  mind;  in  tlie  Uttur,  Mum  U  tbs  iton- 
deTelopmaQt  ol  mind.  Ill  ths  feeble  iutolleoti  then 
may  be  ytmeat  every  beulty  w&idi  diitjngoiihee 
the  most  pgtatio  nndeisbuidiii^  and  theie  maj 
act  nnder  oniik«]^  km;  bnt  tbev  ara  dwufe^ 
incapable  of  contanned  zrowtii  ana  training,  and 
ace  azatdMd  and  i^pliea  nndar  the  guidance  and 
auistanM  of  otlun,  oi  of  txtanal  ouoiUDitsDceB. 
"Hiera  are  large  nunbot  of  we*k-mindeiL  uele« 
penona  in  07017  oammunitjr,  iriio  diBm  from  the 
more  Tobut  infelleota  aoldr  in  dqgne.  But  the 
more  marked  and  reoogniaable  imbMQi^,  H  truu- 
mittad  oongenitally,  a*  following  dantition,  clloret^ 
coDTiiliioDi,  and  nTiriaait  irhioh  retard  vigorona 
bodily  development,  or  aa  indooed  by  tlie  great 
conBtitatJODal  changea  at  puberty,  ia  cWrwlteriaed 
by  an  (ff  many  of  tbe  folloiring  ■ymptomi.  The 
ezpration  ia  Taoant^  the  aenaea  are  dnU;  Uia  head 
is  Baall,  the  body  dcfonnedi  the  gait  iiTaoillatmg 
and  rtatlMi;  the  head  ii  pendent,  tlirown  back, 
or  uitated;  the  idira  eKapeii  UM  langnagn  ia 
limi&dandinfazitila;  the  ideal  are  few,  and  connat 
of  mere  wntgmia  impnMioiii ;  the  temper  ie  timid, 
facil^  and  Tain  j  Kkd  the  paanona  are  little  loaoep- 
tible  of  coatroL  The  afbotioii  haa  beea  regarded  aa 
genaial,  or  inTdring  tbe  whole  mind;  or  aa  partial, 
when  -Oie  inteUaot  mly,  or  the  aentainenti  only,  or 
a  partioolar  faculty  may  be  feeble  and  ineducable. 
In  a  legal  view,  loch  persooi  have  been  divided  into 
those  who  have,  and  thou  who  have  not,  a  moral 
perception  of  nght  and  vcang.  It  ia,  however, 
worQiy  of  condderation,  that  while  they  may  know 
right  from  wrong  in  Uieir  ordinary  and  habitoal 
range  of  dntiea,  and  within  tiie  (cope  of  their  — 


c»j«dtj,  they  may  fail  to  do  ao  beyond  these  narrow 
limita,  and  where  qneitioni  of  property,  [ODuriety, 
or  abetmct  jnilica  aM  concerned     Many  imbeci'  ~  ~ 


atren^  and 


not   merdj 


>le  of  performing  act*  reqniring 
rather  than  dexterity;  and 


ooimtiT,  aa  wdl  aa  many  other*,  they 
ody  the  *nat      "  '      '  "^ 

but  they 


rbodyjf 


atnrali,'  who  run 
_  . ,   .  ,   "o  converted  into  the 

drudgea  of  the  homeatead,  the  white  iIbvm  of  tbt 
farm.  From  the  more  clever  and  canning  of  tiie 
claas  ware  the  profenioiul  foola  of  former  agB> 
■elected,  Imbetnlea  are  often  confounded  with 
genoine  idiota,  and  their  partial  editcability  has 
exaggerated  the  supposed  ancceaa  ia  the  attempts  to 
elicit  and  mature  the  embryo  mind.  However  far 
thii  training  may  be  carried,  and  even  when  the 
■abject  liM  become  aalf-maintainiiiK,  it  may  be 
safdy  aiMrted  that  be  ia  never  s^-gaidoig  nor 
self -governing,  nor  capable  of  an  independent  ^at- 
ence. — How&  On  Ihe  Qmmt  of  Idiocy ;  Bepoits, 
Idiot  School,  Badawood ;  i>er/dl0t>«  eAa  Im  At?iinl«, 
par  Fdiz  Tdfin. 

IMBBOXLITT,   in   point   ot   law— L&, 

thing  ahMi  of  Idinqy  or  lunacy'^  no  gnu ._ 

relid  in  Ikif^aad  a^inat  a  conttaot,  thouah  relief 
is  alwan  gnntad  in  oaaa  of  fraud,  and  tbs  imbe- 
cili^  of  ooe  of  the  partiss  may  fono  an  element  of 
the  fraud.  Nor  doa  the  law  of  England  in  any 
peculiar  w^  protect  an  imbecile  peraon  or  his 
proper^;  fv  ao  Icog  aa  a  peraon  ia  not  actually 
maaoe  or  an  idiot,  ha  oan  do  what  he  likea  with  his 
own.    Id  Sootland,  however,  an  imbecile  penon  ia 

to  a  oartain  fluent  jootectad  i^ainat  beiiw  ' ' 

upcn,  aa  lepida  hia  heritable  property,  1 


c^Ied  intardiotion,  which  oonaiata  in  either  tht 
imbecile,  who  ia  eonaciona  of  hia  weakness,  ezacntiu 
a  bond  of  inteidiotion,  by  which  ha  pats  hima^ 
nnder  bualeea,  whose '  '-  —      ' —  — "- 


the  inatanoe  of  hia  next  of  kin,  with  like  efieeti. 
The  tmateea  or  guardiana  in  aoch  oaaaa  ate  oalled 
the  interdiotars,    See  LuxlOi. 

IHBEK,  or  TWMkr     Bm  Dim. 

I'MBBOS,  an  island  of  the  .^ean  Sea,  about 
11    mil«s    north-eaat    of   Lemnoa,  and   the   aame 


diatauce  from  the  mouth  < 
18  miles  in  lenetb,  and  haa  an  arsa  of  116  aquare 
milea.  The  iaiand  ia  mtnmtidnoua,  ita  highect 
aummit  being  IS4S  feet  above  aea-lsvd,  aiul  ia 
covered  with  wood.  Oom,  wine,  and  cotton  are 
abundant^  grown  in  the  valleya ;  oil  is  also  pro- 
duced. L  containa  four  villsgea,  the  chief  of 
which,  oalled  Imbro,  ia  buEt  on  the  site  of  an 
ancient  town  of  the  aame  nam^  Fop.  of  entile 
iaiand  about  40oa 

IHBBV'BD,  or  EUBRTTED,  an 
in  heraMry  to  signify  bloody,  or 
blood.     Wemona  thna  hl(~~ 
drop*  of  blood  falling  ttoxa 

IHBRITU,  formally  an  ind^endsnt  l>Bna- 
oaucaaian  tanitory,  now  part  of  the  Dovonunent  <A 
Entals  (aea  TRuraoAvouu),  is  botuded  on  Uie  N. 
bf  the  Cancanan  monutatia,  and  on  the  W.  ^  the 


diatrictaid Ohnria and Mingrriik  An^lOMta. 
pop.  100^000.  Its  hiatoiT  aa  an  indai>eiident  d< 
'  from  UNiut  —     '     ■     ' 


1  byii 


y  intemu  di 


Ifith  O.J  and 

aiona.    bi  17i^  Salinuon  L 

noUas  revoltiu  ahortly  after,  and  aided  by  the 

Turk*,  dethrond  him.    Salomon  ai^ed  tor  lielp  to 

Bnaaia,andin  1760,  Count  Todtleben,  at  the  head  of 

a  Ruaaian  forae,  entarad  L,  reatorad  the  king,  and 

drove  back  the  Turks.    The  dvil  diasansiona  cd  Uiia 

provinoe,  howavar,  conlinned,  and  at  last,  in  ISIO^ 

after  having  long  acknowledged  allegiance  to  Rusaia, 

it  waa  formally  inoorponted  in  and  proclaimed  a 

provinoe  (rf  tiiat  empire. 

IMIDEB.    See  Oaouno  Bisa. 

lUITATION.    SeegYUAiHT. 

muaioal  compo- 
pasaage,  or  the 


either  strict  or  free.  When  the  imitated  passage  is 
repeai«d  not«  for  note,  and  evsry  interral  ia  the 
same,  it  ia  called  strict,  and  it  may  take  place  in  the 
□nison  or  octave,  or  in  any  other  of  the  degrees  of 
the  scale,  either  above  or  below  the  original  passage. 
Tbe  progreaaiini  of  a  ptasage  may  also  be  mutated 
by  an  invenion,  or  by  reversing  tlie  movemcort  of 
the  cai^nal;  alao  by  note*  of  a  greater  or  of  a 
lesser  valoe.  Bee  Domu  Ooitdtcrfoiiit,  Toarrw, 
and  CuiOH.  Imitation  in  oampDsltaon  ia  one  of  the 
most  important  mesne  of  jnodudng  unity  and 
animation  in  the  progression  of  the  pArts,  and  is 
used  in  a  strict,  and  also  in  a  fr«e  manner,  in  the 
instrumental  works  of  Haydn  and  Beethoven,  and 
also  by  Moiart  in  his  easier  o])eratia  worica.    Many 

"  ■" teaort  to  imitation  inniroperiy, 

of  muaioal  ideaa,  or 
lea  can  be  given  for 


tesque  external  nuuufiatatioas,  by  gesticulations,  and 
convulaiTa  aeiiniea,  which  ajpear  to  be  promoted 


-.Google 


mUAOtrLATB  CONOEPTtON  OF  TSE  BLESSED  VmOtS  UABY— DfUORALmr. 


hj  uniUtion.  In  ths  keilthf  Knd  iwtanJlr  oonita- 
tated,  tliera  eiiats  &  tendsncy  to  co^  and  repro- 
dliee,  or  repruent  whit  poTerfully  imprenee  the 
iuMfpnatioii ;  uid  dnrisg  the  ezcitemeiit  of  indi- 
vidoal*  or  oommonities,  this  mclin&tioii  is  more 
ioflnoitial,  and  puMs  beyond  the  control  of  the 
will.  Great  cantion,  however,  must  be  exercised 
in,  diatingiuslung  between  what  is  epidemic  and 
depend*  upon  atmoBpherie  or  ertemal  moral  causes, 
from  the  reaulto  of  rtrong  or  morbid  state*  of  the 
mind  itaell  An  idiot  ia  mentioDed  hy  Oall,  who, 
having  seen  Uie  ilaugbter  of  ■  pig,  killed  a  man 
after  Qie  Mme  fashion.  A  child  of  seven  yean  old 
voonger  brother  on  the  luggestioD  of 

_„ „  __  Punch  at  the  Jumds  ofthe  devil. 

mple  of  suicide  by  hanging  having  been  set 
t>7  a  pennoner  in  the  HApitu  dea  Invaiides,  six 
imiilaF  deaths  followed,  and  by  saspeniion  from  the 
same  lamp-post  After  Uie  return  of  the  Bom-bona, 
there  appeared  in  succession  seven  female  olaimaots 
to  the  parentage  of  Maria  Antoinette ;  and  pyro- 
tnania,  propuHed  l^  sympatiiy,  is  w^  known  to 
have  eziated  ni  Normandy  ui  183a 

IMMA'OULATB  OOHCBPTION  OF  THE 
BLBB8BD  TIBGIir  MAKT,  Fusr  ov,  a  te«tivtJ 
celebrated  on  the  8tb  of  Deaaiitief  in  the  Latin, 
and  on  the  9th  in  the  Greek  Church,  in  which 
latter  church  it  is  held  imder  tlie  name  of  'The 
ConceptioQ  of  St  Anbe,'  the  mother  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  The  festival  of  the  Conceptiou  itself  is 
traceable  in  the  Greek  Church  from  the  end  of 
the  Cth  c,  and  in  the  Latin  dates  from  the  Tth; 
but  a  great  controveny  prevailed  for  a  long  time 
in  tile  W e«t  as  to  whether  and  in  what  aense  the 
conception  of  the  Blessed  Yirgin  Mary  was  to  be 
held  munacalate,  and  in  yrbmt  sense  the  Blessed 
Virgin  henelf  was  to  be  held  conoeived  without 
sin.  It  was  believed  to  be  a  cooaeqiiBDce  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  maternity,  and  a  necanary 
part  of  the  honour  due  to  the  Incarnation,  that 
the  Blessed  Mother  should  be  held  to  have  been 
nt  all  timca  free  from  the  stain  of  sin.  This 
might  have  been,  either  by  her  having  been,  like 
the  prophet  Jeremiah  {Jer.  i  6),  or  the  Baptttt 
St  John  (Luke,  L  36),  sanctified  before  her  biith — 
Uiat  is,  purified  in  her  mother's  womb  from  tlie 
stain  of  original  sin ;  or  by  the  still  higher  sancti- 
Scation  of  having  been  entirely  exempted  from 
the  stain  of  sin,  either— for  the  discussion  was 
carried  to  all  these  subtletiea — before  the  forma- 
tion of  the  embryo  in  the  womb  of  her  mother,  or 
at  leaat  before  its  animation  by  nnioa  with  the 
souL  The  actual  controversy  in  the  West  may  be 
said  to  have  commenced  with  St  Bernard,  who  not 
only  remonstrated  with  the  canons  of  Lyon  in 
1131  for  their  onaathomed  introduction  of  this 
festival  in  their  cathedral,  but  rejected  the  opinion 
of  the  Bleaaed  VirgiD's  having  beeo  conceived  free 
frmn  original  tin,  (hough  he  admitted  her  sanctifi- 
oation  in  her  mother's  womb  [SyuU  174,  Ad  Canon. 
Lvgdvnatiit).  The  discossion  thus  raised  led  to  a 
protracted  controversy  in  the  schools.  The  great 
master  of  scholsstdc  snbtle^,  J(^  Dans  Scotna,  in 
a  dispob^tm  held  before  Uie  university  of  Attis  in 
1307,  muntained  the  doctrine  of  the  inmaonlate 
oxioeptioD  oi  its  highest  sense ;  and  the  entire  order 
to  whieh  be  belMigsd,  the  Frandacan,  as  well  as  the 
■ehool  to  which  ha  has  given  his  name,  the  Scotista, 
afterwards  tealonsly  duended  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Thomist  school,  which  was  that  of  the 
Dominican  order,  having  denied  the  immaculate 
conception,  mnch  division  for  a  time  existed ;  but 
the  inevailing  tendencv  was  at  all  times  towards 
the  Soatatt  ojunion.  The  university  of  Paris,  in 
1387,  coodenmed  the  Thomist  doctrine.  The  conncU 
of  Basel — dtiiouf^  It  ia  tme,  at  the  time  when 


it  WM   in   conflict  with   the  pop»— declared   ths 

doctrine  of  the  inunacnlate  conception  to  be  a 
Catbolio  dogma,  and  reprobated  in  the  stroiiBest 
terms  the  oppoaite  opinion.  Siitus  IV.,  howerer. 
imposed  on  tbe  defenden  of  botii  oinnioot,  in  1470, 
the  oblisation  of  mutual  toleration  and  charity,  mad 
renewed  this  oonstitntion  in  1483 ;  but  in  tlie  aid 
of  the  same  century  the  university  of  Paris  (eqnired, 
as  a  condition  of  tne  dootorate,  an  oath  oo  the  put 
of  the  candidate  fiiat  he  would  defend  the  do^ia  of 
the  immaculate  oonomtion.  The  Council  of  Tnat. 
wiUiout  disonssing  the  sdholastic  diqnite,  hmrIt 
declared  that  '  in  its  decree  im  original  sin  it  did 
not  comprdioid  the  blessed  and  '"■"*""'-*•■»  Vlign 
Mary,'  uid  renewed  the  otmstitntion  of  Kxtoa  TV. 
already  referred  to.  This  abstinence  on  the  J»Tt  of 
the  council  led  to  a  farther  renewal  cf  the  ^nota, 
vrtiich  reached  such  a  pitdi  towards  the  cloaa  at  the 
16th  c,  that  Pins  V.  not  only  ptohifaited  eitlier  nde 
from  etigmatigiog  the  oppoaitB  with  the  name  of 
heretical,  bat  forbade  all  ^blio  discnstiaiia  of  the 
■nbject,  except  in  tbeologiad  dispntatiotia  in  the 
presence  of  a  learned  auditory.  In  tlie  pontifiatM 
of  Paul  T.  and  Gregory  Xv.,  eameat  inatancM 
were  made  by  the  Spanish  crown  to  obtain  a  definite 
declaration  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  ot  Hie  imma- 
culate conception ;  but  the  pops  again  n  ~ 


tenting  himself  irith  repwbng  the  eooatitiitiai  ef 
-  *      —     "      •■   i,iower^,of---' ■- 

iception,  shonliTabstain  Eron 


Sixtns  IV.    He  added,  t.  . 

:  1.  Iliat  disputants,  in  assertiw  the  doctriM 
-  ' '-^- "^"i,  shonla  al 


except  the  n 


defend,  even  in  private  disputation,  t 
that  Ute  Blessed  Virgin  Maiy  was  comoeiTed  in 
oripnal  sin.    3.  That,  nevertheless,  in  the  pvbbc 
lusss  or  office  of  the  church,  no  one  should  introdme 
into  the  praters   or  other  formolariee  »ay  other 
word  than  nmply  eone^So,  withont  addmg   any 
epthet  invdving.  mther  doctrine.      At  the   aame 
tmie,  opimon  was  setting  steadily  in  favoor  ol  ths 
doctrine  of  tiie  immaculate  ocnot^on.     *Ww^»Ar» 
VIL,  and  afterwards  Clement  DL,  added  new  solem-  , 
nity  to  the  festival     Clement  XL  ordained  that  it 
should  be  observed  as  a  holiday  of  obtiMtion,  aad 
at  length  Greaory  XYL  permitted  that  Um  epitliel   ' 
immacolate   should  be  mtroduced  into  tbe  nblie 
service.     In  the  end,  at  the  instance  of  bidiafs  ! 
in  varioos  parts  of  the  chnrch,  the  preaait  poft,   . 
Pins  IX.,  addressed  a  circular  to  l£e  triabop*  tt 
each  oatLon,  calling  for  their  opinion,  and  tbt  d  ' 
their  people,  as   to   the   faith  of   the  cbundt   oa 
the  pomt ;  and  on  the  receipt  of  repliea  all  but 
abaolately  unanimous,  he  istued  a  aolomn  decne 
at  Rome,  in  a  numeroui  council  of  biibopa,  on  the 
8th  I>eoember  1804,  declaring  the  docbue  to  be 
an  article  of  Catholic  bdief,  and  laoposing  it  a*  ' 
such  to  the  universal  churoh.      lliis  deor«e  has 
been   implicitly  accepted  throu^umt   tbe   Bomaa 
Church. 

IHMORA'LITY,  in  point  of   law,  is   a  good  , 
defence  to  actions  and  suits,  but  it  must  be  aDmc 
immorality  which  runs  counter  to  ths  well-known 
policy  of  the  law.    Thus,  for  example,  if  a  man  ^ve 
a  bond,  or  granted  a  deed,  givii^  to  a  woman  some   [ 
annuity,  with  a  view  to  induce  her  to  live  in  con-   ' 
cubinage,  this  would  be  a  good  defence  against  the   i 
bond  or  deed  being  enforced,  for  the  law  disoamn-   i 
tenaooes  his  conduct ;   whereas,  if  it  vrere  mer^ 
a  bond,  or  a  raft,  in  consideration  of  aon^iBC  M 
the  same  kind  past  and  ended,  the  deed  wimI3  be   i 
good.    So  the  keeper  of  a  house  of  iU^&iDa  is  But   i 
allowed  to  sue,  and  has  no  legal  lenedr  aeainat   i 
her  guests  for  any  sum  agreed  to  lie  paid  (a 


pniposea.  In  most  other  respects,  tl 


tyCoogle 


nfMOBTALITT— IMPAlfATION. 


immoralily  of  the  puti«a  who  mre  litiguite  nukkei  no 
diffeirakoe  irhftterer  u  to  their  recpeotive  remedieB, 
for  the  law  protects  the  bad  aa  well  aa  Oxa  good, 
the  UDJnit  aa  well  aa  the  jnat. 

IHUORIAIirrr  ia  the  continued  eziBtenoe  oC 
the  hmnan  aonl  in  a  future  and  inviaible  state.  '  IE 
a  man  die,  shall  he  live  agaiaT'  ii  a  question  whicb 
has  natnnlly  ^tated  the  heart  and  stimulated  the 
intellectoal  cnnoBil;  oi  man,  wherever  he  haa  riaea 
abore  a  state  of  barbuum,  and  commenced  to  exer- 
cise bii  intellect  at  all.  The  religion  of  all  civilised 
peoples  ma;  be  laid  more  or  leas  to  tecognise  the 
affinnative  of  the  question,*  althoof^  ofteo  oiider 
very  vague  Mtd  uuterialistio  forma.  In  tike  ancient 
Egyptian  nljsion,  the  idea  of  immortality  firat 
aammea  a  definite  ahapa.  There  is  ■  dear  recog- 
nition of  a  dwelling-place  of  the  dead  and  of  a 
future  judgment.  (Mris,  the  beneficent  god,  judges 
the  dead,  and  'having  wei^ied  their  beart  in  the 
scales  of  justice,  he  sends  the  wicked  to  regions  of 
dartnwis,  while  the  just  are  sent  to  dwell  with  the 
god  of  light'     The  latter,  we  read  on  an  inscription. 


nott-^well,  then,  so  prepaxed,  the  soinl  departa  into 
that  invisible  region  which  is  of  its  own  nature,  the 
region  of  Uie  i£vine,  the  immortal,  the  wise,  anf 
then  its  lot  ia  to  be  happy  in  a  state  in  which  it  ii. 
freed  from  fears  and  wild  desires,  and  the  other 
evils  of  humanity,  and  spends  the  rest  of  it*  ej  ' 
ence  with  the  gods.' 

It  is  only  in  Christianity,  however,  that  this  higher 
life  is  clearly  revealed  aa  a  reward  not  merely  to  the 
true  philoeopher,  but  to  every  humble  and  pious 
seal.  Christ '  hath  htrmght  li^  and  inmiortalin  to 
light  by  the  gospel'  '  Aocording  to  his  abundant 
mercy,  God  luth  begotten  us  ag^  unfo  a  lively 
hope  by  the  resurrection  OC  Jesos  Christ  from  the 
dead,  to  an  inheritance  incorruptible  and  undefiled, 
and  that  fadeth  not  away,  reserved  in  heaven.'  It 
is  undoubtedly  oviiig  to  Christianity  that  the  doc- 
triae  of  the  soul's  immortality  has  become  a  comflion 
and  well-reoognised  truth— no  mere  result  of  specu- 
lation, nor  product  of  priestly  invention— but  alight 
to  the  reason,  and  a  guide  to  the  conscience  and 
conduct.  The  aspiratious  of  philosophy,  and  tha 
conceptions  of  mytholtny,  are  found  in  Uie  gospel 
truumated  into  an  aul£oritative  influence,  govern- 
ing and  directing  the  present  lif& 


Inunoiiali^  is  plainly  tMght,  bat  bound  up 
the  idea  of  the  praMrration  t^  Uie  body,  to  which 

the  Egyptians  attadied  greai  importance,  aa  a  oon- 
dition  of  the  sool's  contmned  life ;  and  hence  th^ 
built  vast  tombs,  and  embalmed  their  bodies,  as  if 
to  last  for  ever.  In  the  Zoroaatrian  religion,  the 
future  world,  vrith  its  croveming  spirits,  plays  a 
prominent  put.  Under  Ormuz  and  Ahnm^n,  there 
are  ranged  reznlar  hierarchies  of  spirits  engaged 
in  a  perpatnaT  conflict ;  and  the  soul  pastes  into 
the  ku](|dom  of  light  or  of  darkness,  over  which 
these  spirits  respectively  preside,  according  as  it 
haa  hved  on  the  earth  well  or  ilL  Whoever  has 
lived  in  parity,  and  haa  not  suffered  the  cUf* 
(evil  spirits)  to  have  any  power  over  him,  passes 
after  death  into  the  reouas  of  light.  In  the 
early  Grecian  paganism.  Hades,  or  the  realms  of 
the  dead,  is  the  emblem  of  gloom  to  the  Hellenio 
imagination.  '  Achilles,  the  ideal  hero,  declares 
that  he  would  rather  till  the  ground  than  live  in 
pale  Elysium.'  This  melancholy  view  of  the  future 
everywhere  pervades  the  Homeric  religion.  With 
the  progress  of  Hellenio  thought,  a  hi^er  idea  of 
the  niture  is  foond  to  oharacteriss  both  the  poetry 
and  philosophy  of  Greece,  till,  in  the  Phttonio 
Socrates,  the  conception  of  immortality  shines  forth 
with  a  clearness  and  precision  truly  impressive.  In 
the  Apohgs  and  ths  PAado,  Socr^es  disooorsee  of 
the  doctrine  of  tiia  soul's  immortali^,  in  language 
at  onoe  rick  in  fsith  and  in  beaitty.  'The  so^ 
the  immaterial  part,  beiiu  of  a  nature  w  superior 
to  the  body,  oon  it,' he  aaEs  in  the  PAia&i, 'assoon 
as  it  is  separated  from  tha  body,  be  dispraaed  into 
nothing,  uid  perish  r  Oh,  far  otherwise.  £athar 
nill  thu  be  tiie  result.  If  it  take  its  departure 
in  a  state  of  purity,  not  carrying  witL  it  any 
clinging  impurities  of  the  body,  imftiritiee  which 
during  life  it  never  willingly  shared  m,  bnt  always 
avoided,  gatlierinz  it«elf  into  itself,  and  making  the 
separation  from  Qi«  body  its  aim  and  study— that 
is,  devoting  itself  to  true  philosophy,  and  studying; 
how  to  die  calmly;  for  this  is  trnia  philoaophy,  ia  it 

*  Some  of  the  most  widely  spread  Forms  of  belief  in 
the  world  would  seem  to  lie  eioeptions  to  this  stste- 
ment:  for  in  Hinduism  the  goal  sought  ii  absorption 
into  the  Univenal  Spirit,  and  therefore  loss  of  indindaal 
Biirtance ;  iridle  ths  pious  BoddMst  strives  tor  Ifirtana, 
or  oomplete  axtinstion.  Tet  even  here  the  belief  in  a 
future  life  exists  in  the  Uam  of  the  ~ 
af  Souls  (q.  vj. 


IHHORTELLEa 


e  £m)i.ABiiKa  Flowkb. 


IMOTjA  (anc.  Forum  Cojnelii,  or  Forum  Syllo),  a 
town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  fiavenna,  stands  in 
a  fruitful  plain  adjoining  picturesqne  hills,  close  to 
the  river  Sontemo,  and  24  miles  west-eouth-weet  of 
Bavenno.  It  contains  some  fine  palaces,  ohurclies, 
theatres,  and  benevolent  institutions.  L  possesses 
some  good  manufactures  of  wax,  oil,  majolica,  silk, 
and  gloss,  besides  ertensive  leatber- coring  establyih- 
men^  and  brick  and  tile  works.  From  a  species  of 
white  grape  grown  in  the  vicinity,  the  delicious 
wine  known  as  via  tanto  is  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1872)  23,398. 

IMPA'LE,  in  Heraldry,  to  arrange  two  coats  of 

ms  side  by  side  in  one  shield  divided  per  pale. 
_.  is  usual  thus  to  exhibit  the  conjoinedTcoata  of 
husband  and  vife,  the  husband's  anna  occnpyinf 
the  dexter  aide  or  place  of  honour,  and  the  -wHet 
the  sinister  aide  of  the  escutcheon.  When  a  man 
marries  a  second  wif&  heralds  say  that  he  may 
diride  the  sinister  half  of  the  shidd  per  fees  inl« 
two  compartments,  placing  the  family  arms  of  hi* 
deoeoaed  wife  in  chief,  and  of  his 
second   wife  in  base.     A  husband 

ipoting  his  wife's   coat  with  his 

m,  is  oat  allowed  to  sui 
former  with  the  collar  o 
of  any  order  of  knighthood 
he   may   belong.      Bishops,    deans, 
heads    of    coll^jea,    and    kings-<rf-        impale. 
f^*""- ,  impale  t^eir  arms  with  Uieir 

^lia  of  office,  giving  the  dexter  side  to  t 
former.  In  early  heraldry,  when  two  coats  we 
represented  in  one  shield  aide  by  side,  only  half  of 
each  was  exhibited,  an  arrangement  which  naa  been 
called  dimidiaiion.  Sometimea  the  one  coat  onl^ 
wsa  dimidiated.  A  reminiscence  of  dimidiation  is 
{seserred  in  the  practice  of  omitting  bordorsa,  ories, 
and  treeiures  in  impaled  arms  on  Uie  side  bounded 
by  the  Bne  of  impalunent. 

IMPANA'TION  (Lat  in,  and  jxmie,  laead),  a 
technical  word  employed  in  the  Encharistia  conbo- 
verriee  to  express  the  peculiar  opinion  propounded 
by  Lnther  as  to  the  nature  of  the  presence  of 
dhrist  in  the  Eucharist.  Differing  from  the  Bomon 
Catlu:)lica  in  denying  the  transubatantdation  of  the 
bread  and  wine,  and  from  the  Saoramentarians 
in  denying  that  our  Lord's  presence  was  merely 
^rpicd  or  figniativa,  lAther  contended  Uiat  the 


m 


llizodtyL-iOOQ 


DIFEAOHHENT— QlPEIlOa 


body  and  Uood  erf  ObiW  ware  pwent  hi,  or 
aloii^  wittiitiM  tlfiD»nbl  of  tatmd  and  wine)  ilia 
maniiB'  analogoai  to  ttat  in  wliiali  Hi*  diriiul^  of 
Christ  oo-eiim  in  tho  wim  p«i*i>ii  vitii  hia  Immao 
natme.  E«iie&  by  an  analooy  witli  tba  word 
inoaniatio^  bo  d«mW  te  Uw  Encibaivkio  imkni  tha 


IHFEA'OEMEirr,  Oe  nanw  {^ren  t«  an  aceoMt- 
tke  and  trial  of  a  pear  or  membeE  of  pariianunt^  or, 
indeed,  aay  oOur  penon,  before  the  Bi^  Comt  of 
Parliamant,  for  treaBoii,  or  some  hi^  <nme  ta  mla- 
demeanoor.  Tbia  ia  a  Und  of  trial  which  is  Tocrred 
for  great  and  enormoiu  offemden,  partdoalarly  in 
matters  &{Fectine  the  oonatitution,  for  the  ordinary 
tribonall  genemly  mffioe  for  all  cisea  of  orim«fl. 
Impeaohment,  accoidingly,  ia  of  rais  oceurrence, 
the  laat  inBtanoe  being  that  of  Lord  Melville  in 
180G;  bat  aa  it  is  one  of  the  high  premgatiTeB  of 
parliament  to  try  offendan  in  thin  way.  it  is  still  com- 
petent to  nse  it  The  proceedinge  nearly  caaemble 
an  ordinary  trial  at  law.  A  pardon  by  the  crown  ii 
not  pleadable  in  bar  of  the  proaacntioti,  thoosh, 
after  Bentenoe,  the  crown  may  pardon  the  ofEen<ler. 
Bee  May,  On  Parliamtnt*. 


eatate  ii  nven  to  a  peiaoo  for  life,  or  for  a  temi  of 
yeaiL  leiaout  imp^LehmrrU  of  -uxulx,  the  tenant  1* 
entitled  to  oat  timber,  and  do  many  thinra  on  the 
eatate  which  othirwiae  he  would  be  unable  to  do. 
Still,  he  ii  not  allowed  to  do  what  he  tikes,  for 
i(  he  abnsca  hii  power,  and  attempts  to  cut  down 
ornamental  timber,  for  exanx^e,  or  deface  the 
family  mansian,  the  Conrt  of  Chance^  will  inter- 
fere bj  injanotion  to  prerent  this.  "She  phrase  is 
not  need  in  Scotland,  bat  the  law  ia  not  materially 
different. 

IMPENETRABIXITY,  one  of  the  eaiential 
propertie*  of  matter,  impliM  that  no  two  bodie* 
can  at  the  Mune  time  ooonpy  the  same  apace.  If  a 
nail  be  driven  into  a  piece  of  wood,  it  does  not, 
property  i^eaUng,  >>«»e<ra(e  the  wood,  for  the  fibna 
are  driToi  udde  More  the  nail  can  enter.  If  a 
Teasel  be  filled  with  dnid,  and  a  solid  body  be 
then  placed  in  it,  aa  mncii  water  will  run  over 
aa  is  equal  in  balk  to  tha  aolid  body,  in  this  way 


owing  to   theL 


Nibilit] 


I  not  reamly 


made  apparent. 

IHPIFRATITS!,  GuxooRUUi.  According  to 
Kant  (q.  v.),  man,  in  the  conscioaBnets  of  hit  moral 
liberty,  recognian  two  ^«at  lawa  regalating  his 
win  1  tiia  first  prompts  him  to  seek  hi*  own  well- 
being,  the  seoood  oommamd*  him  to  be  virtoooa, 
errai  at  the  Horiflae  of  tiiat.  Prom  this  oppo- 
sitiOD  in  hi*  moral  natnra  between  desire  and  eon. 
■denoe,  tprin^  np  the  idea  of  daty,  which,  in  the 
Kantian  temuaology,  is  called  the  '  moral  impera- 


circle  of  gold,  adorned  with  predooa  stones  ud 
Jlevn-dt-Ut,  bordered  and  seeiMd  with  pearia,  and 
raised  m  the  fonn  of  a  cap  voided  at  the  top  like  a 
crescent.  Tvan.  the  ntiddle  of  the  c^  nsea  an 
arched  fillet  enriched  with  pearb,  and  snrmonnted 
byajriobegOn  whiohisBcrosaolpeaila.    Thanamo 


Imperial  Crown  is,  however.  In  Biglidi  hnl^, 
applied  to  the  onwn  worn  in  timtt  past  t;  'it 
kmga  of  England.  From  the  12th  ocmtniy  ontink 
the  crown  of  iJie  Bi"g>'»*'  soTsrdgna  DDdEtre: 
repeated  changes  in  form  and  enriehnuot  TUii 
Edward  U  waafonnedo!  fow  lane  and  four  nal 
atrawbenry  leaves,  risiiia  in  carvea  from  ttieindki 
circlet  and  having  "ignt  im*!!  floveia  aitanuta; 
with  the  Isavca.  In  TSxttrj  IT.'a  cmvn,  asn 
'beriT  leavM,  and  a*  many  JItmrfSt-Si  i^  , 


fcT  Ihs  first  time  aMlied  ovw  in&  jewelled  Imt 
of  ntd,  and  the  ^mi:  of  tha  anhM  nmfiutri 
with  a  numnd  and  ercas,  while  <rottct  palte$  >bi 
■nbstitnted  for  the  atrawtwRT  leaves,  sad  irsa  cr 
Jlatr*-dt-li»  for  the  olosten  of  pearia.  The  iiAa, 
at  first  nomcmoa  and  elevated  to  a  point,  buw, 
in  later  times,  restricted  to  fonr,  and  d«[sand  ■ 
the  oantre.  The  imperial 
orown  of  heraldry,  sa  now 
understood,   is,   in   point   of  *~  i 

fact,  the  form  of  crown  worn 
by   the    English    sovereigns  ' 

from  ChtH'les  IL  to  WiUiam     <  { 

IV.,  aa   represented   in   the 
sabjoined  woodont     It  baa 
four  «ros«sl  paUes  and  toor 
fleur«-de-ti»  tet  alternately  on 
the  circlet,  while  four  pearl- 
ttndded  archea,  rising   from 
within  the   croeaes,  carry  at        Impetiil  Cum 
thai  intersection  the  monnd 
and  cross.      The  state  crown   of  Queen  VirW 
difilere  considerably  from  this,  having  ■  ^  °^ 
enriched  character.     It  is  oovewd  with  ditiarii 
and  studded  with  gems,  and  the  arches  ue  *n^ 
into  wreaths  of  rose,  thistle,  and  shamiock  la™f 
of  brilliantB.   A  charge,  crest,  or  supporter,  w"* 
with  a  regal  crovrn,  is  said  to  be  impsrioi^  «"* 
IHPBHIVM  ia  a  word  used  in  the  Boiua'" 
in  various  senses,  the  most  important  of  ''^' 
that  which  it  bears  when  applied  to  «iiinl<  >■- 


superior  magistrate 
imperinm,  vnuch  meant  a  sovardgn  aoUunlT^ 
ia  of  very  little  practical  impcnunoe  in  ov^ 
times  to  trace  the  ertent  or  precise  oston a'' 
authority  thos  deoignated,  as  the  snbjeet  ^  " 
bearing  on  modem  law. 


pleading ;  and  the  court  wiD  geneiaHy  enlet  il^ 
be  stmok  out,  and  the  oOeoding  party  to  pi  <" 
coats  of  doing  BO, 

IHPETI'OO,  a  disease  of  the  skin.    It  cj*^ 
of  eropa  of  pnstolea,  which  may  eithat  be  *"''*'° 
•^'   •'•.ZZ^^      ■n—/ ►»i-abiuft*^ 


charge  coDimonly  taks*  place ; ^.. 

thioks  and  larger,  and  the  skis  aroond  wd  l**' 
them  is  red  and  raw.  The  diaease  ma; hta>* 
acute  or  chronic  In  the  forrnar  case^  it  >  ''^f^ 
with  febrile  symptoms,  which  innst  ha  ?~Tj 
by  tha  internal  sdmimstzstioii  of  pnrgiti^  IT . 
aJkaliea,  strict  attention  to  diet,  and  weak  lUilf 
lotions.  In  chronic  caan,  the  disohsn*  "l^^ 
checked  by  a  lotion  containing  ten  or  EftMi  f"^ , 
of  oxide  of  dnc  in  an  onnce  oTrose-mtif.  ' 

There  are  various  fonns  of  this  oomp!'*'' " 
/.  Jgttraia,  I.  tparta,  Ac  The  disisse  iw"  "J 
Gnitiea  laelea,  vbioh  sometimea  oovsit  w  »»  , 
children  like  a  mask,  is  a  sort  <rf  MUpo«»  " 


hyCOO^tF' 


mFEfTAN— IMFBE88HEIIT. 


impetigo  and   eczenu;   and  the  Tooa-irater  lotion 
already  mantdoned  u  a  naefol  a})^uition  for  it. 

IMPBTAN.  or  IMFETAIf  FHBASAST 
{Lopki^honu  Inrptytaaa),  a,  large  jgallinaceoiu  bird 
of  the  tainilr  Phamanida,  a  nahve  of  high  cold 
r^ona  of  the  Himalaya,  but  Temarkable  as  mocli 
aa  any  tropical  bird  for  the  tplendoor  of  ita  plmnage, 
CTiVanfl  by  the  nhanging  tnetaUio  tanta  which  it 


Impeyan  [Lopfuiphorm  Imiptiiaini»\ 

exhibita— green,  ateel-blneiTioIet,  and  golden  bronse. 
The  fine^mcage,  howerer,  b«Wgg  to  the  msle 
alone,  ite  female  U  cloHied  in  sober  brown, 
mottled  with  gray  and  yellow,  and  \%  imaller  than 
the  male.  The  L  has  been  found  capable  of  domeC' 
tication,  and  may  probably  be  found  capable  of 
naturalisation,  in  Britain.  It  derivea  its  name  from 
Lady  Impey,  who  Gnt  attempted  to  bring  it  aJiTo 
to  mtain,  but  failed.  Hie  Nepaoleee  name,  Monavi, 
signifiea  Bird  of  Gold. 

I'MPLBMENT,  in  Sootoh  I>w,  meana  fulfilment 
of  a  ocoittaot  or  deoree  of  the  court. 

IHPLKUBITFS,  AamiouinvRU.  Under  thi« 
tena  an  generallj  oomprehended  not  only  the 
imnlemcnti  tued  in  the  aotoal  cnltiTation  of  tiie 
soil,  bnt  thoM  reqtdjnta  for  other  operataona  of 
fanning  and  for  the  prepantion  of  the  prodnce  of 
the  land  for  nae,  in  ao  far  aa  it  ia  ordinarily  carried 
on  by  the  &rmer.  The  flnrti  implements  for  the 
cnltiTation  of  the  ground  were  doabtleM  mch  aa 
ccndd  be  naed  by  man't  noiuded  strength,  and  many 
such  an  atill  in  me,  a*  the  spade,  thenoe,  the  fork, 
and  the  ihord.  When  auimab  wen  ndnoed  to  the 
aerrice  of  man,  the  ^on^  appeand  in  ita  flr«l  rude 
form.  Orabbos,  caltiT>t<ns,  Ae.,  are  recent  iaren- 
tions;  roUets  are  mora  ancient.  Sowing  maohines 
or  diilla  are  modem,  bnt  the  hanow  u  aodant, 
atthongh  branches  of  trees  drawn  along  the  oerwl; 
sown  land,  long  lerred  Uie  purpose  of  its  now  oare- 
foUy  adjiuted  tinea. — The  ueoeaiitT  of  irrigation  in 
some  oonntiiei  early  led  to  eradienta  and  imple- 
menta  for  accompliihing  it  The  Egyptian  Aadoqf 
is  figiued  in  the  article  AtmiouuruxE. — Ikiplemento 
for  clearing  the  ground  of  weeds,  for  oocaaioDBl 
stirring  of  the  ground  whilst  under  crop,  and  for 
eorfAtng  up  crops,  are  lil,  exc^  the  hoe,  of  com- 
paratiriely  recent  invention.  The  scythe  and  siokle 
We  existed  ftom  remote  aotiqnity,  althon^  the 
reaping-machine  is  ■  norelty  only  beginning  to 
assunje  a  very  important  place.  Wheel-carriages  of 
Tarious  descriptiinLB  aod  for  vatioos  purposes  must 
be  mentioned  among  agricultaial  implements ;  alio 
implements  for  *•■>"■"*■'";;  and  winnowing  coin,  for 


Bontching  and  btaahing  flax,  for  gi""i''g  ootton,  iot 
ortuhing  augar-oaue  and  er^foratins  Sa  jnioe,  Ac 
The  preparation  of  the  produce  of  diSerent  plante 
requires  implements  of  different  kinds.  Othen  are 
required  in  the  oara  of  cattle^  and  for  the  Dairy 
(q.  T.).  The  principal  uricnltoial  impli 
noticed  in  separate  artii&a,  and  aome  m  . 
with  particular  kinds  (rf  ouhnrBted  planbs. 

IMPLUTIfM,  a  tank  or  cistern  in  the 
centre  of  the  hall  or  Atrium  (q.T.)  of  a  Roman 
house.  In  the  examples  which  remain  at  Pompeii, 
Uie  imT^uTium  is  generally  formed  of  marble.  It  is 
placed  immediate?  under  tiie  unroofed  part  of  the 
atriuEo,  and  is  intended  to  receiya  the  lain  irikidi 
runs  down  from  the  roof  through  the  opening.  The 
impluvium  was  frequently  adorned  with  fountains, 

'  -  very  peeuhar  -"■*  '~' ^ —  '— ' — 

nof  ute  Jlomi 


in  epithet 


and  formed 

in  the  dwellings  of  ute  Bomaus. 

lUPO'NDEBABLE  SUBSTAHOXB,  -. 
applied  to  light,  heat,  electricity,  and  m 
at  a  time  when  ther  were  univeraally  considered 
as  matter,  in  contradistinction  to  those  substances 
which  poaseiaed  sensible  weight    Bee  Hkit. 

IMPORTS  AXD  EXPORTS.    See  Baiahob  of 

THAI'S. 

I'HPOST,  the  point  where  an  arch  rests  on  a 
wall  or  column.  It  is  nsnalty  marked  1^  hori- 
toat»l  mooldinM,  bnt  sometimM  these  an  absent 
especially  In  Gotbio  architecture,  where  difEwent 
form*  of  import  an  oaed.  1be»»  haT*  bwct  classed 
by  Professor  Willii  aa — lit,  'the  OMifiinuNM  impost,' 
where  the  arch  mouldings  ars  carried  down  the 
[rier;  3d,  'the  rfMoonttmotM  impost^'  when  the 
aroh  mouldings  abut  and  are  stopped  oo  the  pier; 
3d,  'the  sA(i/{ed  impoet,'  where  tbe  aroh  mouldings 
spring  from  a  capital,  and  ara  difierent  from  fhose  of 
the  piar — the  form  used  in  the  best  Oothic  ;  4th, 
ibxbtmded  impost,'  where  the  pier  and  arch  have 
:he  same  mouldings  ;  but  the  impost  is  marked  by 
a  band  of  horizontal  mouldifln  as  i*  treqnentW 
Italian-Gothio  builungib  These  simpfe 
fonns  of  impost  are  sometimes  used  togethsr,  so  as 
'^1  prodnoe  nune  couqdex  combjnatiom. 

TMPOTENOT,  in  Law,  is  a  good  ground  for 
eitfaer  of  two  nuuried  partiea  »i>nn11ing  the  mar- 
riage, if  the  impotency  existed  at  the  time  the  con- 
tract was  entered  into.  The  defect  muat  be  proved. 
The  law  is  uniform  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

IHPOU'NDIRG  A  DOOTTMBIfT  ooonn  where 

dooument  is  produced  in  course  of  a  trial  or 

hearing  before  a  court  or  judge,  wDo,  instead  of 

'Ting  it  up  to  the  owner,  retains  it,  in  order  to 

iab&  a  prosecution  to  be  brought  if  necessary. 

IHPOUNBIKO  CATTLB  ia,  in  English  I^w, 

__e  remedy  giTcm  to  all  oooupiera  of  land  aniust 

the  cattle  oi  strangcra  which  ibsy  on  such  land. 

It  amounts,  in  fact,  to  taking  and  keeping  the 

'  'oh  has  been 

—  ^  _.   distrain  the 

cattle  damage  ftaiaitL  This  be  doaa  1^  seisng  and 
drirmg  them  to  the  nearest  pound,  if  then  is  one 
within  three  miles— i.  e.,  an  fstolowd  place  kept  for 
he  may  ^t  them  in  premises  ct  his 
case,  he  is  bound  to  feed  and  water 
the  cattle  at  the  eniease  of  the  owner  of  snoh  stray 
cattle,  who  can  only  recover  them  back  by  paying 
th«e  expenses  and  the  dama^  done,  or  on  giving 
seonrity,  and  bringing  an  aoticoi  of  Replevin  (q.v^ 
to  try  tiie  ri^t  The  cattle  cannot  be  dixtmmed 
oolen  they  are  at  the  time  actually  b«apaning 
upon  the  land.  In  Scotland,  a  similar  right  exists, 
called  the  poindmg  erf  sbay  cattie. 

IMPRB'SSHENr  waa  onoe  the  mode  fonnerly 
resorted  t«   of  manning  the  Kitiah  navy.      The 


t.Google 


lUFBQQNlIEMT— amOTISATOBL 


TFiactioB  had  not  onljr 

ihe  foicA  of  law,  lor  nuuiy  acti  of  pulumeDt,  tnaa 

the  raign  of  Philip  and  Muy  to  that  of  Oearge 


m,  had  been  pwued  to  r^nJata  the  sfitWD  of 
impraBneiit.      Cn^rewneiit    oondsted   in    w '  ' 
by  foroa,  for  Htnoe  in  tlia  nrfal  nav;,  mi 
nTor-iratermm,    and    at    timet    landatiuui, 

■tate  emeigonciM  reodsied  titem j- 

aimed  pw^  of  reliable  men,  oommanded  by  officen, 
nsnallj  prooaeded  to  such  honaea  in  the  seaport 
towni  u  Tore  nippoeed  to  be  the  reeort  of  " 
■eafanng  population,  laid  violent  handa  on 
eligible  men,  and  oonTeyed  them  forcibly  to  the 
■hips  of  war  in  the  harbour.  Aa  it  waa  not  in 
the  nature  of  aailon  to  yield  irithont  a,  stnggle, 
many  terrible  fishtt  took  place  between  the  preaa- 
gangB  and  theit  intended  Tidanu — combats  in  which 
Uvea  ware  often  lott  In  point  of  juatice,  there  ii 
Uttle,  if  anythiiiA  to  be  taid  for  impreiameat,  which 
had  not  even  t£e  merit  of  an  impartial  aelection 
from  the  whole  aTallable  population. 

In  recent  tinea,  when  Tolunteera  fail,  a  ayitem 
of  Boontiea  (q.T.)  haa  been  reaorted  to )  and  it  is 
not  very  probable  that  reconne  will  be  again  had  to 
impreasment.  At  the  same  time,  the  law*  lanction- 
inoit  slmnber,  without  being  repealed. 

Under  the  lawa,  all  eligible  men  of  seafaring 
habiti  are  liable  between  Uie  ages  of  18  and  66 ; 
but  exemptiona  are  made  in  favour  of  appcentioee 
who  hare  ikot  been  two  yoos  apprenticed,  nshennen 
at  aea,  a  proportion  of  able  seamen  ia  each  collier, 
haq>oonera  in  whalers,  and  a  few  others.  A  preas- 
gang  oonld  board  a  menthant-vesBel  or  a  privatMr  of 
its  own  nation  in  any  part  of  the  worid,  and  carry 
off  as  many  of  the  beat  men  at  oonld  be  retnored 
without  actoally  andangerii^  the  veateL  TIib 
eieroite  of  tint  power  made  a  prirateer  dread  a 
friendly  man-of-war  mora  than  an  enemy,  and  often 
led  to  M  excitina  a  ehaie  m  when  enemies  were  ia 
puranit  of  each  mher;  for  the  priTateer's  men  wete 
the  best  tulort,  for  their  pnrpoae,  the  tiaval  officers 
could  lay  hold  on, 

IMFSI'SONHETfT.  The  power  of  imprison- 
ment for  non-payment  of  debt,  at  well  aa  1^  way 
of  ininiihment  for  crime,  has  alwaya  been  held 
to  be  inherent  in  court*  of  justice.  In  ctiminal 
proceedings  alio,  a  person  may,  by  a  warrant  of 
a  joatice  of  peace,  be  impritoned  bafore  trial,  pro- 
vided tba  jnstioe  ocsiaider*  it  is  not  a  proper  cate 
tot  allowing  bail;  and  at  a  general  mle,  though  in 
minor  offencei  an  accused  pereon  may  insiet  on 
being  discharged  on  tendermg  lufEcient  bail,  yet 
in  mote  Mrioni  crimes  it  it  always  in  the  aia- 
cretion  of  the  justice  to  accept  or  refuse  the  bail 
tendered,  and  on  hit  refntal,  application  may  be 
made  to  jndgea  of  the  common  law  eonrtt  to  accept 
baiL  As  regard*  impritonment  for  debt,  it  it  now 
competent  only  in  cases  where  there  is  fnud  in 
contacting  or  contempt  in  not  paying  it.  In  one 
case,  however,  and  one  only,  a  person  may  be 
impriioned  before  jndgment  hat  been  obtained — vi&, 
where  he  is  about  to  leave  the  kingdom.  In  inch  a 
case,  the  creditor  require  to  moke  an  affidavit  of  the 
debt  or  caoto  of  action  before  a  jndge,  and  may 
obtain  a  txipiat  to  arrest  the  defendant,  who  wiU 
not  be  released,  ezoept  on  bail,  until  jnd^nent  is 
obtained.  With  regard  to  debt*  under  £&,  which 
are  generally  aued  for  in  Bngland  in  the  ooonty 
coor^  though  the  defendant  cannot  be  impritoned 
on  a  jud^ent  for  lest  than  that  amoont^  y^  if  he 
wilfully  diaobey  the  jndgment  of  the  court,  which 
ordered  him  to  pay  by  matalmenia  or  on  a  time 
certun,  and  it  the  debt  wa*  originally  contracted  by 
means  of  fraod,  the  jndge  can  ootomit  him  for  oon- 
tempt,  and  thn*  imjKiaon  him  on  aaother  gromid. 
In  eases  of  insolTsnoy,  it  it  no  longer  an  act  of 


ibaenting  one's  sdf  from  bonneat,  learagbglu^  I 
making  a  fraadulent  sasignment,  Ao.  it  sn  id  ^  I 
bankruptcy,  and  he  may  b«  adjudicated  a  IjtBktrat, 
and  his  ea^te  disbibnted  in  the  ■aatl  w^  by  Uit 
Conrt  of  Bankmptoy.  Bat  in  genenl,  if  a  pan 
wishea  to  b«  made  a  bankitqi^lM  cm  hctnen 
withontthe  neeeantyof  bong  unpriMMl  Itm 
idso  a  doctrine  of  the  law  of  Ri^sjd,  Ibst  if  i 
debtor  waa  onoe  impriKined  for  dem,  it  openttd  u 
otHnpleta  satirfaotiMi,  and  hi*  land  or  ends  mb 
not  then  be  taken.  But  the  debt(«coalag(t(inid 
priaon  throng  tiie  Banktuptoy  Court,  ^U  nqcnd 
him  to  siTO  iqi  everything  to  Ihe  etecUten. 

In  mtotland,  imprisomnent  for  debt  lu)  u 
been  aboliihed  as  yet ;  and  it  is  ouuipebit  a 
imprison  a  debtor  if  Ihe  debt  azceed  £S,  H.  M  jti 
afaseooding  debtor  may  also  be  aneated  if  ■■  ne^ 
fofioite  /vi/a — I  e.,  about  to  leave  tha  cmui^,  a 
which  case  bail  or  caiitioo  ie  reqnited.  In  ScMlud. 
imprisonment  for  debt  is  not  considered  ikidietiK 
of  the  debt,  and  the  creditor  may  st  tbi  nit 
time  p<Hnd  hii  goods  and  adjudge  lut  land,  uri 
take  other  conciureDt  remedies. 

IHPBOBATION,  a  Scotch  law-tetm,  mmi^ 
the  diiproviog  or  setting  aside  a  deed  on  ths  jnHoi 
of  falseoood  or  forgery. 

IMPIWyMPTU,  in   Mario,   a  ihcrt  eitw^ 

Leoos  oompositiou.    3ee  alao  Fasubu. 

lUPBOPBIA'TIOK,  the  transfir  to  i  lijso 
of  the  revenndi  ot  a  benefice  to  whidi  the  rant: 
BouU  is  annexed,  with  an  obligatim  to  pniide  ir 
of  the  ^niitnal  dntlet  alMtwiv 


ifice.  nie  practice  of  impropiialKa  diCn 
from  the  somewhat  similar  bnt  more  inoiat  Bogi 
uf  appropriaticn,  inasmuch  aa  the  latter  M^n 
the  reveones  of  the  appropriated  btnefin  (°  ^ 
tnuitCerred  to  eodeaiaabcal   or  ^DaB-eecbs«6al 


■D,  being  given  m  conaeqnsnce  u .. 

ipnw^^apphed,  or  diverted  from  their  Iwliui' 
le.  Ttu  practioe  of  nnpropiation,  and  lul  Bf** 
lat  «t  awTopriatioii,  aa  in  die  caae  of  iMt^^i* 
!«.,  and  otW  leligioiia  honaea,  {noyaSed  nteaf^' 
in  Sngjand  before  the  Bafnmation;  tad  <n  ^ 
Buppresaion  of  tiie  monaateriea,  all  sachngUi'et 
(by  27  Henw  VTIL  o.  28,  and  31  Heuy  Vltt 
c  13)  vested  m  tiu  crown,  and  ware  by  tbe  avn 
freely  tranafetnd  to  laymen,  to  wbose  ia"  ■*" 
thn*  deaoended  not  onfy  the  right  to  titlm  ^'*" 
in  main  caae*  the  entire  propo^  of  ieet««a  ^ 
ipiritaM  dntie*  of  aiiBh  reetone*  are  ditchtign  °f  ' 
nergymaa,  who  i*  oalled  ft  viear,  and  iA>  »«"> 
1  oertaiD  portion  of  the  emolwnait*  of  Ot  Iw 
nnerally  oontiating  of  a  part  of  the  ^^^ 
^  puMoage,  tonUw  with  what  irs  alM  "^ 
small  tiUies'  of  lae  parish. 


repair ;  called  a  repairing  lease  ii 
IMPBOVISATO'RI,  an  Italian  tens,  daigM>>>i 

poete  who  utter  veraea  without  prsTiwu  P"P*''°J 
on  a  given  theme,  and  who  aonutimei  't'" 
accompany  their  voice  with  a  muncal  Mmf^ 
The  talent  of  improvitation  ia  foimd  is  '*?^ 
which  the  imagination  it  more  t^f"  osntUj  ^^' 
the  AraSs,  and  in  many  tribes  of  J"^^ 
"  ancients,  Greece  wu  At  1™^ 
Mu^.irruwiuvu-  In  modem  Europe,  it  ^  ^  . 
almost  entirely  confined  to  Italy,  when  Fetnrui, 
'-  the  12th  0.,  introduced  the  pr»rti«  "^  »^ 
iprovised  venei  to  (Qie  lute ;  »nd  4im  W  ""  ■ 


t.Goeigtg' 


ntPtJLSITE  MADKE83— IMPUTATION. 


preaemt  dj^,  the  p«a{on>uiio«g ^ 

atitnte  one  of  the  faTonrite  entertunineDtB  of  the 
Italuiu.  TetatloB  {impTOvi»alrUe>)  h«ve  frequently 
nzhibited  tiila  tklent  in  a  high  degne.  Improvisa- 
tifto  is  by  no  means  limited  to  hri^  pownt  of  >  few 
Tenes  laid  of  Teiy  simple  Btnictiue,  bat  is  often 
carried  od  with  geett  art,  and  in  the  form  and 


improriaatori  hara  been  given  to  the  world  through 
the  pieb,  they  have  never  been  fonnd  to  rim  above 
mere  mediocnty.     It  la  mnthy  of  notice  that  the 


territoliea.  Siena  and  Terona  have  beeo  eapedalfy 
prodaetiva  of  them.  Some  of  the  principal  are, 
Serafino  d'Aqnila  {died  IGOI^,  Uetartaaia  (q.  v.), 
who  eoon  abandoned  the  ut,  Zncco  (died  1764), 
Serio  and  Boan  (beheaded  at  N^tlea,  1799),  Oiumi 
(penaioned  by  Bonaparte),  and  Toounato  Sgricoi 
(died  1336).  The  beat-known  «Rpri>iiiaafni«at  are 
MagdaleoA  MoraUi  Fenumdei  (died  1900),  Teresa 
Bandettini  (bom  I7E6),  Roaa  Taddei  (bom  1801), 
and  Signora  Mizzei,  the  lait  of  whom  ia  probably 
the  firit  in  point  of  talent 

IMPITXSITE  BIADITBS&  The  approachea  of 
mental  diieaae  are  generally  alow  and  perceptible  ; 
bnt  inatancea  oooor  ^ere,  witbont  annonnoement, 
without  any  preliminary  etage  of  diaeaae  or  diatnrb- 
ance,  an  inoividaal,  apparently  Utherto  oi  aonnd 
mind,  ia  aoddenly  seiaed  with  aama,  pmaanta  aymp- 
toma  of  incontndlaUe  violence,  perpetratea  acta  of 
atrocity  or  abatudi^,  altoffether  inconaiatent  with 
hia  previoaa  diapoaibon  and  deporbnent  |  and  then, 
my  >a  quickly,  aub^ea  into  hia  ndinat;  state 
1  hi^iita,  retaining  no,  or  a  very  imperfect,  recol- 


lection of  the  aventa  which 
parozyaoL  It  ia  not,  however,  in  the  mddenneM 
or  ahortneaa  of  the  parozyam  that  the  eaaential 
characteriatio  conaiita.  Daring  the  continuance  of 
such  on  affection,  three  mental  Mmditiona  are  dia- 
tinctly  traced  :  1.  The  andden  bvUi  and  irredatible 
dominion  of  a  propenai^ ;  2.  The  abolition  or  impair- 
ment of  the  appieheuaioD  of  the  real  and  oidinary 
relationa  of  the  individual;  and  S.  The  vwpenaion 
of  the  powera  by  whkh  auch  propulaions  are  pre- 
vented from  ariainff,  or  mled  and  refpllated  when 
they  do  ariae.  Alienation  of  tlita  kind  haa  been 
chiefly  reoogniaed  when  the  inatinota  are  involved  ; 
and  tlie  moat  abriking  illoltrationa  are  derived  from 
caaea  of  homicidal  or  taaguinaiy  tendency,  aimply 
bccauae  ^e  leaolta  may  convnlae  aodety,  or  come 
under  the  notice  rf  oonrta  <rf  law.  But  many 
cxomplea  exiat  of  brief  period)  of  aberration  whitdi 
could  not  be  inatigated  bjr  paamon,  and  involved 
nothing  criminaL  A  lai^  is  mentioiied  who  never 
entered  church  bat  site  was  impelled  to  shriek,  or 
saw  plate-glaaa  bnt  she  waa  impelled  to  break  it ; 
and  the  inoongnioos  Uoghter,  die  gtoteaque  geati- 
culations,  and  the  involuntary  and  repulsive  oMo- 
datiDDS  to  which  good  and  great  men  have  been 
anbJGCt,  moat  idl  be  placed  under  this  category. 

Marc,  J)a  la  FoUe  eonaidirte  daru  let  Bapporii 
npn:  la  Qaatiima  Xedieo  Judiaair**,  t.  L  p.  219,  and 
t.  iL  p.  473. 

IMPVTA'TION  ia  one  of  the  moat  common 
technics  ezpreaaiona  in  Christian  theology, 
meant  to  t^note  the  transference  ot  gmlt 
merit  of  puniahment  or  reward.  The  doctrine  of 
the  impatation  ot  tin,  for  ezamiJe,  is  the  doctrine 
which  inouloatea  that  ^  mvikind  are  sharers  in 
the  &u^  and  conaequences  of  Adom'e  fall  from 
innocenee ;  and  the  correlative  doctrine  of  the 
imputation  of  Chiiat'a  righteousneaa  ia  that  which 
'    '     "  -'^  the  merit  or  righteousnesa  of  Ohrist 


trauafwred  to  thcae  who  believe  in  ffim,  or, 
in  other  words,  that  they  become  sharera  in  His 
merit  or  righteonanesa.  This  idea  of  tranaferenoe 
of  intercommonicatloD  of  good  and  evil,  ia  a  per- 


ia  also  apt  to  become  degraded  and 

rialiaed,  and  hia  become  so  in  some  of  its  0( 
ipreaentationa  in  popular  tbeolo^.  The  d 
:  the  imputation  of  Adam's  am,  fcr  azam^o^ 
[preSHW  to  aome  minds  not  only  tiia  idea  of  tbe 
partioipation  of  the  bnmtui  itwe  in  the  oonaaquencea 
of  Adam's  transgrearion,  ao  that^  becanae  he  ainned 
and  fall  from  innocence,  Uiay,  w  inharitois  of  hia 
ipt  nature,  alao  on,  and  are  involved  in  the 
.  nes  of  a  sinful  state ;  but,  moreover,  the  idsa, 
that  the  sin  of  Adam  in  ita  direct  guilt  and  wicked- 
neas  ia  transferred  to  hia  poateri^.  They  reaaon 
after  this  manner:  it  i*  ondeniable  that  man  snffina 
on  account  of  original  sin ;  bnt  snffeting  and  nn  are 
inseparably  connected.  If  man  suffers  on  aooonnt  of 
original  sin,  therefore,  it  is  only  beoanae  he  is  gnilty 
of  it.  The  ain  of  Adam  in  eating  the  forbidden 
frnit  ia  equally  the  sin  of  hia  poateri^.  Aooording  to 
this  mode  of  reasoning,  there  ia  a  Formal  impot^on 
-'  the  ain  ot  Adam  to  all  hia  deacendants.  Qod  ia 
jipoaed,  aa  it  were,  to  charse  the  one  to  the 
account  ot  the  other,  and  by  a  diroot  and  arbitraiy 
act,  to  hold  mankind  siulty  because  Adam  fell 
To  give  a  logical  justmcation  to  tiiis  view,  it  ia 
Bssomed  that  -God  entered  into  a  covenant  witlt 
Adam  (see  Covbhamt),  b^  which  the  latter  waa 
r^arded  sa  a  representative  of  the  whole  human 
race ;  ao  -Uiat  when  he  fell,  all  mankind  sinned  and 
fell  with  him.  Ia  the  aame  manner,  the  merit  or 
rishteouanesa  of -Christ  is  supposed  to  be  imputed  to 
believen  by  a  direct  and  fonnal  transference  of  the 
one  to  the  aoconnt  of  the  other.  In  both  eases,  it 
is  the  idea  of  formal  and  arbitrary  ezchanse  that 
ia  prominent ;  and  according  to  some  thecdogiaoi, 
thia  idea  alone  answer*  to  ttnputalion  of  ain  or  oi 
righteonaneas:  To  impute  ain,  la  to  deal  with  a  man 
Od  a  sinner,  not  on  acoomit  of  his  own  act,  or  at  leaat 
not  primarily  on  this  account,  bnt  on  acoount  of  die 
act  of  another ;  and  to  impitte  righteousness,  is  to 
deal  with  man  aa  riditeona,  not  becaose  Aeit  xi,  but 
on  acoount  of  the  nghteousneas  ot  Cbriit  reobimtd 
IM  Ais,  and  reoeived  by  faith  alone.  The  act  of 
another  stands  in  both  cases  for  our  own  act,  and 
we  ore  adjudged — in  the  one  case  condemned,  in 
-Uie  other  acquitted — not  for  what  we  ootselves  have 
done,  but  for  what  another  has  done  for  us. 

This  is  a  fur  illustration  ot  the  tyranny  which 
technical  phrases  ore  apt  to  exercise  m  theology  as 
in  other  things.  When  men  coin  an  imperfect 
phraae  to  ezprees  a  ^liritiial  reality,  the  reality  is 
apt  to  be  foiyitten  m  the  phraae,  and  men  play 
with  tbe  latter  sa  a  logical  counter,  having  a 
foroe  and  meaning  ot  its  oim.  Imputation  of  stn 
and  imputation  of  nAteoumat  have  In  thia  way 
come  to  repreaent  legiJ  or  pseudo-lwal  processes  in 
theolt^,  fliTongh  1^  woAing  out  of  the  mere  le{^ 
analof^  suggested  by  the  word.  But  the  real 
spiritual  leluty  which  lies  behind  the  phrasea  in 
both  caaes  is  simple  enough.  Imputation  qf  tiniM, 
and  can  be  nothing  else  than  the  expiesaion  of 
the  spiritual  nnity  of  Adam  and  his  race.  Adam 
'  being  tbe  root  of  all  mankind,'  the  stock  which  haa 
grown  from  this  root  must  ahare  in  ite  d^eneraoy. 
The  law  of  apirituol  life,  of  histeriool  contiani^, 
implies  thia,  and  it  requirea  no  arbitrary  or  Uf^ 
procesa,  therefore,  to  account  for  tbe  aiutulueaa  of 
manldnd  as  derived  from  a  sinful  source.  We  are 
sinners  because  Adam  fell  The  fountain  having 
become  polluted,  the  stream  ia  polluted.  We  an 
involved  in  his  guilt,  and  could  not  help  being  so, 


jbjGoogle 


IN  ABTIOULO  IfOBXIB-mOAirUTIOV. 


bj  th*  ocmilitioiiJi  ol  our  hlatorical 
nwarOiolow,  faia  un  li  not  our  nn,  uid  tauinot  io.tha 
■bict  uiue  be  imputed  to  us,  for  no  ii  nwntiillj 
Toloutaty  in  erery  <»■• — an  sot  of  Mlf-will,  aod  not 
ft  mora  qualjtj  <u  umtore ;  uid  mj  (in,  tbenfore, 
ouknot  bs  KDothu'l,  nor  SQother'B  mins.  In  ths 
auna  mumer,  tba  higheat  meauiin^  of  the  imputktioiL 
of  ti>«  rightMnuiiBM  ol  Chrirt  liM  in  tba  ajniitiul 
osi^  of  the  belierer  wiOk  Chriit,  m>  iiiat  Iia  is 
one  witL  Oiriat,  ftnd  Chriit  one  irith  him,  and  in 
a  taua  BBDM  he  beoonue  &  partaker  of  the  drriiw 
nature.  Tbe  notion  <it  legal  tranaferaooe  la  an 
afttt>thoiisht— tha  inrention  of  polemical  logic — 
and  the  faot  itMU  ii  daapo'  and  troer  than  the 
phTaw  that  «oren  it.  7m  roe*  mm  wiA'Adam, 
^MlMeroMviti  CArH  an  the  idea*  that  are 
teallj  true  in  the  phraaM  teunttolbm  qf  tin  and 
imp¥talio7i  ^  rigkieimtneu.  "A*  lofpo  m  theok^ 
haa  erolTed  many  more  iqiplieatiou  of  the  [diraaet, 
bat  theae  j^pUoraou  are  tatbtr  the  refiDMDtDta  of 
Uietdogkal  pedantoy  than  Om  «qiNa«k«i  «f  tme 
^rittuJ  wlaticawi 

IIT  ARXrOULO  HO'BTia,  a  phraaa  need  in 
Sootlaad  to  denote  a  deed  exeouted  on  death-bed. 
At  a  oeneral  rale,  miah  a  deed,  in  Sootland,  operat- 
ing liEe  a  will,  maj  be  let  aeide  bj  the  heir-at-laT. 
But  a  -will  in  "'"gl'^n^  having  tin  tame  etTeot  oannot 
be  set  aaide  on  uiat  ground. 

TSA'QVA,  Okkit  and  Ltttl^  are  the  two  most 
Mutherlv  tilanda  of  the  Bahama  gronp,  the  former 
of  which,  meaauring  fifty  miles  by  twenty-Sve,  is 
raoarkablB  for  haymg  its  longer  mmsiudon  placed 
almost  at  right  nnsles  to  those  of  the  rest  of  the 
cluster.  The  LitUe  L  lice  about  twelve  milea 
norUi,  and  measures  eight  milea  by  six.  The 
peculation  of  both  ialanda  together  is  about  1000, 
ot  whom  only  a  small  proportion  are  white. 

INAJTI'TION.    See  STAXTi.Tiotr. 

IKA'BOHINO,  or  GRAJTINO  BY  AP- 
PROACH, a  mode  of  grafting  by  which  branobea 
are  nnited  togetiier  before  any  rrf  them  is  sepaiated 
from  its  original  stem.  BraDobea  growina  ~ 
one  another  tometinies  uoite  in  this  way  ol 
adrsB,  and  it  is  sappoeed — not  improbably— t 
obaerration  of  this  oiicniMtaaoe  first  led  to  the 
ioTeniaon  of  graftinjt  Inanbing  la  ptaotised  in 
oaaea  in  which  tite  ocdiuaiy  modea  <rf  gtaftiiw  an 
not  found  readily  to  snooeed,  as  with  "»™^fff. 
The  stocks  to  be  grafted  upon  are  pUnted,  or  plaosd 
in  pots,  annind  the  plant  from  whioh  the  grana  ar« 
to  oe  taken.  Four  or  fire  months  are  gastenlly 
snffieient  to  oomplete  the  nnion,  bat  sometime*  — 


one  another  pretty  exaeUy,  and  thef  an  thai  fltsly 
tied  togeUwr,  and  so  oortred  that  neiUicr  air  »or 
water  may  penetiste.  It  ia  deorable  that  tfaey  hf 
branobea  of  neaily  the  same  liuckiMaa.  Tbarr  sluvld 
be  cut  almost  down  to  the  pith,  bst  the  |ath  (mat 
not  be  injured.  Tn^rinhing  is  perfuriued  im^fring, 
after  the  as^  has  begun  to  ciicDlatat  The  aooonn- 
panying  flgin*  illastoatea  aercnl  ways  of  iaMAiag 
Tor  exampla,  two  braDchea  of  a  tava,  a,  may  be  beat 
BO  «■  to  nwet  and  strike  imon  a  woimd  in  the  BaJB  . 
stem,  by  which  a  gw  wUl  be  filled  np ;  one  gtovitv  I 
tree,  b,  either  from  the  gronnd  or  a  poL  may  be  Isd 
to  unite  with  anothsr ;  or  several  sDuka^  e,  tOMj 
be  led  from  the  grannd  arahwias  to  atrika  vpm  a 
point  in  the  stem,  thus  bringing  freah  aid  to  the  pro- 
ductive part  of  the  tree.  By  msana  auch  aa  thiw, 
quickaet-hedgea  are  sometimaa  thicksned  Bks  a  net- 
work, so  aa  greatly  to  improve  Uiair  appeal  ate  a>d    - 


mr  0^'ITA  DO'HtNI,  a  c«lebr*ted  p^ai  boll,    j 
so  called  from  the  ancient  day  of  it*  animal  pebB-    \ 
cation,  Eoly  Thursday.    It  is  not,  aa  otlw  bulk.    , 
the  work  ot  a  single  pope,  but  wiUi  additiaoa  sad 
modificatJong  at  various  timea,  date*  back  frtm  ^ 
middle  ages  ;  some  writers  tracing  it  to  MartJn  V.. 
otiieis  to  Clement  V.,  and  soma  to  Booiface  Vm.   j 
Its  prescmt  form,   however,  it  raesived  tiau  fts 
popM  Jolins  IL,  Faal  UL.  and  finaUy  Uttaa  TIO. 
in  1637,  from  whioh  year  It  oiHitiniMd  far  a  oaBtdrr  ' 
■nd  a  half  to  be  poUiahed  annually  o»  Holy  Tbmi-  ; 
day.    Tba  ooDtanta  at  this  ball  hsra  bMB  *  fittil  ; 
sabjeot  of  otmbovasy.    It  mar  be  bsiefly  dwttftirf 

of  those  vrith  whioh  nieroua 
of  the  chnrob,  or  of  tba  ri^t 


a,  •WMasBr 
c<tbsbiik 


i^ta  of  thia  otnm*  <a 

rights  cd  i 
foruible  and  nuawful  s 
personal  videuoe  against  aooleuastiaB,  unlaw^  intn- 
ruption  of  ttie  free  interMone  of  t^  faitUal  iritt 
Borne,  fto.  The  bull,  however,  althon^  taiiBlj 
dealing  witit  offimoea  against  tlie  idkniidi,  alsg 
denounoea  under  similar  osmniw  otfaer  ohmss,  m 
^raoy,  nlnndar  of  ahipwiaskad  good^  farg«y,  te. 
This  btill,  being  regaided  by  moat  of  tin  cronsd 
headset  Eon^  s«  an  infringement  of  thev  rigfab, 
enoountsied  in  the  ITth  c  the  determined  onpoatioa 
of  nearly  aU  the  eoorta,  even  the  meat  0*ao&:;  sad 
at  length,  in  1770^  Clement  XIV.  dtsoooliBBsd  ill 
''       whioh  hsa  never  since  been  wuwuL 


INOAHTA'TIOn^, like oic^onf,  is  derived froin* 
LAtln  root  meaning  simply  '  to  ain^'  as  ckam  a 
only  a  disgoised  form  of  carmoi,  a  song.  It  19  the 
term  in  use  to  denote  one  of  the  most  ponrful 
and  awe-insuring  modes  ot  M^c  (q.  v.),  ria,  tliat 
resting  on  a  oelid  in  the  myitenous  power  of  wotdi  | 
solemnly  conceived  and  pasaionstely  uttend 

There  is  in  the  human  voice,  especially  in  its  nun  j 
lofty  tones,  an  actual  power  ot  a  very  wonderful  ' 
kind  to  stir  men's  hearts.  When  to  this  we  add 
that  poetic  utterabce  is  a  special  and  exceptksial 
gift ;  that  the  language  of  primitive  "'t^f"  is  oude 
and  nnmansgeabfe,  the  words  being  aa  difficult  U 
weld  together  as  pieces  of  csst  iron  ;  that  it  is  onlr 
iriMsi  the  poeVi  mmd  has  risen  to  nnnsDal  hsst  that 
he  oan  fuse  them  into  thoee  rhythmical  aeqancts 
that  please  the  ear  and  hang  together  in  tbsmemoiT ; 
that,  in  short,  his  art  is  a  mvstwT  to  hiSHeU— so 
inspiration ;  we  need  not  wander  at  tba  fMfng  witli 
which  evarything  in  the  form  of  vera*  ot  metae  «m 

The  singing  or  saving  of  such  oompodtiona,  wliidi 
ooold  thus  stir  the  bbod  of  the  hearer*,  t^  kie* 
not  how,  what  other  eSeota  might  it  not  pndattl 


tyCiOogle 


nrOABKATION— mOBST. 


they  generally  irere,  with  the  conoiMtuig  of  drnsa 
and  other  nutgioiJ  rites.  They  coold  hud  or  kJU. 
It  they  oould  not  nuae  from  the  dead,  they  ooidd 
make  the  dead  speak,  or  '  call  op  ■piritB  from  the 
Tastr  deep,'  in  order  to  nnreil  the  fotnre.  Hey 
conld  axtmgmih  fire ;  darken  the  ion  or  moon ; 
make  fetters  borst,  a  door  or  a  moimtam  fly  open  ; 
blimt  a  sword ;  moke  a  limb  powerlees ;  destroy  a 
crop,  or  charm  it  aw>y  into  anotlier'a  bant 

The  prayen  of  beatheni^  vrbether  for  UMsings  or 
for  cniBe^  partake  largely  of  the  nature  of  maftical 
incaatationa.  Tbvv  are  not  aappoaed  to  aoC  at 
petitiona  addtened  to  a  free  agents  bat  hy  an 
inherent  fore*  which  eren  the  gods  eaonot  resist. 

Baddbiam ;  but  it  more  or  lets  dijgtUMdly  pervades 
all  anpeistitioiia  worship.    'Tltey  tbiiik  thay  shall 


1  of  life 


lonmnlai  to  be  lepeated 
Hj  and  many  of  these, 
nbqulty  and  conserratiTe 

_  .  .„  _  cbancMiiw  aaperstition, 
popular  memory,  altliougli  often 
Ja  as  to  be  anlntelligibre.  The 
s  of  Cato,  naed  incaotatdons,  for 


ba  heaid  for  llieir  mnoh  apoaking.' 

For   almost  erery  ocoaaion  or  operatic 
there   were  apfrofotto   fonmnlai 

in  order  to  ' ~     — ' 

with  that  n , ..__ 

tendency  which  always  cbancteriw   aaperstition, 

oontumeto  live  in  popular^"" '''" ^  -<._ 

the  words  are  ao  old  as  to 
Romans,  in  the  days  of  Cab., 

curing  dislooktions,  full  of  words  the  meaning  of 
whioh  had  been  losL    A  form  of  words  used  to  this 
day  in  Shetland  tor  healing  a  s^irain  can  be  traced 
back  to  the  10th  centory.    In  ita  earliest  ftmn, 
found  in  an  (dd  Oennan  manuscript,  it  narrates  he 
Woden  and  Baldor  riding  out  to  hunt,  Baldui's 
hoiae  dislocated  its  foot,  and  bow  Woden,  using 
charmed  words,  set  bone  to  bone,  Ac,  and  so  healed 
the  foot.    The  repetition  of  this  ibymed  namtJon 
anted  as  a  chaim  to  heal  other  lamed  horses.    The 
modem  version   of   this   tradition,   as   current  in 
KoTWay,  makes  the  accident  happen  to  the  horse 
of  i/ems,  and  Jesos  himself  perform  the  cure.     1 
Shetland,  also,  it  is  the  Lord,  meaning  Jemu,  that 
sabstitnted  tor  Woden ;  and  the  formola  is  applii 
to  the  Iwalinff  of   perstms'  bmbs  as  well  as  thoi 
of  bones,     "nie  operation  is  thus  deaoribed  in  1 
Chainben^s  PopuZor  Bhymtt  of  Bwdaitd:  '  When 
person  has  received  a  spntin,  it  is   customary  i 
apply  to   an  individnal  poetised  in   casting    tl 
"  wrestin^thraad."      This  is  a  thread  spim  from 
black  wqol,  on  which  are  cast  nine  knots,  and  tied 
ronnd  a  sprainad  leg  or  arm.    During  the  time  the 
opeiatm'  is  pntting  the  tbread  rotmd  the  aflkrted 
Imib,  Tie  san  but  in  such  a  ' —  "'  — ' ' 


mb,  ne  san  but  in  snch  a  tone 
J  be  heard  by  the  bystander^  r 


peison  operated  upon  t 

Om  Lord  rade, 
His  foisl's  foot  ilade; 

Down,  he  lifted, 

Hii  foal'i  foot  righted. 

Bone  to  bone, 

Sinev  to  smew. 

Blood  to  blood, 

TIesh  te  flesh. 
Heal,  in  name  of  ^le  Father,  Bon,  and  Holy  Qhost.' 
INOAKNATION  (Lat  in,  and  earo,  eamii, 
Qesh),  a  term  mnoh  used  in  theology  concerning 
the  union  of  the  divine  nature  of  1^e  Son  of  Ood 
with  human  natnre  in  the  person  of  Christ.  We 
read  in  John,  i.  14,  l^t  'the  Word  was  made  flesh ; ' 
but  this  is  understood  not  as  simifylng  a  dianf^  of 
nature,  but  an  assumption  of  nrnnan  nature  into 
personal  nnion  with  the  divine  oatm^  In  aooord- 
ance  with  Luke,  i.  35,  and  other  texts  of  Scri^rture, 
the  formation  of  the  human  natnre  of  Christ  is 


fint  ages  of  Christianity,  bnt  in  our  times  the  nWirf 
dlspnte  as  to  tb  penon  lA  Christ  ralatM  to  bis 
divme  natnre.  Whilst  the  dootrine  tA  the  inosnta- 
tion  is  gmerally  asserted  hy  kU  who  ptofsss  Quia- 
tiuiity,  szoepi  Unitarians  (q.  vj,  no  explanation  el 
it  is  aMemptod  or  deemed  posnble.  It  m  Mcaided, 
however,  as  a  doctrine  fnui^  with  most  import- 
ant oonseqnenoea,  affaoting  the  whole  system  of 
Christianity.  In  tbe  dootnne  of  the  inoaniation,  it 
is  maintained  that  in  onion  with  tbe  diTine  natnre 
of  the  Son  of  Qod,  there  waa,  and  is,  in  tike  person 
of  Christ,  not  only  a  bue  homan  body,  hot  a  human 
'  reasonable 'aooL 

INOAS.     See  FxBtr. 

INaVKDIABT  LIITTES,  a  latter  threatening 
to  bnm  the  bonsa  or  premises  of  a  person,  genmdly 
called  a  threatening  tetter.    To  send  SB<dk  a  letter 

"  '"' UiaUe  by  three  Toan^  penal  tervitnde. 

I  punishable  in  fWtilind  acoording  to 
cJtheoonrt. 

INOENDIABT   BHEI.L8,  another  name   for 


IlfCENSE  (Heb.  mlitter,  titter,  and  HtfuroM),  a 
perfume,  the  odoor  of  which  is  evolved  by  bnminft 
and  tbe  nsa  (A  wbioh,  in  nthlio  worriiip,  pTeraQM 


almost  eve^  maker  having  his  own  pecnliar  recipe. 
The  ingrecQents  are  nsoally  olibuium,  beoiom, 
styrax,  and  powdered  t"*""*  bark.  Tbeee  mate- 
rials, wall  TY'"lg''^i  are  so  placed  in  the  censer  or 
thurible  as  to  be  sprinkled  by  falling  on  a  hot 
platsy  which  immeiuately  volatilises  them,  and 
uiAises  tbttr  odour  through  the  edifice. 


indeed,  would  appear  to  have  been  in  itself  regarded 
in  the  light  of  a  sacred  offering.  The  same  would 
also  appear  lor  the  religion  of  Egypt;  but  the 
Persian  Ecoipturee  exhibit  the  bummg  of  incense 
as  one  of  the  marks  of  honour  oETered  to  royalty. 

In  the  Catholic  Church,  both  of  the  West  and  of 
the  Sast,  incense  is  used  in  public  worehip,  more 
partioolarly  in  oonneotion  vrith  the  Suoharistic 
servioe,  which  is  regarded  oa  a  sacrifice ;  but  writen 
ore  not  agreed  as  to  the  earlieat  date  at  which  its 
nse  can  1w. traced.  5t  Ambrose,  in  the  Western 
Church,  kUudes  to  inoense  in  terms  which  suppose 
piAotioe  of  burning  it  to  be  on  established 
;  and  in  later  writersj  it  is  mentioned  familiarly 

put  of  ordinal^  pabho  worship.  In  the  Boman 

CaUioIic  Ohnr^  inoense  is  need  in  ^  solunn 
hi^)  mass,  in    ' 

—    .: —   -.  -biect 

the 
Ther^  are  also  mmot  InoensationB  of  the  _ 

bishop  or  priest  and  inferior  ministers  ;  of  prelates, 
prinoea,  and  other  dignitaries  officially  pnsent  at 
""a  public  service,  and  a  general  inoensadon  of  tiu 

hole  ooogregation. 

In  the  Befoimed  churches,  the  nse  of  incense  was 
abandoned  at  the  same  time  with  other  piaotices 
which  have  been  lud  aside  by  them  as  without 
'warrant  of  Sm^an.' 

IirOBlTSED,  or  ANDfti,  an  emihet  aoplted  in 
Heraldry  to  panthen  or  other  wild  beasts  borne 
with  flames  issuing  from  their  months  and  ears. 

I1I0BST  (Let.  i(^  not ;  MuAu,  chaste)  is  the  marn- 

Jof  a  person  within  the  Levitiol  degreee.  In  the 
eoclesiaBtical  law  {now  obsolete),  ai3  in  Scotland, 
it  oomprehenda  cohabitation  irrespective  of  marriage. 
lliB  law  of  Ibgland  enforoed  these  prohibitions  by 


s<^emn  oonsscnitions  d  objects  intvided  Ux  use 
public  wonhip,  and  in  uie  burial  of  tiie  dead. 


t.Google 


INCH— mCOMBnSTIBLE  FABRICS. 


•ereral  itetutea    in   the   reign    of   Heoiy  YIIL, 
which  ire  itiU  in  force.     Becent  oasea  h&ve  deter- 

mined  that  s  marriage  between  a  widower  and 
hia  deoeued  wife's  aiiter  cornea  within  these  rules, 
ftnd  il  Toid,  and  it  makea  no  difference  that 
the  marriage  waa  celebrated  in  a  foreign  conntry, 
M,  for  example,  Denmark,  where  these  marriagra 
are  legal,  provided  the  parties  were  domioiled  in 
England,  and  went  there  merely  to  evade  the 
Enf^h  law.  It  has  alio  been  decided  in  Sn^land, 
that  the  same  mles  which  apply  between  legitimate 
relations  ap^ly  between  natural  relationB,  though 
one  is  ill^tunate^aa,  for  eiunple,  between  a  man 
and  the  &ughter  of  an  illegitmute  sister  of  hii 
deoessed  wife.  Hough  iDcestuous  marriages  are 
utterly  void  in  En^Mid,  still  it  is  not  a  criminal 
offence  to  marry  mceataoualy,  not  even  in  those 
ea  in  which  tine  connection  is  most  abhorrent  to 
moral  lenae  of  mankind,  and  the  remedy  in 
the  eccleaioaticol  courts  may  be  considered  obsolete 
Id  Scotland,  incest^  which  is  calculated  on  the  some 
OTOunda,  not  only  makes  a  marriage  void,  bnt  the 
better  opinion  is,  that  to  marry  incestuoosly,  as 
well  as  to  commit  incest,  is  a  capital  offence.    See 

INCH,  a  Gaelic  word,  corresponding  to  Irish 
fnnu,  and  eJgnihdng  Island  (q.  v.) ;  the  lame  root 
appears  in  Lat.  iru-ula.  Inch  and  Innis  enter  into 
many  compounds,  as  Inchcolm  (q.  v.),  Inniscattery, 
an  island  in  the  estuoiy  of  the  3baimon. 

I'NOHOOLM  (of  old,  <  St  Colm'i  Inch,'  u  in 
8hak«i«are's  MaieA,  act  i.  sc^  2 ;  in  Lat.  Aemonia, 
and  Inmla  Sandi  ColimAa),  an  islet,  beautifully 
placed  in  the  Firth  of  Forth,  within  sight  of  Edin- 
burgh. It  is  separated  from  the  north  or  Fife  shore 
by  a  diannel  less  than  a  mile  broad,  called  '  Morti- 
— ■ft  Deep.'  The  isle  is  somewhat  more  than  half  a 
__  o  in  length,  and  leas  Qisn  a  third  of  a  mile  broad 
where  widest  It  had  a  population  in  1871  of  6. 
It  takes  its  name  from  St  Colm  or  Columba  (q.v.) 
of  lono,  who  is  said  to  have  dwelt  here  while  lalKiur-  j 
ins  for  the  conversion  of  the  Northern  Picts  in  t1 
6to  century.  In  the  year  1123,  King  Alexander  „ 
of  Scotland,  being  shipwrecked  upon  it,  found  it 
inhabited  by  a  soStary  hermit,  wiio  lived  on  shell- 
fleh  and  the  milk  of  one  cow.  and  served  St  Colomba 
in  a  little  chapel  or  oratory.  The  kine,  in  gratitude 
for  bis  escape,  founded  on  the  island  an  abbey  of 
Austia  canans  regular.  Walter  Bower,  the  enluger 
jud  continaator  of  the  ScoiiiAronicim  of  John  of 
Fordun  (q.  v.],  WM  abbot  of  the  monastery  from 
1418  tiU  1449.  It  was  repeatedly  sacked  by  the 
'Bngliah  during  the  14th,  IStb,  and  16th  centuries. 
The  buildings,  which  have  long  been  in  ruins,  ahew 
tracea  of  Ronuuiesque  work  (of  about  the  middle 
of  the  12th  c);  but  ar«  chiefiy  First  Pointed  (of 
the  13th  and  I4th  centnries).  The  tower  has  some 
resemblance  to  the  tower  of  lona.  The  oldtst 
edifice  is  a  little  vaulted  oratorv  (20  feet  long  by  7 
brood],  believed  to  represent  the  chapel  in  which 
Bong  Alexander  found  the  anchorite  serving  St 
Colomba  in  the  12th  centmy.  It  is  of  the  tame 
type  as  the  Irish  oratory  of  GaUenis.  It  has  been 
lately  restored.  There  is  also  »  chapter-faoose  with 
a  groined  roof,  and  three  elegant  sedilia.  The  his- 
teiy  of  L  has  been  written  with  great  detail  by  Pro- 
fessor Sir  James  Y.  Simpson,  in  the  Proeetdingt  of 
Hie  Aniiquaria  t^  Scotland,  voL  u.  pp.  489—628. 

IN  OHKEITH,  an  island  in  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
nearly  midway  between  Leith  and  Kvaghom.  It  ia 
•  mile  in  length,  and  not  much  more  than  a  third  of 
K  mils  brood  where  widest.  Its  population  ia  1871 
was  9.  It  il  believfd  to  be  the  site  of  the  town  or 
■tron^iold  of  Gindi,  deacribed  by  Bede  (who  wroto 
oboDt  731  A.D.)  as  Btnated  in  the  middle  of  the 


^-eot  ana  of  the  sea  which  nms  into  Britun  fna 
Ute  Mat  (Oiot  is,  the  Firth  of  Forth).  Fnsii  th> 
island  fortress  of  Qiudi,  the  inlet  in  which  it  •tend 
was  of  old  called  ■  the  sea  of  Qiudin,'  and  benee  >Ik, 
probably,  I,  took  its  name.  The  island  ia  aaid  k 
have  been  the  site  of  a  church  or  monastery,  loanAic 
between  679  and  704  A.  s.  by  St  Adunnon.  tk 
biographer  of  St  Columba,  and  hia  ■acoeoBor  in  t^ 
abbacy  of  lono.  I.  was  seized  by  the  ^'^g*"*'  in 
1647,  when  thev  built  a  fort,  which,  in  IM9,  wm 
taken  by  the  I^'ench  auxiliaries  of  SooUaad.  wbf 
gave  the  island  the  name  of  the  'Isle  of  Horasft' 
A  light-house  was  built  on  the  site  of  Uw  fort  is 
1804  The  iobuid,  which  behmes  to  the  Dnke  d 
Bocclench,  is  part  of  the  poriah  of  Kingbom,  in  Vik. 

INCIDENCE,  Amolb  or.    8e«  Ci.TOPTRnx. 

INCIDENT  DILIGENCE.  In  Scotch  Low. 
letters  of  incident  diligence  ore  issued  to  codih! 
the  attendance  of  witnesses  and  haven  at  a  tnoL 
In  England,  a  subpoena  and  o  subpceoa  dMoea  ten^ 

INOI'PITUB,  in  English  Law,  the  formal  txna-  ' 
mencement  of  a  judgmein  in  a  common  law  oonit. 

INCLINBD  PLANE,  Tki,  is  reckoned  one  U 
the  Mechanical  Powers  (q.  v.),  because  l»  roQiK 
it  np  a  plane,  a  man  may  raise  a  weight  wUd 
he  conid  not  lift.  This  principle  is  extenavc^ 
made  naa  of,  chiefly  in  the  raising  of  wealds  \ 
and  in  raad-making.  II  is  here  iiiiiiir<«wiaiji  to  go 
into  a  mathematiud  investigation  of  the  tbecrj  ] 
of  the  inclined  plane,  at  it  miay  be  seen  in  tbe  , 
common  books  on  mechanics,  but  tlte  result  is  m 
follows :  The  force  required  to  lift  o  body  (lii,  ' 
its  weight)   bean  te  t^e   force   required    to   fcetp  J 


irtion .  that  the  length  of  the  inclined  plaac  i 
ocars  to  it)  height ;  also  the  weight  of  the  \oi!  \ 
beara  to  the  weight  which  tends  to  bend  or  break  i 
the  inclined  plane,  the  same  proportiaii  that  tb  ' 
length  of  tiie  plane  bears  to  its  base.  Let  a*  | 
suppose  a  plane, 
whose  length,  AB, 
is  thirteen  feet; 
base,  AC.  twelve 
feet;  ond  height, 
BC,  five  feet ;  and 
let  the  weight  be 
780  pounds.  Then 
the  force  P,  which  A.--^ 

pounds     on      the  i 

mclined  l^one,  ia   -Atbs   of   780,  or  300   ppnadf  i 
(le.,   o  foroe  which  oould  just  lift  300  poiukbl;  ' 
also  the  force   B,  which   presaea    perpandicHlarij 
on   the  plane,   is  -Htha  of  780,   or   720   jooihIi.  1 
When  the  weight  luis  Dot  only  to  be  snstaaied  ca  i 
the  plain  but  (&aim  up  it,  the  resistanoe  of  Frictiim 
(q.  V.)  has  to  be  odded  to  the  power  iimiaiisij  tc  . 
sustain  the  weight.    In  common  roaKts,  enmneen  ' 
are  aneed  that  uie  height  of  an  incline  ahoud  mm  J 
excera  Ath  of  the  lei^;;th,  or,  at  they  phrase  it,  j 
the  gradtaU  should  nc^  be  greoter  Uuui   one  in 
twenty.    It  may  here  be  mentioned  that  kaina. 
chisels,  axes,  wedges  and  screws,  ore  mei^  b    ' 
fications  of   the  mclined  plane,  but  th«  last 
being    generally   classed    as    diitinct    necha 
powers,  will  be  treated  each  nnder  ite  own  bead. 

INCOMBU'SXIBLE  FABBI03  hoT«  of  late 
yeara  become  of  great  importanoe.  oinng  to  the 
terrible  frequency  of  death  from  the  ignitioii  <t 
clothing ;  the  search,  however,  after  some  maoM 
of  rendering  garmente  inccanbuatible  has  oantiDned 
from  a  veiy  eoriy  period  (see  Beekmonn's  Hittnty  ^ 
/nnnttoiu).  Aner  many  more  oi  ' 
attempts  %'  Gay-Lnasao  and  oths 


jbjCoogle 


iNCOBiE-TAX-IHCtWABtlLA, 


of  %  acnea  of  axperiments  for  rendering  linen,  calico, 
nuulio.  Mid  all  other  TCfjetable  fibres  uninflam- 
mable.*  "Omj  fonnd  that  many  lalla  poMeased  thU 
power,  biit  at  the  lame  tune  aoniB  of  tlieoe  injiired 
the  fabric,  spoiled  the  colour,  or  wen  ao  very 
ezpeniiTe,  aa  to  render  their  gaaerol  use  imposiible. 
Two,  however,  tu.,  tanartate  of  aoda  and  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  produced  the  bert  reanlta  wiUiout  mjuring 

"--  "-' '—IT  ofthe  fabric    The  first  of  theae 

contact  with  the  air, 
10  proceaaea  of  irooine 
and  atarchins ;  it  ia  therefore  preferable  for  eoo£ 
retjuiring  waahin^  The  beat  method  of  apiuyiuK 
it  IS  by  miiiDS  m  the  proportion  of  4  ounces  i» 
tungatate  of  aoda  to  1  draohm  of  phoaphiite  oC  soda 
(to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  partially  insolable 
liitun^tate),  and  diaaolving  the  whole  in  an 
imperial  pint  of  water.  For  hibnca  which  are  worn 
withoat  previous  washing  anlpbste  of  ammonia  is 
preferable,  and  a  solution  containing  7  per  cent,  of 
the  cryatalline  aalt  ia  a  Berfect  preaervative.  In 
printed  muslin*  of  a  madder  piupla,  however,  a 
alight  paleneaa  of  colour  ia  produced,  but  in  no 
otnet  caae  is  the  colour  affected,  nor  does  it  interfere 
with  the  ironing  process.  It  ia  to  be  regretted  that 
these  simple  aod  efficacious  preservativeB  have  not 
come  into  general  use. — The  inccmbusCible  fabrics 
of  the  anoienta  were  farmed  of  Aabeatos  (q.  v.). 

INCOUE-TAX,  a  tax  imposed  on  all  penooa 
having  in  comes  above  £100,  whether  from  landa  or 
labour.  Tariooa  acta  have  pasaed  from  time  to 
time  to  impoae  this  tax — the  firat  introduoed  by 
Pitt,  and  latterly  revived  in  1842  by  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  aince  which  date  it  hsa  been  continued — the 
faimeai  and  public  policy  of  which  have  given  riae 
to  long  and  endleaa  controversy.    See  Taxation. 

IlTOOMHE'NSUItABLE  MAGNITUDES,  or 
INCOMMENSUKABLE  QUANTITIES,  are  ao«e 
which  have  no  common  measure,  L  e.,  are  not,  both 
oC  them,  moltiplea  of  the  aame  unit,  however  small 
that  unit  ba  taken.  Examples  of  ineommeuaurable 
magnitodea  are  abandaot  m  matliematical  science. 
Thus,  the  side  and  diagonal  of  a  square ;  the  dia- 
meter and  ciraomference,  or  diameter  and  area  of  a 
circle,  ka. ;  2  and  V3;  </S  and  V7>  ^  1^  term 
incommensurable  nuonitades  is  used  in  arithmeti< 
nnmbers 


to  denote  two  x 


I  which  have  no  common 


INCOBPORA'TIONSl    See  Coktoiutioks. 
INCOBPaBEAL  HBREDI'TAMENT.      See 

HntEDITjLKSKT. 

IN CUBA'TION,  The  Pcxioi)  op,  or  the  duration 
of  the  time  in  which  birds  ait  on  their  egga  before 
the  yoong  are  hatched,  variea  in  different  apedee, 
but  ia  n^riy  conatant  in  each.  In  the  liuinnunB- 
hii^  the  amalleat  animals  of  tbia  claaa,  it  is  ou^ 
12  days;  in  canaries,  it  is  from  IS  to  IS  daya^  in 
the  common  fowl,  it  ia  21  da^;  in  the  duck,  it  ia 
from  2S  to  30  daya ;  in  the  guinea-fowl,  it  ia  SS  or 
SS  days;  in  tlie  turkey,  30  days;  and  in  the  swbd, 
from  40  to  4S  daya.  A  certain  degree  of  heat  {about 
104°)  is  neceaaary  for  the  derelopment  of  the  yoong 
bird ;  that  of  the  ann  is  sufficient,  daring  the  day, 
to  hatch  the  e^;gs  of  some  birds  (for  example,  the 
ostrich]  inhabitmg  tropical  coontriea,  but  in  general 

^  the  mother  keeps  up  a  aaitable  feamperatore  by 
placing  the   egg^  .in  a  warm   and  carefully  con- 

.  strucied  Neat  (q.  v.),  and  by  covering  them  witii 
*  Silks,  worsteds,  and  anioul  llbres  may  be  ignited 
ind  charted,  but  thev  do  not  bunt  into  flame,  because 
the  gases  they  yield  are  not  inflanunabla;  vegetable 
filn«B,  on  the  other  band,  largely  evolve  earburetted 
hydrogen. 


her  own  bodv.  In  some  casea,  the  male  bird  takea 
part  in  this  duty ;  usually,  however,  his  aerviooB  are 
restricted  to  providing  hia  mate  wili  food. 

£ma  may,  however,  be  hatched  without  the  aid 
of  the  parent  bird.  From  time  immemorial,  the 
Egyptians  have  hatched  i^gi  by  artificial  warmth 
in  peculiar  atoves  called  Mammalt,  Ia  1T77,  Mr 
Bonnemain  devised  an  apparatus  by  which,  for 
several  years  before  the  Fnnch  Revolution,  he  tup- 
plied  the  Parisian  markets  with  excellent  poultry, 
at  a  period  of  the  year  when  the  farmers  had  ceased 


if  artificial  incubation  v 

:0m  rkjuueOj  ±  eau 
forth,  and  bion.  life],  which  wis  invented  1^  Mr 
Bncknell,  and  is  descriliedin  his  TVtuftseonJrttftefnJ 
Incubation.  Ttiia  machine  poaseaaed  a  perfect  oon- 
trol  over  temperature  from  300°  Pshrenheit  to  that 
of  cold  water  for  any  length  of  time,  and  'by  msana 
of  thia  abaolute  and  complete  command  over  the 
temperature,  the  impr^nated  ^g  of  any  bird,  not 
stole,  placed  within  its  influence  at  the  proper  degree 
of  warmth,  is.  at  the  expiration  of  its  tiatuial  tune, 
elicited  into  life,  without  the  poaiibility  of  failoie.' 
That  chickeoa  were  hatched  m  large  nombeia  by 
this  machiue  ia  undoubted,  but  for  some  reaaon 
— probably  from  the  procesa  not  proving  sufficiently 
economical  for  oommareial  purpoeea— the  .^ccoIeoUon 
has  not  been  lately  heard  of. 

In  1 825,  M.  D'Arcet  obtained  chickens  and  pgeoDa 
at  Vichy  by  artificial  incubation  effected  by  the 
thermal  watera  of  that  place. 

INCnj'MBENT,  the  rector,  parson,  or  vioar  hold- 
ing an  ecolesiastical  benefice  in  England  or  belaud. 
It  ia  seldom  used  in  Scotland  except  popularly  in  a 
similar  sense. 

INCU'MBRANCES,  a  general  term  for  burdena 
or  charges  on  land.     See  Eebitablz  SicuKmtt, 

MOBIOAOB,  LlKH. 


The  term  ia  usually  ttAtricted  to  thoao  which 
appeared  before  the  year  1600,  by  which  time  the 
art  was  completely  formed  m  all  its  principal 
departments.  The  nnmber  of  these  works  is  prob- 
ably not  far  abort  of  20,000.  Hain.  it  is  true,  in 
his  Beptriorium  BiiUographieum,  enumeratea  oo]^ 
16,299 ;  but  aa  he  unfortunately  died  before  his 
work  was  completed,  it  ia  oon^asedly  imperfect, 
especially  in  the  last  volume. 

Incunabula,  with  hardly  any  exceptions,  belong 
to  tbe  categoiy  of  rare  books,  and  are  IJierefore 
much  sought  for  by  colleotora ;  but  bendaa  the 
interest  attaching  to  them  aa  literary  curioaitiea, 
many  of  them,  such  as  the  first  editiona  {editiona 
prindpet)  of  the  Qreek  and  Roman  claaaica,  are 
mtrinsically  valuable  in  a  critical  point  of  view; 
whilst  others  are  important,  aa  muUng  the  aoc- 


towarda  perfection.     Information ,, __ 

colani  will  be  found  in  the  artiide  PsnmNa. 

The  priocipal  worka  treating  apeoially  of  incuna- 
bula are— -Panzer,  Annaia  Typographui,  ab  Artia 
Inventa  Origitit  ad  Amuan  M.D.  (oontioued,  how- 
ever, to  1636),  II  vols.  4to,  Norimbenin,  1793— 
1803}  Maittsire,  Annaia  Typographic  a&  .^rfia 
InvaUa  Origine  ad  .ilnnum  lSfi7  {cum  Appatdux 
ad  Ann.  16$4),  3  tom.  in  S  vols.  4to,  Hagn-Comit 
1719—1729;  Serua  Santandor,  DuUotmaSv  Biblio- 
graphignt    CAotn    du    X^'   Siide,    3   tom.    Svo, 


d  by  Google 


INDEBITATUB  AS9UUP8IT— IKDEFENDIEKTS. 


vaqiit  ad  M.D.  Typit  Expretn  recauentttT,  4  torn. 
tro,  StatnituB,  1928— 183&  With  aU  ita  imper- 
feotioiiB,  U«  laat  is  tha  beat  woik  we  hava  cm  tha 


■obJMlL    Uvoh  TsInaUe  inform 


[m,  conTOfad  ii 
-  ^ and  sttnotiT*  a^le,  will  also  ba  found 

M  Amp4  S  torn.  Sro,  Puii,  1SS3L 

INDBBITA'TUS  ASS V'HPSIT, tlw 
oftam  givaa  to  an  aotdon  for  debt  in  England. 

TSUVOKST  BXPO'STJBB  ia  a  cnnin*]  ofEwoa 
tioth  at  common  lav  and  in  BSiglar^il  and  Ireland 
•1*0  t^  atatata^  It  ia  not  deariy  aettled  wbather 
Bon  than  one  panon  mnat  have  witneaaed  tiie 
iMbc«DC7,  in  oidsr  to  naka  it  an  offacMak  Tha 
oEpoaiiTa  moat  b«  in  aome  pnblio  photb  Br  tbe 
■trtnta  fi  Oeo.  IT.  o.  8S,  c  4t  the  oSenoe  ia  pouiduUe 
auaaMil;  br  time  montiia'  impriaopmeiit.  To  mU 
or  ezTCM  an  obMeoa  book,  pni^  or  ^i ' 
pnnUiable  \ij  fin*  and  imprianmiant 
laboor;  and  a  wamnt  can  ba  obtaiM 

and  21  Tiok  o.  S3,  t«  Mucdi  pnmao., 

and  deatniy  ndh  booki,  t&  In  Bootland,  indecent 
pnotioaa  aie  alao  indietabl*  oBano«^  bnt  tha  law 
M  Bomawhat  Tagoe,  and  the  poniahnient  left  to  the 
diaonrliaai  of  flu  ccmrt. 

tSDVnXSTn  deed,  u  Ku^  Law,  ia  _ 
deed  BT«n  by  mj  ot  100111^.  Tha  nmal  fonn 
of  indemnifying  a  peraon  i*  by  ^liug  a  bond  of 

indamnity,  irtiieb  opcntea  U  the  f '  ' "- 

fulfilled,  bnt  otherwiae  becomea     

bond  ia  (tailed  generally  a  bond  of  relief  in  Scotland. 

IKDETSTETI,  in  Eenldry,  one  of  theMitition 
linea  of  the  ahield,  nmilarfy  noUlied  to  Danoettfi 
(cj.  T.},  bat  witJi  tiie  notchea  moch  nnaller,  aod  not 
tiinitad  in  it — "■  — 


Prnglaml  to  a  deed  nnder  aeal,  entmed  into 
two    or    man   partiaa    with    matnal    oora 
Vocmady,  it  nqoind  to  be  aottudty  indented-  _  „, 
notefaed  or  too&ed  (Lat  ({ml,  toothj,  or  cnt  in  a 
mmiig  liuo,  ao  «a  to  oorreapond  witii  the  other 

Siy  «t  the  d«ed— bat  thia  ia  do  longer  neoeBBarr. 
B  natne  i»  Dot  uaed  in  a  general  aenae  in  Seotland, 
eioifit  in  the  case  of  indentona  of  apprentiocahip 
(<}.  T.),  though  in  England  it  ia  a  aynonyst  for  the 


Sie  distinctiTa  ptinoiple  <rf  the  Ooxtang^ 
churab  'go^j  ia,  that  every  Chriatian  etinrch 
<a  wvi^egatioii  ia  entitled  'to  elect  it*  own  ofBoera, 
to  mau^  all  ita  own  afhin,  and  to  itand  independ- 
ent o^  and  irra^onaible  to,  all  anthority,  aaving 
that  ooly  of  the  Simranw  and  Divine  Head  of  the 
Camroh,  tho  Lord  Jemi  Chiiat'  They  rt^ard  the 
Elacied  Soriptorea  aa  their  only  atandud,  and  hold 
tiiat  human  traditiona,  fathen  and  oouholIb,  canona 
and  oieeda,  posaeaa  no  aothuity  over  the  faiUi 
and  pnwtioe  of  Chriatiana.  Congregationaliam 
deniea  that  there  ia  any  authority  ii>  S^pture  for 
uniting  the  chardhea  of  a  nation  or  {oovuae  into 
one  ohnroh  or  oorporation  to  be  ruled  by  a  biahop 
or  biahopa,  anperior  to  the  biahopa  or  paaton  of  par- 
tioolar  ooDgr^atiiMU,  or  by  a  preabytery  or  lynod 
oonaiating  of  tbe  paaton  oi  eldera  of  um  aeveral 
oon^ra^ationa  of  the  natiiHi  or  jKOTiooa  Ihiauttlie 
Ktacaahty  which  rti"«^ngni«lijj  Indepoidaiioy  or 
rnim»  ii^ti'^TtlTr"  from  £^naoopaay  and  Praaby- 
taty.  Ilwtsm' Independent'  la  anppoaedto  have 
originatad  in  the  inoidantal  um  of  the  word  in  an 


'apology'  addreaaed  in  I^tin  and  Kngliah  to  Ub 
Kitiah  and  Continental  nniyawilia^  aba«t  tk*  jaar 
1604.  Bat  the  eaiiy  maintaineaa  .of  tbia  tprm  «l 
tbiirch  goTwmment  wafoarefal  to  tapadjrta  cartMi 


othw  ehnndiea  and  aynoda,  wben 
or ignoranoe  ma  -'--«'-  '  - 
tiiem.'      Hie  in 


ividaBl  olMueh  to  « 


DoetnaaUg,  the  eariy  tndependenta  oocapaed  the  < 
me  podtion  aa  the  other  aectianB  of  the  jhntac 
family,  ^ey  held  in  lubatsooe  the_e 
doctnces  of  the  Rafonnen,  of  tiie 
AaaemUy,  and  of  tiie  Thirty-nine  Artaoiei.  nniK 
declining  aahicription,  and  frankly  tcderaat  rf  wrj  ' 
conaideraUe  divenitiM  of  opinion,  nwdem  Godzn- 

Stionaliati  profeaa  to  be  of  one  tund  in  ngaad  to  1 
a  cardinal  tmtha  of  diriatianity.  1 

For  the  history  of  this  bodjr  we  mut  refer  ta  tk 
wotk*  named  at  the  end  of  thja  artkle^  %at  it  aaj 
ba  mentioned  that  «s  early  aa  tbe  day»  «C  Qaaaa 
Eliabeth,  they  were  nnmenms  and  iDflaeatiaL  Ia 
a  speech  made  by  Sir  Walter  Bateigh  in  Htm  Burnt  ' 
of  Commoni  in  1G92,  □□  the  sobjeat  of  •  law  fa  1 
transi»ort  the  Brownista — aa  Uiey  mt*  nffiaanlj 
and  Tintruly  named — he  thoa  refera  to  thA  b^  i 
hers  :  '  If  two  or  three  tiioniand  BrowniaCa  Maetil 
the  aea-aid«^  at  whose  eb«rg«  dull  tkaj  ba  tnaa-  ' 
pwtedT  or  wfaitber  wiU  jvi  mmd  thtMl  I  tm  . 
aorryforiibnt  I  am  afrud  tban  ia  aaar  Wntr  ' 
thontaitd  of  them  in  Bariand ;  and  lAan  H^  mt  1 
gone,  «4m  dull  maintain  their  wirea  and  Aadrcal' 
ScTetaL eminent  men  irf  tUa  bo^nBsnd  tetb for  1 
their  opinions  j  othera  li  '    -   -'  '     •----■-» 


_„ Hwr   i    „ 

America  atiU  cherishea  lite  memory  «f  tba  BOf^  | 
Fathera,  aa  the  foonden  of  Aoaa  Jiulilalioai  \ 
which  aie  the  aonreea  of  her  freedom,  bar  intaPa;  ' 
tual  and  moral  power,  and  bv  natiMul  ekvaliaa. 

By  the  paaaing  <d  the  Act  of  Unifomi^iB  MR  1 
the  Indtmndenta,  along  with  other  NaoMnfarmi*.  , 
were mbjected  to mnob anfieriag.    TbeaotteqaiRd  | 
an  eqireu  aaaent  and  oonaent  to  ereirtbiiig  eoa- 
tainedinthereTisedPniywBook,aDdit«effiMtv>itd  , 
oaaaa  1900  or  2000  of  tbecteigy  to  leave  the  (AroKb.  . 
Still  the  Independanta  increaaed :  and  tho  Sevola-  ' 
tiou  of  168S,  and  paanng  of  the  Tol«r*tian  A«t  ia 
1689,  at  length  bronght  them  relieL    Effort!  wtn  I 
made  aboutlhis  time  to  bring  about  an  anonmww- 
dation  betweentheniandtiieEngliBhfrealiytaiiaaa: 
and  in  1G91,  haada  of  agreement  were  dnwn  u(i, 
but  witb  little  practical  result.    In  1730,  Prariiy- 
terians,  Baptists,  and  Indepeudenta  f<»iaed  tbesi- 
aelvee  into  a  onited  body,  under  the  name  of  the 
Three  Denominationa,  for  tbe  protection  of  their 
civil  and  reludooa  libertiea.    The  Independaota  an 
tha  largeat  faaenting  body  in  Eng^aad  >z<>^  Ibe 
Wealeyan  Me1diodIat&    By  the  oemoa  of  1951.  tbe 
number  of  their  chnrdiea  in  Buland  and  Wales,  i> 
given  at  3S44,  witb  aooomnodatian  for  ljD8T,760 

Srsons,  and  an  estimated  attendaaoe  (rf  79^1K 
«  article  Ohtiit  BBrrAin}.  There  haa  faean  no 
meral  rcligioua  census  ainoe  1851,  but  it  is  wdt 
sown  that  the  Independent  body  baa  vary  lugdy 


LiOOgIC 


nrSETEBUIHATE  EBOBLEBIB—UfDEX. 


JDoreaMd.    Xha  lugsat  confederaituai  of  ito  cliarolua 


th*t '  it  shall  Doi  in  ujr  owe, 
uitboritr,  or  Imcmwu  %  eoait  of  kpfiMl.' 

An  IndepeudMit  otuuoh  ia,  fftin  its  vu^  coiutitn- 


1  for  iu  Duoistai 
whom  it  oonndeis  qualified  for  the  office — lubject 
only  to  tlis  elwok  siwing  Eiom  the  fact  that  nei^b' 
boariDg  miniatas  will  rafsae  to  ordain  or  recognuM 
>  man  wfaotn  thaf  have  reason  to  ragard  m  dii- 
qiulified.  But  from  tiw  ^*fgii"i"g  the  Independanta 
I    edoMted 


miniitry.    1 
Owen,  Mom 


adwd  gmst  importauoe  to  an  edac*t 
Tbtii  IsmUss  w  the  Pnritan  sg^  tuoh 
Howe,  and  OraanhiU,  wen  men  of  great 
learning,  and,  as  soon  as  the  Aot  of  Tolttktioa  in 
J6S9  sS>wed,  meaaoiM  were  taken  for  aeouiing 
a  ■oooeamon  of  ednoated  men.  Tbev  have  now 
tw^t«  tfae^opeal  oollegea  in  Bnglanj  and  Wales. 
Ibmeaie: 


WeUarn  Colkn,  FlTEUatb,   .       .       .  IIM  » 

Bolhcrbus  CMlcm      ....  I'M  11 

BrFam  Collcta, ITtO  31 

AlrDdil*  OBUi«>,  andftrd, .  ITH  14 

LuuMiilnC^kn,      .       .       .       .  1*M  Ml 

Bprlni  HID,  Btnnliiihuii,       ,       ,       .  lUS  M 

M>w  Collatl^  LoWtoB, .       ...  IBM  M 

fiiliQilliC*, IMl  a 

Briiul  laiUtaU,  .....  1K3  11 

Hottinihim  InaUnts,      .       .       .       .  l«*  K 

OMton  BdI  ((Or  HoBa  Kmbnail*^,  .  IMS  I 

In  tfaia  lilt  'New  CollaEe'  ia  a  anion  of  three 
older  eolltgea,  Honerton,  Highborjr,  and  Coward. 
Theoollege  ai  Cheahnnt,  baUmgiiiglto  I^dy  Hnnt- 
ingdon'a  tnutcea,  waa  founded  tor  the  pieparalitm 
ot  yonng  nun  for  Uie  ChriBtiao  miniitrj,  in  any 
seoUon  of  the  ohnroh  to  whioh  the;  might  be 
oalled  Bnt  it  i*  Tirtnally  an  Indccpandeut  col- 
lege—all ita  premnt  ptofeuon  and  almost  all  its  38 
students  beug  Independents.  1^  'Caimartheo 
Prsabyterian  CMIege,'  though  govsnifld  hy  I>r 
WilUanu*!  trastees  ^u>l«>«  UnHariaui,  has  aa 
Independent  for  its  tiwotegical  professor,  and  23 
Independent  stadenti.  1^  0<»iaregal3onaIist«  of 
Scotland  have  a  theokig^oal  hall  m  Edinborgh. 
There  are  two  ooUegeg  in  Australia  and  one  in 
Canada. 

In  Scotland,  Independeney  rasir  b«  traced  bacli  to 
the  days  of  the  CoaunoDweuth,  oaring  which  it  waa 
imparted  by  the  cbwJains  and  aiddiera  of  Cromwell. 
Bat  tdie  [veeeot  Independent  ohnrchee  in  Scotland 
owe  tiieir  oripn  mainly  to  a  misnonary  movement  in 
the  end  of  the  last  centniv,  chief  amfms  the  leaders  of 
which  were  the  broHieTs  Bobert  and  Ames  Haldane, 
Unville  Bwios,  JiAa  CampbdL  and  John  Aikman, 
The  Haldanes  beoanie  Bapbsts  in  eomse  of  time— a 
ciroumataDoe  which  greaify  drridad  and  weakened 
the  hew  oommtmity.  The  formation  of  an  academy 
for  the  tnunioK  of  ministers  in  1811,  and  of  the 
Congr^ational  Union  alxmt  the  same  time,  did 
muon  to  reatOTe  the  loet  vigour  of  the  body.  Thow 
are  about  100  ehnrches  at  present  in  this  ■  Union.' 
It  should  be  added  that  Oe  Baptist  chuiobes,  both 
in  Euf^and  and  BooUand,  are  as  strictly  '  Independ- 
ent' as  those  which  bear  tiiai  name. 

In  AmwiciL  the  first  Independent  churdi  was 
founded  by  John  Robinson  at  Flymonth,  New  Eng- 
land, in  1620.  In  1637,  the  spread  of  Antinomiaa 
dootrine  caused  much  diuuiaion  in  the  church. 
By  a  *yiiad  convened  in  Kew  England,  Audno- 
misnism  was  nnanimodaly  ooodssonML  In  L03S, 
HarvMd  Collage  was  founded.  In  1658,  tiis  Savoy 
Confession  was  adopted.  It  still  remains  in  force, 
About  1760,  TJnitanaii  principles  spread  widely  in 
■'    "  ■"       '  -'inrdhes </Amerioh    &il7Bi^a 


separatwn  took  place  between  Uke  Uoitanans  and 
the  TiinitariaoB,  bat  both  stiU  retain  ths  Congi«c»- 
tional  form  of  church  govsmment.  Harvard  CoUaoc 
is  Unitarian.  'Congrsgatioaalism,'  aocordiug  to 
Di  Scha%  'is  the  nling  sect  of  the  six  north- 
enateni  it^«s,  and  hss  exerted,  and  still  exerts,  a 
beneficial  inflnenoe  upon  the  religious, 'aooij^  and 
political  life  of  the  whole  nation.'  In  1866,  the 
number  of  Congregational  ohnrches  in  the  United 
StatM  was  reported  to  be  S043,  and  of  ministen 
3168,  with  300,S62  dinrah  msmben,  and  361,002 
eluldreii  in  Sabbath  sohods.  EiclaaiTe  «<  Harvard 
in  lbs  adnriniitratioii  of  whidi 
.  the  American  Independents 
possess  thaolopBii  seminaries  at  Andover,  Bangor, 
New  HavsB,  fist  ■""-'--  ~--     '--  ™- 


and  other  otdlege^  in  i 

ibaj  have   a  Aare,  t 

pcsteaa  ^solcvissl  sa 

New  HavsB,  £st  Windsw,  Obsrlia,  Iowa,'Chiet«o, 

and  other  plaoea.    Tlie  foUow^  are  good  woAs 


taru;   Dr    Stonghton's    Eid*»iaMie(U    ffitlmy   tf 
Snglamd;    and    Mcsheim'i   Otntrai  OIntreh   Sit- 

IITDBTBItHINATD  PROBLEUR  It  was 
shewn  in  the  srtiale  EgMTiom  that  the  valnes  of 
the  unknown  ouantitiM  could  only  be  detennined 
when  Um  Bium»er  of  eqnattons  was  equsl  to  tlw 
of  unknown  qnantitiea,  bnt  t£at^  if  the 
iceeded  the  former,  i«>«ra^  values  mi^ 
be  found  for  each  unknown,  in  which  esse  uie 
problems  which  pve  rise  to  the  eqnatioiu  are  called 
indtterminaU  problemi.  For  example, '  To  find  the 
nnmbor  which,  when  divided  by  2  and  3,  leaves 
rwoftindars  1  and  ^'  is  an  indetanninote  ^problem, 
admitting  of  an  infinite  number  of  solntioni ;  for 
"---'-  only  one  onkaown  quantity  appears  in  the 
1,  yet,  in  order  to  fonn  an  equation,  we  on 
to  proceed  in  the  fallowing  ""t"""' :  aa  a  is 
divuible  by  2,  with  a  remslsd^  1,  z  »  2p  -I-  1 ; 
again,  as  z  is  ditimble  by  3,  with  a  rentainder  2, 
x  =  39  +  2;  hence  we  have  tiie  eqoatioa  2p  +  1  = 
3;  -t-  2  (one  equalion  to  find  two  unknown  quan- 
tities), from  whioh,  by  a  prooesB  which  is  e^dained 
--  the  ordinary  books  on  algebra,  we  find  z  =  6r 

1,  where  r  is  any  positive  number  whatever. 
The  values  of  z  ar^  therafore,  S,  11,  17,  !%  ^  In 
gEneral,  if  tbe  equation  is  of  the  form  oz  4-  ' 


obliged  tc 


IS  (of  X 


infinite.     The  Diophantine  (q.  v.)  anolysia  exhibits 
of  the  second  degree. 

J'HDBX  ^noie  fully  Ivumi  LnnoKDii  Piobih- 
TOUnQ,  a  ostalogne  pnbliahed  by  Papal  authority 
in  the.  Bj«"np  Cnudio  Church  of  books  the  resding 
of  which  is  nndiibited  to  members  of  that  eharch, 
whether  on  doctrinal,  moral,  or  religions  pvnndK 
As  a  natural  cmsequence  of  the  claim  of  the 
Cstholic  Chundi  to  anthori^  in  matten  o(  reUgifm, 
and  to  infallilnlity,  that  chnrdi  alao  claims  tbe 
right  or  the  du^  fA  watching  ov«r  tbe  faiDi  of 
ita  memben,  and  of  enardiog  it  against  «vw^ 
danger  of  uoiiuutioii,  the  chief  ankoog  whidt  la 
hdd  to  bs  the  eii«ulation  of  bw^  babsved  to 
be  ioinriooi  to  faith  or  to  morality.  IV  sarikat 
reeocded  ezerasa  «i  this  nstrietive  avthority  is 
the  pndiibition  of  the  writings  of  Alius;  sad  a 
oooncil  of  Osrthase,  in  the  year  S98,  isso^  evn 
tar  bidtopB,  a  rinular  prohibition  of  OsBtOc  books, 
altSuM^  it  pannittad  to  them  the  tsading  of 
the  wmks  of  heretica.     The  earliest  example  of  a 


,,Google 


INDEX— mOIA. 


the  oanonical  booki   ..    .._,.. 

other  approvad  'waika,  recitei  aIso  the  apooTplul 
book*,  tonther  -with  a  Ions  list  of  heretical 
AUtJu^ifl,  whou  vzitiiigB  it  prohibits,  and  orders  to 
lie  eliminated  from  the  churchea.  The  medieval 
popes  uid  eouiTcilB  porfnied  the  same  ecurae  aa  tt>  the 
heleTOdoz  or  dangerous  writings  of  their  respective 
iods,  and  the  multiplication  of  such  books  after 
invention  of  printmg  led  to  a  more  stringent 


V' 


The  1 


dty  press  of  Louvain  issued  in  1546.  and  again 
m  i590,  a  oatalogue  of  pn>liibil«d  books.  Similar 
lists  appeared  hj  aathority  at  Venice,  Paris,  and 
Cok^e;  and  Fins  lY.  issued  in  1557  and  I6G9 
what  may  be  regarded  as  properly  the  fint  Roman 
Index.  One  of  the  gravest  undertaking  of  the 
council  of  Trent  was  a  more  complete  and  authori- 
tative enumeration  of  all  those  bocka  the  use  of 
which  it  was  expedient  to  proHbit  to  the  faithful. 
A  committee  was  appointed  for  the  purpose,  and 
had  mode  great  progress  in  the  work ;  but  it  was 
fpund  impossible  to  tihng  t^e  examination  of  the 
books  to  an  end  before  the  olose  of  the  council ;  and 
the  entire  of  the  papers  of  the  committee  were 
banded  over  by  the  council  to  the  pope,  with 
instruotiaDi  that  the  work  should  be  completed, 
and  the  result  published  by  his  own  aathority, 
which  wM  accordingly  done  by  Pius  IV.  in  I5G4. 
Fiirther  additions  and  certain  modifications  of  its 
nilea  were  mads  by  Sixtus  V.  and  Clement  VIL 
It  was  republished  in  1696,  and  with  the  addition 
of  such  books  as  from  time  to  time  it  was  deemed 
expedient  to  prohibit,  in  several  subsequent 
editions,  ibe  most  remarkable  of  which  are  those 
of BnuicheUi (Itoine,1607);  (iviroai^ Index Librorum 
SxpuTsandcrum  (SalMnanca,  1601) ;  and  Sotomayor, 
JVotsMinuu  Indtx  (Madrid,  1S48).  Tba  edition  best 
known  to  modem  tbeological  readers  is  t^t  of 
Rome,  1819.  In  the  intervals  between  the  editions, 
the  decrees  by  which  ftuiher  additions  to  tiie  Index 
are  made,  are  made  public  at  Borne,  and  ciicolated 


The  prohibitions  of  the  Roman  Index  are  of  two 
classes,  either  abaolate  and  total,  or  partial  and  pro- 
Tisionsi,  '  until  the  book  shall  have  been  corrected.' 
The  edition  of  Quiroga,  mentioned  above,  regards 
the  latter.    The  ground  of  the  prohibition  may  be 


either  the  authorship  of  the 


its  subject, 


.  the  first 

ideit  of  heresies— no  matter  what  may  be  the 
subject.  Under  the  second  head  are  prohibited 
all  books  confessedly  immoral,  and  all  Docks  on 
mafic,  necromancy,  Kc.  Under  the  third  are  pro- 
hibited all  books  of  heretical  aatborship  treating 
on  doctrinal  subjects ;  all  vendons  of  the  Bible  by 
heretieat  authoia ;  and  all  books,  no  matter  I^ 
wbfna  written,  vhich  contain  statements,  doctrines, 
or  inainnationa  prejudicial  to  the  Catholic  religion. 
The  preparation  of  the  Index,  in  the  first  instanoe, 
was  committed  to  the  care  of  the  Congregation  of 
tile  Ingnisitioa  in  Rome ;  but  a  special  Congregation 
of  the  Index  w«s  establuhsd  by  Pius  V.,  and  more 
folly  organised  by  Sixtus  V.  This  con^egation 
oonsista  of  a  prefect  [who  is  always  a  carainal],  of 
oaidinals,  of  consultmi,  and  of  examiners  of  books 
{qiud^ficalortM),  Ite  proceedings  are  governed  by 
Ttlks  which  have  been  authoritatively  laid  down 
by  Mveral  p^et,  Mpedally  by  Benedict  XIV.,  in 

"'Ttwn  iamed  July  10,  1763,  to  which  the 

referred  for  the  best  and  meat  antheDtio 
of  a  subject  on  which  much  miacon- 
cflption  eiistR  on  the  part  of  Catholics  as  well  as 
of  Prototants. 

The  growth  of  modem  litemtare  baa,  of  course, 
<ntirely  outstripped  the  limited  and  tardy  machinery 


operatioi 
I^otestii 


:   atrikea   at  l^ 


of  this  tribunal  A  very  small  proportiMt  e«^  a 
the  most  anti-Catholic  pnblicatiinis  ootad*  of  IMf 
find  their  way  by  name  to  the  Bonka  ladri^ 
but  besides  the  positive  pn^bitionji  ot  tbe  lade 
itself,  there  are  certain  general  nila*  rt^frdtrng  tk 
use  of  books  by  which  the  freedom  o€  wMt  ■ 
considered  perilous  or  pemicicnis  readiag  ia  si«ft 
limited  among  members  of  the  Bionaii  f  stbnB' 
Chnrch.  Theae,  however,  would  be  entirslj'  b^oaf 
tlie  scope  of  our  publication ;  nor  oosild  Ute  lala 
of  the  Index  even  be  piaotically  bnmriife  iH> 
countries  where  the  Ca^olic  am 
itant  literatures  are  so  interwovm,  tLat  it  ■ 
impossible  to  teparato  them  even  in  this  odmsiT 
Intercourse  of  life.  See  Wetier's  KireJtt»-L*^cai, 
art.  'Index.' 

Few  parts  of  the  Roman  Catholle  syBteon  in 
more  repugnant  to  Intelligent  P — ' — ' — '""  '^'" —  ''^ 
institution   of  the    '  Indei,'    us 

root  of  the  fundamental  principle  <  . .    . 

itself — namely,  that  of  private  judgment.  And  tbs 
theoretical  repugnance  is  increased  by  aeonf;  tU, 
in  ite  practical  working,  such  names  as  tilLboc. 
Robertson,  Guicciardini,  Sismondi,  Hallam,  Goiil- 
imlth  [Hitloty  of  England),  Bescartes,  Locke,  KaK 
{Euay    on    Pure    .Reason),    J.    S.    MO!     {Folitia. 


I'NDIA,*  an  extensive  region  of  Southera  Asa. 
celebrated  during  many  ages  fiHr  ite  lidtea  sad 
valuable  natural  productioDS,  ite  beaatifnl  i 
factures  and  coslJy  merchandii^  tiie  n 
of  its  sovereigns,  and  the  early  a'  "' 
people.    It  iiQgDCBses  especial  ii ' 

with  tl^t  of  his  own  count^. 

Hither  L  ia  the  cental  i 
Asia,  and  lies  in  8°  4'— 35°  N.  lat,  and  67*— 9?  £ 
long.  According  to  these  limits,  ite  Imgtfa  nq 
be  steted  approximately  at  1900  milea,  kod  id 
breadth,  reckoned  along  the  parallel  of  25°  K.  lit, 
at  1600  miles,  with  an  area  of  about  1,300,000  aqian 
miles.  The  natural  boundaries  of  this  va»t  rsgui 
are,  on  the  If.,  the  range  of  tha  Himal^n  Uoso- 
tains,  which  separates  it  from  Tartaiy,  Ctdna,  and 
Tibet  i  on  the  W.,  the  Sullnum  Uouotaim  dividi 
it  from  Afghanistan  and  Beloochistaa ;  on  tin  . 
S.,  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Beugal ;  aiJ 
on  the  S.,  the  hill-ranges  which  separate  Chitta- 
gong  and  Assam  from  Buruiah.  From  the  moatlu 
of  the  Brahmaputra  and  the  Indus,  the  east  and 
west  coasts,  iucllulng  towards  the  same  poiu^  men  . 
at  Cape  Comorin,  and  thus  give  to  Southan  L  tht 
form  of  an  irregular  triangle.  The  two  sides  of  tiu 
triangle  have  each  a  coast-line  of  about  2000  tnila. 
I.  Is,  in  fact,  from  ite  great  extent  of  seaboard, 
essentially  a  maritime  couctry. 

Further  L  is  the  name  given  to  the  south-easteni 
peniusula  of  Asia.  It  is  not  treated  of  in  this 
article,  and  for  information  concerning  it  reStnace 
Is  made  to  the  articleg  on  Siah,  Busjuh,  CochuT' 

PkytKot  Ftatura. — Hither  L  presente  a  mcst  ' 
diversified  surface  and  varied  scenery :  it  baa  indeed 
been  called  'an  epitome  of  the  whole  earth,'  con- 
sisting aa  it  dooa  of  mountaias  far  abov«  the  IsTcl  I 

is  borrowed  by  the  Oreeks .   _ 

It  to  the  dwel' 
indha  (Sans,  tor  ludi 

ehuiie  of    t    into  A,     .  .       . .        ... 

RindDsiin  (the  country  of  the  Hindus]  is  a  aaaera 
word  applied  by  tJia  Panians  te  UiB  whult  c£  lodis; 
bat  Europeans  understand  it  as  uplyinx  properlf  to 
•1..* il..„  „»  ;►  ~i.;„i.  i;„.  north  of  tlii  JVmdbja 


*  The  name  is  borrowed  by  the 
Persian!,  who,  however,  applied  the 

finrt  only  to  the  dwellers  on  the  I ,. 

Tudni).     Fxnn  this,  hf  Um  ic|«1d 
A,  the   Peisian  .Hincl  ia  dufind. 


that  portion  o(  It  K 


dbyCoo«^le 


of  perpetokl  mow ;  bn»d  and  fertile  pUini,  bathed 
in  iiiteiui«it  mnihuie,  ariil  waatea,  and  impenetrable 
fonata.  Ita  great  nataral  diviaiooa  ors  tba  anb- 
Himalayan  conntriea,  the  plain  of  the  Gangea,  the 
plain  of  the  Indni,  the  Hiehlanda  of  Nortiiran  Hin- 
dustan, and  the  peniiiBiiut  portion  of  the  conntzy 
to  the  aonth  of  the  Vindhya  HoontaiDS. 

The  Sub-Himalai/an  Ooaniriet  form  an  elevated 
bract  lying  between  the  ehief  ridse  of  the  Hirna- 
InyoB  and  the  lower  elevations  which  odjola  the 
plains  of  the  QaDeeB  and  IndnB.  They  oonaiat  of 
Cashmere,  GnrhwJ,  Knmaon,  Nepaul,  Sikkim,  and 
Bhotan,  all  hill-eoantriea,  which,  owing  to  their 
elevation  above  the  aea,  have  a  cool  climate  and  the 
vegetation  of  the  temperate  zonea.  These  regions 
are  aeparated  frona  the  plain  of  the  Ganges  by  the 
Teroi,  or  Oreat  Indian  iwamp,  which  exteads  in  a 
Ions  bel^  S  to  25  miles  in  width,  from  Hurdwar  to 
the  Brahmaputra.  It  ii  covered  with  great  forest 
trees,  and  ii  the  hannt  of  iDDumerable  wild  beasts. 
The  soil  ii  very  fertile,  but  moloriB  readers  it 
uninhabitable  by  man  and  the  domestio  animals,  at 
least  from  April  to  October.  It  is  then  xud  to  be 
abandoned  even  by  thff  wild  beasts.  This  wilder- 
ness forma  a  great  physical  barrier  between  the 

hill- conn  tries  acd  the  ^mdb,  and  si " 

lations  distinct  from  each  otiler  in 


The  Plain  of  the  Oanget,  whioh  includes  Bengal, 
Bahar,  the  Doah,  Oade,  and  Rohilcnnd,  is  a  vast 
alluvial  flat,  extending  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to 
tbe  Panjahi  Thronghout  its  entire  length,  the 
Ganges  and  ita  numeroui  tribntariea  spread  cut 
likethe  veina  of  a  leaf,  carrying  aveiywnere  their 
fertiUaing  inflnance.  The  popolation  of  these  fertile 
and  well-coltivated  plains  a  very  dense.  Scattered 
over  the  agricnltnnil  disfarioti,  and  maaaed  in  the  i 
grent  cities  and  towns,  there  are  not  lesa  than  ! 
100.000,000  peopUi 

The  Plaint  <f  Iht  Jndiu,  in  the  north-wett^  are 
leaa  eitennve  than  tboae  of  the  Ganges,  and  are 
aeparated  fmn  Um  latter  by  the  AravuUi  Hills. 
The  Punjab  ooonpiea  the  northera  portioa.  South 
of  the  Pnnjal:^  *^  parallel  with  the  river,  tiie  great 
sandy  desert  of  tbe  ladns  extendi  for  nearly  600 
milea.  The  valley  of  tbe  lodns  is  continued  through 
Sinde  to  the  ocean.  The  plains  of  tbe  Indus  mav 
be  conudered  to  include  Cutch  and  Gugerat,  wbicll 


the  neighbourhood  ot  the  lEidos  and  the  Luoi  that 
the  Burtace  can  be  cultivated — altboagh  oropa  of 
n-ain  may  be  grown  in  a  few  narrow  vaUeys  after 
the  raina.  The  norw  and  oamel  alone  can  croM  thia 
deaert,  which  ia  deaoiibed  in  Hindu  ^tagnfLj  aa 
'  the  region  ot  death.'  like  the  Terai,  it  fonoi  a 
great  phytical  barrier  Mparatiug  Western  and  East- 

The  SiMand*  of  Northern  Hindiatan  extend 
from  the  viudhya  Ucnntaina  aa  a  baacv  ^  ^^ 
border  of  the  Thar.  They  inolqde  the  table-land 
of  UalwB  and  Rajpootana  or  Bajasthan,  wbidi  has 
an  elevation  of  ateot  2000  feet  above  the  leVel  of 
the  sea. 

Tht   Penint^ar   Portion    <tf  /.,  (south    of    the 

Vindhya  Uonntaina,  which  remaiua  to  be  oouddeMd, 

ia  called  by  the  nativea  the  Deocan  (q.r.t.     Tba 

j   moat  remarkable  geomphical  featnn  of  .tliia 


I  is  a  central  table-land— a  vwt  plateau — extending 
from  12*  to  21*  N.  kt,  riainR  from  2000  to  3000  foS 
above  the  bm,  and  enclosed 


7  lofty 


from  12*  to  21*  N.  brt.,  riainR  from      . .    .  _ . . 
ive  the  BM,  and  enelosed  on  all  aidea  hv 
untaina,  between  which  and  the  aea,  onlJie    .... 
and  weati  are  narrow  stripa  of  low  flat  conntcy, 
divided  into  Hvetal  diitricta,   From  the  low  ooont^ 


on  the  coast  to  the  central  tahle-Iaud,  the  monntains 
rise  abruptly,  in  a  succeesion  ot  gigantio  terraoes 
or  Btepa,  add  hence  the  name  of  'Qhauts  '  (q.  v.). 
The  rivers  of  the  Deccan  rise  ia  the  Western 
Ghants,  and  after  traversing  the  table-land,  descend 
to  the  aea  over  the  Eastern  Ohaata.  'nie  slope  of 
the  conntty  corresponds  witS  Uie  coarse  of  the 
riven;  it  has  a'gradnal  inclination  towards  the 
east  Ceylon,  the  I^cadiva,  and  Malodivs  Islanda 
also  be  oonaidered  to  belong  to  tfiis  part  of 

The  Himalaya  {q.  v.)  ani  the  Suliman  Mouatains 
(see  AroHAKiar^H)  far  exceed  in  altitude  the  chains 
which  lie  within  the  bonndariei  ot  India.  The 
Vindhya  Monnbuns,  which  croas  L  between  22° 
and  23*  of  If.  lat.,  and  separate  Hindustan  Proper 
from  the  Southern  or  peninsular  portion  of  the 
country,  nowhere  exceed  6000  feet  m  height.  The 
Satpnra  range,  between  the  Nerbndda  and  Tapti 
valleyB,  is  a  spur  ot  the  Vindhya.  The  Wattm 
QhaitU  run  pu^el  with  the  Indian  Ocean  at  a 
distance  of  20  to  40  miles,  At  Mohabaleshwar,  the 
sanitarium  of  Bombay,  they  rise  to  4500  feet, 
but  they  are  lofty  near  Coorg,  where  one  summit 
has  an  elevation  of  7000  feeb  On  the  opposite 
coast,  farming  the  Bouth-eaatern  butties*  of  the 
table-land  of  the  Deccan,  are  the  Ba^em  Ohauti 
(see  Ghadis).  The  jdiyaioal  geography  of  Sonthent 
L  presents  the  siDgular   phenomenon  of  isolated 

upheaved  amidst  the  vast  plains  that  occupy 

ater  portion  of  the  peninsula  Of  thes^  the 
imaixable  are  the  Neilgherries  (q.  v.)  or  Blue 
Mouatains,  which  cover  an  area  of  GOO  square  milea. 
Ootacamund  (□.  v.),  the  neat  sanitarium  of  Southern 
India,  situated  in  the  m^at  ot  them,  has  an  elevation 
of  7400  feeb  Ot  the  minor  mountain-ranzaa  ot  L, 
the  principal  are  the  Sewalik  ranges  near  Hurdwar, 
risbg  3000  feet  i  the  Kala  or  SiJt  rauKe,  adjacent 
to  the  SuUman  range, rising  2500  feet;  the  Aravulli, 
between  the  basin*  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Indus, 
culmioatiiu  in  Mount  Abu  at  an  altitude  ot  GOOO 
feet :  the  Kattywar  Hills,  rising  from  1000  to  3000 
Eeet  in  the  o&iire  of  the  Katlywar  peninsula  ;  the 
hills  of  Bundelcund,  2000  feet ;  and  the  Rajmahal 
Hills,  rUing  from  6000  to  7000  feet. 

The  river-tj/tltm  of  L  is  on  a  grand  scale.  The 
Indus  (q.  v.)  traverses  the  north-weat,  and  drains 


,  dnuDS  on  area  ot  about  600,000  square  miles. 

The  Brabmopatra  (q.  v.)  has  a  course  ot  upwards  of 
600  miles  trmn  the  point  where  it  leaves  the  Hima- 
laya to  t^t  where  it  enters  the  Bay  of  BengaL 
"Oia  eastern  side  of  I.  — the  region  southward  of  the 
Nerbudda,  and  eastward  of  Uie  Ualabar  Ghauts— ia 
watered  by  dghteen  livera,  the  principal  being  the 
Qodavery,  S30  miles  long;  Kiatna,  800;  Cauvery 
(Kaveri),  470;  Mahaoadi,  620;  Brahmini,  400; 
Korth  Pennar,  3£i0  ;  and  the  South  Pennar,  24a 
About  twenty  river*  water  the  western  side  of 
India.  The  most  noteworthy  are  t^e  Nerbudda, 
BOO  miles  long  ;  the  Tapti,  400— both  of  which  flow 
into  the  OuS  of  Cambay ;  the  Myhi,  360  miles ; 
Luni,  320  miles ;  Boniuu,  ISO  miles ;  and  the 
Bbidto,  130  nulea. 

QaAJfni- — I^^om  observotioni  that  have  been  mods 
at  diffi»«nt  points  in  L,  the  general  features  of  its 
getdogical  structure  are  known.  Profesaor  Oldham 
and  a  staff  ot  getdo^isti  commenced  tiventy-threo 
yean  ago  a  geclogioal  survev  of  I.,  which  has 
sinoe  thm  been  uuinterruptedly  proceeded  with. 
They  have  already  examined  an  area  tour  times  as 
large  as  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  their  inquinea 
have  «npphed,for  the  district*  they  have  dealt  with, 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  mineral  — -' 


dbyLiOOt^le 


L  ii  boaiuled  on  tke  narth-east  by  tha  tu^  of 
ttra  Himabfi,  tiw  great  wtUer-ihed  c4  Cantoal  Abx. 
Hmw  momitauu  coniut  of  gniutic  raolu  which 
Xave  p«Deb«ted  the  itratiSaa  n>du,  thrawn  tbnn 
op  in  eodkM  oonfntion,  aad  metamOTphoud  them 
in  many  i^ace*  into  gndM,  iaiea-4tihi>t,  olay-ilata, 
or  cnatalline  limtetone.  Laron  of  UDdahnie  and 
conglomerate  eitoad  alaag  tbe  baae  of  the  monn- 
taina.  Thay  we  of  Mioome  Age,  containinK  tbe 
mnaini  of  species  of  camel,  girMe,  hipi>op<^«mn*, 
aivatherlnm,  elephant,  crocodile,  and  tortoUe.  ISieae 
ar«  ^rteiuively  devel^Md  in  the  Sevalik  HiD*.  An 
imnanae  tnot  <rf  Poat-tcctiMj  •Unnal  depoota 
ooT«n  tiw  whole  of  the  riv«r-lM«ina  4d  the  Gangea 
and  tlw  Indiu,  atretduag  oeroM  the  north  of  L  from 
ie«  ii)  tea.  Iln  Boateni  and  Weatmi  Obanti  ont- 
■ist  of  metomorphio  rocki,  which  ore  cootiDQed 
aoTOw  the  eonnti?  to  tiie  Borth  of  the  Oodaroy. 
Between  thif  tniiisverae  buid  of  altered  abwta  and 
the  dilnvial  dep^xdCs  of  the  north,  a  lorss  ti 
ooantry  ia  ooonpied  wi^l  Palsozoio  rooka,Iraqaeotly 
broken  throngli  and  ooirered  with  diflerent  kiada  (d 
trap,  and  in  Mme  plooea  oTwIaid  wiUi  Seoondaij 
aod  fradi- water  Tertiair  atrata.  Ons  of  the  mort 
important  labonn  of  Pnrfeaior  (Ndhun  and  hii 
gedo^cal  atift  hM  bean  tlte  exidoration  of  the  grast 
udian  eootfielda.  They  lia  in  >  nnioD  bonnded  t^ 
tiw  OaogM  on  Ute  north,  and  extsiSing  baytmd  " 
Qodftven  on  thn  Moth.  The  ooal*  o<me  Dom  . 
geokigieM  formotioa  tuDad  'DaniBdm,'  from  tiu 
riverDatnodar,  in  thevdleyof  lAkh  the  ohief  beda 
ooonr.  It  differe  littie  gecdrnpoally  from  the  car- 
boniferoae  beda  of  Engla^  bon,  oopper,  and  lead 
are  woiked  in  difiemt  parti  of  India.  Salt  ii 
obtained  from  the  Salt  noge  above  referred  to,  and 
prodooed  abnndoutly  by  eraporation  in  tba  aolt 
lakes  of  the  Thnr. 

VemtabU  iVodHOffon*.— The  TeDetotaon  of  L  U  a* 
votied  aa  ita  soil  and  climate,  and  poMet  from  tbe 
flora  of  a  bonool  to  that  of  an  alpine  K^oa.  Tbe 
^ret  at  palm  that  border  the  oooet,  and,  in  tJM 
interior,  the  umbtBgeona  mon^  topea,  ore  rtriking 
feature*  of  Indian  aoenery.  Rice  ia  the  ehi^  artiele 
of  food  in  I. ,  and  ia  |rrM.uoed'  in  all  the  parte  of 
Uie  country  ia  which  irrigatioD  ia  pmedaed.  Moise 
and  wheat  ore  the  giauiB  cultiT^ed  in  the  Nortt- 
weetern  Proyinoes.  Opiam  ie  one  of  tha  matt  volu-  .  .. 
able  nrodocta  of  India.  In  1871—1872  tliB  value  of  and  lJ 
the  cheata  exported  from  Bomb^  and  Colctttta  to 
China  waa  £6,860,000.  Coffee  ia  laroe^  prodooed 
in  Ceylon,  and  the  cnltivotioD  of  tiie  pUnt  u  rapidly 
epreadiog  in  Soathem  India.  T»  oaltiTaliaa  ia 
now  carried  on  with  meeeBt  in  Aeaam,  oad  ia 
apreading  overall  the  hm-cofntriM  of  Narth-w<at«m 
India.  Cinchona,  introdaoed  btm  Sooth  America 
in  1860,  has  been  naturalised  vith  great  snooeaa. 
Tbe  coat  of  doing  ao  was  £61,71*.    'Thaictnm,' 


Mr  Markham  aan,        , _   

simply  inealcnlable  and  without  price;'  a  oheap 
sni^y  of  qainine  being  oneof  the  moet  oratiin  means 
of  areriang  Uie  fevets  that  pravail  in  the  hot  and 
moist  porta  td  Todia.  As  a  oomnmoial  speculation, 
tiie  meaaore  aHinntdy  will  pnrre  highly  remmiera- 
tive.  The  growth  of  oottoD  baa  been  mnoh  extended 
aince  the  American  war.  The  fineat  ia  prodooed  in 
Benr.  lie  rfaea^  or  jnte  ptoot,  ia  pawn  in  Aaaom 
and  Bengal,  and  haa  recently  gina  riae  to  an  im- 
portant tiMe.  Indio-ndibec  a  anottnr  iiaportaat 
prodnot  of  Assam,  tbe  demsad  for  whU>  ia  in- 
eieasitiit  Witliin  the  laat  ttteen  yeora,  great  attan- 


was  fonnd  to  give  riae  to  de^iuTtive  flooda,  and  to 
render  the  water-aopidy  nnoia-tain  and  capricioaa 
dnrins  tits  dij  seMon.  Tha  Indian  ookinton 
IwTa   Man  tnpidly  improving  in    prosperity,  and 


with  that  improvement  there  haa  been  on  inneaa 
ing  demand  for  timber  for  house  eonstructioD  ani 
fanutnre — a  ■^'■mw*  farther  augmented  by  tlic 
reqaireiMBts  of  &o  railway  In  oider  to  protect 
eiistiiiB  fotesta,  and  extend  the  area  of  tha  Gaiha- 
tmdneing  distriot^  the  Indian  Forest  OmaemnCT 
Department  was  oigonised,  the  main  objects  of  t1u>± 
were  the  definition  and  dfmamati-n  of  resemd 
forests,  and  the  prevention  of  jungle  Bttm — that  ia 
to  say,  of  tiie  native  practice  ra  boming  for^rtn  ior 
enltivaldoa,  and  the  catting  and  rJnonng  awnj  oi 
oreepeis  round  Om  yawu  bees.  The  ■yntem  oc 
preparing  candidatet  for  fonat  aervice  wna  oom- 
meneed  m  1867,  when  tha  first  examination  waa 
^M  by  the  civil  service  azomineis.  Since  tlut 
time,  a  large  nomber  of  officets  who  h»T«  stodiel 
forestry  in  En^and,  Qemiany,  snd  Frsaoe  hate 
been  lent  to  L,  and  great  sotisfaetion  haa  been 
expressed  with  Uie  work  they  hare  done, 
^nunoli.— -The  domesticated  -"'■"■'■  are  borae^  , 


Of  wild  beaata,  the  most  formidatils  is  tha  ""g^i 
tiger.  The  other  beasts  of  prey  are  leopard^  wolves 
iooksli,  panthers,  bear^  hynnas,  lynxi^  and  Eaiesi.  | 
Of  poisonous  snakM,  the  oobra  d»  capelloi  or  black- 
hooiied  snakes  the  cobra  mscills^  and  aand-nukke  an  ', 
the  most  ooumoD.  Thennmber  of  people  kOIedb; 
wild  beasts  is  s  featore  of  Indian  lifa.     In  1869,  a 


been  caused  by  dangerous  animals  of  all  claaae*  «m  ' 
IBffie.  It  U  believed  that  if  a^tematic  t«tnras  ' 
were  k^t,  the  aumbar  in  British  L  wonld  be  fossd  i 
to  exceed  20,00a 

Ciimatt. — In  a  oonntn'  extending  ovae  26*  li  I 
latitude — one  extremity  cl  which  runs  fat  into  Uu  | 
torrid  zone,  and  the  other  taroiiitatea  in  a  Eange  of  ! 
lofty  ntonntainsrisiiiB  tar  above  the  line  of  pmietial  ) 
snow—*  oonnliT  emorocing  within  ita  ampto  cir-  | 
cnroftfeoce  lowland  plaina,  elevated  plateaii;^  oad  i 
^ine  regiona,  tbe  oliinata  must  difler  gmotlr. 
Hindustoi^  Proper  nuy  be  said  to  have  thrae  weU- 
msrked  sesaoot— the  cool,  tbe  hot,  and  the  lamy.  ' 
The  oool  montha  are  November,  December,  Janaaiy,  i 
—  ^ ---irtof  February;  thediyhotwoatherprecede^  1 
I  moist  hot  wenther  follows  the  periodical  I 
rains.  The  climate  of  8outh«ro  I.  ia  paotlv  regu- 
lated by  the  Mouo<»t8  {a.  v.].  Tbe  eentnl  toUe-  I 
land  is  oool,  dry,  sod  heoluiy.  At  Oofawamnnj,  oa  I 
the  Neilgheniee,  7300  feet  above  the  level  of  tka  I 

-'-    ■"-- annual   tempewtoire  ia  6J"  P. ;  at  I 

fombsr,  84°:  CaUatta»  79*;  BanA- 
._  ,  __  jtDdhi,72*.  The  fall  of  rain  vans  | 
greatly  in  different  parts  of  India.  A  map  of  tlu  i 
iTMii^ti  rainfall  giTeo  by  Mr  Mw^^^^  in  h™  B^. 
port^  ptAliahed  u  IS7%  Aevt  that  in  the  whole  of 
NsrUi-eaBttra  I.,  from  the  ToU^  of  tbe  Sutlq  to 
the  moutha  of  tlie  Irrawaddy,  inoludine  tbe  anb 
Him^ayon  countriea,  Aat*a^",  aAd  Britiw  BuoBab, 
and  between  the  Western  OhikOU  and  tlie  Coromss- 
del  coast,  exoeeds  75  inches.  Ia  the  interior  of  tbe 
Dsccan  it  is  less  than  30,  and  in  Multao  and  Sink 
less  than  16  inobes.  The  remsinder  of  L  is  placbl 
between  the  extremes  lepreaented  by  these  damp 
and  dry  belts,  but  is,  as  oiHopared  witJl  Enrope,  an 

--■^  ' — '     Henoe  the  necessity  of  tonka  and 

to  BU  wly  moisture  to  tiio  sm^  and 
angsr  «I  dry  sesBOns. 

Three    raees    widdy  distinguished 

from  eodiotW  inhabit  India.  In  the  imrth-eost  an 
Mongols,  reaembling  the  Tibetan^  and  Bunoiaa; 
in  tl^  south,  Dravidians,  the  reloboq  of  whom  to 

snbjeet  of  dispute ;  and  (o  Oi»  aacth-WM^ 


3>nate  tiie  Atagn  «j 


y.LiOOgle 


It  is  suppoBcd  that  *t  ft  ranote  epoch  a  branch  of 
the  Arjou  race  {q.  v,}  eatered  the  pentnanla  from 
the  north-ireit,  eet»bliahed  themBelrea  firtt  in  tho 
Punjab,  and  thence  grsdiuJly  diffiued  themtelrw 
«s  a  dommant  race  ovar  the  whole  of  Northern  and 
CentisI  I.,  unboing  the  mbject  popnUtJon  more 
or  lera  oompletely  with  their  religiom  eyttem  nod 
th^  langa^e,  and  thus  forming  the  Hindiu.  Trtbc3 
Btill  iahabning  the  moontainouB  dJeCncte  uid 
junket  are  nippoeed  to  be  ontstandiag  ialuidis  of 
the  aboriginal  popolaldoD  that  rceiited  the  tide  of 
Hiodn  conqaest  and  dviluatioD.    Hie  Hindnieing 


goTerBment  in  offioftl  bosineo.      In  lemnd  pro- 


I  mbalJtnte  for  it  v 


Profesi 


ProfesBor  Friedrich  Muller,  the  Uteit  writer  on 
the  general  ethnolosy  of  L,  diitribntei  the  Indian 
races  according  to  their  langoagea  u  fijlowi : 

A.  MongoS — (I)  "nbaUna,  mbdivided  intc 
Tibetana  Roper,  in  npper  temwes  of  the  Hini' 
alnya  ;  and,  aouth  of  them,  the  sub-RimaUyac 
tribea,  apeakms  Lepcha,  Kirantj,  Limbo,  Mnrmi, 
&C.  (2)  The  Kiman  or  Lobitio  raoea,  speaking 
Burmese  of  Arac«n,  Kooch,  Dhimal,  Bodo,  Qoro, 
Miri,  Singpho,  Na^  Eoki,  ko.  (3)  The  Thai,  or 
Siamese  noes,  ipetUiig  Ahom  (Assam),  Khamti, 
&c. 

B.  Draiiidian»,  rabdivided  into — (1)  "Hie  Manda 
branch— Kol  (in  CSiota  Kwpore),  Sontal,  Sa- 
muei,  Warali,  Bheel,  &c  (2)  lla  Dravid&  branch 
proper — Tamul,  Telingo,  Cauarese,  MalapJa,  Tul- 
ava,  Tods,  Gond,  Ehond,  Kajamaha],  Eol,  Brshui 

So  Beloochistan).  (S)  The  Sinchslese  branoh  in 
eyloniinclndingthaVeddahs.  The  Tamnl,TeUn£a, 
Cauarese,  Malavala,  Tulava,  and  Singhalese  are 
apoken  b^  cultivated  race*;  the  other  langtutges 
by  mde  hilL-tribes. 

C.  Aryaat,  subdirided  into — (1)  Tha  .  . 
Dardistan  aiul  the  north- western  frontier,  iniduding 
the  Siab-po*h  Kaffin,  and  other  rode  tribes.  (2) 
The  Hi)uJn%  including  the  cultivated  races  speaking 
the  following  langoaeea ;  Cashmiii,  spoken  in  Caah- 
tnere ;  Pmjabi,  m  3m  Punjab ;  Hindi,  in  various 
dialects  sometimes  described  as  languages,  spoken 
in  the  western  plain  of  the  Q«nges  and  Malwa; 
Sindbi,  in  Sinde;  Cotchi,  in  Cntch;  Qugeralj,  in 
Ougent ;  Uahr&ti,  in  the  Korth-wtst  Deccan,  Boath 
of  the  Viodhja  Uountains ;  and  Bengali,  spoken  in 
tho  plain  of  the  Oaogea,  esst  of  the  bead  of  Ibe 
river  at   Bajmabal^  and  the  Oiva,  Assani,  and 

1  Nepanli,  all  resembhni;  Hie  'K"'g»'',  and  spoken  in 
Orissa,  Astam,  and  Nqiaal  by  the  Hindu  sectioa 
of  the  inhabitants.    For  an  acconnt  of  tiie  coonec- 

I  tionof  these  languages  with  the  old  Prakrit  dialects 
of  Indi^  see  SAmoRn  and  Pall 

Tha  word  Hindu  is  used  in  variaos  senses,  and  it 
is  important  to  guard  against  the  confunoo  that 
nay  thenos  arise.  It  is  ai^ed  (1)  to  the  people 
spoking  Ihe  Hindi  dialect  o{  the  North-west^ 
Provinoes  ;  (2)  to  the  Anaiu  of  Ifotthem  India ; 
(3)  To  the  cultivated  rataa  of  India,  both  Anan 

and   Diavidian,   wko   nrofeae   tlu    Hindn  r"'' 

and  have  been  ii 


to  both.    The  ooltinted  ,._^ 

prafeadiig  tlie  Hindu  nligioD,  or  Hmdos 
thitd  sense,  not  oolj  di&r  in  lawniaae  itt  i 
provinces  ol  L,  bat  in  cwrtomi  aod  drsaa.     ine 
MohaBDiKdaa  papnlatioD,  en  the  other  lund,  in  aU 
parts  of  India,  wear  t'  —    .    ■■ 


npts  have  been  teoeni 
uie  local  luunagas,  saeh  as 
gindhi  and  Assami,  many  of  whi(£  have  reoeived 
little  Ittelaly  ooltivation. 

The  letnrus  pablished  with  referenoe  to  books 
pablished  in  t  m  1872  nnfortonatelT  do  not  refer 
to  all  the  province^  bat  they  pre  some  idea  of  tite 
r^tive  importBDoe  of  tilM  nattve  laagnaga.  In  the 
Nortb-west  Provinoes^  oat  of  317  books  puUidied, 
90  were  in  mndostam  or  VrAnrBa  hi  BJndi,  Be  in 
FereiBn,  47  in  Ainbio,  and  33  in  Palish.  In  the 
Hadrss  Presidencv;  out  of  SOB  pnbtiAed,  177  were 
in  Tamil,  116  in  Telufo,  M  ia  Malayalim,  22  in 
Canares^  and  70  in  Eogliah.  IJB  Bombaj  Fresi- 
dency.  oat  of  779  hook*,  214  were  in  Hsluali,  343 
in  Otiffirati,  arid  1B7  in  EngliA.  In  Bengal,  7S9 
native  Dooki  were  [nblished,  but  in  what  laogoages 
is  not  stated. 

In  L  there  are  rude  tribes  belongiiu'  to  the 
Mongol,  Dravidiui,  and  Aryan  raoes.  The  8iah- 
pooh  Kaffirs  and  kindred  titiies  of  Dardistaa  an 
nndoubted  Aiyau^  who  know  notiiing  of  Hindu 
culture.  The  Hongols  north  and  eaat  ol  the  Tecai, 
in  the  same  wa^,  have  none  of  the  caltare  of  Bhotan, 
llbet,  and  China.  They  have  caused  much  tcMhle 
on  the  Assam  frontier,  where  seversl  dislnets  are 
escladad  from  Qie  tarnation  of  i^olai  laws,  aad 
Qie  dqnrty-commissioDer  of  Assam  now  l>alds  an 
annual  meeting  of  the  hill-tribes.  From  ISM  to 
1865,  the  Angami  N^ss  made  19  raids  into  the 
plains,  and  killed  236  people ;  bnt  in  the  latter 
year  a  military  post  was  oooopied  in  their  oonntry, 
and  the  raids  have  ceased.  The  hill-tribes  of  the 
Dravidan  race  are  alao  in  the  lowest  stage  of 
savagery.  Amongthe  ntoet  important  and  beat  known 
of  them  are  tbe  Bheela,  who  are  found  in  Caadeiah ; 
and  the  Khonds  and  Koles,  who  inhabit  Oriasa. 
Tbe  former  were  wont  to  live  by  plunder,  and  used 
to  burst  out  of  their  junglea  like  tigm,  oomuiitting 
the  most  frightful  ezcemea;  but  in  ISSS,  after 
various  methods  of  aubduis^  them  bad  beea  un- 
sucoessfolfy  tried  by  the  Brituh  pivenunent,  it  was 
resolved  to  tempt  them  into  military  service.  A 
Bheel  corps  was  raised,  into  which  all  ibe  wilder 

3:)irita  were  drafted,  and  the  resnlt  has  been  a  very 
acided  improvement  in  the  habits  and  disposition 
of  the  rest  of  the  people.     Boads  have  now  been 


primitive  reli^on  of  Hindustan.    I^roed  ii 
lungles  and  mountains  of  Oeatral  L  by  the 
'?Ba  advance  of  the  Aryan  race  Irom  tite  nortb- 
leat,  they  have  preserved  (in  part  at  least),  in  ttieir 
almcMt  inaccessible  retreats,  the  grim  teligion 


leard  of.  That  raligion  may  be  bri  , 
jed  OS  Devil-worahip  The  Khonds  WMtifioe  only 
to  malignaat  deities,  ench  as  Siva  Oe  Destroyer,  tke 
goddcsa  Kali,  and  the  Ood  of  the  Earth,  whom  tlwy 
seek  to  propitiate  by  homan  sacrifice,  prinoipaDv  ot 
children,  who,  homiver,  are  not  taken  from  Atit 
own  race,  but  kidnapped  from  neighbooriag  tribet. 
Saacessful  eSorta  have  been  made  by  tbe  Britiah 
government  to  supprsM  these  pnstices. 

To  the  present  driKMd  mlialwtants  of  I.,  irit^ 
although  guieially  a  mixed  laoe  of  Dravidiau  and 
Aryan  «n^n,  now  {am  talon  dis^not  nations, 
o  eeneral  statement  can  ap^y.  Hie  aeote  but 
imM  Bengali  resembles  little  tiie  wariike  S^h 
of  the  Punjab,  or  the  fierce  Afghan  of  Rohiloand  ; 
and  the  patient  weaver  of  I>aiwa  is  whoUy  unlike 
the  high-spirited  Bajpftt  of  Central  India.  The 
Sikh  is  a  bom  soldier,  who  despises  tiie  Bin^  tmA 


I  y  Google 


aad   it    bwiTe,  f»ithful,    wiii ^ 

M<diunmeilaiia  of  L  ani  de^nerate  foUowerB  of  the 
Prophet,  and  their  reLiaion  is  a  «tnuiga  rairture  of 
the  doctrines  of  the  Koran  vrith  the  idolatry  of 
Ana.   The  Fumes,  a  mercuitile  and  eduoated  idtju, 
•eftted  &t  Bomtuy  and  ojong  the  west  cout  of  I. 
the  detcendants  of  the  fagitire  fire-wonhippei 
Persia  (iee  FAiuwra).      Of  the    mor^ty   of    tha 
civtliged  races  of  I.  in  general,  Mr  Markham  Mya 
that,  whatever  may  be  aaid  of  the  larger  towng,  the 
reudenta  of  villages  (u«  '  singolarljr  tempente  i 
rule,  duate,   honelt,   peaceful,    Biiig;iilar1y    docile, 
Miily  goTemed,  and  patient.' 

Two  of  the  iQOet  striking  peculiarities  of  the 
•ooial  condition  of  the  Hindua  are  the  inatitatiou  of 
Caste  (q.v.)  and  the  VUlagt-ti^eja.  The  Utter  a 
very  aimplk  A  village  in  Hindnatan  does  not 
mean  a  collection  oE  homes  at  a  particular  spot, 
but  correaponds  rather  to  what  is  called  a  towngbip 
in  America.  It  ia  a  district  embracing  on  area  of 
Bome  hundreds  or  thousands  of  acres  of  laad,  and  is 
under  the  admiuistratiou  of  native  functionaries,  the 
principal  of  whom  is  the  potaii  (head-inhabitant), 
a  kiud  of  chief  magistrate,  who  superintends  the 
aflaira  of  the  community,  settles  disputes,  attends 
to  the  police  and  the  coUectioa  of  taxes.  Among 
the  other  functionariea  may  be  mentioned  the 
mmum,  who  keeps  a  register  of  the  produce  and 
the  name*  of  the  proprietors,  and  draws  up  all  deeds 
of  aale,  transfer,  Ac.;  the  Brahman,  or  village 
priest ;  and  the  schoolmaster.  Besides  these,  every 
village  haa  its  astrologer,  smith,  carpenter,  potter, 
barber,  doctor,  dandng-rarl,  moaician,  and  poet,  all 
of  whom  are  rewarded  for  their  labours  out  of  the 
prodace  of  the  village  lands.  'Under  this  simple 
form  of  muiuoipat  government^  the  inhabitants  of 
the  eountry  have  lived  from  time  immemorial. 
The  boundaries  of  the  village  have  been  but 
seldom  altered;  aod  though  the  villages  them- 
selves have  been  sometimes  injured,  and  even 
desolated  by  war,  famine,  and  aiseaae,  the  same 
name,  the  same  Umits,  and  even  the  same  families, 
have  continaed  for  ages.  The  inhabitants  give 
tiiemselves  no  trouble  about  the  breaking  up  and 
division  of  kingdoms  ;  while  the  village  remains 
entire,  they  care  not  to  what  power  it  is  trans- 
feired,  or  to  what  sovereign  it  devolves ;  its  internal 
economy  remains  unchanged ;  the  potail  is  still  the 
head-inhabitant,  and  still  acts  as  the  petty  jadee 
and  magistrate,   and    collector    or    renter   of   the 

^Aifi^ion.— Hinduism  or  Brahmanism  is  the  reli- 

S'on  oE  the  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of 
idia.  Mohammedanism  comes  next,  and  it  appears, 
from  the  last  census,  that  the  number  of  persons 
professing  this  creed  is  tnnch  greater  than  had  been 
supposed.  Of  the  06,000,000  forming  the  popula- 
tion of  Bengal,  21,000,000  are  Mohammedana  In 
the  Punjab  9,000,000  are  Mohammedans  and 
6,000,000  Biodus.  In  Onde,  there  are  1,000,000  of 
Mohammedans  to  10,000,000  of  Hindus.  In  the 
North-western  Provinces,  there  are  25,000,000  of 
Hindus  to  4,000,000  of  Mohammedans.  In  the 
whole  of  L,  it  is  believed  there  are  nearly  three 
times  as  msny  Hindus  as  Mohammedans.  The 
Sikh  religion  (see  Siebb)  is  professed,  according  to 
the  census  for  the  Punjab,  by  1,000,000  of  the 
inhabitants.  They  hate  alike  the  Hindus  and  the 
Mobammedano.  Buddhism  at  one  period  prevailed 
very  generally  throughout  I, ;  it  is  now  confined  to 
Bhotui,  CeyloD,  and  the  Burmese  trontier.  Several 
of  the  forma  of  rehgioa  prevalent  among  the  natives 
of  I.  are  tmtad  a  apart  (see  BciiDHlm,  Mohau. 
MZDAHisM,  F&BSUES,  ciKHs) ;  what  We  shall  here 
specially  consider  is  that  variety  of  creeds  which 


is  derived  from  Brahmanic  aouroes,  and  knawn  aa  tht 
Hindu  religion,  or  Hinduism,     llie  term  Tflnfhiinn 
however,  must  not  be  token  as  restricted  to  tboN 
forms  of  the  Brahmanic  religion  which  aie  in  exist- 
ence now ;  we  have  to  look  upon  it  as  cmnpnsii^ 
all  the  phases  of  this  creed  up  to  its  eai-liest  period. 
We  may  divide  Hinduism  into  three  great  period^ 
which,  for  brevity's  sake,  ne  will  cidl  the  Vedic, 
Epic,  and  Puiinic  periods,  as  our  knowledge  of  tiw 
Brat  is  derived  from  the  sacred  books  <^Ied  Uv  . 
Veda  ;  of  the  second,  &om  the  epic  poem  csJIed  tlx 
RAmAyana,  and  mare  especially  from  the  great  ef-». 
the  iliiJidih&Tata ;   while  the  chief   source  of  our  - 
information  relative  to  the  last  period  is  that  cIsm 
of  inytholoncal  works  known  under  the   name  ni 
PuT&ruu  a£^  ToiUna.   It  is  necesssryhere  to  goari  ' 
the  reader  against  attempting  to  connect  dates  wiiL  , 
the  earlier  of  those  periods.    It  has  not  been  uDceto- 
mon  for  writers  on  this  subject  to  assig;n  thonsandg 
of  years  before  the  Christian  era  aa  the  atartiiu- 
pointsof  various  phases  of  Hindu  antiquity;  othrnL  ' 
more  cautioua,  marked  the  beginnings   of   certau 
divisions  of  Vedic  works  with  ^00,  1000,  80a  ana 
BOO  years  L.  c    The  truth  is,  that  while   Hindn  i 
literature   itself  is  almost  without   known    dstet. 
ing  either  to   the  peculiar   orgonisatiaa    of  the 
idu  mind,  or  to  the  convulsions  of  Indian  hist^rr.  ' 
the  present  condition  of  Sanscrit  philologjr   A-itt  ' 
not  afford  the   scholar  the  requisite   r<esanrcea  iif  ' 
embarking   with   any  chance   of   success    in    locli  i 
chronological  niecuUctions.    This  question  of  Hjndo  , 
chronolo^  will  be  more  particularly  considered  is 
the  article  Veda.     In  the  meantime  ttie   Dbuotf 
stretch  of  asaumptian  which  in  tiie  actual  ocmditica 
ihilolo^  it  is  permitted  to  make  ia 
it  writmgs  of  the  Vedic  class  are  ikc 
ihan  the  2d  c,  before  Christ.     A  li^" 
uncertainty  hangs  over  the  period  at  which  the  two 
^reat  epio  poems  of  I.  were  composed,  althoo^  then 
IS  reason  to  surmise  that  the  lower  limits  of  *>"' 
period  did  not  reach  beyond  the  beginniiLg  at  thr 
Christiaa  era.     The  Purlnic  period,  (ki  t£«  other 
hand,  all  scholars  are  agreed  to  regard  as  conei- 
inding  with  part  of  our  medieval  histoir; 
If  the  Jiig-  Vtda^Qie  oldest  of  the  Vedas,  and 
probably  the  oldest  literary  document  in  existence  1 
—coincided  with  the  beginnioBof  Hindu  chrilin-  . 
tion,  the  popular  creed  ot  the  Hindua,  as  depicted 
in  some  of  its  hymtis,  would  reveal  not  onfy  thr 
original  creed  of  this  nation,  but  throw  a  ■btn;  . 
Ucbt   on  the   original    creed    of    bumani^    itsclL  ' 
Tfnbappily,   however,   the    imagination,    indul^i^  ] 
in  such  an  hvpatheeiB,  would  have  as  littJe  foun- 
dation to  work   on  as  that  which  would  fix  the 
chronological  position  of  this  Veda.     The  Hindmi. 
"  depicted  in  these  hymns,  are  far  removed  frpui  1 
starting-poiiit    of   human  aociety;   nay,   tbev  i 
fairly  claim  to  be  ranked  among  those  alruady 
id  communities  experienced  in  arts,  defendini;  I 
homes  and  property  in  organised   waifatc.  | 


acquainted  even  with  many  vices  which  only  oi 
in  an  advanced  condition  of  artificial  life.  f«e  . 
Vkda.  Yet  in  "•"""'"■"g  the  ideas  i  iisisenl  in  ' 
the  greatest  number  of  the  Rig- Veda  hymns,  it 
cannot  be  doiied  that  they  are  neither  ideas  eagea- 
dered  by  an  inwnnstion  artificially  influenosd,  dm  i 
such  as  have  mue  a  compromise  with  philosopfay.  I 
The  Hindu  of  Hiese  hymns  is  essentially  engrossed 
by  the  might  of  the  elements.  The  powers  which  1 
turn  his  awe  into  pious  subjection  and  venersJ ' 


pious  subjection 
.     _.„     ,.    .  ot  the  sun  and  h  ' 

the  bright,  cloudless  firmament ; 

winds  (see  Mabdt)  j  S&rya,  the  sun  (see  3tKY±) ; 

UiAat,  the  dawn  (see  CaKAS) ;  and  various  kindred  | 
uufestations  of  the  luminous  bodies,  and  nature  , 
general   He  invokes  them,  not  as  reprssrntiatiTes 


d  by  Google 


of  a  mpmor  beuis,  before  whom  the  homut  lonl 
■protemea  its  humili^  ;  not  u  trnperioF  beingB  th«in- 
BolTes,  whioh  ma^r  raveal  to  bin  Bearching  mind 
the  myBterio»  of  creation  or  eternity,  but  beoaiua 
he  wants  their  aMiatance  against  enemiea — because 
he  wishes  to  obtain  from  them  rain,  food,  cattle, 
health,  and  other  worldly  eoods.  He  complaiiu  to 
them  of  big  tronblea,  and  reminds  tbem  of  the 
woaderful  deeds  they  performed  of  yore,  to  coax 
them,  £■  it  were,  into  acquiescence  and  friendly 
,  help.  '  We  proclaim  eagerly,  3^aral^,  your  andent 
I  greatness,  for  the  sake  of  indacing  your  prompt 
appearance,  as  the  indicatioa  of  (the  approach  of) 
the  showerer  of  beoefita ; '  or  r  '  Offer  your  natritions 
viands  to  the  great  hero  (Indraj,  who  is  pleased 
by  praise,  and  to  ViAaa  (one  of  the  fonns  of  the 
snii),  the  two  invincible  deitiea  who  ride  upon  the 
radiant  summit  of  the  clouds  as  upon  B  well-trained 
steed.  Indra  and  Vuhmt,  the  dnvoat  woahipper 
iclorifles  the  radiant  approach  of  yon  two  who  are 
the  granteis  of  desires,  and  who  bestow  npon  the 
mortal  who  worahips  yon  an  immediately  receivable 
(r-eward),  thnmgh  the  distribntian  of  that  fire  which 
i&  the  Bcatterer  (of  desired  bleosinge}.'  Such  is  the 
strain  in  which  the  Hindu  of  that  period  addresses 
his  gods.  He  seeks  them,  not  for  his  spiritnal,  but 
for  his  material  welfare.  Ethical  considerations  are 
therefore  foreign  to  these  instinctiTS  outbursts  of 
I  the  pious  mind.  Sin  aod  evil,  indeed,  are  often 
adverted  to,  and  the  gods  are  praised  beoause  they 
destroy  sinners  and  evil-doers  ;  but  one  would  eir 
in  associating  with  these  words  our  notions  of  sin 
or  wrong.  A  sinner,  in  these  hynms,  is  a  man  who 
does  not  address  praises  to  those  elementary  deities, 
or  who  does  not  gratify  tbem  with  the  oblations 
they  receive  at  the  hiinds  of  the  believer.  He  is 
the  foe,  the  robber,  the  demon— in  short,  the 
borderer  infesting  the  tarrittiry  of  the  '  pioos '  man, 
who,  in  his  torn,  ii^ores  and  kills,  bnt,  in  adoring 
Agni,  Indra,  and  their  kin,  is  satufied  that  he  can 
commit  no  evil  act.  Yet  we  should  be  likewise 
wrong  did  we  judge  of  those  acts  of  retaliation  by 
the  standard  of  oar  own  ethical  laws.     80  far, 


which  may  be  gathered  from  these  hymns,  they 
seem,  on  the  contrary,  to  bespesJi:  the  union  and 
brotherhood  which  exiBted  amongst  ite  members ; 
and  the  absence,  in  general,  of  hymns  which  appeal 
to  the  gods  for  the  suppression  of  internal  dissen' 

I    sions  or  public  vices,  bears,  apparently,  testdmony 
to  the  good  moral  condition  0!  the  people  whose 

'    wants  are  recorded  in  these  songs. 

It  ma^  be  imagined  that  the  worship  of  elmnen- 
tary  beings  like  those  we  have  mentioned  was 
originally  a  simple  and  harmless  one.    By  far  the 

Catest  number  of  the  Hig-Veda  hymns  know  of 
I  oca  sort  of  offering  made  to  uiese  gods ;  it 
consists  nf  the  jUice  of  the  Soma  or  moon-plant, 
which,  expressed  and  fennented,  was  an  exhilarating 
and  inebriating  beverage,  and  for  this  reason,  prot 
ably,  was  deemed  to  invigorate  the  gods,  and  to 
increase  their  beneficial  potency.  It  was  presented 
to  than  in  ladles,  or  sprinkled  on  the  sai^vd  Eusa 
crass.  Clarified  butter,  too,  poured.on  fire,  is  men- 
tioned in  several  hymns  as  an  oblation  agreeable  to 
the  gods ;  and  it  may  have  belonged  to  this,  as  we 
hold,  primitive  stage  of  the  Vedto  worship. 

There  is  a  class  of  hymns,  however,  to  be  found  in 
the  Big -Veda  which  depart  already  materially  from 
the  simplicity  of  the  conceptions  we  are  rMerring 
to.  In  these,  which  we  conceive  to  be  of  another 
order,  this  instinotive  utterance  of  feelins  makes 
room  for  the  language  of  speculation ;  the  ulegories 
of  poetry  yield  to  the  mysticism  of  the  reflecting 
minil;  andUie  mysteries  of  nature  becAmiog  mora 


(riven 
Gandl; 


keenly  feH^  the  circle  of  beings  irtiich  overawe  thA 
popular  mind  beccmea  enlarged.  Thus,  the  objects 
by  which  Indra,  Agni,  and  tha  other  deities  are  pro- 
pitiated, beoome  gods  themselves  ;  Soma,  especially, 
the  moon-plant  and  its  juice,  is  invoked  as  the 
bestower  of  all  worldly  boons.  The  annual  sacrifice 
— the  properties  of  which  seem  to  be  more  mysteriot 
than  the  offering  of  Soma,  or  of  clarified  butter—: 
added  to  the  original  rites.  Wo  will  quote  a  few 
verses  from  the  second  book  of  the  Rig- Veda,  which 
may  illostrate  tha  essential  difference  between  tiiis 
order  of  hymns  and  those  we  aUuded  to  before.  It 
is  the  horse  of  tha  sacrifioa  which  is  invoked  by  the 
worshipper,  and  its  properties  are  praised  in  the 
following  strain ; 

'Thy  mat  birth,  O  Hone,  is  to  be  glorified  j 
whether  first  springing  from  the  firmament  or  from 
the  water,  inasmuch  as  thon  hast  nailed,  for 
thou  hast  the  wings  of  the  folooa  and  tha  limbs  of 
the  deer.     Trita  harnessed  the  horse  which  was 

'en  by  Yama,   Indra   first   mounted   him,  and 

Lndharba  seixed  his  reins.  Vasns,  you  fabricated 
the  hone  from  the  sun.  Thou,  horse,  art  Yams  1 
thou  art  Aditya,  thon  art  Trita  by  a  mysterious  act : 
thou  art  associated  with  Soma.  The  sages  have 
said  there  are  three  bindinss  of  thee  in  heaven,'  tc 

Myatical  language  like  this  doub^esa  betrays  the 
aberration  of  the  religious  instinct  of  a  nation  ;  but 
it  also  reveals  the  fac^  that  the  pious  mind  of  the 
Hindus  was  no  longer  satisfied  with  the  adoration 
of  the  elemental^  or  natural  powers  ;  it  shews  that 
religion  endeavoured  to  penetrate  into  the  mysteries 
of  creation.  This  longing  we.  find,  then,  expressed 
in  other  hymns,  which  mark  the  beginning  of 
the  pAUoaophicat  eraed  lif  the  Vedie  prnad.  The 
following  few  verses  may  tend  to  illustrate  the 
nature  of  this  third  class  of  hymn^  as  they  occur 
in  the  oldest  Veda :  'I  have  beheld  tha  lord  of 
Men,'  one  poet  sin^  'with  seven  sons  [L  e.,  the 
seven  solar  rays),  of  which  delightful  and  bene- 
volent (deity),  who  is  the  object  ol  our  invocation, 
there  is  an  all-pervading  middle  brother,  and  a 
third  brother  [L  e.,  Vfcyu  and  A^ni,  the  younger 
brothers  of  Adi^a,  the  son],  well  fed  with  (obla- 
tions  of)  clarified  butter.  They  yoke  the  seven 
(horses)  to  the  ons-wheeled  car  [l  e.,  the  orb  of  the 
son,  or  time,  or  a  ysarl ;  one  horse  [L  e.,  the  sun], 
named  seven,  bean  it  along  :  the  three-axled  wh^ 
[L  e.,  tha  day  with  its  three  divisions,  or  the  year 
with  three  seasoiuK-hot,  wet.  and  cold ;  or  tii 
past,  present,  and  futorel  is  undecaying,  i 
loosened,  and  in  it  all  these  regions  of  the  uni' 
abide.  ....  Who  has  seen  the  primeval  [B 
at  the  time  of  his  being  bomt  What  is  that 
endowed  with  anbatsnce  which  the  unsubstantial 
From  earth  are  tiie  breath  and  blood, 
bnt  where  is  the  soul  t  Who  may  repur  to  the 
soul  to  ask  this  I  Immature  ^n  nndierstandii  _, 
undiacemiDB  in  mind,  I  inquire  of  those  thin^ 
shich  are  hidden,  (even)  from  the  gods,  (what  are) 
Jie  seven  threads  which  the  sages  bave  spread  to 
iQvelop  the  sun  in  whom  all  abide  V  Another  poet 
dngs:  'Than  there  was  no  entity  or  non-entl^: 
M>  world,  or  sky,  or  aug^t  above  it ;  nothmg 
anywhere  in  tlie  happineaa  of  any  one,  involvins 
involved ;  nor  water  deep  or  duigerous.     Death 

a  not,  nor  was  there  immortality,  nor  distinction 
of  day  or  night.  But  That  breathed  without 
afflation.  single  with  her  [SuxidhA)  who  is  within 
him.  Other  than  him,  nothing  existed  (which) 
since  (has)  been.  ....  Who  knows  exactly,  and 
who  shall  in  this  world  declare,  whence  and  why 
this  creation  took  place  T  The  gods  are  subsequent 
to  the  prodnction  of  this  world,  then  who  can 
know  whence  it  proceeded,  o-  -^ "-- =-' 


hyLiOOgle 


^...  .    tiiia kaovledge.' 

An  KHm  ■■  tbe  proUam  implied  b;  jmaaagm  like 
time  wBi  rmiaed  in  the  minds  of  the  Hindiu, 
Hbtdninn  molt  b«Te  ecMcd  to  be  the  pure  Tonhip 
of  the  elemenfauy  powera.  Haocefonrud,  there- 
fore, we  ten  it  either  Btraggling  to  Teconcile  the 
latter  with  the  idea  of  one  enpreme  being,  or  to 
etuuicipate  the  inqoicy  into  the  principle  of  creatioD 
from  the  elemeobuy  religion  recorded  in  the  oldest 
poriaon  of  Vedio  poetry.  The  firat  of  these  efforts 
IS  prindp&lly  shewn  m  that  portion  of  the  Vedas 
called  ^Td/iTnana  (see  Vkdi.),  the  second  in  ihe 
writings  termed  UpatiUhad  (see  UrixiBBiD).  In 
"  "       ""      ^   "t  idle  nenter  gsndiB',  and 


hymns,  are  not  (mly  dereloped  to  a  oonBderable 
extent,  bnt  gradnaUv  brouuit  into  •  systematie 
form.  Epthetspvenby the Big-Voda — '^-■-'•-- 
dewntuT  gods  —  ' '^-'-i 

'•--  ■'----  of  hist 


■Veda  poets 

o  le«na%  aaDminff 

I.    The  simple  and 


primitiTe  wnahip  mentioned  in 
tiighlv  complex  and  artifioisl     a  jtaaoBrvam  i 
founded  on  tb(»e  lesands,  and  aopported  by 
more  advaDced  oonditioiL  of  tooiety,  is  bnni^t 

Some  of  the  Vedic  hymna  scan  to  bdoiw  sbMdy 
to  the  b^inning  of  this  period  of  the  Bithuans 
worahhi,  for  in  the  second  book  of  the  Bis-Veda 
sereral  inoh  |iiieatB  sr«  eDnmented  in  Mtfenoe 
to  the  adontion  of  A^u,  the  ffnA  of  fln;  bat 
the  fnll  oontingent  of  sixteen  pneati^  neh  a«  Is 
Teodired  for  the  odebration.ot  a  gnat  saerifice,  doe* 
not  make  it*  ^jftmnoM  before  ttie  conpositioii 
of  the  Brfthmanaa  and  later  Vedsa.  Yet,  however 
wild  many  of  these  legends  are,  however  dirtant 
thoy  become  from  the  instinctive  Teuerotion  of  the 
elementoty  powers  of  nature,  and  howarer  mneh 
this  ritvuu  betnys  tiie  nadual  development  of  the 
institation  of  castes — uukaown  to  the  hynma  of  tba 
Big- Veda — there  are  itill  two  (eatana  in thsm,  which 
mark  a  pnwrea  of  the  religio«w  mind  of  sncitDt 
India,  while  the  poets  of  the  Rur-Veda  are  chi^jr 
concerned  in  glonfying  the  piMie  tnaatfeatations 
of  the  dementary  gods — i      "     ~  " 

the  moral  sense  whioh  theae  words  itncJ; 
Boldom  empha^ed  in  the  description  of  the  battles 
fonglit  between  gods  and  demons ;  and  wvoial  ritee 
thmiaelTea  are  described  m  symbolical  representa- 
tion* «{  these  and  similur  qiuUitiea  of  the  good  and 
evil  b^ng^  wonhipped  or  abhorred.  A  second 
featore  is  Ota  tendanCT,  in  these  Brtbn 
determlniiig  tlia  rani  of  the  gods,  and  ■• 

of  gMng  prominenoe  to  one  speeial  god 

i  the  re*t ;  vrtiereM  in  the  old  Vedio  poeby, 
I  we  may  diaooTer  a  predilection  of  the  poet* 
w  uamtaw  mora  praise,  tor  instsnee,  on  bdra  snd 
Agni,  than  on  other  foda,  yet  we  find  no  intoition, 
ea  their  part,  to  raise  any  of  Oiea  to  a  nprems 
En*,  in  tome  Brkhmaiiaa,  Iitdra,  the  god  of 
imnit,  is  endowed  witii  tba  dignitgr  of  a 
inler  irf  the  god* ;  In  othn  the  aim  Moeina  Uia 
atfaribnte*  «t  npeiinitv.  TUa  is  no  teal  aolntion 
of  the  momeDtaa*  ptotdBn  hwted  at  in  snoh  Vedio 

*" ■     '-■■-•        'iititi»a  samblaDce 

'whenoe  this  raried 
world  arose'— here  the  prieet  answers  that '  one  god 
fa  more  elevated  than  the  rest:'  and  he  i*  tatisned 
with  regulating  the  detail  of  the  Soma  and  aaimal 


to  tin  lankwhkb  h*  aaiiaim  to 

hiadeitMB. 

A  real  answer  to  Uiis  peat  qttestaoo  is  attuiaptad. 
however,  by  the   theolonana  who  iinilaiiMul   t^ 

'  mystmiws  doelrin^'  held  in  tht  "' ' 

by  sll  TIinHii«^  Bud  laid  do« 

nnder  the  name  of  UpmiiAadt. 

here  to  state  tliat  the  object  of  theae  i 

works  is  to  explain,  not  only  the  piooesa  <~' 

bnt  ths  nature  of  a  sapreme  being,  and 

to  the  human  souL    In  the  DpaniBhada,  A^ 

Viyn,  and  the  other  deitdea  of  the  Vedio  li7i>Ba. 

become  symbols  to  assist  the  mind  in  ita  akbtmajK 

to  underhand  tlie  tme  nature  of  one  abacriiifca  boB^ 

end  the  maimer  in  which  it  manifests  itaelf  m  its 

worldly  form.    The  human  soul  ftaaif  i*  of  the  a 

tMtnre  m  this  Hipreute  or  , — '  ""'     '' — *■'" 


npteme  Mral,  and  the  n 
!■  not  the  parfomuutae  <rf  saorifidal  ritca,  b«t  the 
eompwlieuMon  ot  it*  own  sdt  and  ol  tlie  f;reat 
■ooL  Tfa*  doetrioe  irtuah  at  a  later  period  banaae 
the  fosndation  of  the  creed  of  the  edncatod — tk  , 
doefarine  that  &e  nprone  bodI,  or  (the  nentCT) 
bvhman,  i*  the  onlv  reality,  and  Hai  the  world  has 
a  olaim  to  notice  ouIt  in  so  far  as  it  nmanatwi  from 
thi*  bdnft  i*  already  dearly  laid  dowa  in  Umbs 
npanishads,  thon^  the  laiuaase  in  whkA  it  is 
exprcMed  *tiU  adapts  itaalf  to  tiie  I^endas-y  aad  , 
aUegmical  style  which  charactsisc*  the  BaUanaaa 
pwSon  of  the  Veda*;  The  Ufmuhrndtbatamalkm 
thtbiuUqf  at*  aUi^OBud/iMtif  India.  Thsyaie 
not  *  lystem  of  philaaoi^y,  bnt  they  oontkm  all 
the  gum*  whsDoe  the  three  graat  «ysteM«  ei  Hindu  ' 
MiomipbT  aroae ;  and  like  wa  latter,  while  twcsl-  < 
mg  ttie  nraggle  of  the  Hinda  mind  to  tbm^  ths 
oompreluuion  <rf  one  siqmma  bem^  H»ey  adnoM 
•nffieioitly  far  to  ei.iaeas  their  belirf  m  aacb  a  I 
beiDg,  but  at  the  same  tfaoe  atAnowIed^  tbt 
iniMlity  of  the  hnman  mind  to  oompnbatid  it* 
eesMioe.  For  the  different  perbds  iriudt  mat  be 
distiDgniihed  in  tjis  eompcaition  of  these  wosfcft  ' 
and  for  the  gradual  devetopment  of  Uia  giawtal  • 
Ideas  briedv  inverted  to  here,  w*  refer  the  nmia  , 
to  Ue  article  TJfavibkaii.  j 

The  Eria  poiod  of  Hindnisn  i>  ma^ed   by  a 
similar  davelSpm -"^    '  "- ' "-  "- 

1ST 


gods,  wherSH  the  phikaophioal  creed 
sxpreasioa  in  tiie  groimdwoAB  of  the  SdaUjo, 
NyAya,  and  Vtdama  syalams  of  pfatloaoi:^.  Is 
the  fOTDtr,  we  find  two  gods  in  parttcnlar  who  an 
rising  to  tiie  highest  rank,  VJahnu  and  8mt ;  for  at 
to  Brahnft  (the  masculine  loimcf  Bnbman),  tiio^ 
he  was  looked  upon,  now  aad  then,  aa  aapoiar  le 
both,  he  gndusUv  dinunears,  and  beoones  moged 
into  the  fJiilosopttiiMl  Bnhma  (the  nsutm'  form  c< 
the  same  word),  whioh  f*  a  fnriber  erotntiaa  of  the 
neat  sonl  of  tiie  0pBm*had*:  In  tha  JMsilyia*, 
the  snpeHority  of  Visbnn  is  admitted  wiAoot 
dispute;  In  Um  fmst  epos,  the  JfmMWraM. 
however,  nAioh,  nnfike  tha  former  epu,  is  Ih*  ]«» 
duot  of  snooeMtTe  ages,  there  is  an  upasent  rivihy 
between  the  daims  of  Vishnu  and  &vb  to  oeevy 


gradosl 
able  to  ( 
the  leecnds  vrhioh  aio  tlie 
mythidccy.    Yet  so  mneh 
already,  that  tiiere  is  a  l 
!^io  period  for  the  snpremaoy  of  Vidmn ;  anl  tkst 


JbyCoOgIc 


tha  policy  of  inoorpontuig  ratli«r  than  oombatlug 
anUgooiitia  creeda,  led  more  to  a  qidai  adnuMion, 
than  to  a  irann  auwoit  of  Sira'a  claima  to  tlbe 
higlMrt  Tank.  For  the  cliBru;t«r  of  thcae  godi,  for 
tb»  relation  in  wtueJi  the  oonoeption  of  tll«M 
being!  atanda  to  tliat  of  Uie  Tedio  time,  for  the  sew 
''    a  whiolt  they  impaaookte  at  the  Epio  period, 

'     "^e  ponp  (d  myt' 

1  of  tbdiL  we 
reeptodre  articlea.  We  i 
reoiMkable  myth,  at  it  i 
PoaitiDii  of  the  n>de  dniing  the  ^do  period.  In 
Vedio  Itymni,  tta  immortaUty  of  the  god*  ia  nc 
matter  of  iovitA;  most  of  the  ekonentuy  beinga 
are  invoked  tai  d«acribed  m  evetlarting,  >a  liable 
neither  to  deoay  nor  deaUL  The  offotngi  they 
reoeiTe  may  add  to  their  comfort  and  strength ; 
they  tn&y  Invigonts  them,  but  it  ia  nowliera  stated 
that  they  are  ladispeniable  for  their  eiiateace.  It 
ia,  on  the  OOTitrary,  the  [oona  aaciitieer  himielf  who, 
through  -hii  offeringa,  seourea  to  himaelf  long  life, 
--'    a  it  ia  BOtiietiiiM«hyperbolioaUyoaIled,iinnwr- 


nfar  the   roader 
it  will  'lUnatrate  Uie  'altered 


of  thia  ciaM,  the  ffatapatha-BriHatana,  and  mora 
especially  in  tb«  Epic  poema,  that  we  find  the  infericT 
coda  w  mortal  in  the  be^nniaj^  and  aa  becoming 
mmiortalthmnghBitoiioragMicy.  IntheiS'aliipalAa- 
BriJmtma,  the  jatee  of  tlw  S«ana  ^«nt,  offered  by 
the  wonhiiTOr,  or  at  anotlter  time  clarified  batter, 
□r  oTan  uumal  ■aorificea,  impart  to  them  thia 
immorta£ty.    At  the  Epio  period,  Viahnu  teaches 

tbemhow  to  obtain  UiBJmriCa,  OF  beverage  of ' 

tali^,  without  which  they  woiild  go  to  deetr 
and  thii  tipa  Anrila  itaelC  is  merely  -     -- 


to  Antrila,  i.  t.,  a  '  siibataiiea  that  frcca  from  death.' 
It  ia  obnooa,  therefore,  that  godi  like  theee  oould 
not  «trike  root  in  Ute  rellgiona  mind  of  the  nation. 
We  tantt  looknpon  thorn  moN  MlJ>e  goda  of  poetay 
thajt  of  real  life :  nor  do  we  Bad  Hut  they  enjc^ed 
imy  vl  the  wonhlp  whioh  wm  allotted  to  the  two 
pnndp*!  ooda,  Viahiu  and  SiTft. 
'^e  phUMOfdiioal  utecd  of  tfati  period  adds  little 
MMndamenf  ■     ■■       .     ■  ^  -'  <-  .i-ir 


L>  tboae  works  a  deep  tmga  of 


which  atill  imparts 
mysticiatn.  On  Uk 
developa  tike  notaon,  that  t^e  union  of  the  indi- 
vidual BOol  with  tiw  aupMrne  ifurit  roay  be  aided 
by  penaneei^  aiuh  aa  peculiar  modes  of  breathing, 
parboolar  poatoiai,  protraoted  faatinft  and  the  like; 
m  shorty  by  these  practieea  which  are  ^vtamatiaed 
by  the  Yom  doctrine.  Tha  moat  ramaikaUa  £pi« 
work  vhiui  inrnlrstns  this  doctrine  ia  Um  oda- 
brated  poem  BhantuadfiitA,  which  ha*  been  wron^ 
contidwed  by  EniOTean  writw*  u  *  pure  Sftnkkya 
work,  whewaaynMapi,  the  peat  Hindu  theologian, 
who  oomnented  ob  i^  and  other  nativ«  ounmen- 
tatora  after  him,  have  ptoved  tliat  it  is  founded  on 
the  Yon  belief  The  OMtdne  of  th«  lennion  of  the 
individaal  aonl  with  tha  MipRme  sovl,  waa  neoea- 
aarily  founded  on  tha  aasumptioo,  that  the  former 
must  have  beocane  free  from  all  guilt  aiTecting  its 
purity  before  it  can  be  re-merged  into  the  soui 
whence  it  proceeded ;  and  since  one  human  life 
a(q>areutly  too  abort  for  ""■*'' '"g  tha  aoul  to  atta 

tike  aoul,  after  tiie  death  of  ita  temporary  owner, 
had  to  be  bom  again,  in  order  to  complete  the  work 
it  had  Uft  undone  in  its  previoua  eziatence,  and 
it  most  (ubnit  to  the  tome  fate  until  its  ta< 
ftdfilied.  This  is  tha  doctrine  of  tiMftntpfyeAoni, 
whioh,  in  the  abaenM  of  a  betirf  in  grace,  is  a  logical 
coBiequenca  tA  a  ^stein  whish  holds  tha  hunua 


aoul  to  be  of  the  same  nature  aa  that  of  an  abaolnta 
God.  The  b^inning  of  this  doctrine  may  be  dis- 
oovered  in  soDia  of  the  oldest  TJpaniahadB,  bnt  its 
fantastioal  development  belongs  to  the  Epic  timcu 
where  it  parvadea  the  legeoda,  and  affects  the  aociid 
life  of  the  nation.    Sea  MjtTSKnTCHOsn. 

Tha  PurImio  period  of  Hinduiam  is  tire  period 
of  ltd  decline,  eo  for  as  the  popnlar  cnsd'ia  oon- 
oemed.  .  Its  pantheon  ia  nominally  the  mum  aa 
that  of  the  Epic  period.  Bn^mi^  Vishnu,  and  SivB 
remain  still  ^  the  head  of  its  imaginary  gods ;  but 
whereas  the  Epic  tinw  is  generally  chara^eriied  by 
a  friendly  hannony  between  the  hi^iv  ooonptuits  of 
tike  divine  spheres,  the  Purtnia  period  shews  discoid 
and  dsatniction  of  the  or^^sal  ideaa  wfaenoe  the  ^0 
rads  arose.  Brahmt  withdraw!,  in  mem],  from 
the  popular  adoratioii,  and  leavea  Viahnu  and  Siva 
to  fi^t  their  battles  in  the  nunds  of  their  wonhip- 
pere  for  the  hicdieat  rank.  The  elementary  principle 
which  originilly  inhered  In  these  deitiea  is  tiius 
completely  Io«t  right  of-by  the  fcJlowers  of  the 
Put&nas.  The  legends  of  the  Spic  poems  relatiiV{ 
to  these  gods  beooma  amplilied  and  disbnte^ 
according  to  the  teetarian  tendencies  of  tlie  maasea ; 
and  the  divine  element  which  itill  distingniahea 
these  gods  in  the  Bimllyaaa  and  Uahibh&rata,  is 
now  more  and  more  aiied  np  with  worldly  con- 
cerns and  intersected  with  historical  events,  dis- 
figured in  their  turn  to  suit  individual  int^esta. 
CM  the  ideas  implied  by  tha  Vedio  rites,  scarcely 
a  trace  ia  visible  in  the  FuriDoa  and  Tantras, 
which  are  the  text-books  of  this  oreed.  In  short, 
the  unbridled  imadnation  which  pervades  these 
works  is  neither  pleasing  from  a  poetical,  nor  ^ 
vating  from  a  philosophical  point  of  view.  Some 
Pai&^as,  it  is  true — for  instancy  the  BhAgavata — 
make  in  some  sense  an  exception  to  tins  abeiration 
of  original  Hinduism ;  hot  they  are  a  compromise 
bctweeQ  the  popnlar  and  the  Vedinta  creed,  which 
henceforward  remains  the  creed  of  the  educated  and 
intelligent.  They  do  not  affect  the  worship  of 
the  maasea  aa  practised  by  tlia  various  aects ;  and 
this  worship  itael^  whether  harmless,  as  with  tiie 
worshippers  of  Vishnu,  or  offensive,  as  with  the 
adorers  d  Siva  and  hia  wife  Dorgll^  is  but  an  empty 
ceremonial,  which,  here  and  there,  rosy  remind  one 
of  the  symbolical  worship  of  the  Vedio  Hindn,  but, 
as  a  whole,  has  no  connection  whatever  with  the 
Vedio  scriptures,  on  which  it  affects  to  resL  It  is 
this  creed  which,  with  further  deteriorationB,  caused 
by  tha  lapse  of  centuries,  is  still  the  main  religion 
of  tha  masses  in  India.  The  opinion  these  entertain, 
that  it  is  eountenanoed  by  the  ritool,  as  well  as  by 
tha  theologioal  txntiou  of  the  Vedaa,  is  tita  redeem* 
ing  feature  of  their  belief ;  for,  ss  nothing  is  easier 
than  to  disabuse  their  mind  on  this  score,  by  reviv- 
ino  the  study  of  their  aaolent  and  sacred  language 
aw  by  enabling  tiiem  to  read  again  their  tddest  sud 
moat  aacrad  books,  it  mw  be  hoped  that  a  p«per 
eda«at3on  <A  tiia  peoi&  In  thia  raqpact,  'hf  learned 
imd  aniightenad  natives^  will  ronove  many  af  tha 
naiating  errors  which,  if  they  oontinaed,  must 
ioevitady  lead  to  a  further  and,  ultimately,  total 
degeneration  of  the  Hindu  race. 

^e  philoaophiooL  creed  of  this  period,  and  the 
creed  wLkih  is  still  preasrved  by  the  eduoatad  classes, 
is  that  derived  fnjm  tha  tenets  of  tha  Yedlnta 
idiiloeophy.  It  is  baaed  on  the  belief  of  one  iupreina 
being  which  imagination  and  speculation  endea- 
vour to  invest  wiui  all  the  periectiona  conoeivablo 
by  the  human  Qund,  bnt  the  tma  nature  of  which 
is,  nevertheleas,  declared  to  be  beyond  tiie  reach  of 
thought,  and  which,  on  this  ground,  is  defined  aa 
not  poasessing  any  of  the  qualitias  by  which  the 


any  of  the  qualitias  Dy  wnicn  u 
^e  to  oomprehaod  intellectual  o 


material  entitry,    SaaTxDlxTA. 


hyCoogle 


Bindv  Becta. — Tlii  desigoktiDa  &pjdies  to  tht 
aecti  whicli  sroie  doriDK  the  third  period  of  Sin- 
daimn.  They  auppose  th»t  their  worship  ii  coimte< 
nanced  by  tie  VedM ;  but  its  ro«i  origin  a  derived 
from  the  Pu,rd,naa  wid  Tantrtu.  See  these  articles. 
There  are  three  chief  diviaom  oC  these  secta-^tha 
■doren  of  Vidmn,  ot  SItk,  wid  of  the  wivet  or 
fenuJe  esergie*  of  the»e  godi.  See  VAisHHATiLS, 
Saitas,  luid  SAxTAA.  B^dea  these  great  tecto, 
there  are  some  of  limited  extent  and  tobu  indgnifi- 
cano^  such  aa  the  worshippers  of  Agni,  the  god  of 
fire  J  of  Sllrya,  the  mn-god  ;  ol  Qaneaa,  the  god  ot 
wiadom,  aod  tiie  obviator  ot  impediineDta.  For  a 
detailed  acooant  of  these  and  siioiUr  aecta,  tee  the 
first  volume  ot  the  Works  of  the  latt  H.  H.  WOaoa, 
containing  a  Sketoh  of  the  Beligiotis  Sects  of  the 
Hindus. 

For  an  account  of  the  rariouB  divisions  of  L,  see 
Mticlea  on  the  rarions  provincea  leferred  to  in  the 
precedinfE  article.  See  also  India,  BunaB ;  India, 
Nativs  Statu  or ;  India,  Frkroh  ;  Ihpia,  For- 


UlHAirBi,  NtIya,  SiKEHTA,  VbdIhta.  Fot  the 
history  of  L,  see  following  article. 

INDIA,  Brttibb,  is  the  name  given  to  those 
parts  of  Hither  and  Further  India  puoed  under  the 
administration  of  the  viceroy  or  governor-general  of 
India.  It  does  not  include  Ceylon,  which,  alUioogh 
k  British  possession,  has  its  gDvermnent  entirdy 
separate  from  tiist  of  Hindustan;  bnt  it  exiendSi 
along  the  e«stera  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
to  10°  3.  Ut,  and  t^ns  includes  part  of  Farther 
India  or  Indo-Chiiia. 

The  following  are  the  returns  of  tha  eensns  of 
1871-72  for  the  provinces  under  British  rule ;  those 
tor  the  Punjab,  Oude,  and  Berar  being,  however, 
from  3  to  S  yean  antecedent  to  that  date  ; 


'*«sS""""lr:r-"^ 

m. 

tppitam. 

ss 

Mr,Mg 

S0,M7,7M 

397 

81,109 

)o.7«i.a)4 

U,SGS 

a.747,m 

T"l. 

»*,Oio 

1M,BM,0W 

ail 

By  an  aot  of  parliament,  which 
received  tiie  royal  assent  2d  August  1858,  Queen 
Victoria  was  debated  Empress  of  India,  and  various 
regnlations  were  enacted  for  the  better  government 
of  the  country,  which  are  now  in  force.  Under 
theoe  and  more  reoent  eniLctments,  the  home-govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  secretary  of  state,  who  is  a 
member  of  the  English  cabicet.  He  is  assisted  by 
an  Under-Secretary  and  a  council  of  16  members. 
^e  Indian  executive  government  is  administered 
by  the  viceroy  ot  governor-general  appointed  by 
t£a  erowD,  and  aotmg  under  the  control  of  the 
secratsry  of  state  for  India.  Ilie  viceroy  i*  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown  far  a  term  of  sii  years,  and 
11  aansted  hy  a  oounoil  of  five  ordinary  membisrs, 
three  appointed  by  the  secretary  of  state,  two  by 
hw  nuueaty's  warrant.  Each  of  them  has  charge 
of  »  department  of  the  ueontive.     The    com- 


mander-in- chief  may  be  oonstitnted  mn  extiair 
dinary  member  of  the  connciL  The  )^iala£n 
council  is  composed  of  the  memben  oE  the  e: 
tocetiiv  wijli  from  6  to  12  member*,  ooc  i 
whom  most  be  unconnected  with  Um  pnUio  ■■ 
The^  are  nominated  for  two  yean  1^  Um  vi 
British  L  is  now  divided  into  the  " 


the  provinces  of  Madras  and  Bombay.  As 
regards  military  matters,  the  old  threebdd  dinBc: 
may  be  said  to  subsist,  but  it  must  be  kept  in  mnid 
that  British  L  is  now  divided  into  the  4  tenitena 
under  the  governor-general,  and  the  8  provine^  ecs- 
merated  in  the  preceding  table,  and  tliAt  eadi  ka 
ita  owp  civil  eovanmmit,  and  is  independent  of  tLt 
others.  He  two  govmimeots  of  Madiss  and  Boic- 
bay  are  under  tlie  rola  of  governor*  appointed  br 
the  crown,  and  assisted  by  executive  and  legiiU- 
^  ~e  councils.  They  communicate  only  witfa  legud 
important  matters  with  the  home  govsnineni 
through  the  governor-generaL  As  regard*  aSun 
importance,  they  correspond  <£rectJy  sitii 
baty  of  state  far  India.  The  Lower  Frc^ 
mngal,  the  North-west  Frovinixa,  asJ 
thePunjab  are  administered  by  lientenant-gorerBcn 
appointed  by  the  governor-general,  subject  to  tbf 
approbation  of  the  secretary  of  state  for  India.  Ii 
Bengal,  the  Leutenant-govemor  isassiBted  by  alep^ 
lative  conncil.  Oude,  *«»»'",  the  Ceotrsl  Froviooa, 
and  Biitish  Burmah  ar«  gDvamed  by  ciiief-eoii- 
missioneiB  appointed  by  t£a  Indian  govenuonL 
Ajmere  was  separated  InHn  the  govemment  of  Uif 
North-west  Provinces  in  1871,  *l^  plaoed  ondv  tke 
direct  control  of  the  goremor-goittaL  Berar,  ab.' 
known  under  the  name  ot  the  assigned  diabricts  d 
Hyderabad,  Mysore,  and  Coora  are  admiiiiatend 
by  commissioners  appointed  by  t&)  sovomor-geBenL 
JJl  the  governments  of  India  are  spUt  into  proTiaca^ 
over  each  of  which  a  commissiouOT  is  puoed,  and 
these  are  in  turn  divided  into  districtn  under  a 
judge  and  collector.  The  provinoes  an  diatingaisbcd 
mto  regulation  and  non-regulation  prorinoaa.  In  ' 
tJie  former  Uie  reveAue  is  collected  and  justice  it 
administered  aocording  to  fixed  methods.  In  tk«  ' 
latter,  power  is  reserved  by  legislative  enactment  to 
modify  tiese  as  occasion  requires.  Bendent  polit- 
ical agents  are  appointed  by  the  British  govern- 
ment at  the  courts  of  the  native  prinoes-  The 
CotenaxUd  CtBU  Berviee  is  composed  of  Enropeam 
whoconductthegeneraladminisWationintbelDdiu  ; 
provinces.  Since  1854  the  membera  have  been  re-  , 
lited  fromthesucceasfulcandidatea  at  competitiK  I 
instituted  for  the  purpose,  held  in  Lon-   I 


of  Europeans,  Eurasians   (the   class  q>ruiig   ' 
naldve  mothers  by  European  'fathers),   and   I 
s.    Municipalities  in  L  were  fint  created  fu 
the  three  pteaidenoy  towns,  and  it  was  not  till  ISJO.   ' 
1SS6,  and  1868  that  acts  were  passed  under  whid  a  { 
large  nuniber  of  Indian  towns  nave  obi 
ci|wl  institutions,  which  are  gradually 
habit  of  self-government  over  the  whde 
Military  Forot. — The  Indian  military  i 
the  civil  service,  underwent  a  thorou^ 
tion,  consequent  on  the  great  mutiny,  an 
fer  of  the  government  ofthe  country  fnnn  the  East 
India  Company  to  the  Crown.     In  1672,  tha  estah-   i 
lished    militarr   foi«e    of    British     L     nnmbeied   | 
190,264,  incln£ng  officers ;  of  whom  about  1S3,4;0   , 
were    natives,   and   60,632   English   (ecolnaive   ol   | 
officers).    I.  u    divided   into  tb.ne  military  divi- 
sions, whiob,  although  named  after  the  thrae  M 


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prcaidenoiM  of  Bombay,  Modm,  and  Bengal,  and 
perpetnatiiig  their  munos,  have  not  oxaotly  [the 
•uue  iiioita.  Of  the  native  troopa,  47,000  belooged 
to  Uie  Bengal  army,  27,000  to  the  M&draa  army, 
and  24,000  to  the  Bombay  army.  The  British 
foicea  are  chiefly  atattoned  in  the  Funjab,  and  along 
the  TaUey  of  tiia  Gangea.  In  1371^  there  were 
37,000  Engliah  aoldien  m  these  proTinoai,  of  whom 
12,000  Wtte  in  the  Punjab,  10,400  were  in  the 
Bombay  Prend^KT;  and  12JiOO  in  that  of  Modraa. 

The  P^ee  in  Britiih  L  include  a  Woe  of 
190,000  ooiiiStablet  or  n^alaz  policemen,  and  the 
viU^e  watohmen  who  aid  Uiem.  The  minimum 
age  of  admiraion  is  17,  the  maximum  21.  Each 
dutrict  haa  a  jail  and  a  police  >nperiatendent ;  and 
the  dietriota  are  groaped,  for  police  purpoaes,  into 
circleB  under  depaty-inipectora-general,  while  the 
whole  police  force  in  each  province  ia  nnder  an 
iiupector-generaL  The  constabolaTy  in  a  purely 
dvu  force,  aubject  in  all  respeota,  except  internal 
discipline,  to  thu  civil  authoribes. 

AdiMitiftraiioa  of  Ciml  Jtuliee.—Ta  1861,  by  an 
act  of  parliamont,  high  courts  of  Judicature  were 
eatabliabfld  at  each  presideiicy  and  in  the  North- 
west Provinceo,  tmdei  the  control  of  a  chief -justice, 
anA  an  many  other  judges,  not  exceeding  fifteen,  as 
her  Majesty  may  appoint  In  1871— 1S72,  there 
were  1,088,153  civil  suits  in  L,  and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  maohinery  for  litigstiDn  supplied 


by  the  oourti  is  much  employed.     Sir  Q.  Campbell, 

however,  fears  that  the  teodency  to  u[JioLd  the 
bare  doctrines  of  law — the  literal  mlfilment  of  con- 


casea  which  aSect  poor  men  and  Ix^eSt  tbe  rich  and 
litigions.  The  Cinl  Procedure  Code  of  India  offers 
facilities  for  litigation  which  •»  a^pt  to  be  ^nsed. 
Sir  Oeoige  Campbell,  in  illastration  of  the  viawi 
entertained  of  legal  prooeediDBS  by  some  olaase*  <tf 
Indian  litigant^  girea  tbe  foUowmg  aoooont  o(  m 
litigation  between  the  memben  of  a  family  origin- 
ally belonging  to  one  of  tbe  hill-tribes.  One  of  tiie 
partiea,  after  litigating  through  all  the  courts  of 
L,  got  a  decree  in  tbe  highest  conrt-  But  there 
was  an  appeal  to  the  Privy  Council,  and  the  suitor's 
funds  were  exhausted.  So  they  caught  an  old  man, 
carried  him  to  the  top  of  a  hm,  and  aacrificed  Mm 
to  propitiate  the  gods  who  rule  the  decisions  of 
the  Privy  CouncS.  The  Civil  Procedure  Code 
worlced  anch  mischief  among  the  Sontala,  that  the 
people  were  exasperated,  and  had  to  be  removed 
from  the  operati<»i  of  laws  applicable  generally  in 

Senenat,  Expejiditure,  Sc — The  annexed  table 
shews  the  gross  amount  of  the  public  revenue  and 
expenditure  of  British  I.,  with  Uie  surplus  or  de£- 
cien(7  of  revenue  in  each  of  the  nnder-mer^iraied 


TH.1K. 

»dii«. 

I-,hl.(+).l>^ 

•»!(-)«(  bnnL 

££d 

I.I-. 

---^ 

■^Jr" 

"'S^ 

-^w^jJIS?" 

■^^ 

ISBB 

u,Mi,eM 

>14»^«M 

«1,7S1.M3 

4o,«Mis 

W.1»I,T« 

M.T8i*lS 

es,4i>7.i»» 

e9,381,0H 
4S,61t,«l) 

-VUfizn 
+  118, te* 

ttSK 

-i.m,ta 

The  gross  amonnt  of  the  pnblio  reranne  and  ez- 
penditnre  in  each  province  in  British  L,  eidnsive 
of  reodpta  and  expenditure  in  England,  for  the 
year  emSng  31st  Much  1872,  is  shewn  below : 


Dt  1^  Indli,  ■ 

I   Honb-wMt  PtovUsh, 


TgtaU, 


>S,TU,SDO 


The  revennea  and  expenditure  of  the  Eastern  Settle- 
ments, and  of  Hyderabad  assigned  diatiiota,  or 
the  "Ream,  are  separated  from  the  revenues  and 
expenditure  of  British  I.,  and  are  not  included 
in  the  above  statement,  which  is  taken  bora  the 
annnal  Statistical  AbstiBct  for  British  India  {1873). 
Seetauie,  JSraxndititre,  <lic — The  chief  items  of  the 
rerenne  (or  ue  year  ending  1873  were  the  follow- 
ing, in  tbe  order  of  their  impoitance :  land  revenue, 
£20;520,S37;  opium,  £9,20^869;  salt,  £5,966,596; 
customa,  £2J»75,990 ;  stamps,  £2/^76,333 1  excise  on 
spirits  and  dmga,  £2,369,109.  The  land-tax  alone 
ponces  the  half  of  the  whde  revenue^  In  L 
the  govenunent  has  always  been  considered  the 
owner  of  tbe  soil,  and  th*  actual  oultivstan  pay  a 
rent  or  tax,  in  ccdleotinK  which  diflarent  Rystem* 
have  hititerto  been  flawed  in  dWerent  parts 
.  of  the  ooonby,  known  aa  tbe  -'■■'''-' 


latter  is  tbe  oldest  aod  the  simpl 
village  under  this  anangement  was  Kgarded  as  a 
aqtarate  municipality,  and  each  wsa  osMSsed  fay  the 
government  at  aparoDnlor  sum,  forthe  doe  payment 
tit  which  the  headman  of  the  -village  was  ooasidered 
responnble.  The  individual  distribution  tA  tiie 
biwien  of  taxation  rested  with  the  village  anthcmtie*, 
and  govemment,  provided  it  received  its  regular 
dues  through  the  poiaS,  interfered  uo  further.  The 
oiigin'of  t£e  Zemindari  and  Ryotwar  Settlementa 
requires  some  explanation.  When  the  English  first 
entered  Dpon  the  administration  of  tbe  country,  they 
found  that  tJie  practiDe  of  native  sovereigns,  their 
predecessors,  had  been  to  farm  out  the  land  revenues 
of  the  country  to  the  nobles  of  Qie  oonrt,  or  tb 
wealthy  bankers,  who  annually  paid  a  fixed  amount 
into  theroyaltr^sDTT,  and  oollected  the  govemment 
dues  on  their  own  behalf  from  the  actuM  coltiTaton 
of  the  soil.  These  formers  of  t^  rerenne  were 
termed  Zemindan.  The  qneation  for  the  Snglish 
rulers  aroaa,  whether  or  not  they  were  to  oonmder 
these  men  aa  proprietors.  In  BeDaalandBaharthey 
were  so  reoo^tised,  and  confirmea  in  their  position, 
the  government  tulding  them  responsible  for  the 
payment  of  the  dues  on  their  estates,  and  regarding 
the  cultivators  on  the  farma  as  their  tenants.  Tb^p 
was  Lord  Comwallis'a  Zemindari  Settlement.  In 
Madras  and  Bombay,  the  opposite  course  was  pur- 
sued.     Claima  of  the  middlemen,  or  farmers   of 


-.Guo^le 


it  Borvey  of  L, 


government,  so  long  aa  be  P*7s  Uie  land-tax  annually 
chained  on  hii  eatats  or  Iwro.  In  1871,  under  th!e 
admiDiBtrBtion  of  Lord  Msyo,  there  waa  created  a 
new  department  of  revenue,  Bgricultttre,  and  com- 
maroe.  It  has  charge  of  all  queationi  relating  to 
land  revenue  and  settlements,  works  of  agricnltiukl 
improvement,  atlka  and  fibres,  forests,  commerce, 
trade,  and  the  industrial  arts.  It  has  also  nitder  its 
charge  the  ooUeetion  of  statistics,  pi 
anowoT  new  deiuuimeDt,  tlie  statistical  i 
of  whit^  the  director-general  is  Dr  Hi 
book  on  Orissa  (see  belour)  is  a  first  instalment  of 
the  work  done.  A  series  of  leading  questions  has 
been  issued  by  tiie  director-general,  ahewingexaotiy 
what  inform^on  is  required  from  remdeniB  in  the 
diff^nt  districts.  A  connected  account  of  each 
district  'wUl  be  prepared  from  the  retomi,  and  these 
will  be  in  torn  condensed  by  the  directar-geneml 
into  on  imperial  statintical  account  of  India.  '  This 
survey,'  says  Ur  Markham,  'forms  au  epoch  in 
statistic^  enterpriaes,  and  its  praetioal  results  will 
be  most  important' 

Omraiey. — In  British  L,  acconnts  are  kept  in 
mpeeB,annas,andiae— 16  SUDM  going  to  the  rupee, 
and  12  pie  to  the  anna.  The  mdns  are  rupeee  (value 
2».  sterling),  and  half  and  quarter  and  half-qaartsr 
mpeea,  in  silver ;  and  in  copper  ),  J,  1,  ^,  A  of  an 
anna.  The  oturenoy  of  L,  however,  is  duefiy  nlver, 
of  which  a  large  amount  is      '  ..        ™~ 


Empress  of  L  in  the'  native  costume.  In  1861, 
an  act  was  passed  by  the  govarmnent  of  L,  provid- 
ing for  the  issue  of  a  paper  cnnency  by  means  of 
promisoory-notes.  The  aoiouot  of  notes  in  ciicn- 
btion  in  1873  was  £11,235,061. 

The  pahlio  debt  of  1  in  I.  and  England  in  1372 
amonnted  to  £112,314,760,  oa  which  the  ioterest 
£533,329.  The  sjuonnt  of  the  debt  in 
raa  £33,991,700,  and  ths  amount  of  interest 
£1,807,066;  in  L  it  was  £73,323,060,  the 
mtereat  being  £3,639,263. 

Comauret. — The  fidlowing  table  ahewa  the  nam- 
ber  and  tonm^  ot  vetseb  tud  (taamera  ensa^ied  in 
UiB  for^gn  and  ooMrtinK  trade  ol  British  it.  m  the 
year  ending  March  31, 1672,  those  eatwed  or  elsMed 
with  ballast  not  included : 


_■ 

._ 

1^:;: 

4,M1 
10,BM 

ai,«« 

4.n4»i» 

ao.«a 

#,!OT.7M 

The  total  value  ti  the  merchandise  imported  into 
nitieh  L  in  1872  was  £3i;o6S,747 ;  of  treanue, 
£11,573,913.  Dm  ohiel  item*  ware— ooal  aad  ooke, 
£S1^7M ;  eotton  mannfactores,  £17,481,887 ;  metali 
of  aU  k^ids,  maanfaotnred  Mid  nnmannfitotnred, 
£2,390v77a;  raUway  materials,  £913,240;  salt, 
£918,976;  raw  silk,  £«61,B06;  silk  mannfaotorea, 
£460,948 ;  spirits,  £060,483 ;  sugar  and  sacohariae 
matter,  £7w,T79;  wines,  £49IS,783;  wool,  toana- 
botntes  of,  £514,194.  The  total  value  of  the 
exports  IB  1872  was  as  follows :  Indian  produce  or 
manufMtnree,  £61,697,225;  foreign  tnerchandiBe, 
£1,488,622 ;  treasure,  £1,476.008.  The  chief  exports 
in  the  same  yew  were  tlte  tbllowing :  Coffee, 
£1,380,410;  cotton  wool,  £21,272,430;  oottrai, 
maonfactuTes  of,  £1,191,683;  dyes  ot  all  kinds, 
£3,9fiS,869;  grains  and  pulse,  £4,8«5,748;  hidas 
•Dd  skins,  ^,516,860;  jute  and  mannfactnra  of 
jnte,     £4,290,767  ;     ofiaia,    £13,366,228 ;    seeds, 


£2,728,127 ;  nlk,  £1,180,706  ;  tea,  £1,48^181:  ' 
wool,  £906,696.  The  greater  put  of  the  tndc  of  1  ' 
is  carried  on  with  Oreat  Britam — bat  tfcere  ii  ik 
an  extenrive  eommeroe  with  Ceylon,  the  8bii« 
Settlement^  Chin^  Australia,  the  Persian  OiJ4li< 
Bed  Sea,  and  aereral  of  the  Earopean  States. 

Soadi  and  JToilinivi;— Since  1836  great  tnuk'  ' 
roads  have  been  eonstnicted  in  Tarioos  mrh  of : 
India.  ^Ae  most  renwAaUek  that  b«m  dlmtltb  | 
Pesbawer,  1400  mile*  long.  The  importun  d  . 
these  ^reat  worka  ha*  now  diminished,  owing  lottc 
extenaton  of  a  great  tsUw^  nstem  in  India.  IV 
ohief  railway*  now  open  are  Uia  East  Indtao,  fra 
Calcutta  to  Delhi ;  the  Indian  Pemnsull,  «bid 
forms  a  brandl  to  Bombay  ;  the  Scdhi,  Flniji^  nd 
Sinde,  which  will  ultimat^  connect  tiis  iftM 
with  the  month  of  the  Indna ;  tiu  Bonhij  ml 
Baroda,  which  runs  nortii  fr(«i  Bombay ;  the  M>^ 
raa  Bailwav,  ranning  south-east  to  Ibdni,  ud 
thence  soutri-weet  to  BeypOr  on  the  ConaaM 
Coast  Up  to  March  1372,  £90,008,622  )i«l  Im 
expended  by  ttie  guaranteed  railway  oompani^  >Bd 
£8,000,000  were  required  to  oompletB  tber  i» 
The  gross  receipts  in  1871  were  £6,146,130,  th 
workmg  expenses  £3,302,060;  leaving  a  net  infit<^ 
£2,84^80,  of  which  £^83^338  was  esnud  bf  tie 
guaruiteed  liDe&  The  guaranteed  interat  ni 
£4,422,243,  so  that  there  was  a  loM  of  £l,SSS,9dSt> 
the  state.  A*  the  railwfty*,  however,  tre  u* 
almost  completed,  it  is  expected  that  ths  couUa 
of  heavy  outL^  on  oonstmotion  will  imprare  ttv 
flnandsl  position.  Hie  oonsbactioa  ot  rosdi  iv 
tnimwi^  from  the  chief  stations,  now  pniCMdi|^ 
will  also  add  to  the  baffio  and  iMiiiiiSsn  the  pniiK 
The  elfictrio  telegrapfa  is  now  in  walking  ctds 
along  every  line  of  lailwi^,  and  ooBiieeta  lU  ■* 
important  dtieB  «f  British  L,  this  Indisn  ^it* 
bemg  connected  by  three  lines  with  Ki^ud. 

Irrigatim  Worht  md  Can(dt.~W«  have  tliai^ 
referred  to  the  importance  ot  imgatioD  hiI.,H»^ 
great  attention  giveo  to  the  subject  wiw*  i^  i 
years.  Our  space  vrill  not  permit  ni  trei  ■  | 
enomarate  tbe  great  wmka  leoentfy  ;«dert)M  , 
in  the  banns  of  tiie  Indus,  QaoM,  MiiUliij. »  ■ 
Tapti,  and  in  other  parts  of  1,  to  sappU  ^f 
to  the  rich  bnt  parched  soil,  and  thaseitaidtlii  1 
area  of  oaltiTatiou.  Several  of  the  eww^  I 
adapted  for  uavigatioii  aa  well  at  ■"'B*'"*^^ 
when  works  now  in  progress  in  SiihiaobiffW"  j 
)  will  be  navigable  commowaw'  | 
I  to  the  Sutlej,  and  down  th"  ^  i 
'm  the  greatest  pcasible  (*a«  I 
I  gavetnment  in  "'•''""J",^ 
extennoD  of  cttnal^  an  inspector-general  oCuT^*  j 
works  has  been  ^^inted,  vrith  irrigatutn  wcieBno 
iu  the  varions  provinces.  ' 

lUteait  m  /mfliv— The  climate  and  »»*^^  ' 
dition  ot  L  give  rise  to  pestilences  which  «*  "'^  I 
owry  desolation  over  the  eoontoy,  wiulitdiMaKB 
iti  w<xst  fum  M  never  afasanl  Ea^i^^Jf^  i 
endowed  ud  admiraMy  i^ulatad,  "■I'f';^ , 
wdl  by  gov«BimeDt  ss  vj  pnvate  numifiMMA  ^  ' 
in  all  the  laigs  towns;  and  graat  ■S«^„*t  ^ ' 
Btantiy  made  to  hriiu  the  bosits  «f  '•*'*'*!:  ' 
and  knoiriedge  wiUim  readi  ol  the  vxaf  <»*"  I 
In  sH  part*  of  the  oountoy  div««>^  ¥!^ 
opened,  ^AeremedJetnes  aw  given  o«kaB»P^"l  | 
advised.  Huoh  of  tbe  disesse  of  i  i>  dM  K^  | 
water  and  bad  dnunase ;  and  wkcve  a  sair  n^  ^ 
wpply  has  been  introduced,  and  draiss  M*«  °^  i 
made,  aa  in  Calcutta,  the  improvemoit  u 
hMlth  of  the  inhabitants  has  be«o  msikw-  .-"^ 
2  millions  of  persons  irere  vsocinateil  JB 1- '°.  'j 
Mortality  i*  feKful^  ag^vated  by  the  ^-^ 
the  people  for  pilgrisaagaa.  All  «g«  •*"  ^ 
bav^  vast  ai£i£  1^^  by  hu>ai*^  ■»  <* 


hyGoogle 


1  the 


b«ts  to  Ileeoa,  Keri>eltt,  and  JeniMleiu ;  Mid  a  large 
proportioB  mvsr  retim. 
BmigraUtm  and  Coloni»(Mon. — Fram  lAe  table  at  the 
hekd  of  Ihfa  aitida,  it  appean  that  the  population 
of  Britiili  L  «  TOj  nBoqnallr  diatribnted.  While 
Bengal  reaambloi  m  dty  in  the  denti^  of  ita  pcpqla- 

;  lion,  tbe  adjMtiing  prorinoes  of  Aasam  and  Bnniah, 
althoi^  BO  le«  tetile,  hare  •  Teiy  smaQ  number 
of  inhatutanta.  "Bm  recnrrenoe  of  noaines  in  thia 
OTeipeoi^ad  distnet  abmn  the  importanoe  tt  en- 
connffing  emigration.  ^The  tevponten  are  now 
attnuning  large  crowds  into  Aiiam  and  other  diB- 
tricti.  &  1S11  the  nnmber  deipotched  was  7032 
sgainBt4B63nilST(^aiidtbeniiml»a'isincreaiing.  In 
Biirmaih^ers  were  97,079  coolie  umtiigreDtB  in  1871 
— 1S72.  The  ffiatant  enugration  trota  India  has 
became '  Terr  important  in  recent  jrean,  and  to 
regulate  tt  the  IiMian  Knigration  Act  (vii.  of  1671) 
was  passed  conaolidatinx  ^  previoiis  laws  for  the 
protection  of  the  onigrant  coolieo.  One  condition 
with  reimeat  to  emigratioD  from  India  to  the  British 
colonies  u,  that  thm  shall  be  40  women  to  every 
IW  men.    In  1871—1872,  the  ntiniber  of 

who  left  Oakntta  for  the  West  Indies     

and  the  condition  aa  to  the  proportion  ot  t^  se 

'  was  fnlly  complied  with.  In  the  same  year  S 
returned  to  Calcntfea.  As  a  rule,  the  Indian  e 
grants  imjwore  their  condition  by  semce  i 
West  Indiea.  tt  v>  thondit  that,  except  to 
limited  district^  oolMiisation  from  f^i^aod  mtut 
ever  be  impracticable  in  India  on  aoooont  of  the 
miCavoniablc  charactsr  of  tiu>  <^imate;  for  the 
Europ««n  race  wttled  in  the  oounby  rapidly  de- 
geueratee,  and  in  a  few  generations  becomes  effete, 
and  bodily'  and  mentally  enervated.  A  constant 
stream  of  British  capital,  however,  and  fresh  direct- 
ing energies  in  its  application,  is  the  great  want, 
and.  what  ,would  seoue,  as  nothing  elae'  can,  the 
derelopment  of  its  unlimited  resources,  Indigo 
and  BUgar  tsctorie*,  and  coSee  and  tea  pluitationa, 
have  been  the  principal  nndertakingi  in  whioh  inde- 

fcndent  British  capital  and  enersy  have  been 
itherto  embarked  and  the  results  have  been  most 
satisfactoiy, 

ChritUani^  in  India. — India  was  one  of  the 
earliest  fields  of  Christian  misiioBs.  Tradition 
assigns  it  as  the  scene  of  the  apMtle  Thomaa'a 
labours  and  mar^rdom.  Whether  ttiis  was  Ute  case 
or  not,  we  find  a  Syrian  church  olsnted  in  Malabar 
in  Sonthem  India,  which  undoubted!^  had  a  very 
early  ori^  The  Jesuit  miatrioaanee,  from  the 
middle  of  the  IGlh  o.  ODWards,  had  a  large  soccesa 
in  India.  See  X±yikb,  Fkahcis.  The  Catholic 
mtssiona  now  oonGne  their  attention  to  thdr  Chris- 
tian converts.  They  are  divided  into  two  branches 
— the  Fortugneae  or  Goa  branoh,  and  the  Jesuit 
mission.  The  nomber  of  the  former  in  Bombay  Is 
not  known  ;  they  Dumber  elsewhere  4S,000. ,  The 
Jesuit  couverta  exceed  half  a  million  iu  Madras, 
Fondicherry,  and  IVavancors.  The  earliest  Pro- 
testant misaionaiies  in  India  came  from  Holland 
and  Denmark.  With  the  latter  miaeion  the  eminent 
Schwartz  was  connected.  England's  Sat  missionary 
effort  was  pnt  forward  by  the  Sooie^  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Qrmpd,  and  the  ChriEtura  Know- 
ledge Society,  which  commenoed  in  the  beginning 
of  the  18th  &,  by  aiding  the  Danish  mission  already 
established  in  Southern  India.  Snbseqneutb-,  the 
East  India  Company  adopted  Uie  policy  of  excluding 
missionaries  altogether  from  their  territorieB ;  but 
oince  the  beginmng  of  this  century,  when  these 
restrictions  wen  wuhdrawn,  a  great  woric  has  been 
entered  on,  in  whkb  all  demoininationa  are  r^rs- 
aented.  In  Bengal,  16,000  rycts  pnrfess  Frotestant- 
ism.     In  Chota  Nagpois,  within  the  last  twenty 


yearn,  German  misdonaries  have  converted  20,000 
Koles.  In  Onde  and  Rohilcnnd,  there  are  2000 
converts.  In  Southern  L,  the  numbera  are  much 
greater.  The  entire  number  of  Indian  Protest- 
ants in  L  in  1862  WM  138,000;  in  1862,213,182; 
and  in  1872,  318,368.  Mr  Idarkham,  who  gives 
tiiese  figures  in  hU  B^HHt  fOT  1873,  speaking  r^the 
ftotcrtaat  i™"'-™!^  says :  '  The  nireminent  (rf 
India  cannot  bat  aoknewledse  the  obtigBtioas  under 
which  it  is  laid  by  these  ODO  missionaries,  whoss 
blamekaa  example  and  self-denying  laboors  are  in- 
fnsiag  now  vigour  into  the  stereotyped  Itfe  of  the 
great  ^polation  placed  nnder  Engluh  rule,  and  are 
prepann^  them  to  be  in  every  way  better  men  and 
better  cttiienB  of  the  great  empira  in  which  thej 
dwell.'  In  the'Proolamation  to  the  Ranees,  Chiefs, 
and  People  of  India,  read  in  the  principal  dties,  on 
Nov.  1,  1858,  it  was  declared, '  that  none  shall  be  in 
uiywise  favoured,  none  molested  or  dbqnieted,  by 
reason  of  their  rdi^ona  faith  and  observances,  but 
that  all  shall  alike  enjoy  tlie  eqnal  and  impartial 
protection  of  the  law.'  The  fiiest  toleration  in 
mattera  of  faith  is  enjoyed  thronghont  British 
India.  Fanaticism  only,  as  when  it  seeks  to 
enforce  the  burning  of  widows  or  Battee  (q.  v.),  or 
offera  human  beings  in  sacrifioe,  is  corbed  by  tho 
mling  power.      There  is  no  ezclnaively  endowed 


medan  mosques.  Clwgymen  of  tdie  Church  of 
Enslaod,  the  CSmich  of  Scotland,  and  the  Roman 
Catkolio  Chnrch,  are  retained  on  the  government 
estabtiahment  as  dvil  or  military  chaplams.  I1iei« 
are  Chnrch  of  England  biahops  at  Calcutta,  Madras, 
and  Bombay. 

SdtKOtion. — The  sdncation  of  the  peofJe  of  L  U 
based  on  the  system  set  forth  in  a  despatch  of  Sir 
Charles  Wood,  dated   19th  July  18S4.    Tbe  main 
— -"noiple  of  the  despatch  was  that  European  know- 
a;e  should  be  diffused  throndi   the   languages 
leratood  by  the  g'eat  mass  of  the  people ;  but 
that  the  teaching  of  English  should  always  be  com- 
bined with  carSul  attention  to  the  study  of  the 
vemadolar  langoaees.   With  regard  to  the  wealthier 
olasse^  it  was  declared  that  the  time  bod  arrived 
for  the  establishment  of  muversities  iu  I.,  confening 
d^reec^  and  based  on  the  modd  of  the  univenity  3 
Loudon.    They  were  not  to  be  places  of  edacation, 
but  to  test  the  value  of  education  obtained  else- 
'here,  and  to  confer  degrees  in  arts,  law,  medicine, 
nd    civil    engiaeering.      Snoh    universities    have 
acconUcgly  been  established  in  Calcutta,  Madras, 
and  Bombay;  and  since  18S0,  government  schools 
have    been     opened   for   the    matnioiion    of    aU 
classes  of   the   Indian   people.    In  each  province 
there   is    now    a   director  of   pnblio    inatnictioD, 
sted    by    school     inspectors,    one    of    whom 
nnder  his   care    one  circle  or  subdivision  of 
province.    Nonoal  schools  for  the  training  of 
:aers  have  also  been  established,  and  attempta 
being  made  to  spread  female  education.    In  the 
.  of  1371  there  were  25,147  government  B^iools 
and  colleges,  having  on  average  attendance  of  799,622 
pupils,  the  gross    expenditnre  ^m  imperial  and 
other  Bonrces  being  upwards  of  £1,000,000.     In  the 
North-west  Provinces  it  is  calculated  that  1  in  II 
boys  is  at  school    In  other  words,  there  are  250 
boys  in  every  3000  pec^le,  and  of  these  16  ore  at 
government  schools,  14  at  vernacular  schools,  and  2 
n  English.     In  the  same  3000  people,  there  are 
girls,  and  1  is  at  school.    Much  remains  to  be 

AdmiititCratioe  Dhitiont. — The  following  are  the 
administrative  divisions  of  British  India.  The 
Lower  Provinosa  of  Bangid,  often  referred  to  as 
Bengal.     They  inolnde  the  old  Indian  provinces  of 

bintizodhyCiOO'l^le 


BcDgal  Proper,  Baliar,  Assajo,  kc,  and  are  divided 
into  8  r^oUtioQ  provuicea— Bagklpftr,  Burdwan, 
ChitUgoDR,  Oriua  (or  Cuttock],  Daoca,  Nodde*, 
PotoB,  !^jaliaye ;  and  3  non-regiilation  nr> 
viucea — Aiaam,  Cbota  Nagpore,  and  Kooch  Bahar. 
Calcatta  ii  the  capital  and  aaat  (rf  goTemmeot ; 


-Ana,  AlliUuibad,  BauuM,  Meemt,  and.  Rohil- 
ound;  and  2  DOn-imdatbn  prorinoat — Jaiui  and 
Etunaon.  Allahabad  is  the  leat  of  government^ 
Agra  and  Benarea  are  important  towne.  Onde  waa 
aanszed  in  1S66 ;  Lucknow  is  the  capital  The 
Fuojab,  annexed  in  1849,  is  divided  into  the  foUow- 
ing  provincea — Arnritsur,  Cmballa,  Delhi,  Bemjat^ 
Huuar,  I«hore,  Peghawar,  Multan ,  Bawal  Pindi,  and 
theTnoi-Sutlej Statea;  lAhareiBtheeeatof^vsni- 
mont,  and  chief  cities  are  Amritanr  and  Delhi.  The 
Central  Prorilicea  were  formed  into  a  ohisf  com- 
minionenhip  ia  1861 ;  NagpOr  ia  the  chief  town. 
The  Bombay  Preoiden^  ia  split  into  three  parts — 
»  nortbem  and  a  Bonthem  division— and  Sinde; 
the  capital  ol  the  whole  ia  Bomb^.  Snrat,  in  the 
northem  diviiion ;  Foona,  in  Ulb  soatiiem  dinsioa ; 
•ltd  Kurachee,  in  Sinde,  are  important  pUce*.  The 
Madraa  Presidency  ia  divided  into  Uie  Circats,  the 
Camatia,  Coimbatore  and  Salem,  Canara  and  Mala- 
bar; the  capital  is  Uodns,  and  next  in  importaooe 
are  Osniam,  Masulipataiii,  Vellore,  and  Arcot. 
Britith  Burmah  is  divided  into  Aracon,  Pegu,  and 
TenaMerim;  the  chief  towns  are  Rangoon  and 
Moolmein.  The  temtoriea  placed  directly  nnder 
the  central  government  are  Ajmere  (chief  town  of 
same  name),  separated  from  govermnent  ol  N.W. 
Provincea  in  1871 ;  Beror,  or  sasigned  diitncts  of 
Hyderabad  (chief  town,  Akoles) ;  Coote,  annexed 
in  1834  (chief  town,  Merkera);  and  Mysore,  for 
which  aa  a  native  state  only  temporarily  British, 
see  below. 

Sigtory. — The  oldest  history  of  L  ia  entirely 
l^ndory ;  it  is  shrouded  in  mythical  nartativeB, 
which,  though  of  the  highest  interest  frmn  a 
i«li^ous  and  archieological  point  of  view,  do  not 
enlightea  na  aa  to  the  dates  oE  the  personacea 
concerned,  nor  as  to  Che  reaUty  of  the  facts  which 
they  record.  Thus,  the  eoUr  and  hmar  dynasties 
spoken  of  in  the  epio  poems,  the  RAmAyana  and 
Mah^hArtOa,  and  in  the  Purdnos,  as  well  a« 
other  dynaatiei,  like  that  of  Pradyota,  S'iatuitea, 
and  others  mentioned  in  the  Purdnat,  are,  for  uie 
preaent,  at  least,  beyond  the  reach  of  history,  in  the 
sense  in  which  we  use  this  word.  The  first  reliable 
date  to  be  met  with  in  ancient  Hindu  history  ia 
that  of  Chandra^pia  ;  for  he  ia  the  kine  whom  the 
Greek  historians  call  Sandroeoliut ;  and  aa  he  was 
the  ally  of  Seleucus,  wo  may  safely  conclude  that 
ho  reigned  about  300  B.a  He  belonged  to  the 
Mamya  dynasty,  which  contains  anouier  diatin- 
gniahed_  name,  fliat  of  the  king  Aadka,  who  pUva 
a  prominent  part  in  Buddhist  history,  and  prob- 
ably reigned  from  263  to  226  B.C. ;  but  since  the 

history  -  *  "  '         • 

in  diffi 
Mohan 


nquest,  concerns  more  the  special 
student  of  Hindu  antiquity  and  Indian  bistoiy  than 
the  general  reader,  we  must  content  ourselves  here 
with  referring  those  who  take  on  interest  in  it  to 
the  admirable  work  of  Professor  Christian  Lauen, 
the  IndiKht  AUaihuvuhaidey  where  they  will  not 
only  find  the  richeot  material  collected  in  any  one 
book  hitherto  devoted  to  this  subject,  but  also 
learn  to  amreciate  the  difficulties  wbich  beset  the 
g^uestionB  of  ancient  Hindu  history  and  chronology. 
From  tin  MoAammedan  Coaqaat  (IDOI]  to  Ihi 
etwe  qf  Viteawnt  Caiutm^g  adniMtlmtion  (1862). — 
aoim^QhimUmi—nVl).   TheSnltanMahmad, 


•overeign  of  the  small  state  of  Gfaixni  (q.i.|.  n 
the  first  conqueror  who  permanently  estaijjsbil  1^ 
Mohammedan  power  in  t"Hi«      In  1IS6,  ttte  Hiai 
of  Ghizni  became  extinct,  and   tha  Hindn  pru.- 
fell  one  by  one  before  a  suocesaion  of  HobsmnKJc 
dvnastiea,  whose  names  and  dAt«a  am  as  foOin. 
Slate  Kingi  of  DtlM.  (1206— 1288).— One  of  l!» 
sovereigns,  Altmisb,  who  saceoded  the  tbnitt  '. 
I2I1.  added  the  greater  port  of  Hindnstan  Pn^ 
to   his  dominions,   and  m   his   reion  the  Uo^i 
Genghis  Khan  devastated  the   norUi-easten  pn 
of  India.    In  Balin's  reign  (about  1284)  the  Uo^i:  ' 
mads  a  second  irruption  into  Hindnatan,  bit  <?■ 
totally  defeated  by  the  monordi'a  ddeat  kb,  it  l 
heroLO  Mohammed,  who  fa&  in  the   actios.    IV 
JCAitfii   and   Rome   of  Toghlak    (1288— M12).-h  ' 
1290,  the  Mongols  nuide  their  third  and  list  p^ 
irruption  into  Hindustan,  but   vrere   almoM  ui:- 
hilated   by  Zofir  Khan,  whose    name   becuK  » 
proverbial  among  tiie  Mongols,   that  when  tk: 
noraes  started,  Oiev  would  ask  them  if  thej  si 
file  ghost  of  Zofir  Khan.    In  1397,  dnring  th«  iv^-i 
of  the  last  of  the  To^ilak  kings,  the  Tartu-  Tms. 
or  Tamerkuie,  sacked  Delhi,  and  proclsinud  b^- 
self  emperor  of    India.     The  Syuda   (1412—14^'. 
Tkt  Hmta  of  Lodi  (1460— 1626).      To  the  iki 
of   this  dynasty   succeeded   the    C/reat  Mog^  " 
Bcnm  of  Timur  (1526—1707).    Baber,  who  h»i[:r 
twenty-two  years  been  sovereign  of  Cabal,  ian!^ 
L  for  the  fifth  time  towards  the  cnA  of  the  yx 
1525  (see  HlBEH),and  after  doing  battle  with  Siill^ 
Ibrahim    on    the    plain    of    Paniput,    April   liSL 
entered  Delhi  in  tiiumpb,  and  established  Iiinai'i 
OS  emperor  of  the  Mobonunedan  d<miinions  ii  L 
in  right  of  hia  ancestor  Timnr.     He  died  in  ISt, 
and  was  sncceeded  by  hia  son    Hnmaynn.    I- 
celebrated  Akbar  (q.  v.),  son  (^  Humayun,  Uos 
emperor  in  1656,  and  reigned  tat  neariy  twest}"^ 
years.    His  eon  ascended  the  throne  inl60S,iMl>i 
gr*nd»oo,_Sliah  Jehon,inl627-    In  1658,  SbshJtlB 
was  imprisoned  by  his  son,  the  famous  Annutgnf 
(q.  v.),   who   usurped   the   imperial   power.    "^ 
remarkable  man  raised  the  Mogul  ^npiie  to  ^ 
highest  pitch  of  greatness  and  splendour,  ami  •" 
the  ablest  and  most  powerful,  as  well  ss  the  »'; 
ambitious  and  bigoted,  of  his  race.     The  destb  n 
Aurungzebe  took  [jaoe  in  1707,  and  the  Aeaj<^ 
the  empire,  which  had  beffan  a  few  yean  befm 
then,  proceeded  rapidly.    '  A.  suoceosion  of  mmiu 
sovereigns,    sunk    in    indolence    and   debiiic)K?i 
sauntered  away  life  in  aednded  palaces.'    Vkftoji 
of  the  Qenat  Mogul  formed  their  provinca  in" 
independent   states  ;    whilst   Hindu  and  ^"1^ 
medan    adventurers    carved    ont    Idngdami  ■''■ 
the  sword.     The  diamemberment    of  the  M'^ 
empire  opened  a  wide  field  for  ambiti<»  sn^  '?'"" 
prise  to  the  nations  of  Europe,     "nie  Vtnrti"^ 
the  Qenoese,  the  Portuguese,  and  the  Dntch  li*''? 
tnmi  traded  with  L  ;   and  in  1602,  the  ^^ 
appeared  on  the  scene.    See  Eim:  IvDU.  CaV^' 

In  1663,  Madras  was  raised  into  a  pia>^ 
and  in  1668,  the  island  of  Bombay— which  ■•«!" 
dowry  of  Charles  tt's  queen,  the  Inftots  Ci*"?I 
of  Portugal — was  tranrfcrred  by  the  «own  to^  ' 
Company,  tbe  invasion  of  the  Penisfc  ■''r 
Shah,  in  1739,  who  sacked  Delhi.  sl«n^*«' "" 
inhabitants,  and  carried  away  the  Pesaicll  1*"^ 
and  vast  treasure,  hastened  the  fall  of  tba  x^  ' 
empire. 

1745— 
the  Rngliih  and  Fraioh,  who  uau  au»  — - 
themaelvea  in  India.      On  the  declaiatjon  « J™ 
between  Eugland  and  Fnnce,  hostiUtiM  cwmwx^ 
in  the  Madraa  presidency,  nor  wer     '      " — 
by  the  peace  of   Aii-Ia-Chapell( 
struggle  —  *■"—  ■^— — -'^-— ■-■ 


n  theCamatioi 


hyCooi^tr 


rioWil 


under  pretext  of  rapportiDg  the  clums  of  rivti 
oativa  princes  to  aovereignt7.  Clive  (q.  v.),  the  flrat 
and  tnoat  famomi  nune  on  that  gre&t  muster-roll  of 
British  soldiers  and  statesmen  who  have  thrown 
aach  Inatra  on  the  Biitiah  oocnpation  of  I.,  laid 
the  foondaUon  of  his  conntry'i  anpremocy  in  the 
East  fTiji  memorable  defence  of  Arcot  m  ITSl, 
and  his  sabBeqaent  victories,  broke  the  (pell  of 
French  idvincioiKtv,  The  neit  memor»ble  event 
was  the  sieee  and  capture  of  Calcutta,  on  the 
20th  Jaoe  1756,  by  Sucaja  DowUh,  gruidson  of 
All  Verdi  Khan,  and  govaroor  or  subahdar  of 
BengaL  The  prisoners,  W6  in  number,  were 
confined  in  the  miall  gairisoa  prison  or  Black 
Hole,  of  whom  only  23  surriTed  till  the  morning. 
Clive  quicklj  took  command  of  an  expedition 
fitted  ont  at  Madras,  recovered  Galcntta  (1757), 
and,  assisted  by  Admiral  Watson,  prosecuted  the 
war  with  his  usual  vigour,  till  after  a  hollow  peace 
and  a  lenewal  of  hoBtJliiies,  Suraja  Dowlah  was 
completely  defeated  by  Clive  in  the  memorable 
batUeofFlaasey,23dJDiiel7&7-  Meer Jaffir, Suraia 
Dowlah's  commaiider-in-chief,  was  placed  on  the 
musnud  l^  the  T'i"g|"T'|  who  from  tliis  time  ruled 
Bengal  as  well  as  ^har  and  Orissa. 

Poliliail  Proffreu  qf  Ecul  India  Oompany  (I7G4 
— 1773).~After  the  battle  of  Buxar,  fonght  in 
1764  with  Sujah  Dowlah,  the  usurping  viaer  of 
Oudc,  the  Mogul  emperor.  Shah  Alum,  who  had 

Erevioosly  been  in  the  power  of  the  defeated  Sujidi 
lowlah,  claimed  the  protection  of  the  British.  He 
confirmed  the  Company  in  their  poasessions,  and 
granted  them  the  collectorat«  or  perpetnal  daeaanee 
of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,  on  condition  of  receiv- 
ing the  sum  of  £260,000  per  annum.  During  the 
subsc^nent  financial  difficulties  of  the  Company,  they 
repudiated  this  and  other  conditions  which  they 
had  guaranteed  to  Shah  AlOm  ;  and  the  cost  to  the 
Company  of  maintaining  thdr  authority  and  stand- 


Administra&M  of  Wama  HatHngt  (1773— 17B6). 
"'Warren  Hastings  waa  the  first  governor-general 
of  India.  A  new  power,  the  Sinireme  Court  of 
JuiUcature,  appointed,  by  Uie  Eegumting  Act,  came 

council  arrogated  to  itaelt  authority  exceediogly 
embarrassing  to  the  govemor-Kenenil,  to  whom  it 
was  very  hostile.  Hasnn^  ns^  very  uDsompulooa, 
and  at  times  very  unJDstifiable  meana  to  replenish 
the  Eaat  India  Company's  exchequer,  but,  by  hia 
iicrgy  and  talent,  ha  averted  daugen  Out  threat- 
ned  to  annihilate  the  British  supremacy  in  India. 
'he  powerful  Mussulman  sovereigns,  Hyder  Aii 
nd  the  Nizam  of  the  Deccan,  assisted  by  French 
officen,  combined  with  the  Mahrattas  against  the 
English ;  Sir  Evre  Coote  broke  up  the  confederacy, 
and  defeated  Hydor  Ali  in  ITSl.  In  17S2,  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  was  deprived  of  its 
iodependent  powers,  and  the  policy  of  Hastings  was 
successful  both  in  the  councJ  ana  in  the  field-  In 
17S4,  Mr  ntt  institnted  the  Board  of  Control 

Marqui*  ContaaM*  (17S&— 1793).— Loid  Com- 
wallis,  who  sncoeeded  Warrmi  Hastings,  was  both 
governor-general  and  commandra-in-chief.  His 
administrative  measnres  were  important,  and  con- 
msted  moat  notably  in  fixing  the  land^renit  tiuoagh- 
~nt  Bengal  on  that  system  of  land  tenure  known 
_a  Zemindari,  and  reforming  the  judicial  system. 
In  1790,   Lord  Cornwailis,  with  the  Nizam,  the 


Mahrattas,  and  the  Kajah  of  Coorg  for  allies, 
made  war  on  Tippoo,  Saltan  of  Mysore,  who  had 
invaded  Travaocore,  then  uuder  British  protection. 
Terms  were  dictated  to  Tippoo  at  his  capiW,  Ser- 
ingapatam,  and  he  was  compelled  to  c«de  half  his 
dominions  to  the  Company. — The  Marquis  Com- 
wallis  was  succeeded  by  Sir  John  Shore  (1793 — 
1798),  whose  rule  wm  in  no  respect  memoiable. 

Jtfargw  WtUeO^  (1798— 180B).— Bie  British  ' 
empire  in  the  East,  like  that  of  Kapolaon  I.  is 
Buro^  could  only  be  maintained  by  constant 
fighting ;  it  was  the  price  paid  for  empire,  and  to 
stand  still  was  to  retrogiadc.  Tippoo  Soliib  broko  i 
his  faith  by  intriguing  against  the  WiigH«h  both 
with  the  Jreudb  and  with  native  princes :  his  bad 
faith  cost  him  his  crown  and  his  life.     In  May 


successfully   for   the   youthful    rajah   by  Colonel 
Wellesley  (afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington).    In  the 


Lake  in  Northero  L  extended  very  considerably 
the  dominions  of  the  Company.  The  policy  of  tlie 
Marquis  Wellesley  was,  however,  too  aggressive  to 
suit  the  views  <A  the  East  India  Company,  and 
he  was  superseded  by  Lord  Coruwallia,  who  only 
returned  to  I.  to  die.  Lord  Minto  succeeded  from 
1806  toisia 

Nothing  of  much  importance  occurred  nntil  the 
Marquis  m  Hastings  became  goveraor-general  (ISIS 
— 1823).  He  wwed  war  against  the  Hndiuis, 
who  were  entirely  suppressed.  He  had  previ- 
ously defeated  the  Gurkhas ;  and  before  the  gIdsq 
of  his  brilliant  administration,  he  made  the  British 
power  supreme  in  India.  The  civil  admimatratioa 
of  the  MaTquis  of  Hastings  was  directed  t«  the 
amehoration  of  the  moral  condition  of  the  people 
of  India.  .   i.    , 

The  next  admimstrations  were  those  of  Kaxl 
Amherst  and  Lord  William  Beotiack.  The  fiist 
was  signalised  by  the  Burmese  war,  the  second  by 
the  aiippression  of  sutti  and  the  Thugs. 

Earl  o/Aitekland  (1833— 1842).— This  governor. 
Ceneral  is  known  chiefiy  by  his  unjustifiable  and 
disastreus  Afghan  policy,  ending  in  the  horrible 
massacre  of  Bntish  troops  in  the  Khyber  Paae.  See 
AiraBAjnsTAn. 

Earl  of  SUeniorough  [1842—1844).— The  ■  army  of 
retribution'  proceeded  to  Cabul  soon  after  Lord 
EUeuboroi^h  took  the  reins  of  sovemment.  Cabul 
was  BockeC  several  public  buildings  razed  to  tha 
eionnd,  after  which  the  countiy  was  evacuated. 
^s  oonquest  of  Sinde  by  Sir  Cbatlea  Kainer, 
followed  by  its  annexation,  also  belongs  to  tfaia 
administration. 

Sirffmry  Hardinge  (1844-1848).— Lord  EUen- 
borough  having  been  recalled  by  the  East  India 
directors,  from  alarm  at  his  martial  tendenciea,  Sir 
Betuy  Hardinge  was  sent  to  take  his  place.  The 
attention  of  the  new  governor-general  was,  however, 
goon  diverted  from  works  of  peace,  to  do  botUe  with 
the  bravest  people  of  India.  Ever  since  the  death 
of  our  ally,  Bunjeet  Sin^  in  1839,  the  Punjab 
had  been  in  a  state  of  disorganisation.  The  Sikhs, 
uneasy  at  our  conquests  in  Sinde  and  Qwalior,  and 
remembering  our  discomfiture  at  Cabul  and  the 
Khyber,  resolved  to  auticipite  the  attack  they  con- 
sidered imminent.  The  ^st  Sikh  war  commenced 
on  the  part  of  the  Funjabeea  by  the  passage  of  the 
Sutlej,  and  was  followed  by  the  terrible  battles 
of  Moodkee,  Ferozeshah,  Ahwal,  and  Sobraon,  in 
which,  after  very  hard  fightiug,  the  Sikhs  were 
defeated  with  great  slaughter.  The  war  resulted  in 
a  British  resident  and  British  troofe  being  stationed 


I  y  Cookie 


at  Lahore,  althongh  the  boy-prince,  Dhuleep  Sineh, 
was  acknowledged  u  lUianjali.  Ilia  Ois-Satlej 
itatea,  the  Jnilandnr  Doftb,  and  the  alpine  region 
between  the  Beas  and  the  Sntlej,  were  annexed. 

Mar^ltM  of  BaUuyraie  (1S4S— 1S55).— The  admm- 
istration  of  the  Morqnia  of  Dalhocuda  is  memorabla 
for  tiie  oommencemeat  of  imperb  nnblio  w< 
cheap  uniform  poatage,  raUwayi,  telegraphs, 
provetnentB  in  govemioeat,  and  Bocial  progreaa 
oenerally ;  a  second  Sikh  war  (ending  in  the  croi- 
mg  yictoiy  of  Gnjeiat,  21it  Febnur;  1849), 
•econd  Bonnan  war  (finiahed  in  1S52} ;  and  the 
aoneiatdon  of  four  kingdcaii^  the  Punjab,  Fega, 
Ki^fir,  and  Oude^ 

Vueounl    Canning    (18M— 1862).— When    Lord 
Canning  took  the  reinB  of  government^  ererythi 
promiaed  a  reign  of  peace  and  proeperitj.    Wi 
the  early  day*  of  1357  came  the  ^t  mutterings 
the  atonn  that  waa  to  sweep  over  so  large  a  portion 
of  British  India.  At  the  commencemeat  of  the    ~ 
<^npatteea  (cakes  of  flour  and  water)  were  circiL 
mysterionsly  through  the  North-west  Provinces ; 
treasonable  placards  appeared  at  Delhi,  and  other 
■DspiciDns   occotrences   gave  warning  of  Mohom- 
inedan   diiaffedioQ   or    conspiracy.     The    Enfield 
rifle  and  ita  neased  cartridge  was  at  this  time  put 
into  the  handa  of  the  sepoya  withoat  explanation  — 
precaution ;  and  GeDeral  Aiuoa,  Che  CDnunander- 
chief,  snabbed  caste,  and  was  gainst  all  ooncesii 
to  tlie   '  beastly  prejudices '  of  the  natives.    1 
mqtiny  broke  out  at  Mcernt  (32  miles  from  Delhi] , 
where    Qiere    were    stationed    European    troops 
amounting  to  about  1800  men,  besides  sappen  and 
miners,  and  about  S900  naUve  aoldiera.    On  the 
23d  April,  the  skirmishers  of  the  3d  Native  Cavalry, 
(HI  parade,  refused  to  touch  the  new  cartridges, 


and  sentenced  to  imprisonment.  On  the 
the  next  d«y,  the  native  troops  Awe,  liberated  tneir 
comrades  and  the  felons  of  the  jail,  shot  down  their 
ofBcen,  and  the  doomed  station  was  given  tip  to 
ooafia^stion  and  maasacre.  The  next  day,  the  11th 
of  May,  Ilia  Meemt  mntinaars  reached  DelhL  There 
were  no  Enropean  troops  to  oppose  them,  and  the 
oity  fdl  into  thdr  luuid^  bnt  vh  retakoi  by 
G«ieT>l  Arohdok  TniKm  ue  foUowing  SeptNnber. 
Nona  Sahib  of  Bithocv,  whose  chums  u  th«  adopted 
son  of  the  Pishmh  had  not  bem  raocgnised  by  &e 
British  government  fumed  the  insnrreotioo.  At 
tiie  end  of  Jnna,  General  Whealsr  WM  foNed  to  tor- 
Mnder  to  him  at  Cawnpore,  and,  in  spite  ot  the 
promaaa  of  safa-aondnot  to  Anahabad,  dl  the  oeo 
lediately  '     "" 


bntcheted  on  the  Ifith  of  July  by  order  of  the  Nana, 
when  he  heard  of  Havelock's  march  from  Alla- 
habad, which  b^aa  on  the  Tth  cd  the  same  month. 
The  Europeans  in  the  Beetdency  at  Lucknow  werv 
bemaged  on  the  30th  of  June.  Five  days  after- 
wards, the  aommandant^  ""  " ' ''  ' 


loglis,  who  Wavely 
the  ZSth  of  Septui 


Emiandant^  Sir  Ibmy  Lawraoce,  died 
and  his  plaoa  was  taken  by  Brigadier 
kvely  held  out  till  he  was  relieved  on 


.   .   —  September  by  the  heroic   Havelock. 

'Hie  final  i«lief  was  achieved  by  Sir  Colin  Campb^ ; 
and  on  the  17th  tiie  city  was  again  in  complete 

-    '  ne  1858,  no  city  ot 

.    led  in  the  hands  of 

. ..  Code  waa  entirely  redaoed  by  the 
ot  the  f«w  laSO.  The  able  rebel  leader, 
Jpee,  a  Mahratta  Brahman,  woa  taken, 
tried  by  oonrt-martial,  and  hanged.  During  the 
mutiny,  valnabla  aoaistonce  and  protection  were 
noeived  from  many  native  chiefs.  Honours  were, 
in  consequence,  bestowed  upon  Sdndia,  tba  M4^ai«- 
jah  of  Qwolior;  Holkar,  Maharajah  of  Indora; 
the  Nisam,  and  others.     The  trial  of  the  king  of 


TMitiaTo 


Dthep 

representative  of  ._. ,.       . 

tenoe  the  last  Oreat  Mi^nl  and  heir  of  Uie  En 
of  TimAr  '  to  be  transported  across  the  ku  » i 
felon.'  He  was  transported  accordingly,  tear- 
panied  by  his  queen  and  son,  to  Tongn,  in  Feji 
where  he  died  in  1862. 

The  ttanirfer  of  the  govemment  of  L  b>  tb 
British  crown,  and  the  new  conatitatiaE  ^lat 
referred  to,  were  the  immediata  conaeqnoxei  » 
the  mntiny. 

TSs  Barl  qf  £lgin  (1B62— 1863).— Wo  ermi  i 
importance  occurred  during  the  hiiat  liahaln 
tion  of  Oovemor-genetal  Lord  T^gi",  who  dial  i: 
November  1863: 

.Sir  John  Lccurratix  (1863— 1865).— Towvi  Ik 
close  of  Lord  Elgin's  admimsti&titm,  a  V-ihi, 
medan  rising  was  apprehended  in  North-v^"! 
Ipdia,  and  it  was  considered  most  desirable  tlut  lb? 
new  viceroy  shonld  have  practical  eiperiais  i 
Indian  affairs.  Sir  John,  afterwards  Lord  li'- 
cordingly   appointed   ■  '      -    "■ 


uuHifcbijuauijvruy  lur  jidigLsnu  in  looo  i  auu  ■  ^'^ 
fill  famine  occurred  in  Orissa,  caused  by  a  is(xi^ 
and  failure  of  the  crops,  by  wbid)  one  nullion  v^ ' 
half  of  people  perished. 

Earl  Mayo  {^1869— 187Z).— He 


Ameer  of  Afghanistan  was  received  in  sbte  '>'' 
received  a  supply  of  arms  and  the  first  iniblDfl 
of  a  money  subsidy  of  £120,000  a  year.  In  ttlE» 
ing  from  Kangoon  to  Calcutta,  Lord  MsVD  '"^* 
convict  estabEshmeut  in  the  Andaman  uliiidi,i» 

me   of  tbe  priKw; 

act  had  no  polito 


was   asaaBsinoted   there  by  < 
significonoe. 


1  23d  February  1872. 


Barcn  NorOtbrook  (1872).  — Loid  Northteci 
entered  on  office  in  May  1872.  The  chief  e<»»« 
his  adminisbtttioi]  have  been '  the  Beu>l  f"*^ 
which,  anticipated  in  good  time, had  in^i^'^* 
psMed  over  vrithout  £e  fearfol  oonseqaesoei  a  ^ 
umine  in  Orissa  dnring  the  administrtfi"*  *  ^^ 
John  lAWrence ;  and  the  visit  of  the  BiKC " 
Wales  to  India  (1876). 

For  farther  information  npon  L,  tlu  CoUoni^ 
works  may  be  consulted  with  advontMse  r  7** ''' 
Unv  qf  BrUiA  India,  by  James  Mill,  "i""  »*' 
and  continuation  by  Horace  Haymun  WBwBi  "-^ 
F.R.S.  (Lond.  1868) ;  TIte  Indian  Eiofin,  ^  ^ 
MontgomoT  Martin  (Lond.  1S62) ;  7^  Si^ 
c/  Oe  IndioM  Reeoit,  published  by  the  »<•" 
Chamban  U  18S9 ;  An  Aeeount  o/  (As  *«'«*• " 
Ovde,  Mid  of  Die  Siegt  of  (Ae  Litetium  Sa^ 
ka^  by  Martin  fiiohoid  OabbiM  (Lond.  \S^\W 
Marqyia  of  AtUovsie'*  Admiuiara»»  *i  f™7 
India,  by  fedwin  Arnold.  iLA.  (Land.  ISK);  J!* 
son  and  Kayo's  People  i/ In^a  (Lond.  19»-^X 
aeographg  <tf  India,  ^  GvorgB  Dnncan  (w™ 
1870);  Kayo's  Sgjos  ffar(i87D;  H""**^*^ 
and  other  works  on  India  (Lond.  leTS-'jH; 
Markham's  Omdai  lUpoH,  oMbiHiV  Uc  Hlp, 
and  Material  Progreu  (/  India  durif  1^',  ^ 
■  ■  .ted  1873) ;  Oeograpkv  of  India,  hy  ^  'S' 
d.  1824) ;  llittaiy  o/  India,  by  Sir  &»; 
EUiot  (Lend.  1B72) ;  The  SigJiiandi  ^  "f^T 
India,  by  Captain  J.  Forsyth  (Loni  I^,''^u 
Langtie  tt  la  lAUtratim  Hindimtkmit  » I9li,  "l 
Oarcin  de  Tasay  (Paris,  1874). 

INDIA,  THK  Nativb  Statb  o»,  are  diriW  ^ 
thosewhicharcentirelyindepeDdentaiidttx**       i 


tyCoOglC 


INDIA— nroiAS  AKCmTBOTURK. 


are  mora  or  leu  noder  the  control  of  the  Indiaa 

KovernmeDt.  To  tlie  former  c1m(  belong  Nepkol 
(q-  V.)  and  BhotftD  (q.  t.).  To  the  Utter  oUm  bdong 
a  large  namber  ol  states,  an  estimate  of  tiis  area 
and  popnlatiop  of  which  is  given  in  tlu  followina 
table: 


■tatei  of  L  will  be  foand  under  their  raspectire 


V.w.Pntlmet, 
Fanlib,   . 
Out.  PretlBHa, 


TcM, 


ana  manamjaos:  tnoae  whq  are 
e  called  nawkb^  khani,  ko.  The 
iw  of  tbe  mart  mipoitant  more  or 
itiTe  ststeai  Iii.the  north-w«rt  U 
Caabmerojwiai    I*dakh),  imdei  a  ntlUn   r^jah 


namber  of  nati*e  iduefa  (] 
nnder  a  lajoh  [pop. 
khan,    Routh    of    Mi 


'a.J 


laree 

>p  TSO,000]  i   Qm'hwS, 

.  — ,..});  Bawolp&r,  mider  a 

,      -    Jultan   (pop,    1,000,000).      The 

Sikh  Statea^  the  largest  of  which  is  Pattiala  [pop 
1,250^},  lie  between  tho  Jnmna  and  the  Sotlf^. 
The  Bajpoot  States  {pop.  8,50(^000)  number  18, 
each  under  a  rajah.  The  aUtei  of  Malws  are  21 
numbm :  amoDR  the  moat  inmortant  am  Bhopal 
>.  815,000)  and  the  Bnnddknnd  States  (pop. 
2,000).  Gwalior,  or  Scindia's  dominioM,  iDelndes 
a  number  ot  scattered  dkbrioti  (ptm,  8^S0,000), 
situftted  in  the  valieya  <rf  the  T^l^  NstbnddL  and 
ChnmbuL  The  present  mahaTajtfi  attained  Us 
majority  in  13S3,  and  was  tlMa  intnirtsd  with  the 
adiD  buatntion.  He  hsa  goTened  tlw  oonnt^  well, 
and,  as  stated  aboTe,  in  1857  nmamed  EaHfifol  to 
Bngland.  Indor&  or  the  Hidkai'i  domnuMW,  Ike 
between  the  Vindhya  and  Satpna  Honntains  [pop. 
815,000).  Gogetat  hat  a  pop.  of  4,250,000,  and 
Cntch,  (iOCMNXI :  both  conotnea  are  split  dp  mto  a 
niunber  of  rtates.  In  the  Deooan,  Hydenoad  has 
an  area  of  80,000  sqiiaie  miles ;  ttte  population  is 
abont  eleven  million*.  Hie  oonntiT  it  rnled  by  Hm 
nizam  oc  'Kegulator;'  but  Sir  Salar  Jni^  many 
yeora  minieter  of  tbe  late  niiom,  has,  during  the 
minority  of  ths  present  piinoe,  acted  at  regent,  and 
discharged  the  difficult  diitiet  intrusted  to  him  with 
very '  great  ability.  Cochin  hot  a  popolatiaD  <rf 
500,000,  and  Tnvancora  of  l,OO0,O0a  Uytrae  (pop. 
5,055,412)  it  a  native  ttate,  but  hat  long  enjoyed 
the  odvantusB  ot  British  rule :  it  it  to  be  NttM«d 
to  native  aitaninistration  on  the  mahan^ah,  who  in 
1S74  was  eleven  yean   (rf  ag^  leaehing  minority. 

I  under  the  care  of  an  ^'!"g'"■''   tuttn',  wa 


country  being  administered  by  oo  I 
tnissioner.  TH  these  statea  are  to  be  aaoea  wo* 
aituoted  in  the  north-eastsm  pmvibosi — yu.,  Sik 
kim.oD  the  (lope  of  the  Himahyat,  between  Nepau 
and  Bbotso  <pop.  82,000),  soTemed  by  a  rajah 


inhabited 


MuuipAr, 

under  a  rajah; 

a  country  oovered  with  detiBe  ]aii|^es,  and 

by  the  Kookies,  a  savage  laoe,  'M^ioss  emfn  pay 

tribute  to  a  maharajah.    No  oensoa  of  tlie  native , 

states  baring  been  taken,  the  eatimatet  of  po^da- 

tion  mast  be  considered  at  mere  appnndffiationK 

to  the  trotli,  on  which  no  great  reliuce  it  to  bo 

Further  infonnation  repeating  niai^  of  the  Batire 


About  250  B.O.,  Atoka, 

streanous  supporter  i 

and.  to  bis  zeal  we  o 


nmiA  RUBBER.    Bee  CiouMHoua 

INDIAIT  AROHITECTUItB.   The  styles  of  art 

which  have  existed  at  different  times  in  India,  as  in 

other  countries,  vary  with  the  religion  prevBlont  at 

the  lame.    The  earliest  futh  of  which  we  have  any 

arebitectiml  moamneDts  is  that  of  Buddhism  (q.^. 

powerful  monarch,  beoame 

id  propagator  of  Buddhism, 

the  oldest  arohite^toral 


unbroken,  ant „ 

Boddhist  sichitectDre  can  be  most  distinctly  tnoed 
eitiier  in  India  or  in  Ceylon,  Java,  and  Tibet  The 
whole  snbiect  is  at  yet,  however,  but  impMfedfy 
illustrated,  the  best  account  of  the  Indian  sMsa 
beiiw  that  contained  in  Fergosson'i  Saadboot  q/' 
AttMedUTt,  mi  his  other  voA». 

The  Buddhist  remauu  are  of  two  kinds :  1.  Com- 
memoiotive  monuments,  called  Stupaa  or  Tope* 
(q.  v.)  ;  the  earliest  stnpas  ore  single  pillaia,  bearing 
evident  traces  of  a  western  origin,  and  tbos  t&a£ 


and  vihsras,  no  built  '"""j'''"  remain ;  they  ara 
all  excavated  oat  <d  Qm  solid  rock.  There  are  no 
leti  than  40  or  00  ^oups  of  these  monomeots,  eai^ 
no«p  ocmptiRng  bom  10  to  100  distinct  excava- 
fions.  A  few  «f  these  belcmg  to  ether  rdigiont,  bot 
meat  majority  an  Buddhitt,  and  Dearly  the 
•a  are  monasteries,  not  over  20  to  30  being 
pko.  The  oldest  are  at  Babar  and  Cnttaok  in 
Bennl  (200  Ao.),  but  they  are  few  in  number,  nine- 
tenuj  of  the  caves  being  m  the  Bombay  ptceideuoy. 
liui  probably  arisee  from  the  nature  of  the  material 
in  wluch  tiiey  are  cut,  the  eastern  caves  being  in  a 
hard  granite,  and  those  of  the  west  being  in  a  very 
onifcrm  and  oomparatively  soft  amygdaloid.  !tlie 
lattm  data  from  the  be^uning  ta  about  the  lOth  e. 
of  the  Christian  «>•.  The  cave-temple  at  Kaili  it 
one  <rf  the  largest,  and  is  of  a  good  s^lii  See  teo- 
tsMi  in  art.  Bitddha.  In  plan  and  KenenJ  anoiua- 
mentiL  It  strong,  thou^  no  doubt  ancidwitally, 
reeonble*  a  Chnstian  banlioa,  wiQi  nave,  aialeo,  and 
vaulted  roof,  and  an  apse  with  the  iluine  in  the 
place  oi  the  altar.  There  is  also  an  outer  ball  or 
atrium,  and  a  gallery  like  the  rood-loft,  On  the 
mot,  are  numerous  wooden  rib%  attached  ta  the 
vault ;  these  and  other  portions  indioate  that  the 
building  from  which  ins  cave  was  copied  was 
wooden,  which  may  aooonnt  for  the  absence  of 
earlier  built  examples.  This  oave  is  126  feet  long, 
'45  feet  7  inchea  wide,  and  40  to  4G  feet  high. 
The  vihara  or  monastery  oaves  ate  very  nun 
inired  by  Uie  enormous  number  of  Bud 


was  reqmred  by  the  enormous  nam 

iesta    The  oldest  and  siniplest  e 

but  the  finest  ore  in  V* 


^ugal, 


Th^ 


hyGoogle 


INDIAN  ABCHTTECTUBE. 


couist  of  a,  ceotntl  haJi,  witli  celU  roiud  three  lides, 
and  &  verandah  on  the  fourth  dde,  next  the  open 
ir  ;  oppoaite  the  ceatnti  entrance,  there  ii  lunuiUy  a 
large  cell  or  alume,  containing  an  image  of  Buddha. 
There  are  fine  cavea  at  Ajonta,  Baush,  &e,,  many 
of  them  beautifully  carved  and  paintea  The  pillan 
are  moat  elabor^aly  ornamented,  and  have  the 
bracket  capital!  which  diiCinguifih  all  Indian  archi- 
tecture. From  the  absence  of  any  built  example, 
there  boa  been  great  dlfSculty  in  farming  a  correct 
idea  of  the  erterior  of  the  buildings  fram  vhich 
"  xe  caves  were  copied     By  following  the  style 

'10  other  countries  where  the  religion  has  prevailed 
at  difierent  times,  Hr  Ferguason  hoH  bean  able  to 
trace  it  up  to  the  present  day,  and  to  eatablisb 
by  analogy  the  probable  externa!  appearance  of  the 
ear^  Buddhist  architecture. 

l^e  temple  of  Biambaiuuii,  in  Java,  seems  to 
ahew  the  oriffnal  fonn  of  boilt  cells.  They  ore 
quite  detached,  and  arranged  in  a  square  round  B 
central  temple — evidently  auggestinfl;  the  arraage- 
ment  in  the  csTea  nt  Ajunta,  Borne  rock-cut 
temples  which  have  an  exterior  (at  Mahavellipore), 
shew  the  cells  attached  to  the  main  building.  In 
Bnrmah,  where  the  monastic  system  still  prevailH, 
the  monastecies,  which  are  of  wood,  are  bnilt  in 
stages  in  a  pyramidal  form.  The  temple  of  Boro 
Buddor  (q.  t.),  in  Java,  has  a  similar  arrangement, 
coDsiatiiig  of  a  large  number  of  cells  or  nicbcs  in 
tiers ;  but  in  place  of  beiuj;  occupied  by  priests, 
they  are  tilled  with  cross-legged  Buddhas,  a  con- 
version quite  common  in  later  Hindu  architectttre. 
In  many  styles  of  architecture,  the  niches  or  other 
Buhordinate  parts  are  frequently  copies  on  a  Bmoll 
scale  of  Uie  fa^ado  of  the  building  itself.  Thus, 
for  instance,  tbe  windows  with  pulors  and  pedi- 
ments in  classic  architecture,  are  a  repetition  of  a 
temple  end  The  niches  inside  the  caves,  containing 
utat^es  of  Budilhiit  saints,  are  in  a  similar  manner 
imitations  of  the  main  fajadc.  In  the  some  way 
eitemally,  the  Burmese  pagodna  and  Hindu  temploi 
are  ornamented  all  over  witi  models  of  the  bnildmgs 
themselves. 

Mr  Fergnsion  hsa  thus  traced,  in  fuller  detul 
than  our  space  will  allow,  the  transformations  that 
have  token  place  in  Buddhist  architecture,  irtiich, 
whatever  its  artistic  qualities  may  be,  has  at  least 
the  very  interesting  feature  of  beW  a  style  which 
has  eiiated  from  2O0  years  before  Chciiit  up  to  the 
present  day. 

The  other  styles  of  Indian  architecture  are  illus- 
trated by  the  temples  of  tbe  Joinas  and  those  of 
the  Hindus.  The  former  seems  to  have  been  an 
imitation  of  the  Buddhist  temples  without  the  cells 
for  the  priests.  Their  relinoua  structures  consist 
'  a  sanctuary  surmounted  oy  a  snire;  in  front  of 
B,  a  pillared  vestibule,  with  a  dome,  and  round 
tiiB  whole  an  arcaded  enclosure,  with  cells  all  round, 
containing  images.  The  cells  are  also  surmounted 
with  spires,  and  the  arcades  with  domes  are  often 
repeated  to  a  considerable  number  within  one 
enclosure.  The  moat  striking  feature  of  this  style 
is  the  dome,  which  is  constructed  by  horizontal 
jointing,  not  with  regular  arches.  The  domes,  with 
the  pilars,  bracket  capitals,  ftc.,  are  all  elaborately 
decorated 

Hindu  architecture  it  divided  into  two  styles^ 
northern  and  sonthem.  All  the  Gnest  examples  ore 
•oitthem,  and  are  found  sonth  of  Madras.  The 
temples  consist  of  the  temple  or  vimana,  in  front  of 
which  is  the  pillared  porch  or  tnantopo,  the  gate 
pyramids  or  goporas.  forming  the  entronca  to  the 
enclosure,  and  the  fiUiredhaUa  or  choultries.  In  the 
aoutii,  the  temple  is  always  pyramidal,  and  iu  many 
stories  ;  in  the  north,  the  outline  is  curved,  and  in 

le  shny.  The  finest  ejuuuide  is  the  pagod»  of 
m 


'oniore.    It  il  82  feet  square  nt  baae,  and  14  itio-   i 
r  about  200  feet,  in  height. 
The  gopuraa  are  similar  to  the  pagodas,  bnt  Aikt; 
1  placa  Id  square. 


Gopun,  or  Gate : 


Tbe  pillared  halls  are  very  wonderful  ■Itiii:I>i'^ 
coatainmg  sometimes  as  many  as  1000  colcmiu.  u^ 
as  these  are  all  elaborately  carved,  and  all  dib^ 
the  labour  of  their  construction  must  hare  d^ 
enormous.  They  are  need  for  many  purpose!  i" 
neoted  with  Minduism,  their  most  impwtul  B 
being  its  nuptial  halls,  in  which  the  mystic  iui>«  ' 
the  divinities  is  celebrated.  The  general  w"* 
ment  of  these  halls  sometimes  prodnca  «  ?"; 
effect ;  but  from  their  flat  roofs,  they  anaat  (^ 
the  beou^  of  the  domed  arcades  of  the  Jibi 
These  buildings  are  of  various  dates,  from  tbe  («^ 
loencenient  of  the  Christian  era  to  the  last  caita!- 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  oldest  eumpk"-'' 
the  finest — the  style  growing  gradually  mere  "^ 
more  debased,  till,  at  the  present  day,  it  hu  bei^i'' 
like  the  religion,  a  mass  of  absntdi^  and  otocuj^ 
The  celebrated  iwk-cut  temple,  called  the  K.™ 
at  EUora  (q.  v.),  belongs  to  this  style. 

When  the  Mohammedaas  conquered  Xndii.  vr 
imitated  the  style  of  the  country  in  their  moiqK 
and  afterwards  the  Hindus  borrowed  from  O"^-  ^ 
thus  a  mixed  style  was  created,  which,  in  tbe  pt'*'^ 
tombs,  ic,  of  the  native  princes,  ptDdooes  pt*"*^ 
effects.  The  Mohammedans  also  covered  the  a>"J^ 
with  specimena  of  their  Moorish  style,  wbicli  "W  " 
treated  under  Saiuoenic  AucHlTEiTniBEi         ^ 

Soma  of  the  finest  buildings  of  India  |^  ~^ 
ghauts  or  landing-places,  with  their  broad  S'P^ 
steps ;  the  reservoirs  or  bowlees,  and  dami,  ui  f' 
mented  with  temples,  kiosks,  stain,  &c ;  bot^ 
space  will  not  permit  us  further  to  "iescnl*  *^ 
There  is  one  very  remarkable  fact  conoecttd  J™ 
Indian  architecture,  viz.,  that  althoogh  il« JT 
of  the  arcb  is  constantly  used — in  donm  ""^ 
Ac,  eapeclally  in  tbe  style  borroired  frmii 
UoslcDU — yet  tho  radiating  arch  conitwf"? 
adopted.    The  arehitravts  are  "fff^^ 


bracketed    capitals,    which    project,   l"**'^'||ia 
bracket,  till  the   space  is  spanned  bf  ""^  ^, 
This  leads  to  many  beautiful  results  i"  ""'i^ 
styles,  and  in  the  later  mixed  style,  lie  ^" 
coniicea  ore  amongst  its  finest  features. 


byCoogle 


INDIAH  ABlfY— IBDIAir  TEEMTOET. 


INDIAN  ABMY.    Sea  East  ImiAARHT. 
INULAN  COBN.    Sea  Mahs. 
INDIAK  FIG.    See  Psioelt  Fkab. 
INDIAN  FIRE,  »  bright  wWta  rignal-Iight,  wo- 
dnced  bv  buniing  a  miitura  at  7  pan*  of  BiilpW, 
2  of  Bealg&r  (q.  v.).  ftnd  24  of  mtre. 

INDIAH  GRASS  MATTING,  or  INDIAN 
MATTINO,  a  kind  of  matting  imported  in  krge 
qu&ntiliea  from  Calcutta,  ia  mods  from  a  tpecit* 
of  Papybdb  (q.  T.J,  p.  Pangorti,  called  Madoortati 
in  Bengal,  and  then  very  abundant.  Tho  atolka 
of  the  plant,  when  groan,  are  split  into  three  or 
four  piecei,  whioh,  in  drying,  contract  so  that  the 
edges  come  alouMt  into  contact ;  and  when  woven 
into  matting,  they  «hew  nearly  the  aame  beautiful 
■hining  BUT&ice  on  both  side*. 

INDIATT  INK.  The  cakes  of  this  substance, 
which  ia  a  mechanical  mixture,  aud  not,  like  the 
true  ink*,  a  chemical  compound,  are  composed  of 
lamnblaek  and  aizo  or  """•■"'l  glue,  with  a  httlo 
perfume.  The  lampblack  must  be  remarkably  fine, 
and  is  Mid  to  be  made  in  China  by  collecting  the 
smoke  of  the  oil  of  Kguoe.  A  little  camphor  (about 
2  per  cent)  is  also  found  in  the  ink  made  in  China, 
luid  is  thmight  to  improve  it.  This  subataoce  ia 
used  in  that  country  with  a  bnuh  both  for  writing 
and  for  painting  upon  paper  of  native  manufacture, 
while,  in  this  country,  it  is  eitennvely  employed 
for  designs  in  block  and  white,  and  all  intermediate 
ahades  Ot  colour.  Much  curious  information  on  this 
mgDMot  may  be  found  in  Meiimie'i  treatise.  He  la 
J'einlwr  d  WTuifc. 

INDIAJT  OCEAN,  one  of  the  five  grand  divi- 
sions of  tha  nniTetaal  ocean,  is  boundea  ou  the  8. 
by  a  line  diawu  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the 
mast  Hontheriy  extremity  of  Tasmania  or  Van 
Diemen'a  Land.  Its  other  limila,  reckoning  from 
the  last-mmtioned  point,  are  Van  Diemen's  Laud, 
Australia,  the  Indian  AJohipelago,  Farther  India, 
Hindnstan,  Persia,  Aralna,  and  Afric*.  Gradually 
narrowing  from  south  to  north,  the  I.  0.  forks  at 
Cape  Comorin  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  east, 
and  the  Arabian  Sea  on  tOe  west,  the  Utter  again 
branching  off  into  two  arms,  the  Fenian  Golf  and 
the  Bed  Sea,  which  reach  respeotirely  the  month 
oE  the  Enpbiates  and  the  nei^iboiirtiood  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Theea  details  exdode  the  waters 
of  the  lodisD  Archipelago,  as  belonging  rather  to 
the  Padfio  Ocean.  As  above  defined,  the  I.  0. 
strelebea  in  lat.  from  43*  SIS'  a  to  30°  N.,  and  in  E. 
lon^.  froml8'29'tol46°12'.    It  contains  thon)uuida 


of  ulands,  or  rather  tens  of  tbonsands.  Of  these, 
Madagascar  il  the  laivest,  and  at  about  ihe  same 
distance  from  it  to  the  east  as  the  continent  of 
Africa  is  to  the  vest^  lie  Bonrbon  or  Beunian 
towiuda  the  aanth,  and  Maoritina  towards  the 
north.  Ntst  in  size  to  Madsf^scar,  and,  in  fact, 
the  only  otiier  Island  of  any  oonaiderable  magnitude, 
is  Cevlon.  Aa  a  channel  of  coimnGTce,  this  ocean 
would  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  find  a  pUee 
in  history,  inssmoch  as  the  earliest  voyage  on 
record  b^ond  the  land-locked  Mediterranean— that 
of  Soknnon's  nan — did  certainly  eitend  further 
than  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  In  this  respect, 
it  virtually  maintained  its  superiority  dnrina  fully 
2IKHI  years,  bdng  habitnaUy  traversed,  in  the  line 
of  the  crow's  fli^t,  between  Arabia  and  Hindustan, 
while  ooMting  voyages  alone  were  known  in  the 
Atlantic  This  comparatively  bold  navi^tion  was 
anggested  and  faoilitated  by  the  periodical  mon- 
soons of  the  northern  part  of  the  L  0.,  blowing, 
as  they  do,  alternately  from  the  sonth-wett  and 
the  north-east. 


INDIAN  SHOT  iOanna  Indiea),  a  plant  com- 
mon in  almost  all  tropical  coontries  ;  a  herbaceoos 
perennial,  with  a  creeping  root-stock  (rAizOTDe),  and 
a  simple  stem,  formed  oy  the  otJiering  bases  of  the 
large,  tough,  ovate-oblong  leaves.  It  belongs  to 
the  natural  order  Maranlaeea.  It  derives  the 
name  L  S.  from  the  seed,  which  is  bard,  round, 
and  about  the  size  of  a  very  small  pea,  and  is 
Bometdmea  used  as  shot  The  seed  yields  a  beau- 
tiful  red  colour.  The  root-stocks  ore  very  large, 
BponOT,  and  jointed,  and  are  used  in  Brazil  tor 
emoUient  poulticea  in  tumours  and  abscesses.  The 
root-etockl  of  some  of  the  other  species  of  Canna 
valuable,  yielding  the  staroh  called 
TocB-ura-KOja  (q.  v.). 

INDIAN  TBBBITOBIEB,  a  phrase  of  vo^e 
— ; — ,  {j  peculiar  to  the  geography  of  Amenoa. 
ly  and  naturally,  it  indicated  such  portion 
u>  ipiaui  country  as  had  not  yet  been  colonised,  a 
portion  which,  of  course,  was  constantly  dimin- 
ishing. In  this  sense,  therefore,  the  worJs  neces- 
sarily varied  in  extent  of  application  from  year 
to  year.  In  1621,  however,  tiie  T.  T.  of  Sntish 
America  were  defined  by  statute  as  comprising 
only  the  unsettled  wildernesses  beyond  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company's  chartered  doioain,  which  was 
itself  generally  held  to  be  identical  with  the  basins 
of  all  the  feeders  of  Hudson's  Strait  and  Hudson's 
Bay.  Due  west,  this  vast  re^on  bordered  on 
HuBsian  America,  while  from  the  parallel  of  54°  W 
southward  to  that  of  42?,  it  tonched  the  Facifio 
Ocean.  Subseqnently  to  1821,  this  inaiitiiue  section 
was  partly  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and  partly 
erected  into  the  colony  of  British  Columbia,  so 
that  the  I.  T.  of  the  jiresent  day  nowhere  reach  the 
sea  eicepting  on  the  ice-bonnd  shores  oE  the  north. 
WiUiin  this  limited  range,  too,  they  have  practically 
lost  their  statntory  character,  being  virtuaUy  released 
(see  Hussoh's  Bat  Cokfaiit)  from  the  restiictive 
system  of  troding-Uceaccs.  Hitherto,  perhaps,  the 
change  has  been  merely  nominal,  for,  independently 
of  the  influences,  monJ  and  physical,  of  long  posses- 
sion, the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  finds,  in  distance 
and  seclusion,  a  guarantee  stronger  than  any  par- 
liamentary title.  If  competition  is  likely  to  be 
powerless  for  years  to  come,  colonisation  is  sure  to 
be  so  for  ages  under  the  combined  prohibitions  oE 
soil  and  climate.  The  L  T.  stretch  m  N.  lat.  from 
about  S2i°  to  about  70*,  and  in  W.  long,  from  about 
103°  to  the  international  boundary  between  Bossia 
and  England  of  141°.  They  consist  chiefly  of  the 
valleys  of  the  Back,  the  Coppermine,  and  the 
Mackeime.  Beyond  all  the  anologiea  of  civilised 
oommunities,  the  nativo  population  ia  incredibly 
sparse  and  scanty,  certainly  not  exceeding,  at  an 
extravagant  estimate,  10,000  in  number,  exclusively 
engogea  in  hunting  and  finding ;  while  less  than 
SOO  strangera  of  every  description  are  scattered 
abroad  in  hovel-like  forts,  hnndreds  of  miles 
distant  from  each  other.  The  I.  T,  form  part  o£ 
the  diocese  of  Bupert's  Land,  established  in  1849  j 

only  since  J868  that  they  have  actually 

LOnary  operations. 

BBITO: 

the  government  i 
tribes  removed  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  those 
living  there.  It  lies  between  33°  Sff  and  37°  N. 
lat,  and  94°  20*  and  103°  W^.  long.,  being  370  miles 
long  by  220  wide,  with  an  area  of  74,137  square 
miles.  It  ia  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Kansas,  E. 
by  Arkansas,  S.  and  W.  by  Texas,  from  which 
it  is  separated  on  the  souUi  by  the  Bed  Biver. 
It  is  a  oeantiful  country,  with  vast  fertile  plains, 
watered  by  innumerable  streams,  including  the 
Bed  Biver,  the  Arkansas,  and  their  brnnchca.    The 


byGoogle 


omuK  Tsjjow— nmiASB. 


climate  H  genul,  prodM^t  oottoa,  tcAwooo,  nwiie, 
wbeat^  Mid  fraiti.  Goal,  iroo,  mo,  Mppar,  ■ill, 
•Ml  p«lKdmnii  tpciiip  aboiwd.  ltd  papoUtiOD  at 
■boot  mow  oonuti  of  OiarakMt,  Cnaka,  SMii- 
mIm,  Chootem,  CSiickMMn,  ud  ramnaiite  d 
nwUkr  tribet.  Tb»  pniMt[Ml  biba  km  in  »  higli 
Mat*  of  dTiliHtka,  and.  Moa^  tlw  9emiitol«^  iJI 
poMSM  •  wriHM  oonititatiiiD  and  ood«  of  lawi. 
Li  1874^  then  w««  B  bigh  aohoolik  and  88  daf  MhooU 
tiooBg  the  ChankMB,  Obootam,  amd  <%iakaBain. 
iSmay  of  Um  InAau  ealtante  taige  ^autatioaa. 

INDIAN  YELLOW,  or  PUKREE.  is  a  oolourinj 
matter  hij^j  esteemed  by  artUtt.  It  is  ezportec 
from  tile  But  ludiet  in  mauea  of  three  or  fon: 
onncea  in  weight,  which  are  of  a  dark  brown  colour 
MCtemaUy,  bnt  of  a  bright  oranae  yelloir  in  the 
interior.  It  ia  genenlly  balierea  to  be  a  nrinaiy 
■ediment  nS  lie  camel  or  bnSalo,  after  the  wimwl 
liaa  fed  on  decayed  and  yellow  mango  laaTea;  Iti 
odonr  ia  peooliaj',  and  rtumnMnn  that  of  oattoraan. 
iW  mbatanoa  cooaati  ohiefiy  of  the  magneaUa 
ailte  of  an  acid  taned  purreie  or  agcaniiik  aai.  It 
ii  almost  insolable  in  oold  water  or  alcohol,  bat  ia 
■cdnUe  in  hot  kloohol  and  id  ethv;  it  also  diMtdvea 
freely  in  boUing  dilate  hydroohlorio  aoid,  from  which 
stellate  na<^  of  aoiaalaT  crystala  of  eoxantiiic 
•Old  (EO,C,,H,,0,,)  are  deposited  on  ooding. 
Alkaline  aolatiaoa  disaolire  ttua  aoid,  and  form  a 
ytJkrw  Uqaid.  A  solutdon  of  eniantiiate  of  potaah 
when  mixed  with  the  solntion*  of  the  salt*  erf  the 


inaolnbleUe. 

By  dry  djstillatian,  this  add  yields  a  yellow, 
ayftalline  sablimate  of  mrraont  or  suaoniftoM 
{Cf^oHiiO,,),  water  and  carbonic  acid .  b«ing 
erolTod ;  and,  witli  nitric  acid,  it  yields  savenu 
nitrweanu  bodies  of  oonsidentble  interwt,  in  a 
pnre^  chanical  point  of  Tiow,  bat  of  no  ptactioal 


IimU'NA.oiie  of  the  United  States  .   _ 

'  organised  in  IS16,  with  a  governor  and  UgiaUture, 
•ztends  from  37*  47'  to  41*  48'  N.  lat,  and  from 
8*'  49"  to  SS"  ?  W.  long.,  haring  a  length  of  276 

'  miles,  a  breadth  of  135  niilee,  and  an  area  of  33,809 
square  milcL  or  21,637,760  acrea.  It  ia  bounded 
on  the  N,    by  Midugan    state  and  lake, 

,   Ohio^  S.  by  Kentuelqri  from  which  it  is 
by  tlM  Ohio  Biver,  and  W,  by  niinois.   T 

I   divid«d  into  92  oonoties.    "tbn  oqntal  i 

■  yioli^  near  tlis  oentr^  and  its  chief  towns  m 
EmwTillet  New  Albany,  Madison,  Vincennea,  Terre 
Haute,  Lafayette,  Fort  Wayn^  and  it*  only  Uke- 
port,  Mii*ig«n  Oi^.  The  popnlation  in  ISOO 
was  «7fii  m  1810,  24,620;  ia  IsM^  147,178;  in 
1830,343,031;  in  1840,  685,888;  in  1890,988,416; 
in  I860,  l,360,9ti  (of  which  nearly  half  were 
mrndgrants  from  other  states,  and  from  Ctermany 
and  Cdand) ;  and  in  1870^  1,680,837.  The  state  u 
larel,  with  sluggish  streami  and  great  prairies.  It 
is  eUefly  drmned  br  the  Wabash  Bivar  and  its 
branches.  Than  are  7700  «iaaie  miles  of  coal, 
portions  of  wbidi,  oo  the  Ohio,  are  oamtel  coal  of 
exoellent  tonality,  lbs  smI  is  of  wondetfol  fartility, 
■ad  tbe  dunate  is  like  that  of  the  sootli  of  Franoe, 
witii  odder  winters,  aod  the  hills  on  tlie  Ohia  am 
oovered  with  line  vineyarda.  The  staple  prodno- 
tions  are  wheat,  naiie,  cattie,  swine,  tobaooo,  froita, 
wine,  ko.  In  18S9,  mines  of  coal  and  iron  were 
foand,  and  also  qnairiee  of  bnilding-Etona.  There 
are  oTer  3000  mOes  of  railway,  and  a  oaoal  of  407 
miles,  nnhiiig  the  Ohio  £i*er  wiA  I«fce  Erie, 
niere  is  a  state  universihr,  a  noraial  i  ' 
leroas  aomnwnMboob  ana  chnrehe^  and 
poiodioals. 


flhnrches,  and  about 
n  the  WabMh,  was 


their  deaoendanto  ■ 


settled  by  the  Ft«Mh  in  I70Z.     Ksriy  ia  tfew  co- 
tary,  the  settlemenla  were  distorbed  bi  Indian  ho-   ' 
tilitdes ;  the  Indiana  were  dofsated  in  I8I1  by  G 


INDIANA'POUS,  a  d^  and  dqAri  of  ladmBa, 

Unitad  StatM  of  Amerioa,  is  bnUt  on  thawat  fsk 
of  White  river,  near  the  centre  of  Uw  strte.  10» 
mils*  ttotth-west  of  CindnnaU.  It  is  a  ngnlady 
boilt  and  beaatifnl  dty,  with  a  handwa  tbts- 
honae,  conrt-hoose,  jail,  and  stnts  anlnms  tcr  tb» 
blind,  deaf  sod  domlL  and  inaane.  It  has  a  vmt- 
versity,  2  female  oolb^es,  33  ohnrdM^  8  bal^ 
several  prmting-offlcea,  boteh,  woollen  faotoiai, 
iron-fonadriea,  planing- mills,  utd  fionr-miB^  wiA 
abundant  water-power.  It  is  the  tenniBiu  of  agU 
radiating  railwaya.  In  IS40,  the  popolatioD  wm 
2692;  in  187(^  48,244 

IKBIANS,  AhebicJlh,  the  coUactirD  name  nor 
generally  grven  to  tbe  varioaa  nations  and  tiSiei 
inhabiting  Norfb  and  South  Ameoioa,  at  tiw  toK 
rely  by  tiie  Spamaids,  and  to  nek  <4 
'-*■  —  -~^ve  at  tlio  pnsent  day. 

.    . dnt  giren  to  tite  mdaKs 

of  America  from  tlte  mistaken  notion  cf  tiie  arty 
Toyigeis,  Colombns  himself  inclnded,  Vbtt  "at 
newly  foood  continent  was  in  realily  »  pwt  of  In^ 
This  was  soon  shewn  to  he  an  error  ;  b«t  the  nm» 
of  Indians,  thoa  wron^  applied  to  Uie  inhabitatL 
continued  to  be  used  in  everv  flamtiTe  of  n  j^ 
and  diacovBiy,  and  has  deaoended  even  to  oar  ovt 
tintes,  only  uiat  we  now  qualify  it  m  sonte  miaBR 
by  speaking  of  them  as  Anteriaoi  IndiaMt. 

In  the  dasaification  of  BtnmenbSLch,  the  Ameri- 
can Vidians  am  treated  as  a  distinct  variety  d 

"--  ^ "^  *  ^    the  tlMridd  diviMi  d 

Lstbsm,  tbey  •!«  ndbd 
Other  eMuMlooits  alK 
then  aa  a  Ixandt  of  Oe  gnat  Mm^iliu 
family,  which,  a*  a  remote  psnoa  of  Qie  wnlf i 
lusbx'y,  foond  its  way  frou  Asia  to  Uim  Anencss 
oontineat,  and  there  reawined  for  ttoa^mds  d  yoa 
separate  from  the  rest  of  nianli  Jail.  [■ssii>]L  Bcaa-  ' 
while  throngb  varioM  altenationa  of  barhaiW  wj 
dviliaatko.  Ibrton,  hcrwmr,  Um  diatJi^Bished 
Ameriosa  ethnologiit  and  his  *— '[J-i  N4t  aad  ' 
Oliddon,  daim  tor  thsm  a  diitinot  origb^  »e  si  ' 
indigenons  to  tbe  continent  itaalf  as  ita  faniB  aaj 
flora.  Prkhard,  whose  news  genoallf  diBs  tn^  , 
thoaa  of  Hortan,  aoknowkdgsa  that,  'on  am(isi«e 
Hm  Anerioan  tribes  togsther,  wa  &m1  i«sobs  t>  ' 
believa  that  tbay  mast  have  subsiBtad  aa  a  aspirate 


lid  dawnbvDi 
I  HoogdidB. 


.  .  attempting  to  tMoa  rd^un 

between  them  and  the  rest  ci  '»"'^'~<,  we  aunt 
ezpeot  to  disoovar  ftoota  of  their  derivatteo  bem 
any  paitionlar  tribe  or  natiMi  in  tba  old  ocsitiBat 
""     era  of  thairexistenoaaaa  distinct  nod  insdsud 

most  prob^ily  be  d«ted  M  Ear  fanok  as  tlut 

time  whidi  saparatsd  into  natsona  tha  inhatatanti  i 
of  tiia  Old  Worid,  and  DBVe  to  awdi  ttwdi  d  tfat 
lily  ita  primitiva  langoaga  and  iadrrid- 

Kob«>t  Brown,  in  hi*  Aaee*  y  JfaaluA 
the  lataat  antfaoii^  on  tiw  sobjao^  atfaibnlaa  to  th> 
AasMiaan  laoe  an  Adatie  Migin.  Ha  ^ys :  'S*  . 
only  ara  tha  Wastsm  Indiana  in  wpearanos  Tsy  ' 
like  tlMic  nearest  neighbour  tha  -KartlMMitn 
ABiBtia%  bnt  in  langnaga  and  kraditioiw  it  r  —  ' 
fidentiy  affirmed,  th«t»  la  a  faUnding  of  Um  { 


,  thata  la  a  faUndins  of  tbe  pnd& 
tits  AmacioBa,  and  Uw  TcfciAlcU 


feotlT.' 

tiunktt 


In  fast,  modnn  anUirapokgiata  ineUw  l<> 

at  Japan,  the  Earilea,aDd  tha  nei^boanss 

Mgkma  may  be  regarded  aa  tha  original  home  d  tkB 

'--  pni  of    the  Amatiean  race       "    '     "^ 

[  br  anthM^ologJati^  tiut  t 


I  y  Google 


TMioBS  trib«%  bom  die  Arotia  8«*  to  Cape  Horn, 
there  ia  gmkta  nuiforniity  of  phj'dMl  itniotara 
»nd  pcnoaml  <ilui«ataiBtia*  *■' —    --   


_Migii^to 

le  fftat  bnndi  of  tbe  hanum  hmily.  Upon 
thia  point,  tlia  teetimon^  of  a  writar  like  HwnMdt 
IB  TMV  importmnt  'Tbe  Indiu*  ol  New  Spain,' 
■ays  Hmnboldt,  '  beir  m  gaunl  MMmblanoe  to 
thoae  who  inhaUt  OuadJi,  norida,  Fern,  and 
Brazil  ....  We  tliink  we  iMMeJTe  tiwm  all  to  be 
descended  from  tite  tame  atoil^  notwitlutauding  the 
prodigjooi  dtwi^ty  of  titeir  lHwiuige&  In  the 
portratt  dram  t^  Volitey  of  the  &iuMiBn  Indiani^ 


■  inbotlt 


the  Mongol  ooaa^  Le.,  on  i 
and  get!  UM  noticeaUe  a 


I  AnMrioaa.'    llie  Mongdian 
nurind  in  Ota  tribea  nearest 


•  of  tiiePaeifl<^ 

. ji  eastward.    Hieir 

traditions,  too,  indicate  that  the  tribea  on  the 
eastern  seaboard  game  from  the  west  and  the  west- 
ern tribea  erau  came  tnmi  regions  still  further  west. 
OenendlT,  tiie  ph]rsical  charaotwistiaa  ol  Uie 
AmcricMt  Indians  ar«  as  Mlows  t  a  sqnare  bead, 
with  a  low  bnt  bnad  forehead,  the  back  of  the 
head  flattened,  ftjl  face,  and  poiwrfol  ]i 


sr;  heidit  i 
Ung  tuler 


from  thoT 


about  the  av 

shorter,  and  more  inclined  to  obea!^,  bat  many  of 
them  with  lymmetanoBl  fignie  and  pieaaing  eonnte- 
DEuice;  hands  and  feet  of  Mth  men  and  women  small 
As  befcve  said,  however,  thwe  baiu;  aoroe  hon- 
dreda  of  tribes  BBKmg  the  Amsrican  Cdlaoa,  tbtae 
are  many  departuna  from  theae  gentuvl  eharao- 
teriaUce,  -not  onlv  in  kdiTiduala,  bat  entire  septs. 
'The  Americans,  a^i  Frichard,  'are  not  all  of  iJie 
hae  denominated  nd,  that  is,  of  a  oqipm'  ocJonr ; 
some  tribes  are  as  white  as  many  BmopeannatiODa; 
others  brown  or  yellow ;  otfaen  are  Uack,  en',  at 
least,  they  are  daaoibad  1^  tntTelkn  as  Teiy  mn^ 
ceeembliag  in  oolonr  the  nspma  of  Africa  Aiuto- 
iTUsts  have  distinguished  what  thn  have  termed 
the  American  form  of  the  homan  i^oU :  thty  were 
led  into  thia  mist^a  by  regarding  the  strong 
marked  ohaiacteiiatics  of  some  partumlat  tribee  as 
nniverssL  The  American  nations  are  spread  over 
a  vast  tpaoS)  and  live  in  difl^ent  climataa,  and  Ute 
shape  of  their  heads  is  diffm^nt  in  difiarent  parts. 
Nor  will  any  epithet  derived  from  Umr  habits  of 
life  apply  to  all  the  tribee  of  thia  demrtment.  Hie 
nutive  Americans  are  not  all  huutcn:  there  are 
many  flsbing  tribes  among  them :  some  are  nomadic; 
others  cnltivate  the  earth,  and  live  in  settled  habi- 


learned  of  their  oonqnerors  to  tdD  the  soil,  and  have 
changed  the  ancient  habits  of  their  race,  which,  aa 
we  may  hence  infer,  were  not  the  neceesaiy  icsolt 
of  organisation  or  congenital  and  instinctive  pn>- 
pensi^.'  Dr  Uorton's  views  on  this  aabjeet  snb- 
stantially  agree  with  those  of  Frichord ;  and  both 
CODCOF  in  adopting  the  test  of  langoage  as  a  proof 
of  one  eomiDoii  ongin  for  the  varions  native  taibea 
of  both  North  attd  South  America.  Hie  lingnislia 
conclusion,  now  geoerallv  aoqnieaced  in,  is  Ihns 
briefly  stated  liy  Hr  Albert  Gallatin:    'Amidst 


-  langnsges,  oon- 
only  in  i«fareQoe  to  their  vocabnlaries,  As 
similarity  of  thdr  straotnrc  and  grammalioal ' 
baa  been  observed  and  pcinted  out  by  the  Ami 
pUlolog^sts.  The  ramlt  ^ipeais  to  oonfim  vdb 
oMoieaa  alraadv  atartainad  en  that  snl^eet  by  lb 
Jim  Peooean,  Mr  Piokainft  and  otiien;  and  to 
OTOve  that  bD  the  lansoages,  not  onfy  of  ear  own 
Indiana,  but  tf  tbs  naKv«  inhabitaBta  d  America, 
from  the  Ardao  Ooean  to  Cape  Horn,  have,  aa  bi 
as  they  have  been  investigated,  a  diatiimt  charaoter 
common  to  all,  and  aj^Mrently  differing  fnnn  any  of 
those  of  the  other  oontinente  with  wbidti  we  are 
most  familiar-' 

The  next  onaslioii  that 
is :  WlMDoe  diMa  It  ariaa  t 
of  idiynaal  oonformation 
have  been  only  two  nationB  among  so  many  m 

namely, the HezioaBa  andFownana — iriio    

to  any  hi^  deeree  of  dvihsationl  When  the 
Spaniarda  entersd  Uexdoo,  th<?  fonnd  in  it  a  tkh, 
powerfnl,  and  warlike  nation,  living  in  waDed  eitiee, 
in  v^iioh  were  palaocfl  and  other  stunptoona  reai- 
deneea.  Th^  were  niled  over  by  an  emperor  ot 
^"  '  cae  sway  extended  ovw  many  othernations 
his  own.  Hiey  wofahimed  the  sun,  and 
oiganised  hieranhy;  ttey  had  ^so  fixed 
laws,  were  so^naiuted  witii  many  ol  the  srts  and 
scieoces,  espeoially  astronomy  ;  they  practiaed  agri- 
culture, worked  mioea,  and  dilqpli^ed  oonsiderBUe 
skill  in  manoiaotniea,  both  iiidasferial  and  oma- 
mentaL  The  natiim  thus  discovered  was  that  of 
the  Aitecs,  who  probMed  to  have  among  them 
evidences  Ot  antiqat^  dating  aa  far  back  as  iJie 

SS4  of  onr  era.    A  fsw  yeara  later,  in  Pem, 

_.  Ipamarda  fonnd  another  nation,  also  cxoeed- 
ingly  ridi,  nnmerona^  and  powerfnl,  wnh  a  civilisa- 
tion fully  aa  muidi  extended  as  tbat  of  llie  Axteoa, 
yet  differing  bom  that  in  mai^  essential  paiticnlara. 
xids  was  uia  nation  of  the  Qwdmas,  frequently 
termed  Incas  (moie  oanvMf  Tneat/i,  assomated 
...  ._•  ._.  ^^^^^  ^^  Aymaraa,  whose  oonntry 
ibiwated  by  the  Incas  two  or  three 
Brewean'    '    '  "■  ■    "         "    • 


._    arrival  of  Fissiro  in  Pern.  Eatdi 

of  thane  natiMH— the  Uexioana  and  Pemvisns  is 
soppoaeJ  to  hava  eiowly  developed  its  own  dvilisa- 
**"  J-^—  a  leogproceas  of  agea.  In  every  other 
lario^  Bnropean  settkn  and  ezplorars 


wto( , _ 

haflm  foond  only  com^^  or  scani-baibaiiam.  Snob 
waa  Um  ease  in  Tirdnia)  aodi  in  New  E^iglaucL 
Canada,  Ike  Hndaon's  Bay  Teiiitoiy,  Cahf omia,  and 
Patagonia.  InC«ntnJAineBaa,lioweTfv,th«ehBve 
baan  foond  axtenaiva  ranaina  of  aidiiteetiira  and 
other  tiaoaa  of  eMliaali^  whieh  would  se^  to 
'  '«  baek  to  aven  a  more  ranets  pcswd  than  diat 
__  the  HaxieaB  or  Femvian  empireai  Twmanan 
srtifidal  moanda  alao  exist  in  tlu  valley  of  the 
Hiasissqmi  and  daawfaere  Aron^unt  America,  aup- 
pcsod  to  be  the  wo^  of  Uw  anoestota  of  the  present 
wanderh^  tribea.    If  so,  dura  may  be  aome  tnith 

■n  t>Wt^'''^^TVM»>tJiH.^*^iTfcingni»l»>.1flwiwMi 

-'hnoii^ist,  'that  the  nations  d  thelfetw  Wi^d  are 
>t  in  a  state  tt  primltiTe  hatbariam  or  living  in 
«  wiginal  simpluity  of  vnoaUiTated  natwre,  nt 
oM  t^T  arc^  on  the  oontniy,  tfaa  last  remains  of 
fto^ie  Mice  bi^  in  the  sosls  of  aniisation  and 


and  de^adatiaai.' 
been  atnidc  wtth  n 


k  into  the  knraat  stage  of  deoUne 

Dt  niohaid  appsan  inolined  to 

'AttsatiTa  obattTflis  haTS 


veflaotiYa  mind,  of  ^nater  forti- 
■'-'—*  p—ewranoe  in  antaiydsea 
thay  have  otMnpared  the 
natives  of  ths  Nsw  World  with  the  sensaal  and 


byGoogle 


nnncnoN— nroicTMENT. 


ToUtile,  ud  almost  -"""'i—^  aftrkgei  who  are  itill 
to  be  fonnd  in  vane  qnaitani  of  tha  oM  oonliiient. 
niejr  hare  been  eqoBllTunpreaMdbT  the  aoUenand 
aneoaial  character,  b7  Qiepitinlapauietic  endiinnoe, 
t^  tha  fe^e  inlhioiM  <M  social  aSMaoni,  by  the 
intokiitf  of  hatred  and  revenge,  aod  the  deep  malice' 
oomMalisg  diaiimnlalion  «o  temarfcable  amid  the 
diuk  aoHttKlea  of  tha  Ametiean  tOreata.* 

Dr  Bobert  BnnntBdoiitaageo{m>hi«alclawifiea- 
tien  of  tbe  American  tribea,  whicn  u,  on  tiie  whole, 
tha  leaat  nnaatJafaotoiy.    There  aie  Aretio  tribea ; 


.__ .;  Califoniian  tribea  ;  Indiana  of  the  Central 

PUina ;  Fnurie  tribea  ;  Horth-eaatem  Indiuu ; 
Canadian  Indiana ;  and  Central  American  Indiana. 
The  chi^  exiating  tribe*  are ;  Eakimo,  Cowichan^ 
Taongeiatba,  Nanaimoa,  Qnakwoltha,  Nnchultaws, 
Koakeamo^  Snhahta,  Nittinahta  in  Vancouver 
laland ;  Hydaha  (Queen  Chariotte  lalanden) ; 
T^nmpaheani,    BeUacoolaa,    Chilcoatiiu,    Sbiuwap* 

in  Britiah  Colnmbia;  Cynae,  Soaket,  Klamath*  in 

Or^an ;   the  Digger  or  Califonuan  Indians,  the  j  north 


A^itdn,  H.  d'Oringnv  baa  claarifirf  the  Indiiu 
of  ^oaUi  America  nnder  thre«  great  gnmpa,  rir.. 
the  Andian  ^njs  the  Mediterranean  groap,  aid 
the    Braiilio-Qnaram    gionp ;    and   thcae  be  aab- 
dividea    into    thirty  -  mne    distinct    na^oni ;    rii^ 
'  1.  Quichua  j  2.  Aymara ;  3.  Change  ;  4.  AtKama : 
5.  Yuiacaree;  6.  Mocetenee;  7- Tanua;  &  Moropa:   \ 
9.  Apoliata;   10.  Arancinaiiiaii ;    11.  Fnegiaii;   1^   | 
Fat^oniaa;  laPuelche;  14.  Chamu;  IG-Mbooobi: 
16.   Mataguajn;   17-   Abiponea ;    IS.  Lengna;   1%   | 
»amucu ;  20.  Chiqnito ;  21.  Sanrec* ;  22.  Otakc :   ' 
23.  Curuminaca ;   24.  Corareca ;   25.  Cmavea ;  3G. 
TapiiB  ;  27.  Conicanecs  ;   28.  Faiooneca ;  S9.  Con- 
beca  i  30.  Moxo  ;  31.  Chapacnra  ;  32.  Itooama :  31   ' 
Caniofaana  ;  34.  Morima  ;  35.  Caynvavs ;  36.  IVa- 
ouara ;    37-  Itenea ;    3&  Onarani ;    SSL  Botoccd-i' 
Other  daaaificationa  have  been  attempted,  but  ili 
more  at  leaa  orbibary.    Morton  ia  content  with  tn   . 
grand  divieions,  viz.,  the  'Toltecaaliationa'  andtiv 
'  Barbarous  Tribea,'  the  former  embracing  the  aww  at 
Mexicana  and  Pemviant,  and  the  latter  all  ii.t 
tiDciviliaed  or  aemi-civiljjaed  tribea  from  the  eitmn- 
sooth.    The  Tcdteesiu  an 


degraded  olul  the   tribe*  ;  the  Comanche*,   said  to  be  the  buUden  of  tha 
--^— bee,  Navaic  .  ... 

i^iuB ;  the   Moqni,  Poebloi,  Pimaa,  Paj 


Apaobea,  Navajoa,  Hnalpu*,  Yampaa  in  the  Centrt 


New  Meiioa ;  Utaha,  Fahnta*,  Pabidea,  ... 
Loo-ooo-refcah*.  Gouiin,  Chsynneii  Airaphoea, 
Kwivaa,  Aricfcarees,  Poncaa,  YanktoiM,  Oroa- 
Ventres,  and  Siooz  or  Dabcotahi,  Aaainiboinea, 
Blackfeet,  Crowa,  Omahaa,  Ottoea,  Pawnees,  ftc, 
are  all  Prairie  tribes ;  the  Delaware*,  Ho-he&-con- 
neughs  (Mohicans],  Oueidaa,  Tuakaroras,  Seneca*, 
Shawnees,  Cberokeee,  Chocktaws,  Creeka,  Semi- 
noles,  Os^Ece,  Kaekiaa,  Weeohs,  Potovatomie*, 
Quapawa,  Peoriae,  Kanzim*,  Ssnks,  Foiea.  Puncaa, 
Ac  in  the  north-eaatem  states;   the  Creea,  San- 


teiu'  or  Ojebway*,  Chippewavans, 
i^aoh   in    Canada ;    Tehoi 
quitos,  ^mooa,  Twakaa,  ToonglM,  Payna,   Bamai, 


Shewharai 


TehoantepecB,    Moa 


mounds  fonnd  throngbont  North  A 

On  thi*  subject  the  reader  may  conaolt  the  «iwki 
of  Frichard,  Latham,  Morton,  Hnmbold^  Dn  Fan- 
oeau,  D'OrbigDv,  Oallatia,  Schoolcraft,  CUlin,  Fick- 
erioft  PreK^  Stephen*,  Ttohndi,  Fnsnont,  and  1^ 
M.  Sproat,  a  reoent  inftenioos  writer  on  westm 
tribes.  The  ablest  recent  orieiiial  aatliatity  ii  In 
Robert  Brown'*  Saea  oj  Maakmd,  (voL  1). 

IITDI'CTION,  a  period  or  cyda  of  IB  ycaia,  ttr 
origin  of  which  is  involved  in  obecarity.  CoDoectiii; 
the  original  meaning  of  the  word,  vis.,  '  tlie  iDipj«i- 
tioQ  oi  B  tax,'  with  its  aignification  in  chnmolo^. 
several  writera  have  propoanded  theories  cijibLi' 
tory  of  it*  origin,  none  of   which,  however,  n 


and  Cookna  in  Central  America. 

He  Indians  are  year  by  year  decreaiing  in  nnm- 
beiB.  He  govenmieat  agents'  reports  are  not  vory 
reliable,  as  th^  tend  to  over-«stmiate  the  Indian 
popiilati<Hi.  Dr  Robert  Brown  gives  some  carefully 
prepared  approximate  atatiBtics  in  his  Boat  of 
tioMittd,  wttich  are  the  moat  recent  publiahed. 
He  aay* :  '  In  Califomia|and  the  state*  ntwth  of  it  I 
qnestion  it  there  are  now  ever  10,000  or  12,000 
Indiaiia ;  while  in  tha  Britiah  pOMaation*  the  nam  - 
her  may  be  30,000.'  A  bir  estiinate  would  prob- 
ably give  Alaska  SC^OOO  i  Britiah  Colnmbia,  20,000; 
Tanooavw'aI*l*ttd,9000;Canada,fiOOO;  California, 
Oregim,  and  states  north  of  it,  10,000 ;  [nairie  lands 
west  of  tha  Rooky  Mountains,  10,000 ;  other  por- 
tiona  of  the  United  States,  2000 ;  in  New  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  20,000.  This  would  give  ns 
D  total  of  about  110.000  for  tha  whole  of  North 
America,  ezduaive  of  half-breeda,  fto.  Some  twenty 
tribea  have  become  partially  civilised,  and  live  1^ 
agriculture,  nnder  the  proteotion  of  the  American 
government,  on  what  are  called  '  Indian  Reserva- 
tion*.' nieie  are  in  these  Indian  oommunitiea  many 
men  and  women  whom  sdocation  has  developed  into 
most  TalnaMeL  iutellissnt,  and  even  polished  mem- 
ber* of  a  higUy  oiviliaed  oommnnity.  Two  tribes 
{Chooktawa  ana  Chorokees)  have  become  wholly 
civilised,  and  hare  a  settled  form  of  govenunent 
modelled  on  that  of  the  United  States.  The  Chero- 
keea  stand  alone  amongst  modem  nations  in  having 
mdncad  a  aeoond  Cadnuu,  one  Seqnovab,  or 
Qeoive  Gne*^  who  actually  invented  an  alphabet 
It  mint  be  stated,  however,  that  folly  ono-h^  of 
theae  civiliaed  tribiM  arc^  Uka  Sequoyah,  half -breed*. 
Even  whites  manyiog  Chooktaw  or  Cherokee  women, 
are  admitted,  it  uiey  ohooaa^  into  tbeae  tribe& 


histor 


IS,  during  the  life  of  Athanaains ; 


to  use  it,  and  tl 
BO  generally  employed  during  the  middle  ages,  Uii: 
the  dates  of  charters  and  public  deeds  of  thii  m 
are  expressed  in  indictions  as  welt  as  in  yean  of  d:- 
Christian  era.  Tho  lime  from  which  i«:koaiag  hv 
indictions  commenced,  ia,  according  to  some,  tk 
15th  September  312;  according  t«  the  Greek*  'i 
the  Lower  Empire,  Ist  September  312 ;  bat  tIkii 
this  method  WBa  adopted  by  the  popee,  it  was  otd»Ti! 
to  be  reckoned  a*  commencing  1st  Jannsry  SIj. 
The  latter,  which  ia  now  alone  used,  is  called  tb.' 
Papai  IndvUon.  If  we  reckon  backward!  to  tb^ 
commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  it  will  be  ka 
that  I  JL.S.  docs  not  correapond  to  the  ]at.battn 
the  4th  year  of  an  indictioo — hence,  if  lo  tms  gir^ 
yacr  of  tiit  CAririian  rra  3  bo  addtd,  and  lie  lui* 
dioided  by  15,  the  remainder  iciU  gim  (Ac  pcfitiM 

of  (hat  jsor  ia  an  indirfion — e.g.,  1874  i-n.  J»  tb' 
2d  year  of  an  indiction. 

IN DI'CTHENI  is  the  name  given  to  the  wiilM 
OCcnaation  of  crime  against  a  perstm,  and  ijBt 
which  he  is  tried  by  a  jury.  An  indictmeni  >> 
England  commences  with  a  caption,  i.  e.,  a  deso^ 
tion  of  the  style  of  the  court,  which,  bowevtf,  i>  lu 
port  of  the  indictment ;  then  folloWB  the  veiiDe  a 
statement  of  the  place  where  the  crime  was  bx- 
mitted ;  next  follows  the  acooaaCion,  which  is  in  tlu 
name  of  the  jurors,  i  e..  the  grand  juir.  In  Sl»^ 
land,  an  indictment  is  also  the  accosatioo  on  whicii 
a  ptiaoner  is  tried ;  bat  it  ran*  in  the  nine  of 
the  Lord  Advocate,  addrc**ed  to  the  prisoner.  Id 
~     ■     •  not  entitled,  b^rae  trial,  le 

a  lirtof  thewitntsM 


England,  a  prisoner  ii 


tyCoogle 


INDIBS-mDIGO. 


againat  him,  except  id  treuon  ;  bat  he  can  in 
cases  procure  a  copj  of  the  depoaitioiu  of  witm 
if  theaa  were  taken  before  a  magistrate,  at  a  trifling 
expense.  Bat  many  oases  are  not  inqnired  into  at 
all  before  a  magistrate,  so  that  this  Teasonabla 
advantage  is  not  giren  nniformly  in  England. 

In  Sccthmd,  on  the  other  huid,  a  prisoner  is  in 
all  cases  entitled  to  have  a  co]>y  of  the  indictment 
givoa  to  him  fifteen  days  before  trial,  and  also  a  list 
of  the  witnewea  to  be  brooght  against  him. 

INDIES.    See  Em  Insdcs  and  West  Insibi. 


INDIQB'STION,  or  DYSPE'PSIA,  ii 


I   of 


disease  of  the  stoi 

in    which  the    natural  process   of   digesting   and 

MsimilatiDg  the  food  is  deranged. 

The  symptoms  of  indigestion  are  by  no  means 
constant  in  all  cases.  There  is  often  ojiorezta  (or' 
want  of  appetite),  but  occasionally  the  appetite  is 
ciceeaive,  and  even  ravenous.  Nausea  not  onfre- 
qaently  comes  on  soon  after  a  meal ;  while  in  other 
cases  there  is  no  uaosea,  but  after  the  lapse  of  a 
couple  of  hours,  the  food  is  vomited,  the  vomited 
matters  being  very  acid,  and  often  bitter,  from  the 
admixture  of  bile.  Id  severe  CM«a,  the  vomiting 
has  been  known  to  occur  after  every  meal  for 
several  months.  Flatulence,  relieving  itself  in  eruc- 
tatioDS,  is  one  of  the  Btandaid  symptoms  of  this 
offectiou,  the  gas  that  gives  rise  to  this  symptom 
being  srauetimes  evolved  from  ondigeated  matters 
in  the  stomach,  and  sometimee  being  apparently 
secreted  by  Oie  walls  of  that  viscus.  It  is  vot  apt 
to  occur  in  dyBpeptio  patienla  if  they  have  fasted 
rather  longer  timi  usuaL  Cardial^  (popularly 
known  as  Kearlbum),  Pj/rcnit  (q.  v.),  or  water-brash, 
and  Otutrodynia  (commonly  deeigoated  tpatm,  or 
cramp  of  the  stomach,  and  coming  on  at  uncertain 
intervals  in  most  severe  paroiyBms),  are  other 
1  Evmptoms  of  indigestion, 
ind^estion  is  more  dietetic 
th-an  medidnaL  The  quantity  of  food  which  can 
lie  dissolved  'b^  the  gastrio  jnioe  and  intestinal 
fluids  being  limited  (see  DioxsnoH),  care  «hould  be 
taken  t^t  this  quantity  is  not  exceeded ;  more- 
over, the  meals  should  not  succeed  each  o^er  too 
rapidlv.  Mr  Abemcthy,  who  was  a  great  anthortty 
on  this  subject,  laid  great  stress  on  the  pnnciple, 
that  the  stomach  shomd  have  time  to  petiorm  one 
task  before  another  was  imposed  upon  it,  and  he 
always  reoommended  his  patients  to  allow  six  hours 
to  intervene  between  any  two  meals.  With  regard 
to  the  nature  of  the  food  best  suited  to  dyspeptic 
persons,  it  may  be  safety  araerted  that  a  mixture  of 
well'Cooked  animal  and  vegetable  food  is  in  general 
more  easily  digested  tban  either  kind  taken  exclu- 
sively. Mutton,  fowls,  and  same  are  the  most 
digestible  kinds  of  animal  food;  and  pork  and  all 
cured  meats,  such  as  salted  beef,  bam,  tongue,  Ac., 
should  be  avoided.  Raw  vegetables,  tnch  as  aalads, 
cucumbers,  Ac.,  must  also  be  prohibited.  In  most 
cases,  dyipeptta  peisoos  would  probably  do  well  to 
avoid  all  stimnlating  drinks ;  but  in  some  case*,  a 
little  oold,  weak  brandy  and  water,  or  a  glass  of  old 
sherry,  or  a  little  bitter  ale,  may  be  taken  with  advan- 
tage. Bnt  upon  all  points  of  eating  and  drinking,  a 
sensible  patient  must  be  mainly  mfluenoed  by  nil 
own  experienoe.  The  nnqnestionable  benefit  which 
dyspeptic  patieDts  often  derive  from  a  vint  to  a 
byiuopathio  establishment  is  doe  perhaps  not  so 
much  to  any  specific  action  of  the  water,  as  to  the 
well-regulated  diet,  the  withdrawal  of  the  mind 
from  personal  cares,  and  the  change  of  scene.  A 
six  weeks'  or  two  mouths'  tour  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Scotland  or  Switierland  will  in  tbe  same 
way  often  do  m  clyspeptia  patient  sum  good  tban 


he   could  have   experienoed  from  any  amount  of 
physicking  at  home. 
A  few  words  must  be  taid  renuding  the  mode     * 


chiretta,  Ac,  or  of  mineral  adds,  ._   __   

bined.  Nausea  and  vomitdng  may  he  treated  with 
hydrocyanic  acid,  chloroform,  and  oreasote  in  very 
small  ooaes.  Two  or  three  drops  of  dilute  hydro- 
cnnic  acid  in  an  effervescent  dranght  are  often  an 
effeotoal  remedy.  In  interne  vomiting,  the  amount 
of  food  taken  at  a  time  must  be  reduced  to  the 
lowest  possible  limit.  A  tableapoonfnl  of  milk, 
mixed  with  lime-water,  will  sometimes  remain  on 
the  stomach  after  all  other  kinds  of  food  have  been 
rejected.  There  is  no  better  remedy  for  flatulenos 
than  peppermint- water  ;  if  it  fails,  a  drop  of  cajeput 
"'  ~n  a  lump  of  sugar  majf  lie  tried.  When  the 
ations  are  attended  witii  an  odour  of  rottea 
eggs — that  is  to  say,  when  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is 
evolved  from  the  decomposition  of  matters  in  the 
stomach — an  emetio  is  the  best  cure.  The  remedies 
for  the  pain  in  the  stomaoh  vary  with  the  character 
of  the  pain ;  bismuth,  nitrate  of  silver,  and  opinm 
~  ~  oftrai  serviceable^  but  should  not  be  ttlcen  with- 
sdvice.    A  teaspoonful  of  the  aromatia  spirit 


tesoited  to,  can  be  takeu  with  impuni^. 

INDIOI'RKA,  a  river  of  Siberia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Jakutsk,  rises  in  the  Yabloooi  or  Stavonoi 
Mountains,  and  after  a  northerly  courae,  estimated 
at  750  miles,  through  a  frozen  desert  studded  with 
a  few  villages,  falls  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  lat.  71* 
N..  and  long.  160°  B. 

I'NDIGO  (Gr.  Indiixm,  Indian),  a  most  important 
vegetable  dyestulF,  yielding  a  beautiful  blue  and 
very  durable  dye,  the  basis  also  of  the  beet  black 
dye  in  woollen  cloths.  It  hss  been  used  in  India 
from  a  vaiy  early  period,  and  was  Imported  thence 


to  Europe  during  great  wot  of  the  noddle  aged — 
although  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  and  preparation 
of  the  dye  were  described  by  Marco  Polo  la  the 
13th  c — until  re-introduced  by  the  Dutch  about  the 
middle  of  the  IGth  centai7.  Its  uso  in  England, 
Franct^  and  Saxony  was  then  for  a  oousidciablo  time 


byGoogle 


pnTCBtad  bj  a  (trong  prajiidie*  wuwt  it,  •naine 
from  tiiB  diffioii)t7  ezpenenoad  in  ming  fte  ooloon 
Sinae  tiiu  haa  be«o  owetmie,  Oia  enltiv»t>0B  of 
ptuila  piodBciBg  indiAO,  l<>i>S  oonflmd  to  Indu,  h*£ 
oitaaded  ta  maajr  tnher  tnoiaal  aad  Mibtn^ncal 
oDunbics,  aa  i^pt.  ib»  Wot  Iixlie^  Mazioo, 
Biuil,  &e.  l^OM  plMito  MBenllT  bokog  to  Ua 
gaima  /MttM/ini,  of  th«  nMnnl  woer  LtguttOnotm, 
■Db-order  PapOiinaeta.  Tha  keel  of  tiie  mvoIU  it 
fBraiihed  (a  bottt  dAet  with  ui  awl-ilu^Md  iptv. 
The  vpedei  of  Aia  geniu  uDmber  at  leMt  ISO,  twd 
are  natiTM  of  almoat  lU  teMocal  and  ni1Mri^«o«l 
eountriM;  Of  these,  /.  tmekma  ie  tiie  apedee  mart 
geiiera%  onltiTated  is  Indih  It  is  a  half-ahntblv 
plant,  2—3  feet  hirii,  with  piimate  learea,  whiiui 
have  fiv«  or  riz  pair  <rf  long^}boTate,  doll,  UiiiA> 
ereen  leaflets,  and  laoantea   of   axUlair  pale  red 

The  proTince  of  TinneTdlr  prodqcea  a  great 
qnaotitf  of  indi^  Betlgal  prooaoes,  rai  an  aTerage, 
about  nine  millKnu  ol  powM*  anDiuIlj.  Hie  nun 
whioh  Enrop*  aBQwatlr  p^e  for  buliao  ia  estiniated 
at  ei^t  or  ten  millioBB  Ot  powda  steFling. 

I^igo  ia,  howerw,  oMMiwd  fram  planta  of 
V&ae  fNoera,  parUonlariy  from  Wr^Hia  $inel9ria 
(natnral  <nder  ApoanmiKM),  Eaal  Isffiaa  i  BaftMa 
.    --  ,iOT(iepiVMii»ifl«a*,»orth  * ^- 


which  yielda  indigo  of  a  pale  ooloor  aad  veiy 
inferior  qnali^ ;  Twhrotia  tmdoria  {aatonJ  order 
LtgumiwoKi),  Malabar;  and  T.  ApclUnm,  Egypt 
and  Nulaa;  Jforadonta  Unetoria  (natural  <n4er 
^•oiepiodBcea},  iuSylhet;  andPalwomun  tnctorHun 
Mtd  P.  OhiamMt  {natuial  otder  Po^/gotuuea),  China 
and  J^iaB. —  Wrightia  Uadaria  ia  a  luge  ahrub, 
indiflenoiu  to  great  part  of  India  and  to  Ceylon, 
yielding  indiso  of  thq  finest  qnalil^,  and  ii  leoom* 
mended  by'Br  lUixbiirgk  for  cnlnvatioD,  aa  leas 
dejiendent  than  the  common  iodigo  luanta  on 
nun  aod  irrigation-  It  grows  very  freely,  and 
throws  oat  alioote  rapidly  on  their  beiog  cnt  away. 
— In  times  when  East  Indian  indigo  wm  oot 
known,  or  was  bi«ueht  to  Europe  omy  in  small 
quantity,  the  same  dyeatuff  waa  obtained  from 
WoAXi    (^  v.). — A  ooaise    hind   of    indigo,  called 

North  Amerioa  fnmi  the  yoong  shoots  of  Amorpha 

TAe  Mamffaetum  and  AppUeaHimM  iff  Indigo. — 
The  indigo  idant,  in  ita  general  appearance,  is  not 
unlike  tha  nioeme  of  onr  fielda.  The  seed  ia  sown 
in  dlills  ^ut  10  inches  apart,  and  soon  makes  its 
appearance  above  sround,  whan  it  requires  inces- 
sant cam  to  keep  tae  weed*  down,  which  oOierwise 
wonld  Bosm.  chdce  so  tender  a  er^  In  about  three 
moathi,  the  plants  bsj^  to  fiower,  and  are  then  out 
-'—  *"*  -~n  shoot  m)  i^;aiu,  and  yield  a  second 
pimea  a  third,  tho  sai 


down,  but  SI 


purpose,  but  now — at  least  in  India — the  practioe 
abandoned,  and  it  is  found  in  every  respect  better 
to  use  tha  plant  whilst  fresh  and  green.  The  firat 
process  is  to  pack  a  larn  vat  fall  at  the  freshly  cat 
indigo ;  heavy  wooden  oeams  are  planed  on  the  top 
to  preas  it  and  fix  it  down  ;  and  water  is  then  let 
into  the  vat,  enough  just  to  cover  it.  Being  left  in 
this  state  for  from  ten  to  twelve  hooni,  (ermentatioa 
is  set  up,  and  much  gas  disenimged,  the  waier 
becoming  a  light-green  colour.  The  ^reen  liquor 
is  then  run  off  ioto  the  second  vat,  which  is  plsoed 
below  the  level  of  the  flnrt,  in  which,  whilst  the 
fmnentation  process  ia  being  repeated  upon  a  fresh 
sopply  in  the  first  vat,  it  is  violentiy  ontated  by 
being  beaten  with  poles ;  this  causes  Uie  i^nnn, 
as  it  is  called,  to  separate,  and  the  green  matter 
suspended  in  um  liquor  become*  Uu«  and  graonUr. 


da  operatkm  is  safiraeat^  advaacBl,B 
of  the  vat  aie  allowed  to  sotU^  sad  » 

i)  tfammn  into  tha  tUsd  vat,  idii  i 

below  the  level  of  tiie  eeooud ;  from  wiiidi  s  i 
pumped  into  a  bailer.  The  bcOaria  ali^iUytek 
and  then  allowed  to  staad  for  *  Utw  baatt,  htx 
whkb  tinw  the  mdigo  astUea  down,  and  t  bk: 
olear  mtar  aa  peaaiUa  ia  drawn  off  btm  sbgne 
Ibeboilar  ia  tben  agun  kaate^  and  ttialnef 
to  the  boOiiig^aiat;  att«  wUcIl  ila  eortMiir 
allowed  to  mn  on  to  a  fnuoe  of  wvo^haidi: 
'  long-dotii '  sheatina,  where  they  remiau  to  ix 
till  aboat  Um  omnatenoe  of  -v«y  tUd  ok 
whao  they  are  ramovad,  and  aabjeeliad  to  i«y  1«? 
acMW  prearare;  and  yihm  aa  hard  and  ^* 
ordinarvsoap,areoat  by  tmMi  wire  oaafuMi^ 
cabea  about  three  inohsa  tqnare ;  MtdOsstinlK 
oat,  ao  aa  not  to  toooh  each  otbar,  «■  the  Adm-i 
the diyiBg-honoe.  fina%,theeakaaaredesBi&* 
by  rate,  and  tightiy  paoked  in  bozM  lor  Ae  isabi 

Thia  dye  is,  witibout  donbt,  tha  oldaat  ut  w ;  ft 


mvtdvea  indiso  and  ita  sa^  w^  in  caasaq^BS 
tha  vMistiron  m  it*  name;  fDiinataBOB,thsnBM 
of  India  call  the  ^lant  Avaie,  ud  ^  d;*  is^ 
Iftttum;  at  Sanaorit,  tha  }da^  is  rMashoJK 
and  the  i^  mU  and  NObd,  whoica  tha  A^i 
Hui  PottngMse.  Ilw  Malaya  oaU  the  dje  IWaa 
and  tha  Arabs,  JITeeL 

Commercially  speaking,  indigo  may  bawd  Us 
the  prodnoe  of  India  aBdCwtml  Amario*,  M  tta 
are  the  only  hwalitieB  whiofe  supidy  tks  teeopiM 
form  of  the  article.  In  India,  the  diief  stst  iJ  w 
indigo  manu&ctore,  BsD^  is  the  moat  iniMW 
distnul  Tha  total  qoantt^  receivad  m  GiM 
Britain  in  1881  waa  neariy  M^OOO  cwtl.-aM 
quantity,  whan  it  is  borne  in  miad  with  >* 
aifGoohy  it  ia  onltivatad  and  nMnnfactarel  Vta 
pure,  indigo  has  a  rich,  dark-blua  ooJoor,  als* 
purple;  it  is  in  aiuJl  oobee  or  parts  of  w* 
and  its  fracture  shews  a  tendency  to  hw  <r 
into  sqoare  pieoes,  and  indicates  oacki  i>  " 
snfastance,  often  filled  np  with  a  film  i^  *^ 
effioreaosnoe,  jirobablythe  lime  used  in  ^^apifr- 
ib  It  has  neith^  teste  nor  smell,  and  its  tf^ 
gmritj  is  about  1-00;  H  rubbed  with  aqr  l» 
sabatuce,  it  gives  a  streak  with  a  toigU  «W! 
Inatre.  The  varietiea  leeogaiaed'in  cuamvt*"^ 
1st,  Bengal,  lAich,  from  the  am  taken  »*r 
paration,  and  the  large  scaleon  whiAitii^v* 
that  diitriot,  is  the  best;  aadits  variawgnw** 
of  qnality,  ten  in  number,  varying  ftom  t*  l^ 
per  poood,  are  ahraya  kept  distiBBt.  '■.[J^ 
sorts,  tbay  ore  nsually  miMl  mixed  8i  M"*" 
and  Knrpah  ;  3d,  Oude ;  4th,  HaailU;  SH^  *"*.'■ 
and  6tii,  South  American.  The  last  ia  F*''^ 
serons  or  cases  of  dried  ox-skin,  and  it>  q<^ 
are  distingnishsd  as  follows  :  Ist,  Haa ;  * 
Sobres ;  and  Sd,  Cortos ;  aU  the  otiio*  »  ' 
wooden  cheats,  containing  abont  SCO  H*  (s(^  a. 

Tew  matraiA  an  at  p«at«r  wporfcw* '?_°5 
dyer  than  indiga  and  nc»e  reqtdro  fte  «■** 
more  care  and  Aill  is  using.  BMagisnufe* 
water,  it  reqnirea  the  acti<m  of  oth«  sM^T 
render  it  Capable  of  peaetrallnK  the  Uw  <*  Z 
materials  to  be  djvd.  Tlte  matbod  l«W 
emploved  is  the  following:  The  indigo  is  IM**^ 
amall  Inmps,  and  ttuae  are  soaked  in  kit  M*^^ 
left  for  atl«Mt  48  kotos,  in  order  tint  tt«  "^ 
may  soak  throu^  and  soften  <bmt;  ■""g,^ 
they  are  put  into  the  indigo-miU,  ''>*ii*''f^« 
ing  machme,  consiBtiDg  of  a  vessel  in  ^'^^zl 
is  made  to  worii  by  machinery,  so  M  to  iw  *" 
tho  indigo,  mixed  with  plenty  of  water,*""' 


.,  Google 


DnX)-aEBHAinG  laihouaqba-indobsbd. 


U  in  the  grindiiig-n 


vOfymmaA, 
1  the  dynng-vat,  -wkiia  to 
one  part  «f  indiga  is  added  one  pMt  of  lune  a»l 
thiee-fowilH  of  mlphate  of  ooppor ;  tiuee  ara  wdl 
nuxednUlb  iniBeteiit  watar  to  Ul  the  Tat,  ud  the 
dy«r  them  pneeeda  to  dj«  cither  cotton,  lijaen,  or 
aUk  gooda.  See  Drnxfi.  Afts  being  dyed,  the 
sooda  an  dipped  into  a  hath  of  djlvted  •o^ihniio  <« 
EydrooUoiio  aoid,irtiiah  giTea  bii^itaGaa  aid  parity 
to  thaookiir;  they  an  Aen,  finiiMd  by  nathiag  in 
a  atreAD)  ol  pom  water,  and  diying; 

(Treen  miSgo,  called  Lo-kao  hy  the  Chineae,  ia  a 
rabfltanae  rwembbug  indigo,  niiiah  is  obtunad  from 
a  t(«a  called  Som-ii;  ik  ia  hi^ily  valned  by  the 
riiiiiiwii  ■itiila  M  ajiinmmit.  iini  ilim  );iini  abeaoti- 
fal  pennanant  gniea  OMonr  to  ootton  and  ailh  dotba ; 
it  ia,  bowBvcE,  lo  Matly,  that  it  nerer  oan, 
difiwenUy  ^veparad,  be  naad  aa  a  ^eins  n 
The  faot  that  we  ChiMaa  dye  cotton  ahrtlu  vith  it, 
ia  aooonnted  for  by  the  natmv  of  the  proeeai  of  fn- 
paring  the  lo-hao,  lAidt  ii  thia :  A  v«ll-nao«nt«d 
oaoomoa  of  the  bark  tA  the  hent-bi  tree  ia  Iwgdy 
dilnted  iritik  mtet  mized  irith  a  litHe  fime ;  pieoea 
of  oottMi  <doth  are  then  dipped  into  the  -rat,  and 
taken  out  and  expoaad  to  um  nm,  which  changca 
them  to  a  lai^  g*"*"!  ^^^  »*  ^^^"^  placed  in 
jKofeeay  dean  wats,  and  a^tated  until  the  water 
naa  reBOTSd  aD  the  free  oohnuiDg  xutter;  thia 

loft  ia  the  lo-kao.  It  ia  the  ootton  dotha  thna  need 
that  are  aaU  aa  green-dyed  gooda.  It  ia  nid  that 
a  aieiular  djre  atoff  ia  oMa£ed  fiov  anoUwr  tne 
called  Ai-ts  and  aUhongh  tiua,  aa  Biada  br  the 
natdvea,  ia  madh  too  coaly  to  aoe  in  B«i^ie«a 
dyeing,  yet  pnbab^,  if  better  neana  of  obtatning 
it  can  be  porated  ont,  it  may  beooae  aa  ' 
article  of  oommerce. 

Ohemitlry  q/"  Iitdigo. — The  phmta  which  yield 
indigo  praaant  no  indioation,  when  growing,  tliat 
thw  contain  aay  dtroBto^tn,  or  matter  oapabla  of 
yiefdiiig  iH^sat,  nor  ia  it  da&nitely  known  in  what 
form  the  umigo  edata  ia  the  v^etabLe  tisnea. 

The  indifO  of  oomimirce  is  by  no  mcona  a  homo- 
geneoiu  body.  Ita  eaamtial  imd  moBt  impivtant 
conetttuent  la  Indigotia  or  Indigo  Blve,  bat  it  like- 
wiae  ctmtaina  Iridigo  Brown,  Imligo  Sad,  and  other 
ingredient*. 

ItKliifoBiite,<tJndigotin  (0„H,NO,>,  ia  obtained 
from  oommennal  indigo  by  nztracting  tba  ingredients 
with  which  ft  ie  mixed  by  aoeldo  aoid,  alkdiea,  and 
boiling  oIoohoL  It  oocon  eiOer  aa  a  di^-Uoe 
amor^ona  powds,  or  in  purple  cryatalUae  ecalea, 
with  ■  metallio  hiatr&  It  ia  den^  of  ancU  and 
taote,  and  ia  iDaoIuble  in  water,  alMhol,  ettier,  dilate 
noida,  and  alkaliea.  When  oarafiilly  heated,  it  may 
be  aablimed  withoat  deoonwoaition.  Among  the 
producta  of  ita  deatmctiTe  ifiititlatiMi  are  hydro- 
cyanate  uid  carbonate  of  asunonja,  aniline,  Ac 
Indigo  bine  diaeolTea  withoot  any  evolution  ol  ^ 
in  atrtms  anlpbniie  acid,  lonoiag  a  bine  aohitioD 
of  atJpltauKgolie  aeid,  wUoh  ia  nrtcnaivety  uaad  for 
dyeing  cloth,  onder  toe  name  of  Saxonf  Btae. 

TTnder  the  actioQ  of  reducing  agraits,  Bach  aa 
alkaline  flnida  oontaining  anlpmte  of  iron,  or  a 
mixture  of  grape-mgar,  auohol,  and  Itrons  aodalye, 
indjffo  bine  becomca  converted  into  Indigo  Whitt 
or  Sedveei  Indigo,  which  forma  a  yellow  aolntiDn 
in  alkaline  flnida,  bat  whudi,  on  tm  azpoaim  to 
the  air,  abaorba  oxygen,  and  ia  reocsTtBiad  into 
indigo  bltie.  Indeed,  tbia  ia  Hm  beat  method  of 
obtaming  the  latter  in  a  data  of  miitr  frran 
aonuneraal  iadigo,  of  which  it  ilkwild 
OOpaiMiib 

Indigo  blue  ooomi  in  anaH  ^navtify  i 


of  maa,  the  kune,  and  the  cow,  and  oooaaioBBlIy  in 
the  milk  of  tike  oow,  when  Uieae  flmda  have  been 


mthe  nimeui.  ao  maayoaaea 
0n  the  nrina  id  S9  penona  out  of  40\,  thatlodieaa 
iat  the  chnnaogen  yielding  indigo  Una)  mnat  be 
regaided  aa  a  normal  urinary  conatitntniL  See  M. 
Sobnwik'a  pumr  in  7%e  JfMwin  (/ fle  £tfa>0y  and 
PMoMpMea/AKMfvq/'JfaiKAMto-,  1S97,  nd.  xiv., 
or  Xfay^aOmMrvbtiaStlatioiu  to  P/miohgt/md 
Mtdkina,  1860,  pp.  310-312. 

Jndigo  WMe  w  Medutei  JiuUm  in  a  atate  d 
pmi^,  oooma  in  irikite  flakea,  which  am  devoid  et 
taate  w  mneU,  are  perfectly  oeutial,  and  ue 
insoluble  ia  water,  but  dissolTs  at  alcohol,  ether, 
and  alkaline  eolations.  Ita  oompoiitian  ia  repre- 
aented  by  tjia  formula  0,jH^O,,  and  aa  it  only 
diSeia  from  indw)  blue,  C,gEtMO|,  in  contaioing 
one  more  eqmvalent  of  H,  it  ntay  be  conaidered  aa 
the  iQ'diide  of  t^  lattnr.    If  yam 


•taaoa  till  they  are 
then  Bspoaed  to  the  ai 
within  the  fibrea  of  the 
obt^ned  ia  very  intente 
poperly  of  becoming  blue 
mdigo  white  is  a  sensitive 


.     _ _iSigo    bin*      It  waa   from 

iadigo  that  aniline  (now  so  largely  etnployed  in  the 
promotion  of  tb  pigmenta  known  aa  matat  and 
vuigenta,)  wm  fint  obtained. 


INDOTBB,  a  Mahratta  principality  of 
conaiatB  of  several  detached  tracts,  some  ot  tnem 
lyii^  veiy  remote  from  each  olJier.  With  an 
^gragate  area  id  8318  sqnare  milea,  and  an  ugre- 
gate  pc^nlation  of  abont  SDO.OOD,  the  territory,  u  a 
whole,  u  tnveiwd  from  east  to  weat  by  the  Nei^ 
budda,  and  also  by  the  Vmdhya  Mountaioa,  their 
loftiest  point  within  ita  limita  beii^  2500  feet  above 
the  aea.  The  revenue  is  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million 
aterling ;  and  the  aimed  force  amonnts  to  about 
20,000  men.  Besidw  the  capital,  the  chief  towna 
are  Bamplkra,  MehodporB,  Dhi,  FitUnd,  Mundlaiair, 
Bhanp&ra,  and  Mhow.  L  is  peculiarly  the  ootmtry 
of  the  Bheela,  one  of  the  wildest  and  moat  aavage 
of  the  aboriginal  tribea  of  India.  The  conntn, 
including  all  between  ita  exteemea,  stretches  in 
N.  lat.  from  21°  IS'  to  2i'  46',  and  in  K  long,  fittm 
74°  39'  to  76^  aC.  The  climate  ia  sultry,  the  ther- 
mometer ranging  from  60°  to  90''  F.  in  the  ■hfti^*, 

nn>ORB,  the  capital  of  the  principality  of  Qie 
same  name,  is  situated  ia  2!?  42'  K,  and  long. 
7S*  60'  E.,  ou  the  left  bank  of  the  KuthL  It 
stands  abont  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sen, 
and  is  estimated  to  contain  16,000  inhabitanta. 
This  place,  mean  and  insigmfieant  enon^  in  itadf, 
acquired  considerable  notoriety  in  connection  with 
the  grand  revolt  of  1S67.  Thon^  Eolkar,the  rajah, 
resnained  faithful  to  the  Britisli  goremment^  yet  his 
troops  mutinied  on  Ist  July,  hoSing  their  T^moe  aa 
a  prisoner  in  hia  own  palace,  and  Mbdienng  xatiaj 
En^peana,  men,  women,  and  ehUdien,  in  cold  bloodi 
L  is  of  modem  erection,  having  been  founded  in 
1767  1  and  its  original  nameaake,  now  Jentnah,  still 
exiats  on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river. 

INDO'BSKD,  ENDORSED,  or  ADOOBSED, 

ma  Bsplied  in  Heraldry  to  two  animals  placed 

bade  to  baok     Two  k^^  two  wing^  Ac,  may  also 

be  indorsed,  and  a  pelman  ia  alw^s  drawn  wUh 


byGoogle 


INDOBSEHENT—INDBE. 


nnCKfRSBHENT,  the  tenn  generaU^  oted  to 
denote  Uie  writing  of  th«  name  of  the  holiler  on 
the  baok  of  a  bill  of  ezcluuige  or  pronuMOry  note, 

.:__:.  ^ .L._     °igningt 

it;  Kod  it 

the  tnoEferea  ii  named,  it  is  a  special  isdone- 
menL  The  obosI  form  it,  'Pay  C.  D.  or  order. 
(Signed)  A.  B.'  In  Scotland,  it  is,  '  Fay  the  con- 
tents to  C.  D.  or  order.  [%ned)  A.  B.'  When 
poioiuJ  liability  ii  to  be  aYoided,  the  words  '  with- 
out reoonne '  are  added.  The  word  indorsement 
ia  also  frequently  used  in  English  law,  to  denote 
any  matten  wrttten  or  indoned  on  the  back  of 
wnts  or  deeds,  as  indoTBement*  on  declaration^  on 

I'KDRA  (from  Qib  Sanscrit  id,  which  probably 
meant '  to  see,  to  diBoaver,'  hence  literally,  '  he  who 
sees  or  discovers,'  scil.,  the  doings  of  tlie  world)  is 
the  name  of  one  of  those  Hindu  deities  that  were 
worshipped  mote  especially  in  the  Vedic  period  of 
tJie  Hindu  reli^on,  but  enjoyed  a  R^ot  legendary 
popularity  tlso  in  the  Gpio  and  Foiftnic  periods. 
See  Imdia,  sect  Jlel^ivni.  In  that  class  of  R'lg- Veda 
hymns  which  tbeie  i*  reason  to  look  upon  as  the 
oldest  portion  of  Vedic  poetry,  the  characteriof  L  is 
tikat  of  a  mighty  rcder  of  the  bright  firmament,  and 
his  principal  feat  is  that  of  conquering  the  demon 
Vi'ttra,  a  symbolical  penomficBtian  of  the  aloud 
which  obetructs  the  clearness  of  the  sky,  and  with- 
holds tiie  fmcti^nng  rain  from  the  earUi.  In  his 
battles  with  Vr'itra,  he  ia  therefore  described  as 
'  opening  the  receptacles  of  the  waterB,'  as  '  cleaving 
the  oloud '  with  his  '  far-whirling  thonderholt,'  as 
'  casting  the  waten  down  to  earth,'  and  '  restoring 
the  sun  to  the  sky.'  He  is,  in  coDSeqnence,  '  the 
Dpbolder  of  heaven,  earth,  and  firmament.'  and  the 
ood  'who  has  engendered  the  sun  and  the  dawn.' 
And  since  t^e  atmoepheiical  phenomena  peraonified 
in  this  conception  are  ever  aad  ever  recurring,  he 
ia  '  nndecaying '  and  '  ever  youtMuL'  All  the 
wonderful  de^s  of  L,  however,  are  peiformed  by 
him  merely  for  the  benefit  of  the  good,  which  in  the 
language  of  the  Veda  means  the  pions  men  who 
worafaip  him  in  their  songs,  and  invigorate  him  with 
the  offerings  of  the  juice  of  the  Soma  plant.  See 
Ihdu,  seoL  Rdigiort.  He  is  therefore  the  'lord  of 
the  TirtiiouB,'  and  the  '  discomfiter  of  tbose  who 
neglect  religious  rites.'  Many  other  ejathets,  which 
we  have  not  space  to  enumerate,  iUusbate  the  same 
conception.  It  is  on  account  of  the  paramoont  influ- 
ence which  the  deeds  of  L  eiercise  on  the  material 
happinesB  of  man,  that  this  deily  occupies  a  foremost 
rank  in  the  Vedic  worship,  and  uiat  a  greater  number 
of  invocatJona  are  addressed  to  him  than  to  any 
other  of  the  gods,  Bnt  to  understand  the  gnduu 
expansion  of  hu  mythical  character,  and  his  mtimate 
d^radatian  to  an  inferior  poaitiDu  in  the  Hindn 
pantheon  of  a  later  period,  it  ia  necessary  to  bear 
m  mind  that,  however  much  the  Vedic  poeti  call 
L  tiiB  protector  of  the  pious  and  virtoons,  he  is  in 
their  tongs  essentially  a  warlike  god,  and  nadu- 
ally  endowed  by  inuigi nation,  not  only  with  the 
qualities  of  a  mighty,  bat  also  of  a  self-willed  king. 
The  legends  which  represent  him  in  this  light 
seem,  it  is  true,  to  belong  to  a  later  claas  of  the 
E'ig-Veda  hymns,  but  they  shew  that  the  orioinal 
conception  of  I.  excluded  from  his  nature  tLoae 
ethio^  consideratioos  which  in  time  changed  the 
pantheon  oC  elementary  gods  into  one  of  a  mETerent 
■tamp.  Wliether  the  idea  of  an  incamatioa  of  the 
dei^,  which,  at  the  Epic  and  Porftnic  periods,  played 
so  important  a  part  m  the  hiatorj  of  Vishiiii.  did 
not  ezerdae  its  iufluence  at  early  at  the  compotition 
of  some  of  the  Vedio  hynmt  in  honour  of  L.  may 
at  leaat  be  matter  of  doubt.  Re  is,  for  instanoe, 
frequcmtly  invoked  at  the  deatooyer  of  idtiGa — of 


seven,  of  ninety -nine,  even  of  a  hundred  ci 
he  it  not  only 
hostile  tribes  « 

but  some  of  the  chiefs  slain  by  him  are  eniuuiu 
l^  name.  The  commentators,  of  oourse,  tun  li' 
'robbers'  and  their  'chieb'  into  demoos,  ad il; 
dties  into  celestial  abodea ;  but  aa  it  is  inpohic 
that  all  these  names  should  be  "^J"'"^  nl  ^ 
Bonifications  of  donds  destroyed  by  the  Aik' 
bolt  of  t,  it  it,  to  say  the  leaat,  qneibMiaUe  vbD! 
evantt  in  the  early  hittotr  of  Indi*  tatj  dM  b: 
been  aatodated  witii  the  deeds  of  Lhirael^ii^ 
mannw  at, at  tb«  ES^  period,  nuwtal  brroni!' 
looked  upon  as  ineanuttionB  of  Vishim,  and  nn 
deeds  trwsfonned  into  exploits  of  this  god. 

The  purely  kingly  character  of  L  usgas :. 
typical  shape  in  the  Ailai^/a-BrAitmaja,  TitsiiJ 
installation  as  lord  of  the  inferior  gods  ii  dianUn 
with  much  mystical  detail ;  and  fr^n  thit  sx  > 
continues  to  be  the  suprane  lord  of  tlie  misErru 

and  Fnrlmc  periods,  where  ethical  ooooel&iiiiii!  It 


divine  powers  prevail  < 
impreaaims,  L  oesaes  to  eajoj  Om  worship  k  u^ 
acquired  at  the  Vedic  time,  and  his  exatss  i 
chiefly  upheld  by  the  poets,  who,  in  tbdr  tui.L^ 
ever,  work  it  out  in  ^le  matt  fantasticsl  ia- 
Of  the  ei^t  guardians  of  tiie  world,  he  !•  Ibaa 
one  who  pt^sidet  over  the  east,  and  he  ii  tiiU  i^' 
god  who  sends  rain  and  widdis  the  thmdnte 
but  poetry  ismoM  ennutsed  by  the  besntyi^ii 
paradiae,  Staarga,  the  happy  abode  rf  On  ii^' 
gods,  and  of  those  piout  mm  wbo  attais  it*^ 
death  in  o«ise^iience  of  having  during  Iif«.  P"^ 
discharged  their  religions  dutua ;  bf  the  coinv  * 
his  heavenly  nymphs,  the  Aptanuat,  who  nnc: 
then  descend  to  earili,  to  distml)  die  eqnuiniij : 
austere  penitenta;  by  the  mnsi(»t  perionn>u>j 
his  ohoiisten,  the  OaiidliaroaM  /  t^  the  ifw^ 
of  Ills  capital,  J  mnrdBufl;  I7  the  fabolDut"^ 
of  his  guden,  Xtaidana,  Ac  A  remariuUt  cc 
in  this  legendary  life  of  L  it  the  tcnadj^ 
conflicts  with  Krishna,  an  inoarnatjon  of  Vstv 
which  end,  however,  in  hit  becoming  recn^- 
with  the  more  important  god.  As  the  god  iw^^ 
emphatically  callM  tiie  gM  of  the  hundctd  ar- 
floes  (ffalatmtu),  L  is  jmIoob  of  eveiy  moiti'^' 
may  have  the  presumption  of  aiming  at  the  J^e- 
mance  of  that  niunb«'  of  aacrifices,  for  the  >c^ 
plithment  of  such  an  intention  would  rtei  '^ 
Bacrificer  to  a  rank  equal  to  that  which  he  it^ 
He  is  therefore  ever  at  hand  to  distuih  '>?^ 
acts  which  may  expose  b™  to  the  dangn  ''j'l^ 
his  power  shared  by  another  India.  A'''^ 
to  the  Pnrlnat,  the  reign  of  this  god  L<  "^ j 
fteqnentlv  also  called  Saira,  or  the  mi^'  "^ 
not  last  longer  than  the  first  Maiuaatart,  <(>^ 
done  epoch.  After  each  sacceaaivedestracbNt^ 
world,  a  new  L  was  created,  tomtJw  ™^ 
gods,  saints,  and  mortal  beings  "">''*'^  »? 
second  Manwantara  is  Vipa^diit;  of  ""j^ 
StUdtiU;  of  the  fourth,  S-ivi;  of  the  fifth, FW- 
of  the  sixth,  Jfamg'ooa;  and  the  I  of  tbe^ 
age  is  Purcwdara.  When  repitaented  in  "*  " 
art,  L  is  mnerally  Been  ridiE^  on  hi>  el^**' 
and  where  he  is  pamted,  he  is  oovend  win  <]" 

INDRANr,  a  name  of  the  vrife  of  Ike  E*^   | 
god  Indra  (q.  v.). 

INDBB,  a  central  department  at  ^iob^J^' 
out  of  the  wntem  portion  of  the  did  P^,f 
Berri,  lies  immediately  south  of  Um  ^'I'r^lfiuj ' 
Loir-et-Cher,  Area,  2670  sq.  m.,  of  wUdW^k  ' 
are  in  tillage  aud  pattore.  Pun.  {imV,^  1 
---   -^;^~— -*^-"  watered  tb.cl»rf"X   I 


hyGoogle 


UTDBB-mDUCTlON. 


Anglin.  The  auriiwa  ii  for  the  most  put  Oat,  and 
the  laud  a  geaenHy  fertile,  prodncing  Urge  cropi 
of  wheat  and  bwley.  The  two  piiocipal  reBOUTcee 
of  the  deputment,  however,  ara  its  viiieyftrdi 
Add  its  fiocka.  The  oUnuite,  except  in  the  dutrict 
of  Iia  Brenne,  is  mild  and  healthy.  The  priiunpal 
nutnofactons  are  woollen  and  linen  dotha,  hoiiray, 
scythes,  [Wer,  and  porcelain.  Iran  minea  are 
'worked.  The  departnirait  ia  divided  into  four 
arrondiuaments— Chiteanroui,  Le  Blano,  laaoudnn, 
and  La  Chfttre.    The  capital  ia  ChAteaurouz. 

INDRE,  a  river  of  Fnnc?,  risea  on  the  northern 
border  of  the  department  of  Oeuas,  flowa  north- 
west thronf^  the  deparlmeatB  of  Indie  and  Indre- 
et-lioire,  and  joina  vie  I«ire  IT  milea  below  Toon, 
after  a  course  of  136  ailea,  for  the  laat  40  of  wbiJcii 
it  is  navigable. 

INDBE-BT-LOIRE,  an  inland  depwtment  of 
Franco,  formed  out  of  the  aacient  province  of 
Tonraine,  liea  north-weat  of  the  deputment  of 
Indre.   Area,  2340  M.  mile*,  of  which 


tributaries,  the  Cher,  the  Indre,  and  the  TiennS) 
all  of  thejn  navigable.  The  Loire,  to  prevent  inan- 
dationa,  which  otherwise  wonld  be  frequent  and 
diaastrooB,  ia  banked  in  bj  dykes  tliroughout  ita 
course  in  this  department.  See  Loibe.  In  the 
south,  the  luiface  i*  hilly,  and  either  waste  or 
wooded,  bat  in  the  other  cUatricti  it  ia  nndulatiag 
or  flat,  and  veiy  fertile.  Of  the  producta,  which 
include  an  abondant  yield  of  the  ordinary  hread- 
stuSa,  wine,  of  which  aboat  14,000,000  ^sUona  are 
made  in  ordinary  yeais,  ia  one  of  the  moat  important. 
The  chief  nuumfactnres  are  bar-iron,  powder,  files, 
wooUen  cloth,  silk,  aod  leather.  The  department 
is  divided  into  the  three  arroodiasementa  of  Tours, 
ChiDon,  and  Loches ;  capital.  Tooth. 

ENDU'OLiE  LEGA'LEa,  in  Sootch  Law,  meana 
the  niunber  of  days  which  a  defender  hoa  to  answer 
B  mminana.  The  term  ia  not  used  in  England,  the 
pbrsae  baiig  '  ao  many  days  to  answer,  to  plead,  to.' 
INBU'CTION  of  dei^yman,  a  term  nsed  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland  to  denote  the  inveatiiig  or  pving 
posseaaion  of  a  benefice  to  a  clergyman.  In  Eng- 
land and  Ireland,  thia  ia  done  by  a  mandate  from 
the  bishop  to  the  »rohdeaoan  or  eoneaponding 
otEcial  to  make  the  induction.  The  indnctra'  takea 
the  cler^ryman  by  the  hand,  and  laya  it  on  the  ring^ 
key  or  latch  of  tbs  chunih-door,  then  opena  the 
door,  and  puta  him  into  the  ohnrch,  and  generally 
the  chnioh  hell  ia  tolled,  to  give  notioe  to  the 
poriahionen.  In  Scotland,  the  preabyteiy  indoct 
theminiater. 

e  of  the  nest 
d  proof.  If  baa 
been  aeen  nnder  GBrtBiLi8*.Tios,  that  when  we 
rise  from  particular  facta  to  generalitie*,  tbe  reaolt 
may  take  one  of  two  forms — a  general  noUoa,  or  a 
^neral  epi>poaifui>t :  '  circle '  il  a  notion  ;  '  the  circle 
IB  the  Une  that  encloaea  the  lai:geat  apace,'  ia  a  pro- 
position. The  mode  of  arriving  at  auch  general 
aSrmationi,  tmtha,  or  lawa,  la  what  ia  called 
induction.  Tbe  atnct  meaning  of  the  term  ia  '  the 
operatiun  of  dueovering  and  prooing  general  propo- 
aitiona ; '  while  dedoctum,  on  the  other  hood,  li  tlie 
method  of  t^/pt^/ing  general  propoaitions  once  dis- 
covered to  ^Miticnlar  caeca,  ooniidtied  to  ba  indoded 
within  their  aoopa.  By  indnotion  we  estaUiah  the 
law  that  heat  ezpanda  bodieai  by  dednctiim  we 
to  eiplain  why  a  dock  ia  alower  in  sununer 
winter,  owing  to  the  changes  of  the  length 
of  the  pendnlom. 

Indnotion  ia  the  only  jmwm  <d  real  infeienoe— 
in  other  worda,  by  it  we  proceed  from  tbe  knoim  to 


tLn  in 


the  nnknown ;  or  from  a  limited  range  of  facte,  w« 
affirm  what  will  hold  in  an  nnlimited  range.  All 
thinga  that  we  do  not  know  by  actual  trial  or  oeolar 
demonatration,  we  know  by  an  inductive  tipertr 
tion.  Dedaction  is  not  real  inference  in  tbie  wnae, 
ainoe  the  general  proposition  altvady  ooveia  <tha 
case  that  we  apply  it  to ;  in  a  proper  deduction, 
the  conolnaion  u  more  liraited  than  the  (Sflmtaea. 
By  the  indnciiTe  method,  we  obtaic  a  condnsioii 
much  larger  than  the  pramiaea ;  we  adveuton  into 
the  aphere  of  the  vnknown,  and  prononnes  npMi 
what  we  have  not  yet  aeen.  This  operation  neoet- 
aarily  implies  a  certain  haeardj  and  it  maf  be 
easily  aupposed  that  there  are  preoantions  reqiuBite 
in  worki^  it.  Nothing  ia  more  common  thm  the 
making  of  bad  indnctioni ;  and  aoooidindy  it  ia  now 
conudered  a  part  of  Tama  to  lay  down  the  rolea  for 
the  right  performance  of  thia  great  operation. 


A  pieliminarv  question  arises — Hi 
)  entitled  to  oogmatiae  bevond  the 
actual  azpeiienoej  to  oondnde,  for 


the  sphere  of  onr 

nuirlW     CUJFQErDUUVj      bV     WUUtUUQ,    fOT    mStanOS,     tlut 

five  milea  below  the  sniface  of  the  earth,  thive  is 
healenonghtomakewaterbintt  The  uawer  to  tUs 
queation  auppliea  na  with  what  ia  called  the  grmaui 
ofindueUoa,  which  ii  Uie  fact,  now  eataUisoed  hf 
Uie  experience  of  centnrisa,  (AoC  andira  it  vi^orm. 
What  haa'happened  once,  will  happen  again,  pn>- 
vided  the  same  oinnunatancee  and  aituation  of 
thinga  are  exactly  repeated.  At  a  former  period  of 
tbe  world's  history,  there  might  have  been  donbta 
on  thia  matter,  and  opiniona  were  actually  held  that 
implied  a  want  of  perfect — " — "*~  *"""■" "-— - 


;t  uniformity,  bnt  now  those 


to  a  aingli 

(aee  Fbjw 

aolved  ia  to  ■■certain  what  la  the  order  of 

in  the  instances  acceeaible  to  our  obaerTation. 

The  oniformity  of  natnre  ia  a  oompovnd  of  ^ , 

aepaiate  luiifonnilies.     In  other  words,  there  are 

different  departments  O)    ' 

determined  bjr  separate 

matical,  phyaical,  chemical,  phyaiological  laws,  the 


e  laws,  Tha%  we  have  taM£b»- 


Aatementof  which  aeveralljoonatitiites  the  ssbjeot- 
matter  of  each  of  these  acienoaa.  Now,  a  diatino- 
tion  is  observable,  which  ia  of  iixne  importancs 
as  regards  the  method  of  indnotiTe  investigation. 
Some  of  the  phenomeoa  thus  conjoined  under  imiform 
principlea  are  properties  timultantoiuty  ezistinEb  as 
the  propertiea  of  mathematical  figures ;  others  are 
atocamont,  and  affirm  order  in  time,  the  most 
important  oE  all  which  ia  that  peculiar  scooeeaion 
denominated  cause  and  effect.  See  Cadbk  1^ 
problem  of  inductive  inqniry  ia  in  a  great  msMim: 
occupied  with  Uiia  one  depaitanent,  Mthoogk  tbar* 
are  alao  induetiona  reapecting  oontemponnaoDS  or 
conjoined  Droparties.  Hatond  history  ia  in  put 
made  op  of  affirmations  of  aimultaneona  prupnliaa, 
aa,  for  example,  the  anatomical  atractnre  of  fp'^wh, 
and  in  part  of  affirmationa  ti  oauaa  and  effect,  aa  ia 
oil  the  operationa  tikat  anatain  life,  and  detennine 
reproduction,  growth,  and  death. 

Iteapeoting  the  whole  of  the  phenomena  imidiBd 
onder  Causation,  the  principle  of  nature's  nnifoimity 
ia  embodied  in  one  great  and  comprehensive  state- 
ment, called  the  law  of  cauaation ;  tbe  impart  o( 
whioti  ia  that  whatever  begins  to  eitat  ia  nmfoimly 
preceded  by  tomething  else,  to  whtcb  it  inrariahly 
aoeceeds.  Eventa  do  not  ariae  d  themselves,  ca  out 
of  nothing ;  and  although  tiieie  ia  sneh  a  thing  as 
Hurality  of  Causey  aveiTtiiing  that  arises  is  prs> 
oeded  I^  some  othw  thing  as  a  oaose,  and  always 
follows  when  that  cause  occun ;  thm  being  np- 
poaed  no  connteractiDg  i^en<y.  Hm  aim  of  ths 
■cientifia  inquirer,  then,  is  to  single  oat  froai  the 
niMs  of  drcumstanoea  that  have  aooMtfiMued  and 
preceded  any  event. 


e  oooMiniMued  and 
Don  that  invariably 


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IMUUCTION. 


PRoedfl  the  occurrence  of  that  event,  which  bein^ 
fcuiid,  Kre  thencefurth  kiiown  u  Its  caiue.  Thii 
hu  to  be  aeooni|iliibed  by  a  procev  techaicoll^ 
callBd  tUToination,  by  wbicli  U  underatood  A  series 
of  opertitioDa  inteaded  to  lepaniCe  everything  that 
ii  indifferent  to  Uu  production  of  the  iJieuomenc  . 
until  we  uriTe  at  «oine  one  thiog  or  mora  that 
CMinot  ba  removed  without  making  the 

Mr  John  Stuart  Mill,  in  bis  Logic,  bu  illustratod 
in  detail  the  methods  to  be  adopted  for  making  gi 
that  we  have  linKled  out  the  true  causative  circu 
(tanoe  from  among  the  many  that  may  prscedt 
given  effect.      They  reselve  themselves  mainly  into 
two.      '  Ona   is,   by   comparing    together    diQerent 
initancca  in  which  the  phenomenon  oocara. 
other  is,  by  comparing  instances  in  which  Che  pheno- 
menon does  ocour,  witb  inatooces  in  olAer  rapecU 
timUar  in  which  it  does  not.    These  two  aetiiods 
may  be    respectively  denominated   the   Method  of 
A^eament,  and  the  Method  of  Difference.' 

The  Method  of  Agreement  supposes  that  we  make 
it  a  ctudy  to  vary  Oie  drcurasfancei  under  which 
the  iupjioud  pheuomeoon  is  prodoced.  Either 
by  observation  of  easel  presented  in  nature,  or 
by  artificially  aDntriving  new  cases,  in  other  words, 
by  experimeot,  wa  do  our  utmost  to  obtain  the 
enect  in  a  great  many  different  coonecdons, 
whereby  we  sacertain  what  things  are  indifferent 
to  it.  Whatever  circumataace  can  be  excluded, 
the  phenomenon  still  hajipeaing,  or  can  be  absent 
aotwithstandiDg  ila  preaeoce,  is  not  connected  with 
it  in  the  way  of  oauiation.  The  accidental  or  indif- 
terant  oircumstancss  being  thus  eliminated,  if  only 
one  temains,  that  is  the  cause ;  if  the  elimination 
does  not  go  so  Ua,  but  laavea  three  or  four  circum- 
stances or  agents,  we  can  only  say  that  the  cause  is 
among  them.  Ur  Uill  enunciates  the  Method  of 
Agreement  in  a  formal  canon,  or  rule  of  indaction, 
to  the  following  effect :  1/  fwo  or  more  inttasca  of 
Iht  jAtnomenm  under  inmitigation  have  only  one 
eireuntsfonce  in  amaimm.  Hit  ci'reunuCance  in  ahkh 
atone  oil  Ihe  uutanca  a^ret  it  lAa  eotiae  (or  ^ect} 
0/  iAe  givoi  pheruuaenon. 

If  we  could  always  obtun  tiis  reqmute  variety  of 
oircDtnstances  for  the  exctuuon  of  all  indifferent 
adjuncts,  tbia  method  would  fully  answer  the  ends 
of  inductive  inauiry.  But  this  is  not  always  to  be 
had,  and  even  when  practicable,  the  operation  is  often 
very  laborious.  When  the  other  method  (Difference) 
can  be  apiilied,  the  desired  end  is  reached  by  a 
shorter  route.  If,  instead  of  aioluding  the  ind^erent 
agencies  one  bv  one,  we  can  contrive  an  experiment, 
or  make  an  observation,  that  excludes  one  agency 
OT  circumstance,  foUuwed  by  the  cessation  <u  the 
effect,  we  conclude  at  once  that  what  has  thus  been 
left  out  it  tha  cause,  or  an  essential  condition  or 
part  of  the  cause.  Whenever  we  are  so  fortunate 
as  Co  ligbC  upon  two  initancca  suited  to  this  method, 
we  eatablisn  causation  at  once  and  beyond  all 
question.  The  acpertmentum  emeu  of  Bacon  was 
something  of  this  nature  ;  only  it  supposed  that  a 
qnestiofi  by  between  two  alternative  or  competing 
agenciea,  which  an  sxiieriment  had  been  hit  upon 
tor  deciding ;  such  an  experiment  behoved  to  be 
one  of  DiCferenoa.  This  method  is  embodied  in  the 
following  canon  :  If  an  iatianee  in  icJiieJi  At  pheno- 
maum  taider  investiyation  oecuTt,  and  on  buUmee 
m  vdaA  it  doe*  nof  occur,  have  evert/  areumtlanee, 
eatpt  one,  m  oavun/m,  (Aol  one  occurring  only  in  the 
former,  lie  eircufnatance  In  whkA  alone  the  too 
nulaneet  differ  u  Ae  ^eei,  or  cause,  or  a  neixMary 
part  (/rte  ooase,  of  the  phenomenoa. 

Theae  are  the  two  leading  methods,  but  there  are 
certain  caaea  mat  by  a  procraure  somewhat  different. 
Sometimes  we  have  a  phenomenon  made  up  of  causes 


partly  known  and  partly  unknown.  It  ii  lie 
poesible  to  subouct  the  effect*  doe  to  the  turn 
causes,  and  what  renuuns  will  be  &t(Hbut«l  li  Lr 
remaining  agenciee.  This  it  expi^ned  bj  Mr  tl. 
in  the  ftmowing  rule  or  canon ;  Subditcl  firm  ai 
p/ietiOTHenon  each  pari  'at  it  launea  far  frrcm 
induction  to  ba  At  effect  (ff  eertaiit  nslaxdnl^  u 
Uie  reeidve  qf  liit  p/ienontemm  it  lie  i^d  <^  w 
remaining  anteeedenlt.  The  more  oar  knmrleijc  > 
extended,  the  more  able  are  we  to  proceed  1^ 
this  method,  termed  tha  Method  of  Ksidna  't 
is  by  this  proceao,  in  fact,'  tayt  Sir  John  Ha*k 
'  that  science  in  its  preaant  advanoed  state  ii  clmj; 
promoted.' 

There  remwns  a  daas  of  laws  wbovin  tht  imL 
cation  of  any  of  thoae  three  methods  is  lam's 
impracticable,  from  the  circumetance,  that  the  i»n 
in  their  case  is  irremovable  and  indetlmcCM,  r 
that  we  cannot  obtain  any  cases  where  it  11  abn- 
abaent.  Such  an  sficnt  is  heat,  which  can  neca  tt 
entirely  separated  mm  any  body,  ao  as  to  iKotei 
by  comparing  cases  of  its  preaenee  with  thw  i 
its  absence,  what  effects  are  due  to  it  So  in  cu 
never  get  out  of  the  sphere  of  the  earth's  iltix' 
tion.  The  difficulty  henoe  arising  is  surmomiteilf 
observing  the  variatioat  of  degree  of  the  cuue,  uJ 
whether  there  be  a  correapoading  variatiDii  in  lit 
degree  of  tha  effect  Thus,  we  in&  that  heat  a  lb 
of  the  expansion  of  bodies,  and  that  ia  W 
se  would  lead  to  their  main  mum  ooadetialie 
and  cooBolidation,  by  watching  the  effects  d  »} 
additions  or  subtractions  of  a  body's  tempenb?- 
Solids,  liquids,  and  gases  (with  certain  limiteil  u^ 
special  exceptions)  are  found  expanding  ttadihu 
tbey  are  heated,  and  contracting  aa  the?  are  rairi: 
and  this  is  to  us  a  sufficient  justification  for  oe- 
sidering  that  the  law  in  question  holds  good-  1^ 
process  is  termed  by  Mr  Mill  the  Method  dCa- 
comitant  Variations,  and  is  expressed  by  liin  ii 
the  following  terms  :  IfAolnwr  pAenomsios  niis  » 
any  maimer  vjAenever  anotiier  pAenoinoum  varia  u 
vme  particular  manner,  it  eitMr  a  cause  oranif'f 
of  Oiat  pAcnomenon,  or  it  eonaeeted  untt  it  't"'^ 
tome  fact  qfeatuatioH. 

There  are  many  problem*  grawing  oat  af  t^ 
applications  of  induction  to  the  great  virietf  i 
natural  phenomena,  tha  main  principles  being  v"'' 
"leless  the  same.  An  important  eitensioa  of  W 
cans  of  scientific  discovery  and  proirf  ariies  i1<e 
certain  number  of  genem  laws  have  bea  ^ 
ivered,  and  when  phenomena  can  be  ihewii  >"  ^ 
resulta  of  the  operation  of  one  or  more  of  such  li" 
Thus,  the  great  induotion  of  nniveiaal  grantf 
applied  dedueCivelf  to  explain  a  great  many  i"^ 
besides  thoae  that  enabled  the  induction  to  be  sudi- 
Not  merely  the  motions  of  the  planet*  shmt  tb 
sun,  and  the  aatellitea  about  the  plaoeta,  Ut  >^, 
remote  and  previouily  nnaxpUined  phenmun*  "^ 
tha  tides,  the  preceaaiDn  of  tha  equinoxes,  ic„  ^ 
found  to  be  mfercncee  from  tha  general  prisop^ 
This  mode  of  determining  causes  is  csUel  '^ 
Deductive  Method.  When  several  agents  osit'  ", 
a  compound  effect,  there  is  requireda  pnx«B  " 
calculation  bo  find  from  the  enacts  of  us  cV* 
acting  separately  the  combined  effect  due  to  Ua' 
concurrent  action,  as  when  the  path  of  a  pn>i>^  , 
is  deduced  from  the  laws  of  gravity  and  of  ptojKli'  ; 
force.  It  is  tlie  deductive  sts^  of  seieav  <^  ' 
enables  mathematical  calcuiaCioa  to  be  bron^t  uj'  .' 
play  with  such  remaikabla  success  as  is  "^  "  1 
astronomy,  mechanics,  tta.    See  Deduotion. 

Tha  cucumitance  that  phenooKna  m^  f^  \ 
from  a  concurrence  of  causes,  lead*  to  th«  dii^f^  , 
between  ultimate  laws  and  derivative  or  sibonii^ 
laws.  Thus,  gnvtty  is  an  ultimate  law ;  the  ph*^  ' 
ment  of  tha  planets  in  aUipaea  i*  but  a  «ul»id>i>^  \ 


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DJDOCnON— INDUCTION  OF  ELECTRIC  CDEKENTS. 


law.  These  inferior  Iswa  mty  be  perfectly  true 
within  their  own  Itmita,  but  not  neceoMily  beyond 
certaiD  limtta.  of  time,  place,  snd  circiimatuic«. 
A  different  iiljuitmeDt  of  the  two  forcea  that 
determine  »  pUoet'e  motion,  mmld  oanee  b  cir- 
cidar  or  a,  nriibolia  orbit ;  had  therefore  it  is, 
that  when  phenomenk  result  from  &  eonibioktioD  of 
ultimate  Uwi  Bcting  under  a  oertain  vraagement, 
they  are  not  to  be  generaliwd  beyond  the  iphere 
where  that  uruigement  bolda.  These  inferior  laws 
are  sometimes  mere  inductions  that  luve  not  been 
resolved  into  their  constituent  lawi,  and  then  they 
go  under  the  name  of  *  Empirical  Iawi.'  That,  in 
the  hands  of  Re])ler,  the  elliptic  orbit  of  the  planete 
wan  only  aa  empirical  generalisation,  ascertained  by 
the  Method  of  Agreement;  Newton  ooDveited  it 
into  a  djerivative  law,  when  he  shewed  that  it 
resulted  from  tJie  more  general  laws  of  gravity, 
Jfco.  The  earlier  sta^  of  mduction  present  us  with 
many  of  those  empirical  law« ;  in  some  subjects — 
aa  physiology,  medicine,  to. — the  greater  number  of 
inductioQB  are  of  this  character.  Tbs  cure  of 
disease  is  especially  an  example  of  this  :  hanlly  any 
meilicine  can  have  its  efficai^  traced  (o  ultimate 
laws  of  tbe  human  lyatem.  Hence  the  uncertainty 
attending  the  application  of  remedies  to  new  cases, 
and  also  the  want  of  success  that  often  attends 
them  in  circnnutances  where  we  think  they  oaght 
to  snoceed. 

Induction  applies  to  other  laws  thOn  those  of 
causation —namely,  to  uniformities  of  oo-existenoe. 
For  the  illustration  of  tiieee,  ss  well  as  the  other 
parts  of  induction,  see  Mill's  Logic,  book  iv. 

IHDUCTIOK  OP  ELECTRIC  CURRBNTa 
The  disoovery  of  the  power  of  electric  currents  to 
induce  cnrrents  in  neighbourinz  condncting  circuits 
is  due  to  Faraday.  His  resear^es  on  the  snhject, 
named  by  him  voUa-tUdrie  induction,  were  pub- 
lished in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  (1831— 
1S32).  Henry  (1832}  observed  that  when  contact  wns 
broken  in  a  long  galvanic  circnit  a  brisht  spark 
occurred,  which  Adnot  oocnr  when  the  circuit  was 
short.  This  was  shewn  h^  Faraday  (1834)  to  be 
due  to  the  extra  currant  induced  by  the  vaiioos 
parts  of  the  circuit  in  each  other.  BaehhoSner 
and  Sturgeon  (1S37}  shewed  the  superior  action,  in  . 
induction  apparatus,  of  a  bundle  of  iron  wires  to 
that  of  a  solid  bar  of  iron.  Henry  (1841)  studied  ' 
the  inductive  action  of  induced  currents  of  different 
orders.  De  la  Rive  designed,  in  1&13,  an  electro- 
chemical condenser,  consisting  of  a  primal^  coil, 
which,  by  means  of  the  extra  cnrrant,  could  enable 
a  single  galvanic  cell  to  decompose  water.  The 
some  decomposition,  however,  had  been  effected  by 
Wright  in  lS4a  Rnhmkorff  oonstmcted  (1850 
ISSl)  the  first  so-called  induction  coil,  the  exceT* 
of  which  WIS  chiefly  attained  by  the  proper 
lation  of  the  uxoodiry  coil  Fizean  (1863)  mo 
immensely  the  power  of  the  coil,  by  providing  it 
with  a  condenser.  Of  late  years,  ooila  of  great  power 
have  been  constmcted,  rivalling,  if  not  exceeding, 
the  moat  powerful  electric  machines  in  length  and 
power  of  spark. 

T/ie  fiiTidammlal  h«i  of  current  induction  may  ' 


each  other.  The  extremities  trf  the  One,  pp,  are  in 
connection  with  the  poles  of  a  galvanio  batlaiy,  B, 
and  those  of  tbe  other,  »,  with  (he  binding-screws 
of  a  gajvanometer,  O.  The  instant  the  circuit  of 
the  Mttery  ii  completed,  and  the  current  sent 
along  pp,  a  current  in  the  opposite  direction  is 
induced  in  the  wire  m,  which  is  shewn  by  the 
deflection  of  the  needle  of  the  galvanometer.  This 
induced  current  is  only  momentary,  for  thongh 
a  to  circulate  in  pp,  the  needle 


soon  falls  back  la  its  original  position  of  i«st,  and 
tbe  wire  w  gives  free  passage  to  oUier  currents,  and 
appears  to  be  in  no  way  affected.     If,  now,  whan 


RftL 


the  needle  is  at  rest,  the  battery  circuit  be  broken, 

current  is  indicated  by  the  galvanometer  needle, 
but  in  this  ease  in  the  same  direction  as  the  indu<niig 
currant.  Tbe  induciDe  wire  and  cnrreot  ara  oaUe9 
prhnar]),  and  are  so  distinguished  from  the  induced 
wire  and  current,  which  are  termed  terondarg.  The 
passive  condition  of  the  wire  while  thus  under 
mduction  has  been  described  by  Faraday  as  electro- 
tonic  An  electric  throb,  so  to  speak,  marks  tbe 
getting  in  of  this  state,  and  another  its  vanishing ; 
the  former  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of 
the  inducing  ciurent,  and  the  latter  in  the  sams 
direction.  It  tbe  primary  wire,  pp,  be  movable,  so 
that  it  can  be  suddenly  brought  near  to,  and  with- 
drawn from  the  secondary,  m,  while  the  battery 
current  passes  steadily,  currents  are  induced  as  in 
the  former  case,  the  approach  of  the  wire  being 
marked  by  an  inverse  current,  and  its  withdraw^ 
by  a  direct  one.  As  long,  however,  as  the  primaiy 
wire  remains  in  sny  one  position,  all  evidence  of 
electricity  in  tbe  secondary  wire  disappears ;  bat  if 
in  this  position  the  strength  of  the  pnmaiy  onrrent 
should  be  increased  or  diminished,  momentalr 
currants  in  the  secondaiy  wire  would  sgain  maik 
the  changes  in  the  primary,  the  increaM  causing  an 
inverae,  and  the  decrease  a  direct  cnrreni  Henoe 
we  conclude,  that  a  eumnt  inUcA  btgint,  a  airrtnl 
vAich  approachia,  or  a  eurrent  njiick  incrtate*  in 
ttrrngth,  utdvea  an  bwtrm  mrmaUary  enmnt  m  a 
nei^ltbouriag  mndadmg  cavvit,  and  that  a  atrraU 
vAich  tUipi,  a  citrrmt  taUe&  Tttint,  or  a  currsnl 
uAieA  de^rmmt  is  itratglA,  induea  a  direct  momen- 
tary etirrtnl  in  a  ndg/ibmrmg  circuit.  Pot  inverse, 
tiie  word  ntnataie,  and  for  direct,  the  word  pontine, 
are  frequently  employed  in  refennoe  to  indnoed 
onrrents. 

In  experiments  Uke  the  above,  it  is  mnch  mors 
oonvenient  to  wind   the  primary   and  secoadary 
wires  side  by  aide 
round   a    bobbin. 


))  increased   The 


each  other  by  a 
oovering  of  wool 
or  sUk.  Not  only 
does  such  a  dis- 
position admit  of 
very  long  wires 
being  used,  but  it 
also  dispoms  the 
wires  employed  '" 


ffreater  ad  vantage, 

for  each  single  turn  of  the  primary  win 
ily  on  the  corresponding  turn  of  the 


wire,  but  on  all  the  turns  near  it.  The  inductive 
effect  of  such  a  coil  is  much  greats  than  that 
which  would  be  obtained  by  the  same  extent  of 
wires  ninning  side  by  side  in  a  straight  or  crooked 
line.    It  is  not  even  necessary  that  tbs  two  wires. 


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IHDUCnON  OF  ELBCTBIC  CDBItEKTS. 


be  wound  ronnd  togather,  each  may  be  vonod  on 
a  tepante  bobbin,  »nd  the  one  placed  maide  the 
other,  ai   in   fig.   3.      The  primary  ooil,  P,  here 


Rg.  3. 

represented,  is  made  of  n-ire  ti*^  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  ooTeied  with  wool;  and  Qie  secondary 
coil,  S,  of  silk-covered  wire,  about  y^th  of  an 
inch,  and  mnch  longer  than  the  primary  wire. 
With  two  such  coila,  the  illustraticD  of  the  pre- 
ceding principle*  of  induction  can  be  coDTBnientl^ 
given.  If  the  primary  coil  be  placed  in  the  circoit 
of  a  galnnic  cell,  by  two  loom  and  flexible 
vrirea,  so  u  to  allow  of  ila  easy  motion,  and  if  the 
terminal  binding-Screwe  of  the  secondary  ceil  be 
placed  in  conneotioa  with  a  galTanometer,  when  P 
II  inserted  into  S,  a  momentary  inverse  current  is 
indicated,  and  when  it  is  removed,  a  momentarr 
direct  one ;  or  if,  when  P  remains  in  S,  the  strength 
of  the  primary  current  be  altered,  the  ne«le 
annonnces  the  induction  of  currents  aaoordiog  to 
tha  prind|de«  stated  above.  In  order,  however,  to 
obtBU  the  gtMteet  effect  from  the  secondary  coil  S, 
it  is  Decenary,  whilst  P  remains  within  it,  to  have 
some  means  of  continuouily  completing  and  break- 
ing the  primary  current.  A  contrivance  for  this 
purpote  IS  called  a  rhadom,  or  eurrtnt-bnak.  A 
simide  rheotom  may  be  made  of  a  common  file,  by 
holding  one  wire  from  the  battery  against  the  end 
of  the  file,  and  running  the  other  along  tiie  teeth, 
the  current  being  stopped  each  time  the  wire  leaves 
a  tooth.  In  tbie  way,  a  rapid  scries  of  intecmptions 
is  effected,  each  of  which  u  attended  by  an  inveise 
and  a  direct  current  in  the  secondary  wire.  A 
break  of  the  same  deacriptioo,  but  more  constant, 
may  be  also  made  by  causing  a  metal  spring  to 
press  againet  the  teeth  of  a  metal  wheel,  both 
spring  and  wheel  being  connected  with  the  t«tt«ry. 
As  the  wheel  ia  turned  hy  a  handle,  the  spring 
breaks  the  contact  each  time  it  elipe  from  one  tooth 
to  another.  The  most  convenient  form  of  break, 
however,  ii  one  which  ia  made  self-acting  by  the 
action  of  an  electro- magnet,  which  receives  the 
name  of  a  magnetic  Aommer. 

Quantity  and  Tennon  of  Induced  Currm**.— Let  us 
place  the  coil  P  within  3 ;  let  P,  along  with  a  self- 
acting  rheotom,  be  pat  in  the  oircuit  of  a  galvanic 
cell,  and  let  S  be  connected  with  a  galvanometer, 
lite  interruption  in  the  primary  current  being 
effected  by  the  rheotom  with  great  rapidity,  the 
induced  invetse  and  direct  currents  are  sent  with 
rapidity  through  the  coil  of  the 
If  thia  last  be  of  a  short  and  thick 


oscillatea  round  ita  pcaition  ot  rest  This  pmn 
that  d<  juantUjf  m  deeiHdty  (matwiflrd  of  Ik 
■ntfucaJ  mearae  ana  direcl  currmtt  it  Ite  nam,  iar 
they  each  aiart  the  same  inSueace  on  ttie  accdlai 
But  if  the  coil  of  the  ealvanometer  eouiit  U  > 
long  fine  wire,  the  ne^a  is  kept  demted  ia  i 
direction  which  argues  the  action  of  tiit  dine. 
otUTent.  This  leaib  us  to  condode,  tlut  itili 
Currcnlf,  tAoujfA  «rpuil  in  quanliUf,  art  vaqul  ii 
lenrion,  lAe  dirtet  eurratl  havittg  ate  hifAft  loan. 
for  it  has  more  power  to  force  its  way  throg^ 
the  fine  wire  of  the  galvanometer  than  tia  inm. 
Other  proofs  of  the  Same  pnnciplea  may  be  tiaij 
fomished- 

Tbedifierenca  .  

currents  is  accounted  for  in  thia  way:  wheoacliiiife 
takes  plaoe  in  the  primary  current,  the  qiutiQ 
of  the  electricity  indaosd  by  it  in  tbe  teaaixj 
—--  '-  "-  a  same  whether  this  change  U^ua  plan 
slowly ;  the  teuum,  bowover,  ii  lej 
When  the  change  takea  place  slowlf ,  tht 
total  qnantity  of  electricity  in  circulatiaD  or'^ — 
to  paai  as  alowly,  and  there  ia  little  in  motiDD 
time  ;  but  when  the  same  occnra  qnicUy,  it 
with  momentum,  so  to  spaak,  and  the  qnu 
circulation  at  one  time  is  sa  much  greater,  in  oen- 
pariaon  with  the  tomux  case,  as  Hia  time  »  shuter. 
It  is  this  quidc  diniatch  of  elscUiuiU  wUdi  caoti- 
tntea  the  tension  of  the  current.  Now,  *•  it  tib 
some  time  before  the  primai;  cnnent  i<  fully  atolN 
lished,  the  inverse  induced  current  is  ilov  ud  i 
low  tension  ;  but  when  the  contact  is  broken,  tk 
primary  current  ceases  much  more  anddenlj  this  it 
began,  and  the  direct  induced  cniient  is  qoifl  ud 
of  nigh  tension.  This  view  of  the  matter  ia  btnt 
out  by  experiment,  for  it  is  foond,  that  icAUair 
^rouri  thr  tuddamttt  of  tie  cAunj^u  of  At  prvsrf 
eUTTtni,  htighiav  Ihe  ttnaon  (ff  Ote  carraiU  vaucai  t| 
OitM  <Aangt4.    The  break,  from  "  ' 

forms  an  important 


3St° 


Tha  inductive  power  of  the  primaiy  ceil  ■ 
immensely  increased,  by  placing  a  bundle  of  soft  inn 
rods  or  wires  in  the  centre  ot  it.  The  nugnetiai 
which  b^ins  and  ceaaee  iu  these  at  eacli  pswgc  ef 
Qie  current  acts  in  conjunction  with  the  indaoi; 
force  of  the  coiL  Tha  centre  of  the  bobbin  P  (li^n 
is  hollow,  to  receive  a  bundle  of  thia  kiod.  Tk 
greater  part  of  the  inductive  aotion  is  doe  to  tiK 
iron  core,  and  tiie  induced  currents  got  witt  unl 
without  it  are  not  to  be  compared  in  pomt  of  asff- 
A  solid  bar  of  soft  iron  may  also  be  uanl,  at 
with  much  lesa  advantage,  for  the  induced  caneM 
which  linger  in  it  after  the  stoppage  of  tfae  ^"'"^ 
current,  acting  themselves  indnctively,  impiii  >^ 
(mddenneSH  with  which  the  current  diaappean  (na 
the  primary  wire  and  magnetiflm  frtim  tlw  flff- 
The  thin  layer  of  oxide  which  fonna  on  tlie  Tudj 
insulates  them  enfficiently  frcm  one  anoUi^,  ^ 
prevents  the  formation  of  such  currents.  II  ii  V^! 
for  the  same  reaeon  that  metal  tubes  cannot  be  vti 
for  bobbins  for  either  primary  or  aecondBT  i»^ 
If  such  were  used,  <:!o»fd  cireuilt  wouid  be  fiunM 
in  them,  the  reaction  of  which  would  jroloii;  tbi 
changes  of  the  primaiy  induoere,  and  conaaiaew,' 
"~"~iair  the  tension  of  me  secondaj-y  cunent  H^ 
ibins  would  not  be  open  to  thia  objection  if  tti(! 
i  a  longitudinal  slii  whicli  woold  sjke  t" 
*-'-- a  broken  ring  and  circuit    _ 


The 


,  and  aa  I  "TO* 


principal  aim  of  the  primary 
current  is  essential  to  that  objeci^H  amia-  -— 
vrire  and  of  moderate  lengtL  In  the  Mcnodt^ 
coil,  the  tension  of  the  induced  'carrent  tloM  ^ 
aimed  at,  and  with  thia  view  it  is  made  of  u  ui" 
wire  as  can  be  mad«^  so  a*  to  adjsit  ot  —  i"*"! 


tyCOOl^IlT 


tNDUCTION  OF  ELECTRIC  CUEBEHTS. 


toniB  ■■  ponible  being  brought  within  the  influence 
of  the  core  and  primary  coil.  The  electric  conforma- 
tion of  the  secondary  coil  it  umtetiiaei  looked  upon 
in  the  lams  light  aa  that  of  A  galvanic  battery. 
The  total  electro-motive  force  of  ue  coil  ia  the  sum 
of  that  of  allthetnmiinit,iiithei«iiiewaythattii« 
electro-motiTe  force  of  the  battery  ts  tovportionate 
to  the  number  of  cella. 

Extra  Current— Not  Only  does  a  galvanio  cntient 
induce  electricity  in  a  Ttei^hbourine  circuit,  but  it ! 
also  acta  inductively  on  itself.  When  contact  ie  ' 
broken  in  a  battery  circuit,  the  galvanic  ipark  ia  I 
Beeri.  3ee  Galvanish.  When  the  wire  ia  short,  the 
Hpork  is  feeble,  but  it  increases  in  brilliancy  with  the 
length  of  the  circuit,  and  this  becomes  particularly 
observable  when  the  wire  is  wound  round  in  a  coil 
This  certainly  does  not  arise  from  the  current  being 
Btrona  with  the  long  wire,  and  weak  with  the  abort 
one,  tor  quite  the  reverse  is  the  case,  as  mi^t  be 
shewn  with  the  aid  of  a  nlvanometer.  The  real 
cauae  of  the  sapciior  briUiancy  of  the  galvanic 
spark  with  the  long  drcoit  is  to  be  fonnd  in  liw 
induction  of  the  primary  current  on  the  various  parta 
of  itaelf,  eicitdng,  as  they  are  called,  extra  curraiii 
in  the  primary  wire.  It  has  been  fully  attested  by 
experiment,  wat  at  the  instant  a  galvanK  cumtnj 
beging  and  aidt,  extra  euntntt  are  mduced  by  the 
action  of  lAc  »tiemi  part*  of  lia  eircutt  upon  eack 
olAer,  l&U  at  Ihe  beginning  of  the  current  being  intwFK, 
arui  tAat  at  the  end  direct  As  the  ertra  corrant 
inverse  acta  opposite  to  the  main  current,  it  doea  not 
appear  as  a  aepaiate  cnneat,  but  only  Tetania  the 
insfcantaneouB  passage  of  the  main  current.  The 
extra  current  direct  succeeds  the  main  current,  and 
has  consequently  a  separate  existence.  It  is  what 
ia  generally  referred  to  when  the  extra  current  is 
spoken  of.  This  extra  current  ia  of  much  higher 
tenmoD  than  the  original  current.  The  effect  of  the 
extra  current  on  the  direct  induced  current  of  the 
secondary  coil  is  to  lessen  very  decidedly  its  tension. 
If  a  way  be  made  for  the  extra  current,  the  tension 
of  the  induced  current  falls  prodigiously.  In  a  large 
coil-macMne,  which  gives  freely  sparks  of  one  or  two 
inches  in  length,  when  the  two  portions  of  the  break 
are  joined  by  a  thin  wire,  so  as  to  allow  the  extra 
ctureot  to  paaa,  sparks  will  not  travel  between  the 
two  poles,  however  near  they  are  brought.  When 
no  such  communication  exists,  a  portiao  of  the  extra 
current  leaps  over  between  the  separating  parts  of 
the  break,  and  in  so  far  diminishes  the  intensity  of 
the  secondary  current  The  condenser  of  the  coil- 
machine,  to  be  afterwaids  described,  has  for  its 
object  the  absorption  or  suppressioa  of  the  extra 
current,  but  the  manner  in  wnicb  it  effects  this  is 
not  yet  properly  explftinad.  The  prejudicial  effect 
of  tike  exiza  oorrait  on  the  indui^  current  is  easily 
nnderatood,  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  it  prolongs 
the  ceaaation  of  the  magnetism  of  the  core  and  of 
the  ciurent  in  the  wimary  coil,  and  thus  impairing 
the  luddenneas  of  this  change,  reduces  the  tension 
of  the  induced  current. 

Induction  CoiL — The  essential  porta  of  this 
apparatus  have  been  already  described  in  detail 
A  primary  coil  with  ita  core  of  iron  wire,  and  a 
secondary  ooil  exterior  to,  and  insulated  from  a 
primary  coil,  form  the  main  portion  of  the  instru- 
ment. The  primary  coil  is  connected  with  the  poles 
of  a  gnlvanio  battery,  and  in  the  circuit,  a  rheotom  is 
intnrauced,  to  effect  the  intermptlbns  of  Qie  current 
essential  to  its  inductive  action.  The  only  parts  not 
yet  referred  to  are  the  oondeoser  and  the  com- 
mutator. The  condenser  consists  of  several  sheets 
of  tinfoil  and  oiled  silk,  laid  alternately  the  one 
above  the  other.  The  Urst,  third,  fifth,  tc  sheets 
of  tinfoil  ore  oonnected  by  stnps  of  the  same  mate- 
rial; so  are  tile  Moond,  north,  and  sixth.  &c  ;  tlie 


whole  forming  a  condensing  ajmantua  like  a  Leyden 
jar,  the  odd  sheets  forming  llie  one  coating,  and 
the  even  sheets  the  other.  Each  set  of  dieete  is 
connected  with  one  of  the  wires  of  the  primary  coil. 
The  condenser  is  generally  placed  in  the  sole  of  the 
instrument,  and  <u>ea  not  meet  the  eye.  The  oom- 
mntator  consists  of  an  ivory  cylinder  covered  with 
conducting  plates  on  two  sides,  and  is  so  constructed 
that  it  can  break  OKitaot,  or  transmit  the  ourrent 
through  the  coil  in  either  direction. 

An  induction  coil,  as  constructed  by  I«dd  of 
London,  is  represented  in  fig.  4,  The  forms  under 
which  the  instrument  appears  are  very  various,  and 
the  one  in  the  figure  only  serves  to  shew  the  genend 


Kg.  4. 

B  construction.  The  two  binding- 
serewa,  p  and  n,  are  for  the  battery- wire* ;  C  is  the 
commutator.  The  two  coils,  W,  lie  hcnizoDtsJIy 
on  the  sole  of  the  instrument,  S.  The  secondary 
□oil  alone  is  seen,  the  primary  being  within  it  and 
oat  of  view.  The  breaking  hammer,  being  behind 
the  coil,  is  likewise  not  shewn.  The  condenser  is 
contained  by  the  box  which  constitutes  tiie  sole,  and 
a  conducting  connection  is  established  between  ita 
coatings  and  the  wires  of  the  primary  coiL  The 
teiminatlons  of  the  secDndory  ooU  are  fixed  to  the 
heads  of  the  glaaa  pillars,  F,  F,  which  ore  furnished 
with  pointed  rods  capable  of  universal  motion.  The 
excellencB  of  the  inatnunent  depends  on  the  proper 
insulatioD  of  the  Becoudaiy  coil  The  bobbin  must 
be  made  of  glass,  gutta-percha,  or  (best  of  all)  vul- 
canite, so  as  to  prevent  the  induced  electricity  from 
reaching  the  ground  by  the  primary  coiL  Care  must 
also  be  taken  to  insulate  the  different  parta  of  the 
secondary  coil  from  each  other.  If  this  were  not 
done,  the  spark  which  completes  the  secondary 
current,  instead  of  taking  place  at  the  rods,  the 
place  at  which  it  is  wanted,  would  pass  within  the 
coil  itself.  It  is  necessary,  in  consequence,  to  have 
each  layer  of  the  coil  insulated  from  the  other,  by 
interpoaing  gutta-percha  paper,  and  cementing^it 
with  a  hot  iron  to  the  sides  of  the  bobbin.  The 
induced  current  must  thus  pass  tiirongh  all  the 
tarns  of  the  wire,  and  is  prevented  from  shortening 
its  course  by  leaping  over  one  or  more  layera  of  the 

ExperimenU  urilJt  l/te  Induction  CoU. — Say  that 
we  experiment  with  a  coil  like  the  one  shewn  in 
fig.  4,  about  one  foot  long  and  nearly  six  inches  in 
diameter,  which  yields  r^dily  aporks  of  from  four 
to  five  inches  with  a  battery  oi  bx  Bunsen  cells. 
After  oonnecting  the  batteiy-wires,  and  setting 
the  commutator  so  as  to  complete  the  contact,  1^ 
OS  place  the  movable  rods  within  an  inch  of 
each  other.  An  uninterrupted  rush  of  sparks  is 
transmitted  between  the  points  of  the  rods.  The 
sparks  are  not  the  clear  single  sparks  of  the  electric 
machine,  but  seem  to  be  made  up  of  several  sparks 
occDiring  at  the  same  instant,  miich  ore  white  and 
crooked.  These  are  enveloped  in  a  luminous  haze, 
which,  on  closer  examination,  wears  the  appear- 
ance  of  a  congregation  of  the  spiral  sparki.  the 


byGoogle 


INDUCnON  OF  ELBCTEIO  CnBRBNTS-IHDTJLOENCB. 


oonvolutioiu  ot  which  tn  I 


3  temoved.  As  the  rod*  are  withdmrn  from 
each  other,  it  diMppcan,  tad  when  the;  stand 
aboTe  three  inchea  apart,  the  spark  raemblw  in 
eTei7  reapect  the  forked  nngle  sjurk  of  s  powerfol 
eleomo  machiae.  When  t^e  pointi  are  withdnwn 
beyond  strikins  diitance,  eUotrio  bmahei  itill 
r  between    Uiem,  vhich  becomo  Tuible 


not  yield 
whether  it 


1  connected  with  the 
yield  them  so  readily,  and   this  ii   the 

Uier  it  bo  the  positive  or  negative  pole. 

Whea  a  gold-leaf  electroscope  i>  broagbt  near,  the 
leave!  pert  energetically  from  each  other ;  and  when 
ft  spark  ia  received  by  it  from  one  of  the  rode,  it 
renuina  permanently  charged.  When,  however,  the 
knob  of  the  etectroaeope  ia  brought  into  actu&l 
contaot  with  either  of  the  rod*,  thu  action  ceases, 
beeaose  the  induced  ourrenta,  inrene  and  direct, 
neotraliw  each  other.  When  the  knob  touches,  both 
ourrenti  affect  the  leave*  equally  ;  but  when  it  is  at 
soma  distance,  the  direct  current  alone  has  tension 
enongh  to  act  Each  pole  of  the  induction  coil 
is  the  seat  of  two  opponte  etectricitia,  alCemating 
with  each  other,  ahke  in  qiiantity,  but  differing  in 
tension,  and  thii  aocoants  for  the  reaemblancea  and 
differences  between  the  ooil  and  moohine  electri- 
oitiea.  When  the  poles  are  put  in  connection  with 
9ydra  jar,  the  apai^  passing 


between  the  points  are  m 


«  brilliant,  and  the 


the  electricity  ot  each  direct  eurrmt,  and  each  apark 
discharge  takes  place  in  shorter  tune,  and  conse- 
quently with  greater  intensity.  The  condeosed 
B|)ark  punctures  paper  and  the  like  with  great 
facility,  but  it  ia  of  very  low  heatine  power.  The 
nncoDdeoaed  spark,  more  jiartiaularlyuie  hazy  spark, 
got  when  the  polea  are  near  each  other,  kindles 
paper,  gunpowder,  coal-gas,  and  other  oombiiatibles 
with  roHlioeas  and  certainty.  It  ia  from  this  pro- 
perty of  ita  a])ark  that  the  induction  coil  is  M  so 
great  use  in  mining  operations.  The  two  enda 
of  the  wires  coming  from  the  coil  are  fixed  near 
each  other  without  touching,  and  ore  imbedded  in 
a  charge  of  ffunfwwder  at  a  safe  distance  from  the 
operator,  "nie  wires  are  insulated  by  mtta-percha, 
and  when  the  induced  current  ia  sent  through  them, 
sparks  paaa  throng  the  gunpowder  between  the 
ends  of  the  wires,  and  set  Hre  to  it.  When  several 
choiges  have  to  be  ignited  aimuJtaneoualy,  the 
spark  of  the  coil-machine  is  conaidered  much  more 
reliable  than  the  action  of  ft  powerful  galvanic 
battery  in  heating  thin  wires  conneoting  the  ends 
of  the  batbety-wires.  See  Oalvahisii.  The  power 
of  the  direct  induced  current  of  even  large  induction 
coils  to  deflect  the  magnetic  needle,  and  to  effect 
chemical  decompoaition,  is  very  inaigaificant.  This 
shews  that  it  ia  very  much  inferior  to  Che  inducing 
current  in  quantity,  however  much  it  may  be  supe- 
r  in  tension.  The  piiysiotogicat  effect,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  tremendous,  and  the  experimenter 
(t  take  care  not  to  allow  any  part  of  hia  body  to 
at  the  medium  'of  communication  between  the 
polea,  OS  the  shock  so  got  might  be  dangerona,  if 
not  fatal 

When  the  indnoed  current  is  mode  to  pass  thmngh 
nearly  vacuous  spaces,  ft  ven  sntendid  effect  is 
produced.  The  EUmric  Egg  (tig.  6)  is  emplo^  to 
display  this.  It  oonaists  of  a  glass  veesel  m  the 
shs^  of  an  egg,  with  an  open  neck  above,  and 
another  below.     Brasa  fittings  are  attached  to  these. 


The  lower  opening  is  fitted  irith  a  stopoo^K 
can  be  screwed  to  the  plate  of  an  air-pmifi  i 
brass  rod  and  ball  rise  a  short  wsy  into  tht  i^ 
The  Gttings  above  are  intended 
to  allow  n  a  rod  ending  in  > 
ball  passing  up  and  down  air- 
tight, so  that  the  two  balls  can 
be  convenient^  set  at  different 
distanoea.  Wnen  the  i^  ia 
ezhansted,  and  the  wires  nom 
the  coil  are  attached,  the  one 
above,  and  the  other  below,  a 
luminous  glow  extends  between 
the  balla,  which  ia  wide  in  the 
middle,  and  contracts  at  eiUivr 
extremity.  When  the  exhaoatioa 
has  reocned  one-twelfth  of  on 
inch,  as  shewn  by  the  gauge  of 
the  air-pump,  black  bands  are 
seen  to  lie  horizontally  in  the 
light,  ao  aa  to  wear  the  appear- 
ance of  sbatification,  aa  anewn 
in  the  figure.  These  ooour  more 
readily  whoi  a  drop  or  two  of 
turpentine,  alcohol,  or  ether 
have  been  introduced  into  the 
egg.  The  cause  of  the  stratifi- 
cation is  aa  yet  a  matter  of 
speculation.  The  boll  which 
forma  the  n^^tjve  pole  ia  envdoned  in  a  anox 
of  blue  light  The  glow,  which  u  (rf  a  Ua»i'- 
mauve  tint,  appears  to  proceed  &om  the  paici' 
ball,  and  reaches  nearly  to  the  n^ative  bail.  iRi 
which  it  ia  separated  by  a  well  marked  non-lumio 


r»s. 


Byn 


IS  of  the 


at  the  balls  can  be  instantly  baiopw^ 
Serving  the  same  purpose  as  the  electrie  tfi.  ^ 
ia  a  great  variety  of  vacnona  tabes  hennttiw.' 
sealea  and  ready  for  use  at  any  time.  Thoe  bi>i 
been  first  filled  with  particular  gaso,  and  tka 
eihauated,  and  they  exhibit  lights  of  variwa  W 
according  to  the  gaa  contained  oy  them. 

IKDU'LQENCE,  in  Roman  C^atbotie  Oo^ 
means  a  remission,  by  church  authoK^,  ^ ' 
repentant  sinner,  of  the  tanporal  pnniahnwnt  vtiA 
in  tbe  Catholic  theory,  remaina  due  after  tix  <| 
and  its  et«iial  punishment  have  been  remittidi 
doctrine  which  baa  been  the  subject  o^  "*  "^ 
angry  controveny,  and  which  may  be  i^"^ 
as  the  chief  among  the  proximate  eauaes  i'  I*, 
Ref ormatioD,  deaerves  very  careful  oaniidaili'',  ^ 
We  muat  confine  ourselves,  however,  to  >  I""  , 
authentic  explanation  of  the  doctrine  such  s>  it  • 
held  by  Roman  Catholics,  together  with  a  )i^- 
of  the  practice  in  the  varioua  ages  of  the  ehiird- 

By  the  discipline  of  tlie  first  centuries  a  i(^  , 
course  of  penitential  observaDce  waa  exacted  a  "• , 
who  fell  into  any  grievous  crime,  eai>eciall}  if^l 
murder,  and  adultery^,  snch  sinnera  being  «M0" 
from  church  communion  for  variousperioda,  in  ■* 
cases  even  till  the  hour  of  death.  Th«e  V^^^ 
observaocoi,  which  Proteetonta  regaid  u  [^ 
disciplinary,  were  designed,  aocording  totlisCw*' 
view,  *a  an  expiation,  on  the  part  of  the  F^°'|j 
for  tJie  (emporoj  punishment  which,  after  ^^ 
the  etamat  puniahment  due  to  it  have  beea  iv^"^ 
by  Qod,  still  remains  to  be  undergone  ;  and  «■>■  ■ 
the  moat  acrimonious  of  the  early  oontroven"*' 
Montaniat  and  the  Novatian,  arose  aa  to  the  P°^ 
of  the  church  to  ntlaz  theae  penitential  obwrn"^ 
and  to  admit  grievous  sinners  to  commaaifo.  '■f' 
ancient  relaxations  (of  which  they  n^ 
referred  to  (n  1  Cor.  v.  6  and  in  2  Cor.  iL  15  "' 
type)  are  considered  by  Catholics  aa  example "' 
modem  indulgence ;  and  Uie  practice  wluct  ^ 
up  in  the  3d  and  4th  centuries,  and  which  a's''* 


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INDULGENCE— INDDa. 


I    wu  caiTMil  to  gre&t  ^  „ 

I  relaiatiODB  on  the  recommenditioD  of  Durtyn 
confeasoi*,  u  held  by  Catholio  theologiau  to  be  an 
illuatrBtion  of  th&t  principle  of  vicuioua  BtoDement, 
accotdiiig  to  whicl^  in  the  tikeory  ol  indnlgenoes, 
the  church  a  mppioaed  to  anjiply,  from  the  inaz- 
hanatible  tnuore  of  the  mente  of  Chrirt,  and  of 
the  *  anperarogatory '  works  of  the  saints,  what  may 
be  wanting  to  the  completeness  of  the  atooement  Ol 
th«  lees  perfact  bnt  yet  truly  penitent  simier  to 
whom  she  grants  the  indulgence.  That  this  practice 
at  relaxation,  whatevsr  may  haye  been  its  real 
import,  was  to  be  used  sccording  to  the  judgment 
of  tho  bishop  as  to  the  diipoaitiDa  of  the  peniteat, 
ia  expressty  liJd  down  by  uie  council  of  Ancyra  in 
308,  Aod  by  that  of  Nice  in  32S.  In  all  caaea,  how< 
ever,  ths  penon  graatiog  the  relaxation  waa  to 
impoae  oertain  oood  works  u  a  partial  Bobrtitute 
for  the  penalty  ^ch  bad  been  reUxed  ;  and  among 
these  works,  which  had  atSrst  bean  purely  person^ 
oame  by  degrees  to  be  included  money  pnymanta  for 
oertain  religious  or  charitable  objecta,  aa  the  build- 
ing oi  a  ohurch,  or  the  foundation  of  a  monaatery  or 
hoe^taL  The  name  indulgence  appe&n  ta  hare 
originated  lata,  the  &rat  recorded  instance  of  ita  use 
being  by  Alezando'  IL  in  ths  11th  c. ;  but  the  insti- 
tution  itaeU  ia  foond  in  full  derelopinent  during  the 
wars  of  the  CraaadM,  the  aerring,  or  the  contributing 
to  serrice  in  which, '  prorided  it  were  for  devotion 
alone,  and  not  from  motives  of  greed  or  of  glory,'  waa 
accepted  in  tha  council  of  Clermont '  as  on  eqniva- 
leat  aubatitnte  for  all  penanoe.'  Such  an  indulgeDce 
was  oatled  *  {denary ;  where  a  portion  Only  oi  the 
penitentid  worka  was  relaxed,  it  was  called '  partial ; ' 
and  in  oider  to  put  a  bar  to  t^ir  exoeasive  molti- 
plication  and  to  other  abosea.  Innocent  IIL  declared 
the  power  of  granting  *  plenary  indulgences '  to  be 
'  '  >  the  pope  alone,  bishops  being  only 
to  grant  the  'partial '  or  limited  indal- 


1  most   remarkable  wa*  the  Uriah   dispen- 

a  of  indulgences,  in  the  gnntinjj  of  which  the 

contending  popes  rivalled  eM£  other  in  prodinlity. 

The  last  eitreme,  however,  was  not  reached  until 

tiie  be^nuing  of  the  18th  o.,  when,  with  a  view  to 

i    raiung  the  ^ds  necessary  for  the  erection  of  th; 


rt  church  of  Bt  Peter's  at  Rome,  the  pope,  Leo 
published  a  plenary  indul^enoa,  the    principal 
u  for  the  gaining  of  which  was  a  contribu- 


tion to  this  work.  Catholic  historians  contend  that 
in  itself  such  a  condition  was  p^eotly  justiliable, 
and  that  if  dnly  explained  to  ths  people,  it  might  be 
lawfully  and  even  meritorioualy  complied  with;  but 
they  admit  that  many  of  the  preacbers  of  the  indul- 
'a  extoUing  its  natural  effects,  went  to  inde- 


wet«  committed  in  Germany  and  in  Swi^erland. 
Hence  the  decree  of  the  council  of  Trent,  while  it 
affirms  that  tha  use  of  indnlgmcea,  as  being  '  moat 
salutary  for  the  Christian  people,  and  approved  by 
the  authority  of  conudls,  is  to  be  retuned  in  the 
church,'  jet  orders  that,  'in  graDtiug  them,  modera- 
tion be  observed,  lest,  br  exceaaive  facility,  discipline 
may  be  enervated.'  Upon  the  special  lastmctions 
of  this  council,  all  the  modem  legislation  on  the 
subject  of  indn^ncea  has  been  founded ;  but  as  the 
decree  of  the  eonncU  doea  not  explicitly  declare 
what  is  tha  precdae  effect  of  an  indulgence,  it  ia 
further  explained  by  Pope  Pins  VL,  —  '■■-  ""'~- 
brated  hull,  Auetortm  rida,  ' 
recMTed  witii  due  dispoaitians. 


i   an  indulgence, 
ita  not  alone  the 


...      attached  to  certain  crimes  in  this 

life,  but  aUo  the  temporal  puiiiahmeut  which  would 
await  the  penitent  after  death  to  be  sndnred  hj  him 


the  above  exjdanation,  it  wHl  be  gathered 
that  Catholics  do  not  imdetstaod  by  an  indulgence 
a  remiaaioii  of  sin,  muoh  less  a  paimiaaion  to  commit 
ain,  or  a  promiae  of  foigiveneaa  of  future  sin.  They 
contend,  moreover,  tlut  since  the  beueiit  of  an 
indulgence  can  only  1m  enjoyed  by  a  sinner  who  has 
repented  of  ain,  and  resolved  to  embrace  a  new  life, 
tiie  imputation  of  introducing  laxity  of  principle  and 


may  apnaar  easy  and  even  trivial,  yet  tSe  one  ladis- 
pensabie  preliminsry — sorrow  for  ain  and  sincere 
PDiTWee  of  amendment — in  itaelf  involves  the  very 
his^ieat  effort  of  Christian  virtue. 

On  the  subject  of  indulgenoea,  Proteatants  are 
aooustomed  to  ^oote  the  language  used  by  popes  in 
granting  them,  in  oppoeitioD  to  the  viewa  put  forth 
by  Roman  Cathohcs  in  defending  them.  And 
nothing  is  more  iximmon  than  for  popea  in  their 
bulls  of  jubilee,  to  grant  the  mosl  pteaarji  and  amir 
plett  bidulgmee,  pardon,  and  rtmitma  of  aU  tau, 
on  certain  couditions  specified.  And  although  thia 
grant  is  made  only  to  'the  faithful  who  are  traly 
penitent  and  have  eonfessed,'  yet  being  limited  to  a 
certain  period,  as  ths  year  of  jubilee,  and  to  oertain 
conditicais,  a*  saying  oertain  prayers,  viaiting  certain 
churches,  wearing  or  kissing  a  scapular,  or  the  like, 
it  is  argued  that  theae  cannot  but  acquire,  in  the 
estimatiun  of  the  people,  an  importance  which  is 
very  unfavourable  to  penitence,  virtne,  &ith,  and 
piety.  It  is  likewise  urged  that  ths  whole  doctrine 
of  indolgencee  is  founded  not  only  on  an  unwar- 
nuted  assumption  of  power  given  to  the  church, 
but  also  on  a  doctrine  of  human  works  and  merits 
inconsistent  with  what  we  are  taught  in  Scripture 
as  to  the  ofBce  of  Christ  as  a  Saviour. 

rNDUS  (Sansc  Sindhu,  probably  from  a  root 
signifying  'to  How'),  the  great  river  that  Innnds 
Sndustan  on  the  west.  It  rises  in  Tibet,  near  the 
sources  of  the  kindred  Stitlej,  in  lat  31*  20'  N., 
and  long.  81*  Stf  E.  The  precise  spot  ia  aaiJ  to  be 
18,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  to  be  on 
the  north  side  oE  the  Kailas,  a  Himalayan  peak 
which  overtops  it  by  at  least  4000  feet.  Its  general 
ooune,  till  it  forces  ita  way  between  the  Himalaya 
Proper  and  the  Hindu  En^  is  towards  the  north- 
west, being  pretty  nearly  at  ri^ht  angles  to  its 
general  dii^ction  through  the  plains.  On  reaching 
Sussi  (near  the  borders  of  Budaksban),  ita  most 
northern  point,  it  turns  sonthward,  loses  itself  in 
the  bills,  and  reappeois  at  Takot  in  Sobistan,  north 
of  the  Punjab.  After  a  run  of  670  miles,  having 
■till  940  miles  before  it,  it  becomes  navigable  at  a 
pcnnt  whicti,  on  other  grounds  also,  ia  worthy  of 
notioe.  Here  it  receives  the  Cabul,  its  principal 
affluent  on  the  right  i  and  here  is  Atak  (Attock), 
anciently  Tazila,  the  scene  of  Alexander  the  Great's 
hge.  About  half  way  from  Atak  to  ita  month, 
reives,  on  the  left,  the  accumulated  waters 
of  the  Punjab  through  the  single  channel  of  ths 
Puninud.  Each  of  the  '  five  water-oouiaea,'  aa  well 
as  the  Cabul,  i>  practicable  for  inland  craft  to  the 
monntaini.  Below  its  confluence  with  the  Punjoud, 
the  L,  instead  of  increasing  in. volume,  l>ecumea 
gradually  leaa.  Its  basin  is  here  narrow,  so  that 
' '  affluents  are  insignificant,  while  its  arid  aandy 
ure  causes  ths  river  to  sufier  from  absorjition 
and  evaporation.  This  operates  still  more  powerfully 
from  the  drcnmstaoce,  that  the  river  here  divides 
into  unmeKius  channels,  many  of  wbieh  never  return 
at  all  to  tbe  main  atream,  while  other*  nturu  much 


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INDUSIAX  LIMEST0NTU-INDU8TRIAL  SOClGTIEa 


of  HydenUd,  oomnteiMM  the  Delte  Fivpw,  wfaich 
nwMiiM*  76  milM  iqiwarcU,  b;  130  al^  th«  ooMt 
of  th«  Anbua  So*.  Tb*  amk  cf  the  drainu^a — it* 
exbone  dimennoM  being  napectivdy  900  mile*  and 
76&— haj  periukn  been  <i*er-«ninuted  at  488,000 
KlDu*  miles,  tutlj  fonr  timM  tli«  e>:tent  of  OrMt 
Britaiii  and  Inbuid. 

The  value  of  the  L  aa  ft  route  of  tnffio  ia  lew  than 
Uiat  of  moat  other  atraama  of  eqiul  magziitiide.  In 
the  winter,  one  onlj  of  ila  Domeroiu  ontleta  ia  ftt 
all  avftilabls  (or  oommojiiaation  with  the  aaft  ;  aod 
erea  ftftw  the  meltinK  of  the  apnng  tnowa,  there  ia 
DO  paaMce  ftaywheratoran  ordinaiy  Ma-goiiig  TeaMi 
of  mot*  ^*n  SO  tons.  Still,  in  another  raapaot  t^ 
river  ia  faTOOMbla  tor  nnvigation,  aa  the  fall  from 
At*k  to  the  iML  ia  w^  lOOlf  feet  in  940  milea. 

The  L  abonnd*  with  fiah  of  ezoallent  quality,  and 
!■  infected  by  erocodileo.  The  alluTiom  brought 
down  bj  the  atKMn  haa  been  calculated  to  be 
•offioiant  fw  an  ananal  formation  42  milea  lon^ 
37  mttM  broad,  and  40  teat  deep.  Near  Bori,  ■ 
•hort  diitftnoe  below  the  firat  pomt  of  divergence, 
both  the  main  Etreom  ftnd  one  of  ita  ofiaeta  pav 
thronzh  a  ridge  of  limeatona,  which  mnit  at  one 
time  nave  turned  the  deaoanding  flooda  lateraUy 
into  what  ia  now  a  desert,  bnt  bMring  the  plaineat 
traces  of  former  cnltivation. 

INDU'SIAL  LIMESTONE,  ft  aingular  varietur 
at  freah-water  limeetone,  found  iu  Anvernia.  It  ib 
formed  of  the  caaea  or  induaia  of  oaddia-worms, 
great  heapa  of  which  have  been  encruated  with 
oaibonate  ot  lime,  and  formed  into  a  bard  trftvertdiiG. 
Several  beda  occur,  aome  aa  much  aa  aix  feet  thick, 
each  cubic  indi  of  which  cootaina  as  many  ft*  ten  or 
twelve  caaea.  See  CiJ)Dica.  The  Auvergne  case* 
are  formed  of  the  ahdll  of  a  minata  Faludina,  ao 
small  that  100  sheila  inftf  be  counted  in  a  single 
induainm. 

INDH'STRIAL  AOOESSION.aphraaoborrowed 
by  the  Scotch  from  the  Boman  law  to  denote  the 
increased  value  given  to  a  thing  by  labour  and  skill 
being  exercised  upon  ib  This  phrase  inoludea  the 
case  of  a  person  baildinff  by  mistake  on  another's 
land,  in  wmch  case,  in  Kneland,  though  the  build- 
ing wfts  done  bondfidt,  it  belongs  absolutely  to  the 
owner  of  the  land,  who  is  not  Dound  even  to  pay 
for  the  inaterlala,  which  he  can  keep,  or  their  value ; 
bat  in  Scotland,  the  owner  of  the  land,  thauKh 
entitled  to  the  materiala,  would  be  liable  to  pay  lor 
thur  value. 

INDUSTRIAL  FRUITS,  in  Scotch  I*w,  the 
produce  of  land  whkh  the  life-renter  i*  entitled  to; 
called  in  Qiglish  law,  ^Uementi  (q.  v.). 

nmUBTRIAL  BOHOOLB.  Tbis'tinn  ia  need 
•nrj  varioualy,  (ometimeB  bein^  (ynonymoQa  with 
ragged  achoola,  in  which  mechanioal  arta  are  tanght ; 
•ometimea  dengnating  ordinary  elemeotai?  (chads, 
la  irtiich  agiicdtnrsi  or  wmta  other  indnatri^  art  ia 
tiMgjit  to  ttie  boys  during  Mie  portion  of  the  achool- 
day,  or  in  whidi  Bewtng,  cooking,  waahinc,  and 
inmiiig  are  taught  to  the  girls.  In  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ire^id,  attempts  have  hem  made   to 


_, for  boya,  bnt  wilii  very  small  succeaa, 

except  in  the  lart-named  country ;  there  the  Olas- 
nevin  AgricultandTruning  School  haa  accomphabed 
much  good.  See  AantouLlTTKU.  El>iO(U'rroN.  Nor 
can  it  be  «aid  that  the  attempt  to  attach  other 
indnatiiftl  arts  to  national  and  pftrochial  aohoola  baa 
been  attended  with  better  remit*.  The  Piivy 
Council  on  Edncation  gave  special  grants  for  many 


yean  to  idMoU  which  eombined  indiiBbial  with  1 
litenn  inttnictiM^  but  tbea*  giMita  are  not  ecc-    ! 
tiliaed  in  tiie  B«ri*ed  Codcb    In  altnestair  acbealt   j 
for  jpria,  indnitiial  woric,  to  tbe  axt^  of  aewi^   ' 
■^■^■»*j^  koittiiiA  and  ncttiiuL  Iim  bam   ■^■vTt  ' 
muTenaUy  intrMtnced,  and  forma  odb  trf  t^  mod   ! 
important  and  inteteating  features  of  fonalaptman   | 
edncation  in  Oiieat  Britain;  bat  tbe    attemM  m 
eoiuiect  with  these  MibjeotB  insbnctitm  ia  eiMUt«   ; 
washing,  and  ironing,  has  been  taried  aa  yet  oa^  : 
to  a  limited  extent,  and  haa  been  <ndy  partialb   - 
snoceaeful.     In  ngsed  school^  on  Qw  other  bsoi    | 
no  department  of  ue  school-work  smms  to  tknve   r 
better,  partly  becaoae  it  enters  so  largely  iute  the   ; 
scheme  of  inrtruction,  partly  hewwise  tke  ehildnn   ': 
are  removed  from  the  oontrol  of  psieoti,  and  Ml   ' 
solely  to  the  manageoxnt  of  the  tehodcommittes; 
for  the  great   obetaele  in  t^  wmj  of  •""-r^   i 
indnBfariaTartswiUiimiUnaiTtdMMdaiBaemnriUi^   i 
neas  of  parenta  to  see  ttieir  ohildr^  siigi^ieil  «    , 
*"r*rT*1  occupstioa*  '^nriag  tbe  ti""*  whii^  ought,  in 
thtdr  Ofanicn,  to  be  devoted  acdely  to  '-Hfr^l   ' 
taaining  and  the  aoqinritHn  «i  litosiy  Inw^e^   i 
Hm  ragged  achoola  to  which  we  havs  joat  lefemd   j 
are  recocniaed    by  the   legialature    aa  'indnatriW   ' 
aohoola,' HI  the  maintenanoe  of  wbkh  tfw  Treaanry 
may  oontribate  on  the  representation  of  the  Borne  ' 
Secretary,  and  may  be  defined  a*  achoola  in  whick  ' 
bbs  pupils  are  lodged,  fed,  and  clothed,  aa  welt  as 
taught  the  element*  of  an  ordinary  edaoatua,aad  , 
the  practice  of  •ome  bvde.    By  a  atatnte  paaacd  ia 
1866^  children  nnder  14  found  begging  ftn. ;  chiUiec  ! 
under  12  charsed  wiUi  ofi^ices ;  refraotoiy  (UUrb  ; 
under  14  in  charge  of  parent ;  and  refraetoiy  <^  I 
dren  under  14  in  workhonaea  or  pauper  iebao]t,H*j'  I 
be  aent  by  a  magistrate  to  a  oeildfied  tsdasttial  I 
school    The  BducatioD  Acta  of  1370  and  ISTS;  Ut  '< 
England  and  Scotland  respectivaly,  provide  that  As  |      I 
sohool-board  of  any  piuiah  or  borou^  mar  eaUUiU  ) 
and  maintain  indoibial  schools,  bat  sobjeot  to  tin  | 
provlaiona  of  the  Industrial  Schools  Act  of  ISK. 
In  187%  the  number  of  industrial  aohoola  in  ^tttaai  ' 
and  Scotland  waa  100,  containing  10,905  chiUim 
of  whom  6dSS  were  in  England,  3497  in  SootiamL 

INDUSTRIAL  SOCIBTIKS  are  sodetiariud 
carr^  on  some  tiMle,  the  profito  of  whid  an  j 
nipued  to  an  object  Ol  mat«Ml  benefit,  rcaaBblhij; 
theobjeotof TViendly 8ocietiea(q.T.).  Tbe'Indos-  , 
trial  and  Provident  Societiea  Act,  18S7,'  R^nlsta  , 
these  (odetiea  on  improved  pnnciplea,  the  fint  ' 
statute  having  been  pused  in  18S2L  Any  nimte 
ot  persons  not  less  than  seven  may  eetabhdi  SBcbs 
society,  for  the  parpose  of  cairying  on  any  lahMl; 
trade,  or  handicraft,  whether  wh^esala  or  retlfl, 
eioeptthe  working  (Amines  and  quarries,  and buk* 
the  bnainea*  of  banking,  and  of  applying  the  mm 
tor  aDyporpoaea  allowed  by  Hie  Fnen<^  Socutiet' 
Acts.  Tiie  rules  of  the  sode^  must  define  the  objedi 
name,  and  place  of  office  ol  the  aoeiety,  and  it  nart 
in  aU  oaae*  be  registered  a*  one  of  limited  tiaUi^ 
The  mlea  must  also  state  the  tarua  ol  sdmiam 
^  monben,  mode  of  holding  nleeling^  Tutiag; 
ferability  ot  shares  audit  of '"   '  — 


of  managen  and 
provision  for  the  custody,  use  and  dnioe,  cf  ie 
seal  of  the  aodet^.  They  mnst  be  forwarded  to  tbe 
Regiatrar  of  Friendly  Societies  of  W"g'""'  ud 
Scottaad,  for  bis  certificate  that  tbey  sn  ia  etD- 
formity  with  law,  before  they  can  be  acted  nfim. 
After  registration,  a  copy  of  the  ralea  mmt  la 
delivered  to  every  person  who  demands  theffl,  oa 
payment  of  one  shining.  No  member**  inttrsit  ii 
to  exceed  £200,  bnt  one  aoeiety  may  invest  its  bail 
with  anotiier  or  othen  to  any  amoanb    The  dsw 


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DTERTLA— fflFALUBIUTY. 


bill*  at  pkreaU,  mTobe^  reoeipta,  and  lett«ni  of 
credit,  M)d  »  peiuJtyM  inenrred  for  neglecting  theaa 
reqoiremenU.  Theaa  lociatieB  ue  plooed  on  tiie 
••me  footiog  Bi  friendly  loaiatiee  in  reapeot  of  the 
exemption  from  atamp^Qtiea  and  income-tax— of 
aettlement  <^  diipat«i  bjr  ublbstkni  or  juiticea  of 
the  peue— of  compoiMboa  to  memben  onjuitly 
excloded — of  the  pow^  of  jiuticeB  or  the  coanty 
courts  in  omb  of  Iraod,  and  of  the  jurudictioD  of 
the  Mgiitntr.  Anf  mouber  may  nominaCe  any 
pervon  mto  whoee  name  hie  intereit  in  the  aoaiety 
at  hie  decease  ahall  be  tranaferred,  but  the  aooiety 
ma;/,  inatead  of  laalung  atich  bttoafer,  pay  to  any 
noEoinee  the  full  valne  of  the  ehares,  »nd  m«3i  pay 
him  the  valno  of  any  (harei,  which,  if  ttaiuferred 
into  bia  name,  vonld  inoicaae  tiii  intenet  in  the 
toci«ty  to  more  than  £20a  The  looiety  may  be 
iroona  np  like  a  joint-itock  company  by  the  county 
court  of  the  diatnot,  and  in  the  erent  of  ita  being 
wound  op,  paat  and  preaant  membera  are  liSibls  to 
oontiibnte  to  the  aaaeta  to  an  amount  lafflcient  to 
pay  the  debts ;  bnt  no  paat  member  ia  bound  to  oon- 
tribute  who  haa  c«ated  for  a  year  to  be  a  member, 
or  where  the  debt  was  contracted  after  he  left  the 
aooiety,  or  tmleea  the  exiating  memben  are  nnable 
to  aatisfy  the  contribntionB  necenary  to  pay  the 
debts ;  and  no  mmnber  ia  liable  to  pay  more  than  the 
DT,  unpaid  on  the  tl 
liable  aa  a  pact  oi 

Every  peraon  or  member  haying   .._ _. 

fnndaia  entitledtoinspectthe  books.  A  general  state- 
ment of  the  fund*  of  the  society,  shewing  the  assets 
aod  liabilitiee,  most  be  sent  to  the  re^strar  once  every 
year,  and  erery  member  and  depositor  is  entitled  to 
demand  and  receive  without  payment  a  copy  of  such 
statement  from  the  treasurer  or  secretary. 

INBHTIA  (Lat^  'inactivity'),  alarm  expressive 
of  that  indifference  to  a  state  of  mt  or  motion 
which  is  a  universal  property  of  matter,  and  mav 
b^  eipreaaed  by  Baying  Ifiat  a  body  in  motion  mil 
cDnlinue  tn  moMbn,  md  a  body  ai  rat  wili  rtmatn  at 
rat,  attlett  acl«d  upon  by  nvu  txlemal  force.  The 
latter  part  of  this  prindpls  was  known  to  the 
nncienta,  and  by  them  attributed  to  a  certain  repufi- 
nance  to  motion,  which  was  ■  characteristia  of  ill 
matter ;  bat  it  waa  shewn  by  Galileo  that  the  former 
part  wae  equally  true  and  generaL  This  property 
of  matter  has  been  called  by  Kepler  via  inrrtitB. 

INESOCTCHBON,  in  Heraldry,  a  single  shield 
boms  aa  a  charge.  When  there  are  two  or  more, 
they  are  simply  called  escutcheons,  for  an  inee- 
cutcheoo,  it  u  said,  must  always  occnpy  the  fees 
ptunt  of  the  ahield.  An  inescntcheou  ia  to  be  dia- 
tinguiabed  from  an  escutcheon  of  pretence,  which  is 
not  a  charge,  but  a  aeparate  coat. 

INFALLIBI'LITT,  in  Controvenial  Theologr, 
means  the  immuni^  from  error,  in  all  that  r^araa 
faith  and  morals,  which  is  claimed  by  the  Ifoman 
Catholic  Choroh,  and,  at  least  as  regards  the  past, 
by  the  Qrsek  Chnrah,  as  repreaanted  in  the  decrees 
of  the  coiunoil*  which  Hoi  church  looks  upon  as 
ecumenicaL  The  latter  daim,  however,  which  does 
not  go  beyond  that  of  nemuicy,  or  actual  exemp- 
tion from  eiTOT  up  to  the  present  time,  differa 
widdy  from  that  of  infallibility,  as  put  forward  by 
the  Soman  Church,  which  invulTss  not  alone  an 
actual  historical  immunity  from  enor,  but  also 
such  a  positiTB  and  abiding  assistance  of  the  Spirit 
of  Goa  as  will  at  all  times  both  protect  against 
the  pcasibility  of  error,  and  guide  and  direct  in 
the  mthful  teaohuig  of  all  necevan'  truth.  The 
Infallibility  claimed  oy  the  BomAO  Church  Is  thus 
uf  two  kinds,  poMiv*  and  oettw— the  finrt  (Matt. 


xvi.    18),   in   virtue   of  whioh   the  church 
can  receiiK  or  tmbraa  any 

matter  by  whom  proposed; , 

of  which  she  is  imaised  with  the  function  (Matt 
xxviiL  19;  Mark  xvl  16;  Ephea.  iv.  11—16)  of 
permanently  leading  to  the  world  the  essential 
truths  of  Ood,  of  actively  reaistinB  every  access  of 
error,  and  of  authoritatively  deciding  every  con- 
txovBnn  by  which  the  oneness  of  belief  among  the 
faithful  may  be  endangu^  Catholics  regard  this 
gift  as  a  natural  and  neceaBair  aocompanunent  of 
the  authority  in  mattere  of  faith  with  which  they 
believe  the  church  to  be  invested,  and  which,  if  not 
guided  in  ita  exercise  by  such  infallible  aaaistanoe, 
would  be  but  a  false  light,  and  an  attractive  but 
dangerons  instrument  of  delumon. 

Such  is  l^e  notion  of  infallibility  as  claimed  by  the 
Roman  Church.  Two  very  important  and  practical 
questions,  however,  ariae  re^rding  il^  Doth  of 
which  have  been  the  occasion  of  much  controversy 
even  among  Cathohca  'Utemaalvea ;  viz.,  as  to  the 
mipeei,  that  is,  the  seat  or  the  orsan  of  this  infalli- 
bibty,  and  as  to  the  o^'ect,  that  u^  the  matters  to 
which  it  extends. 

As  to  the  lint,  all  Catholics  have  be«i  agreed 
that  the  body  of  bishops,  morally  speaking,  thtongh- 
oat  the  churoh,  acting  in  common  with  the  pope, 
constitute  the  most  p^ect  organ  of  the  infallibility 
of  the  church ;  and  neuca,  that  when  they  unite  in 
any  way,  whether  as  aesembled  in  a  general  oouncil 
or  separated  in  place,  their  judgment  is  infaOible. 
Thna,  if  a  doctrinal  decree  be  addressed  officially  by 
the  pope  to  the  whole  church,  and  be  either  ex- 
preaaly  confirmed  or  tacitly  accepted  by  the  bishops, 
this  decree  was  held  to  be  infallible.  In  like  man- 
ner, if  a  doctrinal  decree,  emanating  even  from  n 
local  council,  as  that  of  a  natiouaJ,  or  even  a  pro- 
vincial church,  shoold  be  universally  accepted  by 
the  pope  and  the  bishops,  that  decree  alao  was  held 
to  be  infallible.  In  a  word,  wherever  there  is  found 
the  united  judgment  of  the  pope  and  the  bishops, 
all  agreed  in  accepting  it  as  the  infallible  judgment 
of  the  church.  But  should  the  pope  alone  jndge 
without  the  biahops,  then  aroae  the  well-known 
dispute  of  the  Gamoan  and  nltramontane  divines ; 
the  latter  affirming,  the  former  denying^  the  papal 
judgment  to  be  in&llible  ;  but  all  agreeing  that  it 
was  not  binding  aa  an  article  qf  CaAotie  /aii\  so 
long  as  it  had  not  received  the  assent  of  the  body  of 
the  bishops.  By  the  decree  of  the  Vatican  Council 
(1870),  this  controversy  has  been  decided  ;  and  it 
is  now  agreed  that  the  doctrinal  decrees  of  uie  pope 
teaching  ex  calhedri  are  to  be  accepted  as  poaess- 
ing  the  same  infallibility  which  attache*  to  tlie 
teaching  of  the  ohurch.    See  Couhctl. 

On  the  matters  or  subiecta  to  which  the  gift  of 
infallibility  extends,  Catnolics  are  i^reed  m  one 


divine  revelation,  either  written  or  oral,  it  ei 
all  questionB  of  faith  and  morality,  all  suoiecm 
of  general  disdpUne,  so  far  at  least  as  to  pretuuds 
the  introduction,  bv  authority  of  the  church,  of 
any  discipline  which  should  be  InjoriDos  to  faith 
to  morality.  On  the  other  bud,  it  does  not 
ibrace  qneetions  of  science,  or  matters  of  fact,  or 


unconnected  with 


On 

thia  pointy  all  Catholics  have  been  agreed.  But  a 
very  celebrated  dispute  arose  in  the  17th  c.,  on 
occasion  of  the  Augtutinva  of  Janaenius,  as  to  the 
infallibility  of  the  church  in  judging  of  books, 
out  of  wluch  originated  the  well-known  Janseniat 
distinction  of  laie  and  of  /aeL  See  JAJtsxtnaii. 
On  this  subject,  it  will  be  enough  to  say,  that 
all  Catholics  are  now  agreed  is  recognising  as  s 


byGoogle 


INFAMED— INFANT  SCHOOIA 


fu  as  to  decide  whetber  tne  doctrme  eonbuDSd 
tberein  nuy  or  mtj  not  be  opposed  to  louiid  fiith 
ormonlity. 

The  tu^meuta  in  fKvoar  at  the  infallibilitj  of  the 
ohnrch,  which  Rom&D  Catholics  derive  fram  texts 
of  Scripture,  are  set  aside  by  Prateetants  on  the 
ground  tbat  these  torts  only  teach  the  ])ermaneace 
of  the  church  and  the  continuance  of  God's  graoe 
toward*  it  (as  Matt.  xvi.  18;  Matt  zxriiL  19,  20; 
Ac),  and  have  no  relation  whatever  to  the  special 
■nltject  of  infaUibihty. — It  is  oommon  also  for 
Protestants  to  arge,  that  on  the  supposition  of 
infallibilitv  and  ol  the  need  of  an  infallible  ister- 

Ereter  of  Scripture,  as  couunonly  decIarHl  l>y  Roman 
atholics,  there  oao  be  no  value  ia  any  amunent 
from  Scripture ;  ftnd  that  the  Boman  Cathoha 
theologian,  in  attempting  to  prove  the  {□fallibility  of 
the  church  by  Scriptitre,  and  the  authority  of  Scrip- 
ture by  Uie  infallibility  of  the  church,  ia  involved 
in  the  sonhinn  of  reasoniDg  in  a  circle. — It  is  some- 
times added,  Oiat  if  Ooda  word  needs  an  inter- 
preter to  msike  it  a  safe  rule  of  faith,  man's  word 
may  well  be  supposed  equally  difficult  to  oompre- 
hend.— And  the  notion  of  infallibility,  with  the 
whole  system  of  which  it  forms  an  essentia]  put, 
is  protested  against  as  contrary  to  the  rational 
nature  of  man,  and  to  that  personal  relation  and 
responaibili^  to  Qod  which  are  at  the  foundation  ol 
all  true  religion.  Something  is  also  made  in  ar^^- 
ment  of  the  difflcatty  which  the  advooatea  of  tiie 
infallibility  of  the  church  have  found  in  agreeing  as 
to  where  it  is  lodged. 

INFA'MED,  or  DEFAMED,  in  Heraldry,  an 
epithet  applied  to  a  lion  or  other  animal  which  has 
lost  its  tail,  the  loss  being  supposed  to  disgrace  or 
defame  it.  D(faiiud  loottng  badaeantt  occurs  in 
ancient  blazon  for  counter- rampant  regardant,  the 
lion  being  supposed  to  be  Syiug  from  an  enemy. 

INFAMOUS.  Infamy  waa,  in  pmnt  of  law, 
formerly  a  ground  for  rejectinff  a  witneae  in  a  oourt 
of  justice;  out  dow,  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the 
witness  is  allowed  to  give  evidence  subject  to 
oomment,  and  to  state  what  he  can  «ay  for  what  it 

INFAMOUS  BEHAVIOUR,  DISCHARGE 
WITH  INFAMY,  terras  in  use  in  the  military  and 
naval  codes  to  designate  couduct  (and  its  penalty) 
which  LB  not  only  oppoaed  to  discipline,  but  is  also 
disgraceful  in  a  social  sense.  As  iniamous  behaviour, 
have  been  always  classed  to  all  countries  desertion 
of  colours  on  the  field  of  battle,  failure  to  attempt 
to  succour  comrades  in  danger,  cold-blooded  cruelty. 
and  other  crimes  which  are  greatly  subversive  of 
morality.  If  a  man  is  found  guilty  of  any  of  these 
crimes  by  a  oourt-martial,  and  not  sentenced  to 
death,  the  sentence  is  ordinarily  disobarge — or  dia- 
miasal — with  ignominy  or  infamy.  So  severe  an 
enaotmoit  adds  to  the  force  of  the  penalty,  and 
stigmatises  the  offender  for  life  as  a  disgrace  to  liii 

INFANT,  in  English  Law,  means  every  male  and 
female  under  the  tm  of  21.  As  a  genenl  rule,  an 
infant  cannot  enter  mto  aantr>cts;  at  all  events,  they 
are  not  binding  exce^  at  Ub  or  her  optioo.  But  a 
contract  for  neceaaanes  is  always  binding,  and  an 
mfant  may  be  imprisoned  for  non-payment  of  these, 
like  other  persons.  The  father,  or,  after  his  death, 
the  mother,  of  an  infant  Can  in  general  Only  be 
bound  [or  an  infant's  debts  where  some  express  or 
implied  contract  to  pay  for  these  can  be  made  out ; 
and  the  mere  fact  of  the  infant  living  in  the  same 
houu  is  not  always  sufficient  to  imply  liability. 


persona 


though  it  ia  generally  an  dement  for  the  iniy.  li  . 
an  infant  enter  into  trade,  he  is  nsvotlulea  aij  ' 
bound  by  his  contract!  at  his  option.  But  ra  d  \ 
casss,  if  the  infant,  on  coming  of  age,  ntifj  lb  ' 
contract,  then  it  is  binding  on  him. 

An  infant  in  F."gl«"d  generally  rsqiiitt  th  | 
oonsent  of  faia  parent  or  goaJnUan  to  marry,  tini^ 
it  is  more  correct  to  say,  tbat  if  he  nnirepimiii  ■ 
the  preliminary  fonoaiities  that  he  is  et  t|e,  in 
may  be  indicted  for  peijury,  bat  nrrTnthrW  lit  i 
marriage  will  be  good,  aiKl  cannot  be  anudlsd.  li  | 
infant  cannot  auke  a  will  ather  cf  hit  teal  ■  | 
>Dal  estate.  He  can  only  me  b  a  ooott  of  hi 
nearfriendorinwAeiR  wni,  whoishiifitlittif  | 
'e,  or  any  other  friend.  , 

In  SooUwid,  the  law  differs  in  many  tenceti  Eiw  i 
the  law  of  Eugtand  on  this  subject  Tut  Ian  1 
infant  is  not  used  at  all  in  a  technical  Senas,  ill  I 
persons,  if  male,  are  in  \wi  strictnas  called  ffk  ' 
till  14t  and  if  female,  till  12  ;  uid  tnm  H  «  IS  to  j 
21,  they  are  tnehnicaHy  caUed  Muwra  la  fssoi  | 
the  oontntct*  of  a  pupil  are  abanlutely  vsid,  asd : 
ho  is  under  the  oare  of  tutora,  who  are  (ithv  b , 
parents,  or  atken  appointed  by  the  oonrt  A  ciur, ' 
on  the  other  hand,  mi^  enter  into  eoQtnct%  b«  il  I 
they  are  to  his  lesion  or  pfsjiidioa,  b*  tan  redsn 
or  set  them  aside  any  time  within  four  yean  afls 
majority.  Moreover,  if  a  minor  go  into  tndc,b> 
contracts  bind  him,  aa  they  do  other  pema  | 
Further,  a  minor  can  make  a  will  or  teatamsit 
operating  on  his  movable  estate,  thoo^  he  cuu 
alienate  oia  heritable  estate  in  like  manner.  Ttt 
foijr  yean  which  are  allowed  to  him  after  majntj 
to  consider  whether  he  will  set  aside  contia^n  in 
colled  ^(ufrienRiuni  tUiU  ;  and  if  he  can  prove  lifii*. . 
he  is  in  that  period  entitled  \a  restitiitioD.  Ii  i 
Scotland,  also,  a  minor  may  marry  ss  fnelj  u  'i  ' 
hs  were  a  major,  and,  indeed,  he  u  in  gen^  bi>  | 
own  master,  or  nii  Jurit,  at  the  a^  «  M  (it  > 
female  is  at  the  age  of  12) ;  wheress  u  &i^tsi  bt 
would  be  liable  to  have  a  guardian  appeioMd  to  | 
control  his  person  till  he  attamed  21.  '   I 

INFANT  SCHOOLS.  OberUn  (q.  v.),  On  ja*r 
of  Waldbach,  in  PiaaoB,  may  be  i^arded  u  ^K 
founder  of  infajit  schoi^  He  ai>pouited  fetnia 
in  his  own  pariah  to  assemble  the  little  chiliiiHi 
between  the  agea  of  two  and  sii,  hi*  object  ban; 
to  interest  them  by  converaahtion,  pictom,  i^ 
mape,  and  to  teach  them  to  read  sjid  to  k*- 
The  first  infant  school  attempted  in  this  aostn 
was  in  connection  with  Robert  Owen's  lOOiluK 
establiehment  in  Scotland  ;  it  wa*  tuight  by  Jua 
Bucbanan.  In  1810,  through  tbe  effoH*  of  1<>^ 
Brougham  and  Lord  Lansdowne,  an  iofsnt  B!!Oi'^ 
waa  set  on  foot  in  London.  One  of  tlie  GW 
teocbera  was  Wilderapin,  whoee  labour*  in  conMctf 
with  the  ezteDHion  of  infant  schools  aie  veil  iam' 
Hia  methoda,  baaed  on  the  P«taloz)uan  ajitsin,  ■>< 
further  matnred  by  the  Home  and  Colonial  Ixlul 
School  Society,  founded  in  I33S,  This  todttj.  br 
training  teochen  and  inatituting  model  iofant  '^ 
juvenile  aohool*.  has  done  mora  than  any  ottatf  <> 
[ovpagste  the  infant  Mhool  system. 


•otitliof  theTwMd;  bnt  they  have  e«W 
>i«  axtenaiTely  enoonntged  u  the  sffttn 
the  northern  half  of  the  kisgdoB.  rn 
have  operated  to  prevent  their  »<«  "I* 


.„-   educational  objects  ;  tuid  tin  ■■»■ 

which  hare  hung  about  the  system,  and  hwt^'j 
into  diarepute.  Too  much  has  fnqsssttf  M* 
attempted   in  the  way  of   ditwi  inatnutkia.^  g 


and  Kuuitrffllrtatf  infant  schoola  an  m 


;st;7& 


HTFASTA-INFANnCTOE. 


e  of '  Asylums,'  they  are  Tery 


FnuMie,  under  tlie  i 
irideBprEad. 

Infut  achools,  like  otlier  teminkries  whicli  we 
not  purely  pnt/euional  in  their  tiaa,  ousht  to  k«cp 
in  vieir  the  thraefold  nature  of  the  □hild's  miod,  and 
Kppekl  to  its  different  foooltiM  in  tnro.  But  while 
the  intelleot,  the  in<H«l  luttut^,  and  the  imagination 
ought  to  receive  their  proper  food,  it  has  to  be  borae 
in  mind  that  ve  oontrkdiot  the  Uw»  of  nature  irbe& 
we  omit  an  element  more  powerful  and  eiaoting 
than  any  of  these ;  we  mean  the  physical,  and  that 
love  of  play,  fnn,  and  nonsense  which  i*  connected 
with  it,  and  which  is  peonliar  to  infantry,  and  not 
nnbecoming  even  the  gravity  of  manhood.  B^ 
marching.  eieroiHS,  toys,  and,  above  all,  by  the  jodi- 
oioua  use  of  a  large  c^>en  playground,  full  provision 
ahould  be  made  tor  the  muscular  restlessness  of 
children,  and  for  their  love  of  play.  The  room  in 
which  th»  SIS  collected  should  oe  little  more  tiian 
a  well-orcfered,  oovered  playground.  In  the  play- 
ground, whether  open  or  covered,  order,  obedience, 
kindness,  consideration,  civility,  (deanlineas,  good- 
temper,  are  to  be  tanght,  and  the  morai  objects  of 
the  infant  school  attained.  Play,  and  the  moral 
truning  whioh  may  be  oonnected  with  it,  should 
be  the  leading  ideas  of  the  place,  and  to  these 
everything  else  sboold  be  snbotdinated.  Next  to 
this,  the  intellectual  natute  of  the  infant  has 
to  be  considered,  its  future  anticipated,  and  the 
elements  of  reading  tan^t,  but  with  the  help 
of  auch  methods  and  books  as  call  for  the  mini- 
mnm  of  mental  exertion.  An  infant  school  which 
haa  cultivated  the  moral  nature  of  its  children 
through  gamca  and  ^enaiee,  and  has  tanght  them 
to  iBwl  easT  monosyllabic  sentences  by  the  time 
they  reach  Uie  age  of  six,  has  accomplished  its  work 
well.  Ac  the  same  time,  other  means  of  awakening 
interest  and  intelligenoe  may  be  resorted  to  with 
advantage,  but  under  this  restriction,  that,  if  they 
foil  to  call  forth  spontaneous  and  uaconsciaus 
attention,  either  through  the  want  of  skill  on  the 
port  of  the  mistress  to  present  them  b  an  attractive 
form,  or  through  some  defect  in  the  apparatus 
at  the  eomnuuid  of  the  mistreas,  they  should  at 
once  be  ziveD  np.  We  refer  to  songs  of  a  moral 
or  narrative  kind — rhymes  and  nursery  jingles — 
descriptions  of  objects  and  pictures  by  the  children 
under  the  teacher's  f(uidance  (object-lessons} — the 
concealed  purpose  being  to  cultivate  the  perceptive 
faculties  of  form,  colour,  number,  size,  tc — and 
lessons  in  arithmetic  on  a  ball-frame,  llien,  again, 
the  teacher  may  collect  the  children  around  her 
and  Kftd  to  them  tuiy  tales  and  simple  stones  of 
incident  and  the  affections.  All  tb'a  may  be,  and 
actually  is  attained;  hut  the  qualificationB  in  the 
teacher  for  the  attunment  of  them  are  rarely  to  be 
I  met  with.  So  far  as  these  qualiScations  are  of  a 
moral  or  imaginative  kind,  they  are  natnral  endow- 
ments ;  but  they  may  reoeive  enlightenment  and 
direction  by  ft  indicioos  system  of  training  In  the 
first  Beport  (d  the  Home  and  Colonial  School 
Society,  it  is  truly  said,  'that  few  situations  in 
life  require  so  much  discretion,  so  much  energy, 
so  much  tenderness,  so  much  self-control  and  lore, 
as  that  of  a  teacher  of  babes.'  Without  a  con- 
sciousness that  she  possesses  these  qualifications, 
especially  the  last-named,  no  woman  should  for  a 
moment  contemplate  the  oaieer  of  an  infant-school 


The  question  still  remuns  to 
whether  infant  schools  are  desirabls  at  all,  and 
whether  the  family  hearth,  and  the  fields,  or  the 
streets,  do  not  constitnte  the  best,  because  natoia's 
infant  schooL  Were  society  in  a  normal  and 
healthy  condition,  the  answer  to  this  question  would 
be,  that  infant  sdiools  are  hurtful  even  at  the  best. 


and  that,  when  we  bear  in  mind  the  chances  ol 
their  being  badly  conducted,  they  may  be.  geueially 
denounced  as  • '■  -  ■ 


they  a 


perhaps,  snperfiuoo*  in  rural  parishes,  tl 
populous  places  a  boon  and  a  blsssing 

IN FA'NT^  (from  the  Lat  Ir/uiu,  an  infant), 
title. given  in  Spain  and  Poitugal  to  the  princt 
the  royal  family,  the  correepon£ng  title  of  iHFatiTl. 
being  given  to  the  princesses.  Smce  the  14th  c, 
however,  the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne  in  Spain 
has  been  styled  the  Prince  of  Asturlas,  and  the  beii^ 
apparent  in  Portugal,  until  the  separation  of  Brazil 
from  tiie  mother-country,  bore  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Brazil  The  personal  domain  of  an  Infante  or 
Infanta  is  called  the  Ir^anlado,  and  this  has  come 
to  be  the  name  of  a  district  which  was  mads  a 
dukedom  in  1475. 

INFA'NTICIDB,ths»atorptaetiosofmnrdering 
infants,  which  is  abhorrent  to  modem  civilisation, 
was  common  in  ancient  tiinea,  and  now  prevails 
among  many  barbarous  nations.  It  prevailed  in 
Qreece  ud  Rome,  and  (iueh  is  the  fores  of  cnstinn) 
found  defenders  in  Plato  and  Aristotle  I  The  Utter, 
in  his  Politia,  says  the  law  should  forbid  the  nnrtnr- 
ing  of  the  maimed,  and  where  a  check  to  popula- 
tlon  is  required,  abMtion  should  be  {noduDsd  befon 
the  quickening  of  the  infant.  In  Sparta,  we  a 
informed  that  the  law  Erected,  when  a  cjiild  wi 
bom,  the  father  was  to  carry  it  to  an  appointed 
place,  to  be  inspected  by  the  elders  of  the  oom- 
munity.  If  they  perceived  that  its  limbs  were 
straight,  and  its  look  was  wholesome,  they  returned 
it  to  its  parents  to  be  educated ;  otherwise,  it 
was  thrown  into  a  deep  Cavern,  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  Taygetus ;  and  it  was  said  this  law  had 
a  wholesome  effect,  for  it  made  Women  with  child 
veiy  careful  as  to  their  eating,  drinking,  and  exer- 
cise, and  hence  they  proved  ezceUent  nurses.  In  the 
other  Grecian  repnUics,  a  similar  disr^aid  of  the 
life  of  sickly  infants  was  shewn.  With  re«rd  to 
the  practice  among  the  JKumans,  httle  definite 
information  exists,  though  learned  authors  '<i^iiiit 
it  at  great  length.  It  seems  certain  that  it  lay 
with  toe  Roman  father  to  say  whether  his  child 
should  be  permitted  to  live  or  not.  The  eipoeitii 
of  infants:,  indeed,  was  the  rule,  rather  than  tJ 
exception,  in  moat  countries  in  old  times.  Amoi 
the  Nona,  the  child's  life  always  hung  in  tl 
balance  tall  the  father  handed  it  to  the  nurse  to  I 
reared ;  if,  on  account  of  its  being  weak,  or 
daughter,  he  disapproved  of  its  living,  it  was  exposed 
to  me  by  wild  bessts  or  the  weather.  In  modern 
times,  tne  prsctice  is  cruelly  common  among  certain 
peoples.  Uhild-mnrder  mevaila  to  a  great  extent 
throngbont  the  whole  of  the  South  Sea  1«1».tu). 
Among  the  Fijians,  it  is  a  system. 
authority  says,  that  in  Vanna  Levu  in  some  parts, 
'the  extent  of  infanticide  reaches  nearer  two-^iirds 
than  a  half.'  Among  the  Hindus,  the  practice  of 
destroying  children,  especially  females,  prevailed 
frightfully,  till  it  was  checked  in  the  time  of  the 
Marquis  of  Wellealey's  rule.  The  Bajpats,  it  is 
said,  destniy  all  femala  children  but  the  fini-bon 
— a  peculiar  custom,  dne  t«  its  being  a  point  of 
honour  with  a  RajpQt  to  neariy  ruin  himself  in 
the  marriage  feast  and  portion  of  his  daughter, 
so  that  he  could  not  afford  to  have  mora  than 
one.  The  Mohammedans  were  inclined  to  the 
some  practice,  but  effected  their  object  chiefly 
by  means  of  abortiDn.  In  New  Holland,  tiie 
native  women  think  nothing  of  destroying,  by 
-  --^ression,  the  infant  in  the  womb,  to  avou  the 
'     of  rearing  it  alive.    In  China,  iu^tidde 


ompressi 
ronkle  o 


byGoogle 


mPANTRY— INFEPTMENT. 


it  mppoaed  to  be  aommon,  th«  chief 

nid  to  be  the  light  of  pahodiokllT  repudiating  their 

wiTse,  which  .   .  .      i-  « — 


iiojJlyre 
bj;   Chi] 


t«iU7,  mdici 

act  Umogh  thii  pnuitice  pravulieg  ii 
popnUtioD  u  that  of  Chixia.    In  ftll  Uie  cue*  ftbore 


cited,  it  loay  be  ummed  there  wm  no  feeling  of 
in&ntaoide  being  wtode  or  criminal.  In  lome,  it  wu 
owing  to  icligioiu  feding  of  ■>  perreitcd  kind ;  in 
-' —    *--  *i —  J-^ — 1»—  ~ri:_^__.   w_».  :_  in^Qy^  ^ 


•ome,  to  tbe  difficulty  of  living . 

Among  the  FijiAns,  it  vould  appear  that  the  mother 


killed  her  child  often  from  whim,  . 

Modara  ciriliaatioQ  deob  TBiy  differently  with 
the  lubject  of  iofactidde,  for  one  of  it«  TnitTimn  is 
that  human  life,  from  its  fint  to  ita  le^  hour,  a 
(acred,  &cd  whoever  wilfully  put!  an  end  to  it  ia 
a  munlerer,  or  a  criminal  of  the  same  catfigonr. 
Initeod  of  encouragine  the  deatruction  of  hie, 
modem  dviliaatioa  an>undB  ia  every  kind  of 
maohineiy  for  preaerving  it,  however  unancceasful 
tbe  attempt.  The  chief  cauae  which  now  leada  to 
iDfanticide  ii  that  of  ahame,  wbioh,  howevtx,  opente* 
only  in  the  caae  of  the  child  being  illegitiniate.  Tb« 
parenta  often  inimr  the  risk  of  committing  tbe 
orime  ni  nnidar,  to  avoid  aodal  diagikoe.  In  order, 
tiienfoie,  to  afftramata  Hm  f  oroa  of  the  cheoka 
pat  by  tbs  law  on  the  taodeooy  to  infantioide,  tlw 
Uw  of  Baataid^  {q.  t.},  the  praotioe  of  inatitiiting 
Foundling  HoepitiJa  (q.  ▼.).  and  the  kind  and  dt^ree 
of  tlte  puniahmenta  attendiiw  uiy  attempt  more  or 
lev  direot  to  dMtroy  Hie  chikL  either  before  or  after 
birth,  reqmre  to  be  taken  into  aooonnt. 

Hie  oruninal  law  deala  with  the  connate  offeneea 
which  make  tip  infanticide  in  the  foUowing  manner, 
whether  tbe  child  ia  legitimate  or  illegitimate.  Aa 
regarda  the  prooonng  of  abortion,  every  woman  who 
take)  poiaoo  or  other  noxioua  tMng,  or  usee  inatru- 
menta  or  other  meana  to  procure  her  miacarrii^ 
ia  guilty  of  felony,  and  liable  to  penal  aervitdoe 
for  life,  or  not  1^  than  three  yearn ;  and  bo  ia 
any  penon  who  odminiatera  poiaon  or  nan  inatru- 
meata  upou  tbe  woman  with  auch  intent.  Wlioever 
(applies  druga,  poiaon,  or  initrumenta  for  the  aame 
parptM,  ia  gnilty  of  a  miademeanour,  and  liable  to 
penal  aerritada  for  tliree  yeara.  The  ocmoealment 
of  birth  ia  alao  made  a  oriminal  offenon  Whoever, 
after  a  child  ia  bom,  by  any  aeoret  diipadt 
the  body,  endeavoara  to  conceal  ita  birth,  is 
of  a  miademeanour,  and  liable  to  impruonmc 
two  yeara.    Thii  ia  the  offence  which,  perhape,  ia 


is  guilty 


frequently  committed,  or  at  leaat  made  tbe 
;t  of  proaecutian  in  auch  oaaes,  aa  the  attem 
eatahliah   the  larger  crime  of   murder  to  t 


Bubject 


likely  to 
g  publio 


aatiafaotion  of  a 

aecret  aympathy ..    ._.     .  ,  . 

preanmed  to  have  been  the  victim  of  aeduction,  or 
otherwiae  wronged.  The  eziatence  of  thia  offence 
■hewB  the  neceamty  which  eroy  woman  T" 
beomne  a  mother  labonra  onder  of  makinj 
\ux  aitoation  to  aiHne  extent,  Aa  the  dei 
<rf  children  may  he  effected  l^  the  n^^live  fact  of 
not  aapi^yins  food  and  clothing,  aa  well  aa  by  tbe 
poaitive  act  <H  woonding  or  ill-treatiog,  tbe  t«fuaal 
or  n^flect  of  a  parent  or  other  person  wbo  ia  bound 
by  law  to  anpply  food  and  doUimg  to  tiie  child,  and 
oegleete  to  m>  ao,  thereby  causing  ita  death,  omoonta 
uuier  to  murder  or  manalaoghter,  according  to  the 


^   Miaeover,  the  unlawful  abandoning 

or  exposara  «f  any  child  under  tiie  age  of  two 
years,  whereby  the  life  and  health  of  the  child  ate 
endangered,  us  a  miademeanour  poniahable  with 
three  years'  penal  aervitude.  Where  a  penon  ia 
oluTged  with  tiie  murder  of  a  very  yonnr  child,  it 
ia  eaaential  to  prove  that  the  child  waa  ia  life.  The 
test  of  thii  ia  not  that  it  breathed,  or  had  an  inde- 


pend<mt  drcnlation  after  it  waa  aepanted  froa  Ik 
mother,  bnt  it  ia  enofigh  that  the  diiU  wm  fBlh 
bOTn:  hence,  if  a  man  strike  »  womaa  wi&  Mi. 
the  death  of  Um  ohtld,  he  ia  ndtkt 


murder  of  infanta,  the  queation  wbeths  the  <Ud 
was  fully  b<»n,  and  an  Uie  sDbject  <i  mitria,  a 
generally  one  of  medical  jonaprodence,  npnirbiA  I 
medical  akill  ia  needed  to  throw  hgbt,  and  nriial 
men  have  certain  well-known  teats  for  ai  '  '  ' 
thia  important  tmoL  ^le  abova  a 
*"  infanticide  an  pmuahed  in  a 


One  of  the  corooeta  in  Londmi  reoeatlf  itabd 
that  an  inquest  ia  held  daily  Bpon  the  bodia  «f 
children  destroyed  through  the  demsn,  the  d^kI, 
the  ignorana«^  or  the  mental  inSrmi^  ^tk 
mothers.  Even  when  the  act  may  fairly  be  npidid 
aa  a  crime,  ita  en<»inity  ia  gcmerally  greaOy  ItaoiBi 
in  the  ^a  of  the  law  by  the  conaidaaba  d  tb 
phyaioal  oondition  and  moral  distorlianee  ti  Hi 
parent.  Where  puerperal  insanity  sapcrrene^  Ik 
infant  ia  oftm  sacrificed  during  tiie  daraair  « 
Tiolcnce  of  the  motho'.  ! 

A  further  ptoteotion  waa  given  to  intaot  lift  l; 
an  act  of  1ST!;  which  obliges  tfaooe  whs  oadoakt 
for  hii*  to  aniaa  inbnts  mids  the  age  of  one  ftv. 
to  have  their  house  legisterad,  and  to  keM>  norii 
of  the  children  Quy   '  '  .     -^     _  — 

also  give  notioe  to  ti  .    . 

of  such  infanta'  death;   __   _. 

defray  Uie  expense  of  n^oroing  thia  act. 

rNTANTRY,   tbe   foot-soldicra    i  " 


Juy  take  charge  ot  Iny  mi 
o  the  oonotx  or  prociintor-iK>l 
death;   and  the  local  aolbisitiB 


alwB,^  been  ooniidered  leai 
fighting  on  horseback  or  in  charioto ;  but  aa  ••■  — 
become  a  science,  the  principal  vtrengUl  of  inati  , 
is  found  to  lie  in  their  ii^nby.  See  ixoa,  I 
Taotiob,  Wak,  ke. 

lUPE'CTION  is  airtJDguiahed  frtan  Coattga 
(a,  V.)  by  soma  medical  wntere,  who  would  Bdnf 
the  latter  word  to  the  coaea  ia  which  there  mint  Ik 


be  conveyed  by  the  atmoephere.    The  diatiiu^iai  a 
unimportant. 

INFE'CTIOUS  DBOKDKES  in  cattle  bn 
been  made  the  subject  of  apecialetiactma(,iaanKr 
to  protect  the  public  from  the  cobmitiM  uint 
from  theameadof  diaeaaein  ao  impcrtantaiiKwU 
of  food.  ThoQgh  paaaad  for  a  tenpotaiy  pai"- 
Hit)  act  11  and  12  Vict  o.  107,  haa  bean  wntoojJ 
from  time  to  time,  and  will  probably  he  oltwlar 
declared  permanent.  The  atatute  ^vca  p»»g  !* 
the  police  to  aeize  any  aheqi  ot  lamba  ''V"^^ 
any  market  which  are  infected  or  labooriaf  «iw 
a  ^aeoaa  called  the  aheep-poz,  or  vnriel] 
The  partdea  who  so  expose  them  an  liaw  '' 
penaltiea,  and  the  cattle  may  be  deatnyad;  V* 
uiy  pereon  depestore  diseased  aheep  tai  tttf" 
woods,  forests,  waste  landa,  open  fiddt  <* 
roadside. 

IVFKFTMEKT,  or  SALINE,  a  Scotalav-tB^ 
used  to  denote  the  aymbolical  giving  pwaMa*' 
land,  which  waa  the  completion  (3  the  tiw  t^  ""! 
conveyance  not  being  enough.  Tbe  iutniMti' 
aaaine  waa  the  notanal  insbument  embody  J* 
faet  at  infeftment.  But  now  the  neoortTj'j' 
aeparate  formality  ia  unneoeasary,  it  beiig  nSo^ 
to  regiater  a  oanveyanoe  in  the  regiitec  <^  ■f 
in  Scotland.    In  Elngland,  there  ia  no  nmilar  nc*" 


CglizodtyL-iOOgle 


rariNITE-INPLAMMATrON. 


for  deedi,  mnd  the  titla  b  oomplete  wlien  the 
veyuice  i*  executed  and  delivered  to  the  porcluHr. 
In  Scotland,  an  ii^'^ftmait  m  temity  is  a  ' 
infeftment  to  aeonn  '    ' 

infyflntmt  ef  r^itf 


I'NFINITE.  This  word  ii  the  Kiaree  of  much 
controvenj'  and  differraice  of  opinion.  Some  hold 
thAt  there  corresponde  to  Infinity  a  diitinct  notion, 
which  wa  are  entitled  to  entertain  and  leaaon  about, 
with  the  same  confidence  that  we  diacnn  meamred 
interralB,  oa  a  ^&rd  or  mile  ;  while  othen  """"t'i" 
that  the  word  u  a  name  for  a  mere  negatiT<i  Bit 
W.  Hamilton  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that '  the  Infinite 
and  the  Abaolute  are  only  the  names  for  two  comtter- 
imbecilities  of  the  human  mind,  traasmnted  into 
properties  of  the  nature  of  thines — of  two  subjectify 
negatives  converted  into  objectiTe  afEimativea' 
{DimaiMiim*,  p.  21).  And  Mr  J.  3.  Mill  holds  i 
siinilaf  view.  It  had  also  been  maintained  by  Locke 
that  "no  have  no  positire  idea  of  the  infinite,  that  it 
was  only  the  negative  of  an  end  or  terminaitioil 
{Eaay  on  tJie  Cnderilanding,  book  ii.  chap.  17). 

Tho  notion  of  the  infinite  ha«,  indeed,  been 
admitted  into  mathematicat  reaaoning,  a  cireum- 
atanoe  that  would  seem  to  imply  that  we  could  use 
it  with  exactness,  and,  conaequently,  it  could  cot 
be  altogether  an  incompetence  or  imbecility  of  the 
understanding.  It  appears,  howercr,  that  mathe- 
maticianB  use  the  word  under  peculiar  restrictions. 
They  employ  it  in  the  two  extr^es  of  the  infinitely 
great  and  the  infinitely  little.  'If  we  see  a  con- 
clusion, which  we  can  nearly  attain  by  the  use  of  a 
large  magnitude,  more  nearly  by  the  nee  of  a  larger, 
and  so  on  without  limit,  that  is  to  say,  as  nearly  a> 
we  please,  if  we  may  nse  a  magnitude  as  large  as  we 
please,  but  which  is  never  absolutely  attained  by 
any  magnitude  however  great,  then  such  cnnclmion 
may  be  said,  for  abbreviation,  to  be  absolutely  tnie 
when  the  magnitade  is  infinite'  {Penny  Cyc,  art, 
'  Infinite').  The  very  same  etatemeut  might  be  made 
regarding  the  infinitely  small,  which  is  represented 
in  mathematics  by  the  symbol  for  nothing,  although 
it  is  not  the  same  a«  Dotbios  in  the  strictest  sense, 
namely,  the  nothing  caused  oy  subtracting  a  quan- 
tity from  itself,  ai  two  from  two.  It  is  nothing  ip 
this  sense,  that  if  added  to  a  finite  quantity,  as 
10,  it  produces  no  augmentation  that  can  be  made 
use  of ;  the  quantity  for  all  purposes  remains  the 
same.  The  machinery  of  infinite  quantities  plays  a 
large  part  in  the  operationa  of  the  higher  mathe- 
matica,  and  is  introdnced  in  order  to  compare  two 
things  naturally  incommensurate.  Thus,  ia  esti- 
matmg  the  area  of  a  curved  surface,  such  at  a  circle, 
in  atraight.Iined  spacee,  such  as  square  iucbea, 
the  difficulty  was  got  over  by  a  sort  of  fiction, 
namely,  by  snpposmg  the  circle  to  be  inscribed 
by  a  right-lined  figure  or  polygon,  of  such  a  veiy 
^reat  nnmbar  of  sides  that  they  coincide  to  all 
uteota  and  purposes  with  the  curved  circumfer- 
ence. The  coincidence  can  never  be  perfect ;  but 
bj  imagining  the  sides  to  be  smaller  and  smaller, 
and,  consequently,  more  and  more  numerous,  the 
diflerenca  between  the  polygon  and  the  circle  may 
become  less  thui  any  assignable  quantity,  or,  as  it 
may  be  said,  infinitely  little,  in  fact,  as  good  as 
nothing,  so  that  the  estimate  of  the  area  of  the  one 
will  stand  for  the  eatimate  of  the  area  of  the  other. 
This  device  for  overcoming  the  naiiuial  incommen- 
surability of  straight  and  curved,  and  of  onmber 
and  motion,  is  the  real  occasion  of  the  mathe- 
matical nse  of  the  term  in  question.  Nor  doe*  it 
give  any  fonndation  for  the  view  that  would  regard 
Qi»  iidnite  as  a  positive  conception  of  the  nund, 
which  we  may  apply  to  ohjeoi  with 


CS 


That  will  be  more  apparent  when  we  attend  to  the 
diflarance  between  two  clasie*  of  negative  notiona 
The  first  das*  inclndsH  thow  whose  negative  brings 
pneitiTe ;  thna,  not  hot,  Mings  before 
ive  experieoice,  namely,  o(^ ;  not  white, 
'  >  what  is  intended,  tnnia  up  either  black 
eoloois,  which  ara  to  ua  as  much  a 
i«al,  conceptioa  as  white.  Uuiuat,  or 
not  just,  i*  the  name  lor  a  diatinot  dosi  of  Teallv 
exiatiiur  actions,  in   confaaat  to  the  class   T^*"iaH 

Cat  ftMiona.  All  notioni^  such  sa  thesc^  which  have 
r  oppoiHM  really  ezisdns  tiiiiigB,  are  real  aod 
nie  notiona  of  the  mind; '  they  are  concuvaUe 
to  tlie  full  extent  that  we  are  capable  of  con- 
mving  anything  whatsoever.  In  faot,  the  higheat 
test  en  genuineness,  reality,  and  conceivabiljty,  is 
the  ezistcDce  of  a  nc^tive,  which  ia  also  real  and 
potitive.  Body  or  matter  is  a  real  conception  by 
being  opposed  to  apace ;  the  one  reaists  our  move- 
ments, and  the  other  permits  them.  Body  and  ipaoe 
together  moke  the  extended  nniveree,  the  world 
of  externality,  or  objective  existence;  which  haa 
a  distinct  meaning  by  oontrast  to  the  insxtended 
mind,  or  the  subject  univene.  But  aitCaut, 
wbol^  ia  not  a  real  oona 
noUiing  to  oppoae  it  to, 
real  opposite,  like  spaos  to  body,  or  mind 

don ;  it  is  only  a  formal  or  vcrbr' 

up  l^  using  the  word  for  n^atio 

does   not  admit   of   the   operatdo 

is  total  annihilBtion,  whicl^  of  o 

conceive^  as  we  do  oold  or  black,  in  their  opposition 

to  hot  and  white.    This  being  so,  we  have  nothing 

to  affirm  respecting    existence   aa    expressing  "~~ 


Is  it  a  real  opposite  to  the  finite,  like  oold  to  heat, 
or  a  verbal  and  formal  oppoaite,  like  non-ezistenoeT 
Finite  means  what  has  a  boundaiy  or  tomina- 
tion.  and  applies  strictly  to  body,  which  ia  always 
conceived  by  ua  as  bounded  and  terminatijig  m 
space.  The  bounded  ia,  in  fact,  body  (or  some 
analogy  of  body,  as  when  we  fancy  an  enoloauie 
which  we  do  not  actually  construct) ;  the  abaanee 
of  bounds  ia  free  space,  which  i*  a  real  conception. 
It  means  scope  for  movement,  freedom  from 
obetruction,  and  ita  oppoaite  is  some  inert  matter, 
standing  in  our  way,  to  prevent  further  movement. 
The  unbomided  is  thus  anothar  name  for  tpaa ; 
and  when  we  arrive  at   a  apaoe  with  no  further 

Erospect  of  obstruction,  we  may  oall  tJiat  a  bound- 
as  space,  but  the  only  mA»ning  ire  have  thereby 
is  a  space  which  no  longer  contains  roatetial 
obstruction.  And  we  can  conoeive  of  no  othei  end 
of  spacer  Our  whole  experience  famiahea  no  other 
contrast  except  these  two^  space  and   body,  and 


oUier.    We  may  o 


I  the  not-extended,  it 


mga  and  voliooDa;  bat _^ 

eumdad,  we  have  no  choios  but  b^ween   spaoe 
and  body.    We  cannot  conceive  the  end  of  apace 


otherwise  than  by  Ute  beginning  of  resiatanoe ;  any* 
;  being  the  subject  mind)  would  be 


beyond  the  region  of^  our 

INFIIflTE'SIMAL    CALCOLUS. 
HfFI'NITITE.    SeaVxKB. 


byGoogle 


DfPLAUUATIOK. 


dI  tii«  phjBicUii  or  nirgeon.    Tha  mo«t  obnoui 
■ymptomi  or  phenomena  of  influnnutioa,  \riien  it 


et  timior  ouiii  oiJore  at  dolore.'  The  genersl  ohu-- 
acten  of  the  procaei  will  be  be>t  niidentood  by  ttn 
aoiimied  oua.  If  a  healthy  man  set*  a  Bplintw  of 
wood  or  aaj  other  foreigD  body  imbeddied  in  any 
fleihy  |>art,  be  begins  to  exparienoe  pain  at  the  part, 
and  thia  U  soon  niooeeded  by  redneM  of  tiie  akin,  a 
film  and  extremely  tender  awelling  at  and  aroniMl 
the  ipot,  and  a  aenee  of  abnotmiil  heat.  Thaae 
purely  local  lymplonu  are  mnoeeded,  if  the  inflant' 
matdon  reaoh  a  oertain  degree  of  inteniity,  by  a 
general  deraneement  of  the  vaacnlar  ai  ' 
ayttemg,  to  irtiich  Tarioui  names,  such 
tutJonal  diBtorbance,  aymptomatie  or  inf. 
fever,  pyrexia,   Ac,   bkre   been   applied.      If    th« 


foreign  body  JM  extracted,  the  probability  is  that 
all  these  tympt<Hne  will  gndually  abato  until  the 
part  at  le^th  reoaina  ita  natonu  appearance  and 


■enaationa,  In  thu  ea«e,  the  jnflajnmatiOD  i>  aaid  . . 
teiminata  by  cMoluCtcm,  tad  thia  ia  the  moart  favoui^ 
abl«  mode  of  teimioatioD.  If,  bowerer,  the  canae 
of  ittitation  ia  not  removed,  or  it  the  intenait;  of 
the  morbid  prooeaa  exceed  a  certain  point,  the 
following  [AenomenB  oconr :  the  iwelling  uaiunea 
a  more  projecting  or  pointed  form,  tbe  part  becomea 
aoft«r,  and  the  akin  at  ita  oentre,  which  ia  nanall^ 
the  moat  projecting  part,  beoomea  whiter.  There  ii 
a  aeoaalaon  of  throbbing  pain,  and  if  the  akin  be  not 
divided  by  the  knifc^  it  anally  breaka,  and  a  yellow, 
eraam-lika  fluid,  known  aa  Fna  (q.  t.),  e>04>eB,  after 
which  tha  aymptoma  rapidly  abate.  This  termina- 
tion ia  known  aa  aumniraJtbn. 

If  the  original  injury  waa  Tery  aevere,  and  Qie 
InflammatiOQ  intense,  there  may  be  actual  death 
of  the  part  aSboted.  In  that  case,  the  red  colour  of 
the  akin  becomea  purple  or  greenish  black,  the  pain 
ceaaea,  and  the  p*jt  becomea  dead  and  putrid.  This 
ia  tncrljfieation.  Under  fsvourable  orcnmstancea, 
this  dead  part,  which  is  called  a  flou^A,  apon- 
taneonaly  aeparatea  from  the  adjacent  living  porta 


Hie  pain  may  vary  from  mere  ^acomfbrt  to 
intenae  agony.  There  is  usually  moat  pain  in 
thoee  part*  in  which  the  teusian  produced  by  the 
swelling  il  the  greateat^  at  in  bone,  tarous  and 
fibrona  inambnnea,  &o.  The  pain  occurring  in 
inflammatJon  is  always  aggravated  by  prennre,  and 
by  thia  meant  the  phyncian  can  often  dittinguioh 
between  inOammstoiy  and  non-inflammatory  dis- 
orders. The  heat  ia  seldom  ao  mach  increased  aa 
the  aenaations  of  the  patient  would  lead  him  to 
believe ;  it  does  not  rite  above  the  maximum  heat 
of  the  blood  in  the  interior  of  tha  body.  This 
increaee  of  heat  depends  upon  the  increased  flow 
of  arterial  (or  hi^ily  oxidised)  blood  to  the  part. 
The  rtdnat  depends  upon  there  being  more  blood 
than  tunal  in  those  Tetsels  in  the  affected  part 
which  usually  cony  red  blood ;  upon  the  blood 
coDtaining  an  incr^aed  number  of  ted  cotpuacles ; 
and  upon  red  blood  entering  into  vessels  which, 
in  the  Dormal  state,  convey  oolonrleaa  fluids  only. 


.   .  .,  ify  upon  tbe  effusion  of  various 

flnidih  inch  aa  btood,  aermn.  coagiUable  lymph  (or 
fibrine).  and  pus  into  the  tissue  of  (he  affected  piu^ 
Theoe  fluids  are  termed  the  producti  of  inflomma- 
tioD.  This  coagulable  lymph  frequently  becomes 
<Rvnniaed,  and  many  changes,  some  of  a  reparative 
nature  (to  which  a  reference  will  be  presently  made]. 


effuoion. 

a  have  attempted  to  tnce  tU 


Nui 


obae 


ihenomeoa  of  inflanunation,  b,  ..,_ 

ition  of  the  bantparent  parte  ot  snuaila  ■  I 
which  the  proceaa  hot  been  artifidslly  cxdted.  | 
Front  oboarvation  made  on  the  web  ot  the  Wi 
foot  and  other  transparent  parts  (rf  aniaBh  Ij 
Wharton  J<me^  F^gBt,  and  others,  th«  loietaf  \ 
general  oonclutions  may  be  drawn.  I 

1.  The  priznaiy  effect  of  a  alight  stimnlna  ^iplid  I 
to  the  blood-vessels  is  a  slight  and  gndnsl  amine 
tiou,  with  a  retardation  of   the  current  ttum^  ' 

2.  During  this  contraction,  the  blood  is  imiHlfll,  ' 
or  altoeether  ttopa.  But  the  veeaela  amn  dillte  It  i 
a  aim  Wger  than  they  originally  poaacsKd,  sal  0*  I 
blood  now  moves  throogh  them  moi«  tapdlyttii , 
In  the  normal  atate.  The  slight  stimnlns  tlut  jn- 
vionsly  couaed  tbe  veasels  to  oontiact,  hi>  so*,  it , 
re-applied,  little  or  no  effect ;  but  on  spphisg  1 1 
more  powerful  irritant,  sncb  aa  a  minnte  drgp  d 
tinctnre  ot  capaicum,  Oa  phenomena  of  sctiTC  a*- ' 
geation  or  determination  of  blond  become  ilaorf  '• 
mataotaueonsly  developed.  The  veaaeli  becoBi  , 
lengtheoed,  dilated,  and  tortnona,  and  sra  diitendcd  i 
with  blood  which  contains  a  great  elceM  <i  rd  ' 
oorxiuBclea,  and  ia  circulated  wit£  far  mote  tbss  tk 
nonnol  velocity.  '. 

3.  But  if  the  injury  be  still  more  ai 
example,  a  red-hot  needle  be    f 
addition  to  the  active  oongeatio 

preceding  paragraph,  thera  is   a  r . 

DDolIy  a  complete  stsgnation  of  the  blqod  is 
capilmriea  of  the  injured  spot,  while  aroiind  it  lb  { 
blood  moves  rapidly  through  tnrgid  bat  ls«  III! ' 

The  blood  obtained  by  bleeding  a  paticmt  tsfftnH)  , 
from  inflammation  of  any  important  oigsn,  imillj  i 
presents  a  peculiar  appeai>nc«  after  coagnlitiaL 
In  healthy  blood,  the  clot  oonaista  of  a  nnifmi  i 
admixture  of  blood  corpnaclea  and  coagulated  Sixix, 
at  a  deep  red  colour  ;  but  in  inflsmnutiM. 
tbe  upper  part  of  tbe  clot  consists  of  a  Isja  d  > 
yellowish  or  whitish  eoloar,  to  which  the  tena  btf) 
eoai  it  applied-  This  buffy  coat  ia  often  codotc,  n  i 
hollowed  out  into  a  cup-like  form,  in  which  on  i 
the  blood  is  said  to  be  both  bnffed  and  cupped  Tb 
cause  of  this  bnffy  coat  is  still  to  aime  ettent  u  I 
open  queetjon  1  but  the  phenomenon  is  ol(arlj[<i> 
to  a  subsidence  of  the  blood  oorpusdet,  by  wluc'  ■  '. 
layer  of  fibrins,  forming  the  bnffy  cost,  is  left  st  lb  | 
inrfaca.  Another  and  a  more  importsnt  dissp  ■> ! 
the  blood  in  inflammation  is  the  sugmeatitiMi  if 
the  fibrine,  which  often  risee  to  two^  Uirae,  or  a»  : 
timet  ita  normal  quaotity.  ' 

Beference  bsi  already  been  mode  to  oos^iil>lil<  | 
lymph  or  fibrine  as  one  of  the  products  of  mlm-  l 
mabnn-  This  eSoaion  of  ooagolable  lymph  it*) 
important  a  proceaa  both  for  good  and  nr  tnl  i 
tiiat  a  few  linea  must  be  devoted  to  iU  tftai  . 
consideration.  | 

When  coagulable  lymph  is 
nnee  that  ore  normally  in 
with  one  another,  it  often  < 

fwe  often  have  ad 
aerouB  membrsne.., ^.  , 

the  pericardium,  and  tbe  poitonenzn,  vhidi  dU^ 
rially  interfere  with  the  natural  free  nutioit  of  tM 
parts,  and  occasion  various  peiaistent  noc^  •pR 
In  inflomiziatioa  of  the  iris,  the  pupil  "f 
idered  irregular  or  immovable,  or  msy  er*  ^ 
elated  up  by  the  effoaion  of  coogulsble  l^pL  I* 
locarditdt,  or  inf  ■■        i  ■>  -  •-■-■—  ~^^ 

braue  of  the  heart, 
aited  in  wart-like  mstrtrt  on  the  valves,  i 


IBlrfthS 


ne«iil») 


SunmatioQ  of  the  Uniiig  nVB" 
coagulable  lympb  n»v  w  ^ 

■ases  on  the  valves,  sod  vujtM 
,t,z9dhyCuUl^lt" 


IK  PLAMMATION— mTLBCTION. 


iafluenca.  It  u  by  ths  orgaaisation  of  thu  Suid 
that  Uie  lipi  of  reoeot  wounda  >ra  glued  tooether, 
tuid  that  parts  reaentlr  serered  from  the  bo^  may 
lie  Bometmiea  repUoad  and  atill  live.  The  lucceM 
of  the  Talicotiui  operation,  by  which  a  new  nose  ii 
eagrafted  in  tha  position  of  that  which  had  been 
loat — oE  the  operatioi)  of  injecting  a  itimuUtiDg 
fluid  into  cysbo  tnmoura,  Ac,  with  the  view  m 
setting  op  adhesiTe  inflammation-^and  of  Tarioiu 
other  aurgical  operations,  essentiaUy  depends  npon 
the  property  of  organisation  possessed  by  this  Quid. 
It  is  thus,  too,  that  nlcen  are  gradual^  filled 
till  the  breach  of  textnre  is  repaired. 

The  inflammatory  diseases  of  the  moat  important 
organs  are  described  under  tLeir  speoiflo  nsnea, 
ai:^  as  a  general  rule,  the  termiostion  -ilU  it  em- 
ployed to  indicate  an  inflanunaidaa.  Thus,  i^enritiii 
signifies  iufiammation  of  the  pleura;  peritonitis, 
irSlammation  of  ^e  peritoaeum ;  iritU,  iaflammstion 
of  the  iiis;  Ac.  Infiammation  of  tb«  Inogs,  hov- 
,  is  usually  known  m  puenmooia  instead  of 


It  i 


when  Uie  inflammation  is  eitemal ;  and  (Z)  that 
the  patient  should  be  placed  on  a  strictly  anti- 
phlogistic regimen  (which  implies  a  total  abatinence 
from  solid  animal  food  and  Etimalatiug  drinks,  dr~ 
attention  to  Tentdlation,  temperature,  £c.].  Of  tl 
direct  remedies,  the  moat  important  (except 
persons  of  weak  or  broken-down  onnstitations)  is 
blood-letting  although  at  praatDt  it  ' 
out  of  fsshion.  Hie  medieiusa  ohieflf 
purgatiyea,  [vepantioni  of  mercuiy,  tarter  emelie, 
and  opium;  while,  sa  external  apfdioatiana,  hot 
fomenUtioiM  (oooMionkllT  mid  lotMua),  and  oountw 
irritetton  Inr  meaiu  of  bliaten,  Huapunu,  aetoBS,  &&, 
are  iiften  of  eerrioe. 

IITFLE'OTION  is  a  general  name  v 
grammsiians  for  sD  those  changes  that 
undergo  when  placed  in  relation  to  one  another 
in  a  sentence.  See  DnxiHSioir,  ConjcoAnoN, 
GwrrrvB.  Moat  of  th«ae  changes  occur  in  the 
end  syllable  or  Hytlsbles  of  the  word ;  and  with 
reKsrcl  to  these  at  lesat,  there  is  every  reason  to 
tielieve  that  they  were  originally  s^Mrata  words 
joined  on  to  the  root-words  (see  LAHOuaai),  and 


gradnaUr  Mununed  the  forma  now  known 
srammar  a*  cases,  numbers,  persons,  teasM,  &e. 
In  some  instances,  the  original  suffix  eon  be  r(«dily 
recognised,  snd,  by  tha  help  of  Compantiye 
Grammar,  much  has  been  done  in  recent  times  in 
tracing  tiie  mora  disguised  inflections  to  their 
■ouroe ;  so  that  the  greater  part  mhj  be  eonddcred 
as  satisfactorily  estauished.  Couflnmg  our  remarks 
to  the  Indo-Enropean  langnagea,  we  may  aafely 
aaaert,  that  the  ^'llaUea  used  in  foiming  the  cases 
of  BOOHS  and  the  terminations  of  verbs  are  of  pro- 
nominal origiu.  Thus,  ni^  ai,  ti,  a*  the  ending!  cf 
the  thre«  person*  of  the  prawotsingnlar  of  ihe  verb, 
are  evidently  oonaeoted  with  the  peiaoiud  proDOuns 
mo,  fm>  (iva),  to;  and  the  vinrala  nuu,  tea,  Mi. 
conbun  the  tame  with  an  indication  of  tha  plnnl 
number.  The  nominative  singular  of  maaculinea 
and  feminine*,  ending  in  «  {<7uu-s,  1m-i,  J!ni^, 
*''rTi-f),  oontains  the  peraoiud  pronoun  of  the  thitd 
person,  la    («,  nom.    so,    i) ;    the   plnral,   piaelt, 

■t^dt,  is  probsbly  only  a  oormption  of  '■'■ 

jironoun  pat  twice  {jntd-ta-ai-   •  '    "*'* 


,,  fish  that  and 


that),  the  doubling  of  the  pronominni  clement 
expeasing  symbolically  a  plurality  of  the  same 
thmg.  In  the  oblique  eaaes,  we  meet  with  other 
pronominal  elements,  which  indicate  that  a  certain 
thing  is  placed  with  r^ard  to  ths  predicate  in  tha 
three  fondameotat  direotioiiB  ot  motion — those  of 
wAtlAer,  uAen;  and  isAoNie.  The  aocuaatiTe  is  the 
exponent  of  the  direction  of  an  action  lotoarde  aoma 
object,  and  ita  terminatioD  in,  in  the  plural  ni  (L  e,, 
tn  with  the  plural  termiuatioD  <),  is  oonnected  with 
the  proDomen  ama,  you.  I  (oomp  IaI  w,  f-A  i-^'} 
is  the  pronominal  syllable  em]doyed  for  signi^riiLg 
that  an  action  has  arrived  at  a  certain  goa^  and  u 
contbuinff  there,  giving  the  dative  and  locative 
caaea ;  while  the  atarting  from  a  certain  point  is 
indicated  by  tbe  pronODn  of  the  third  person,  la,  and 
iU  e^nivalent  ta  (that),  corrupted  to  I  and  t,  tha 
termination  of  the  ablative  and  genitive  case& 
The  dative  and  genitive  of  the  plnrsl  txpnm  tbe 
same  relation*  as  tha  singular,  tiuugh  they  ara  lesa 
clear  aa  to  their  origin.  If,  notwilikBtBadiiig  tha 
identitv  of  tcrminabons,  the  asgrc^te  tt  nooni 
most,  by  a  manifest  analogy,  M  classiflid  into 
several  distinct  declensions,  this,  in  most  esse*,  is 
to  beaooountad  t(n'b]rthed^erenceof  (hefomutuHk 
of  stems  or  bases  pravious  to  their  Bomina  in  oMitact 
with  tbs  afEizea.  If  is  natural  that  tSe  so-caUed 
crude  foRna  afaould  onderBo  a  diBerent  process  of 
contraotiou  according  to  the  nature  of  their  final 
voweL  The  dative  nipi,  titan  ths  crude  fcnm  lupB, 
ia  aa  much  a  contracbon  of  lupo-i,  aa  is  tha  dabve 
jtn(  Irom^f-i.  Conaonantic  bases,  or  of  ths  vooalio, 
tiiose  which  end  in  u  (v),  a  vowel  of  a  deoided 
quality,  are  most  apt  to  prsssrve  the 
n  their  unal^mid  form,  being  less  lisble 


Gredc,  and  the  third  and  loiuih  Latin  dedeniioD*. 


the  poaMbility  of  a  pecnliw  inflection  bang  pnMrred 
in  one  or  othm  dwnlwwion;  for  Dothiag  ia  mora 
ovtain  than  that  lai^puge,  at  a  certain  Mage  id  its 
development,  ereated  and  applied  a  great  varie^  at 


bibea,  snd  thor  diattibation  into  lawr  or  smaller 
pohtieal  bodies,  taught  and  oompetled  thsm  to 
eoDoomise  their  ways  of  axpresaion. 

In  the  f  onnation  of  certain  tenses  of  tbe  Ttrb,  ve 
find  a  process  different  from  the  oombiaation  of  a 
nominal  or  verbal  boas  with  a  pronominal  syllijile. 
The  I^tin  subjunctive  of  the  first  conjugation,  the 
fntuie  in  io,  the  Qreek  optativs  and  future,  the  lAtda 
imperfect,  and  the  perfect  ending  in  an,  ui,  ivi, 
coaaiiA  sf  ths  verbal  root  with  an  already  inflaoted 
fom  of  the  verbs  ^  to  go,  oa  and^  to  be.  Howevar 
^  tbi«  may  appear  at  first  sight,  it  ia  never- 
SB  a  fast  that,  e.  g.,  ihr,  I  vonld  be  (for  If-in 
3cr.  *-j4m,  Lat.  <-wn),  origmaUy  meant,  I  go  (if  I 
nuatake  not)  in  being,  I  am  in  doubt  of  the  act  ol 
being ;  that  avni-mr,  thon  wilt  dn,  ia  literaLy  trans- 
lated, '  thou  mayst  be  doing.'  The  Latin  t-bai  lot 
Vfuat,  or  i-t>it  for  ifuit,  is  still  mora  clearly,  'be 
was  in  the  act  of  going.'  That  anxiliaiy  verba  aome- 
timee  aasume  the  fanetion  of  inflections,  is  proved 
by  the  French  future,  wbcm  forms  like  tri>ta>rrtu, 
fiiirai,  are  eaaily  recogniaed  as  oompositions  of  tha 
mflnitive  with  tha  vmb  aeotr  (fiiir-ai,  I  have  to 
finish). 

Ths  bifleetions  hitiierto  described  affect  the  end 
o{  words,  and  posseas  the  oharaoter  of  a  cunpoaitiDn 
of  a  significative  word  or  root  with  a  ayUable  of 
local  import,  or  an  inflected  form  of  a  verb.  But 
language  also  employe  other  meana  of  a  symbolical 
nature,  either  in  the  middle  or  the  beginning  of 


byGoogle 


Ttfba,  with  the  object  of 
Mpeot*  m  wUch  an  actii 
Uukt  the  pieaent  tenses  getieraUj  have  longer  fonm 

than  tlioae  of  " ^     ""--  -■"'■■'  —  -  ■- 

lued  u«  long 

Mid  Betni-Towol*,  or,  lastly,  redn^ 

that  the  weight  giveji  to  the  verbal  root  hy  theas 

applianeee  is  intended  to  exhibit  tiie  continnAiice  of 

an  action  in  the  present  tentee,  in  contract  with  the 

fleeting  or  momentary  operation  of  the  put.    la  a 

^milar  manner,  the  long  Towels  peculiar  to  tlia 

■nbjonctive    in    Greek    (rimrn-riirmrtr,    rurrtfur- 

rimfiij)  oan'vey  the  ii^  of  doabt  or  uncertainty, 
bj  meMl*  of  the  longer  interval  required  for  the 
pronnnciBtian  of  the  intermediate  long  rowel,  thnt 
eipreaiing  the  heeitation  of  the  speaker  with  regard 
to  the  reality  of  hie  judgment.  The  redupUcMum 
in  the  perfect,  being  originaUy  a  repetition  of  the 
root  (ta-tudi),  ii  not  so  mooh  the  sign  of  a  past 
time,  at  the  symbol  for  an  action  having  passed 
Crom  the  stage  of  incipience  into  that  of  oom^detion. 
The  wear  and  tear  of  time  ezercisea  its  influence 
H  weir  on  the  radical  part  of  words  as  on  their 
inOectioDBi  Grammaticu  terminations  of  a  totally 
different  formation  by  cormptioit  become  obecuied, 
and  identical  in  shape  with  othen  of  hetenv 
nneons  purport  The  Latin  Bamae  takes  on  iteelf 
the  functions  of  Aonul-i-*  (gen.),  of  BmaS^  (dat), 
Bom&-i  (locat),  and  RomA-i-a  (nom.  pLJ ;  or  pojmlo 
those  of  popul6-l  (dat),  populo-d  (abL),  and  at 
a  very  early  age  that  of  jK^tUo-m.  The  absence 
of  written  standard  works  of  suck  a  national 
importance  ss  to  penetaate  into  the  massiw  of  a 
people,  and  to  check  their  inclination  towards  mis- 
applying or  neglecting  inflections  which  in  prosress 
of  time  nave  1^  their  inherent  meaning,  and  there- 
fore appear  cumbersome,  ocoelerata  the  change  nf 
the  insectira  system  into  the  analytioaL  The 
demand  for  a  precise  and,  so  to  speak,  material 
exprcMion  of  those  manifold  relatioDs  appropriated 
to  inf  ectioni  in  aaoieDt  langoagea,  is  felt  more  Keenly 
with  the  waning  diatincSiess  of  the  latter;  and 
sudden  political  revolutdons,  such  as  the  invasion 
of  Italy  by  Teutonic  tribes,  or  the  conquest  of 
KngUnd  by  the  Normans,  interrupting  the  mflaence 
of  the  pnvileged  classes  of  a  nation,  bring  the 
_i 1.  i„  — — ^  gjyg  (jjg  ascendency  '-  **— 


MFLECnON— INPLDENZA. 

INFLECTION,  i 


auxiliary  Terbs,  take  in  modem  languagea  the  plaoe 
of  inflections ;  and  notwithstanding  that  these  are 
not  entLrely  destroyed,  they  have  a  pmcarioDs 
exiitenoe,   and    are    in   danger   of    being    finally 


ezpresnon.  The  application  of  the  ■  as  a  mark 
the  poaelBive  case  becomes  more  and  more  limited 
in  modem  English,  and  t^a  mistaken  eflTort  to 
supersede  Hom  relic  of  Saron  inflection  by  the 
sabstitntion  of  the  prononn  Alt,  has  only  been 
defeated  because  it  proceeded  from  learned  pedants, 
and  not  from  the  people.  The  terminatioii  n{  sa 
a  sign  of  the  pliual  in  French  verba  {aimmi, 
airnaieiUI,  may  be  called  almost  a  dead  letter,  only 
trsditionallv  preserved  in  spelling.  The  Ion  of 
inflections  has  deprived  modem  iaiu;uages  of  the 
wonderful  simplicity  and  power  <rf  i£e  ancient 
tongues,  and  Uie  periphrastic  mode  of  eii^easioa 
they  have  adopted  prevents  them  from  amngiog 
all  tha  pwia  of  a  sentence  with  the  same  degree  S 
liberty.  On  the  other  hand,  they  have  gained  in 
pnspioaity.  After  all,  the^  have  only  nvamed  the 
process  «  the  combination  of  pronominal  and 
auxiliary  words  with  oChan ;  but  by  placing  them 
in  fron^  fiia  attention  of  the  beam  or  tuder  is 
Galled  at  ones  to  the  particniar  modification  of  every 
poasibls  shade  of  a  given  tjiought. 


Optica,  see  DmRacmi. 

INFLOBBrSCENCE  (Lat  at.  »d  Jhnta. : 
begin  to  flower),  in  Botany,  m  tcmt  maplanc : 
designate  the  flowen  of  a  plant;  conaidicnd  mlt 
tiv^  and  widi  reference  to  the  manjier  in  vi . 
they  are  arranged  and  the  sncceaaion  in  wia^  tr 
are  developed.  The  flower-bud.  being  a  moi:-. 
leaf-bod,  and  the  parts  of  the  floirer  modi&d  ]an 
it  might  be  expected  that  the  iofloreacence  (^ 
exhibit  a  dose  correBpondence  w^tli  the  rami&ac ; 
uf  the  plant,  but  the  modifie&tdoii  in  t^  pn 
immediately  ooacemed  in  the  production  of  tm 
is  BO  great,  that  this  is  far  &oni  being  the  caae.  :. 
most  important  classification  of  kinda  of  inflmesis- 
is  into  Okhtrituqaj,  and  CwrrRis-KTAi.  {q.v.V  Wul 
the  flowering  axis  produces  only  a  single  toszi 
flower,  the  inflorescence  must  be  regarded  a  : 
the  centrifugal  kind.  The  terms  naed  to  ieti 
nate  more  epeciflcal^  the  different  kinds  of  i^ 
escence  are  numerous.  Hie  piiietfwl  of  tha  i.-:  , 
explained  under  separate  heads,  »»  Gatkut,  Cci,  I 
CoRTMB,  Crus,  Fanicl^  RxcEitM,  Srixx,  ram 
&C.  But  it  is  to  be  regretted  tb*t  aaeh  temc^ 
still  used  somewhat  vaguely  or  oreleasly,  m 
by  very  eminent  botaniata,  or  in  sach  varioui  mn 
that  the  iuBoreecenca  of  the  ssme  plant  a  cr-^s 
described  by  one  term  in  one  botanical  work,  sari  ^ 
another  term  in  another.  And  hence  arise  conte  '- 
and  difficoJly,  not  entirely  to  be  aacnbed  Id  i^ 
endless  variety  which  is  eudbited  in  nature. 

INFLUENZA,  one  of  the  claaa  of  disew* > 
which  the  term  Zymotie  (a.  v.)  is  now  apnliei  b» 
been  long  reofignised  by  medical  writeia,  aluHUi^  o 
name,  borrowM.  from  the  Italian,  is  conipsiibni.' 
modem  in  tiiis  country.  Gullen  called  it  atfarrscf 
amlagio,  but  althou^  in  most  cases,  it  d"^ 
resemblea  ordinary  cstairh,  it  presents  oertua  poo 
of  dil^a«nee  from  that  disease.  In  addit^"  '" 
ordinary  tymptoma  of  oatanh,  them  is 
early,  uid  very  atrikuu  debility  and  dep 
spirits.  This  early  debility  is  on«  of  (te  la 
marked  and  cbaractenetic  aigns  of  inflnenn.  i  ~ 
mucous  meinbranes  (especially  the  pnlmonarf  s*  . 
brane)  are  mndi  affected.  The  tongue  is  white  i* 
creamy,  the  sense  of  ta*t«  is  lost,  there  is  no  ^ip«" 
the  pilss  is  soft  and  weak,  tha  skin,  althoitfi  « 
first  hot  and  dry,  soon  becomes  moist,  tad  ta 
patient  complains  of  paini  and  soreness  in  ««<• 
parts  of  the  CM  ' 


Tiperve 


uple^    naeampliaat«d   cssea,    oodtiJg*^ 

les  in  the  course  of  a  week  or  soodV-  <^ 


is  very  frequently  conjoined  with  t** 
ebitis  or  pneumonia,  in  which  case  it  is  mi^cA  i^ 
persistent  and  dangerons. 

Infiueoia  affords  an  excellent  examp^  <•  " 
epidemio  disease,  a  whole  community  hang  ^ 
attacked  in  the  course  of  a  few  houi*  ft«^ 
it  may  be  inferred  that  the  occurrence  of  tto  » 
esse  is  connected  with  some  particular  oosdili*^ 
the  atmosphere,  but  what  that  conditjcm  i»t  "/^ 
known.  Hot  nnfreqoenUy,  influenia  'oUo^jiJ 
upon  a  sudden  thaw ;  sometimea  it  is  f^''^ 
thick,  ill-smelling  fogs.  One  hypothesis  rtfe"  * 
complaint  to  some  change  in  the  elecbicsl  ''^|f 
the  air ;  and  one  of  the  latest  and  most  J"^*^ 
conjeotnres  regarding  its  exciting  cause  is  "** 
Schijnbein,  who  refers  it  U  "'  "'  " 


0  (q-v.) 


a  the  a 


liksd 


miiuuiim  generaJly  follows  a  westerly  '•''*? 
or  one  from  the  south-east  towaids  the  »<*^'^ 
and  its  course  Baemi  to  ha  altogether  i^'P*^ 
of  cnrrents  of  air,  as  it  frequently  bavelsig*''"'^ 
prevaiHng  wind.  , 

The  mo»t  important  pobt  in  the  faotax"'^ 
influenza  is  no!  to  bleed  the  patient  or  in"/*'' 


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Dir  FOBMA  PADPEBJS— INFUBOEIA, 


to  dmraa  lun  vital  povenL  He  ahould  be  kept 
in  bed ;  hii  bowela  shoald  be  gently  cnNmed ;  his 
akin  Rl^ghtly  acted  npon,  if  dry ;  and,  if  the  cough  be 
tronbletoma,  a  mu>tajd-poiiltioe  aboold  be  applied 
to  the  cheal^  and  an  axpeotorant  mixtnie  j««aciibed. 


ammonU,  beef-tea,  and  wine  and  inter,  rnnvt  be 
given  from  the  outrct  The  debili^  that  often 
remaiiu  for  a  coniideTable  period  after  the  Mta- 
bliahment  of  oonraleecenoe,  ia  beet  met  by  the 
preparations  of  ijOD  and  qnmine. 

Few  diseasea  iucresae  the  death-rate  to  Boch  an 
extent  aa  infioenza,  more,  howerer,  in  oonaequenoe 
at  the  great  nmnbec  of  penons  who  on  attooked  in 
a  serere  epidemic,  than  m  oooBeqnenoe  of  ita  dangsi 
in  individual 

IN  FOUMA  FATT'PEBIS,  a  term  i»ed  ^en  a 
ponon  ii  allowed  to  me  M  a  pavpet— L  e.,  by  gettdnz 
teare  to  diipenae  with  p&jring  the  fees  of  oonrt  and 

INFOKMATION,  in  Engludi  law, 
several  MnKS.  In  crimiiMJ  law,  an  infoimation 
filed  bj  the  attomey-genenil  or  master  of  the  oiowa 
office  II  a  mbBtttote  for  an  oidinan  indictment, 
and  ia  reeorted  to  only  in  oaaea  of  moh  ~  '' 
oura  aa  tend  to  dirturb  liie  peace  or '  ~ 
— for  example,  aa  Lbela  on  judges,  maoslratca,  or 
public  offioeii,  bribery  at  electdoiu,  Ac  Thia  infor- 
mation ia  luo&lly  caUed  a  criminal  or  an  ec  qffido 
information,  and  the  defendant  is  pat  on  bis  trii' 
the  same  way  aa  nnder  an  indiobnent.  Tllero 
other  informationB,  ouch  aa  thoae  called  quo  toarratUo, 
to  test  the  validi^  of  an  eleotioil  or  appointment 
to  a  publio  office,  to.  An  informabon  by  the 
attom^-ga)e«l  in  Chancery  is  a  suit  on  behalf  ct 
the  orown  or  government  aa  to  any  miai^plication 
of  «  puUio  chari^,  or  on  behalf  of  an  idiofs  or 
louAtii:^!  ptopoty.    The  term  is  also  oommonly  uaed 


substance  in  an  earthenware  vessel  fitted  with  a 
cover.  Cold  water  is  prefendile  when  the  active 
prinoiple  is  varjr  volatile,  or  when  it  ia  expedient  to 
avoid  the  solutioD  of  some  ingredient  in  the  vege- 
tabk  which  ia  soluble  in  hot,  but  not  in  cold  water. 
For  tauargh,  in  ^sparing  the  infosion  of  calomba, 
cold  water  ia  pr^wable,  because  it  takea  np  the 
bittar  principle  (which  is  the  essential  ingredient), 
and  leaves  the  starch-matter  ludiaMdved.  In  moat 
cases,  however,  boiling  water  is  employed.  lofa- 
■ions  are  preferred  to  decoctions  when  the  active 
principle  volatilises  at  a  boiling  heat,  as  in  the 
OBBe  of  essential  oils;   or  when  ebullition  readily 


'    denote  Qie  written 


I  justioe  of  the 


plaint  a^ 


.  , n  ohai^d  either  with  a  oriroe 

punishable  summarily.     There  are 

also  informations  in  the  Court  of  Sichequer  to 
recover  pcsialties  for  breach  of  the  revenue  laws. 
The  term  ia  not  now  used  technically  in  Scotland, 
except  in  cases  of  difficulty,  when  the  Court  of 
Jnstioiaiy  ordeia  infonnationa — i-e.,  written  argn- 
mento — on  both  ddes. 

IITPO'BMEB,  in  BigUsh  law,  the  peraon  who 
anes  far  a  penal^  nnder  some  statute.  In  many 
statutes  which  define  cAenoes — not  criminal  but 
aavonring  of  crimiDaUty— encouragement  la  often 
given  to  strangen  to  coma  fbrwaM  and  prosecute 
Qm  offence,  by  giving  them  power  to  sue  for  the 
penalty  for  their  own  benefit  in  whole  or  in  part 
This  practice  has  been  much  reaorted  to  in  modem 
statates  on  moat  mbjeots.  In  Enfjlaod,  when  the 
informer  snes  in  snch  an  action,  it  u  called  a  penal 
or  ^  lam  action ;  bat,  in  general,  ttie  penalty  ia 
now  recoverable  before  jnsbcea  of  the  peace  m  a 
summary  wa^.  In  suits  in  Chaneur,  iriuoh  require 
to  proceed  m  the  name  of  the  attorney-general, 
the  inframer  is  called  a  relator.  In  Scotland,  an 
informer  ia  the  party  who  sets  the  Lord  Advocate 
in  motion  in  oruninal  praaecutionB,  and  the  Lord 
Advocate  is  bound  to  pve  op  Uie  name  of  tiie 
informer,  who  is  liable  in  oast  (n  malicious  jaoaecu- 
tions.    See  QdEEn'a  Evidkitce. 

INFU'BIONS,  or  mFU'SA.    These  terms  are 


boilint;.  They  are  usually  prepared  by 
in  sort  water  (which  may  be  either  hot 
according  to  circnniatancet)  the  sliced  or  powdered 


a  {9.  v.). 

Infuaons  may  also  be  prepared  by  Peroolaldon 
(q.  v.),  a  process  which  is  extensively  emjdoyed  in 
the  prepanrtion  of  tinctures.  When  uiDS  prepared, 
they  are  leas  liable  to  decay  than  when  pr^ared  on 
the  old  system. 

nrrCSOlUA,  a  daas  of  the  sub-kingdom  of 
animals  called  Psotozoa.  (q.  v.).  The  term  origin- 
ally almost  synonymous  with  Animalcnlea  (q.v.), 
but  now  very  mudi  restricted  in  its  signifioaticn. 
It  was  firat  used  by  Otto  Friederich  MUller,  and 
was  adopted  by  Cuvier,  who  made  the  L  the  last 
clasa  of  Sadiala  (q^v.).  But  their  radiated  struc- 
ture ia  by  no  means  established.  No  distinct  trace 
of  nervous  matter  has  been  found.— After  Ullller 
(I773~-17S«),  the  next  to  devote  himself  to  the 
special  study  of  the  L  was  Ehrenberg,  the  publi- 
cation of  whose  work  on  them  (1837)  wss  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  er*  in  the  history  of  Uiis  branch 
of  zooldffy,  which  has  since  been  prvaecuted  with 
mat  inon'      '     ■" «..■■,  ■ 


others.  Uaoy  ta  ti>e  organisms  included  1  _ 
berg,  aa  by  previovs  naturalists,  among  L,  are  now 
generally  r^Lided  aa  v^etable  (aee  Debudka  and 
DiATOiucxJ!) ;  whilst  others,  aa  the  Cercariie  (q.v.), 
have  been  discovered  to  be  immature  atatea  of 
Entotoa.  The  Soli/era  (q.  v.)  are  now  also,  by 
very  general  oinisent,  widely  separated  from  the 
Polygaitrica  of  Blaenberg,  for  which  alone  the 
term  L,  slthough  not  unt^jectiODable  (see  Annui.- 
culb),  is  retained ;  Hm  torn  PolygiuirKa  (Qr.  many- 
stomaohed)  being  rejected,  bet^usa  it  expresses  a 
view  of  the  strncture  of  tiieae  creatures  which  is 
geneially  deemed  erroneous.  Agasaiz  has  gone  the 
^ngth  of  poclaiming  an  opinion,  not  reouved  by 
otlier  nattualistti,  that  the  L  are  all  immature  or 
lanral  worms.  But  c^  tlie  forms  at  present  known, 
It  is  at  all  eventa  probable  that  many  are  those  of 
'  re  creatnres ;  it  ia  certain  that  acme  apedea 
.  very  different  forms  at  different  stages  of 
their  existence ;  and  the  whole  life-history  of  no 
le  speofes  is  folly  known- 
Some  of  the  L  are  large  enough  to  be  individu- 
ally visible  to  the  naked  eve,  but  most  of  them  are 
altogether  microsoopic  Their  bodies  are  composed 
of  Kovode,  a  ^ntmons  diaphanous  substance,  of 
which  the  outer  layer  sometimes  forma  a  nune  or 
lesa  reaiating  integument.  'Hie  bodjr  haa  soma 
well-defined  fonn,  of  which  the  vaiietua  are  very 
great  in  different  speoiea.  Haoy  are  fumiahad  with 
cilto,  the  motion  of  which  oames  them  with  great 
rapidity  through  the  fluid  in  which  they  live,  and 
by  meana  of  which  also  currenta  are  created  in  the 
fiuid  to  bring  food  to  the  mouth.  The  mouth  is 
very  geuenJly  sorronnded  or  largely  provided  with 
cilia.  WheUier  these  or^uts  are  nndra'  the  control 
of  win,  or  maintain  their  motion  without  wUl  or 
■  on  Uie  part  of  the  creature,  like 
^^^  J, . —  ■_  . 1 


byGoogle 


INTUBOBU— □TOBMimr. 


bammt,  the  pbemnnttu  of  looaporM,  A 
to  Mg^^  *■  V?*^/  deo8ptiv«— in  hit 

l»tter.     Some  L,  insMd  of  oiliB,  have  k  _. . 

filamenti,  irluali  tiwy  aratata  'with  ta  ondulatoiy 
tnorement ;  othors  more  oj  contnctdotu  ind  sttsn- 
sionl  of  theiT  bodiea.  Some  hare  stitf  biiatie-liko 
orgaiu,  which  thej  me  u  feet  for  crawling 
the  stmacee  of  other  bodiea  ;  and  aome  hare  hooka, 
bj  wliioh  they  atUoli  themtelve*  to  foreign  bodie*. 

All  L  have  »  diitinct  month,  and  many  have 
■lifft  an  ■■Tifcl  w<miwtf^  Bouetitiiea  new  ^e  monUi, 
■ometEmea  at  t&e  oppocite  extremi^  of  I' 
Between  UieM,  Ehranberg  inutgined  tliat 
trtMe  an  intestine,  strsi^  in  aoma^  Twknutj  bent 
in  othen,  with  which  aKmg  it«  conne  maajr  imatt 
rtMnacIu  are  ootmeoted;  whilat  in  the  L,  having 
otjy  one  qiertnre,  he  nippoaed  all  the  rtom  '  ~  ' 
opta  immediatdr  fnnn  it.  But  other  o1 
have  fiuled  to  flna  the  eanal  and  atomaoh^  althon^ 


And  it  aecou  proUbla  that  the  food  taka  into  the 
month  i*  (duply  conrejed  into  the  midat  of  the 
«oft  geW&iotu  enbetance  of  the  fao^,  hwng  fonned 
into  pelleta  aa  it  paaaee  from  the  mrath  thraiudi  ■ 
kind  of  gnllet  in  the  flimer  integnment.  The  food 
of  L  oonaiati  of  oiganio  partiolea  ot  Tariovi  kind*, 
and  diAcent  apecies  have  been  isuriud  to  ahew  - 


rettun  of  iritkli  b^  deoonmovtioii  to  their  primitii 
dements  woold  .liiBmwh  flie  feoiili^  and  wealth  i 
tiie  world.  The  anntben  of  the  I.  are  raodupooL. 
Ther  are  fonnd  in  all  parta  of  the  wori^  KHTboth 
in  tmh  and  aalt  water,  in  etagnaat  pondi  ~ ' 
ditchea,  in  mineral  and  hot  apriiiM,  aiid  iu  n 
aitnationB.  Any  infuaion  or  other  hqnid  oraitai  ^ 
Tegetable  or  ammal  matter,  if  Mt  ezpoaed  to  the 
atmosphere,  ia  anre  to  be  foil  of  thsDL  Their  mnlti- 
todea  are  ao  great  that  leagnM  of  the  ooean  are 
sometimes  tiiued  by  th«m.  Smne,  wUch,  instead 
of  swimming  freely,  liko  most  of  thor  oIbd,  beooma 
snrromided  with,  a  gdatineua  snbataitoes  aro  fonnd 
adhering  together  in  massss  aometimea  four  or  five 
inches  in  diameter,  altfun^h  the  indiTidoal  "'""-li 
are  ao  mnall  that  a  cubic  inch  of  the  masa  may 
contain  8,000,000  of  thenv  The  L  ocmtained  in  a 
■ingle  cap  of  putrid  water  may  exceed  in  nnmber 
the  whole  huuian  popnlation  of  the  ^obe  [ 

The  orgamtation  of  the  L  ia  stall  veiy  imper- 
fectly known.  There  appears  in  many  of  tliem  a 
cari^  not  far  from  the  month,  the  wntrtuHU  ^>aet 
— TMnonsly  i^arded  m  »  eavity  without  proper 
walla,  or  *■  a  verid^^rom  which  fcraiudiea  eome- 
timee  radiate  thiwugh  tike  aobitaiMe  of  the  body, 
and  whioh,  bung  oapable  of  ontttmotion  and  onwu- 
sion,  U  regarded  by  aome  aa  Out  centre  of  a  kind 
of  vatenlar  system.  It  ia  with  OMuideraUle  prob- 
ability rerarded  aa  fnmMbed  witAi  proper  walls. 
There  is  uso,  probably  in  all  the  I,  aoomr 


sridently  of  great  importano&  aWioagh  its  nae  ia 
atill  oncertain,  called  the  nucleus  iriiidk  ia  saual^ 
ronndish  or   a  little    eh>ngated,  KUuetLnea  uiwh 


-like.  It  is  BiTdc^  in  a 
meim>raiis,  and  is  man  oompaol  tlHtn  the  ear- 
roundins  subatano«>  In  tbe  mnltiplieatioo  «f  these 
aoimala  t^  apontaneona  dirinMi,  a  finion  d  the 
nnclena  alwayi  takes  ^laoe.  Eacb  4rf  the  halrea 
beoomes  foiniahed  with  a  cmn^eta  monUi,  aet 
of  cilia,  and  other  oi^ana.  Hie  division,  in  tdie 
same  speciee,  is  sometuoa  lougitadinal,  aometimea 
tranareiae,    pethapa    alternately  longitudinal    and 


ThemnltudiiiatioD  o(  tbsLinUn 

ia  extatBdyiwid.  A.  Parvmetiiim,  wdl  mti 
witik  food,  baa  basD  ofaaffved  to  nBdapi  dina 
erery  24  hom^  from  whMi  woold  rwilt  itfi 
individnala  in  a  fottadgU^  or  366,436^116  m  fee 
weeks.  Bapodiwtian  aJao  take*  plaoe  b*  gmat 
"--       *— ^-    -^    — '-   ' —  -    on  ttie  Mtr 


tion;    bads   or 

sufaoe  of  the  Iwdy,  and 

sluqie  of  the  parent  aninu  .       .„ 

attain  to  their  fnll  dae  till  after  w^ai  atiiwi 


tthiv&M 


mded  t^aiU 


■•ontiMi,  and  finally  I7  a 
attMuM,  and  dlawdna^  all  but  Uie  nndna  « 
a  moo  liooid  containing  pannlea,  which  tfisni 
form  witun  the  cyst  a  new  iofiiMriiaii,  diSratu 
taaa  and  appeaianoa  from  that  by  whieb  tlu  <?e 

bom  tnoed  to  a  certain  extent  in  some  kiad^ix 
not  fnllf  in  any.  WlMlhw  any  tanlj  kib! 
propa^tum  takes  plaoe^  hai  not  been  pofKtl; 
ascertained,  altlunieb  the  obeerratioBa  of  BtSaa 


plaoe  in  some,  by  the  fOTmatioa  of  intanal  Mm 
to  which  this  character  haa  been  aacrilwa,  be 
tbe  sobieot  is  still  inTolved  in  doobt;  ur  s  3 
improbable  that  there  may  be  amon^  th> 
minnto  creatures  a  prodnction  of  real  eggi^  wlid 
has  hitherto  eluded  obserration. 

In  the  integument  U  aome  L,  Toy  minalB  f» 
form  bodies  are  thiddy  imbedded,  culed  Iri^of^ 
which  are  capable  of  throwing  oat  long  filHHiiB 
Their  nse  is  unknown,  althon^  they  are  nmM' 
to  be  urtioatiTig  organs,  The  filaments  an  an" 
oat  when  the  animal  is  subjected  to  aonoyinu  )• 
the  drying  np  of  the  liqoid  in  whidi  it  lim,  i 
by  the  appUcation  of  tome  irritatiiig  liquid 
INFCSOBIA,  FooBQ.  See  Dunucicu, 
INQEMANSr,  Bebhhakd  Setsriv,  mm  of  ft" 
tAost  diatiiigniahed  poeb  and  norelista  of  Domu't 
bom  May  28,  1789.  in  the  island  of  tiiO'- 
literoTjr  career  may  be  divided  into  Itn 
lot  penods.    The  first  of  these,  extoidiiig  bit 

to  1814,  embraces  his  best  lyrml  pfodnelUE^ 

viz.,  the  collection  of  poems  entmed  Ptvau  (Itl^ 
Bad  tLbe  allegorical  epic  of  Dt  Sorto  JUddert  |lll^' 
while  the  seooud,  or  drsmatao,  ending  in  ISft^ 
mariud  by  the  wwaraiMe  of  nomaons  tiig<^ 
which  have  maintained  their  place  on  the  ■saa|' 
stage,  and  among  irtiioh  the  beet  an  hi*  iraw» 
Blanea,  JlMot  «  Otrten  (18151 ;  Htrdm  of  ^ 
a^naid,  [TiHltrtanMt,  LvoaidiattK  (181«1  » 
ToMo't  3^/Htde  (1819).  After  this  psiiot.  >■' 
writings  an  oharaeterind  eiths  l?  hMi>e 
to  hiatorioal  diaquiaition,  or  a  stnody  i^pf 
Um.  Hii  adminbia  tsaia  mm  of  FaUw  » 
Store  09  .HiMW  JfMd  (l«i«  was  the  ttehida  to  Ot 
varioua  hisbxioal  novels,  m  nUdi,  Ukisg  WilK 
"--"  foi  hii  moddilM  «akd«ava<ired to  pr-" — * 


middle  agea.  TaUUmar  Btler,  the  fint  UUbt^ 
(ISU),  and  JMi  Mmttatt  Sanulom  (im,  •^ 
-  generally  legaidad  aa  the  best  <rf  «M*iin»^ 
la,  mt^  oompsta  faTonrably  with  MM  o*? 
most  mcawriid  aflixti  of  his  greet  n)dil;  ■r"  ' 
even  the  lesa  popular  <rf  hia  hittorioal  noitbi  *^  I 
Brit  og  da  MlloM  i}.9SSi,  and  Awb  «*>  ^  ' 
Sam*  SamUd  (183(9,  »>V  JHtty  ntide  bo  » 
rank  among  tbe  fint  novehate  <rf  hi*  ''"'■-JZ  ' 
poema  of  Ihwmbig  Marml*  (1696)  and  B»fi 
iJonah  (1837),  irtiioh  an  bailed,  like  hii  w™^ 
incidents,  of  Daniah  national  histofy  "^  bsv*^ 


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INaEBSOUr-INU. 


ung   L'h   most   nwcearfol   e&brtB.      Tha 

elsment  in  this  witter'i  mind  has  found 

TuitniB  prodoctioiu  ol  oonmderable 

..  . .    iniUnoei  in  hia  eoUeotiou  of  anthems 

1  pmlmi,  So^f^ae»l^talma^  (1826),  in  Ilit  noAtx- 

^  some  of  ue  aTinbolical  or  t 


ylegen 


k  Libmtan  st  the 


coUeotire  wocka  lura  baen  published  in  38  vols^ 
I8S7,  Copenlugeti,  and  the  neater  nnmber  of  his 
pross  Torka  md  numy  of  tus  poems  have  been 
tnuulated  into  Tsiions  langoagea.    He  died  1862. 

INCtnRSOLIi,  OoAXLta  J.,  an  *»n.-fi>'»n  atates- 
num,  was  bois  in  FfailodBlphia,  October  3,  1782. 
Hia  father,  JM«d  IngcmoU,  was  an  Mtire  partuan 

_-_  ii_   > lnti«i,«r' """"   "'  ■' 

itodOfl 
GharaM  J.  L  nodTod  a  liba 
waa   oompMid  by  Ennpsan  tnTsL    In  1801,  he 

5rod«c«d  the  taaeidy  of  JMwv  anci  SMta,  ud  in 
BOS,  a  strong  poutual  pamMlet  in  ddanoe  of  the 


_  .  1  pditioi^  entitled  /ncMautn' 
Letter*  aSlO).  He  wis  elected  to  Congress  in  1SI2; 
and  in  181^  be  kctrocated  tlta  priiunple  thi '  " 
abipa  make  fne  goods,'  in  •  powcrM  speeo  .  _ . 
waa  for  fomtem  ysan  TJmted  States'  dirtiiot 
attonupT  for  Pennsvlvania,  and  in  ~ 
1839  to  18191  Hanibli^adtw««Mii 
Skelchet  ofAeWar  (1^1812,  in  1845  aod  1852. 
apeeoh  in  oppoittiiHi  to  tha  UdmJd  administration 
caused  hi*  amst  in  18BS ;  bnt  his  popularity  made 
it  advisable  to  release  him,  after  a  onef  detotitiDn. 
He  died  in  Mar  ISK. 

I'NaOIiSTA1>T,or£N'OOLDE3TADT{anoieiitlj 
AKrtabim,  and  by  Cbe  Lrtin  writers  of  tiie  IStii  e. 
called  AvripiMt  arid  CluT/topoUt — Le.,  'the  golden 
city '),  a  town  and  fortress  of  Upper  Bavaria,  ' 
^tuated  in  a  fertile  district,  on.  the  left  bank  of  t 
Danube,  which  in  here  crossed  by  a  stone  brid^  , 
46  milet!  N.N.'W.  o(  Munich.  It  oontains  three 
pariili  ohiircliea  (two  Catholio  and  one  Protectant), 
.  a  hospital,  and  a  oaitle.  Cloth,  playiiig-cardl^  and 
leather  we  manutactured ;  and  breweries  and  a 
trade  in  oont  are  canied  on.    Pop.  (1S71)  13,164 

L  is  an  ancient,  me1aBcho1j;-looklnK  town,  too 
large  for  the  number  of  itainbabttanla.  inniverslty 
■wax  founded  here  in  1472,  which  reckoned  Reachliti, 
Aventiu,  and  other  eminent  soholars  among  its 
profeasors ;  it  was  removed,  however,  to  lAnjshut 
in  1300,  and  to  Mnntch  about  sizvears  after.  At 
this  mitveraity,  in  the'  16th  c,  TJrb.  Rbegius  the 
poet,  known  oj  the  name  of  I)r  Panstus,  studied. 
I.  was  tiie  first  Gkrman  town  at  which  tha  Jesuits 
were  permitted  to  establish  themaelres,  andto  teach 
publidy  from  tbe  university  chairs.  Lojola  gave 
Lt  the  fimd  title  of  'his  little  Benjamin.'  After 
the  suppression  of  the  order  in  1773.  Adam  Weiss- 
baapt  established  here  the  order  of  the  Uluminati 
(q.  v.).  In  1S27,  the  fortifications  of  L,  wliich  had 
been  destroyed  by  the  TVench  in  1800,  werereBtorod 
upon  a  large  so^e,  the  two  forts  on  the  left  bank 
oi  the  river  beiog  especdally  distingnished  for  their 
elegance  and  strength. 

INORATLBD.   SwEaSBUUtD. 

nTQKEB,  Juir  DoHnnQin  Auocm^  an  eminRit 
Frenoh  painter,  wu  bom  at  Uontanbui,  ICIb  Sep- 
tember 17S1,  stodied  under  David  [q.v.),andsu1m- 
qnenUy  went  to  Bome.  Here  he  iwded  for  fifteen 
,  after  whidk  he  spent  foar  yean  in  Floranoe, 
lich  time  his  tama  was  so  well  eatablitbed. 


by  which 


that  he  Was  called  to  tha  School  of  Fine  Arte  in 
Pari«  at  the  snooessor  of  Denon.  In  1829,  he  suc- 
ceaded  Horace  Vemet  as  Director  of  the  Academy 
at  Rome ;  and  in  134S,  he  was  made  Commander  of 
the  Le^oa  of  Hononr,  Aa  to  hia  merits  aa  a  painter, 
unanimity  of  o^iuon  is  yet  far  from  having  been 
attainad.  I.  ooonpies  a  sort  of  middle  plaoa  between' 
the  dasno  and  lomaatb  kIiooIb,  bnt  rathsr  inolioea 
to  the  f(»m«r.  Among  hi*  muaerons  pieoeB  may 
b«  mentioned  'B^iael  et  la  Tc«nH!ina,^'Botnnlns, 
Tainqnenr  d'Acrni,'  '"Virgia  lisant  sob  Slaade  & 
Angittte  et  i  OctaviV  'La  Vsat  de  Ueoard  de 
Vinm,'  'Le  Von  de  Ionia  TTttt,'  'I/ApothSose 
d'HomBr^'  'Stratoiuo^'  'Jdsus  an  Milien  dea  Doo- 
tenrs,"  Mcditee  dans  son  Cabinet,' and '  L'Apoth^ooe 
da  KapoUcm  I,*  with  a  motto  fiattarins  the  late 
Emperor  of  the  Frendi,  /»  nnrnte  rtcUvmu.  At 
the  Paris  Bzhibitiim  cA  \W6,  L  had  a  whole 
salon  to  himselL    In  1862,  he  was  tailed  to 


pwial  C 
1867. 


IKOBIA.  See  8i  PsRSBBUBO,  QomonaMT  OT. 
ISOBO'SSIN'O,  orENQROSSIKa,  a  deed  means, 

in  Law,  the  writing  it  ont  in  full  and  regolar  form 
on  parchment  or  paper  for  sipiature.  ^le  person 
who  engrosses  is  usually  a  taw-stationer  or  clmi. 
In  Scotumd,  t^s  corresponding  term  is  '  extending 
a  deed,'  and  the  name  of  the  penon  who  does  so 
must  be  named  in  llie  testing  ohuue,  which  is  not 
neceasaiy  in  England. 

INOUIiPH,  Abbot  of  Ooyland,  kng  oonsiderad 
the  aathor  of  the  Hittoria  MomuterU  OivtfiamiauiM 
(Qistory  of  the  Monastaiy  of  Oroyland  or  Crow- 
land,  in  linoolnshire),  ia  supposed  to  havo  bemi 
bom  in  London  about  1030  a.  d.  According  to  the 
acoount  of  hia  lite  in  his  History,  he  stodied  oratoiy 
and  pliiloa^hy  at  Oxford;  became  a  favourite  ot 
Eddtha,  tlie  wife  of  Edward  the  Confessor ;  visited 
Duke  'William  ot  Komuody  at  his  own  court  in 
1051 ;  and,  after  a  di*a*tnNu  ^Igiimage  to  the 
Holy  Idod,  altered  a  Norman  monastery.  Here  he 
remained  till  107Si  wlun  he  was  invited  to  Eqidand 
by  the  Conqueror,  and  made  Abbot  of  Crcmand, 
wlim«  be  died  December  17,  1109.  The  Suloria 
Mcnatterii  Ooyfaaitowti  was  priztted  by  Savile  at 
London  in  1096,  and  in  a  more  ootnplete  editian  1^ 
Gale  at  Oxford  in  1684  It  haa  been  tranalated  int« 
fii^iah  for  Bdm'a  Antiquarian  Library  by  Biley. 


theei 


i  the  last  oenttuy  questioned 
re  genniueneas  of  the  book ;  bat  (hdr  soe^ 


proceed  farther  than  the  hypotilMBifl 
iterpolations  by  a  later  writer;   bnt  in  1(06, 
the  late  Sir  Francis  Palgcave,  in  an  article  in  the 


to  I 

whole  so-oalled  ,  _ 

'el,  and  was  probably  the  composition  o(  a  monk 
the  13th  or  i4th  oentuiy.    His  coDclusions  have 

been,  on  the  whole^  almost  nnivarsally  adopted. 

IXHSTBITAITOB.  See  HnBB,IiiTBiAOT,  Will, 
SircQwsiOH. 

JNHIBITIOH,  in  Scotch  Uw,  is  a  writ  which  is 
issued  in  otdei  to  prohilnt  a  parson  from  aliantttang 
his  heritable  aetata  until  the  debt  of  the  creditor  is 
p»id. 

I'NIA  (fnia  BeUmnM),  a  oetaoaon*  aBhttaL  ot 
ib»t»mijI>«ipMKidt»t  in  form  rasamhling  adtdpliiD, 
with  a  M^  and  slflndar  snout  It  is  the  o^  known 
■pecdea  of  ita  gemu,  and  is  one  of  the  few  aataou 
which  inhabit  bwh  water.  It  is 
tha  upper  tributaries  of  the  Ama  ..  .. 
lakes  near  the  CordiUerBB.  It  is  fimn  seven  to 
twelve  or  fourteen  feet  long.    The  I.  feeds  cliiefly 


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InU  (Bolivimtit). 


threo  or  four.    The  femiilea  ihaw 
their  yonng. 

INI'TIALB.  Though  in  ganaral  it  ia  usual  and 
n^uUr  in  ill  le^  deeds  and  wrilji^  for  a  party  to 
write  hii  fall  Chriitian  nama  and  annuune,  yet  in 
many  csae*,  eapeciall^  in  docnmenta  of  *  mercaatile 
nataie,  si^natiuv  by  initiala  will  btud  equally  with 
the  full  signature. 

IHJB'OTIONS.  This  term  is  apphed 
one  to  fluids  thrown  into  the  paasages  or  cavities  of 
the  body  by  means  of  a  syringe  or  dastic  bag.  The 
fluids  thus  injected  into  the  ree^nt  or  lower  bowel 
are  tanned  ClystBra  (q.v.).  The  injection  of  a  dilute 
tolntion  of  salt  into  the  veins  has  been  found  to  be 
of  great  service  in  even  advanced  cuee  of  Asiatic 
choIenL  The  injection  of  blood  into  the  veins  is 
described  in  the  article  TsursrtnnoK  or  Bujod. 

IN  JITKCrriON,  a  writ  in  English  law,  by  which 

the  Court  of   Chancery  stops   -~ '-    

"ooriUegal  "-'  '-^- " 
in  general, 

though  to  a  limited  extent  it  is  now  introduced  into 
common  law.  If  the  par^  disobeys  the  injunc- 
tion, he  may  be  attached  for  oontranpt  of  court, 
and  imprisoned  till  he  obeys.  If  he  obeys  it,  he 
may  »mls  to  hare  the  injiination  dissolved.  In 
Scotland,  a  remedy  of  a  siniiUt  kind  is  called  an 
Inteidictlq.V.). 

INK.  The  meet  important  kinds  of  inlc  may  be 
included  in  the  two  following  head* — Wriiing  Ink 
and  Prinling  Ink. 

I.  Wriiing  /nib.— The  c(»npo«ition  of  the  ink  used 
by  tiie  ancients  is  not  well  understood ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, certain  that  their  ink  exceeded  oars  in  black- 
ness and.  duiabilitf,  Mr  Underwood  [who  read  a 
paper  upon  the  subject  of  ink  before  the  Society  of 
Arte  in  1S67)  thinks  that  some  old  ink  wu  merely 
a  carbon  pigment,  like  the  Indian  ink  of  the  present 
day,  while  other  kinds  were  veritable  dyea  of  irou 
and  acids  (bus  chemical  oompounds),  wiUt  the 
addition  of  a  good  deal  of  carbon. 

The  essential  constituents  of  ordinary  black  ink 
are  galls,  sulphate  of  iron  (popularly  known  aa 
green  vitriol  or  green  ocqtperas),  and  gnm  ;  and  the 
'  important  point  is  the  regnlation  of  the  pro- 
in  (d  the  sulphate  of  iron  to  the  ebIIb.  If  Uie 
is  in  excess,  the  ink,  althongh  blaok  at  first, 
cornea  brown  and  yellow,  lie  gnm  ia  added 
n  the  ooloining  matter  in  snqiennon,  and  to 
prevent  the  mixtnre  from  b^ng  too  fluid.  Tha 
following  picooiption  by  Protewor  Kande  yields  * 
very  good  ink;  *B<h1  su  onnc«a  of  finely  DmiBed 
Aleppo  nil*  in  nx  [unts  of  water,  then  add  fonr 
onncM  of  clean  and  well  crystallised  anlphate  of 
iron,  and  four  ounces  of  gum-arabic  Keep  the 
whole  in  a  wooden  or  glass  veosel,  occanooally 
shaken.  In  two  months,  strain,  and  ponr  oET  the 
ink  into  glan  bottlee.'     The  addition  of  a  little 


monld.  Stephens's  ink — a  blue  liquid,  vliii^  - 
a  few  hours  after  its  depositioii  on  paper  bmu 
of  an  intense  blaok — is  one  of  the  most  pgpolii ' 
fluids.  It  consinta  easentislly  H  ^■^ 
iron,  diuolvtd  ia  sulphate  d  i^". 
while  in  ordinaiy  ink  tiie  ccdoaring  mattcc  )■  nn: 
tu^ptudtd  by  means  d  the  ^niii.  Snnge^  a  Gas; 
chemiat,  has  discovered  a  simple  and  dio^  Uai 
writing  fluid,  prepared  from  chromate  lA  piwi  a: 
a  solnbon  of  logwood,  which  pomrnnm  the  pnpsfe! 
of  fonning  no  deposit,  of  adhering  stran^y  to  it 
paper,  of  being  unaffected  by  exposure  to  vitB  s 
acids,  and  of  neither  acting  on,  nor  being  i^': 
by  steel  pens. 

Various  receipts  for  indtlHie  bika  have  at  Mrtc 
times  been  published.  Dr  Normandy  SMoti  tbi 
the  ink  obtained  by  the  folloiriiig  eombiiiBn 
cannot  be  obliterated  or  defaced  by  uy  bt'D 
chemioal  aeent:  Twenfy-fbur  poonda  of  nukfxi 
black  (iriiioh  is  supposed  to  be  >  ohaiecalobaw- 
'  vme  lees,  peach  kernels,  and  W 


. mixture  alzained  thnrot^ao 

flannel;  four  pounds  of  oxalic  arad  are  tlien  lAl^- 
together  with  aa  much  decootion  of  codiiiial  n 
sn^iate  of  indigo  aa  vrill  give  the  required  ilu-l!- 
Sed  Inkt  are  of  two  bdnda,  one  variety  coaisa: 
essentially  of  the  tinctorial  matter  of  Bianl'Vcii^ 
and  the  other  being  prepared  from  cochiiial " 
carmine.  StephWs  red  ink,  which  is  one  a  ik 
best  of  these  preparations,  is  obtained  is  tdlon 
'  Add  to  a  qaantity  of  common  carbonate  of  pM 
soda,  or  ammonia,  twioe  ite  waght  oi  crude  »^  I 
in  powder.  When  the  effervescence  hn  ««J 
decant  or  filter  the  solution  from  tiie  insW* 
matter.  To  this  fluid  add  by  measure  ialS^ 
quantity  of  ozalate-of  alumina,  ne|psred  by  diB»^ 
ing  damp,  newly  predpitated  alumina  in  i>  ^. 
a  quantity  aa  ppsmbla  of  a  o(Bioenb»t«d  «>liitti'' 
oxalic  aoid.  The  mixture  thiu  prepaied  ii  >^ 
coloured,  when  oold,  with  bmiaed  or  wmW- 
CDchinei^  and  after  standing  for  forty-eiilil  bnn 
ia  strained,  when  it  Is  fit  for  use.'  (Muint" 
CkfrniMry,  voL  iL  p.  3TS.) 

BIm  Mu  are  now  obiefiy  nude  either  diifctljc    i 
indirectly  from  Prussian  blue.   Stephens's  imcl^ 
able  blue  ink  is  formed  by  diaaolving  this  salt  (*>>>  ' 
shonkl  be  first  well  washed  in  a  dilute  min«n' jo- 
in an  aqueous  solution  of  oxalic  acid.    Ink  of  ^^.    1 
Prussian  blue  is  the  baaia,  it  nnafTectedbyura 
the  numerous  phrmcal  canaes  which  opents  of^    { 
ously  on  black  ink,  unleee  it  be  exposed  to  *J^ 
light,  whmi  the  iron  (which  eiista  aa  a  seaquiow'^ 
Prussian  blue)  becomes  deoxidised,  and  tsoM  ™ 
colour  of  thia  ink  to  fade ;  but  on  itmoniig  >"  , 
writing:  from  the  influence  of  lights  the  «J*'  * 
restored.  _j 

Purple,  green,  and  vellow  inks  have  been  too™ 
by  vanons  chemiila,  but  they  are  not  of  mSx^  , 
importance  to  claim  a  notice  m  this  article. 

aymptUhetio  Inle  leave  no  trace  of  coloar  m  ^ 
the  paper,  but  when  exposed  to  heat  or  '^S, 
action  of  some  kind,  become  more  or  Ie«  ^^°^ 
apparent  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  F"°^ 
kmds  of  this  class  of  compounds.  On  v™^JT  i 
•ointion  of  »mt  (acetate)  of  lead  or  of  M^ 
I  Irimath,  anowBihing  the  ptwer  with  a  tw^  | 
!  l^drosol^niio  add  (snIidinniMed  bydnipwO°, 
tten  ooma  oat  Unok  On  writl^  irhh 'i^ 
[  nitrate  of  cobalt,  and  ws^inglhs  PP*_Tal  ■ 
solution  of  oxalic  acid,  the  letters  oome  '"^r^ 
On  writing  with  a  solution  at  "ubscetato^J^J 
and  waihma  the  paper  with  a  sclutiOD  of  '^~^L; 
potassium,  Uie  letter*  oome  out  veOw;  <■  ta*"^ 


mKEtlHANK— tim  AKD  INNEXEPEB. 


vith  a  dilate  soIotioD  cd  ohloiide  of  aawBi, 
gently  hMting  the  paper,  Uirs  luttars  which 
pnTunily  innmblA  umme  ft  beantifiil  veSou)  tiot, 
whkJ]  dia>i^)ean  on  oooliiig.     On  wrions  with  a 
tolntioD  of  ■neiiit«^  poUdi,  kodirsBhiiig  the  paper 
with  a  adntioit  of  nitmte  of  copper,  the  letters 

out  jr^KOL 

2.  Printii^Ini  it  ■  toft  gUmBj  componnd,  alto- 
g^er  dlffetent  in  ita  compoaition  fnnn  the  inki 
trhieh  have  been  alreadrdeacribed.  The  following 
m,  according  to  Mr  Dnderwood  (in  Uis  paper 
alreadr  referred  to),  the  neoeaaarv  oonditdoiu  of  a 
good  printing  ink ;  1.  It  mart  dirtnbate  freel;;  2.  It 
mnat  luTe  moch  neater  afSnity  for  the  paper  than 
for  the  type ;  &  It  ma*t  dry  almoet  inunediatdy 
CD  the  paper,  bnt  not  drj  at  all  on  the  type  or 
idIIq*;  thia  is  a  great  deddcmtoin,  especiaUy  for 
newtpapera ;  4.  It  thoald  be  literally  proof  againat 
tba  effect*  of  time  and  nTnTnii^l  reagents,  and 
tkoold  tiever  change  coloor.  It  ia  prepared  by 
loilinf  the  best  linseed  oil  in  an  iron  pot.  H"'**'"B 
lad  aUowing  it  to  bam  for  a  ahort  tune ;  ' —  *' — 
operation  t£e  oil  aoqairea  the  neceaaary 
^nalitf .  After  being  again  boiled,  reein  ii  di 
ia  it,  in  Older  to  oonmnmioate  body  to  the  flaid, 
wliitji  now  aomewhat  iiniiiiililiiii  Canadian  balsam. 
Ihs  colonring  matter — which  ia  lampblack  for 
hiackink;  carmine,  lake,  Tenniluni,  &o.,  for  red  ink, 
indigo  or  Prnaaian  blue  for  bins  ink ;  lemon  and 
onnge  chrome  (chromata  and  bichromate  of  lead), 
or  pmbogf^  lor  yellow  ink,  ft*!.— is  then  added  to 
the  hot  miitote,  and  tiie  whole  ia  drawn  tiS,  and 
£nal];  erotnid  into  a  smooth  nnif otm  paste. 

Id  Lithwrmpby,  a  writia^  and  a  prinUao  mt  are 
RDpIoyed,  both  cd  which  differ  altogether  irom  the 
componnd*  already  described,  ^le  writing  >nk  ii 
rampoied,  acceding  to  Mnapntt,  <rf  tiie  RolowiDg 
iDAt«rutlii  ihell-lao,  aoap,  white  w«^  and  tallow 
in  ctrtun  proportions,  to  which  i>  added  a  stronK 
tolution  of  goDi'Sandarach,  and  it  is  coloored  with 
lampblack ;  while  the  printing  ink,  which  ia  em- 
ployed to  take  impreaaionB  on  paper  from  engraTed 
pUto,  with  a  view  to  their  tranaferenoe  to  the 
itone,  ia  oranposed  of  tallow,  wax,  aoap,  ihell-lac, 
gun.maitic,  mack  pitch,  and  lampblack. 

riTEHBHAKN',  a  anudl  Tartar  vilhue  in  the 
Crimea,  ia  tititated  near  the  eastern  eroemity  of 
the  hortraoi  of  SevastopoL  It  ia  memoraUe  for  the 
battls  which  took  place  l^re,  during  the  Boaaian 
w.  between  an  arm^  of  RnisiMia  60,000  strong, 


of  allied  f oroee,  conmrting  of  abont 
"•wu  avaga  acmally  engued.  At  abont  aix  o'clock 
oa  the  momiiu  ot  lim  oth  November  ISOi,  the 
Eninuia,  whonad  marched  wettward  from  Sevas- 
topol, alimg  the  aontbern  ahore  of  the  barboor,  and 
waoae  ntoremeikts  were  concealed  by  the  ■*"^"°" 
ud  a  tld^  drisding  nin,  i^ipearea  crowding  up 
the  dopes  of  the  platem  to  the  aontit,  on  «hi£  the 
tOics  were  potea.  Here  a  handful  of  men,  aboat 
1400  itnn^  a  portitHi  ot  the  'Honaehold  Gnarda,^ 
°>ade  a  mort  heroia  stand  for  dz  oonaecutiTe  hoars 
■^nat  a  bcdy  of  "Pii»ri»nii  that  wh  probably  ten 
tunes  as  munerona.  Beinfoicements,  both  BT,^iBh 
and  French,  coming  np  to  the  reacna,  the  Bnman* 
ven  finally  drivem  fnnn  the  field. 

INLUTD  BILIj  of  Ez<dunge  means  a  bill  of 
eichmge  drawn  l^  and  npoo  patsoos  Hving  in  the 
■ame  coimtr;.    liie  mlea  qiplioable  to  fotti^  billa 

j:a_  :_  _  ._  . —  i>. —  mplicable  to 

H  drawn  by 

I  or  Ireland, 

uul  vite  nf^dTwe  to  Im  tieated  as  inland  bills. 

IITLATINO  ia  the  art  of  deoorating  flat  sorlaces 
W  the  inaertion  of  lindlar  or  different  materials ; 
vim,  wood,  of  one  oolonr  is  decorated  by  inlaying 


differ  in  aome  retpeota  from  thoae  mplic* 
inland  Irilla.  By  a  reomt  statat&  aU  bills  dn 
penaoa  in  Kigland  on  persmu  in  Scotland  or  I 


a  this  kind  ot 


with  others  of  different  ootottni 
inlaying  the  Fr«ich  term marmeU  ^.... 

rally  applied.  Metal  of  one  kind  it  inlaid  "w^ 
other  kmda,  and  often  ret;  beautifal  eSeots  are 
pi>dneed.  Wben  sted  it  inlaid  with  gdd  or  braet, 
it  is  tumal^  called  Damascene  work.  One  variety 
prodneed  in  India  is  nUed  Knft-gwi— in  this,  the 
mlaid  metal,  ntnaUy  8f^  ooenidea  tmae  of  tbe 
■nrfaoetiuui  Hie  metal  ramunstiie  ground.  Anotlur 
bMotafnl  varied  ot  Indian  inuying  is  c^ed  Tnten- 
~  :ae  or  Bedery-work,  which  oonaista  in  mtlrinn 
e  article  to  be  inlaid,  most  freqoently  a 


ooal^  hammered  into  the  spaces  that  e«^  ont  to 
™— ive  them.  Ivory,  pearl,  shell,  bone,  tortass-diell, 
favourite  tnbttuoes  for  inlaying  wood;  ami 
e  or  marble  ia  inlaid  with  m  immense  variety 
ot  coloured  stones.  In  tlw  art  ot  atone^inlayiiw, 
the  Florentines  have  loDg  held  Ae  palm;  ihair 
favoniite  work  It  blaok  matUa,  with  inlaid  figorea 


pietra  dura,  or  Fbirentine  woik.  Yery  beaatafnl 
work  of  this  kind,  excelling  the  Florentine^  is 
now  made  in  the  Imperial  woikt  at  8t  Peters- 
bnrs,  where  the  art  has  of  late  been  sedi^oasly 
oul-bTsted  by  the  Bttasian  gorerament.  ^os  art 
was  always  a  favoniite  one  in  DeUd  and  Agra, 
where  some  of  the  most  ^qoiaite  work  ia  still  pro. 
doced.  UBually,  in  the  Indian  wotk,  white  marUa 
forma  the  groundwork,  and  the  figores  are  formed 
of  i.«niali»n,  jasMT,  Bgatc,  jadc,  l^iia-laEoli,  and 
othw  oostly  hard  strata.  No  sttoa-inlaying  has 
ever  rivaled  the  inlsid  matUe  walls  of  the  cels- 
bratedl^j  Mahal,  the  tomb  cf  the  snHsna  «f  Shah 
Jehau,  at  Agra.  ^Hie  deaigns  are  veij  artirtio,  tite 
execution  almost  marrellms,  aitd  the  hanncoy  <A 
colour  produced  by  the  difflerent  stooea  emidoyed  it 
moat  boantifnl.  Many  other  materiala  turn  tlwee 
mentioned  are  used  for  inlayiiuit  and  them  ia  a  stylo 
~  ad-work  in  whieh  small  sqnaiet  of  odoored 
glaaa,  or  pottei^  are  made  to  form  pwtorial 
otistio  deooiatunu;  this  it  called  HcMie- 
work  (q.  v.). 

IHLET,  an  arm  of  the  sea  open  only  on  one 
side,  and  stretching  into  the  land,  is  distinguiBhed 
from  a  Bay  (q-T.)  imly  by  its  smaller  size,  at  a  haven 
is,  again,  by  still  smaller  dimenaiona,  distingniflhed 
from  an  inlet  Examples  of  inlets  are  seen  in  the 
indentations  of  the  west  coast  of  Norway ;  at  of 
bays  in  the  deeper  and  wider  indentationa  of  the 
coast  of  Italy. 

INN  {ancient  (Ema),  a  river  of  Germany,  the 
most  important  Alpine  affluent  of  the  Danube  riaea 
in  the  south  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  QrisooB,  at  a 
height  of  4293  feat  above  aea-level,  and  fiowing 
north-east  throuEh  that  canton  forma  the  valley  ot 
the  Bngadine.  It  maiptaijM  Renerally  a  north-east 
course  to  its  junction  with  ue  Danaba  Leaving 
Switzerland,  it  enters  tlie  Antbian  dominions  at  the 
village  of  Finstermtlni,  flows  throuli  tlie  orown- 
land  of  I^rol,  and  crcaaes  tiie  tontfi-eatt  angle  ot 
Bavaria,  after  which,  forming  the  boundary  between 


t  enten  the  Danube 


regnlariy  navipble  from  the  town  of  Hall,  eight 
niuee  below  Innabruck.  At  its  junction  with  the 
Danube,  the  Inn  is  broader  than  Uia  Danube  itself. 

N  ASD  IHNKEKPKB  (see  Horn.).  In  point 
of  law.  an  inn  it  merely  a  house  of  entertsinmeut 
for  travellers,  which  any  person  may  set  np  without 
lioenoe  like  any  odier  bade.     It  ia  when  exciaable 


^J".    Igle  , 


INNATE  IDEAS-mNOOENT. 


liqncm  u«  wld  Hunt  t  UoenDB  u  i«qmred.  Pnblie- 
hmum  and  ala-lunMa  mra,  however,  lynoajriiMoi 
tenu  wiOi  imu^  for  Um  innLa^er  «lmoet  invari- 
•bly  find!  It  ej^edimt  to  obtun  the  aecettuj 
Ikoiea  toMll^ntiandb«ar.  As  to  theee  Uoaaoe^ 
■M  Bint  Aon  tad  Frauo-Horav.    Ihs  lighta  and 

dntiei  <^  initke*  '' 

bare  be  notioed. 

piKM,  th.*  Uxm^  , , 

7«t  baar-lioiiwa  an  aol  io,  tin  Utfar  bemg  maralr 
(Am  for  HUins  beer  Mtd  »  few  othoc  liqnon  "^  - 
^i^nyiMliiiif  diMMt«>Mtia  ci  the  {taUic-l: 
bei&ff,  thet  r^eehmtct  m  well  ■■  i"^gi"g  qu 
had  OB  the  pcemiM*  hj  all  oomen.  t»Yarw 
'did;  plaoee  for  the  mJs  of  wioee  and  liqi 
▼iotaallii^hotiMe,  for  the  Mle  of  Tictoel*;  ooffM- 
hooBM  mi  botele  are  alio  Tarietiea,  all  of  whkh 
m^  or  mar  not  be  iim^  aoondiag  m  ihm  da  w  do 
oot  hold  uemidna  ont  to  give  meat,  oiink,  and 
lodgingi  to  all  tnrelkn  i  aod  it  ii  not  at  all 
neeeMHjr  that  any  aign^boNd  be  put  up  to  distin- 
floliik  the  Inn- 
One  at  tha  incidenlio£  an  innkaepo'  ia,  that  he 
ia  bound  to  open  hja  honw  to  all  tMvdlin  with- 
'  dtaHnntrcai,  and  h>i  DO  opUon  to  lefnae  nidh 
••bnMnt,   ehelter,    aad  aooommodation  aa  he 


of  eoniae,  bonnd  only  to  g^  each  aoaoiiuiu> 
ioD  aa  1m  hai.  If  the  traveller  haa  a  hiHae 
'  loggifie,  the  innkeeper  ia  bonnd  to  reoeivs 
ae  tSa,  if  he  haa  aooommodatiini,  proridad  the 


o  aeleot  whoever 


mpolaor^  hea^tditj',  the 
Innketnar  ii  allowed  oartain  pnTilegei;  thus,  be 
hai  a  Ban  oo  the  hone  and  oatriage  or  gooda  of  the 
gtieat  tar  that  part  <d  the  Wi  w  reckming  ^U- 
«ab1e  to  eadi  leepeetivdy— L  a^  be  oau  ke«i  ttnae 
nntil  he  ia  paid  for  the  ke^  evan.thon^  titej 
are  not  the  property  ot  the  gaeet.  Kit  he  cannot 
detain  the  penon  of  bia  gnest  DntH  payment  ia 
made,  for  if  ao,  a  man  mi^t  be  imprisoned  for  life 
withont  any  l^al  process  or  adjnmcstion.  'While, 
'■'■■-  remedy  for  his 
for 


lodgiBi'tru 


It  baa  been  attempted  to  extend,  the  e 
law  liability  >^  innkeepera  for  tlia  aafetr 
goods  of  their  guests  to  ordinwry  lod^.  ^ 
keepers,  bnt  the  oourts  hsTe  held  taat  sn  ordar 
boaiding-honae  kecjier  or  lodging-bonM  itefe . 
only  r«ipansible for  ordinaiT  eftr«,  Le^  audiani 
he  lakes  of  his  own^^ooda.  He  moat,  it  iitn^- 
oarefnl  in  "■'"■♦^"g  hia  eovantai,  bat  ha  is  not  lic 
abadntefy  to  rebun  the  goods  safe  mvely  bsK 
they  were  in  his  house  slmig  with  the  lodger. 

In  Scotland,  the  Roman  mle  of  law  as  to  U 

teiponsibility  of  innkeepen  for  Uu  aafety  d  > 

gnest's  goods  has  been  also  adopted,  and  the  ic; 

heads    M  law   are   substantially    ^o  same  m 

exc^  that  no  indictsnent  wouLl  'at 

1  ioaitut  an  innkeeper  for  refwdng  i  p.: 

But  the  awstantial  Temedks  are  the  aame. 

['KNATB  IDBA&    See  Cosocqk  SDao. 

INHBB  HOTTBB,  the  Dame  |^v>en  is  SootJnir 
the  higher  divlnoas  it  the  Ooort  of  SeaieD  {q.i' 

IHITEB  TEMFIiE,  one  erf  the  four  Inn*  of  Cv 


--    tmUit,  eat. 

tk^vbarU,  he  wae  Ixnmd  to  restore  safe»  whaterer 
goods  of  bis  gnesta  wne  intmsted  to  nim,aultaa 
soma  dammim/ital^  or  bodm  sot  ot  Ood,  pwrrented 
bis  ddu  io>  niis  rale  has  been  adopted  by  the 
law  ot  I&gland.  Henoe,  it  the  gneat  m  robbed  of 
hia  gooda  at  the  Inn,  tha  Innkeqper  ia  Uabk,  imleaa 
the  roblMoy  waa  oanaed  bgr  the  gnesl^a  servant  or 
eompaaloD,  or  by  bis  own  groaa  lufiligmot^  as,  for 
example  I^  tesnng  a  bm  ooutaiatng  money  in  tiie 
commercial-room,  ^ter  exposing  its  contenw  to  the 
bystanders.  So  the  innkeeper  will  be  excised  if 
tlie  siust  took  upon  himself  the  oharee  of  his  own 
goo£,  yet  the  goeat  doee  not  take  l£at  eharaa  by 
merely  acc^ting  tnnn  the  landlord  the  k^  m  tits 
room,  thoDjdi  thst  may  be  sn  dement  in  iSu 
taon.    A  gnest  who  takea  all  leasonable  preo 


mide,  locking  his  loom-daop— and  is 
vet  robbed  hss  theref  ate  a  sood  claim  on  the  land- 
lord for  iDoenmity;  and  thelandloid  will  not  esBKie 
liabni^  In  potting  vp  a  notiee  la  hia  rooms,  that  he 

will  not  be  annnoable  fix  soch  Iosms,  otherwise  abnrob,  almost  evoy  state  and  kingdiBn«*'||2|?^ 
gnesta  would  have  no  imteotian,  for  Omj  are  vetj  into  snbieetion.  u  Italy,  daring  tts  '"^'w 
mnch  at  the  marayof  the  keepers  of  snoh  bonses.   TiedsricK  it  (aos  of  tlie  £bDpa<nE(niy  *^^ 


UTNISOA'TTBRT.    Bee  Soattkbt  Uun. 

TXnXtBBBrSLKlS,  a  small  island  on  Oc  *>= 
coast  of  Irelsnd,  belonging  to  the  ooanty  ol  Cin. 
from  tlie  shore  of  which  it  is  anuatad  hf  s  diat 
a  quarttC'  of  a  mile  in  widt^  Ia  about  m  cL- 
north-east  of  Clear  lahmd-  It  ia  wall  eoKina^ 
uid  contains  some  good  and  ttztenaivBly  vote 
slste-qnsRies.    Fop.  upwards  of  IOOOl 

IlfDfOOENT,  the  name  of  13  popes,  th*  «f 
remarkable  of  whom  are  the  following. — Draocr" 
L,  a  native  of  Albano,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Bovt. 
402.  Next  to  the  pontificate  of  Lm>  the  OreM,  Etc 
of  Innocent  L  forms  the  most  important  epoci  a  O 
history  ot  tlia  relations  id  the  see  of  Borne  vilhz 
oQier  ohnrches,  both  of  the  Bast  and  of  the  'V'a 
Und^  him,  acooi^ing  to  Protestant  htit""*"'  ''^ 
svstem  ot  naming  iMsfes  to  act  in  the  name  ol!^ 
Kffnigi  bishop  in  uffiare&t  portions  of  the  cbaN 
oiig^tad;  imile  Catholioa  at  laast  admit  tbr: 
rsoeived  a  taller  eiganiaation  and  derdopnoit^ 
waa  eamsat  and  vigorous  in  eatordnK  the  uIIht 
ot  the  clergy.  He  nuintained,  with  » Sim  hss^c'  , 
right  of  the  Biahop  ot  Bcana  to  reoeavs  and  to  j«^ 
appeals  from  other  (hurohe^  and  hia  letttn  *tw^ 
irith  aaavtiona  of  nnlvetaal  JuriadMia^  t»  "^  I 
Oatholica  appeal  as  evidence  M  the  Mtj^  "" 
the  Boman  prinsCT,  and  frcni  whidt  Man 
infers  that  there  bkd 


tlcsl 


d  sbMdT  'dawned  1»P  . 

r,  d^  as  yet  sad  diadcWT,T^^ 
BVeinHaontliDe'(£<ilto(%w>'^    , 


L  D.  87).    Innocent  L  died  in  417.  ^ 

Imrooxin  m.   fLoTKinio   Oom),  by  bt^ 
greatest  pope  ot  tnia  i  •        _.  •■ 

fo  1161.     Afl«r  a  o 


_. M  mnoh  d 

Fari^  Bologna,  and  Borne,  he  ii 
and  BventnaQy,  in  1198,  was  ■'- 
cedentedlyeuiy  age  of  S7,  u  »«™—  -   ,- 
OelestinellL    His  pontifloate  is  jnsUy  n^<"^    I 

spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Boman  siai  P*A^    j 
freily  avowedly  the  leaned  hiatoriaa  of  ti^Q^ 


lia^,  that  if  over  the  gnat  ides  of  •  Qnn^  , 
lepuhlio,  with  a  pope  at  its  b^  was  to  b*  RM^ 
'nooe   eoold  hnng   nuxe  lofty  or  »■■  T^ 

SUfioaUons  for  its  aeoon^ishnwit  Oaa  U^  , 
■  (iv.  p.  ft.)    AooM^n^,  nndar  tha  s^^ 
his  aidant  bat  dMntars^eTsaal  ftr  tiw  glHTl^ 
"     "  "    iMtanw*'?^' 


hyGoogle 


INNOCENT— nmooBNTa 


<j  Italy],  iriio  waa  a  ward  c^  L'i,  the  anthoritf  of 
the  Wife  irithin  hi«  own  staiea  ma  fnlly  oontoli- 


he  adfodimted  with  aattum^  Troon  tiw  linl 
of  Otbo  and  Philip ;  and  a  aMond  tinM  Im  iutitpttMd 
eS^NtaaUf  in  b«haU  of  hia  wwd,  Fraderick  £C  In 
Frmce,  MpMidiu  tha  eaoM  of  the  iiHiiMd  Inw- 
borg^  ha  oompaOed  her  unnrtl^  htuukand,  Philip 

tiM  onlawfiil^  maniedf  andtottkabacklngBrtnugfci 
In  SpMn,  he  oceniBed  «  aiiBilar  attthoiity  over  &b 
king  of  Lacnit,  who  had  manitd  wilUn  tin  pndulntod 
imtn.  "niie  hiatoiT  of  hii  oonfliot  wiOi  the  waak 
ind  nnprioc^led  Jdm  of  H^gimil  wmild  oain  ne 
bejood  the  apaos  at  onr  diapoML  If  it  uhiLita 
L'i  cbvacter  tia  <'an)iiitaiit  adlMnouM  to  prinoiple, 
■nd  hia  Uitj  indiSannoB  to  the  mgetationa  of  ezp»- 
dMncf,  in  a  Icaa  faToniabla  point  a  view  Uuui  oi* 
other  rimilar  conteali,  it  at  the  Kuna  tinw  ditplaya 
iB  a  ttioQ|cer  lifdit  tha  extant  of  hia  pt'eta^noM  a&d 
tha  con^eteikeM  td  hia  mpremacy.  In  Norway,  be 
curdaed  the  MUM  anUwvi^  in  retaraDoa  to  liia 
Miner  Swam  In  Anffm,bB  nawni  the  foaU^ 
nl  t£a  king  Alfonao,  Even  the  king  of  Aimania, 
Leo,  receiTed  hia  l^tee,  and  accepted  bma  them 
the  inTaatttore  of  his  kingdom.  And,  ai  if  in  Mder 
thit  noQiing  might  be  wanting  to  Oie  oomplet*- 
ncn  of  his  authori^  tiuon^ont  the  then  known 
vorid,  ihe  Latin  conqneat  ofCoDstuitinople,  and  the 
eitablisbment  of  the  Latin  kingdom  ol  Jenualem, 
pot  an  eod,  at  leut  daring  his  pontlficato,  to  the 
■liadow;  pretenaiolis  of  the  eMtem  rivals  of  his 
"™~- '•' — '   -1  well  aa  temponl      Pnraoiiig 


"tent    ...  „ 

a  CTime  against  KKdefy,  and,  in  nil  id^al 
republic  arery  htnwj  wai  a  rebeUlon  whioh  it 
wu  tiie  dnty  of  tbe  rnleta  to  nakt  Mid  repraas.  It 
Iras  at  hia  **ftii,  thefefon,  that  tiie  croaada  againit 
tha  AlUgenaea  waa  organisad  and  nndertaken ;  and 
iklthcn^  he  can  hsr^'  be  hold  reaponAle  for  the 
faaifnl  eiocBwa  into  wliioh  it  ran,  and  although  at 
ita  dees  he  used  aU  hia  andeavoma  to  prooitie  the 


Toolcnua,  jet  it  fa  olear  friMn  hia  lettern  that  he 
i^Hded  the  nndvtaking  ilaalf  not  merclr  aa  kwfnl, 
but  IS  a  dofiona  entajriw  of  rel^lon  and  jda^. 
As  an  eoolMdaalical  adnnmatoator,  L  hdda  a  high 
pUc«  in  hia  eider.  He  ww  a  TiomnN  goardian  ot 
pnbUo  and  private  nunali^,  a  Me*dj  proteotor  td 
the  weak,  aealoai  In  the  regaarion  of  nmony  and 
othtt  abnaea  of  tiie  toot.  a»  prohibited  Ibe  arU- 
tmj  mnltdpUeKUon  of  Tell^ont  oidrat  by  prirate 
nithoRtjr,  hut  he  lent  aU  the  foroe  of  his  power  and 
isfloenoe  to  the  lematkable  spiritaal  morement  in 
which  the  two  great  ot^ra,  the  Tianoiaoan  and  the 
Dominioan  (q.  t.),  had  their  origin.  It  waa  nnder 
him  that  the  oelabiated  fonzth  I^teran  OonnoH  wai 
held  in  19IS.  In  tiie  following  year,  he  waa  mixeA 
with  his  fafaj  iOneea,  and  died  m  Jnl  j  at  Pwngia,  at 
*Hs  earir  age  of  S6>  ffia  woAs,  conrisling  princi- 
Jljof  let&M  «-' ,-T— T->._^_.,_ 


PsUj  of  ktiin  and  aenDiHis,  and  of  a  rmia^able 
tremte  Oia  Hie  JfiMPV  qf  Uc  OondtlSaii  qfMtm,  were 
pnbUihed  In  two  voh.  folk  (Far^  I6SS),  It  is  from 
thcM  ktten  and  dearatala  alms  that  tha  charsoter 
of  the  ag^  *nil  the  trae  rignificanoe  of  tiia  ehnrch- 
pdioy  ^  thia  exinordiiuuy  man,  can  be  fnllj 
midentood ;  and  it  ii  only  from  a  oarafnl  study  of 
Uiam,  that  the  nature  of  IkI*  views  and  objaota  oao 
h«  realised  in  their  intagri^.  Howerar  eamavtly 
loai  luy  dkiBQt  from  theea  viewa,  no  ataidest  of 
■Mdieralhiitcfy  will  rafsM  to  aeoqpt  Dean  lUbnan'a 


verdict  on  the  oareai 
and  hliimdew,  and,  in  some  re^eeta,  "wise  and  gan£ 
character.  Mama  to  ^fipfoaoh  more  nearly  than  any 
one  of  the  whole  anmnwinn  ol  Boman  hiahops  to 
the  ideal  li^t  of  a  npnoM  pontiff;'  and  that  'in 
hini,  if  ev«r,  may  sean  to  be  realiaed  the  chnrch- 
man'a  hi^iaat  ocmoaption  of  a  viear  o<  Chriat '  (£alHi 
OkfMa^ir.m). 

TwwmHtXI.  jBnm.ar-HtftiiMunTgi)  aUnfanl  in 
l«76,r  


poma  ot  tile  17th  oantnry. 
ruieioai  reformar,  and  his 
&«e&om  tha  stain  of  n^ 


■allied 

,       _    . Bnthiihia- 

torical  oelebritr  it  nudnly  owing  to  his  contest  with 
Lonia  XIV.,  which  illasbsteB  aa  well  the  penonal 
character  ot  the  pontiff,  as  the  peculiar  spirit  of  tha 
sga.  The  dispute  began  from  on  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  pope  to  p^  an  end  to  the  abase  of  the 
tii^s  keepong  smb  vacant,  in  viitne  of  wfast  was 
called  the  DniU  dt  Bagak,  and  aniio[nating  thor 
levenneK  ^le  waiatano*  to  this  ^tmnpt  drew  forth 
the  oelifttated  deolatationa  of  the  Vrmiih  clergy  as 
to  the  OalUoan  Ubartiaa.  Sea  Gauioait  Chukoh. 
But  tiie  aotnal  oMifliot  nguded  the  immnnitiea 
enjoyed  bv  the  foreign  ambaasadois  residing  in 
Bana^  and  eapedalhf  the  ridit  of  aa^nnt,  which 
they  flhumed  not  only  for  thrir  own  reaidenaeB,  bnt 
also  for  a  eartain  adjoining  distriot  of  the  city. 
Thcae  diatriofa  had  gradnally  beocana  ao  many 
tooi  of  oiime,  and  of  frauds  npon  the  revenne  j  and 
the  pope,  reaohring  to  put  an  end  to  ao  flagrant  i 


1,  he  wonld 


■ny  l«* 


not  tiMsaaftar  leocdve  ' 
ambaaaador  who  sboiUd  not  i 
oUimn  for  himaelf  and  his  soooeMon.    nie  great 
iwem  mnnnined  at  tins  thnat,  bat  it  waa  with 
that  the  ariaia  ooooned,  on  the  death  of  the 


e^oe 


I  other  hand, 
Tnatntain  tiie 
a  lam  body  of  mHitsiT 
naval  tdHcen  to  support  ma  pratenriona.  L 
panuted  in  refming  to  grant  an  andienoe  to  tbe 
SBb«M»d(».  Lonia,  in  repriaal,  aaiaed  on  the  papal 
territory  lA  Avignon,  and  threatened  to  send  a  fleet 
to  tha  coast  of  Oie  Papal  States,  but  L  was  Immov- 
able ;  and  in  the  end,  the  ambaraador  was  compelled 
to  retnm  with  his  aredentisla  nnopeaed,  nor  waa 
tiie  diapnte  adjusted  till  the  following  p<nitificat& 
L  died  m  1689. 

INNOOBNTS,  Holt.  Ynun  or,  one  of  the 
Ohristmai  feativaU,  held  In  the  Western  Chnrch 
on  Deoemba  28,  and  In  the  Bastem  on  the  29th, 
nnder  a  title  nmilar  to  that  of  the  Latin  festival. 
It  ii  intended  to  commemorate  the  massacre  of 
the  children  '  from  two  yeaa  old  and  upward' 
at  Bethlehem,  See  EsEtOD.  lliGee  children  are 
referred  to  aa  martyrs  by  St  Cyprian,  and  atill 
mora  explicitly  by  St  Anguatdna ;  and  it  Is  to  them 
that  the    exquisite  hymn   of  FlodantlDB,  SaivtU 


Weat  in  edetatting  Uie  festival 

.     ._  ita  anliqmty.      In  the  modem 

church,  thia  feast  is  celebrated  aa  a  special  holiday 
by  the  yoniu,  and  many  cnriona  costoms  con- 
nected with  n  ptevail  in  Catholic  countries.  One 
of  these  ia,  that  in  private  families  the  children 
are  on  thia  day  privileged  to  wear  the  clothes  of 
the  elders,  and  in  some  sort  to  exercise  authority 
over  the  household  in  tiidr  itead.  So  also,  in  com- 
munities ot  nuns,  the  youngest  aister  becomes  for 
this  day  anperioresa  of  the  houae,  and  exeiciaeB 
a  sort  ot  sportive  authority  even  over  the  real 
snperiois* 

'- ...lAfno 


le 


DWOMIKATE  ARTEET— DJOCULATIOK. 


imrO'UINATE  ARTEBT  lArttria  inmotninala) 
ia  the  flnt  lugs  Inanoli  given  off  from  the  txch  of 
Qu  lorU.  It  nriaa  bom,  ao  inch  *nd  »  hklf  to  two 
inches  in  leiuth,  twd  diTidM  into  the  tight  cuotid 
mnd  Uia  ti^  enbokTiui  artcrie*.  See  CnouLi.- 
TioH,  Osoura  OF.  Thie  kitetv,  through  which  ill 
the  blood  to  the  right  tide  of  the  heM  and  neck, 
■sd  to  the  right  um,  floin,  baa  beeo  tied  b^  leTeral 
mrgeonB  Cor  uieuriim  of  Uie  right  aiibcUvtan,  bat 
the  operation  hai  never  been  tuoceufuL  An 
import^t  fact  has,  however,  been  setabliahed,  viz., 
that  the  citculation  of  the  blood  in  the  oarts 
■upplied  bf  thin  l&rae  rewel,  is  M-eatahliahea  by 
ADUtomous  (q-v.)  aRer  the  opemtion. 

INNOMINATE  BONE.    SeePiLvis. 

INMOVA'TION,  or  NOVATION,  a  name  aome- 
timea  given  in  the  law  of  Scotland  to  the  exohoDge 
or  BQWtitiitioii  of  one  obligation  for  anolher.  It  u 
in  effect  taking  a  freah  aecniity. 

INNS  OF  OOUBT,  the  name  given  in  England 
.to  certain  volontary  aocietiea  whioh  have  the  eiclu- 
aive  light  of  callintf  penona  to  the  English  bar. 
There  are  tonr  aodi  aocietiea  in  London,  viz.,  the 
Inner  Temple,  the  Middle  Temple,  iJnooln^B  Inn,  and 
Gray'i  Inn.  Each  of  -Uioae  inna  poaaeaaes  certain 
■mailer  inna,  which  are  mere  colleotiona  of  houaes 
(^  chambeiB,  aa  CliSbrd's  Inji,  New  Inn,  Fumival'a 
Inn,  kc  The  four  inna  are  each  govamed  by  a 
committee  or  board,  called  the  benchers,  who  an 
generallv  Qaeen'a  counael  or  aenior  coimael,  aelf- 
dioaeo,  1.  e.,  each  new  bencher  ia  choaen  I^  the 
eriating  b^cheia.  £ach  inn  baa  also  a  local 
habitabcn,  oonaiatin^  of  a  laive  tract  of  houaea  or 
ohamben,  which  are  m  gencnlooenped  ezolmiively 
by  buriiten,  and  aomstimea  hj  kttomm,  and  are 
»  aonroa  of  great  wealth.  Each  mn  ia  aelt^oveming, 
and  qnit«  diatinct  fKon  tite  other*,  all,  howerei, 
poasMBng  equal  jaivil^M ;  but  latteily,  they  have 
]<nned  in  impoaing  certain  edaoatiooal  taata  for  the 
admiauon  of^itndenta.  It  ia  entirely  in  the  discre- 
tiim  of  an  inn  of  eonrt  to  admit  uij  partionh^ 
penOD  aa  a  member,  for  no  member  of  uie  pnblio 
naa  an  abaotnte  ruht  to  be  called  to  the  bar,  t' 
being  no  mode  of  compeUing  the  inn  to  statt 
reaaoni  for  refusal  But,  praotically,  no  objectit 
ever  made  to  tha  admiiiaioii  of  any  peraon  of  good 
charaoter.  Each  inn  haa  alao  the  power  of  diabairiag 


mounmait  ootiaiata  of  a  marble  Barcophagas  mnftt- 
ing  the  emmror'a  efBgy  in  bronne,  ia  a  kueli:; 
pMtme;  while  od  boUt  aides  id  the  tide  n 
rowa  of  monmnental  bronse  fignna^  tt  ii  aondio, 
t*prettm,iaBg  a  variety  of  diatuuniahcd  naraim 
male  and  fumalf  In  Hum  ditirch,  on  3a  NorenW  i 
leCl,  Chriatina  (q.  v.)  of  Sweden  «■>  witm^ 
received  into  the  Boman  CaUiolie  CfanrdL  Ta 
other  chief  building  are  the  Feriinaadtm,  i  ! 
mnaeum  containing  a  collection  of  the  predactiiai  I 
of  the  Tyrol  in  art,  hteratnre,  and  natnn]  ImtaT:  I 
and  the  nniversity  (founded  in  1672,  and,  tha  \ 
aevenl  viciaaitudea,  oreanised  anew  in  183S).  tH  i 
facnltiea  of  laV  and  phHoaophy,  and  which,  a  J$£  | 
had  460  atodenta  and  43  profeaaon.  L  csnis  r.  : 
important  manofaotnrea  of  w^rallen  clatk,  sik  . 
(doT«a,  ribbona,  and  carved  work,  aa  vdl  u  i 
floiniahiag  traoait  tnd&  It  ia  oonneetaii  ml 
Monieh  ^  railway,  and  a  rMlroad  ia  aho  in  jp- 
3Ba  aeroea  the  foenner  Paaa,  to  imitB  I  ni 
itzen  and  Verona.  Pop.  (1869)  16,810. 
IHNUETtDO,  a  port  of  a  pleadmg  in 


been  rarely  exerdaed,  but  of  late  yeara  there  hav 
been  eiamplea  of  penona  abnaing  their  profeaaion, 
and  indulgmg  in  diahoneet  practinea ;  in  such  casea, 
ihe  inn  has  ite  own  mode  of  inquiring  into  the  facta 
aEFeoting  the  character  of  a  member,  and  is  not 
bonnd  to  make  the  investigation  public  By  this  high 
controlling  power  over  ita  mera  wra,  a  bigber  charac- 
ter is  supposed  to  be  given  to  the  bar  aa  a  body, 
than  if  each  individual  waa  left  to  hia  own  devices, 
unchecked,  except  by  the  law.    See  Bibbjstxb. 

I'NNSB&nCK,  capital  of  tha  Tyrol,  ia  ch&na- 
ingly  ntuated  on  the  Inn,  at  ita  junction  with  the 
Sill,  at  the  height  of  1900  feet  above  aea-level,  in 
the  midat  of  a  valley,  aurrounded  by  mountains 
ranging  from  SOOO  to  9200  feet  high.  It  Ilea  on 
the  ri^t  baok  of  the  Inn,  and  is  connected  with 
the  aubuib  of  St  Nicolaus,  on  the  left  bank,  by 
wooden  bridge,  from  which  the  name  of  the  tow 
(/im'i  BrOdx,  Ger.  tha  Inn's  Bridge)  is  derived. 
The  Inn  is  also  crossed  by  a  chain  bridse  a  littl< 
below  the  town.  The  Franciscan  church,  oi 
Hofkirche,  architecturally  uninterestinK  is  remark- 
able for  its  elaborate  monument  tothe  Emperoc 
Maximilian  L,  which,  thoagh  constructed  at  the 
request  of  Maximilian,  and  intended  for  his 
buiial-nlace,  does  not  contain  his  remaiua.     "" 


meant  by  the  li 

INOCAHFTTS  (/.  edulit).  the  JfiQW  a  SOsd 
theSonthSea  Islands,  ia  a  tree  impoitaitt  to  tt^ 
inhabitanta  for  its  frmt,  a  nnt  oovmed  with  a  <u  - 
fibrooa  husk,  iriuch  aupidiea  a  oonaideiaUe  jan  if 
their  food,  and  is  sometimea  oaUad  the  Soctli  &> 
Island  oheaaut.      1 

state,  and  roasted.     .  — , 

of  stately  eiowth  and  fine  foliage ;  the  Uavea  oblo^ 
six  or  eight  inches  long,  evergreen,  bnt  of  deiatt 
'Bxture.  It  is  one  of  £oae  which,  aa  theytdnc^ 
1  age,  instead  <d  increasing  unifmmly  in  ^^■^^'^ 
hrow  out  bnttTMaea  to  supptn^  the  trunk.  S^ 
projections  £nt  appear,  extending  in  nearly  rtn^ 
linea  from  the  root  to  the  branches,  which  Sm 
become  like  ao  many  planka  covered  with  li>i>- 
The  central  stem  continues  tor  many  years  V^ 
only  six  or  seven  inohea  in  diameter,  vhiltt  tb 
buttress^  two  or  three  inches  thick,  extend  bwi 
it  at  the  bottom  two,  three,  or  fonr  feet  Pj* 
natural  planks  are  used  for  paddles  irf  cuum  u^  . 
other  pntposas. 

INOOULA'TION.    H  the  matter  of  s  raiii^ 
(or  smaU-poi)  pnstnle,  taken  after  tha  Msunoo- 
ment  of  tne  eiuith  day,  be  inserted  in  n 
theri"      *  ■     ■  -■— '- 


the  ei^ia  day,  be  inserted  in  cc  wvw 
li  apmwawhohaanotpreviooiJyn*"^ 
all-pox,   the    following    phenoMU  »; 


fnnn  imall-pax,  tike  feUowing 
induced:  L  Local  inflammation 
the  end  cd  six  days  there  is  fever  siioilar 


set  Sf; 


Oaid 


smaU-pcx;  and  3.  After  the  lapae  of  thnen"" 
days,  there  ia  a  mote  or  lesa  abundant  ""r^i 
puatulea.  This  process  ia  tennod  uw*'^*"''.  S 
tbe  disease  thus  produced  is  denominated  iaDcuu'^ 
small-pox.  The  disease  psodnoed  in  this  i«iW* 
manner  ia  much  simpler  and  lesa  dsngenw  ^ 
ordinary  emall-pox ;  and  as  it  waa  an  alnuHt  i"^  i 
means  of  preventing  a  snhaeqnent  •*'*^''_^^  ! 
ordinary  diaeaae,  inoculation  waa  much  pn™*°  i 
till  the  diKJOveiy  (about  17W)  of  the  sntinwl*  , 

The  inq>ortanee  of  inoculation  was  rscdgix^  °  i 
the  East  at  a  veiy  culy  period.  Aeoarding  ^ 
CdUnaon  {SmaO-paa  md  raednaikM  Bi*t**i^  , 
and  Medicaid  Canadtrtd,  p.  14),  the  Oui""'^ 
ravctiaed  this  prooea  bom  the  6th  i^, ,»»  T 
Brahmans    from    a    very   remote   aatiini^' 

•  This  was  tha  vesr  in  lAldi  Jenner  iiw^ij 
first  oase  (the  borTUpps)  with  matter  Um  B«  »■ 
hand  of  agiHwho  had  been  direotl/inlKt^y^ 
cow.  He  waa  awate  of  tba  proteotin  <d(HiV«^ 
poi  ■■  Barlr  as  1770,  and  mentianed  lh«  aO"""" 
m  that  year  to  his  mastw,  John  Hontst; 


"hyGoof^he 


iNOPFioioua  TEOTAMENT— raQmamoN. 


it  i*  arm  ssid  to  luve  been  emploTed  in  Scot- 
Uod  md  Wales.  It  was  not,  however,  iall  I^v 
Uuy  W(»Uev  Montagu  Trrote  her  celebrated 
letter  from  Adrianopla  m  I71T,  that  the  operatdoit 
became  geneiall;  kttoim  in  thi*  oonntry.  In  that 
ktter  ihe  writea :  '  He  anall-poz,  lo  fatal  and 
u  geDcral  amwigrt  na,  ia  here  entirely  harmleia, 
In  the  inTentaon  of  tngrtffling,  which  ia  the  tarm 
tbej  ^ire  it  Bnry  Tear,  tboaaand*  undergo  the 
openbon.  There  ia  no  example  of  any  one  wno  haa 
died  of  il^  ml  yoD  may  believe  Qiat  I  amwelltatiB- 
fied  of  the  aafety  of  this  experiment,  unoe  I  intend 
to  try  it  on  my  dear  little  ion.'  Fonr  years  after- 
wuxU,  the  had  her  dan^iter  pnblioly  inoculated  in 
Uiis  ooontry;  the  ezpenment  waa  then  perfonned 
noraafally  on  atz  condemned  oiiminala  at  New- 
gite,  and  on  the  atrengtfa  of  tiuH  mcceacfnl  caaea, 
'tlie  critical  oonrae  was  taken  of  inocnlating  two 
children  of  Caroline,  Princeea  of  Wole^  which  gave 
*  sanction  to  the  icraotice.'— ColHnaon,  op.  dt.  p.  IS. 
InccnlatJoa  wu  not,  however,  thorooghly  ett«I>- 
liahed  for  more  than  u  quarter  of  a  cent^  after  it> 
it  with  virulent  oppoaittoa  both 


the  Rev. 

'  Job's  distemper  waa  ocoflnent  amall-poi, 
be  hod  been  inoculated  by  the  devil?  The  great 
drawback  to  inocnlation  tamed  ont,  however,  to  be 
tbii :  while  it  was  invaluable  to  him  who  under- 
iFoit  the  operation,  and  completely  gnarded  him 
frem  the  natural  diaeaaa  in  ita  aevere  form,  ita  effect 
RjMn  the  ciniuniuilty  at  large  waa  extremely  pemi- 
eiong,  in  keeping  alive  the  natural  diaeaae,  and 
iucreaaiiiK  tti  spread  amonsiit  those  who  vere  not 
ftatKteihy  inoculation.  While  one  in  five  or  six  of 
those  who  took  the  natural  diiean  died,  the  average 
number  of  deatha  at  the  Inoculatioa  Hoapital  waa 
odIv  3  in  1000 ;  and  yet,  according  to  the  anthority 
of  Heberden,  in  eray  thonaand  deatlia  within  the 
bills  of  mortality  in  the  fiirt  30  yean  of  thelSthe. 
IbefoPB  inoonlation  waa  at  all  general),  onlf  74  were 
doe  to  Bnall-pox.  The  deatha  from  thia  ^innaiin 
■mamted  to  9S  in  1000  dnrina  tha  lait  30  yeaia  of 
the  scntDi;;  00  that,  notwithatanding  the  preaer- 
vativG  effeot*  of  inocolation  na  ahnoat  all  who  were 
cpented  m,  the  total  nnmber  of  deatiu  from  thia  dia- 
eise  inei««Lied  Id  100  yean  in  the  ratio  of  abont  fi  to  4 
Hooie  {Theffutorg  o/iSnuia^por,  181S)  itatea  that, 
at  the  bi^jnniiig  of  the  13th  c,  about  one.f  onrteenth 
■Jthepopolatioadiedof  amoU-pox;  whareaa,  at  the 
latter  eikd  of  Uie  aame  oentnry,  the  nnmber  (not. 
wilhitaodin^  or  perfakpa  ndhw  in  oonaequcoce  of 
iDocnlation)  had  inereoaed  to  one-toith ;  and  thia 

total  evil,  for  many  nrvivort  were  hh  with  the 
{lartisl  or  entire  loaa  of  D^  and  with  deaboyed  con- 
stitutioDs.  From  theas  remoAi,  it  will  be  aeen  that 


the  benefiti  which  were  ezmoted 

were  far  from  being  realiaed,  and  inull-pos  would 

doubtleas  h&Te  gono  on  inoreasing  in  ito  oeatruatJTe 


INOFPI'OIOUS  TESTAMENT,  a  will  mode 
whETsby  near  relatives  have  not  been  provided  for 
by  the  testator. 

IHOWRA'CIjA.W  (called  olao  Juho  Bshuu, 
'  Young  Bitalaa'),  a  muU  town  of  Prassria,  ii^  the 
poTanment  of  Foaen,  ia  aitnated  on  am  emioence, 
m  a  fraitfal  plain,  26  miles  Boath-aoath-e«t  oE 
Branberg.  It  ia  an  ill-bnilt  town;  oontaina  tnany 
telit^ona  edifioea ;  cornea  on  a  oonndenbla  bode, 
*y^'"y  ia  bmnng,  distilling,  and  the  nuuiafoeture 
olaalt^etre;  and  boa  a  population  of  (1871)  7420. 


IK  PA'BTIBns  INSTDB'LinH  (Lot.,  <  in  the 
r^iona  of  tiia  unbelievart ').  Titular  biihopa  in  the 
Church  of  Bwne  have  been  atyled  bishops  in  porti&iw 
itfAUten  ainoe  the  13Ch  century.  They  are  actual 
buhop^  who  have  no  diooesc^  and  take  their  tdtlea 
from  plocee  'iriieie  there  i>  now  no  bishop's  see,  but 
where  there  once  was.  This  praotioe  origiiiAted 
after  the  Greek  schism,  and  became  geoenlin  the 
time  of  (Lhe  Crusades.  The  places  oonquerad  by  the 
cmsaders  in  the  East  were  furnished  with  Bonian 
Catholic  bishops;  but  when  these  conqneata  wa« 
again  kst,  tlie_  popes  Mntinued  to  (^ipoint  md 
oonaecrate  the  biutopL  as  a  continual  pn^at  ominat 
the  power  whloh  had  prevailed  over  their  otWed 
ri^t,  and  to  aignify  their  hope  of  reatitutioiL  The 
aame  policy  h>*  bean  puraned  with  i^ord  to  Fro- 
teatont  oountriea.  But  in  Britain,  the  assumptioa 
of  territorial  titles  being  illt^al  and  danserons,  the 
Boman  Catholic  bishopa  actually  rendent  have 
usually  home  titles  derived  from  distsnt  places. 
Thus,  the  present  bishop  in  Edinbuiirii  ia  styled 
biahop  of  Abila.  The  Boman  Cotholio  biahopa  in 
Eki^and  were  dmilarly  designated  fron  places 
abroad  until  18S0,  when  tiieir  owtunption  of  title* 
'  am  their  actual  aees  gave  prodigiiMUl  offenoe  to  the 

iurch  t)t  Eni^nd,  and  led  to  the  psasing  of  the 

xleiiailitat  Titles  BSl,  which,  however,  haa  been 

mnittad  to  remain  a  dsad  ktter. 

I'TTQtnCST.    See  Cobonkk. 


£ndii^  of  a  jury  oa  matters  inquired  into. 

INQOiaiTION,  Thi,  called  also  the  HOLY 
OFFICE,  a  tribunal  in  the  Boman  Oathdto  Charoh 
for  the  discovery,  represaion,  and  punidimeiit  of 
heresy,  unbelief,  and  other  offence*  against  religion. 
From  the  very  first  etrtabhshment  of  Christiaiiity 
the  relifpoB  ot  ths  Banan  Entire,  laws,  more 
kss  severe,  existed  oa  in  moat  ol  the  ancient 
-      ■■  -         ■  •       it  of 


nieododuB  and  Jostinian  a 

'  inquititots,'  whose  special  a 

and  to  {Hoseente  before  die  dnl  taibnnols  te 

^  thin  f^lnai.  Hie  eodeskostical  oog&innoe  of  heresy, 
d  its  punishment  bj;  spuitnol  cetwnrcs,  bdraiged 
lhe  buhin>  or  the  epscopal  ^nod;  but  no  spend 
ichinery  for  the  porpose  was  dnissd  nnbl  the 


spread,  in  the  llth 


iMdia 


I2th  oenturiea,  ot  ewtain 


N — excited  the  alarm  of  the  civil  a 
of  tha  ecclesiastical  ontkoities.  In  the  then  oon- 
ditioB  of  file  pnblio  mind,  however  differently  it 
is  now  oonftituted,  heresy  was  regoided  as  a  crime 
against  tiie  states  no  less  than  against  the  church. 
An  extraordinary  eomnu'wion  waa  sent  l:^  Fope 
Innocent  lU.  into  the  south  of  France,  to  aid  the 
local  authorities  in  checking  the  spread  of  the 
Albuenaian  here^.  The  fourth  I^teran  Conncil 
(1215)  earnestly  impressed,  both  on  biahopa  and 
magistratea,  the  necessity  of  inoreaaed  vigilance 
u;ainst  heren;  and  a  Council  held  at  ToolouBe 
directed  that  in  each  parish  the  priest,  and  two  or 
three  lajrmen  of  good  repute,  ahould  be  appointed  to 
■"«'"'•"'>  and  retort  to  the  biahop  all  swiii  offences 
discovered  withm  the  district. 

So  far,  hewev^,  there  waa  no  permasait  coort 
distinct  frcan  thoae  of  the  bishops ;  but  under 
Innocent  IV.,  in  1248,  a  special  tribunal  for 
the  purpose  waa  instituted,  the  obief  direction  of 
wliidi  was  vested  in  the  then  recently  established 
Dominican  Order.  The  inquisition  thus  constituted 
became  a  general,  instead  of,  as  previously,  a  local 
tribunal ;  and  it  was  introduced  m 


-UeeJ^le 


.MtM  nguilM  M  k  abidUj  papal 
ndi^if ,  ant  Om  VnaA  mod  Cm^ 
W  feUowing  Mntiiry  tiu  popw 
1^,  reMiT&ig  tQipMk  agamtl 
ribonalj  (Flmnr,,  t.  SSfl),  and 


intarrab  by 

XI,  BtnifaM  IX, 
RflfiHTiiatiiTflj  whan  it  fell  into  iljanff,  Tp  Ti^glftiH, 
it  WBB  iMvar  rtoci^d,  all  the  proceedina  tgtia^ 
henty  tttHmg  ttmeni  to  the  oKUnair  mbnnal^ 
la  PolanOioa^  ert»T)l»bad  in  I3IT,  it  bad  bat 
a  Imf  esitteiuM.  "Dm  liMbxj  at  the  Hsim  d  Ot 
introdnctfon  and  of  ito  dlntntmuMMe  in  the  Tariowi 
■tatw  ct  Itafy,  would  oaR7  ni  b^rond  the  limita 


It  ia  tho  hiatMj'  cd  the  in^daitiMi  aa  ft  aziitad  in 
Spain,  pMtDgal,  and  their  d^>andeMieB,  that  baa 
abaorbed  almoat  entiralj  the  nal  interarii  of  thii 
painful  mbject.  Aj  an  ordinai;  taribmial  nmilar 
to  tlioee  of  other  conntriM,  it  bad  exifted  in  Spun 
from  an  early  period.  Its  fanctvwi,  howerer,  in 
these  time*  vere  litUe  mon  than  nominal :  bat 
early  in  the  nign  of  Ferdinand  and  iMbeUa,  i 
1  rf  fte  i'  ■ 


e  alMOM  onated  1^  tho  ■U«j[ed 

^  unong  Ou  Jam  and.  Um  Jswuh 

_     i  bev  required  etthtr  to  ami' 

nate  <v  to  oiHif<am  to  ChriatiaDilT— to  OTerthror 

1^     .    ^ 


eot,  an  application  WM  BUtde  to  tha 
pope,  Sixtni  iV.,  \o  penoit  iti  iiiiiiiiiiiialiiiii 
(U78) ;  bnt  in  reviviiig  Uie  tribuud,  ue  orawn 
•Mnmed  to  itMlf  the  right  of  ifponting  the 
inqniaitwi,  and,  in  truth,  of  eontroDuu;  the  entire 
iMtaon  «f  tlie  MbonaL  Vma  thia  dvEe  forwards, 
Oatludio  wittete  regard  the  Spaniah  inqointion 
aa  a  alata  tribonal,  a  ohataetor  whioh  ia  raooguiBad 
t^  Baoke,  Qniio^  Lao^  and  even  the  great  anti- 
piqial  BvtiiiRity,  Uoranto;  and  in  diaaodating  tlie 
(bund)  genenuly,  and  the  Boinaa  aea  iteelf,  from 
that  mat  tribnikal,  Catbolioi  refer  to  the  bttUa 
of  the  pop^  Sixiua  IT^  protesting  against  it. 
Notwititatuding  thl«  protect,  bowevor,  the  Spuiiah 
erown  maintained  in  aasomption.  Inqoiaiton 
were  appointed,  and  in  14S3,  the  taibanal  ocnn- 
menoedT  ita  torible  career,  under  Thomaa  do 
Torqnemada.  The  popea,  feeling  their  proteat 
iiiiiiinMaifilt,  were  oompdlad,  from  oonaiderationa 
_.  — > .^  tolerate  iriiat  tiujwere  powerleee 


to  oontrol  the  bnatioal  aetiTity  of  the  looal  Jndoaa. 
Hie  ntmibor  of  viotimL  aa  atated  bjr  Uorente,  the 
popular  Uatorian  of  the  inqniaitian,  la  potitiTeljr 
appalling.  He  slBnoB  that  dnring  the  aixteen  yean 
M  Torqnemada'a  tennre  of  offloe,  nearir  SOOO  were 
oondamned  to  t^  flamei.  The  aeoond  head  of  the 
inqnltition,  Diuo  Deaa,  in  eight  Taan,  aocording  to 
the  Mme  writer,  pntaboTelWO  to  «>'  "  ' 
and  ao  fOr  tlie  other  luumiwini  inq 
Bnt  OaUioUoi  londly  pioteat  apinil 
of  theae  fearfol  allegatioiw.  It  ia  iv 
aae  that  Lloreute  ww  a  violent  par 


inucHiB    iBiwioMBr*      ^taamfftt    viHrevi^    ^   om 

made  it  ia^MaiblB  to  di^rora  hia  aecMJty  lif 
■raaaling  to  the  aoffaal  nmn,  wbaeli  ka  hwHC 
Sib^Tat  UrSa(£omlie»-M  BMtia  ia  . 
bia£{A<i/-Cbn»uitXMHN»-^Taptodwrf&«a  I 
hia  own  woA  mai^  iTaiwpi—  ^^  ocufaadietarr  aad  ' 
asagnnted  ■trtanMa^TFMoott, in Ua  JMoaJ 
MuT/aaMid  (iiL  467-^70),  haa  p«nitod  oA  1M7 
-'-■--'-^ ^     .     lion  ,u)i  hernial  {Ftr^ 


umt  reiiet  dtr  BU.  AavpM,  L  MO)  to  inpMth 


t»tioDagi«aMynnMwiUd.'a 

im^bdda' |iii.  ^.    Btill,withaQt^d 


in  the  New  Wcrid,  invalm  u  aMumt  «<  amitj 
whioh  it  ia  inmMnbla  to  iMwl<Bii|Jale  ■iftwt 
honor.  WhM  ft  waa  attempted  to  inkodaa  it  ' 
into  NHlaa,  Pope  Fanl  QL.  in  1646,  aKbortad  fte 
Nei^oliius  to  rviat  iti  intiodnetMn.  'beaaaai  it 
waa  exeaatin^  lennt  and  rafoMd  te  nadOBie 
ita  tigoor  by  the  example  of  the  Bonaa  tribsail' 
(Uotsitt,  i£  147).  Pin  IT.,  in  1S63.  addnwd  1 
nmilar  ozbwtation  on  the  aama  gimmd  ta  lie 
MilaoMe  iSM.  u  337)  |  and  snm  tha  moot  Ugoted 
Oatholioa  qnenimoiiily  umfiiM  mH  iwodiate  iitt 
barbaritiea  whidi  diahoooBrad  rebgioa^aBosuiig 
ita  aembUnoe  and  iti  name. 


brief  notioa.  The  par^,  if  aoveeted  ef  hm*f, 
or  denoonoed  aa  B<ult7(  wm  liaUa  to  be  awMted 
and  detuned  in  pnaon,  coly  to  be  bcong^  to  bid 
when  it  migjit  aem  fit  to  hia  JndgM.  1^  jio- 
oeedingi  ware  oondnoted  eeael^.  He  «ai  aet 
oonfroutad  witb  hb  soooe«%  nor  wwe  ti^r  iwiii 


himaeU  waa  liable  to  be  pat  to  1^  tortBie^  in  oder 
to  extort  a  oaaf«aio«  of  hia  guilt  Hie  nmidi- 
nenta  to  lrilial^  if  ioand  gnOty,  be  was  liabis,  «s« 
death  by  fit^  as  «xonvlIfied  in  the  taiiUe  Auto  di 
Ft  (q.  T.),  (W  on  the  aoaffidd,  imptiaonmat  in  tbi 
gaU^  lor  life  or  tor  a  lindtad  paiod,  farfntm*  (<  j 
pr<^«r^,  tMl  infanqr,  end  in  minor  oaeea,  ntno-  | 
iation  and  pnblio  peDUkoe.  13iia  f  am  of  pooadKt  . 
ii  atrangety  a*  nnaiiee  wtth  modon  idaaaiholil  I 


the  ordinaiy  [oooadnna  in  all  the  oomta  of  tte  igb  I 

wheth«r  oiril  or  oooUaiaatieal.  | 

llw  rigour  tt  ih»  S 


parte,  the 
BertoratHn 


sat    Fnm  1808,  nndor  King  Joaiph  Boea- 
the    inquisition  waa    ■iiiiiiiiiiHl   nalil  tba 


mpprowBd  oa  tiie  «wH>- 

a  &i  ISaO;  brt  it  « 

partially  nstond  in  IBSSj  nor  waa  It  tiD  UN 
and  ins  tikat  it  waa  fln^  aboliahed  ia  ^ 
its  proporiT  being  a^Had  to  the  liqnidBtigB  m  tk 
nataimaldwt. 
'  Hie  inqaivtloB  was  estahliabed  in  Pwtipl  ■ 
1SS7,  and  its  jnriadictian  waa  —*— ^-^  to  tin 
Portogiuse  ooloniea  In  Indi&  nie  rigoor  d  ib 
proceeMa,  howerer,  waa  mnch  mitig^yil  in  te 
ISth  o.,  and  under  Jdba  TL  it  fell  ^ogetiisr  into 


nraAMlTV— IM80IUFTI011S. 


inrtuMt,  acd,  anonwUng  to  Balmei  (On  OMU- 
JObiM,  p.  IH),  tbat  tnbuul  '  haa  imar  bun 
known  to  imlar  the  taaentun  ol  a  ouiitBl  wea- 
tanca'  £<■  the  crime  tA  henn.  Tha  tribunal  atilJ 
eiiiti  ohIk  the  finetiaa  ol  a  oangngation,  bnt 
itiMtinii  eradnad  to  ft*  armiiMMoB  of  booka 
wd  the  trill  ol  aaelatiaati«al  t^ncw,  and  qncationa 
oF  glutnh  lav,  aa  in  the  leaent  om  «I  the  bof 
Hditata;  and  its  noit  nouAaUe  ^JaoMr  is 
noMt  tnoM  vaa  an  Omntd  iiBMBtar,  wito,  bf 
fluaiu  ol  foraed  oredantialfl,  WMWmitA  iA  obtaining 
hit  oidination  •■  a  bith^— 8aa  XJonntA  Jttoria 

^o&da;  H^a   Z)<r  OmttMl 


INRITTITT  maaiia  all  vabealthineM  irf  mind, 
lliii  oonnati^  aoemdiug  to  one  onnion,  in  aoob 
diiorganintim  or  dmneiation  at  tha  ntrrona 
ilnu^Dia  aa  to  randar  ua  eiaraiBe  of  rsaaon  impoe- 
sble ;  Mcoiding  to  anoUm,  it  condrti  in  dlaordar 
of  ttia  naaon  itaalf;  and  Moording  to  a  thitd,  in 
pomrion  or  deatrnotiaii  ol  tba  WMlgOrtite  moral 
part  of  oioi  nature  The  pnraiHBg  view  el  fikjti- 
rAeffgtt  JM,  that  innni^  ia  a  ^mpttm  or  expnanon, 
nmrit^tad  thnnuh  ue  fnnetiona  of  tha  nervona 
*ptaa,  «f  jdnaiou  ditaaaat  33ia  le^  tmn,  huaej, 
rntwuta  oilr  thoaa  deviaUoni  from  that  abudard 
ofiiicgtal  woudnMi  irtiidi  !■  vniraiBallv  TeoogniMd, 
lithoif^  diAoDlt  of  doBnitian,  in  ^riiicih  the  penon, 
tha  ptoMtty,  or  tba  drS  ri^ti  nu^  be  iatwfemd 
tiUl  nieaediariatioMKat  Irieflr.wben  thainoa- 
Vatj,  at  Ttidenoa,  or  iiregobrilKa  of  tba  individnal 
■n  noh  a*  to  thrMtMt  duigw  to  UmaaU  or  atben, 
■ndtonnfitbim  fcvbiacadinatTbiialnaaa  anddntiee. 
impnluntHn 


ooummmty  of  iriuoh  be  »  a  membar.    _...._  

•tated  broadbr,  that  if  a  man  b«  deptired  of  tba 
«DJi7mant  of  bia  rdjgiona  ri^ta  1^  tttolnaion  fr«m 
numbenh^  of  tba  t^nidt  to  iAii£  be  belong;  of 
bit  dtil  n^ts  in  giving  evidanoe  in  a  oomt  of 
jiutin  or  on  osUt ;  and  M  bia  pataonal  ridita  in  Qt» 
auuanmant  of  Ua  Mtii)eiiy  and  afiiia,  na  m^  bo 
remodel  aa  insane ;  ont  mora  oomct  tIbwi  of^tbe 
hnman  nind  hare  led  to  tiie  belief  that  manj 
degrsM  of  teebleneaB  of  tiie  facnltiM,  many  fonni 
of  eccentridtj  and  extranigsnce,  and  numj  defaote 
in  tha  will  and  monl  •entntiaita,  wbicb  were  for- 
nier^  ngaidad  aa  oiime  and  wichedneM,  but  lAicb 


do  not  uToIva  iodi  dc^riration,  io».j  be  chwul 

mdcr  Am  aama  dedntatfon.     Yay  recent^,  the 

II  of  inaaS^  baa  been  greatly  widened, 


Yay  recent^ 
been  greatly  wit 
w  indtidae  Yariotu  deneea  of  moral  per- 
TBtion,  morbid  habiti,  and  siSden  impulata,  ntoh 
u  dipiamania  and  bomicidal  mania,  da  great 
diTLnoni  of  tide  olaaa  of  itiiMiiwm  into  mania, 
mnlani-hnKa,  and  imbecffltr,  remain  popnlady  Tery 
mnch  the  MOM  M  they  were  2000  yeu*  aga  While 
tliii  fact  may  indicate  that  men  a  olanifloation 
hu  a  fonadatlon  in  natnte,  it  baa,  nnfortnnately, 
tended  to  raider  the  treiitment,  or  rather  the 
BultNatmeat,  of  tt»  inaane  aa  aUliouary  aa  the 
view  of  tin  ^aeaaea  under  wbiob  tiioy  labour. 
The  foUowing  arrangemant  m^  aerre  ia  cnJain 
vikat  nuanity  ii,  aa  waQ  aa  what  it  ^peate  to  be. 

AmoHOHB  01  iKi  TjnxuMjrvii.  Powkbs. — 
/ittxy,  the  non-development  of  one  or  mora  fkBol- 
tl«a.  ImbeeSUg,  tba  imperfeot  derdoimient  of  one 
mfaenltiea.    Fatmlg,  or  DemaiSa,  Ou  iBpii- 


of  the  inteUeotnal  p 


n;  aeeompanisd  alao  1^ 


nal  povcn;  aeeo 
1  witB  the  ^ecU  I 
Amonoire  or  ram  SBmuinB.— JrdanaUu^ 
Tii1titii>n  of  gne^  penitaDee,  and  an^e^,  Jfomo' 
*cmla  ufAw,  exaualaon  of  iiaiiHuiipiiaa  Jfoao- 
mania  ^  Pride,  exaltation  of  aaU-eatMOk  JTofw 
murfo  ^  A^MTiiieiim,  HtaUation  of  tlie  lenae  of 
danAion  and  the  nuttraUana  Mmonumia  tf  8n- 
jMam,  nraHatinn  at  ja*leii^,  enTT,  want  of  etafl- 
oenoa.  _  Jfwwaawy  Faww^eialtrtiofteloraTiag 

able  crftTina  (or 

Htmia,  impnlmve  dwire  to  daabw  life,  ffapto- 
onfa,  inacmtrollable  dwire  to  acqnba. 
Tbia  oatalogue  ia  not  intmdad  to  be  BzbaiutiT& 
The  departniea  from  health  will  ODnaapond  not 
merely  with  the  primiliTe  "■"■*«l  powara  and 
'--•'--'-  but  with  ereiy  poaaibla  ocnubinatioa  of 
'  ~"^^  aodi  canphoatioiia  ae  may  raaolt 
— diqweitocaH,  iDBate  peenliaritiG^ 
it~Dt  Ocmbt  On  Ikrwigtmait, 
y,  art '  Tiiaaiillij  ' 
thadiapoaal  and  traatoant  of  tfaeinaane,  lae 
LcKamo  Abtldk 

nrSOEI'PTIOirB,  &  term  applied  to  aO  wiifiiiei 
ennaTed  or  writtcm  on  objecta  or  monnments  not 
of  the  elaai  of  bo<^  prinoipaUy  on  hard  matenala, 
andi  aa  metal*,  ftonee,  and  other  anbatanoea.  nwy 
are  a  elaaa  of  docnmenta  ef  the  higheat  intareat  and 
impottaaee  to  history  and  philology,  and  a  conaidec- 
at&m  of  tham  enbt«o«a  tbe  whde  aoope  of  biitory, 
language,  and  art.  Hw  oldert  (axoepting  thoae  of 
Chma)  am  probably  tii*  Ijgyptian  inaoiiptiona  found 
in  tha  FynmidB  (tee  PTBlMIse],  of  about  SDOO 
B.  a ;  to  ^iriiiah  anooeed  tiioee  of  Aaayiia  and  Baby- 
lonia, readdng  naariy  aa  hia^  aa  antiqnitv  (aee 
OmnDVOBM  OBix^orxaa) ;  wiucli  are  fncoeeded  bv 
tbe  FenlaB  and  hledian,  SOS  b.  o.,  and  along  with 
which  preraOed  the  I^<Biician,  probably  sbaitt 
700  X.  a  {oeePHONIOU);  which  wore  in  their  tura 
mooeeded  by  the  OnA,  between  (SOO  and  600  b.  o., 
or  BTon  einier ;  whIcK  were  Boccseded  by  the 
EtniBcan  and  Homan,  in  40O~300  B.a,  and  coo- 
tinned  thiongb  the  middle  agea  in  Ehiiope  to  tbo 
prewnt  day.  See  Bai.sookapht.  In  ^e  But, 
the  oldeat  inacriptioiia  are  thoae  of  China,  which 

J  ._  n<».D  —     thoae  of  India  not  being  older 

e  age  of  Sandraoottoi ;  while 
^'— iglyphical  inaeripQoiia  o( 
e  deteimij 


the  antiquity  ol  .    .    „ 

Centoal  Amerioa  cannot  be  determined.  Of  many 
aneiNit  '■^*^""j  tiie  hiatory  and  language  are  found 
in  inaonptiona  ontr,  ai  in  the  caaa  of  I^y^  and 
Btniria,  aod  all  omoal  inaoriptioni  have  a  certtun 
anthority,  from  i^keir  oonten^naneona  nature,  and 
ibe  earn  wiUi  wbioh  thaj  were  executed. 

Before  the  invantion  of  jpaper  or  otlur  light 
aubatanoM  for  tba  raoord  of  evenla,  ^blio  aoka, 
doTotioai,  and  otlur  dooomaBla  were  uaoiibed  on 
iro«M^  aa  tike  eariy  tieatiea  and  dedioaiion*  of  the 
OtmIu,  or  eren  lead,  aa  certain  email  rolla  of  im^e- 
oation  and  othan  found  in  Oraeoe;  gold  plataa 
were  inacribed  aod  plaoad  fai  fonndationi  under  the 
templee,a*that<^Oanop«Bdiewi  the  aseniaAiri  of 
coDcnla  Know  the  Oieeki,  and  the  diaohaigea  t£ 
tlie  Roman  a^iery,  wete  inscribed  on  bronss  tablei ; 
while  charm*,  amuleta,  and  other  formube  were 
oocaatoDidly  inacribed  on  metal*.  ^Rie  numoona 
InMriptioni  known,  probably  amountli^  to  half  a 
million,  hare  been  claaaed  under  pnblio  or  olDmal 
acta,  tahlea  <rf  magiatetei^  military  titlea,  liita  of 
magiatratee,  QkOM  relating  to  the  gynmana  or 
samea,  bonoura  rendered  to  omperora  or  meu, 
donatioDS,  rites,  prirate  and  acpclcIiTa],  compiising 
ejdtapha,  some  m  elenac  and  heroic  tcibc,  ana 
numerous  minor  iusuiipUona  on  genu,  «u~    •'ut 


^\e 


INSECTITOBA— INSECTS. 


ether  objeots  of  Hideiit   itrt,  on  iru:  tablets 

pugiliaria,  uid  the  Mrftirlji  diicoyered  va  Qm  valla 
of  pnblio  and  privAta  edifices,  aa  at  Pompeii  and 
ebevhere.  The  rtodf  of  the  letters  and  tHeir  fbnn 
vill  be  SOCT  Tini^>^  Alpeabee  ;  that  of  the  different 

tetpedive  heada.  Xhoae  foDna  upon  coina  will  be 
mentioned  in  NmaBiUTiis.  Tbo  most  Tenuubbls 
iiuoTiptioDi  ire  the  trilinnial  inKription  of  Roaetta, 

the  cylinder  of  Sennacherih ;  the  triltngoal  inaorip- 
tion  of  DarioB  I.  on  the  n>ck  at  B^iiatam;  the 
Gieek  inBcnption  of  the  aoldien  ot  Fummefcichna 
at  IbsamboDi,  and  of  the  bronze  helmet  dedicated 


e  Olymraan  Jupiter; 
of  lae Orpriankii^  . 
nption  oiled  the  Eoffp 


-«..  =  Aamnmaier; 

the  EStraacan  iiHoription  called  the  Eiwibme  Tablea ; 
ttiat  of  Hammiiu,  tlie  cooqaeror  of  Corinlii,  at 
Some,  and  the  will  of  Angoitni  at  Ancyra ;  the 
inacription  of  the  Ethiopian  monarch  Silco ;  the  old 
monnment  of  Yn,  and  the  inacription  of  Se-gan-fii, 
recording  the  arrival  of  Chrutiamty  in  China 
(631  A.  D.) ;  tiie  inacriptioiis  of  Chandt^enpta  and 
Aaoka  in  India.  The  atudy  of  inacirotiona  ia  eo 
difficulty  tliat  it  haa  formed  a  apeciat  braneh  of 
•oholanh^  m^  m  deai[jiemient  for  those  of 
irtiich  the  uugnage  haa  Moi  lost,  or  epign^j  for 
the  dead  langnagea.  Spedal  coUeotiooi  of  the 
inscriptitma  of  di£rent  looaUties,  and  general  onaa, 
IwTe  been  made  of  those  in  the  same  lang^ges 
aa  Assyrian,  Greek,  Etruscan,  Oscan,  and  Latin,  by 
Grater,  Moratori,  BOckh,  Franz,  Orellios,  Momm- 
aoD,  Letronne,  Lebas,  and  others.  Insoriptioos 
have  also  engaged  the  scholarship  and  attention 
of  tliB  most  aooomplished  philologuts  with  varions 
(QOoess,  from  the  end  of  uie  17w  century.  They 
have  been  forged  by  Founnont  and  others. — 
Qntter,  Thetaarua  Inter,  (fo.  1603—1663);  Mnra- 
toii,  Jfomtt  Thacnav*  (4to,  1739) ;  Eellennan,  Spec 
Bpiqraph.  (1841);  Hommsen,  InKript.  JftapoL  (fo. 
1S92);  B6akh  and  Fnuz,  Chrpus  /nser^X.  Orac 


INSEOTI'VOBA  (lat  inseot-eating),  in  Cnnec's 
■ystem  of  zoology,  one  of  the  divisioos  of  the  tnam- 
malian  order  Camaria  (q.  *.).  None  of  the  L  are  of 
large  size ;  most  of  then  are  small  timid  creatures, 
generally  noctninal  in  their  habits,  and  nsefnl  in  the 
economy  of  nature  chieQy  in  preventing  the  undue 
increaae  of  worm  and  insect  tribes.  Although 
many  of  Oiem  are  not  eicluBiveiy  inseotivorouB, 
all  of  Uiem  have  the  sammits  of  uie  midar  teeth 
beaet  with  smaU  conical  tubercles,  as  for  the  par- 
pose  of  breaking  np  the  hard  coverings  of  insect 
prey.  Heir  denUtioa  is  otherwise  very  different  in 
the  different  families.  Their  legs  are  short.  They 
all  place  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground. 
The  snout  is  generally  elongated.  The  familiee  of 
TWpMliB  (Molea,  *c.),  Sorieida  (Shrews,  Ac),  Erina- 
eeada  (HedMhogs,  Aa),  and  Tv.paida  (Banxrings) 
are  referred  to  inaeotiYor*.  The  L,  although  in 
some  respects  very  different  from  the  Gharopleni, 
exhibit  an  affinity  to  them  in  others. 

INSECTS  {JoKda),  one  of  the  classes  of  Ariicu- 
^"^  (Q.-Y.),  or  Articnlated  Animals,  of  the  division 
having  articnlated  members.  All  the  Atidculata 
having  arldcutated  memberi  were  included  by 
Linnnu*  in  the  cUn  of  L  ;  but  tlie  Cnutacea 
and  Araclmida  vrete  soon  separated  from  it,  and 
afterwards  the  Myriapoda,  8«e  these  heads.  This 
restricted  ^iplicaticu  of  the  term  L  corresponds 
more  nearlywithitSPC^nlaraM^aiid  so  well  accords 
with  its  derivation,  thai  it  tDt!j  be  r^arded  as  one 
of  Uia  moat  appropriate  names  emplo^  in  natural  | 


'/  a  derivmtion  exactly  «osweri&g  i 
Greek  tnloraa,  from  wfaiab  the  aoienoe  haviaf  oai 
for  its  subject  receiveB  the  luune  of  Bih™^ 
Izisects,  a  natural  and  extrentaly  wwU  dcdted  oi 
of  orgaiiiaed  bein^  are  reiii«rk«!ble,  in  tiuvon 
or po/ed state,  fra  the  diwiaaon  of  thm  bddias 
three  very  distinct  portioiu — the  kead,  ltgra,E 
otdonun/  thadivisioDs  beans  ofteatBodo^thiSa 
slandemeos  to  whidi  tbe  body  i*  tboe  ndn: 
cannot  be  contamplrted  wmwnit  admintiaB. 

The  bodjr  of  an  inaect.  sw  <rf  aU  the  id 
ArtJonlata,  ia  oompoeed  of  a  ca*bin  saabe 
rings.  One  of  these  fonns  the  bead ;  or,  K  t 
head  ought  to  b«  renrded.  aa  really  iwnpasri 
several  ruwa,  modified  and  oondsiued  toewiK. 
the  ahoU  of  vertebrate  «Tiitwinl«  is  fonnedof  n*^ 
'Vertebm,  yet  no  distinctioii  of  ringa  S4ipein>  Ik 
eyes,  the  antennie,  and  the  org%aa  of  Ott  *a& 
are  the  moat  oonapicoous  org«na  connacted  v3 
the  head. 

The  thorax  is  formed  of  three  wpga,  ckadj  t* 
binfd,  bnt  easily  distingniahable.  ^fiie  first  ii  ^ 
pnUAonsE ;  the  second,  the  muctfAonse  ;  ths  (^ 
the  mda&orax  (Gr.  pro,   before  ;   tnew^  iiidi&. 


attached  to  the  thorax.  iDseota  nave  mx  1^ 
and  genenJly  four  or  two  -vringa,  nem  any  Mk 
number ;  bat  some  are  win^eaa,  and  this  ii  ^ 
case  not  only  in  all  the  inaeota  of  ontatn  cnn 
but  also  in  particular  speciee  of  jzroapa  nr&oK! 
winged,  and  is  sometimes  even  m  ■mt*""**""  if  ■"' 
as  in  the  glowworm.  The  fint  pair  of  I^  ■' 
attached  to  the  jnvthorax ;  the  aecond,  to  Hie  a^ 
thorax ;  and  the  third,  to  the  metathorax.  II"  i^ 
'  r  of  wings  are  attached  to  the  meaathom ;  tb 
md,  to  the  metathorax.  In  dipteroos  (tw 
..  -iged)  insects,  the  ^ace  cf  the  aeoond  laiy  ^ 
vinp  ia  ooonpied  1^  two  amall  cxpx^-i't^ 
dtTMds,  tsminated  1^  »  knob — oalled  b^ascRt 
(AoKffiEi),  the  nse  of  whioh  is  Bot  well  knowik 


The ._^   _. 

iwer ;  aa  aome  are  often  obliterated,  or  modiBA 
to  form  various  appendagea.    It  oontains  the  p^ 

oipsl  visceral  In  A,  the  saxnal  organa  are  mtaUi 
The  rings  of  the  abdomen  are  much  mora  'f^ 
and  movable  than  those  of  the  thtoax.  ^ 
terminal  rings  of  the  females  of  some  groi^  f" 
an  oviduct  or  ovipositor,  which  is  Bontebsa 
capable  of  being  employed  as   a   braer,  to  di^ 

place  for  the  eggs  in  the  animal  or  ve^^tiw 
rganiam  destined  to  receive  them,  and  warn  f 

asps  and  bess  is  replaced  by  a  al^Dg.  , 

Tlie  nervoos  system  of  I.,  in  all  their  ft*??  " 
existence,  exhibits  the  general  oharaotos  bobw 
as  belonging  to  the  ArticuIiUa  (q.v.).  Itet." 
a  brain,  or  ganglion  Ot  the  head,  fiom  whicli  •»■ 
'  le  nerves  ol  the  e^es,  aatennn,  and  mouth. 

The  rings  of  which  the  body  of  an  insect  ia  ""' 
pjsed  appear  most  distinctly  m  the  external  coi« 
mg.  This  is  in  most  parts  hard,  but  mOT««J" 
fieiible,  of  »  hom-Uke  sabstance,  chiefly  oonp*!' 
of  OIMh  Ifl.  v.).  The  external  coTerinf  of  >^^ 
the  principal  framewOTk  of  iiuar  bodtai,  siid,*'^  , 
the  moscles  are  attached.  Hie  external  m^^^^ 
each  ling  it  ' 


0  parts— a  doraal  and  a  ventaZ — the  oonn"*"  . 
at  the  aidea  being  effected  by  a  softcc  *^  ^  ' 
flexible  memhraue^  a  still  stater  menbraai  ^  ^ 
necting  tlie  rings  of  the  abdomen,  so  si  (o  ''^ 


considmable  (raedian  of  motion ;  i^ilst  bstffW'"'  \ 
rings  are  miwite  pix«a  oalled  iHawtaia  or  ^"r)  : 
by  which  air  is  admitted  to  thelraokaa-s'r''"^  I 
'  1-  v.),  the  organs  of  respiiation.  j  [ 

Insects  respire  neither  by  means  of  hop  "^    ; 


dt.GoOQlc, 


gjih,  ind  the  blood  U  not  bron|^t  t 

put  oE  the  body  for  ailntioii,  m  by 

veitebnta  uul  nunj  ioTeitabimte  "'""»l«i  bnt  the 

«ir  vhidl  enten  bythe  braathing-porea  U  oi ^ 

by  tubes  to  kll  parta  trf  the  body,  and  area 

tfas  ddic«t«  ttrnctnra  of  the  wings,  w  t 

vbole  frame  u  i«ads»d  more  li^fht  by  the  Tery 

tnant  employed  to  maintain  and  inoreMS  motoolar 

energf.    Keapiratioa  ii  extremely  aotiTe 

they  connime  a  Rreat 

portion  to  thdr  lue,  a 

_-  .3  Teiy  many  kmda  ia  far  mora 
o  to  Qiot  nze  Oimh  Qiat  of  lurdfl ; 
.  „,_„  -  liiiulat  mperiori^  of  powen  in 
iog,  wrimtnuig,  or  dicing  md  barroving; 
it  the  let^ng  id  many,  aa  fleas  and  grasi- 
hoppen,  and  UM  wpoDffBa  of  othen,  as  oheeae- 
bi^^ei^  -prodi^otud^  exoeeoi  onytiungof  wMoh  any 
vertebnita  animal  is  oapable.  Tha  mpiratioD  <^ 
HOBtu  inaeota  takes  vIah^  Id  t^  name  manner 
u  that  of  oUwr  iIl•eob^  and  they  oome  to  the  sniface 
vf  the  vater  tor  fresh  rappliea  of  ur. 

The  blood  of  I.  is  thin  aitd  oolonrlesB.  It  is  txrt 
rii-eiywhwe  eadosed  in  Ti—nli,  bnt  is  freely  diffiised 
in  intenliEM  b«twe«ii  Uie  mnaoea  and  otlur  organSj 
and  in  the  yiscenl  om^.  It  eontains  globolss  or 
rorpnndea  of  detwminat^  sIwto.  How  far  the 
donal  Moel  (aee  ABmouLiTi)  ahoold  be  regarded 
1  ieari,  is  not  foUy  detenuinad;  bnt  by  its 


tha  Uood  is  maintained. 

The  BMonbets  of   L  hare     ^   _.  __     ._   . 

anil^ms  to  that  of  the  tnuik,  in  bemg  compoaed 
el  iitknlalionB,  tiie  hatd  and  solid  part  of  which 
is  the  extonal  corering.  lliis  umeun  reiy 
perfectly  in  the  l^a,  the  ftntenns,  and  the  palpi, 
tint  not  in  the  win^ 

The  legs  Ot  L  eonaist  of  two  prutoipal  parte, 
the  tU^   (/anur)    snd   shank    [iSna),  with   two 


aiMo  fiMUi;  C  foot  of  B>ai»-tlj;  D,  ... 

(^mta  liMid ;  K,  turn*  of  AbTiilnliin  Omtbo^pur,  iImwIiik 
loKki  or  lajlBf  ajftnantttj  F,  dmdI  Uu  ulninr  l<t*  sf 


imalkr  artioulatioiK  tlie  coxa  and  broduaiier,  int9> 
poMd  betwem  tim  body  and  the  thigh,  and  at  tlie 
ertrsmity  of  the  dunk,  a  set  ot  thiekfimr,  or  Are 
small  srbonlations,  esUed  tiw  kotu*.  The  last  aea- 
cts  is  genera^ 


terminated  by  a  pair  of  hooka  or  litUe  elawi ;  and 
many  diptmons  insects,  as  the  Honae-fly  (q.T.), 
have  discs  and  sncken  for  taking  hold  of  smooUi 

The  wings  of  L  are  often  very  large  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  body,  and  the  rings  of  the  thorax 
are  soldered  together,  and  supported  by  snpple- 
mentaiy  pieoss,  to  give  Arm  support  to  Uiem,  and 
to  the  poweifol  miucles  necessary  for  their  action. 


-- ,  —  three  layers, 

and  tlM  membranes  of  the  wings  are  filmy  expaosions 
of  tha  ontennost  of  thest^  tiie  epidmmis.  "Oe  ribs 
lervnrss  in  the  win^  of  L  are  tnbea,  of  whicli 
oi  the  uses  is  the  oonvtrriDg  cd  air  even  to  tbe 
Tbe  lorniB  of  the  wings 
are  Tery  various ;  some  of  the  more  important 
divenitieA  being  ohanoteristio  of  di^rent  i»deT& 
The  bodies  of  L  are  often  veiy  much  covered 
with  hairs,  which  are  often  very  long  and  thick 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  "i'""!,  and  on  tlie 
wings  ot  butterflies  and  other  Lepidoptera  are 
flattened  and  expanded  so  as  to  form  scales  (see 
BDTTXRn.T],  often  liohlv  oolonred,   and  also,   by 

on  of  very  fine  r«"J"'i  strin,  with  whiiA  they 

maAed,  displaying  an  admirable  iridesoenco 
OT  nflection  of  evanescent  prismatia  colonn  in 
ehangitu;  light.  The  first  pair  of  wings  in  ooleop- 
teions  X  or  beetles  is  represented  1^  a  pair  ot 
hard  chitinous  sl^ni  (Gr.  ooverii^],  or  wing-oorms. 
Orthopttroat  J.  nave  softer  leatury  or  parohment- 
like  dytre- 

Insects  feedoU  vetydiSeient  kinds  of  food;  some 
prey  on  other  L,  some  devour  »"""«-l,  and  soma 
vegetable  substances,  some  suck  the  juices  cd 
»"""»l"i  some  the  juioes  of  plants  ac  the  honey  of 
their  flowers.  The  structure  of  the  month  varies 
and  the  digestive   organs  slso  voiy. 


partial^  for  both  of  these  pniposea.  The  parGi  ot 
a  maadibnlate  month  are  fignred  in  the  srticla 
CoLioPTXRA,  and  are  an  upper  lip  Ikibrum)  and  an 
lip  (IntiuDt),  moTing  Tertioslly ;  and  an  upper 
f  jaws  w  nuuidiUea  (nHuuftfaUis)  and  a  lower 
pair  of  jaws  {mtedlia),  moving  horixontaUy.  Tho 
and  nnder  lip  nuMt  yrima  the  mouth  is  shut. 
are  as  hard  ss  the  jaws.  The  lower  lip  is 
imee  rejjarded  as  coniisting  of  two  parts, 
called  the  ohm  (nWDtunt),  and  the  tongue  {lingua), 
which  is  more  membranous  and  fleshy,  and  reposes 
the  inside  of  the  dun.  The  npper  jaws  or 
mandibles  are  nsaallr  powerful,  and  often  staonglv 
toothed  and  ho<^lua,  aometimea  fDmiahed  wita 
.tting  edgM  like  abarp  smssors,  and  sometimes 
adapted  fi»  bmisinx  and  grinding.  "Bu^  are  also 
the  installments  miolt  Dees  and  other  L  use 
for  thur  wonderful  oprastions  of  cutting,  tearing, 
building,  plastering,  &c.  The  tower  jaws  or  maxilln 
generallT  leas  powerfnL  In  soma  L,  in  which 
mandiUes  are  enlarged  into  great  orgaus  of 
prehension,  Uie  maiilW  alone  serve  foe  the  ordi- 
naty  use  of  jaws  in  eating-  To  tlie  maxilbe  and 
the  lower  lip  are  attached  otgans  called  polpi  or 
feelen,  conaiaiiiu  of  a  ntimb^  of  minnte  vticu- 
Isdons,  supposed  to  be  delicate  organs  of  touch 
oonnected  with  the  purpoaee  ot  the  montii,  aod 
distinguished  as  nuasSBiUy  palpi  and  laiiiai  palpL 

The  months  of  maiutabnlate  L  are  sometimes 
oalled  per/eel,  and  thoae  which  exhibit  a  difFar- 
o^  eharacter,  impafad.  ^e  terms,  however,  are 
■ — each  kind  is  perfect,  acootding  to  tlw 
for  whioh  it  is  to  be  used.  Yet  a  oones- 
tA  stnctnre  may  be  traoed,  so  that  tha 
awndibulata  motith  mn  be  noognised 
and  »€«T  reinarkahte  mo'"*"""" 


parposeafor 
pondenoe  tA 
parts  <rftiie 


,  Goc^le 


and  the  ontting  parta  of  the  month  .  _  . 

the  nundiblM  and  p'*-'rill»    The  probotda  of  flies 

teio^aeDta  the  lover  lip. 

The  alimentuy  oanal  of  L  ii  nnuUy  more  or  leM 
convoluted.  Between  the  month  and  the  proper 
dige«tiT8  stomach,  it  sometimes  eihibits  a,  crop 
(hoiiey-bM  of  bees)  in  L  which  live  by  snotion,  and 
this  is  eiOier  a  dilatation  ot  tbe  lower  part  of  the 
gnUet  or  a  lateral  vesicle;  aomettmea  a  gatard, 
with  nmscnlar  w^ls,  often  aimed  with  homy  ineoea, 
for  tritnration  of  food.  The  stomach  is  of  a  vary 
elongated  form.  The  liver  is  rapreaantod  by  loiw 
■lender  bile-tubes,  fonr  or  more  in  number,  wliicn 
wind  around  llie  intestine,  and  poor  their  aeoretion 
into  it,  where  it  originates  from  the  stomach.  The 
■olivary  glanda  are  generally  dmilar  tubes. 


Beoldon  of  the  Eye  tA  a  Cockchafer  (highlj  magniAed) : 
A,  HotlQD:  a,  opUo  gimslian.  Into  vhlah  Vat  optia  ncrrt 
■wftlli ;  h,  lUTTCH  BTUlns  fron  Ita  nzfkM,  Bad  ImmWMTIin  to 
ttwgnunlntlDa',  e,tu<nlrMiui  d,  lajn  of  pl(miint  In 
tronl  of  tin  (Mnil  ratina ;  *,  opUs  nnvM  Ot  Iba  IndlTidnil 
■r*l  urbloh  niim  ttw  oompoiuid  aja.  B,  a  fconp  ot  thaia, 
mDoh  mafnlfled : /,  bolbuoptlgnam;  ^  bjn  «  ptgmsul ; 

Iha  eyes  of  I.  are  of  two  kindi — timpis  or  item- 
tnaticamdamtpotiwloranmostte.  See  En.  Soma! 
liave  tally  simple  eyes  (oesKt),  some  Yam  only  oom- 
pound  eyea;  but  toe  greater  aamber  hare  two  large 
compound  eyes  on  tile  aides  of  the  head,  and  three 
smaD.  nmple  eyes  between  tiiem.  Compomd  (7H 
occur  in  1  only  in  their  mature  or  perfect  state ; 
Hie  eyes  of  larrs  are  simple. 

The  Antemue  (q^.)  are  generaUr  nmided  as 
organs  of  touch.  They  are  attached  to  ihe  head, 
in  front  of  the  eyes,  and  are  always  pnsent,  and 
always  two  in  number.  They  dlubit  a  vast 
variety  of  different  forms,  some  m  which  are  figured 
in  the  following  cut  I.  make  much  use  of  their 
antemuB  to  investigate  SDnonnding  objecta  by 
contact,  althoo^  if  this  ia  thdr     '  "  '        * 

very  easy  to  — "—  ——  -— i^M-  . 

their  forms;  _ _. 

the  conjectures  which  assign  to  them  a  part  ii  . . 
azerciae  of  the  senaea  ot  hearing  and  smdl,  althouob 
these  senses  and  tMte  are  evidently  enjoyed  by  L, 
or  at  least  by  many  L  in  great  pertectdon,  and 
their  particular  seat  and  organa  are  not  well  ascer- 
taiiie£    The  sense  of  smelTappean  to  be  of  sreat 


importance  to  L  in 
The  »  -     "^- 


L  in  guidiiuE  \ 
diatinirt  in  s&  I 


1  to  their   I 


able  differences  are  often  exhibited  by  the  males 
and  females  of  the  same  species,  in  site,  colour, 
and  the  form  and  structure  of  parts  that  have  no 
immediate  coimection  with  the  reproductive  afstem. 
What  are  vailed  newfarf  in  some  tribes  ore  imper- 
fectly developed  femalea.  The  connection  of  the 
sezea  takes  place  only  onoe  in  the  Hvee  of  L,  and 


naads  in  Um  tsnu: 


Insecfa  aresenerally  oviparoua;  a  £ 
viviparous.  Ite  ApkiMi  aflnd  mn  iusti 
has  been  called   tna  Altrnnation   ot    i 


imtne&dwit 

Altmnation  of  OsDotfa 
The  greater  number  of  L  take  no  oam  of  ttor  a 
after  depositing  them,  and  man} 
""''  "*  eiiBtenoe  before  the  «a^ 


their  immature  states,  and 
peif  ect  state  aerring  mainly  Uk  the  iin)psi;a>i>a : 
their  spedee.  Thna  many  insect  tnbea  ibaffM 
entirely  on  the  approach  of  wintcT,  their  aggsa*^ 
ma  the  warmth  of  spring  or  smomor  to  beliatiiK 
The  case  is  very  differeiA,  howBTWr,  with  be«s,i» 
earwiin,  and  some  otken,  which  oaiafnlly  toJ  "^ 
real  Qimr  youngs — The  nnmbar  of  eggs  M  ^ 
L  is  very  various^  bat  often  veiy  great.  Tbg  ta 
indeed,  onlv  lays  about  twdve,  and  taanj  dij*^ 
ous  and  coleoptermiB  insects  about  fif^;  ^  ^ 
mltworm  ptodnoes  from  fiOO  to  2000;  a  mi 
queen  bee  is  supposed  to  lay  40,000  or  60,000 i:' 
season ;  and  the  female  termite  or  white  ant,  !><■; 
about  siztr  eggs  in  a  minute,  and  for  a  peo°ii^ 
very  oonsidenuile  thouah  unknown  duration,  sub* 
as  to  the  number  of  her  eggs  any  othff  bur" 
animal  in  the  world. 

The  esgs  of  L  are  generally  white,  J^fVf 
green ;  they  are  of  very  various  sb^n^-""'** 
cylindrical,  conical,  lenticular,  4c. ;  tW  an**" 
times  emooth,  sometimes  beautifully  sciuptsrM 

The  stage  of  developnent  at  whica  '■^''! 
forth  from  ihe  tag  ia  vei;  different  in  dife^ 
tribes :  in  acme,  ^f  appear  as  fooUess  ^""^^ 
others,  they  have  rudimentKy  fee^  but  atttlj™ 
yerr  Uttie  power  of  looomotion ;  in  otbsn  '^ 
httle  claws  representing  the  six  feet  of  the  J^ 
insect,  there  are  on  the  abdominal  aegoMili  <>f 
womi-like  body  fleshy  tubercles  serving  *•'*}'? 
othen  still,  the  Iwa  are  well  dsvd<^  i*^ 
inseet,  on  lauing  bom  tiie  tg^  diSen  M'.'^ 
the  pofset  insect,  except  in  tM  want  <' *^ 
whUat,   finally,  in  a  com^arativdv  BPall  °*y 

" obviona  dinaiCDOa  g^° 

es  of  the  degree  «I««JJ 


ment  appear  ia  the  movtii,  eye%  aad  ^^^^^ 
Hence  the  labiequent  ohaans  by  '■'U^'^^m  ' 
state  ia  reached  are  vei^  d3Went  in  '^V^'l^l  I 


being  primarily  ilvit 


very* 
ided  ii 


L. 


,Gc 


mi  thciB  iridoh  do  not  nndergo  mstamoiphoni, 
■ome  ot  tte  fonnwam  oommor'-  —-•---  *  - 
iindcigdiig  (ornphte,  and  otlwTf 


insect  a  called  a  Larva  (q.  ▼.)•    Ch^nba, 


itUMM  i _  .. 

Pupa  (q.T.),  or  n^ph — a  eA)y«aUf  or  mtre^  ui 
tha  pt^  of  >  leiridoptenma  intect — and  fluallj'  il 
tnctsuM  an  *nui0Cik  or  perfeot  inieciL 

Tha  metomorphoBM 

hBTE  alwayB  bemi  regardad  with 
i.  worm,  iuhabitiDf  a  moddy  pool, 
cnatan  tiiat  apona  in  the  air.  J 
pHia,  that  ravenondf  deronr 


nrlmff  ea 
indAli 


■ge  with  Hi  horny  Jawa,  ««tiiig  Tutiy  more  in 
proportion  to  ita  lize  than  an  ox,  ii  CooTertod  into 
a  nucndid  buttei^y,  flitting  from  flon^  to  flower, 
ud  fgeding  only  on  nectaracuB  jnioM.  The  intM> 
mediate  or  yag^  state  only  adda  to  the  wonder. 
The  caterpillar,  after  aBtenl  mtndlingi,  m  ohannB 
oF  akin,  tmd  whan  it  has  attained  ita  ntmoat  nze, 
ceieee  from  eatinK  perbapi  flzea  itoalf  nnder  a  lea^ 
becomea  incaaed  m  •  homy  ooreriw  aa  in  »  aeeond 
r^  and  from  this  it  finally  bt«aka  forth  a  moth 
at  a  bobberfly.  Uaoy,  lame,  iIki,  iriien  aboot  to 
ctisn  into  the  papa  itate,  spin  Ooooone  (q.v.)t 
in  miich  thtnr  enTdop  t^temaelTca,  by  meani  of 
ipiMunto  on  tha  nndar  lip,  tlaoaA  whidh  a  viadd 
ncietion  paBea  in  fine  ureada  irtiioh  harden  into 
nit  But  whiM  tha  pnpn  of  many  I.  an 
•ootionles,  or  nearly  ao,  and  eat  no  food  whaterer, 
the  poptB  of  other  L,  aa  dn^n-fliea,  are  aatiTO 
U)d  Tmcdona.  The  interme&Ae  or  pvpa  atate 
often  differ*  little  from  Uie  lam  state,  exoept  in 


•tiltnnfittor 


du  perieet  m 
_  . £enig  .merely  radLuentaiy  and 

1  ift  one  time  prerailed,  that  tha  ano- 
nanra  ennlopea  of  the  1mt»  ware  all  contained 
Iroia  th*  bagmning  wiUun  the  firet,  irithin  than 
the  eoreria^  of  tbe  pnpft,  lad  wiHun  it  the  perfect 
inaect  'Baa  axtraoralnary  fuor  haa  nreu  place< 
to  &6  belief,  eatBibliBhad  on  aoffldant  OMerratioB, 
that  the  enTMmea  which  the  growing  larra  auccta- 
■irdy  cuts  o^  are  merely  a  hard,  thick,  extra- 
vucnlar  and  nnectenailB  epidennia ;  that  the  jaw^ 
pan,  bx,  of  tiia  larra,  with  which  it  parts  whan 
it  baxmieg  a  papa,  in  the  caae  of  L  nndergoing 
complete  netamoiphoais,  are  connected  with  the 
•p™>ia  i  and  that  the  corenng  of  the  papa  ia 
Discoveries, 


ncdn  liM  marrellooB,  but  only  more  admmbI^the 
'^g^  which  taka  pLaoe.  Ot  tbee^  tome  of  the 
noft  important  an  in  the  otgana  of  the  inimtfa,  the 
'^'S^'Uve  organa,  and  tim  nemnu  lyabem. 

It  it  not  certain  that  any  insect  haa  a  Tofoe  or 
fj,  although  the  origin  of  the  soonds  produoed  by 
■cioe  of  tiiem,  aa  tlw  plaintire,  iquEakine  note  of 
tt»  dMth'i-head  moth,  i*  not  known.  The  sonnda 
«  rtieh  f^  Jo  Jniow  the  orimn  are  not  pro- 
Mcd  by  the  month  or  throat  See  GKAiBHOFPEB, 
■Ulira-WiTCH,  and  ClOiDi.— The  Mimmiltg  or 
""'OV  cf  L  dnring  flight  haa  been  oommonly 
^'^'nbed  to  the  ertremely  rapid  TibistionB  of  their 
*U8i-  BnimeisteT,  however,  Bnppoees  it  to  be 
Pnauetd  by  Tibratory  lanmua  in  the  rtei^ntoiy 
^™J»  of  the  tliDrax,  acted  npon  by  tiie  forcible 
""'"■on  ot  air  dnting  the  Tiolent  musonlar  aotacoi 
"««*2forfliAt 

t)J?*°^  an  aS  «ti»hi«1«  of  imall  ^m,  and  many  ot 
•B^  are  mlnnta.  The  largwt  species  are  tropical, 
f^  L  of  all  iliea  abonnd  m  warm  far  more  than 
in  cold  climates.  The  L  of  the  polar  r^ona 
J^.'wo'paratrrdy  tew,  and  are  to  be  seen  onlj 
<"intij   nuomer;  thoae  of  them    whose 


^■tenee  ia  not  oomisiaed  within  a  ainf^  year 
spMidii^  the  winter,  aa  very  many  L  of  temporat* 
cBmatea  also  do,  in  a  state  o{  toipidil^.  All 
I.  an  TWy  fond  of  heat,  and  many  midi  do 
not  beorane  OMapIeteh-  torpid  in  oold  wuther, 
became  partially  bo.    It  '~  ~  '~ 


t  is  only  a 


that  L  display  their  neatest  adiTity.  Aa  to 
their  Beograidiical  distribntion,  L  an  fnmd  in  idl 
otmntries,  to  the  ntmoat  ahnne  and  poUr  lindta  t^ 
TeffetaUe  life.  Uany  Unas  an  peenliar  to  parti- 
onlar  dimatei  and  ooanbfia.  TbeXot  tiulCalayan 


Archipelago 
natural  voi 


«nd  of  Anattvlia,  1^  tiufr  otiuc 

notion^  are  gtMnUy  nty  difierent 

from  tlMM  of  other  parts  of  the  world.    TSio  L 


of  elevated  mmmtiinoiu  reborn  within  the  tropios 


l^waUi 
frigid  zo 


..  . seldom  the  aame.  The  multi- 
tude of  apeciea  of  L  is  very  great.  The  spedea 
of  eolaopterons  t.  alone,  or  beetles,  are  more 
nomerooi  tiian  all  those  of  vertebrated  »TitmatT 
tt^ather. 

A  few  L  am  imp<fftant  for  their  nsafolness  t« 
man,  and  a  greater  number  for  tiie  ininries  whioh 
they  lufliot.  Of  the  fonnar,  beea  and  silkworma 
deaerre  to  be  first  named;  and  aftsr  them  the 
oodiineal  insect  and  canthandes  or  blistering-flics. 
There  are  a  few  other*  to  which  we  are  indabted 
tor  Babstancea  naeful  in  medicine  and  the  arte,  as 
keimaa,  lac,  galls,  fta  Of  the  injuries  inflicted 
by  I.,  the  moat  serious  are  those  caused  by  the 
deatznction  of  herbage  and  oropa,  as  by  the  ravages 
of  locusts,  of  some  kind*  of  cat^illara,  and 
of  numerous  tribe*  of  coleopterous  and  dipterous 
insect*.    See  Comf.TLY,  Tcrhit.tlt,  to. 

The  ptimuy  division  of  L  into  those  which  do 
_ot  and  those  which  do  undergo  metamorphosia 
(Amelabotia  and  Jlelabolia  of  Xeach),  has  been 
already  noticed.    The  fotmet  are  divided  into  the 


MaidiitUaia  and  Hatuldiata,  the  former  .  -_^ 
the  mouth  fitted  for  maaticatloo,  the  latter  tor 
suction.  The  MandHuiala  form  the  oniversaUy 
recognised  orders  Ooltoplfira,  OrthimCera,  includW 
Denaoptera  of  some  entomologieis,  Neuroptera,  and 
SymaiopUra ;  the  HauttJlata  form  the  orders  Hem- 
uderu,  mclnding  nomopttra  of  soms^  L^idoptera, 
Btnp^ilera,  Diplera,  and  SwioHa  {Aphmlplera  of 
--me).    See  these  heads. 

.FoMil  Jnted*. — Several  causes  conspire  to  make 
_je  remains  oE  L  in.  the  stratifiadT  rocks  oom- 
panttiTely  rare,  such  as  their  posseauon  of  the 
~  ^wic  of  flight,  their  soft  and  speedily  decompotdag 
_  jdies,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  are  preyed 
upon  by  other  "■■-"i-  That  thsy  were  abundant 
during  some  paioda  is,  howevar,  veiy  erident.  In 
the  Lower  Lias,  serenil  bands  ot  limestous  oocur, 
i^ch,  from  tiie  abnndanoe  of  insect  nsnains  oon- 
tained  in  them,  hava  been  eaUed  'inaect  limeetoot.* 
They  ue  orawdsd  with  the  wingnaaea  of  eereral 

Ca  of  Coleoptera,  and  L,  ahnost  entire  are 
Biily  found.  Ihe  statnriy  nerved  wii^  of 
NenropteiB  are  beantifri^  psrfect.  In  the 
w  atrata,  at  Anve^gne,  a  oonsiaarabk  thicknem 


cap^ued  tad.  Midosad  \rtiib  thii  pebified  gum 
'~   its  primitivB  fluid   oaDditi<m,  and   now  made 

'manent  in  the  franiparent  stone,  with  every 
minute  detail  of  atructore  beaatafully  preserved. 

The  oldest  strata  in  whioh  insect  remaioa  have 
been  obenred  belong  to  the  CartMnuferooi 


m  period. 


iiligle 


OrUiopteca,  and  Coleoptera. 

The  Lcnrer  Lias  I.  belong  to  varioui  orden ; 
tiiGV  are  genenlly  of  a,  mnall  size,  iKppaieDtlr  indi' 
eating  a  temperate  climate.  In  the  Upper  liaa,  thej 
are  not  mb«qaent ;  »■  few  Hpecimans  haTO  been 
found  in  the  Odite  proper;  and  in  the  Wealden, 
both  land  and  water  lormB  occur.  Hone  have  beeo 
noticed  aa  yet  in  the  deep  sea  rocks  of  the  Cretaoeoua 
period,  but  in  the  newer  Tertiaiy  strata  the^  are 
common,  eapedallj  in  the  amber  from  the  Lfjnite 
beds  of  Qermany,  and  in  the  cavern  depooits.  It  is 
vorthy  of  remark  that  no  new  foima  have  been 
observed ;  a]]  are  either  referred  to  living  genera, 
placed  in  new  yet  nearly  allied  genera. 

INSESSO'RBS  (Lat  perchew),  or  PERCHINQ 
BIRDS,  an  order  of  Birds  called  Pcuierine  (sparrow- 
like)  Bird*  Inr  Cnvier.  In  reepect  of  the  nnmber  of 
speciefl  which  it  contains,  it  is  bj  far  the  largest 
order  of  the  whole  class  of  Birds.  Cnvier  says ; 
'  Its  chancter  seems  at  first  si^t  pnrely  negative, 
for  it  embraces  all  those  birds  which  are  neither 
swimmen,  wadera,  climbers,  rapaciont,  nor  gallin- 
aceous. Neverthelam,  by  comparing  tiiem,  a  very 
great  mutual  resemblance  of  Btmctuje  becomes  per- 
ceptible.' A  principal  characteriatiG  is  foond  in  the 
stmcture  of  the  feet,  which  are  particularly  adapted 
for  pitching  on  the  branches  of  trees,  and  have 
three  toes  before  and  one  behind,  the  hind  toe  on 
the  same  level  with  the  others.  The  legs  are  oeither 
very  long  not  very  strong ;  nor  are  the  claws  in 
general  very  long  or  very  sharp.  The  wings  are 
often  long,  and  the  power  of  flight  very  consider- 
able, but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  The  neck 
is  not  long.  The  bil^  eibibits  many  varieties  in 
length,  t>iiAni-««^  Ik,,  being  very  short  and  thick 
in  some,  very  sleoder  in  others,  put  never  exhibits 
the  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  accipitrine 
beak,  althon^  there  is  an  approach  to  tJiem  m  the 
ahrikes,  which  are  a  connecting  link  between  the 
two  orders.  The  L  with  shoit  strong  beaks  are 
principally  granivoroos,  those  with  slender  beaks 
insectivorous ;  bat  very  many  adapt  themselves 
almost  indifferently  to  both  kinds  ra  food.  Some 
feed  on  pnlpy  fruits ;  some  on  vegetable  juices ; 
some  chiefiy  on  carrion.  The  stomatm  is  a  muscular 
gizzard.  To  the  order  L  belong  the  singing-birds, 
and  throughout  the  whole  order  a  various^  com- 

fcated  structure  of  the  lower  larym  previdls.  The 
pair,  but  tiia  attacbinent  of  the  seies  in  most  of 
them  seems  to  endure  only  for  a  single  season.  They 
genuvUy  build  interwoven  neats,  and  lay  numerous 
eggs.  The  young  are  always  naked  and  blind  on 
coming  forth  from  the  ^g. — The  L  are  divided  into 
four  ffreat  tribes  or  sections,  DertHroitTa,  Coniroitra, 
Tenuirtntret,  and  Fittirottrea.    See  these  heads. 

IN80XTEN0Y,  or  BAHKEDPTCy,  is  the  state 
of  a  person  declared  to  be  unable  to  pay  his  debts. 
Inaolvengr  is  a  term  which  in  England  bad  long 
been  confined  to  the  case  of  a  non-trader  who  was 
unable  to  pay  his  debts.  All  who  were  tradeni  (a 
term  which  was  not  always  easily  defined)  were  said, 
in  the  same  circnmstancea,  to  be,  not  insolvent,  bnt 
Iwnkmpt,  Different  courts,  called  the  Bankmpt 
and  Insolvent  Courts,  were  applicable  respectively 
to  these  two  great  divisions  of  mankind,  traders  and 
non-tra4erB,  and  the  chief  points  of  difference  in 
the  procedure  were  these.  In  the  caae  of  traders,  tha 
Court  of  Bankruptcy  was  the  court  to  which  they 
or  their  creditora  aj^ed  for  ita  aununary  interven- 
tion. That  court,  whenever  a  man  who  was  a 
trader  was  unable  to  pay  his  debts-^^^rtain  testa 
of  which  inability,  called  acta  of  bankmptOT,  were 
assumed  as  infslhble  symptoms-^on  the  application 
of  a  oreditor,  took  forcible  posaeiiioD  of  his  property 


verted  these  into  money,  and  diBfaribnted  tk  c- 
dnoa  impartially  amoa^  the  creditois,  aocgsdiit  - 
certain  nilea,  at  the  jomt  txmxuta  <rf  tha  cndsr 
In  tiie  couive  of  doina  this,  fSie  court  required  -^ 
bankmpt  to  state  all  the  property  he  had,  nr 
it  was,  and  to  give  eiplaiu,tdoiiB  aa  to  whn  Li 
been  lately  lost ;  and  it  was  &  cnme  for  Him  ta  :*! 
ceal  or  moke  away  with  any  part  of  his  [mp^ : 
the  prejudice  of  this  impartial  disfaribiitiiHL  T. 
arediton  also  came  in  and  pioved.  their  4h 
against  his  estate,  thereby  ahevring  their  titt  ■-, 
lEore  in  it.  In  Uiia  way  the  debtor  was  (nt:^  . 
stripped  of  everything  (with  a  few  tnBiag  ts» 
tions}  which  be  had,  and  which  "w^a  aalewc :  i^l  i 
on  the  other  hand,  ha  received  a  certificate  viJ  I 
euHrely  cleared  bim  of  the  incumbrance  of  hii  fs  ' 
debts  for  ever-— freed  bim  not  only  from  ioFsv^'  i 
ment,  but  even  from  Uia  liability  to  pay  ni<n  i 
future,  should  he  afterwards  bocome  rich;  ud'i  I 
could  thus  begin  Hie  world  ane'w.  I 

On  the  other  hand,  the  non.troden^  who  nos^ 
of  country  gentlemen,  profesdoDal  men,  geMlBr:  ' 
at  large,  and  nondescripta  of  every  dcsree  who  t^ 
not  traders,  fell  under  tJie  care  of  the  Inscd'S 
Coort  These  non-tradeia  petitioned  the  car, 
voluntarily,  instead  of  their  ci-EilitotB  doing  n  s 
was  the  caae  in  the  Bankrupt  Court,  and  tlKT  i. 
course  put  off  this  application  till  the  lad,  '^' 
they  were  in  prison,  though  th^ might  alsapris;': 
before  any  creditor  pat  them  m  prison.  The  sJ 
condition  on  which  the  Inaolvent  Coorf  gnai 
them  its  protection,  and  discharged  them  from  naa. 
was,  that  they  should  not  omy  cive  np  all  ^ 
property,  but  state  fully  all  the  deota  and  luifuittT 
they  had  incurred.  If  t^ey  did  this  satisfar 
tlie  court  relieved  them  &om  imprisorunent. 
was  the  most  obnoxioas  of  their  texroi^  but  did  o^ 
entirely  free  them  from  the  debt  they  htd  innuni 
On  the  contrary,  they  were  still  Lable  for  tt«" 
debts ;  and  if  ever  they  should  in  future  becane  cJ 
enough  to  pay  twenty  shillings  in  the  pooad,  lif 
were  still  held  liable  to  make  up  thAt  amount  C> 
contingency,  however,  seldom  h^ipened,  and,  nm^ 
over,  when  it  did  happen,  considerable  leoieni?  *» 
shewn  to  the  debtor,  so  that  ivsctJcaUj,  b«tk  - 
bankruptcy  and  insolvency,  the  debtor  ms  Bt" 
or  less  whitewashed,  and  was  at  least  saved  IrC 
imprisonmenL  .     , 

Important  chaozes  were  made  in  the  prscto  « 
bankruptcy  by  the  act  of  1869,  33  and  3*  Vid^ 
71,  which  repealed  the  prior  enactments  and  i* 
dered  the  law  more  uniform.  Under  that  ad  »» 
traders  aa  well  as  traders  nay  be  made  bankni^ 
and  even  peers  of  the  realm  not  only  may  be  !»»■ 
bankmpt,  but,  on  being  declared  scs  are  **  "" 
diaqnah&ed  from  sitting  and  voting  in  lbs  Ei" 
of  Lorda  till  they  haw  received  Uieir  disclaim 
The  act  34  and  3B  Vict  c  60,  provided  ttat  * 
moment  a  i>eeT  is  adjud^  a  buikrapt  his  dnqut 
fication  begins,  and  he  commits  a  breach  of  F^'''^  . 
if  he  iita  or  votes,  or  attempts  to  do  *>,  while  tt« 
disqualified.  And  if  he  is  a  representative  peer,  ("J  , 
election  must  take  place  when  he  becoma  h»iit™r.  , 

The  bankruptcy  laws    date   trooi   the  tuw  J  i 
Henry  YUI..  and  the  insolvency  laws  irvaet 
time  of  Elizabeth,  the  distinction  aa  above  t^f^^  ' 
having  always  bean  kept  up  between  them  ^!^  I 
old  statute,  24  and  25  Vict  c  134,  passed  in  1=^ 
By  that  statute,  the  Insolvent  Court  was  sl™*^,  i 
The  court  now  administering  this  hrancb  «  ■"  < 
law  is  called  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy^l^  f 
far   aa  the  London  district  is  oonoeioea,  ^ 
BaainghaU  Street,  City.    The  London  ^^f}^  I 
eludes  all  the  area  of  the  ten  metropoIitSD  Mf^ 
courts.      The   rest   of  Eogtond  U  diviiW  »" 


byGoogle 


INSOLVENCY. 


_.  ,--„-     London,  the  chief 

jikI;^  Id  bknkniptcy,  who  is  alio  one  of  the  jodgea 
of  the  Clutiiceiy  DiTuion  ol  the  High  Court,  eita,  >nd 
I >  — ^_j. — ^  under  him,  to  whom  he  hat 


powET  to  delento  hit  jarudictEon.  Each  jndse  of 
comttr  courts  hu  »1bo  ul  the  jnriadiotioD  of  &  judge 
in  Chincery ;  and  each  county  court  ia  a  branch  of 
the  Binkmptoy  Conrt.  There  ia  an  appeal  from  a 
lool  court  to  the  chief  j'^t^e,  and  then  to  the  High 
Court  of  AppeaL  The  office  of  official  sssignee« 
ii  abolished,  and  the  creditors  choose  a  trustee  to 
represent  their  interests  and  administer  the  estate, 
and  collect  and  diatributa  the  effects.  The  registrar 
of  each  conu^  court  is  an  official  trustee,  bat  he 
merely  acts  till  the  creditor's  trustee  ia  appointed. 
The  comptroller,  whose  office  is  in  London,  keeps 
register  of  all  banlcruptcies,  shewing  the  state  od- 
progresB  of  each ;  aud  the  High  milif  serves  all 
susimonses,    and    inaerto    advertisements    *      " 

The  tests  of  bankruptcy,  or  rather  the  acts  done 
by  a  trader  which  make  him  liable  to  be  proceeded 
a^inst  as  a  bankrupt,  are  technically  called  acts 
of  bankruptc7.  These  are :  departing  the  re«lm 
—remaining  abroad — absentiDg  himself  from  his 
dvelling-honse — keeping  (himself  prisoner  in  his) 
bnuse—snffering  himseU  to  be  outlawed  and  sued 
by  creditors  for  debt — or  allowing  bis  goods  to  be 
taiten  in  execution  for  debt— executing  a  fraudnlent 
grant,  gifl^  or  couveyauoe  of  his  lands  or  goods.  If 
a  trader  execute  a  oonveTance  of  his  whole  property 
to  a  tnistee  for  the  benefit  of  bis  creditors,  this 
vill  be  treated  aa  an  act  of  bankruptcy,  if  any 
creditor  petition  within  six  months  thereafter  to 
make  him  a  bankrapt.  And,  after  a  petition  has 
been  presented,  the  paying  or  giving  security  to  any 
oce  creditor,  so  that  he  shall  receive  more  toan  the 
other  creditcte,  5s  void  and  nulL  If  any  creditor 
— ' n  affidavit  of  debt,  and  give  notice  ^"  "" 


ier,  if  he  do  not  bond  fidt  dispute  tho  debt, 
to  enter  into  a  bond  with  sureties  to  pay  it  in  a 
given  ticne,  and  refusal  or  neglect  to  att^d  or  to 
pay  this  is  an  set  of  bankruptcy.  With  regard  to 
a  non-trader,  the  seta  of  bankruptcy  were  these  ;  if, 
vith  mtent  to  defeat  or  delay  his  creditors,  he 
depart  the  rf^Im,  or  remain  abroad,  or  m^e  a 
fraudulent  gift,  conveyanoe,  or  transfer  of  bis  real  or 
personal  estate;  but  in  these  cases  the  conrt  did  not 
di'dare  him  bankmpt  until  it  was  shewn  he  bad, 
whether  abroad  or  not,  been  personally  served  with 
notice  of  the  intended  application,  or  at  least  that 
eveiy  reasonable  effort  had  been  made  to  effect  snob 

C9nonal  service ;  that  is  to  say,  to  put  into  his 
lads  written  notice  and  full  inforniaCion  of  what 
i>  intended  gainst  him.  Other  acts  of  bankruptcy, 
vhichwere  applicable  to  both  trader  and  non-trader 
alike,  were  the  lying  in  prison  for  debt — soffering 
hii  Koodi  to  be  taken  for  debt— filing  a  declaration 
in  the  Conrt  of  Bankruptcy  that  ha  is  noable  to 
meet  his  engagements,  provided  a  petition  for  adju- 
^cation  of  Mnkraptcy  be  filed  against  bim  within 
tro  months  thereafter.  The  acta  of  bankruptcy, 
in  all  cases,  are  now  the  same,  and  are  as  first 
stated,  one  being  also  the  filing  of  a  deckration  of 
inability  to  pay  his  debts. 

The  mode  in  which  an  adjudication  in  bankmptcy 
>9  condaeted  in  England  is  as  follows :  The  act  of 
baDkruptov,  as  already  explained,  tnnit  have  oc- 
curred within  aix  months  before  the  proceeding  is 
commenced.  The  first  step  is  a  petition  to  the 
eourt.  This  may  be  presented  either  by  one  or 
several  crediton.  If,  at  i>  most  usual,  it  is  pre- 
•eoted  by  a  creditor,  then  anch  creditor  mnat  have 


a  claim  of  debt  amoanting  to  not  less  than  £50 ;  or 
if  the  debt  of  two  creditors  amount  to  £50,  they 
may  jointly  petition ;  or  if  the  debt  of  three  credi- 
tors amount  to  £60,  they  may  jointly  petition. 
Such  debts  rosy  be  due  under  mortgages,  securities, 
or  liens,  and  the  oosts  and  interest  previously  doe 
in  respect  of  such  debts  count  as  part  of  the  whole 
debt.  If  a  person  in  prison  for  debt  is  too  poor  to 
pay  the  fees,  ne  formerly  conld  be  allowed  to  present 
the  petition  gainst  himself  in  formd  paaperU  ; 
and  as  a  monthly  return  of  all  debtors  must  be 
forwarded  to  the  Bankruptcy  Court,  if  prisoneia 
stayed  beyoad  a  hmited  time— vis,  if  tradera 
beyond  a  fortnight,  and  if  non-traders  beyond  two 


prisonment  being  abolished,  creditors  now  begin 
the  process.  On  the  petition  for  adjudication  of 
banlmiptcy  beioff  jWBSented,  together  with  an 
affidavit  of  the  debt,  it  is  filed  m  court,  and  on 
proof  of  the  partioalar  act  of  bankruptcy,  tjie  court 
adjndicatea  the  debtor  a  bankrupt.  The  court  then 
appoints  the  official  registrar  to  take  possession  of 
the  property  and  wemiaes.  Before  the  adjudication 
is  advertised  in  Uia  OazetU,  the  debtor  is  to  have 
notice  penouaUy,  or  by  service,  at  his  premises, 
and  a  certain  number  of  days,  from  seven  to  four- 
teen, are  allowed  to  hint  to  ^ew  cause  why  the 
adjudioation  should  not  be  deemed  valid.  The 
buikrupt  is  then  to  deliver  up  all  his  books  and 
papera  on  oath  to  the  official  registrar.  He  is  bound 
to  give  information  to  the  official  registrar  and  the 
court,  and  to  attend  from  time  to  time  for  that 
purpose,  and  he  is  allowed  remuneration  for  that 

Eurpose.    A  small  sum  is  also  allowed  for  his  and 
is  family's   maintenance  durine  the  proceedings, 
sneral,  the  bankmpt  from  this  time  to  the  end 
.  le  proceedings  ia  free  from  being  arrested  by 
individual  creditors,  and  receives  a  protection  from 


the  creditors  choose  their  trustee,  when  these  costs 
are  repaid  to  him.  Soon  after  adjudication  of  bank- 
ruptcy, a  ten  days'  notice  is  given  in  the  Otaetie  to 
the  creditors  to  meet  and  appoint  a  trustee.  On 
this  occasion,  the  credit^™  must  first  prove  their 
debts,  which  they  do  by  their  affidavit  or  oath, 
together  with  prodaction  of  any  security  or  docn- 
metit  verifying  the  debt  All  creditors  having  thua 
proved  their  respective  debts,  have  power  to  choose 
ir  more  persons  as  creditors'  trustees  ;  but  the 
has  power  to  reject  for  want  of  security.  The 
creditors  may  be  represeuted  on  such  occasion  by 
aa  agent  or  deputy,  whose  authority  needs  no  stamp. 
Craters  may  determine  whether  such  tmsteea 
'    "  give  security.    The  court  declares  the  appoint- 

nnaL   From  the  moment  of  their  appoiotment, 

the  whole  of  the  bankrupt's  real  and  personal  pro- 
perty of  every  kind  vests  in  them.  They  can  sell 
It,  and  in  general  da  everything  which  the  bankrupt 
hiTTiflf  could  have  done.  They  are  accountable  to 
the  creditors,  and  must  render  frequent  accounts, 
and  give  explanations,  which  accounts  must  be 
printed  and  seat  to  every  creditor.  They  manage 
and  realise  the  estate  and  collect  the  debttLand  can 
compromise  claims  and  sue  if  needful  The  conrt 
can  summon  tiie  bankru^  bis  wife,  and  all  persona 
for  examination.  A  sitting  is  ap^ktinted  for  every 
examination  of  the  bankrupt  which  the  court  or 
the  trustees  may  deem  necessary.  Meanwhile  all 
creditors  who  have  debts  must  complete  the  proof. 
Every  creditor  may  prove  his  debt  by  dehvermfc 
r  sending  through  the  general  post,  to  the  official 
Igistrar — or,  if  the  (^Bditors'  trustee  has  been 
appointed,  tiieu  to  the  latter— a  statement  of  such 
debt,  and  of  the  accoont  of  any,  and  a  declaration 


Xiuai^le 


INSOLVENCY— 1N8PBCT0E,  INSPECrOR-GENEEAI* 


rigDBd  hj  inch  oreditor  ^ipanded  thtMto  that  tadi 
■tatemcnrt  U  a  (nil,  troc^  and  oompleta  rtatemeat  of 
aocoant,  and  that  the  debt  ii  joatly  due.  II  the  debt 
ia  nndefiiied,  and  oonriifta  <il  wUiqiiidated  damagaa, 
then  tba  oonrt  orden  a  jury  to  b*  empanneUM, 
«i<JMr  hdon  UmbU  or  a  eonrt  «#  law,  to  fix  tho  •nm. 
Debt*  wbioh  bare  been  inoaitod,  bat  are  payable  at 
a  fattue  timt^  nay  alio  be  prored,  and  as  may  con- 
tingent debta  and  liabflitiet.  Wben  wagee  are  dm 
to  derita  aod  asrrauta  at  Qm  time  of  the  bank' 
mptey,  the  ooort  may  order  a  iiun  not  exoaeding 
fonr  montha'  iraa;ei,  and  not  exoMding  £30,  to  be 
paiid  in  each ;  ana  for  any  mrplua  that  may  be  doe, 
Uie  cjerk  or  aervaot  mut  prove  and  ahan  with  the 
other  cretUon.  It  tha  other  orediton  oppoi-  - 
pntionhv  debt,  and  A»w  it  U  qnfonnded,  t&e  « 
will  axpimge  it  Wben  all  the  «xaminatiaiM  nt 
aary  ot  the  oankrapt  haye  b«en  gooe  thnnigh,  a 
ii  appointed  for  emoidaine  bia  dladiaige.  A  die- 
cha^  ihall  not  be  j;rant«d  nalaai  it  ia  prored  to 
llie  court  that  a  ^vidsnd  of  ten  ahillinfi  ia  the 
ponnd  haa  been  paid,  ot  migh( 
except  tbiODgh  uie  uesligenee 
tmrtae  i  or  l&t  a  iped^  raadnt 


been  paaaed  to  the  Meet  tbat  tbe  failure  to  pay 
duUinga  in  the  pound  haa  ariaen  bom  oircumataii 
for  which  he  waa  not  reaponiiblt^  and  ttut  they 
deaire  tbat  an  order  of  ditoharge  dull  be  nanted 
to  Tiim,  And  the  conrt  may  iQipend  for  a  Sme,  or 
withhold  altogeUier,  the  order  d  diaehar^  if  tbe 
crvditon,  by  •pedal  leaolntion,  baTe  decided  ttiat 
the  baobnpt  ha*  made  defanlt  in  giving  ap  to  hia 
oeditorB  all  the  property  reqniredl)y  the  aot  to  be 
given  DP,  or  that  a  proaecation  hu  bom  commenoed 
agsinat  mm  for  aome  frandnlent  ofifenoe  declared  by 
t£e  Debton  Act  of  1B69, 32  and  33  7ict  o.  62  The 
«tf«ct  of  the  dttchATge  ia  to  free  the  banknipt 
entirely  from  all  debta  capable  of  being  proved 
under  tbe  bankruptcy.  Tbe  orediton  liave  it  in 
their  power  to  determine  whcQker  any  and  what 
allowanoe  shoald  be  made  to  tbe  bankrupt  np  to 


them,  when  thoae  preeent 
the  eatate  ahall  be  wotind  np  by  arrangement. 
Ihie  notice  of  thia  most,  however,  iAvo  been  given 
to  all  creditors  whose  debts  exceed  £10.  The 
debtor  miut  alio  attend  and  answer  all  qneatiom. 
If  tbe  maiority'  of  creditora  agree,  Uiey  may  thoa 
liquidate  tbe  ^tate  by  arrangement,  and  tbey  pro- 
cmd  somewhat  in  the  tnuuter  oaoal  in  bankruptcy 
by  am>ointing  a  tniatee ;  and  tbere  ii  power,  in 
caae  of  any  legal  or  other  diScultiea,  to  call  on  the 
conrt  to  adjudicate  the  debtor  a  bankrupt  in  the 
nanal  way ;  and  in  all  caaes  the  proceeding!  are 
nnder  the  surveillance  of  tbe  Bankruptcy  Conrb 

The  criminal  offences  committed  by  a  bankmpt 
are  such  as  not  surrendering  himsdf  to  the  juriadio- 
tion  of  the  court  at  the  time  appointed ;  not  making 
a  full  diiooveiy  of  oil  hia  property  and  bis  dealings 
witb  it ;  concealing  or  embezzline  part  of  bis  pro~ 
perty  above  £10 ;  not  informing  bis  trustee  of  any 
false  debt  proved  under  hi*  bankruptcy ;  falsifying 
bia  books ;  fraudulently  aoeounting  for  bis  property 
by  fictitdous  loaaea  ;  pawning  or  moia/de  disposing 
■^  property  within  three  months  before  tbe  bank- 


^^l^eland. 


nd,  bankruptcy  is  subitantially  tbe  nune 
procea*  in  all  its  featorea  aa  in  Ekigland. 

Seoldt  BtaJcrvple^,  or  SequestntioD,  is  mb«taii- 
tlally  the  aame  proceas  aa  that  whieb  prevails  in 
fii^and  and  Inland ;  but  then  are  aome  diffg-  - 
of  no  amall  importance  besides  &n  different : 


MinBn^asid.    Tboa  ia  bo  ssfame 

court  of  baakniptey,  Mt  Aeahniffof  t^coaa^, 
or  the  Court  of  Seaaioa,  haa  jnriadiciian  to  a»ad  : 
aeqnsabation,  and  tbe  oosrt  tbea  appoisti  a  jadiad 
factor,  if  neceaaary,  nntil  the  eaeditoi*  elMt  a  tom((4 
in  whom  the  pt^iertT  TeM*.  The  ereditaa  ahs 
ai^Bt  eoanusnotMn  to  adviaa  with  the  bsate 
as  to  the  mafingffnnfit  of  the  eetafce.  ^Qe  dntict  fi 
iba  trustee  and  eommisainnssii  aie'neNrlj  ideaticil 
with  thoae  of  tbe  tmstea  in  Bujbnd.  llwmditai 
pron  thor  debti  in  a  aionlar  way ,  Tb<n  » 
also  powers  of  winding  np  the  eatate  ntder  a  ioA 
tA  anaugeuenL  Tbe  whole  raoowiwe  ia  Oe 
isqueatntioD  hse  been  venr  vnca  imitated  in  tte 
lataat  statute*  passed  in  Eoglaod.  IHtK  ammo- 
aionei*  o(  the  creditoii  fix  &•  tnutee'a  leaaatu- 
liML  The  tmrtee  exanunea  the  gronnda  cf  Aim 
of  oteditetv,  that*  bong  an  spiiial  to  the  Idrd 
Ordinary  or  aheiiff,  and  be  azanunea  tlw  haafaapt 
ma  oath,  if  neceaaarj.  On  a  report  frem  the  trst«*  ' 
aa  to  the  conduct  of  tbe  baukratitL  which  is  aot 
demandaUe  bf  tiie  bankrupt  ti 


the  MqusatnttMU,  the  bankrupt  petitaooa  for  Uaca- 
ohaige,  and  if  the  medifam  all  conenr,  h«  ia  eotitltd 
fc>  vT.  ji»t..__  .»  «— .  .*  later  data*,  if  he  ^ 


bat  if  tie  i 


be   i*   alio   entitled  to  a  «. „_ , 

oediton  oppoee,  the   court   haa   a   < . 

power  to  gruit  or  suspend  the  diadmras  with  w 
without  conditions.  In  Bcot^and,  tiieie  »  ao  dii-  | 
tjnotion,  aa  there  was  onoe  for  many  pnrpiisH  is 
England,  between  tniders  and  non-ttadeia.  ftwittr 
''  ri^  of  a  Scotch  aequeatratioB  i^  tiist  tW 
is  a^^icaUe  not  only  in  the  eaas  of  detta*  \ 
i  alive,  bat  in  caaes  a  penona  iriio  haie  died 


Coortd 


Sootiaad,  there  ia  a  pncest 

:Of«hkh    , 


called  inaolvenoy  in  ^^-g'—-*.  the  prino^i 

'-"--%  the  debtor  i*  only  relieved  from  nniBsn-  i 

.  bat  not  from  the  debt ;  and  wbve  the  dchbr 
has  trifling  assets,  it  is  in  the  power  c(  the  oreditM 
to  resolve  ttiat  their  debtor  shall  not  have  a  dis- 
charge under  the  seqnestiaticm,  but  tnly  a  deose 
in  a  CsMJo  Bononan  (q,  v.). 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  a  diaduuge  undir  a  . 
bankrnptay  in  nther  of  the  three  kingdom^  tte  < 
role  is,  that  whelhier  tiie  bankr^ite;  ia  awarded  ia 
Bogland,  Ireland,  or  Sootland,  all  the  prep«tr  tf 
the  bankrufit  vasts  in  the  aangnee  or  fcustee, 
wherever  it  u  situated ;  and  when  the  ba>kn(A  i* 
diaobar^d,  the  diacharge  is  thereaftar  oomdate  sad 
HI  effect  to  in  all  parts  of  the  United  Kmgdem.  | 

' 'the  JxOief  that  it  «i  ■ 

bankrupt,  and  obtam  a 
itland  UMi  in  ftnrisi^ 
In^tiah  deWn  mortad  to  Seotlnd  f(r 
forty  daya,  in  order  that  tbey  mi^it  be  mad*  hask- 
rapt,  no  donbt  thinking  that  creiuton  wonUbska* 
likely  to  oppose  their  diaehai^  at  tbat  distaacei 
and  after  their  disdiarse,  tiiey  retnniad  to  Eh^aad, 

is  Sooteh  baaknati^.    But  a  rscest 

_  vol  power  to  the  Sootoh  eoartala 
refuse  tbe  remedy  cl  seqaestratian  to  debtoi*  iAm* 
debta  were  cbisD^  oonbaoted  in  ^'^"g'"^,  sad  ts 
remit  than  to  tbeir  own  oountry. 

INaPB;0TO»L    IN8PB(?rOB-GKIfERAIv 
rma  in  mi" ' 
sisnificatioti 


„,zodtvGO>- 


b«  satisfiictorily  erplained  Kway  (and  their  miiaber 
has  been  for  gome  tkae  on  the  increaae),  uvne  in 
the  followioc  way  :  It  ia  plain,  first  of  all,  and  espe- 
cially, that  the  queatioD  ia  not  one  to  be  settled 
accocding  to  any  preconception,  but  according 
the  evidence  of  the  facts  given  lu  in  Scriptiire. 
The  only  right  idea  of  inspiration  is,  as  one  has 
said,  'that  which  we  form  from  oo  ' 
the  Bible  itself.  It  is  a  question  i 
by  speculating  what  the  Bible  oupht  to  be,  but  Jjy 
examimng  what  it  actnally  is.'  All  d  priori  argu- 
menta  are  evidently  at  once  inapplicable  and  dan- 
seTDOB  on  such  a  subject.  The  ptisans  of  plenary 
inspiratioD  maintain  that  it  is  necessary  to  the 
preservation  of  fiuth  to  hold,  that  God  has  not 
only  revealed  the  truth  to  man,  but  that  He  Has 
deposited  that  truth  in  so  inf^ble  record.  Not 
only  so  ;  but  the  infallibility  of  the 
less  indigpenBable ;  for  all  would  be  lost  if  any 
doubt  wag  allowed  to  re«t  upon  any  portion  of 
the  Word  of  God.  But  if  an  infallible  t«it  and 
an  inf^ble  canon  be  ueceBsaiy,  why  not  also  an 
infallible  interpretation!  Without  the  latter,  the 
two  former  may  be  of  no  use.  All  may  he  lost  by  a 
false  or  defective  commentary  of  the  sacred  text.  It 
is  plain  that  the  idea  of  verbal  inspiratioa  cannot 
stop  short  of  the  concluaion  of  an  infallible  inter- 
pretation ;  and  even  such  a  conclusion,  which  upsets 
ProteatantiBm,  by  denying  the  ridit  of  free  inquiry, 
would  not  save  it ;  for  an  intSlible  commentary 
would  not  necessarily  insure  infallible  instruction 
— ail  might  still  be  lost  b^  tite  weakness,  ignorance, 
or  defect  of  the  recipient  mind.  No  infalli- 
bility of  text,  of  canon,  or  even  of  interpretatioD, 
could  insure  the  infallible  reception  of  the  truth, 
thus  tiebly  gns^ded.  If  we  would  not  be  caught, 
then,   in   this   absurd   chain   of   osBumption,    ~ 


r  should  be,  but  what 
''  argued  in  a  recent  t 


wba 


must    break 
the  Bible  i 

This  view 
on  iuHpirati 
distineuishf 

belongmg  to  the  evangelical  school  of  theology. 
According  to  this  writer,  who  may  be  taken  as 
the  representative  of  a  large  clasa  of  theological 
thinkers,  the  Bible  ia  a,  mass  of  documents  of 
vaiying  age  and  vaiying  authenttoity  ;  its  text  has 
undergone  the  usual  changes  attending  the  trana- 
miaaion  of  historical  documents ;  it  is  marked  by 
the  usual  inequalities  and  varieties  of  style  that  we 
meet  with  in  any  other  collection  of  ancient  litera- 
ture ;  it  presents  ia  many  cases  peculiar  difficulties, 
differences  and  even  contradictions  of  detail,  ecieQ. 
tific  and  historical  errors.  All  who  have  studied 
tiie  Gospels  minutely,  and  especially  the  quotations 
in  the  Qospels  and  the  Epistles  of  St  Paul  from 
the  Old  Testament,  know  that  there  are  various 
inaccuracies  and  misappliciiliona  of  facts  throughout 
them.  The  same  microscope  of  criticism  that  reveals 
to  us  the  depths  of  the  inner  meaning  of  the  divine 
meseoge  in  ill  its  manifold  fulness,  reveals  to  us 
also  the  imperfections,  and  even  the  contradictiona, 
of  the  human  mesBenger.  The  following  ore  only  a 
few  of  the  instances  in  which  such  '  imperfections 
and  contradictiona '  shew  themselves. 

1.  The  recital  of  the  temptation  in_  St  Matthew 
and  St  Luke.  In  the  former  (Matt.  iv.  6 — 8),  the 
vision  from  the  pinnacle  of  liie  iemple  is  placed 
first;  in  the  ktter  (Luke,  iv.  I— 10},  that  from  a 
lofty  mountain  takes  precedence. 

2.  Id  Matt.  x.  10,  Jesus  commands  his  apostles 
to  take  for  thdr  missionary  journey  ndther  '  scrip, 
neiUier  two  coats,  neither  shoes,  rot  yd  staves.'  In 
Mark,  vi  8,  he  commands  them  to  '  take  nothing 
[or  their  ionniey,  save  a  staff  only.' 

3.  ta  VM  narrative  of  the  Paaaion,  as  in  that  of 


the  Kesnrrection,  there  ta 
of  detail  resting  on  a  fundamental   aod   mtrikiaf 
unity.      According  to  Mark,  xiv.  72,  the  cock  is 
represented  as  crowing  on  each  of   the   first   aai  ■ 
second  occasions  on  which  Pet«r  denies  his  Lord.    In  , 
the  accounts  given  by  the  other  evaneelista,  tbe  ctkA  , 
only  crows  upon  the  third  denial  (MatL  xxvi.   74;   , 
Luke,  xiiL  60).      The  statement  of  the  deatli  <d  ' 
Judaa  differs  materially  in  Matthew  and  in    tbr  ' 
Acts  of  the   Apostles.     According   to  the  fonsei.  ' 
Judas  casts  down  the  pieces  of  ^ver,  and  depart! 
and  hangs    himself;    and  the   chief    prieets    ^fUr- 
viardt   purchase   with  the   price    of  bis    guilt    Um    . 
potter's  field  for  the  burial  of  strangeis,  hence  called 
the  field  of  blood.     According  to  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  i    IS,   Judas   himself   is   represented  a» 
having  purchased  the  field  'with  the   rmnvd  tA 
iniqui^ ; '  then  as  having  in  some  way  (not  ezirficitly 
stated  in  the  narrative)  met  there  a  bloodj-  death, 
from  which  circumstance  the  field  t4>ok  ita  name 
In  the  narratives  of  the  Resurrection,  it   is  weD 
knovm  there  are  numerous  variationB ;  and  nama^ 
ous  palpable  errors  of  memory  as  to  historical  facts 
occur,  such   as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Uark. 
ii.  26  with  1  Sam,  id.  2—6,  and  1  Cor,  i,  8  with 
Numb.  Iiv.  9. 

4  As  to  the  citations  of  the  Old  Testament  in  tlir 
New,  tiiey  are  almost  entirely  taken  fnon  the 
Septuagint,  and  evidently  in  many  cases  qaotHl 
from  memory,  with  little  regard  to  their  exact 
sense  in  the  origioaL  Thus,  St  Matthew  (ii.  6),  in 
applying  to  the  Messiah  the  prophecy  of  Micab  (v. 
2],  says  of  Bethlehem  precisely  the  reverse  of  the 
Septuagint.  'Thon  art  too  little  to  be  reckoned 
among  the  thousands  of  Juda,'  he  translates  :  '  Tluni 
art  Dot  the  least  among  the  princes  vi  Joda.'  In  ' 
many  cases,  the  New  Testament  ^tos,  whik 
repeating  the  inaccuracies  of  the  Septuagint  trans-  i 
lation,  turn  them  to  admirable  account  \  this  is 
especially  remarkable  in  the  gospel  of  St  Idkttliew 
and  the  Epistles  of  St  Paul  Thus  (iiL  3],  St  ' 
"  '"  aslates  with  the  SeptuBfiint :' The  voice 

;  in  the  wilderness  ; '  while  the  H^irew   1 
cries.  Make  plain  in  the  wildemeaa  the 
ways  of  the  Lord'  (Isaiah,   il  3).    Compaiv  also   , 
Matt  xii.  21  and  Isaiah,  xliL  4,  also  Matt  xr.  S   , 
and  Isaiah,  xxix.  13, 

None  of  these  errors,  it  is  maintained,  aie  si  ' 
any  material  consequence  so  far  as  the  substantia 
veracity  of  Scripture  is  concerned.    The  vary  bet  ^ 
"    '  '    OBcopio  criticism  can  detect  no  noie  , 

nsistonoies  in  the  Scriptural  writen,  is 
rightly  held  to  be  one  of  the  most  striking  testi- 
monies that  could  be  given  to  their  tnitlmilneB.   ! 
Such    slight  inaccuracies  are  the  mere   fi-eedoms 
which  writers,   thoroughly  honest,   and  animated   ' 
with  a  high  interest  which  overlooks  trifles,  permit   ■ 
themselves.     But  however  unimportant  in   thein- 
selves,  they  are   considered   b^   many  theolt^iani 
to  be  altogether  inconsistent  With  a  theory  of  verbal 
inspiration.     However  minute,  they  arc  reccvniaed 


I  real  dwcnepoTictM— -hun 

record— and  as  consequently  proving  that    I 
r  letter  of  Scripture  is  not  inftTTih).    | 


the  mere  text  oi 

that  it  cannot   be  regarded  as  a  'direct 
of  the  Most  High.'  ; 

Inspiration,  therefore,  according  to  thew  tlieo-  ' 
legions,  does  not  imjjy  tile  imaUitnlity  of  the  > 
Smptnral  text ;  it  is  something  consistent  vith  ' 
sdentifio,  historic^  exegetical,  and  even  argnmeot-  I 
ative  errors  (witness,  to  quote  no  other  eiun|de,   1 

Paul's  allegorical   argument  about  the  soos  i^ 
Abraham,  Ool.  iv.  22,  25).    There  is  nothing  nlid,   | 
divine  authoritative  element,  it  may  be  said,   I 
that  can  survive  such  dedoctiona.      If  there  ua 
riptui«,  why  may  it  not  all  bs 


INSTALLATION— msTmar. 


imperfect  or  enoneonsT    The  sufficient  answer  is, 

that  it  ia  not  bo— Uuit,  jiidged  by  the  verj  suae 
ciiticsl  t«st*  which  detect  such  errors,  the  Bible 
remain*  an  entirel^r  unigiie  book.  Every  Christian 
mind  recogniaea  in  it  a  higher  divine  koowl^ge  and 
suthorty  than  in  aught  else.  The  divine  spirit  in 
Echpture  tnakea  its^  felt,  shines  forth  in  every 
page  of  it ;  and  this  is  inapiratian  in  the  highest 
Benie,  the  mind  of  God  meeting  our  minda  in  &rip- 
ture,  eolightening,  guiding,  elevating,  purifying 
them.  There  is  notliiDg  more  in  reality  to  be  got 
from  sny  theory  than  this.  .  An  inspired  letter,  or 
Koni,  or  metBBge  is  nothing  to  any  one  in  tlself,- 
the  mauling  is  eveiytliiiig.  We  must  understand  the 
wold  or  menage.  There  is  no  degree  of  objective 
sathority  that  can  supersede  this  snbjectlve  process 
of  ipprdienaion  on  our  part  Tliere  cannot,  there- 
five,  be  immiinity  ^m  eiTOT,  let  the  aymbot  or 
the  text  be  as  perfect  as  posaible.     It  ia  only  to 

the  case  of  Si^pture,  shines  with  a  divine  power 
■nd  lustre  such  aa  invest  no  other  book.  It  bears 
its  own  divine  witness.  In  such  an  idea  of  inapira- 
tioii,  criticism  finds  nothing  ioconsiBtent.  nothing 
impossible,  and  no  higher  i&a  can  be  well  fonned 

IKSTALLA'TION,  in  Church  I^w,  means 
the  ceremonial  act  or  proceaa  by  which  a  person 
ptneoted  and  legally  cunfirmed  in  a  beD(;£ce  is 
fomuUv  put  into  possesion  of  his  office,  and  by 
which  he  is  fully  empowered  not  alone  to  exerdsa 
its  funcboDB,  but  to  enjoy  ita  honours  and  emolu- 
ments. The  ceremoni^  fonn,  aa  well  as  the  name, 
JiSen  aocordine  to  the  office  which  ia  conferred, 
u  *  enlhionisation  '  ior  a  bishop,  '  induction '  for 
i  rector,  ke.  '  Installatton'  properly  regards  the 
i>ffice  of  a  canon  or  i^ebendaiyi  The  wood  is  also 
seed  generally  for  a  formal  introduction  to  any 

raSTERBURO,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
pmrince  of  £^t  Frnsoia,  is  pleasantly  situated 
<m  the  left  bank  of  the  Angerap,  IB  iniles  weat- 
aorth-west  of  Gmnbinnen.  It  contains  a  castle, 
aad  several  educational  institntions.  Cloth-weaving, 
tsnning,  brewing,  and  distilling,  with  a  trade  in 
com  and  linseed,  are  carried  on.  Fop.  (1871)  T1B& 
L  had  its  origin  in  a  castle  of  the  Teutonic 
Older  of  Kni^ta,  built  here  at  an  early  period. 
At  the  close  of  Uie  18th  c,  it  had  attained  the 
rank  of  a  town,  which  increased  considerably  after 
the  17th  c,  about  which  time  a  number  oE  Scottish 
familica  settled  at  I.  on  account  of  ita  trade. 

I'KSTIKCT.  It  has  been  common  to  deacribe 
the  actioaa  of  the  lower  T-nimala  as  guided  by  prin- 
ciples different  from  what  obtains  in  the  human 
cooetitution.  The  power  of  aelf-preseryatbn  ia 
coDsldeitd  at  reason  in  man,  and  as  instinct  in  the 
brute* ;  but  tbia  contrast  does  not  oontain  a  real 
opposition.  There  ia  much  that  is  common  in  the 
impulgea  of  men  and  animals.  When  an  aniinal, 
haviog  foand  a  moiael  agreeable  to  ita  taate,  maati- 
cUei  and  bwsIIowb  it,  and  takes  up  another  of  the 
■amc,  the  mental  operation  is  not  essentially  differ- 
ent from  what  a  human  being  woold  go  through  in 
the  like  circumstances.  In  both  instances,  we  nave 
an  eiample  of  the  eiercise  of  Will,  or  volition,  which 
operates  to  promote  the  [deasorea  and  ward  off  the 
paint  of  the  Kutient  being. 

The  most  important  meuiing  connected  with  the 
term  Instinct  is  what  coatrasta  with  experience, 
•^ucation,  and  acquired  knowledge.  The  original 
ur  innate  tendencies  and  powers  (d  the  mind  are  Ifl 
be  distinguiahed  from  the  powers  that  grow  Dp  iu 
the  course  of  the  aoimsl's  experience  of  the  world, 
and  its  compauioiubip  with  other  living  creatures. 


There  haa  been  a  disposition  to  under-rate  ths 
acquired  aptitudes  of  the  inferior  animals,  and  to 
refer  their  capability  of  self-preservation  purely  to 
their  natural  or  primitive  endowmenta.  But  in 
point  of  fact,  meu  and  animals  alike  posscaa  both 
instincta  and  acquisitions ;  for  although  in  man  the 
preponderanoe  is  greatly  in  favour  of  the  acquired, 
be,  too,  must  start,  from  something  primordial,  the 
basis  of  the  other. 

In  the  first  place,  there  are  certain  actions  of 
importance  to  the  aafety  and  well-being  of  the 
individoal  that  are  termed  Kefiex,  or  Automatic 
They  aeem  to  be  almost  oat  of  the  sphere  of  mind 
proper,  as  they  are  performed  even  unconsciously. 
Among  these  are  the  propulsion  of  the  food  along 
the  alimentary  canal,  sneezing,  respiration,  Ac  In 
all  these,  we  have  important  activities,  whitdi  ar 
inherent  in  the  conatitation,  and  are  performed  ol 
efTectoally  at  the  beginning  of  life  as  at  the  full 
maturity  of  the  being 

In  the  second  place,  there  is  a  certain  original 
proviaion  for  Rhythmical  and  Combined  Movementa 
among  the  active  organs,  more  especially  those 
concerned  in  Locomotion.  Thus,  there  is  a  natural 
tendency  to  alternate  the  limbs,  although  the 
human  infant  cannot  turn  this  to  account  at  once 
for  the  ends  of  walking,  as  Eome  of  the  quadrupeds 
can.  From  this  alternation,  the  two  eyes  and  the 
two  side*  of  the  face  are  specially  exempted,  and 
brought  under  another  arrangement  equally  primi- 
tive— namely,  concurrence.  But  all  these  cases  alike 
^ustrate  the  presence  of  an  original  mechanism  of 
the  frame,  by  which  the  movements  are  grouped  up 
to  a  certain  point- 
In  the  third  place,  it  may  be  safely  maintuaed 
that  there  is  an  inborn  tendency  in  all  animals  to 
act  som^Aow,  or  to  put  forth  the  energies  that  they 
posaeaa^  wiUiout  waiting  for  the  atimulus  of  their 
sensatdons.  This  Spontaneous  Activity  is  shewn 
more  or  leat  in  every  creature  after  rest  and  nutri- 
tion [see  Sfontaijeity).  Destitute  of  any  special 
direction  at  the  outaet,  it  yet  prompts  to  a  great 
many  experiments  or  trials  upon  things,  in  the  course 
of  which  the  animal  diacrimmates  the  suitable  from 
the  nnsui table  by  means  of  its  sensations,  and  thereby 
learns  to  follow  up  the  one  and  eschew  the  other. 

Fourthly,  in  connection  vrith  our  Emotioni,  there 
are  certain  primitive  links  of  mental  state  with 
bodily  manifestation,  which  constitute  a  natural 
language  of  the  feelings  understood  by  the  whole 
human  rac&  The  meaning  of  the  smile,  the  frown, 
the  sob,  the  contortion  of  psin,  is  imitorm,  i-' 
therefore  instinctive.    See  EuoTtov. 

Fifthly,  the  power  of  will  or  volition,  although 
it  can  be  shewn  to  be  a  groieA,  must  have  some 
primitive  and  iustinctive  elementa  in  the  constitution 
to  start  from.    See  Will, 

Sixthly,  there  must  be  certain  primordial  powera 
of  the  human  Intellect.  What  these  are,  haa  been 
much  disputed.  Every  one  must  concede  the  exist- 
ence of  some  intellectual  forces  or  faculties,  as,  for 
exam[de.  Discrimination,  the  basis  of  all  knowledge ; 
Retentiveneaa,  the  faculty  of  acquiring  everything 
that  is  acquired ;  and  agreement,  or  Similarity  (sea 
Intkllkci^  i  but  it  is  contended  by  one  school  'oiat 
we  possess  not  merely  powers  of  receiving  know- 
ledge by  our  contact  with  the  world,  and  our'con- 
acioQsness  of  our  minds,  but  aclual  noliotu  or  idtaa 
that  cannot  be  traced  to  our  experience  of  ths 
material  or  mental  phenomena  that  we  enconnter. 
This  is  the  doctrine  of  innate  ideas,  intuitive  con- 
ceptions, d  piiori  cognitions  and  judgmentB,  first 
truths,  &a.    See  Cohkon  Sense. 

Animal*  posaes%  aa  a  rule,  the  instinct*  of  human 
beings,  witn  some  that  are  apecial  to  themselves. 
They  have  the  Beflex  Actions  above  enumerated ; 


hyCoogle 


INSTITUTB— IHBTrrUTiB  OP  VSANCE. 


tbey  hvn,  aran  in  a  nam  dsciiire  form,  the  primi- 
tire  eombmed  mavBmeBta  for  locomoldoD  and  other 
pmpoK* ;  thej  hxn  the  ipootuieoiu  aotdntittB  that 
oome  nodsF  oonlrtd  in  tiieic  voluntary  icta ;  thsy 
lure  emotionkl  mnnifeetetiiHU  th&t  ue  emittant, 
•IthoDg^  tiieir  organi  of  exprenion  are  fewar ;  thsr 
hara  certain  mdimentary  powen,  which  are  daTot 
opad  by  experience  into  the  activity  of  the  wilL 

There  ara  certtin  intelleotual  iudgntente  that  in 
man  are  maialy,  if  not  wfaollj,  the  result  ot  experi- 
ence, bnt  in  aninuLi  ar«  iostinctiTe.  The^  chief  of 
these  ii  the  appreoiatioii  of  distance  and  direction  ; 
which  ii  shewn  in  tiie  abiltl^  to  take  an  aim,  u  in 
biisis  pecking  their  food  aoon  after  they  are  horn. 
The  higher  quadnipods  learn  to  feed  themaelTes  in 
a  space  of  time  too  short  (or  acquisition.  It  would 
seem  also  that  animals  hare  instinotiTe  notions  of 
things,  «■  in  the  case  of  the  aquatic  animals  knowing 
wat^  at  Gnt  sight,  a  fact  generally  affirmed,  and 
not  easy  to  contradiot.  In  toe  mine  way,  Ihey  may 
know  their  food  at  fint  dght  before  tasbng  it 

It  is  in  oonneotion  with  SooiabUity,  that  we  hara 
the  largest  compass  of  andoabted  itmincta.  Animals 
•eem  to  know  their  own  spedes  br  intuitire  perasp- 
tion.  Predatory  animals  certainly  reeogniH  their 
prey  by  instinotive  perception ;  the  young  kitten  i* 
aroDsed  by  the  si^ht  of  a  mooae ;  the  dog  ponmee  a 
oat  with  a  deoUion  and  rehemenca  that  could  not 
be  given  by  edacation.  80  aaimaU  that  are  preyed 
Opoo  intnitively  dread  their  capton. 

While  Pleasnre  and'  Pain  must  be  regarded  as 
fnndamental  attributes  of  the  mind,  inseparable 
from  its  woAing,  the  more  special  modes  of  feeling 
eallsd  Emotions,  as  Love,  Anger,  Fear,  are  states 
superinduced  upon  the  primary  modes  of  feeling, 
•act  as  they  appear  from  the  earliest  moments  of 
lif<^  they  are  properly  termed  instincts,  bong  com- 
mon to  man  and  to  ft*tim*i«i 

AmcMig  the  most  notable  instincts  are  the  con- 
•tructione  of  forethought — aa  the  nests  of  birds,  the 
cells  of  bees  and  wasps,  the  ant-hillocka,  the  beaver's 
dwellings,  the  spider  s  web ;  also  the  precantionary 
movement*  of  animals,  as  in  tlie  nugrations  of  birds 
and  fishes,  according  to  season.  The  striking  and 
extraordinaiy  anecdotes  given  of  the  sagacity  of  some 
»nlin>l«,  M  tile  do^  the  hone,  the  cal^  the  elephant. 


and  with  great  individual  tOfiarenoes,  even  in  the 
same  specie*.  Beapectui^  theaa  various  instinctive 
aptitodes,  Q>e  aooonnt  giyai  imfil  lately  was  that 
each  distinct  animal  ipecie*  was  ori^nally  created 
*o ;  and  that  the  powers  belonging  to  each  were 
banded  down  without  cham^  from  parenbi  to 
oCbpring.  A  new  rendering  of  the  phenomena  has 
been  given,  in  the  doctrioe  of  BBohitiox.  According 
to  this  doctrine,  as  applied  to  mind,  instincts  are 
eiperiencei  and  acquisitions  that  have  become 
hweditary. 

'  Though  re&as  and  iustuictive  sequences  are  not 
determined  by  the  experience  of  the  iadioMfual 
organism  manifesting  them,  yet  Uie  ezperience*  of 
the  race  of  oiganianu  forming  ita  ancestry  may  haT* 
determined  them.  Hereditai;  transmission  applies 
to  mental  peculiaritie*  as  well  as  to  physical 
peooliarities.  While  the  modified  bodily  stmo- 
tnie  produced  by  new  habits  of  life  is  bequeathed 


to  future  generations,  t 
ture  produced  by  such 
bequeathed ;  and  it  the  new  habits  became  perman- 


»  produced  by  such  new  habits  of  life  aj 


it,  the  tendencies  become  permanent.  Let  us  gUr 

at   the  facts  ;   Among  the  families  of  a  civilised 

society,  the  changes  of  occupation  and  habit  from 

Snemtioa  to  generation,  and  the  intermarriaffe  of 
miliea  having  different   occupations  and  habits. 


Bat  it  need*  only  to  eoab«*t  watinnal  ohAiaofcosb 
see  that  msnt^peooliuitia*  eansed  by  balvt  bwaw 
hereditary.  We  know  llkat  thsi*  av*  ^nadfta 
peaoeful,  nomadie,  naritiM*,  bnBtn^  oo^iMwaJ 
races — rueaUiat  •(«  independattt  or  Maria^  meHtr 
or  slotMol ;  we  know  that  man  of  &m^  if  bo*  aL 
have  a  oommon  origm ;  and  henea  it  m  Jnfta  alJi 
that  these  Tariabsa  of  dimuliaD,  whirJi  hsn 
evident  relations  to  mods*  «f  lil^  hara  be^  9*^ 
ally  prodnced  in  the  coon*  «f  «B«ntiatM.  b 
domesticated  animals,  paralld  f»M*  mn  fawrilw 
Not  only  the  forms  and  constftntioa^  bat  die  da- 
pontionB  and  iustind  '  ' 
fowls,  have  become 

wild  kindred.    The  v  „ 

numerons  varistie*  of  meatal  ofaaracter  wad  facaf^ 
permanemllT  establidied  by  mode  <it  Ufa  ;  aad  tttst 
several  tendencies  are  spontaDeoady  manifested.  A 
Tonng  poiotar  will  point  ont  aoovi^tfaefiirait^BStr 
is  taken  afield '  (Speootc**  PtfAolotif,  rvL  L,  -p.  Aft 

The  stroneeat  evidence,  howerar,  lor  tiie  avolatisB 
theory  i*  tte  lemarkable  similaiily  bet  11  asm  iiMtiarti 
and  acqnisitiMH.  Our  inatioet*  are  joat  A»  powia 
that  we  neisd  for  our  support  and  preaervatsm,  tmi 
that  we  should  acquire  by  trying  what  actittis  an 
beat  suited  for  this  pnrpoee.  An  animal  ooam| 
into  the  worid  unable  t«  adjust  the  maramanta  a 
its  limbs,  head,  and  month,  to  piek  np  Om  food  tU 
lies  before  i^  would  have  to  learn  throe  mnwawwfc 
as  quickly  m  poasiUe.  One*  aeoniied,  thef  pawiH 
and  if  vOT  stmn^y  embodied  in  tu  ncsToa*  ^jMiM, 
th^  may  tM  transmitted  in  a  moN  or  Icm  parfM 
form  to  the  next  gaoantiaa.  Ena  mMSag  ttat 
the  tianimasion  is  not  fall  and  oompldw,  a  saScMBt 
baoB  may  be  left  to  Mmdar  the  acqniaitiai  osd- 
paratively  shorb  Tbsn  an  a  great  maay  inatineB 
that  need  a  osrtaia  amooat  of  praotioa  to  make 
them  operative  ;  the  first  attempts  at  loeomotaoa  in 
most  •"■"■-I*  are  feeble  and  awkward. 

I1TSTITUTB,  a  term  used  in  Sootch  EtAnl  Law 
to  denote  the  peiton  who  is  first  miwtinarf  o 
deacsibed  as  entitled  '     '  ' 


which  fi_ 
inatitot^  hot  tlieae  are  entirely  terrhnioal. 

INSTITUTE,  Tai,  in  English  Law,  k  tha  bm^  ' 
of  citation  or  refetenoe  to  Cbief-justioe  Coke'*  grat 
work,  in  four  volnme*,  on  Kngtish  law.     Anotka 
name  for  the  first  part  of  it  is  Cols  vpns  Tinfiiia.   ' 
owing  to  its  being  a  eommsntan  by  Coke  upon  s   ' 
work  of  littleton.    Xbe  second  book  is  a  rrwimral  1 
on  acts  of  parlianuDt^  the  third  is  a  treatisa  oa 
the  ;^iBa*  of  the  erowi^  and  ths  fonrth  tm.  tb 
diffennt  kind*  of  oonrt*. 

INSTITUTE  07  FRABCB.  On  the  ranval 
of  letters,  associations  for  mutual  intsrcooia*  and  ' 
co-operation,  sailed  Acadmniea  (q.  *.},  were  tcrmti  '. 
in  Italy  and  France,  me  of  whiiA,  eompcsad  of  pest* 
of  no  great  note,  was  conrerted  l^  BtehdieB  inia  a  { 
national  institntian,  under  the  aame  <f  Joodfssie  | 
jVoNpalse,  and  mat  for  the  first  tim*  UU  jaly  | 
1037-  Tie  diief  object  of  this  institatioB  wm  i 
the  cultivation  of  the  f^eaah  ItfgMSgt ;  bat  tUi  j 
was  indiSaroitly  accomplided,  owwg  to  the  inlst-  | 
meddling  of  the  court,  whidi  arrogated  te  itself  I 
the  right  of  directiu  tlte  pabHo  taste.  Many  of  I 
the  judgments   of  '^s   Academy  wore   stnagdy   ' 


and  its  p  .  _  .- 

Bruyftre  aa  membera.     lie  Academy  v.- 

with  the  preparation  of  a  Dicdonary  of  the  Fnocfa  ; 
language ;  but  the  merits  of  this  work  have  been 


I,  Google 


mSTITUXEB—INtri'iTUTKnr. 


much  diqnrted,  and  th«  jAta  of  it  gmartlly^  «oii- 
deniMd. — The  tule  for  devieea,  iwor^itiaiu^  and 
medala,  which  pnvailed  in  tbe  itA  &•  MimMted  to 
Louii  XIV.  t&e  bmndatka  of  the  AttuUmi*  dn 
InieripAmt  in  1663,  lor  tka  ""'«*■*■**-  ot^oet  of 
~  -------g  }|2g  oottectafm  of  mfilal*  a&d  other  anti- 


line  h _ 

loitUa;  nit  the  Abb6  Bi^nt 


•nper 


mdent  of 


Ua  Bc^al  library,  aaomedlta  perpetualioii,  inth  an 
eztenskm  of  it<  field  of  labonr,  ai  the  Asadtmie 
JioifoU  de»  In»er^)tiemt  et  Seila-letlret,  under  which 
de^natiou  it  met  for  the  first  time  16th  JnJj  170L 
— Taa  tliinl  Academy  in  mder,  and  at  preent  tha 
most  dittingn^'^^^  acMAtifio  aaaociaidnn  in  tha 
world,  t^  AeaiUtnU  BmaJe  da  Saateet,  waa 
founded  Xxj  Colbert  in  16G6,  ranodcJled  hy  Kpion 
in  1699;  and  furthar  anlarged  in  178tf.— The  painter 
Le  Bran  foai^ad  in  1648  an  Aaudimit  de  PtbUurt. 
for  whicli  he  obtained  a  charter  in  I6S5;  and 
in  1664,  Colbert  remoddledT  and  eatabliahed  it 
as  tlia  AaiAtBiit  Bogale  de  Ftiiitiire  «  Seulpl^rt. 
—An  Aeadimit  Soyidt  ^AnhUettur*  wm  alao 
fonnded. 

All  these  Academie*  were  ■nppreaaed  by  an  edict 
of  the  Convention,  8th  August  1793;  bot  on  25th 
October  179S,  tho  Directory  eatabliahed  a  great 
natianal  aasociation,  for  Hie  pKim«ti<ai  of  the  attl 
sailed  tha  IrutUut  NalioitaL     It  wa« 


at  first  dirided __.  _  . 

Physiqiua  et  Matli&natiqiua ;  Scteneea  Morales  et 
PoUtiqiMa;  Sdeiuea  da  Litttratnre  et  Beanz-Art* ; 
but  on  the  anppreariiHi  of  the  Moond  claai  by  the 
First  Caunl  m  1803,  the  remainingdiwiM  were 
re-ananged  aa  follow:  8daio«a  niyuqiua^  et 
MaUitmatiqiiea;  I^n([ne  et  Littfintnre  Fran{uae; 
Histoire  «t  Utt&atare  Andenne;  Beaoz-Arta;  and 
*tn«  srrangeEoeiit  coatinued  during  the  Empireb  0& 
21st  Marcb  1816,  a  royal  ordinance  commanded 
that  the  four  nUiurn  ihould  be  replaced  by  fonr 
Academies  bnt  the  sener^  title,  '  Inatttate  of 
Frnnce,'  waa  retained,  ^dng  modified  by  tlie  ejathrt 
■  Rojil,'  ' Imperial,'  or  'National,'  in  harmwv  with 
the  political  idiangei  in  FnB0«i  ffinoa  1870,  it  ii, 
of  oonrae,the/(uMii{.ya/>onaI.  The  four  AoademiM 
ar»— L  VAoadtmk  franfmae;  1  Z'AeaMntie  dt» 
InaeripUem*  e(  Bdhi-i^tra;  2.  VAeadMaU  dt* 
Seiauxa;  4.  I/AcadlmU  dtt  Beaia-ArU;  and  aa 
ordinance  bearing  data  26Ui  October  1832,  ro- 
eBtabliabad  the  dd  aeciMid  oUaa  aa  a  fifUi  Academy, 
L'AcadimU  da  Sdmeu  MoraleM  tt  PoUajua,  and 
thia  otpniaaiion  still  anhaista. 

£ach  Academy  haa  its  own  independent  nrem- 
raeut,  and  tiie  free  dispoaitLon  of  tlie  fondi  Slotted 


no  the  five ;  the  common  fond  ia  managed  by  •  « 
mittee  (^  ten  memben  {two  from  each  Academy), 
under  the  piaaidenay  of  the  Minister  of  Poblio 
Instruction.  Members  are  deoted  by  ballot,  the 
election  leqniriiifi  to  be  cooflrmed  by  govemment, 
and  membei*  ol  one  Aoademy  may  be  elected  a« 
memben  of  any  or  all  of  Qu  oOter  four.  Each 
member  haa  an  annual  salaiy  of  1600  franca,  and 
thfaecretarigahaTeOOOa  Eadi: 


■a  prcsan^  bat  ii 


rhole  year. 


expulsion  f<         .  „ 

..  ent  cause  shewn.  Each 
Aoadanty  mteta  onoe  a  week  for  two  hours ;  esoh 
has  alao  one  public  ann'i^^  sitting;  and  on  15th 
Aogust,  there  ia  a  geneml  public  meeting  of  the 
whole  five.  AU  the  Academies,  with  the  excep^on 
oE  tha  first,  have  a.  certain  number  of  aeadtmidau 
Ubra,  attodlt  ttnaigert,  and  a/mipondanU ;  the 
'  ^/'^J^^m^*ilfn■  libTsa'  have  Only  the  right  of  attend- 
ing the  meeting*  of  the  Academy ;  the  '  aaaociia 
Gtiangers'    sre    foreign    member*.      The    following 


Among  the  ouoei^  ttraitgert  in  1874,  there  ware 

-'-    'he  2d  Academy,  Profeeu)r  Max  HuUer ;  in  the 

ProfeasoTs  Owen,  Airy,  and  Wheatstone ;   and 

he  5th,  the  Right  Hon.  W.  B.  Ohuiatone,  and 

Hod.   Mr  Stanliape.      Of  correspondenta,  Hr 

lliomaa  Wright  bdouxed  to  tiie  2d,  as  did  also 

Sir    H.    Rawlituoo,    Mr    Ijiyard.    and    Dr    John 

Huir    of    Edinbun^      Late    oorrespondents   with 

the    varions     academies     were     Professor    Fars- 

'■    ~    -  r,   Sir  J.  W.   Herscbel,  Lwd 

„ ,    !allooh,    Mr  Grote,   and    Dr* 

WheweU  and  Whstely.  The  AtadMnie  Frmfdie 
occupies  itself  witb  debatea  on  grammar,  rfaetoria 
poetry,  and  French  literature  in  geoeral,  and 
ita  great  woA  is  the  preparation  i^  cootinnal 
improvement  of  a  dictionacy  of  the  Fi«noh 
ge.  It  haa  the  disposal  of  two  prizes 
MO  franc*  each,  one  of  2000  francs,  and 
every  alternate  year,  a  sum  of  1500  francs  to 
be  bestowed  on  meritorious  authora  in  poor 
cdrcumstancee.  The  Acadtmie  det  Intcrtptioiu  et 
BfUet-leOm  ha*  tor  it*  subject  history  in  rta 
moat  comprehensive  sense,  inclading  chronology, 
lumiamstology,  and  the  study  of  moon- 

Fery  VirtH,  snd  of  the  lacgasM*  of  all 

nidiona  at  all  timea.  It  haa  in  it*  git  a  prise  of 
2000  franct,  and  another  for  mmusmatology.  Tbt 
AauUmie  dtt  Sdeaat  haa  for  it*  snUect  itatiitua, 
pure  and  mixed  mathematics,  medical  science,  fto. ; 
and  has  the  gift  of  eleven  priaes,  ssvetal  of  ndiicli 
areof  10;000fl«nc*;  all  are  annoal,  with  the  cxotv- 
tion  of  oiMt  whioli  ia  decenniaL  llw  Aeadfmie  tut 
Btaaa-Arit  oeaipie*  itielf  with  painting,  acolptore, 
anihiteotnret  ei^pMTing,  and  moaic ;  and  with  the 
prapantion  of  a  diobonaiT  of  the  finenvt*^  and, 
altmnatah  with  the  first  Aeadsmy,  dtstnbntea  the 
sum  of  WOO  fnnca  amtmg  poor  mcntorioo*  anlluH*. 
The  Aeadtmi*  det  Seiatea  Monia  <t  P<mgua 
dJaouMSB  mental  {tiiloscnitiy,  law  and  Joiiapnidenoe, 
polilaeal  ee^Muy  and  sfafaatie^  seBeral  and  plulo- 
---*----'  ^'-^ — ,  and  poEtica,  adsiinistratiaD,  aitd 


.  .  joenniaL  There  ia  alao  a  Bmdiii 
it  each  Academv ;  and  two  senerol 
al,  the  other  tnemtial—in  QiA  gift 
^  the  Institute. 

Each  year  a  anm  is  voted  by  the  IVeneh  goran- 
msnt  for  the  general  fund  of  the  Institute,  and 
from  tiiia  fund  are  paid  tlw  aDowanoes  of  menibers, 
salaries  of  the  secretaries  and  other  offidal*,  and 
sevenl  prissa ;  al«o  exparimenta,  printii^  &C. 

INSTITUTES  is  the  name  ^ven  to  the  elemen- 
tary treotiBe  on  the  Roman  or  civil  law.  9ee  Law, 
RonAjr,  Cmi. 

INSTITUTION,  in  Church  Law,  mean*  tha 
final  and  authoritative  appointanent  to  a  church 
benefice — more  especially  a  bishopric — by  the 


t.LiOogle 


■fter  the  '  election '  of  a  bishop  by  the  chapter,  .  _ 
hia  '  nonnnatioiL '  by  the  crown,  when  that  right 
belongs  to  the  crown — it  a  only  the  pope  who 
confen  'inistitution.'  In  EogliBh  nsB^e,  uutitution 
a  a  conYBrance  o£  the  ciire  of  Boula  by  the  bishop, 
who,  or  whose  deputy,  reAds  the  words  of  the  ioati- 
tution,  while  the  derk  kneels.  The  institution 
veati  the  benefice  in  the  clerk,  tor  the  purpose  of 
spiritual  duty,  who  therenpon  becomes  entitled  to 
the  profits  thereof.  But  the  title  is  not  complete 
till  Induction  (q.  v.). 

I'NSTBTTMEKT,  in  ]>oint  of  law,  ia  scarcely  a 
technical  tenn,  though  it  is  frequently  used  in  Eng- 
land as  descriptive  of  a  will  or  teetameutary  WTiting 
— and  often  any  document  not  under  seaL  In  Scot- 
land, on  the  other  hand,  it  is  usually  JescripbTe 
only  of  a  notarial  iustruuteat. 

INSTBDMEKTATION  is  the  arranging  of 
music  for  a  oombiaed  number  of  inatnunenta.  The 
nature  and  character  of  the  musical  ideaa  must 
alone  determine  whether  the  instrumentation  shiJ] 
tple  or  arUetic,  and  perhun  complex ;  the 
■       .. 1 j^j^_.__^ 


latter  being  the  caae  when  m 


piiTposeB, .. „ ^ _, 

lu  tlie  orchcatn  is  absolutely  necesaaiy,  as  withoat 
this,  instrumentation  becomes  only  a  deafening  mass 
of  sounds.  The  stringed  instrumenta,  from  their 
nature,  in  most  cases,  form  the  principal  porta  of  a 
score,  around  which  the  other  instruments  move, 
without  depriving  them  of  their  importance.  Tbe 
wind  instruments  represent,  more  or  lesa,  as  it  were, 
a  subordinate  chorus,  whidi  may  again  be  divided 
into  two  kinds,  viz.,  the  wood  instniments  and  the 
braM,  which,  with  the  stringed  instniments,  give 
three  essentially  diETerent  choral  effects,  that  may 
be  mixed  up  together  in  endless  variety.  A.  know- 
ledge of  the  art  of  instrumentstion  is  only  to  be 
acquired  by  great  enierience  j  st  the  same  time, 
much  may  be  learned  by  conoulting  the  following 
■works:  J>U  IruCnantnltiiMg  JUr  da>  OrchatTa, 
Ton  A.  Sundelin,  published  in  Berlin  by  Wogen- 
fUhr;  and  Br  Joseph  FrShlich's  SytlematiadieT 
UtUeniclUiadeavOTz^U^idttlat  OnJuttennttrTimanlai. 
INSTRUMENTS,  Mi7sic*l,  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes — stringed,  wind,  and  percussion. 
Stringed  inatrmnenl«  are  oE  three  kinds  i  those 
whose  sounds  are  produced  by  friction,  as  the  viohn, 
viola,  violoncello,  &c  ;  by  twitching  with  the  finger 
or  otherwise,  as  the  harp,  guitar,  mandoline,  Ac.  ; 
by  striking,  as  the  pianoforte  and  dulcimer.  Wind 
instruments  are  of  two  kinds,  viz.,  the  reed  species 
— as  the  hantboy,  clarionet,  Ac — and  the  flute 
species,  aa  the  flute,  £agealet,  to.  The  trumpet, 
horn,  trombone,  and  all  similar  wind  instruments,  are 
generally  classed  among  the  reed  inatroments ;  but 
whether  the  sound  is  produced  by  the  lips  of  the 
blower  acting  as  a  reed,  or  by  the  compiessed  stresm 
ot  air,  as  in  flute  instruments,  is  not  yet  deter- 
mined. Percussion  instruments  are  those  which  on 
being  struck  produce  only  one  fixed  sound,  sa  the 
dttun,  triangle,  cymbals,  tambourine,  Sx.  Whatever 
materia]  may  be  used  to  form  a  musical  instrument, 
there  are  only  two  means  of  prodncing  musical 
■ounda,  and  these  are  by  the  vibrations  of  a  fixed 
elaatio  body,  such  as  the  string  of  the  violin  or 
pianoforte,  the  reed  of  the  hautlray,  bsaaoon,  to. ; 
or  by  the  vibrationB  of  a  confined  column  of  air  put 
into  motion  by  a  atream  of  compressed  air,  as  in  the 
flute,  flageolet,  and  all  the  ordinary  flute  species  of 
mgan-pipes. 
I'NSUCKEN  HU'LTmiES,inScotchLaw,mean 
kyments  made  to  the  miller  by  persons  who 
lund  to  grind  their  com  at  a  particular  null, 
i6lde  called   Thirlage    (q.  v.).      Out- 


epayn 


Sackea  multures  mean  the  payment  for  the  i    ... 
grinding,  which  strangers  pay ;  and  the  irwackoa    ' 
multures  include  that  plut  a  Small  premium,  vbkk    I 
goes  to  the  proprietor  of  the  mill. 
INSU'RANCB,  a  contract  ot  indemnity,  wiKTCby  J 

!  party,  in  consideration  of  a  specified  pajmeoC,  ' 

'  ^     ■  ■       '     idertakesto 


called  a  '  premium,'  nn 
against  nsk  of  loss. 


The  first  prmciplea  of  in 
>uld  appear  to  have  been  acted  on  at  a  Teiy  ; 
eaily  period,  smce,  without  attaching  undue  impon-  , 
once  to  the  opinions  of  writers  who  contend,  ou  tk  i 
authority  of  Livy,  that  they  were  known  during  ths  , 
second  Punic  war,  or  that  the  Emperor  Claadia 
can  be  consiilerad  an  insurer,  because,  in  oid«r  to  ' 
encourwB  the  importation  of  com,  he  took  all  thf  | 
loss  or  lumage  it  might  sustain  npon  bim—lf — thor 
are  yet  aituit  rules  of  sundry  *  Euilda,'  or  social  { 
corporations  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  whereby,  in  retnni  i 
for  certain  fixed  contnbutions,  the  members  gosr- 
antee  each  other  against  lom  from  '  fire,  wM^,  rob-  | 
bery,  or  other  calamity.'  It  was,  however,  to  oora  ' 
maritime  casualties  tJiat  insurance,  viewed  in  iu  ; 
commercial  aspect,  seems  to  have  been  first  under-  t 
taken.  So  early  as  143S,  the  magistratea  of  Baice-  ,' 
lona  issued  an  ordinance  relating  to  this  cLus  of  | 
business,  and  we  find  in  the  speech  of  the  Lord 
Keeper  Bacon,  on  opening  Queen  £[iubetfa'a  titsi  - 
parliament,  tbe  allusion,  '  doth  not  the  wise  nm-  1 
chant,  in  every  adventme  of  danger,  give  part  to  I 
hare  the  reat  assured.'      The  merit  ra  being  tlu  I 


de  Witt,  pensionary  counsellor  of  Holland,  whoae 
Iteport  to  the  States-general,  on  the  valuation  <i 
life  annuities,  has  been  lately  brought  to  It^ht 
by  Mr  Hendrika.  The  first  insurance  company 
established  in  Britain  appeara  to  have  been,  tbe 
'  Amicable,'  founded  in  low  ;  not  the  office  known 
\,j  that  name  now,  but  the  one  that  still  esista  u 
[he  '  Hand  in  Hand.'  Onutting  the  gambling  and 
other  objectionable  projects  for  which  the  science  of 
insurance  has  been  held  responsible,  it  would  exc«^ 
Ibe  limits  of  the  present  article  to  give  any  detailed 
account  of  even  the  more  legitimate  applicatimi 
of  it  which  are  current  at  the  present  day :  the 
traveller  can  be  protected  from  tbe  pecuniary  loo 
entailed  from  damage  by  rail  or  flood ;  tbe  gardener 
from  the  devastation  of  the  hailstorm ;  tbe  fatma- 
from  the  inroads  of  disease  among  his  cattle ;  and 
employer  and  employed  alike  reap  the  benefit  of  a 
guarantee  on  fidelity.  126  eatablished  life  offices 
within  the  United  Kingdom  appeared  in  an  ac- 
credited list  published  in  1874,  and  although 
there  were,  besides,  66  winding  up  in  Chanoen', 
there  is  nn  amount  of  confidence  to  be  placed  in 
the  stability  and  integrity  of  tbe  greats  number 
existing,  tl^t  cannot  be  exceeded  in  any  otlier 
commercial  interest  We  propose  confining  oar 
remaining  remarks  to  the  divisiona  of  fire,  life, 
and  marine  insurance. 

1.  Fire  Imarance, — Although  the  business  of  fire 
insurance  is  not  founded  upon  auch  exact  data  as 
can  bo  made  available  in  the  practice  of  life  insur- 
ance, yet  considerable  progreaa  has  been  made  by 
the  offices  towards  a  correct  classificBtion  of  the 
risks  they  run,  and  the  rates  of  premium  range  by 
slight  gradatimia  from  a  minimum  of  Is.  6£  per 
cent.,  which  covers  an  ordinary  private  dwelling- 
house,  to  £3,  3*.  per  cent  and  upwards,  charged  for 
insuring  cotton-mills,  sugar-refineries,  theatres,  and 
like  specially  hazardous  neks.  The  average  rate  of 
premium  received  for  risks  in  tbe  United  Kingdran 
may  be  estimated  at  4>.  per  cent  A  duty  S  3(. 
per  cent  per  annum  used  to  be  levied  by  govern- 
ment upon  all  fire  inatirancea,  except  famiing-stoii 
and  public  hospitals,  and  the  parliamentaiy  retunia 


nude  o(  it  affotded  valnabla  atatiitictU  iikfoTnuitioa 
of  the  tobJ  tunooat  iiuared.  The  daiy  paid  in  the 
year  1860  Miiouiit«d  to  £1,558,608,  repreeentuig  a 
gTomaiEonnt  insured  OTer  tie  yearof£l,039,072,llO; 
and  fanning-itock,  £73,309,898.  Since  the  repeal, 
in  1869,  of  tiie  act  which  levied  a  daty  npon  fire 
o  data  remain  for  estimating  the  total 
r  eOected  in  this  oountry.    The 


Talae  of  these  n 


fire  offioei  u  do  Ufa  huaiaesa  alio.  The  local 
retama  made  to  the  Board  of  Woi^  upon  whioh  to 
eatim&te  the  contributionB  of  the  oompaniea  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  &e  brigade,  afTord  incideatally 
an  intereating  proof  of  the  vealth  of  the  metovpolia, 
and  of  the  nugnitade  of  ita  bonnets  operations. 
Over  the  area  mentioned,  which  eioludea  the 
iinportont  warehoiues  of  (he  Victoria  Docks,  the 


coTered  of  upwards  of  £488,500,000.    Fire      

ectea  are  of  too  familiar  uie  to  require  explanation 
1,  but  one  point  in  connection  with  them  may  be 
noticed  .-  unlike  a  marine  policy,  they  guaiuite« 
the  insured  to  the  extent  of  the  whole  amount 
specified  in  them,  without  regard  to  the  eiceM  of 
value  of  the  entire  property  Defore  the  fir^  nnlees 
an  exceptional  'average  olause'  ia  attached  to  the 

2.  I.}fe  Auunmee,iix  its  widest  aenae, ia a oontntct 
entered  into  by  the  assurer  to  pay  a  certain  benefit 
contingent  upon  the  dnration  of  one  or  more  lives. 
The  'present  value'  <)r  single  premium  correrooiiding 
to  an  aasurance  Of  £t,  pavable  at  the  end  of  the 
year  of  death  of  an  individoal,  is  deduced  from  the 
value  of  an  annuity  on  Qie  same  life  (see  Askuity), 


year(theTefoteeqaaltO| — -,r  being  the  interest  of 

£1  for  a  year),  and  A.ia  the  value  of  an  annuity  of 
£1  per  ^nnniTi  on  the  life  t^sd  x. 

The  more  common  form  m  which  a  life  assurance 
is  carried  out  is,  however,  by  the  payment  of  an 
noDual  premium  to  the  emnpany  assuring,  and  this 
is  detennined  (using  the  same  symbols  aa  above) 

by-  the  formola  i"Xa.—  {1  —  »).  The  truth  of 
wUch  is  thna  demonstrated  in  a  popular  form 
by  Mr  Gray.  The  present  value  of  an  '  imme' 
Jiate'  annuity  on  a  life  aged  a>— L  e.,  of  an  annuity 
of  which  the  tat  payment  fsJls  to  be  made  at  the 
Gommenoement  of  the  transaction— being  1  4-  A.,  it 
la  easily  deduced  by  proportioii  that  £l  will  pur- 
chase an  immediate  annuitry  of  = j-  ,  the  recipro- 
cal of  the  first  value  ;  and  this  would  be  the  proper 
premium  for  the  benefit  if  the  latter  were  paid  to 
the  assured  at  the  beginning  of  the  first,  and  not 
at  the  end  of  the  last  year  of  the  duration  of  the 
policy  ;  but  inasmuch  as  the  benefit  ia  not  paid 
until  thd  close  of  the  stipulated  period,  the  differ- 
ence between  its  immediate  value  and  its  value  if 
due  a  year  hence  (1  —  v)  has  to  be  deducted  from 
each  year's  premium,  and  the  formula  is  the  result. 
The  three  impor^nt  elements  that  have  to  be 
taken  into  account  in  the  calculation  of  office- 
premiuma  are — the  rate  of  interest  which  is  to 
accrue  from  their  investment,  the  mortality  returns 
with  which  the  fntnre  experience  of  the  insured 
is  expected  to  agree,  and  the  proportion  or  '  loading' 
to  be  added  to  the  lut  rat^  to  meet  expenses  of 
management,  and  afford  a  profit  to  the  ii 
The  rate  of  3  per  cent  has,  with  a  very  few 


on  good  security  for  tTana»cti(__   

many  yeai&  The  mortality  table  most  generally 
in  use  is  that  originally  puUiahed  by  ll&  Mihut 
derived  from  the  observabona  of  Dr  Eeysham  on 
the  rate  of  mortality  in  Cariisla  dnring  the  nine 
years  1779  to  1787  inclusive,  and  hence  known  as 
the  Carlisle  Table.  This,  however,  is  now  being 
superseded  by  the  mortahlj  experience  of  life 
assurance  companies,  collected  by  the  Institute  of 
Actuaries,  and  published  in  May  1369,  exhibiting 
certainly  the  most  correct  standard  of -"  '" 


— iplete  adaptation  for  all  practical  purposesL 

The   following   are    example*  of    net 
calculated  on  the  Institute  data : 


LSorui 

.LI  H-,  J  r« 

»  !  ,seL 

■iSS. 

<« 

M              «T     fi     1 

Bl>    • 

WHOLI  or  UFt-««,«. 

LI.  !  »■  can. 

».. 

,^su 

,i:ss. 

30 

to 

H  11   H 
«8io  ;i 

jljl 

The  qaesUon  of  the  addition  to  bo  mode  to  aucb 
(net)  preminma  is  influenced  by  different  condder- 
ations  having  r^ard  to  ths  practice  of  the  office 

AnuroDce  companies  are  divided  into  three  elaisw: 
Propridani  Cmnpaniet,  being  those  offices  pot- 
issing  a  capital  the  property  ra  the  partners,  and 
hicb,  in  addition  to  the  accumulated  premium^ 
.  J  pledged  to  the  policy-holders  aa  a  guarantee  for 
the  fulnlment  of  uieir  claims.  As  the  liability  in 
such  comnoniea  is  limited  to  the  net  sums  asBurad, 
the  addition  made  to  the  premiums  requires  to  be 
only  such  a  proportion  oa  will  cover  the  actual 
outlay  for  monagemeat,  and  remunerate  the  share- 
holders for  the  risk  of  loss  which  they  run  by 
fluctuBtioa  in  the  mortality,  or  from  bad  invest- 
ments. A  comparison  of  the  above  premiums  with 
the  '  non-participation'  rates  usually  advertised,  will 
shew  that  the  prevailing  oompetition  has  induced 
the  construction  of  tabfes  very  favourable  to  the 
public  2.  Mutual  Offica,  where  the  members 
themselves  constitute  the  company,  bemg  liabb 
each  other  for  all  claims.  Here,  in  the  absence 
a  capital,  it  is  usual  to  adopt  a  scale  of  preminmt 
known  to  be  in  excess  of  what  is  required  to  mc«t 
the*  sums  insured.  The  profit  arising  therefrom  is 
periodically  oscertiuned,  and  allotted  to  tlie  aasured, 
most  freqnentiy  in  the  form  of  'bonuses'  or  additions 
to  tiie  d^ms  payable  under  the  polides.     Some 


jbjGoogle 


oompamw  daiDg*lMg«  bwMH  an  t4  H...   , 

sad  m  pojnl  «f  ttabUi^aBd  impn>MliaU»  B>B«a»- 
mmt  bar  th«  U^hMt  ^MMter.  3.  Mkttd  Oam- 
SMwiaa    ara    prapnebuy  om         '  ' 

UMTCMBd  ntM  u  will  jrMd 
ntnn  for  tiia  ozpanKB  of  tDBBafMnent  and  ^lui^ 
antM  of  thflb  cqxtil,  naerw*  ka  tb^  pnpziatoia 
•  stipiilsM  pn^wtiaa  of  tlie  profita. 

It  woold  M  byroad  oar  pcfmnoe  to  deal  with  Ae 
«ompantiTe  merit*  of  tbeM  ■;«tena ;  nndontitedlf, 
office*  ui  wfaiali  UiB  amirad  partioipata  in  a  part  or 
th*  wbale  of  the  pnt&ts,  hare  for  aome  yean  baok 
eajojed  Qie  laigeat  *hare  of  pnblio  lapporb  Life- 
aaiDraiicek  ia  toe  abatract,  ii  oertunly  one  tA  the 
sreateat  bleMiuee  of  modem  times.  The  extent 
to  which  it  haa  Seen  mad*  available  may  be  jodged 
from  the  fact,  that  the  total  aoni,  iacdndiog  ve^ed 
boatue*,  for  which  the  exiatine  ofBcei  are  liable 
is  aboTe  £343/H)0;OOD  tterUng ;  ue  annu^  ptemiame 
payable  therefore,  bang  above  tan  millioita — a  *om 
eqnol  to  Ith  of  the  net  pnbKo  leveno*  of  the  Uiuted 
i^ngdom,  or  nearly  half  of  tba  entire  Cnttom*  \ 

A  greatly  increasad  facibty  [or  "t^^^g  the 

aary  calculations  in  connection  with  life-aati 

ha*  been  dereloped  within  the  last  few  year*  by  the 
0**  of  '  Commntation  Tables,'  the  invention  of  Mr 
Georse  Barrett,  and  of  which  a  lar^  coUeetioii, 
calciUated  by  Hr  D.  Jonei,  i*  published  by  the 
Sodety  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge.  For 
the  best  information  on  their  eonstrocticin,  and  other 
formulte,  the  resder  ia  referred  to  the  stsndard 
works  of  De  Morgan,  Gray,  Hilne,  aad  fte  trans- 
actions of  the  Institute  of  Aetnatiea,  poblished 
qnartraly.    See  Posr-omci  IlMDsaiKW  in  Scrr. 

3.  Jforuie/fMurance. — AlthoD^  this  branch  of  the 
subject  does  not  possess  soch  a  genetal  iaterest  as 
the  preceding,  it  is  one  that  requires  quite  as  great 
an  amount  of  study  and  experience  to  insure  its 
successful  proaecntion.     In  estimatin 

only  ths  quality  of  the  veesel  oorered,  but  the 
sesson  in  which  she  sails,  the  known  character  of 
her  captain,  the  nature  of  the  commodity  carried, 
and  (the  oonbact  beinc  an  indemnificatjon   both 

onr  pohiical  relaliona.    Nerertheless,  losso , 

like  other  mcidenla,  are  obaarred  to  follow  certain 
laws,  and  if  t^  arenue  frmn  wUch  the  valne  of 
the  risk  is  dednoed  i*  of  piffideiitly  tonad  baaii^  the 
rssolt  orec  equal  interral*  of  time  can  be  predteted 
with  reaaoBaote  oartainty.  Until  1821,  the  only 
eompunte  that  oonld  grant '--  ' 


s'lUml 
boo^i  t 


the  mont^xdy  erf  thea 

"*    other    oompaniea      .     . 
.   a   large    piution    of    the  hu 

howarer,  still    transacted  by  indiTidual 

deaianated  '  UBderwritar*.'  The  underwriters  of 
XiOluon  form  an  influential  society  known  ss 
'  Lloyd's '  {q.  T.),  from  baring  origiaslly  met  in 
a  oofTce-house  kj^  by  a  peraon  of  that  name 
in  Abcbnrch  £«ne  ;  and  tiietr  eit«n*ive  bunnesi^ 
nnneroos  agent*  for  procuring  infomatioti,  and 
general  influeaoe  in  ue  mereantile  oommaoity, 
have  lo^  nined  tat  them  a  wcrid-wide  repntatitm. 
A*  a  tiiMlBiunbar  of  riaka, 


dindnal  insurer,  he  finda  it  prndant  to  take  but  a 
fraotfamal  part  of  the  entin  risk  on  himself,  and 
thia  ia  done  by  snbaerilHng  or  '  nndsrwriting'  the 
stipulated  proportion  on  a  policy  drawn  outfor  the 
f^de  amount  to  be  covered.  The  neoeaaity  for 
oircnlatang  the  policy  for  this  purpose,  and  other- 
wiae  negotaating  the  insurance,  has  given  rise  to 
anoQier  trasincss,  that  of  the  'innuanoa  broker,' 


aootdant  being  met  l^  pro 
tiona  from  the  memboa  in  propostion  to  tt*  mb 
reqtaotiTd^  innued  by  them,  TTndsr  thi*  syriet 
the  connisnon  of  the  diip-hroker,  kltban^  ii- 
cloded  in  the  preminn*,  ia  lavsid  by  tka  owns. 

Mkiiae  insaiano*  diffei*  from  kn  ordinaiy  fa 
inaurane^ia  respect  tiMt  in  oa««  «f  ntriialksslk 
nnderwritsr  pan  only  andt  a  proportann  of  the  as 
insured  a«  the  daiMue  snataind  besra  to  'Mwiit 
valoa  at  the  time  of  msnranoe.  Sm  Atbuu.  It 
adjusting  a  partial  Iob%  it  i*  dbuaI  to  dedast  «a 
third  of  the  nominal  vsln*^  tat  now  natssisk  it- 


freight  at  the  amoont  she  would  hATO  <._  . 
Iho  v^rage  tenninated  favoorably,  and  her  caigo  4 
it*  invoice  price,  adding  pmniam  and  all  diugK 
The  insnranoe  ia  bindiog  slthon^  tha  sh^  air 
have  been  lost  wbeu  the  poli^  -waa  ezeonted,  bS 
'  true,  is  held  to  vitiate  the  oar 
the  mimtatonent  ia  not  nuisn' 

— . JT  stamp-dn^,  now   i«dnoed  Is  t 

nominal  rate,  is  levied  npon  all  mariD*  iassnsa 
polioiet.  In  fixing  ita  amount^  t3ia  <dioioe  lis*  sid 
the  insured  of  dmng  *■>  with  M&r^iM  to  tha  m 
of  insnrmnwi  (not  ezaeedtag  mie  ynar),  or  pei  njb 
voyage,  as  follow* :  Sy  time — for  any  tens  m 
ezoeeding  six  month*,  3d.  per  £100 :  aaoeeding  d 
month*,  lid.  per  £10a  By  voyage^  3<f.  pv  ^lU 
of  preminma  foe  marine  inanmiwe  i>i 


CMisequsnce  of  the  tmmber  of  shipwrecks  tif^ 
enced.  For  the  five  year*  1861  to  1S55  iadstin 
tiie  annual  average  ot  t^oae  repented  was  IKS; 
from  ISM  to  186^  12S2;  from  I86I  to  1866,  ISSi 
from  1866  to  iSlfS.  1802— a  very  Breat  increasa 

iMnmairoi,  a  Law.— The  law  on  the  salijeEl  <l 
I ;.  »k^._t;.ii- 4.V throughout  U* 

- J  genenDr  pl- 
eaded by  vropcaals,  in  wfaidi  cat*  the  pnjiMali  nd 
p<^  of  innuaiuie  must  be  itad  blether,  if  * 
policy  refers  to  these  propoaal*.  In  ordo- ta  isant 
property,  the  insmtE  must  have  aoone  intoat 
~~  the  property  insured,  for  otherwise  thae  w«sM 
an  inducement  to  oommit  areon.  But  ha  b"^ 
)  b^  owner ;  it  ia  "nfma^  that  ha  be  acaoiud-  ' 
able  for  ilie  gDod%  or  hot^  a  lien  on  them,  •>  > 
carrier,  wharfinger,  or  bailee.  Thn*^  nmi^  tsim" 
keep  up  a  floabng  policy  to  oovcc  all  goods  i^ 
may  h4>peD  to  be  on  tlMw  ptrtmisiw  within  ^ff'^  ' 
penod.  Inaa  the**caaa*,the  wwd*<rftkeiK£9' 
are  the  iinp<tttant  point* ;  Md  good  fahh  ii  nqnx' 
in  giving  a  oocrect  deacoipbon  of  tb  goM'  * 
pemises,  for  every  etatement  or  lepiwailiti"  «  . 
to  anything  that  la  Msantial  is  taksn  tobss*^  : 
ranty.  'Fhe  pnmisss  must  not  be  mat«riallvsHa« 
during  the  nsk,  otherwise  ths  policy  will  (Mr""'  ; 
but  often  the  policy  stipulatee  tiiat  altastiossa?  ; 
be  made  on  giving  notice.  A  paraoo  is  kdg^P  I 
may  insure  his  goods,  and  may  safely  caU  <* 
house  his  'dwelling-hoase'  for  that  pomsa  I"^ 
ss  a  genena  rule,  great  care  must  be  tsten  ^* , 
insured  not  to  minepresent  auytfainK  iB»l«nsl>*^  ' 
not  to  conceal  any  extraordinary  nsk  ^AiA  >■  ] 
insnrer  onght  to  know.     If  a  fire  htppm  <™["  [ 


hyGoogle 


IK8IT£AJfCG— INTAOUa 


uaratreuana  kc  m>  i> 
by  tba  nc^igiDos  <m  th>  iiiiiinl  or  hk  Berrai 
tMB  tM  gMwUy  the  T«T  tiiingi  whidi  «> 
uoa  ii  inWdcd  to  mMo  agMMt.  When 
hupm,  it  is  gaaanuly  Always  {corided  bj  Ote 
noliejtkat  notio*  <f  ue  loM  t*  tit  b«  aMrtiiL  aiid 
foil  pftrtienlu>  ol  tha  dttnugv  done,  and  tbo  allegsd 
Ttlna,  Eur  it  ii  mdj  tha  motod  loei  whiidi  ii  inHued 
^Moit,  tad  tltat  auiy  can  ba  raooreraL  I^db,  it  a 
penoa  iiuniM  hia  Itnue  w  fonutoM  for  XCOO,  and 
duD*g«  onlj  t«  tlM  axtent  of  £S0  bM  bean  dmie  by 
Bra,  lu  can  oaljr  noo*(r  tbe  £50,  for  otiierwiae  bs 
woiM  be  batter  off  tliaii  he  waa  befbra  die  &r^  ami 
the  contract  ia  oBa  marely  of  indamni^ — i.  a.,  it  doaa 
not  add  to  one'a  veatUt,  bnt  nuidy  aaovrea  a^Umt 
Iml  It  ia  often  paorkUd  tlut  the  annoal  payment 
'  ■'  nacontnot  rf  ' 


paid  iriUiin  IS  da^  after  the  fint  or  pravioiu  year 
liu  expired,  but  it  ia  daiuenma  to  dlow  the  ^7- 
jaaA  to  be  poatooned  ao  kmg,  for  if  a  fiie  hupan 
in  tha  intern],  tka  inanrer  inll  not  in  general  be 
liable.  Sonetiinaa  tha  aame  property  ia  uunired  in 
aarenl  otSeet,  but  ia  that  oaae  the  iniored  party 
"  '  a  01^  Koover  the  value  of  hia  h)ai 
leather  of  the  iDanren, 
'1  policy  cover  the 

_  a  piopuclioBata  part  bom 

iiiKT^  for  tiiey  all  drrida  the  loaa  among  tiMm. 
Id  casta  where  curieia  and  othara  take  out  a  float- 
g  pdinr  of  flra 


extent  of  hia  own  iiit«(«at 
tha  owiter  of  t^  gooda  daaboyed  ia  enlitled  to 
TOMrm  the  baluioe  from  the  carrier,  even  thoii^ 
arigiiially  ha  never  gave  authority  t«  the  camir  to 
iinra  theoo.  And  ao,  in  like  maiuier,  if  a  pcnon  ia 
inrared,  and  Teoovera  hii  loaa  from  the  inaumr,  and 
then  aasa  a  tilird  party  for  the  wrong  which  oaosed 
the  I«at,  the  inanrer  seta  tha  benefit  of  what  mi^ 
thua  be  recovered,  in  oiminntion  of  hia  own  lam. 

L^  Intumtee  ia  not  a  contract  of  indecuuty,  like 
Gre  mnmnce,and  theniot*  a  penon  may  inaore  hia 
life  in  aa  many  inaoianoa  ottcee  a>  he  plaaae^  and  hia 
<ieciihira  irill  reoovw  the  fall  amooat  inanrad  from 
och  of  the  inaorera,  lenrdlcaa  of  the  nat  In  mder, 
howver,  to  inanre  a  lifa,  the  inanrar  mnat  either 
himadf  be  'tlM  life'  or  mnat  have  a  pecnnisry 
iotanat  in  the  life.  Thna,  a  creditor  ia  entitied  to 
initm  hia  debtor'a  life ;  a  wife  may  inani«  her 
huiband'a  or  her  own,  aa  if  ahe  were  nnmazried ; 
and  he  m^  inanie  the  wife'^  if  ahe  haa  as 
undty  or  property  letUed  upon  her  for  life,  in 
which  he  haa  an  intarat  It  u  enoo^  abo,  tiiat 
tha  intoaat  of  the  inamer  eiiat  at  the  time  the  pi^icy 
iieotendiidO)  and  Iimiocl  thoodti  the  iotMiCat  after- 
warda  c»aa*,lM  wiUatiUfaa  anfitled  to  tecorer  the 
amomtt,  if  Um  polioy  ii  kept  up.  Thna,  a  creditor 
vhcae  debt  ia  aatiafied,  may  atiU  raoow  on  the 
ilicy.  In  entering  into  oonbacta  of  life  inaonace^ 
Tnpnlooa  good  Eutik  ia  exacted  in  the  deaoription 
'""  oatareof  thalifeiuBdrad,  ■  -  -'  >  <  ■ 
reacntation  in  a  matcnal  ] 
.  -'a  li^  to  leeover.  Soma 
the  length  U  ioaettins  in  their  poliaea  a  .  , 
i'  any  miwepieaeotafitm  (L  e,,lioweTer  trifling  be 
■i^de,  the  polioy  will  be  void.  But  particular  care 
mmli  be  taken  to  avoid  inch  offlcea,  for  the  poUdea 
t'keti  out  en  anoh  tenna  will  generally  be  to  nnitdi 
^arte  paper,  aa  far  aa  any  aecmity  u  concerned. 
At  the  aame  tame,  it  ia  c^ten  dangerona  for  the 
iDiDter  to  treat  li^tly  any  miarepresentation,  for  in 
the  end  tbe  qneabon,  whethtji  it  la  material  01  not, 
^ill  be  ona  not  for  him  or  hia  eieentora,  but  for  a 
}>ii7.  in  caaa  an  action  ia  brought.  When  the  iKilioy 
u  effected  through   an  agent   on   the   priadpalt 


life,  and  the  agemt,  a: 


ualy  and  without  tha 


anthoritiy  of  the  principal,  makea  a  niiareprew 
tion,thit  win  bind  the  principal  Where  the  pi 
whoiM  life  ia  inanied  commna  anicide,  or  ia  banged, 
the  poli<y  ia  vmd,  rnilry,  in  tiit  caaa  of  aiuoide,ha 
waa  m  a  atata  of  inaaai^  at  the  timei  Tb»  pcdicy, 
however,  frequently  haa  an  esneat  jrovudon  on  thia 
subject,  the  termt  of  which  -wiH  be  lii  that  caae  all* 
important,  and  will  govern  tbe  liability.  In  case 
tha  policy  providet,  aa  it  often  doea,  for  ita  6on- 
tinnanoe,  if  payment  after  tha  exjBtatioii  of  the 
year  i»  made  withiB  16  or  21  daya,  it  ia  dangprona 
to  nm  the  risk  of  this  iottrva],  for  if  the  party  diea 

dnriog  the  16  days  before  the -.  ..  . 

policy  will  not  be  aet  up  b} 
forward  to  pay  within  tkote 
ei^ireetly  allows 


!  LDB  prenuum  u  paio,  ine 
p  by  his  eiecutma  ooming 
EO«e  duTB.  Bat  the  poli^ 
ra  of  this,  in  which  caae  it 


payment.  IJfe  aasurancsa  are  often  aeaigoed  in 
security  at  a  debt,  in  which  caae  the  aasigaor  gener- 
ally oovenanta  to  pay  the  premiums,  ao  aa  to  keep 
the  security  up ;  and  failing  payment  by  the  aasignor, 
the  osaiguee  la  generally  auUiorised  to  pay  uiem 
hiuieelf,  and  recover  the  amount  from  the  asaiguor. 
Kotioe  of  an  aaaignment  of  a  life  policy  should 
alwaya  be  given  to  the  inaunnoe  company,  so  as  to 
let  them  know  whom  thay  are  to  pay. 

Marilime  Ittturanct  ia  effected  eitner  on  a  voyage 
from  one  port  to  another,  in  which  case  it  u 
called  a  voyage  policj;,  or  it  ia  from  one  given 
day  to  aooOier,  in  which  caae  it  ia  called  a  tiina 
pc&iy.  When  tile  value  of  the  pnmerty  insured 
u  expneaed  in  tha  policy,  it  ia  called  a  valued 
policy,  and  when  not  ao  expreased  it  ia  an  open 
policy.  In  general,  wagering  or  gaming  policies  ate 
void  by  atatute,  and  the  inaurer  man  have  tome 
iatereat  in  the  ship,  such  aa  the  prafita  of  the 
voyage  or  the  freight.  The  insurance  of  teamen's 
wagee,  however,  ia  not  competent,  for  it  tends  to 
take  away  the  stimulos  of  exertion  from  Uie  crew. 
When  the  polioy  atotea  a  fixed  aom  as  the  value  of 
the  mopert;,  and  eipreealy  ^ovidea  that  Qie  policy 
ahall  be  deemed  ai^demt  jmc€  of  interaa^  the 
inauranoe  ia  an  inauiance  *  utereat  or  no  interest,' 
and  void  l>y  tha  statute.  When  the  polity  ia  a 
voyage  policy,  there  ia  an  implied  warranty  by  tha 
inaurv  that  the  diip  ia  aeaworthy  at  the  oommence- 
nunt  af  tha  viqrage,  but  there  la  no  inch  warranty 
in  a  time  p<Jicy.  Aa  ia  the  case  in  Sia  and  lite 
polioiea,  any  fiandulent  oonoealment  of  material 
circnmatancea  which  increaae  the  risk  will  void  the 
policy.  But  everything  done  in  the  usual  courae 
of  navigation  and  trade  ia  preaumed  to  have  been 
foreaeen,  and  in  contemplation  of  both  partiea.  Tha 
policy  ia  understood  to  cover  the  risk,  not  onfy 
of  tin  perila  of  the  aea,  properly  so  colled,  but  of 


mnce  or  negluenoa  m  Uie  put  of  the  master  or 
iiMca.  But  the  Iom  canaed  by  men  tear  and 
.--■iauot  ooveredl:^  thepcdiay ;  theoanae  of  the 
loaa  mnat  be  aomethiug  fortnitoua  or  aocidentaL 
Every  wJiqy  impliedly  aasnmea  that  the  veael  wHl 
procaad  itnightway  to  her  dacs  of  destination, 
without  unneoeasaiy  delay.  Sat  acnnetimea,  from 
-    '- —         —   "'  "    iliiiiiliihilj   iiiii  I1IIIIJI  fill   Itiii 


master  to  deviate,  in  which  case,  and  in  which  only, 
tha  polioy  will  remain  good,  strict  proo^  however, 
being  always  given  of  this  impenuna  neceaaity. 
When  the  ship  has  been  ao  injured  or  deterior> 
ated  aa  to  tender  it  hopeleaa  to  reatore  it,  and  the 
repain  will  ooet  mora  uian  the  ship  is  worth,  the 
aaaurad  may  abandon  the  ahip,  and  chum  for  a  total 
loaa.    aaaAvmAQE. 

INTA'GLIO  {ItaL  'cuttmg  in'),  a  term  in  art, 
the  oppoaite  of  relief  (see  Alto-xilikvo),  meana  the 
repreaentation  of  a  aubject  by  ht^owin^  it  out  in 
-  — n,  or  other  sabatonce ;  so  that  an  iiiifimiiiiiii 


tyi^ioogle 


IHTEGEAL  OAXCULUS-nrTBNDANT. 


takes  from  the  eograving  preieDta  the  appearance 
oE  a  bas-relief. 

I'NTEORAL  CAIiCULVS.    SeeCAumcs. 

INTBGRA'TION.    See  Camclus. 

I'NTBLLECT,  the  Ei&me  for  the  thinkinf;  portion 
:  mental  constitution.     Mind  contaus  three 


See  EHonoK,  Will.     The   intdlectiml  po< 

eiplaiDed  in  p&it  by  their  contrast  wiUt  feeling  and 
wilL  When  we  eojoy  pleasuie  or  sufTer  pais,  we 
are  said  to  feel ;  vhen  ne  act  to  procure  the  one  or 
avoid  the  other,  ve  put  forth  voluntary  energy ; 
when  ve  remember,  compare,  reason,  our  intelligence 

The  powers  of  the  intellect  hsive  been  varioasly 
daaaified.  Among  the  commonly  recognised  desig- 
nations for  them,  we  may  mention  Memory,  Reason, 
and  Imagination,  which  imply  three  very  distinct 
applications  of  our  mental  forces.  Reid  classified 
tbem  as  follows :  Perception  by  the  Senses,  Memory, 
Conception,  Abstraction,  Judgment,  JUosoning. 
Stewart  added  Consciousness,  to  denote  the  power 
of  recognising  oor  mental  stsitea,  as  Sensatien  and 
Percephon  moke  us  cogolzaat  of  the  outer  world; 
likewise  Attention  (a  purely  volantary  function, 
although  exerted  in  the  domain  of  intelligence]. 
Imagination,  and  the  Association  of  Ideas. 

It  might  be  easily  shewn  that  in  such  a  classifica- 
tion M  the  above  there  is  no  fundamental  distinctness 
of  function,  although  there  may  be  eomo  differences 
in  the  direction  given  to  the  powers.  There  is  not 
a  faculty  of  Memory  which  is  all  memocy,  and 
nothing  but  memory.  Reason  and  Imagmation 
equal^  involve  processes  of  recollection,  jud  with 
regard  to  the  Association  of  Ideas,  it  has  been 
shewn  by  Mr  Samuel  Bailey  {Lell^i  on  lAe  Human 
Mind)  that  if  this  is  to  be  introduced  into  the 
eiplanation  of  the  intellect,  it  mnst  supersede  the 
other  faculties  entirely ;  in  short,  we  must  proceed 
either  by  faculties  (as  Memoty,  Reason,  Jtc)  or  by 
Association,  but  not  by  both. 

In  endeavouring  to  arriveatasatisfsctory  account 
of  the  human  intellect,  we  must  make  a  deeper 
analysis  than  is  implied  in  the  foregoing  deaigna- 
tdona.  We  find  at  least  tliree  facts,  or  properties, 
which  appear  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  | 
to  be  fundamental  and  distinct,  no  one  in  any  d^ree  I 
imping  the  rest,  while  bdien  together  tney  are 
considered  sufficient  to  explain  all  the  opetationi  of 
Intelligence,  strictly  so  called. 

I.  BlBCBDUKATJON',  Or  the  consciousnesB  of  Differ-  I 
enoe.  When  we  are  affected  by  tlie  difference  of  i 
two  tastes  or  odonrs,  or  sounds  or  colours — this  is 
neither  mere  feeling  nor  volition,  bnt  an  intelligent 
act,  the  foundation  of  ail  other  exercises  of  our 
intelligence.  We  must  recognise  the  impressions 
on  oar  senses  as  differing,  before  we  can  be  said  to 
have  the  impression  of  anytMng ;  and  the  greater 
our  powers  of  discrimination  in  any  department,  aa 
oolour,  for  example,  the  more  intellectual  are  wa 
in  that  special  region.  We  could  have  no  memory 
if  we  did  not  first  recognise  distinctness  of  character 
in  the  objects  that  act  on  the  senses,  and  in  the 
feelings  that  we  experience.  In  some  of  the  senses, , 
discrimination  is  more  delicate  than  in  others ;  thus,  ' 
Sight  and  Hearing  give  us  a  greater  variety  of 
impressions  than  Tas^  or  Smell,  and  are  therefore 
to  that  extent  more  intellectual  in  theic  nature.  In 
the  course  of  our  education,  we  learn  to  discriminate 
many  thing*  that  we  confoonded  at  first.  Every 
craft  involves  asqaired  powers  of  discrimination  as 
well  aa  habita  of  manipulatfoo.  A  man  is  in  one 
respect  clever  or  stupid,  according  as  his  perceptions 
of  differenoe  in  a  given  walk  are  delicate  or  blunt. 


t  great  intellectual  propeity  is  Rmi- 


recovered  without  the  original  caDse,  and  by  m 
forces  alone.  When  the  ear  is  Btmck  by  a  sanaim 
wave,  we  have  a  sensation  of  sonzul,  and  the  mesa: 
excitement  does  not  die  away  becuiae  the  mad 
ceases ;  there  is  a  certain  contiuiiiiig  effect,  g^e- 
ally,  although  not  always,  much  feebler  than  ^- 
actual  sensanon.  Nor  is  tlds  the  whole.  After  3i 
sensation  has  completely  vanished,  and.  be^i  ovoiuj 
by  many  other  states  of  mind,  it  is  possible  to  ctd^ 
the  idea  of  it  by  inward  or  meatol  links,  shoi:; 
that  some  abiding  trace  had  beea  left  Id  the  mocii 
system.  The  means  of  operatiiig  thi«  revival  iiK 
t>e  found  in  the  so-called  ^ircea  ta  .Association.   &: 

AflBOCUTTOK  OF  IPEAB. 

3.  The  last  great  fundamental  fact  of  intelbcts 
Agreement  or  SaoLASirr.     See    Associaiio<i  <.) 

It  is  believed  that  these  three  propertied,  in  tva-  . 
binatton  Willi  the  other  two  powers  of  tjw  mind  , 
(Feeling  and  Volition  or  WiU),    are   adeqiute  t> . 
explain    all   the   recognised    ititellectizal    lacdtia 
or   processes — Memory,   Reason,     luiaginatioii:,  k. 
Memorjr  is  almoet  a  pure  case  of  KetentavEnew  c 
.  Contiguity,  aided  occasionally  by  Similarily.    Fa- 
j  cejrtion  by  the  senses  is  only    another  name  in  ] 
Discrimination,  the  basis  of  all  charncteriatic  moitil 
I  ajipreciatioD  of  matter  or  mind.     Jtidgment  it  dtie  ' 
'  Discrimination  or  Similarity,  according  as  it  discoctn 
'  difference  or  aneement  in  the  things  judged  oF. 
I      Sir  W.  Hamilton,  in  departing   from  the  cmsibdi  ' 
cloasificatiooB  of  the  intellect,  adopted  the  follo«iir  | 
division  into  six  faculties  or  powers-     1.  The  iV  I 
aentatiiK  Faculty,  by  which  ho  meant  the  power  <:  | 
recognising  the  various  aspects  of  tho  world  withon 
and  the  mmd  within,  called  in  the  one  case  Extaui  r 
Perception;   in  the  other,  Self -consciousness,  ud  | 
sometimeB  Reflection.    2.  The  ConservaUrt  Facab)^, 
or  Memory  proper,  meaning  the  power  at  storing  ^i  ] 
impressions,  to  oe  sfterwards  reproduced  as  oooob  \ 
requires.    3.  The  ^Bproduciroe  Faculty,  or  Uie  mMB  \ 
of  c^ling  the  dormant  impressions  up  into  oonsciofl^'  | 
nesa  a^am.     These  means  are,  as  atateii  abur^  1^ 
Associating  principles.  4.  TheAfpresenfod'neFaciiItr.  { 
for  which  Imagination  is  another  name,  which  deiti-  1 
mines  tlie  greater  or  less  vividness  of  the  irog**"'*' 
or  ideas  thus  reproduced.  5.  The  ^faftorotwe  Facaltj, 
or  the  power  of  Comparison,  by  which.  Clasaificstice 
Generalisation,  Abstraction,  and  IteaaoiuDg  are  |^ 
formed.   This,  in  fact,  is  one  (not  the  only)  appheslin 
of  the  general  power  of  Similarity,     Xisstqr,  ^  ^ 
Segvlatire  Faculty,  or  the  cognition  of  the  <(  P™" 
or  supposed  instinctive  notions  oE  the  intellect,  u 
Space,  Time,  Causation,  Necessary  Truths,  ic    1^ 
corresponds  to  what  in  German  philoBOphy  is  ctJI™ 
the  '  Reason,'  as  contrasted  with  '  Undeistandingi 
which  deals  with  experienced  or  contingent  truth. 

On  examining  the  above  distribution,  it  will  ■ppAi' 
that  while  the  first  faculty,  the  PresentatJTe,  co^ 
cidea  with  the  primary  fact  of  Discrimination,  u* 
three  snbsequent.  Conservation,  Ki        '--■^~-   "'- 

presentation,  are  merely  modes  or  . 

of  Retentiveness.  All  the  three  must  concur  in  eveJT 
case  of  the  effective  retention  or  reooliectlOT  of  "J" 
thing.  The  last  power,  the  Regulative,  is  of  coow 
disputed  by  the  opposite  school,  who  refuse  '*,'*f^ 
nise  a  primary  or  tCatinct  faculty  aa  givii^  hi'™  '" 
the  ideas  in  question.  See  Coubciocbsesi,  Cxvst. 
IKTETMPERANCE.  See  DrroxiCAnos. 
INTENDANT,  or  INTENDANT  MMTAlKt 
an  officer  in  the  French  army  charged  _w^^ 
organisation  and  direction  of  alt  the  dTil  ser™* 
attending  a  force  in  the  field.    The  officers  actui| 


dbyCoo«^le 


INTEBOALAfiT— INTERDICTION. 


nnd«r  bii  orden  are  those  in  charee  of  all  the  finance 
■erviMB,  the  proviaiona,  storea,  SoapitaJs,  ftrtillecy 
train,  and  transport  departmenta,  begides  the  inter- 
OTeten,  gnidea,  and  such  like  temponuy  lervice*. 
lie  itOendaat-en-eh^  of  an  anny  is  the  ropreeenta- 
tire  of  tlie  Hiniater  of  War ;  and,  short  of  nipenedins 
the  general's  ordeia,  Can  eiercise,  in  case  of  need,  all 
the  fnnetiona  of  that  high  officer  of  state.  The 
tntccdance  is  divided  into  intcndants,  ranlcing  with 
general  officers,  mb-intendants  with  colonala,  and 
issistant-intendanta  with  majors ;  besidea  cadets, 
vho  receive  no  pay,  and  conntitute  a  probationary 

loCendant  waa  the  name  given  in  Fraace  before 
the  Revolution  to  the  overseer  of  a  province.  Such 
permanent  ofGcera  were  first  appointed  bj  Henry  II. 
<15S1).  Uoder  the  complete  sjrstem  of  ceatraiisB- 
tion  established  by  iiichelieu,  these  intendants,  as 
tbey  were  now  called,  became  the  mere  oipkns  of 
the  royal  minister,  to  the  eiclusion  of  all  provincial 
action.  To  them  belonged  the  proportioningof 
useasmenti,  the  levyine  of  soldiers,  4c.  The 
National  AMembly,  in  I7SO,  established  in  each 
department  an  elective  adminiatration.  Napoleoa 
virtually  restored  the  intendants,  but  exchanged 
the  bated  name  for  that  of  Prtf^U  (q.  v.). 

INTERCA'LART  (Lat  xnitnxUaU,  for  inser- 
tion], an  epithet  applied  to  those  months  or  days 

' '  '  ionally  inserted  in  the  calendar. 


INTERCE'SSIOIT,  DciCTMm.__      _.__^ _ 

many  places,  represents  Christ,  after  having  finished 
his  redemptive  work  on  earth,  and  ascended  into 
his  state  of  gloiy  'Q^  exaltation,  aa  ever  pleading 
with  God  on  behalf  of  those  whom  be  has  redeemed 
hjp  the  shedding  of  hia  blood  (Rom.  viiL  34 ;  Heb. 
ni.  25;  IJohn,  ii.  1).  Theologians  say,  however, 
that  we  are  not  to  sum>ose  that  Ood  needs  to  be 
interceded  with,  as  if  he  were  still  reluctant  to 
forgive  isen,  or  that  Christ's  interceasion  makes  him 
mors  mercifol  than  before.  They  tell  us,  that  since 
it  is  evident  from  the  whole  tenor  of  the  New 
Testament,  u  well  as  from  a  multitude  of  special 
juiaages,  that  the  penal  sacrifice  of  Christ  on 
Calvary  reconciled  flod  to  man,  we  most  regard 
the  intercesaoi?  work  of  Cbriat  rather  as  serving , 
to  illustrate  the  eternal  holiness  of  Ood  and  the 
changeless  love  of  the  Saviour,  and  aa  intended  to  1 
keep  coDtinttally  in  view  the  sacrifice  of  atonement ' 
on  which  it  ia  founded.  The  doctriue  of  the 
iuterceodon  of  Christ  is  held  both  by  Protestants 
and  Eoman  Catholics ;  but  the  latter,  in  addition, 
believe  in  the  efficacy  of  the  intercesaion  of  the 
Virgin  and  tbe  sunta,  who,  however,  do  not  directly 
intercede  for  men  with  Ood,  but  with  the  Saviour, 
the  sinless  One,  who  alone  hiaa  the  ear  of  the  King 
of  tbe  oniverse. 


rSTERCOLUMNIATION,  in  Classic  Arohiteo- 
tore,  the  distance  between  the  columns  of  a  build- 
ing, measured  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  ^e 
iatercolnmniation  varies  in  different  examples,  but 
the  moat  favourite  distance  for  the  columns  to  be 

C'  Md  apart  is  3^  diameters  of  the  column,  which 
Vib^vins  is  called  BvtgU.  The  central  inter- 
colnmniation  of  a  colonnade  is  frequently  made 
vider  than  the  others  when  required  for  access 
fo  a  gate  or  door.  In  Doric  architecture,  the 
int«rcolnmniatioD  is  decided  by  the  spacing  of  tbe 
triglyphs,  the  coIuDms  being  usually  placed  undei 
the  centre  of  every  other  tri^yph. 

INTEECOTttMUNINO,  Lmtzes  o»,  was  an 
ancient  writ  issued  by  the  Scotch  Frivy  Council, 
warning  persons  not  to  harbour  rebels. 


I'NTEBDICT,  an  eccleainatical  censars  or 
penalty  in  the  Soman  Catholic  Chnrch,  consisting 
m  the  withdrawal  of  the  administratdon  of  certain 
sacraments,  of  the  celebration  of  publio  worship, 
and  of  the  solemn  burial-service.  Interdicts  are  of 
three  kinds — Uxal,  which  affect  a  particular  place, 
and  thus  comprehend  all,  vrithout  distinction,  who 
reside  therein ;  ptraonal,  which  only  affect  a  person 
or  persona,  and  which  reach  this  peraon  or  persons, 
and  these  alone,  no  matter  where  found ;  and  TTiiud, 
which  affect  both  a  place  and  its  inhabitants,  so 
that  the  latter  woald  be  bound  by  the  interdict 
even  outside  of  its  purely  local  limit*.  The  principle 
on  which  this  ecclesiastical  penalty  is  founded  may 
be  traced  in  tbe  early  discipline  of  public  penance, 
by  which  penitents  were  for  a  time  debarred  from 
the  sacraments,  and  from  the  privilege  of  presence 
at  the  celebration  of  the  Euchuist ;  bnt  it  vras  only 
in  the  medieval  period  that,  owing  to  circnnurtances 
elsewhere  explained  (see  ExcoKHUinCATioii],  it 
came  into  use  aa  an  ordinary  chureh  censure  in  the 
then  frequent  confiicts  of  the  ecclceiastical  and  civil 
power.  It  waa  designed  to  awaken  the  national 
conscieDce  to  the  nature  of  the  crime,  by  including 
all  alike  in  the  penalty  with  which  it  waa  viaite£ 
The  most  remarkable  interdicts  are  those  laid  upon 
ScoUand  in  1180  by  Alexander  IIL ;  on  Poland  by 
Gregory  VIL,  on  occasion  of  the  murder  of  Stanislaus 
at  the  altar;  by  Innocent  m.  on  France,  under 
Philippe  Auguate,  in  1200:  and  on  England  under 
'John  in  I2O9.  The  descnption  of  Enpand  under 
Ithe  last-named  interdict,  as  detailed  by  some  of 
the  contemporary  chroniclers,  presents  a  strangely 
striking  picture  of  the  condition  of  the  pabjio  mind, 
which  it  is  difficult  with  our  modem  ideas  fully  to 
realise  or  to  understand.  It  would  be  a  great 
mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that,  dnring  the 
continuance  of  an  interdict,  the  people  were  eniirefji 
deirtitute  of  spiritua]  assistance.  The  interdict 
mainly  regarded  the  soItmniCMf  of  pnblic  worship ; 
it  waa  permitted  to  administer  baptism,  confirma- 
tion, and  the  Eucharist  in  all  cases  of  urgency ; 
to  confess  and  ahaoive  all  who  were  not  peraon- 
ally  the  guilty  participators  in  the  crime  which 
the  inter£ct  was  meant  to  punish ;  to  celebrate 
marriage,  but  without  the  soleninitiea ;  and  to 
confer  orders  in  case*  of  neceaaiW.  And  under  the 
popes  Gregory  IX.,  Innocent  IIL  and  IV.,  and 
Boniface  III.,  itill  further  mitigations  of  ita  rigoor 
were  introduced,  one  of  which  waa  the  removal  of 
tbe  interdict  and  restoration  of  public  worship 
on  certain  great  festivals,  especially  Christmaa, 
Eaater,  Pent^wst,  Assumptum,  and  All  Souls.  The 
council  of  Basel  enacted  very  stringent  rules  as 
to  the  use  of  this  penalty,  and  in  later  times  the 
general  interdict  has  been  entirely  disused,  Blthan)^ 
oocaaionally,  in  very  special  cireumstanoes,  and  to 
marie  the  horrer  of  the  church  for  some  enormoua 
crime,  instances  are  still  recorded  in  which  a  par- 
ticular place  or  choroh  has  been  visited  with  the 
penalty  of  a  local  interdict. 

INTERDIOT,  in  Scotch  Law,  is  an  order  issued 
by  the  Court  of  Ses^on  to  stop  or  prohibit  a  person 
from  doing  an  illegal  or  wrongful  act.  It  is  omatned 
on  presenting  a  note  of  suspension  and  interdict  to 
the  Lord  Oimnary  on  the  Bills.  The  party  applying 
for  it  must  have  both  title  and  interest — that  is,  he 
must  be  more  than  a  mere  stranger.  The  principles 
on  which  it  is  granted  in  Scotland  are  substantially 
the  same  as  those  in  which  the  parallel  Wnt 
of  Injunction  (q.  v.)  ia  granted  by  the  Court  of 
Chancery  in  England. 

INTERDI'CTION  ia  a  process  peculiar  to  the 
law  of  Scotland,  by  which  persona  of  imbedle  minda 
may  either  reatntin  themselves,  if 


t.LiOogle 


IKTBKE8SB  TESHINI— INTEEB8T. 


—then   called  Tolmbuy  interdiction— or 


id>l  interdictMn.     Tl«  effect 


may  be  rertimined  br  the  Court  of 

Aim,  then  caDed  jaaicial  interdicti 

of    bath    ii    to    mppcnnt' tnuteec   or  inteidietore, 

vhoae  oonMi'   ' 

the  imbeeila' 

luaciUTT. 

INTEBE'SSB  TBKHINI. 
ond  in  En^tih  law  to  denote  the  kind  of  intereat 
which  k  Immb  tekie  In  land  when  the  leaee  it 
exeonted.    tt  amonnti  to  a  tight  of  entry  on  the 

INTRBEBT,  the  payment  dne  by  the  bomiwer 
of  a  pun  <rf  moomr  to  the  leader  for  ita  dm.  The 
intereat  of  /lOO  for  one  year  ia  oalled  the  rate  pa- 
Mat ;  the  mmey  lent,  tlie  principal ;  and  the  nun 
M  any  piinapal  and  iita  intent^  the  amoDut  The 
ennent  or  market  ista  tt  IntcrMt  flDotoatca 
widely,  by  leaeon,  not,  ai  ii  often  anppoaad,  of 
the  ertMit  of  the  nn^ly  ot  money,  bnt  of  the 
variaUe  ratei  of  profit,  as  in  BoUand,  where  it 
haa  alwayi  been  compantiTely  low,  and  in  onr  own 
tiniri  in  Anitralia  and  Califoniia,  when  mercwitite 
vofiti  btd&g  in  exoeea,  Uke  rate  of  intereat  ia  rela- 
avelyhigh. 

A  lIlonK  prejadiee  acainit  exacting  iaterert  exirted 
in<ariybiiMa,ariauu;froTn  amiataken  viewot  aome 
aiiaiiliiiwili«  of  theMcaaiolaw;*  and  ai  Uteaa  the 
ndgn  ol  £dward  VI.,  there  wm  a  prohibitory  act 
paMad  lot  the  alleged  reMon  that  'the  charpng 
of  intmHt  waa  a  viM  moat  odiooa  and  deteatdile, 
r  to  the  word  of  Ood.'  Calnn,  the 
M  of  Uie  first  to  erpoaa  tiie 


^ .  known  ae  the  Uaiiry  1mw»,  to  •otne 

estent  popetnated  it,  by  an  atUinpted  restrictioD 
of  the  mazimom  rate  to  be  paid.  In  EngUmA,  thii 
rate  waa  fixed  by  act  21  Jamet  L  at  8  per  cent 
Daring  the  Conuncnwealth,  it  wae  reduced  to  6 
par  emL ;  and  by  the  act  12  Asne.  e.  IS,  to  S  p«r 
eeot,  at  which  nte  it  itood  till  1639,  iriien  the  law 
waa  repealed.  In  Scotland,  any  char^  tor  intereat 
waa  prohibited  before  the  Refomution.  In  1S87, 
the  rata  waa  fixed  by  law  at  10  par  cent. ;  in  1633, 
at  8  per  aest;  in  1661,  at  6  per  cent ;  and  l^ 
the  act  of  Anne,  aa  abora  noted,  at  S  per  cent. 
It  ia  now  admitted  that  tbe  operatioa  of  nich 
Uwi  tended  only  to  niae  the  real  rate  of  intoert, 
by  driring  men  in  diatnaa  to  adopt  exbsngaot 
method!  <d  miatng  mon^— Uie  bonuaea  tiin*  paid 
bong  iwJly  and  in  eStet  an  addition  to  the  nmunal 

Infanat  it  compated  cm  either  of  two  [ninoiideB : 

1.  Simple  interest,  where,  ahonld  Qi«  intereat  not 
be  paid  aa  dne,  no  intenat  ia  charged  upm  the 
arreara.  Althon^  thii  mode  of  leckoniog  haa  little 
to  recommend  it  in  reaaon,  it  ia  adopted  in  many 
tranaactiraia,  and  reoeiTea  the  Bandaon  of  the  law. 
Tbe  compaction  of  dmple  inteieat  ia  May,  it  being 
mdy  neceaaary  to  calculate  the  product  of  the  prin- 
cipal, the  rate  per  cenb,  and  the  period  in  years  and 
faaotaona  ot  a  year,  the  remit,  divided  by  100,  giving 
the  anm  reqmred.  Thna,  wanted  the  interast  <3 
£3S6,  Si.  8i£  for  31  years  at  4  per  cent 

3Bii  X  3i  X  4  .>■  100  =  £40, 17*.  M: 

2.  Oompomid  intereat  ia  the  charge  made  where — 
the  intereat  not  being  paid  irtien  doe — it  ia  added 
to  the  principal,  fonmng  the  amonnt  npon  which 
the  anbeequent  year's  interest  is  compirted.  The 
rules  for  moat  readily  makiiig  compntataona  by  com- 
poimd  intereat  can  only  be  eSectively  expramed 

*Bes  Excdna,  ziil.  3S;  Lrritleni,  xxr.  39;  Daittei^ 
oaomj,  zzir.  19 :  the  ^ijilioatian  buns  to  money  lent 
for  the  rgUef  of  diitnas,  and  not  MTanoad  b>  the 
borrvwer  that  he  mifht  improTa  it 


DucomT,  wa    annex    a    tew   «(   tbe   skmolB; 
formula. 

1.  SinoeZl,  incraaaedbyitaiiitareatr.Blthtsi 
of  (me  year  baccmea  1  +  r,  thia  amomt  M  Ifat  wl  i 
of  the  aacond  year  beooaiaa  (1  +  r)',  and  gnaslf 
at  the  and  of  tha  «■  year  (1  -I-  rf.  &nt|k:  To  j 
find  the  amonnt  of  £1,  improTad  at  5  pv  cbL  ht  , 
six  year*,  r,  the  intereat  tor  jCI,  ia  <t5,  nd  ■  >  t;  i 
thendcn  (IW)'  =•  1'34,  «r  £1.  fla.  9id.  1  Sn  | 
£1  beeomea  in  one  year  1  +  r.  it  ia  faand  iyiA  ■ 
nary  ptoportion  thjU  the  b^ction  of  £1  iriad  nl 


UMont  t 


£1  i 


a(l 


"-(-■T-Jl 


»i  c;  and  raaaoning  aa  abvre,  the  anin  whjck  wS  , 
amonnt  to  £1  n  yean  h^wa  la  (1  -f  f)""  =  r.  I  ! 
Tlie  amount  of  £1  in  is  yvais  being  {1  +  rf,  K«i:: 
be  aeen  that  the  exeeaa  of  tUa  mm  oiw  Oe  neml 
L  +  rt"  —  1,  ia  the  amonit  tt  ■ 


r  L'  (1  +  r)-J  -  r 
Tables  for  the  four  claaaee  of  valnsa  abore  d(Kril>^ 
baaed  on  Tarions  rate*  of  intoeat,  an  pra  'n 
most  woriu  on  annnitiet.  Thoaa  by  Ur  Rbx 
are  computed  for  each  quarter  per  cmt  fwa  I  " 
10  per  cent  It  may  be  oaefnl  to  note  two  nwO 
that  can  be  easily  deduced  from  a  table  ol  tf>' 
present  Taluea  of  annnitiea  (4).  1.  ^Ae  UEUly 
which  £1  will  porchaae  for  any  number  CJ  ^a"  ° 
the  reciprocal  of  the  correaponding  Tstne  in  ■'■  ' 
atablc.  Example:  A  person  borrows  £l<KI,ta>| 
repaid  by  annmty  in  10  years,  with  iattrat  >t  I  ^ 
per  cent ;  required  the  annaity  T  The  isumt  ™*  ^ 
of  an  annuity  of  £1  per  annum  for  that  pcrioiit  , 
the  rate  stated,  ia  £10-38,  and  100  X  )<Mr  = 
9-6342  s  £9,  12<.  $t^.  2.  To  find  the  siuK^ 
which  in  a  nTen  period  will  amonnt  to  H-^'> 
tract  from  Iho  annuity  that  £1  win  lonti* 
ascertained  a*  above,  r,  Uie  intereat  of  £1  to  >  T"'- 
Example :   The  aonui^  whidi,  paid  for  IS  7^ 


willa 
Value  of  I 

Subtract) 


nnnit?  yihicL  £1  will  pnr-l  £^ffae 


S  per  cent. 


4^ 


Or£4,12&Sld: 

I.'TrcKBT,    IV  Law. 
when  a  debt  haa  been  for 
ia  no  obligatioi 


bli^tion  impoaed   oo   the  deUtr  1^^ 
law  to  pay  any  interest  whstereM""? 
WW  ...^  haa  been  fixed  and  often  dtmsadtd  W 
creditor  «an  always  aoe  for  hia  debt, iriiid  an  < 
pnpar   ronady,  but   ha  d«ina  no  btncfil^^ 


g'vmg  time  •»  •>_  >«iu>>i>.  ^wiwuua,  -  —  . 
b*  paid,  thia  moat  ba^  aa  a  smmsI  nM  V 
Tirtoe  of  Tgnm  agieuHnt  Henrtbete  "^ 
haa  always  bean  one  or  two  excepticiH  to  Iwi^ 
Thni^  by  the  naaga  of  meichania,  it  hw  t'*V' . 
been  uanal,  wheo  an  action  haa  baeo  tn*^  " 
reoover  the  amount  of  a  bill  of  eiduap  « P 
misscry-note,  for  the  jury  to  add  inttnst  o^  "1 
time  it  waa  doe  1  bat  even  thia  waa  not  in>t^ 
ooiuse— itwM  a  matter  (rf  dinictitmfiirl^j^ 


hyCoogte' 


INTJ£RFER£NOB— INTERLA£EN. 


in  the  owa  of  money  dne  npon  an  waid  bj  an 
arbitrabu-,  in  Thich  caae  inttscst  ia  due  frotn  the 
day  when  the  award  waa  made.  A  third  exception 
was  in  the  caae  of  a  bond  for  money,  in  which  case 
intereat  waa  added  from  the  day  it  onabf  to  have 
been  paid.  And  Ustiv,  if  a  lurety  bad  to  pay 
■none^  for  bii  principal,  be  could  recover  it  b(u£ 
with  intereat.  In  all  -other  caaea,  if  there  waa 
DO  express  aovsment  about  interat,  none  conJd 
be  claimed.  If,  however,  there  waa  a  conne  of 
dealing  between  the  parties,  or  a  nsase  affecting  a 
particuar  trade  to  sire  interest,  £en,  without 
express  agreemcmt,  this  waa  bnderatood.  A  recent 
statate  somewhat  amended  the  above  defect  of  the 
common  Uw,  for  br  3  and  4  Will  IV.  o.  42,  a  28, 
a  jniy  may  now  add  infeieat  at  the  cvdinary  rate  on 
all  debts  or  soma  ootain,  which  are  made  payable 
imder  some  written  inatroment  at  a  certain  lime ; 
and  even  if  not  doe  under  a  written  inabnment, 
then  if  a,  written  demand  haa  bean  made,  eipre«Iy 
giving  notice  that  interest  will  be  charged  from  and 
after  the  date  of  the  demand,  if  not  paid  then, 
interest  iriQ  also  be  dne.  Bnt  evco  is  these  laat 
caaea,  it  ia  diaoretioDaiy  in  the  jury  to  give  the 
interest  and  tiierefore  it  ia  not  daimable  aa  a 
matter  of  coarse.  Aa  regards  conponnd  i&toraat, 
it  ia  d  /arliari  not  claimable  in  any  eaa^  ssoept 
where  it  baa  been  expreaaly  stipalatea  for,  m  whitK 
there  ia  in  some  particular  tiMS  a  daflntt*  ctMtwn 
to  pay  intereat,  and  ancb  costou  mnat  always  be 
proved. 

It  oD^t  also  to  be  added,  that  the  Court  of 
Chancery  haa  alwaya  been  in  the  habit  of  charging 
trnatees  who  have  miaapplied  fonda  with  6  per 
cent,  intereat  on  the  amount,  and  also  compound 
interest ;  but  in  simple  oases  of  retaining  moneys 
in  hand  without  investing  them,  they  have  been 
charged  4  per  cent  Formerly,  it  waa  prohibited  by 
itatnte  in  En^and  to  lend  money  on  the  aecnrity 
of  real  estate  at  a  higher  rate  than  S  per  cent. ; 
but  these  atatntea  have  been  abolished,  and  now 
any  person  may  borrow  or  lend  at  whatever  rate 
of  interest  he  can  agree  with  tie  other  party. 
Pawabroker*  are  allowed  to  charge  intereat  not 
exceedinK  a  fixed  «nni.    See  FawDBROKiNo. 

In  ScoUand,  the  law  haa  always  been  mooh  more 
liberal  in  allowing  interest  to  be  claimed  on  oot- 
atandiog  debts,  for  there  the  converae  principle  was 
acted  on,  that  on  nearly  all  debta  whatever,  interest 
waa  claimable  either  by  atatnte  or  by  common  law. 
Tbna,  interest  ia  due  m  billa  of  exchange,  on  the 
amooot  contained  in  a  homing  or  aharn  to  pay,  on 
ioma  paid  by  canljoneis,  on  the  price  of  landa  sold, 
on  money  advanoed  at  requeat,  on  the  prioe  of 
gooda  aold,  if  the  naual  time  of  credit  haa  sxpiied, 
and  generally  on  all  debta  irtiich  there  has  been 
delay  in  paying. 

IKTERFB'RBKCE,  a  term  employed  to  expreaa 
the  effect  which  rayi  of  light,  after  being  bent  or 
diffracted,  int>duce  on  each  other.  If  the  raya  meet 
after  di&action,  thdr  light,  when  allowed  to  fall  on 
a  surface,  will  be  divided  into  bars  or  atripea,  alter- 
nately light  and  dark,  aa  ia  abemi  in  the  article 
DirrnAcnoir  (q.  v.).  This  phenomenon  has  been 
made  the  toachrtODO  of  the  two  rival  theoriee  of 
light,  the  ttJidiilaUtn  and  the  nautirm.  According 
to  the  fonner,  it  ia  thoa  explained ;  it  two  luminous 
waves  aimultaiieOQaly  impel  a  molecule  <d  ether,  its 
motion  will  be  the  reanltiuitof  the  original  impnlaes; 
and  if  the  two  motaoos  (as  in  the  ease  of  diffl«et>on| 
he  nearly  In  the  sams  direetioii,  th«  remltant  will 
be  Dtar^  theb  snm ;  if  oppoeita,  tiieir  diSereoe& 
Thns,  when  a  particle  hsa  Mgon  to  ondnlate  from 
the  action  of  a  Inminoos  wave,   and  if,  while  ~ 


wave  ooQsiHre  with  that  of  the  first ;  bnt  a  decrease, 
if  they  oppoas  each  other ;  and  total  darhneas,  if, 
while  (mpoaing.  they  are  e^nal  in  velodty.  Let  d 
be  the  oiltanca  corresponding  to  a  complete  period 
of  vibration ;  then,  if  uie  aeooiid  wave  impinge  upon 
the  moleonle  after  it  haa  accompliahed  one  or  moM 
whole  vibrations  oorreaponding  to  the  iUnt-*""^  d, 
2d,  3d,  kc,  and  has  retnmed  to  its  original  noaitioii, 
"     ',wo  waves  will  evidentiy  conspire  toKBtner,  and 


half  a  vibratron,  corresponding  to  diatanoei  U,  fd,  ^d, 
tc,  then  the  wave  will  ^mose  the  particles  ntnm 
to  its  original  position ;  toaa  jat>dncing  duniuotion 
of  motion,  or,  il  tqatl,  rest.  In  the  former  caM^  the 
intensity  of  li^  is  inoreased ;  in  the  latta,  dimin- 
iahed ;  and  if  tbs  nndnlatkms  are  et  equal  velocity, 
the  lif^  ia  doubled  in  the  first  caae,  and  destroyel 
in  the  seoMid.  Ths  emismon  theorr  totally  fails  to 
explain  interferenosL  In  lidit  of  £ftoent  o<donr^ 
the  valne  of  d  differa  for  eadi  oclon^biting  least  for 
violet,  and  greatest  for  red  light,  ^is  principle  of 
interference  aooonnta  in  the  most  satisnctory  way 
for  the  oolonrs  of  thin  {dates,  tt*  fringes  that 
accompany  shadows,  kc  ;  and  its  ^danstion  forms 
the  moat  decisive  reason  yet  known  fpr  adopting 
tbsnaAitatorwiD  praference  to  the  amiarion  theory 
tt  h^     SeeXiaHT. 

IHTEBJ  KiTl'IOTUB  are  esclsnuitiona  ezpresmvo 
not  so  mnch  ol  a  thought  aa  of  an  emotion — aa, 
ah!  alaa!  hnnahl  pooh  I  They  are,  therefore,  hardly 
parte  of  speech,  uid  never  form  part  of  a  sen- 
tenM.  They  are,  in  fact,  more  akin  to  the  sonnds 
e^tted  by  tbe  lower  animala,  than  to  articulate 


I'NTBBIU,  in  the  history  of  the  Befbrmation, 
the  name  ^ven  to  certain  edicts  (^  the  German 
emperor  for  tha  regolatioii  of  religions  and  eecled. 
aaticol  matten  '  in  the  meantime '  (Lat  irUerim},  till 
they  coold  be  decided  by  a  general  oonnciL  The 
firat  ia  the  JtatUbon  Inierim,  the  reault  of  the 
deliberationa  of  a  commisaion  appointed  daring  the 
diet  of  Batiabon  (Begensbarg)  m  IMl,  of  which 
Eck,  FSug,  aad  Oropper  were  the  Roman  Catludicv 
and  Meiancthon,  Bucer,  aad  Pistorina  the  Protes- 
tant members.  On  the  greater  number  of  docfainal  i 
points,  the  cconmission  found  it  possible  to  sgrea  on 
terms  which  might  be  deemed  consistent  with  the 
views  of  both  parties ;  but  as  to  the  saotaments 
and  the  power  of  the  church,  the  diffeienoea  were 
irreconcilable.  By  the  Protestants  in  general,  the 
whole  movement  was  looked  on  aa  a  aoheme  to 
entr^  them  into  a  formal  retam  to  the  Church  at 
Home.  At  the  next  diet,  at  Augsburg  in  IMS,  a 
new  interim  was  by  the  emperoPa  command  pre- 
pared by  PflufL  Helding  (Sidoniua),  and  Agricols. 
It  ia  called  the  ^ti^aftvrfr/nfenni.  In  it  the  use  of  the 
cup  by  tie  laity,  the  marriage  of  priests,  and  some 
other  minor  thiunwere  conoeded  to  the  Protestants ; 
but  it  met  witE  venr  genera]  oppoeition,  psrtieu- 
laiiy  in  the  north  of  Qennany,  and  was  revoked 
in  1602.  By  the  exertions  of  the  Elector  Hanrioe 
of  Saxony,  a  third  interim,  the  Laptie  /nterint, 
waa  adopted  at  the  diet  of  Leipeia  on  22d  I>eoa>nber 
154S,  which  guarded  the  Protestant  creed,  bnt 
admitted  great  part  of  the  Boman  Catholio  cere- 
menial,  and  recognised  the  power  of  p<q>es  and 
tnshops,  whsn  not  sbosed.  ,  But  the  ofienca  given  to 
the  mora  tealoos  Protestsnta  bv  this  interim,  whieh 
Mdanctiun,  Bagsnhsgeii,  and  Major  anpfatted,  led 
to  division  fai  the  Protestant  Church. 


and  Briens.    Along  the  fftdmtt  Avamtt  at  B^twaf, 


hyLiOOgle 


DrrEELIHEATIONS— DTTEBMAEEUOE. 

betwecD  the  lakes,  there  ii  an  almost  nnmterrapted  .  that  the  coontry  aSbrds,  Ten  inUes  BonUiwd  ■ 
line  of  hotels  or  pennoiu.  Within  a  few  miles  of  1  the  Stanbbach  (the  '  sky-bom  mterfall '),  with  :a 
the  Tillage  are  many  of  the  most  wonderful  sights  I  perpetual  iris ;  a  few  milea  farther  sonth,  and  ^ 


InMrlakeo  and  Unt 


1  view  from  the  village,  are  the  magnificent  Jung- 
frau  and  several  other  remarkable  peaks  of  the 
Bernese  AlpB^  The  visitors  are  the  chief  sou'  ' 
income  to  the  iniiBbitants,  who  aumber  only  auout 
1370. 

INTBBLINEA'TIONS  in  a  deed  are  additions 
or  corrections  written  either  on  the  margin  or 
between  the  lines.  In  England,  interlineations  in  a 
deed  are  not  fatal,  provided  only  it  is  proved  that 
they  were  made  before  executing  the  deed.  It  is 
usual  to  put  the  parties'  initials  opposite  the  plnoe 
where  the  interlineations  occur,  in  proof  of  this,  or 
A  least  by  way  of  memorandnm.  In  affidavits  and 
other  documents,  the  initials  should  also  be  ^ut  at 
the  places  interlined.  In  Scotland,  if  the  interli- 
neation is  at  all  material,  it  ought  to  be  signed  by 
the  parties,  and  tbe  fact  mentioned  in  the  testing 
clause,  otherwise  it  will  be  presumed  tbat  the  inter- 
lineations were  made  after  the  execution,  and  will 
vitiate  the  deed. 

IMTEELO'OUTOR,  in  Scotch  Law,  means  a 
Ending  or  judgment  of  a  judge  or  court  in  a  cause. 
In  EngUnd,  the  word  is  not  used. 

INTBRLO'CDTOBY    JUDGMENT,    in 

England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  means  a  judgment 

which  is  not  final,  but  which  is  merely  a  step  in  the 

r  or  action.    So  as  to  interlocutory  decrees  or 

I'lfTERLUDE,  in  Uusic,  is  a  short  melodi&iis 
phrase  played  by  the  oi^anist  (generally  extempore) 
between  the  venes  of  a  psalm-tune.  In  the  Oerman 
Protectant  Church,  the  interlude  (or  ouiKhentpiH) 


iompany  the  diof&  of  the  Lutheran  Church  with 
entire  and  appropriate  interludes,  is  reckoned  in 
Gmnany  the  chief  test  of  a  good  or^nist 

INTERMA'RRIAGB.  The  inteimarriage  or 
intercourse  of  near  relatdves  has  been  nnivereally 
Iwheved  to  entail  degenenttion  upon  the  of^ring, 


{  and  the  act  has  been  condemned   and  prolubil"^ 
i  The  physical  deformity  and  mental  debasemoit  ^ 
I  the  Cagota  of   tbe   Pyrenees,   of   tbe   Mamiii^  ''■ 
I  Anvergne,   of  the   SurrsainB   of    Dauphin^  d  <^  < 
Cretins  of  the  Alps,  and  tbe  giBdual  deteriDnti«i  i 
of    the    elave    population    of   America,    have  bNi 
I  attributed   to   the   consanguineous    alliances  vlufi 
are  anavnidable  among  these  unfortunate  peopls- 
More  recently,  the   same   opinion   has   been  I'l'- 
(jorted  by  tbe  history  of  deaf-mutiam  and  of  iiiiKT. 
Of  235  deaf  and  dumb  children  whose  psrenlW  ' 
could  be  traced,  70,  or  nearljr  30  per  cent,  were  tl" 
offspring  of   the  intermamage  of    blood-rel*t"^ 
But   in    opposition   to,  and   apparently  deatrnctin 
of  such  an  hypothesis,  may  be  addnced  the  aniit- 
paired   condition    and  symmetry   of   the   Jeira  ^ 
the  small  Mohammedan  communities  in  IpdiL " 
the  isolated  tribes  in  North  America,  among  "Imo 
the  repeated  intermarriage  of  near  relatives  u  (n^ 
pulsory.     Mor^ver,  this  opinion  does  not  Mi  '^  . 
the  analogous  cases  amone  the  inferior  anioslii'' 
the  Arabs  can  trace  the  pwirree  of  their  most  rain- 
able  horses  to  the  time  of  Mohammed,  vhilit  Ui'J  . 
avoid  all  crossina ;  the  stud-books  in  this  <'(™°^  I 
record  the  ascendants  of  racers  for  200  yea".  »J° ; 
shew  the  perpetuation  of  the  qualities  of  >t'^°^  I 
and  weight,  and  fleetncss  by  propagation  witliin  •'"  ; 
endowed  family,  both  Eclipse  and   Childen  1«^  i 
descended  from  a  horse  the  ofl!spring  of  a  p>n» 
and  foal ;  and  the  descendants,  agom,  of  these  ""^'H 
which  still  maintain  the  highest  estimatioji.  >^°" 
many  instances  of  very  close  breeding  ;  and  I*™^ 
the  Durham  ox  and  the  Ditehely  sheep  f^Jr 
result  and  triumph  of  breeding  in  and  is-  J^ 
present  state  of  the  controversy,  as  it  hMj*" 
recently  conducted  in  France,  may  be  tunumo  ip 
in  the  proposition,  that  oonsanguineoiu  '^^^'^JS 
not  necerearily  hurtful  to  the  offapring,  P"™*? 
the  parents  be  healthy  and  robust ;  hut  tie  oi^' 
vations   of    Dcvsy   and    Bemiss   in  Ameri^  '"' 
that  such  genersJiiatious  should  be  recd^  ^ 


t.Googlc 


MTERMEDIATB  HARMONIES— tNTEBNAHONAL  LAW. 


caotdon.  It  sliDnld  be  added,  that  even  were  it 
established  that  mental  ditetue  KenenJly  followed 
such  unioiks,  th«  trftnmniraion  mi^t  depend  nthet 
upon  the  increaaed  oertaiutj  of  reproducing  here- 
ditary tendencies,  than  npon  the  Tiolation  of  any 
pdifsiological  Iaw.— Steinan,  Eaay  on  fftrtditary 
xHteiaet  and  Ijtiermamagt ;  Deray,  Du  Danger 
tie*  Mariaga  Coruanfmru  (1862) ;  Boiidin,  Dangrri 
dM  tTnioru  Conaanguiru,  ftc. ;  AttttaU*  ^Ifygiint 
PtMiqut,  JviOti  (1862). 

INTERUBnDIATB  HARMONIES,  in  Manic, 
are  the  hannoniea  introduced  between  extreme  noo- 
Telat«d  keya,  while  modolating  from  the  one  key  to 
th«  other,  which  harmomes  prepare  the  ear  to  r«aeiTe 

INTEBJIB'ZZO,  a  ahort  dnunatio  comic  scene, 

INTERMrTTENT  FEVBR.  SeeAocK 
INTEBNATIONAL  LAW  is  divided  into  public 
uit«matioiul  law  and  private  intemntional  law. 
1.  PnhHc  International  Lam,  or  the  law  of  nations, 
CMudHta  of  those  mies  which  independent  nations 
agree  amoDg  thamselvee  to  be  jast  and  fur  in  regu- 
latiag  their  dealings  with  each  other  in  times  of  war 
and  peaoe.  The  mode  in  which  they  arrive  at  this 
conunon  nnderetanding  of  what  is  just  and  fair,  ia 
by  comparing  the  opinions  of  teTt-writeta  wbo 
profeea  to  set  forth  and  collect  the  general  opinion 
of  civilised  nations,  for  all  these  vriten  appeal 
ultimately  to  the  principlea  of  natural  reason  and 
common  sense,  as  the  teat  of  what  they  profou 
to  be  the  proper  rule.  Treatiea  of  peace,  aUianoe, 
and  commerce  al«o  define  aod  moddy  the  existing 
iat«rnatioiial  law  ■•  between  the  coutMcting  parties. 
The  dedsions  at  priie-«ovrtB,  which  p«tesi  to  pro- 
ceed on  prindplet  of  natural  justice,  of  univeraal 
application,  are  also  declaratjons  of  this  international 
law.  The  leading  doctrines  thus  adopted  are  a« 
follows :  A  sovereign  state  is  one  which  govemi  itself 
independently  of  roreign  powers.  Li  the  event  of 
a  civil  war  in  one  nation,  other  nations  may  letoun 
indifferent  spectators,  and  treat  the  ancient  Kovem' 
ment  as  sovereign,  sod  the  government  d«  jaeto  as 
entitled  to  the  rights  of  war  against  its  enemy.  If 
the  foreign  state  profess  neutrality,  it  is  bound  to 
allow  impartially  to  both  bellicerent  parties  the 
free  exercise  of  those  right*  which  war  gives  to 
pnblic  enemies  against  each  other,  suoh  as  the 
right  of  blockade,  and  of  captnring  contraband  and 
enemy's  property.  Where  a  colony  or  province 
asserts  its  iudependenoe,  and  has  shewn  its  ability 
to  maintain  this  independence,  the  recognitjon  of  its 
eOTereignty  by  other  foreign  states  is  a  question  of 
policy  and  prudence  only ;  but  until  acknowledged, 
conrts  of  jnstice  and  private  individuals  are  bound 
to  consider  the  ancient  state  of  things  as  reniaining 
unaltered.  When  a  change  occurs  in  the  person  (S 
the  sovereign,  or  in  the  mtemal  constitution  of  a 
state,  all  treaties  made  by  such  state  which  were 
not  personal  to  the  former  aovereigo,  continue  to 
be  binding  on  the  sooceeding  sovereign. 

All  sovereign  rtates  are,  in  the  eye  of  inter- 
national law,  on  a  footing  of  equality.  EStch  state  has 
the  right  to  require  the  military  service  of  its  own 
people  for  pitrpoaes  of  self-defence,  and  to  develop 
all  it«  rewmmes  in  the  manner  it  thinks  fit,  so  long 
as  it  doea  not  interfere  with  the  same  equal  rights 
of  other  nationa.  When,  however,  one  state  nndnly 
aggnadisM  itseU,  and  augment*  its  military  and 
naval  forces  beyond  what  all  tiie  other  states  con- 
tider  proportioned  to  its  po«ition,  then  those  other 
etatsa  have  some  ground  te  interfere.  This,  how- 
ever, ii  oonsidered  a  delioate  business,  and  not  to 
be  attempted  raihly;  and  it  is  difficult  to  define 


what  is  a  just  ground  of  bterferenoe.  The  acquisi- 
tion of  colonise  and  dependencies  has  never  oeen 
considered  a  jnst  mobve  for  such  interference. 
AcoordiM  to  Wheatoa  {IrUematumal  Late,  88,  6th 
ed.},  interferences  to  preserve  the  balance  of  power 
have  been  generally  confined  to  prevent  a  sovereign, 
already  powerfnl,  from  incorporating  conquered 
provinces  into  his  territory,  or  increasing  a  dicta- 
torial inflnence  over  the  councils  and  coodnct  of 
other  independent  states.  The  avendon  to  inter- 
ference baa  no  doubt,  in  modem  times,  become 
stronger  and  stronger ;  and  it  mar  be  taken  to  be 
now  tumost  an  axiom,  that  no  foreign  state  ha«  any 
jnst  ground  oi  interfering  in  what  is  merely  an 
mternal  revolution  of  a  state,  or  a  mode  of  readjust- 
ing its  own  constitution  ;  in  abort,  each  state  oofrht 
to  be  allowed  to  mans^  its  own  internal  affiurs, 
and  to  choose  whatever  fonn  of  govemment  best 
soita  the  people,  for  the  exercise  ot  this  right  can, 
in  eenenl,  nowise  ofisct  other  states. 

Each  stete  ha*  the  natural  right  to  make  its  own 
laws  tegniating  the  propnty  uid  status  of  aJl  the 
subjecte  within  its  territory.  On  the  high  seas,  both 
the  public  and  private  vessels  of  evety  nation  are 
subject  to  the  furisdiction  of  the  state  to  which 
they  belong.  Offences  ihere  oommitted  against  ita 
own  municipal  taws  fpve  to  the  state  te  which  the 
vessels  belong  jurisdiction ;  but  no  right  of  visita- 
tion and  search  belongs  to  a  nation  in  time  of  peace, 
though  piracy  and  ot£er  ofEences  against  the  Law  of 
nations,  being  crimes  not  against  any  particular 
Dation,  but  af^inst  all  mankind,  may  be  punished  by 
any  state  in  which  the  ofiendeie  can  he  Kiund.  The 
trsffic  in  slave*  it,  however,  not  classed  with  piracy 
by  the  law  of  natioiit,  thoufph  nationB  may  ^dan 
it  to  be  *o  as  regard*  their  own  aubjecte ;  and  thejr 
may  also  outer  into  a  eompact  aa  to  that  mister,  m 
has  been  done  by  Great  Kitain  with  other  natimu. 
With  regard  te  Crimea  and  Uieir  ponishntent,  though 
each  state  will  punish  all  crimes  by  wbomsoevo' 
committed,  if  committed  within  its  own  territory, 
and  also  all  erimes  committed  in  ita  pubLo  and 
private  vessels  on  the  high  sees,  or  ia  a  foreign 
port ;  likewise  all  crimes,  wherever  committed,  by 


another  state ;  to  do  so  would  be  an 

mnnicifal  law  of  that  steto ;  hence  it  Can  only  arrest 
its  criminals  in  forei^  stetes  by  the  leave  of  such 
state,  and  such  state  is  not  bound  to  oooede  to  such 
a  request  Hence  arisetf  the  expediency  of  two 
states  entering  into  an  extradition  treaty,  by  which 
th^  bind  themselves  to  give  up  to  each  other 
ciimlnala  who  have  committed  certain  specified 
offences. 

There  are  certain  usages  or  oeremonials  of  respect 
shewn  by  one  nation  to  anotlier  in  certain  circum- 
staneee,  and  these  are  founded  on  the  theoiy  of  the 
equality  of  sovereign  states.  As  regards  the  rif^t 
of  precedence  among  kings,  emperors,  and  princes, 
there  is  nothing  settled  and  binding,  except,  per- 
haps, that  Catholic  powers  concede  vie  precedency 
to  the  pop&  But  as  regards  minor  mattera,  it  is 
the  settled  courtesy  for  one  nation  to  siOuto  by 
stiiking  the  flag  or  tiie  sails,  or  by  firing  a  certain 
number  of  guns  on  approaching  a  fleet  or  a  ship  ot 
war,  or  entering  a  fortified  port  or  harbour.  Some- 
tdmes  these  ceremonials  are  regulated  by  expnaa 
treaty,  as,  for  example,  ae  regards  the  maritime 
hononiB  former^  exacted  by  Denmark  from  vessel* 
passing  the  Sound  and  Belta  at  the  entrance  of  ths 
BalticSaa. 

The  rj^ts  of  states  in  time  of  peace  consist  of 
tiie  rights  of  legation  and  of  ntf^otiation.  Every 
indepmident  state  has  a  rights  in  pomt  of  courtesy  and 
usage,  to  send  pnblie  nunisten  or  tepresentotivsB 


dbyCuu^le 


INTEBNATIOMAL  LAW. 


to,  knd  Tao«iTe  mmutMi  from,  any  otb«r  loftrvga 
■tato  vitlt  njuch  it  deaiiM  to  nuuatadn  ration* 
of  petoe  Mid  Miiity.  Sm  Ajoubumb;  Ertot; 
CHlxata  d' AnuxM ;  CoKsn. 

When  war  u  «<MUii<Doed  between  two  ooimtriei, 
Oun  am  Mrtain  lif^vta  Mknoiriedged  to  exiat 
towaida  eadi  o&ar.  Before  war  i«  proclaimed, 
intwmediate  matlioda  u«  MaMtimM  adopted,  witli 
a  view  to  aroid  tlkat  latt  aecaiBty;  tbeaa  aia 
lajiog  an  embareo  on  tlM  dupa  or  profiertf  «{ 
ue  i^«ndiiv  etna  fonud  in  tbe  UtMory  ot  tbe 
offwdedatata;  alao  taking  foroible  paaaetatOB  of  the 

Tspcuats.  Wlken  war  M  onoe  dedared,  the  firat  rtep 
ia  to  aeize  and  oonfiaeate  all  tiie  enemy*!  priqwrty 
withu  the  tcantoTT.  It  beoMMa  unlawful  for  the 
(libjecta  of  each  bdligirent  ttata  to  trade  with  the 
anb]««tiafUieotherbdligeraat.  Ibe  teat  of  whether 
a  peraon  ia  a  anbieot  U  eithor  state  ii  gsaanUl; 
hia  dotnicile ;  lo  tiw  character  of  ahipa  dep«Ddi  aa 
Ou  oatiMHl  ckararter  el  the  owner,  aa  aaoartained 
bj  Ilia  domidl&  Aa  regarda  tbe  wmdnet  of  <m« 
bdligweat  rtata  Maimt  the  other,  aome  wiiteia 
have  laid  it  down,  uat  frerydiiiig  ia  &ir  aaainat  an 


to  death,  the  praetiM  ia 
excha^  or  diacharae  tlKm  on  ooiMlitioaa.  Initoi 
id  JBdweriiwaate  duaU  action  of  the  enemy'a  pi 
p«rt7,  tMopka,  p«bUo  adificea,  moniimente  ol  ■ 


i,  are  vamd.    The  lawa  of  war 
aitaaauaaoi 


on  lattd ;  the  pnctioe  pnTaila 

ig  pinrateen  to  pre^  oa  taacom- 

autiv  being  ia  MBwal 

Wlun  uiupwty  tAaa  ia 


with  the  properWracaptared  Thevilidityof  aoap- 
tnta  at  aea  anut  e«  datennined  in  a  prize  oooit  «<  t£e 
capfeor'a  oocm^  cc  of  an  ally,  and  the  prim  oonrt 
profeatM  to  act  on  minnal  priaoiples  aj^dioaUe  to 
all  conntriea. 

Aa  legarda  naatiali  in  ti»«  of  war,  thre  leading 
doatrinca  aia  atated  nndei  the  heada  OoBViUBijrD 
or  Wax;  BuMnuvB;  toxBOv  Emanaan  Act. 

At  the  OsBEraaa  of  Pane,  ISfiS,  the  ambaaaadore 
of  Great  Biitam,  France,  Rnaiia,  Auabia,  Praaua, 
Tm^^,  and  Sndisia,  agreed  to  a  ioiat  dedanrtioii, 
modifying  the  atata  ot  uw  lawa  ot  war  aa  foUowa : 
1.  To  ababah  priratacmBe;  2,  To  adopt  the  mjmM, 
'bee  ahipa  fr«e  gcwda— La.,  aa  enemy*!  goodi 
ahall  not  ba  taken  in  a  ventral  ahip  anlcsa  thn 
are  conttabaad  of  war;  3.  To  allow  a  aeutnTe 
gooda  in  aa  enemy'B  ahip  to  be  free  except  aa  to 
contraband ;  4.  To  abolish  blockade!  nnleaa  they 
nal,  and  kept  op  by  an  effeottTe  forc&    !Ilieee 


it  objected  to  the 


thoogfa, 

ti«u  will  prabaUy  ba  adopted,  thia  wQl  not  be 
caae  in  the  erent  of  Amenoa  being  at  war  with 


of  theae  paitiea.  See  WhaatOD'a  Inter- 
natiimal  Laa  ;  UackKiBe'B  SludieM  in  Roma»  Lme  ; 
Haeqnaen's  Cki^  PohtU  in  lit  Law  qf  War, 

2.  Privatt  InlenuUioiuii  Lme  ia  that  collection  of 
lawa  that  reeulatea  the  mode  in  which  ordinary 
contfa  ot  juatioe  admbiiatnr  tiie  lemediea  and  nve 
effect  to  the  right*  of  partie*  where  aodi  ti^ita 
were  aoqaired  partly  or  wholly  in  a  foreign  coontiy, 
and  whrae  different  ramediea  mnst  othOTriae  hare 


eonrtaiy  of  nataonB,« 


doetcine  whioh  nadediea  thia  branch  <i 
law  ia,  that  each  rabjeet  of  a  foreign  iadaMndas 
atate  ia  entitled  to  have  Uie  jnitectiai  d  ma  o«n 
lawa,  ao  far  aa  ia  compatiUe  witlL  the  aqnal  fade- 
pendance  of  the  atate  irtLoaa  conrta  adminialrr  tht 
remedy,  and  iuBOt,  Aongh  a  ooort  can  in  ^naal 
mly  adminiater  the  lawa  of  ita  own  atate,  n  m^, 
pro  hoe  ma,  incorporate  part  of  iba  tompi  lavi  ■ 
part  of  it!  own  rMziediaa.  Aooordingly,  m  canjiL; 
ont  thia  doctrine,  certain  lair  and  cqnitaUe  mla 
are  adopted  in  dealing  with  fordgneis  in  eona 
lituationi,  the  chief  of  which  ariae  ont  «f  tteloA 
of  marriage,  death,  intestacr,  and  renwdieaytaJy. 
This  branch  of  the  law  has  been  lo^  Mltinttd 
by  the  continental  countries  of  Sorope,  wfane  wnj 
learned  jariati  have  discnased  its  priacnIeL   Bk 

E'lably  owing  to  the  insular  position  of  me  UuM 
gdont,  littie  attention  waa  given  to  it  thete ;  tad 
indeed  no  work  eTta  incidaotally  treated  tt  tb 
Bubieet  natil  itr  Juatice  Story,  an  Amoican  ia^ 
in  1831,  flrat  prodnoed  hia  o^bated  treafan  ga 
the  CbnjCid  qf  LoKt,  and  gave  to  Bi^iah  lavjn 
a  methodical  view  tA  the  reauUa  at  whidi  fai«p 
juridw  had  airived.  in  the  United  Statea,  whn 
each  independent  atate  had  ita  own  nawtiii'ipal  laa\ 
which  often  differed  materially  ftcnt  l^oae  d  At 
other  federal  atate^  it  was  natmal  and  inaiibUi 
that  soma  system  shonld  be  adopted  aa  to  the  w^ 
each  atate  shonld  deal  with  the  nghta  at  ponM 
coming  from  the  neighboniing  !tatoa ;  and  hmt 
America  ra«caded  Rnglm^  in  the  devdopneat  (f 

thii  tomoh  of  the  law.    Story's "-    '      ■""    ' 

atandard  anUuritr  in  the  Doned 
the  lawa  of  Scotland  diSw  in  maiqr  n^eeta  ina  ; 
thoae  of  Enidand  and  Ireland,  and  each  oovmfay  h^  [ 
ita  own  conrta  axercinng  independcait  juiadioica.  [ 

nnder  these  two  oodea  <^  law  ahould  often  arias 
Not  only  do  tha  courts  of  Scotland  and  riinllJ 
treat  the  lawa  of  the  other  ooonby  aa  fosoga  teat  . 
and  deal  with  each  ath«r  in  much  the  aanu  way  u  i 
they  wooid  de&l  with  France  or  any  other  fn«ip 
ooontiy,  bat  the  laws  in  other  nwpecta  aia  miat 
riall^  difiereet,  and  dve  rise  to  con&iets.  Ob  tks  { 
parUcuUr  braach  of  Me  Uw  affecting  T^|;h~<  aai 
Sootkod,  Ur  Fatei«oa*B  Cinig>mdii*m  t^jSgluk  ad 
SeoleA  Law  containa  a  canunary  of  all  tlte  mattcil 
differenoea  *iri«Ung  between  tlte  laws  of  these  tn  : 
oosntnes,  that  are  of  tha  greatest  practioal  impoit-  : 
anoe  to  rendeota  in  the  United  Kingdoan. 

Ab  r^arda  marriaae,  the  leading  doctme  «f  tb 
eomiCoM  gtHttian  is,  uiat  it  is  inunateiial  in  wtN 
nart  of  the  wcrid  a  man  i*  nurried  proriiitd 
De  ia  Kanied,  and  when  once  tnamed  aecocdiM 
to  the  law  <ii  the  place  where  he  theai  ia,  EBr±  ' 
marriage  will  be  held  a  valid  mairia^  all  tb 
world  over,  aod  whoever  he  go««.  Tbu  ^letaiat. 
liowever,  ia  qnaJified  i      "" 


!  week  iaattU  tk 


D  Una  way,   tl 
a  law  of  vie   ) 


tiie  marriage  waa  contracted — dull   tagolata  Ht  ' 

'  the  maniafte  only  ao  far  as  aay  en- 
many  is  esaeutiBl  to  ma  ii 


ralidity  of  t 


bnt  it  is  not  aUowed  to  dictate  who  the  psinn  i 
are  who  may  validly  marry,  nor  to  vary  tMj 
MNcaitiBl  part  of  the  eontzaot.  Tha  na^  if  | 
the  latter  qnalififatinn  is,  that  there  nay  be  riht  i 
of  policy  in  ewe  coanby  whidi  auj  pithilst  i 
auuTUgea  between  eartain  panooa,  or  «i^  psaAilii  ' 
certain  ooneeqnenoea,  wod  thaidara  the  uia«iB  af  ' 
the  natire  law  by  petaoua  going  ahcoi 
ia  not  to  M  tolsMtef^   For 


»pl*.n. 


;n;7ei 


INTERPLEADEB  SUIT— DTTERTAL. 


IB  abaoliitely  caHotul — tie.,  Qte  ceremony  of  th« 
marmge  bong  odebrated  in  k  peihh  chmdt  bj  * 
priect,  OS  in  a  ■iipcnntend«at-t«gittnu'i  <ittM,  if 
then  a  m  priest  Aoc«nliii(^,  mi;  two  Eotaidi 
penona  m^  go  to  SooUand,  kod  be  tnarriaduoe 
by  exduiigiii^aTerb«ld«cl«r>tionof  irt«ni«ge;Mid 
ii  oaeh>dnad«d  thareSl  dqn  before,  they  will  be 
held  to  b«  married  •gatoot,  and  nuy  immediatelT 
retom  to  fWaod,  it  w  diapoud.  Ontheotberhuid, 
if  frwo  Scot(£pecMiDg[>toIbgluid,th7oamiot  be 
majried  by  sx^unmg  mere  vorbal  declarationi ; 
tliey  mmd  be  maniu,  aoooiding  to  tiie  T^'gii'i'  lair, 
either  hj  a  pri**t  in  a  chnrdi,  or  wilboA  one  in 
a  snpanntendent-re^fbai'i  office;  and  U  bo,  they 
-wiU  M  hdd  to  be  married  all  the  worid  orer. 
AgaiiwQielswaf  Bnjjhttddeelana  t&at  no  maniage 
shall  ba  ralid  withm  eertain  probibited  def^eea, 
and  amonot  oflma  no  mm  ia  there  allowed  to 
manr  hii  oeocaaed  vifc'a  aiater.  Hcoee,  if  a  man 
and  Aia  daoeased  wife'a  «tjrt«i  go  from  ^i0aaA  to 
DemnaA,  when  the  law  a&owa  awdi  penona  to 
nunTj,  aad  they  Qieie  an  maitied  aoccMiv  to  tiia 
form  there  prenjlin^  and  tiien  ntom  to  jS^j^^iyl 
when  ihax  dosiidG  ia,  they  wiD  not  be  toeated 
aa  Hurried  paaons,  becanae  thw  went  to  evade 
their  trm  law  in  a  matter  irtiion  b  conradered  of 
vital  importance.  It  woold,  hewercr,  b«  diftmBt 
if  a  man  and  his  deoeaaed  wife's  nater,  who  w«r« 
Danes,  and  domtolcd  in  DenmaA  at  tlie  thne  of 
their  mania^  came  afterwarda  to  thia  eonnlry; 
Uiey  woold  m  that  caae  ba  treated  aa  prc^eny 
married,  for  thcu  domicile  waa  then  Danish,  and 
thOT  had  aright  to  fdlow  their  own  law. 

Another  fannortaiit  head  of  intematiana]  law  ia  aa 
to  the  law  imich  nffinlataa  the  socoeaaioa  to  the 
proper^  of  a  peiaon  oeceaaed.  On  thia  labjeot,  tlia 
ntleia,  that  itia  the  law  of  the  ecaBtay  in  iriueh  a 
man  waa  domiciled  at  Ibe  time  of  hie  deatb  which 
regnlatea  the  aituoeamm  to  Ma  petaonal  proper^,  eren 
though  lodi  proper^  ia  aoanered  over  tH  pMrta  o' 


when  Uia  deceaaad  penon  had  "hit  doidala.     See 
Bonoiu.     Hie  abore  mle  aa  to  tiie  domkOe  of 

_■  to  his  landed  or 
1  proper^,  the  nicoeerfao  to  it  ia  gorented  br 
th«  mw  of  ne  ooantry  whrae  sndi  land  is  aitaatecL 
Hence,  if  an  t^j^b'"*""*"  dies  domidled  in  England, 
lesviiu  a  Scobm  eatate,  lach  estate  wiQ  dseOEDd 
acconUng  to  the  Bootch,  and  not  the  Bn^liab  law, 
and  it  ia  wdl  known  the  roles  of  suooeMion  differ 
materiaUT  in  the  two  conntries.  See  Pateraon'a 
Compati&an  of  Bngtith  aiui  Scotch  Lam.  Whoa 
the  penon  doea  not  die  intestate,  but  leaTea  a 
will,  then  it  ia  now,  by  statute,  almoat  immaterial 
whether  hia  wfll  waa  nade  aocordiug  to  En^iah  or 
Scotch  law. 

Aaotlier  important  bead  of  private  intematioiial 
law  ia  aa  to  the  ooait  in  which  a  rentedy  can  ba 
obtained  on  wdinary  ewrttartfc  Iba  mle  ia,  tbat 
wbcrew  a  oontoact  waa  made,  Um  eontoaet  mnat 
be  TaHd  aoeordins  to  the  taw  of  tike  place  wbne  it 
waa  niad^  bnt  l£e  remedy  m^  be  had  anywbM^ 
elae  whemver  Uie  defendant  oan  be  foimd.  Ttaa, 
it  a  penon  nukea  a  contract  or  iDcim  a  debt 
in  Sootland,  and  afterwaidi  goea  to  Wnglj-rul,  he 

'- '  "    "-1  1'i"g1''''  eonita,  tiwugh  the 

dy  aOow  the  ranedy,  nroridad 


'^owthe  ramsdy, nroridad 
1  acaordtng  to  ScOMh  bnr. 
^hia  rale  that  if  a  debt  be 
which  would    vreaoribe 
ihe  debtor  be   m  Bog^ 

_   .. ,   time  withon  aix  jeara, 

that  ia  pwt  o(  the  Ki^iah  i«na^.  tt  ia  oi 
of  no  auaU  inpoftanoa  to  know  where  and 
what  eoimtoy  a  penon  may  ba  aaad.    Tha  gene 


Englkh  eonrt  will  only 
the  oontraet  waa  Tahd 

It  foUowB  alao  from  thia _    .._... 

iocotred  in  Scotland  which  would  vreaBribe  in 
tbne  yeara,  yet,  if  the  debtor  be  m  Bogjand, 
I  be  anad  any  time  withon  aix  yeaca,  tot 
-    '     •  --^--—  — ^      ri  i,  oftan 


role  ia,  that  one  aaat  follow  hia  debtor,  aod  sue 
the  d«Mw  in  whatever  conntiy  sndi  debtor  re^des. 
En  thia  teepeet,  however,  Soetchmen  have  greater 


Sootduoeii,  for  white  the  nile  in  Engbnd  ia,  tbat  a 
Sootchman  ean  only  be  sued  there  in  ordinary  oases, 
mofided  aneb  Sootchman  ia  actnally  ptaeuit  in 
Eagland,  and  oan  be  personally  served  with  process 
cS  xhn  court — L  e^  with  a  oopy  of  a  writ  of  sum- 
mona — in  Sootland  the  rule  is,  tJiat  in  many  cases 
an  IkgHshman  can  be  sued  though  ha  never  in 
hia  Hfe  were  in  Sootland  at  all;  it  is  eaoo^  if 
be  haa  some  debt  dne  to  him  thrae,  or  haa  lelt 
some  hrifling  artiale  of  proper^ — snoh,  fee  TWinrln. 
as  hia  imlujllm — irbicn  can  be  aireated.  bi  ma 
latter  oaas,  tha  ■''***"'  or  debt  ia  fint  aeiaed  l^ 
the  Sootoh  oeditor,  in  order  to  found  juriadictioo, 
or,  aa  it  ia  teohnieally  called,  omatum  mi»didig»iM 

ba  sned,  and  judgment  im^  be  obtained  a^Tiiat 
him  inlua  abemce,  even  *VHigli  he  never  haard  of 
Um  aolioa.  B^iahiwpn  have  often  oompUiiisd  of 
this  aa  a  barfaaiow  praetioe  of  the  Sootmoourla; 
newthtiaai^  the  veiy  aM»e  pnotka  eoiata  in  the 
^n  ai  Iioodtw,  though  nowbare  elae  in  RnglaiJ, 
Whao  indpnant  ia  oooe  obtained  cither  in  Eitt> 
land,  Sootland,  or  Irehuwl,  it  ia  now  oompetent  tat 
the  jndgMMit  oraditor  at  once  to  attach  or  aeiie 
tba  gooda  of  tbe  debtor  in  either  of  the  two  other 
ooonteiaa,  if  in  the  maantiaM  tha  debfan  haa  gene 
thnab  nw  ereditor  nsed  foanerly  a  beah  sotion  in 
tbe  n«w  country  to  wltii^  tbe  debtor  had  renaoved, 
and  watrt  over  preciady  the  aame  proceaa  agaia. 
Thia  oireaitoiia  proeem  haa  bean  at  laat  eSeotaaily 
remedied  by  an  act  of  p*'''™"''',  which  allowa 
ezaention  to  follow  jud^pnent  in  any  d  tba  three 
kingdoms,  except  where  a  Scotch  judgment  waa 
foiwded  OD  arreatment  only. 

IVTEBPLEATIEII  SUIT  u  a  aoit  brooji^t  i* 
the  Coort  of  Chancery  b  Pngl«.n>l  or  Irelud  to 
ilrtimiiliHi  wUdi  of  aevtialpartiaa  claiming  the 
ssBs  tiimg  ia  entitled.  I^imerly,  tliera  waa 
no  analogous  process  in  coarta  of  oommon  law 
whereby  ssveru  parlies  "'"■"■"g  one  thin^  ooold  be 
brought  into  the  field  to  oonteat  their  daima,  but  in 
1S31  a  statnte  gave  power  to  do  this  to  a  limited 
extent.  Hie  oamaponding  u 
Seotland  is  an  aoticn  of  Hdtxi 


Itiplc^ioiBding  (q.  v 


wbde 


INTBBPOLATIOW,  tbe  i 
line,  verae,  seuteuee,  pvt  of  a  sentence,  c 

passage,  generally  with  a  ~ — '" 

some  opdnion  ' —  " 

or  of  those  i 

instances  of  intopolation  are  w 

are  with  great  probability  aul, . 

works  of  w4y  Chriatiaji  writers  have  bean  tasqiend 
with,  to  make  tbem  yield  support  to  novri  doettinsa 
and  praoticei. — In  mathematica,  interpolation  ia  tha 
inaertioii  between  two  members  of  a  aeries  inciiaas 
ii^  according  to  a  certain  law,  of  other  faembera 
inch  as,  if  not  absolutely,  yet  very. nearly,  may 
accord  with  the  same  law. 

IIITGRTAL.  in  Muaic,  ia  the  differoiceor  pitoh 
between  Bounds  in  respect  to  heig^  or  depth,  or  the 
diBtance  on  tbe  stave  from  one  note  to  another, 
in  i^ipoaitiaB  to  the  uniaon,  which  ia  two  aounda 
exaetly  of  tiie  same  patoh.  From  tbe  natun  tt  our 
ayatem  of  mnainal  notatioo,  which  >a  on  five  lioea 
and  the  four  interveaing  spaoea,  and  fiom  tbe  notes 
of  the  Bcale  bebig  named  by  tbe  fiaat  Beven  letteca 
of  tbe  alriiabat,  with  lepatitioDB  ia  every  octave,  it 
Eollova  taat  then  o^  ouy  beaix  diSarant  intervala 
in  tb  natnial  diatasio  aoale  nntil  the  octave  of  tha 
aniaon  be  attained.  To  teelun  from  0  npwaida,  we 
find  tha  foUowing  intervala;  thn«  0  to  D  ia  a 


y,  Google 


DTTESTACY— KTOXICATION. 


•econd ;  C  to  E  ii  a  third ;  C  to  F  ii  ■  fourth ;  C 
to  0,  a  fifth;  C  to  A,  a  tixth  ;  0  to  B,  a  leveoth  ; 
and  from  C  to  C  ii  the  octave,  or  the  h^pnuiug  of 
a  minilaT  leiiea.  Interrala  above  the  octave  are 
therefore  merely  a  Tepetition  of  thoae  on  octave 
lower  ;  thua  from  C  to  D,  above  the  octave,  although 
■ometunes  necesaarily  called  a  ninth,  ia  neither  more 
nor  lesi  than  the  aame  interval  which,  at  an  octave 
lower,  ii  termed  the  aecond.  A  flat  or  a  aharp 
placed  before  either  of  the  notM  of  kq  interval  does 
not  alter  the  name  oC  the  interval,  although  it 
afiecti  ita  quality;  for  example,  from  C  to  0|  ie 
atill  a  fifth,  notwithstanding  that  the  G  ie  raised  a 
■emitone  tiy  the  shani.  Intervali  are  olanified  ai 
Perfect,  Major,  and  Minor.  Perfect  intervals  are 
those  which  admit  of  do  change  whatever  without 
destroying  their  consonaDce;  these  are  the  fourth, 
fifth,  and  the  octave.  Intervals  which  admit  of  being 
raised  or  lowered  a  semitoae,  and  ore  itill  consonant, 
are  distinguished  by  the  term  Major  or  Minor, 
according  as  the  distance  between  the  notes  of  the 
interval  is  laree  or  small  Such  intervals  are  the 
third  and  sixth ;  for  example,  from  C  to  E  is  a  major 
third,  the  consonance  being  in  the  proportion  of  6  to 
4 ;  when  the  E  is  lowered  a  semitone  by  a  Sat,  the 
interval  is  still  consonant,  but  in  the  proportion  of 
6  to  5,  aad  is  called  a  minor  thirdi  The  aame 
description  applies  to  the  interval  of  the  sixth  from 
C  to  A,  and  from  C  to  A  flat.  The  second  and 
seventh,  though  reckoned  as  dissonances,  are  also 

■till  further  elevated  c 
lathe- 
■e  Hasuonics. 

INTE'STACY,  the  state  of  a  person  who  has 
died  without  leaving  a  will  Every  person  in  the 
United  Kingdom  has  the  right,  as  one  of  the  inci- 
dents of  ownership,  of  regulating  the  succession  of 
Ilia  property  after  his  death;  that  is,  of  executing 
a  will  which  must  comply  with  certain  requisites, 
go  as  to  shew  that  it  was  solemnly  and  dehber- 
ataly  made^  by  which  will  the  owner  can  give  his 
property  to  whomsoever  he  pleases.  The  forms 
in  Scotiand  differ^  from  thoae  in  England  and 
Ireland,  and  there  is  some  restriction  on  the  right 
«f  tesl^g  or  bequeatbine  property,  hut  in  all 
place*  the  principle  is,  t&tt  if  no  will,  or  deed 
equivalent  to  a  will,  is  executed,  or,  if  a  wUl 
oieonled  is  invalid  from  defect  of  form,  then  an 
intestacy  occurs,  and  the  law  provides  an  heir  or 
next  1^  ido,  in  lieu  of  the  owner  himself  doing  so. 
See  Ekek;  Sdccehsiok;  Will.  A  person  may  die 
partially  intestate,  for  his  will  may  have  Inchiiied 
only  some  of  hi*  property,  in  which  esse  the  property 
not  so  included  goes  to  the  heir-at-law,  or  next 
of  H",  aocoidiug  as  it  is  real  or  personal  estate, 
as  if  no  will  bad  been  made.  But  it  ia  often  a 
difficult  question  in  construing  the  will,  whether 
the  property  not  apedsHy  mentioned  was  not  con- 
veyed by  general  words  to  the  reaiduarf  It^tee 
ot  devisee — a  question  which  turns  entirely  on  the 
language  used  in  each  case. 

INTB'STIM'BS.    See  SiamioK,  Oroasb  txD 

INTOTfING,  according  to  the  genera!  use  of  the 
word,  is  the  recitative  tonn  of  offering  prajrer. 
Intoning  differs  from  ordinary  reading  m  having 
fewer  uflections  of  the  voice,  and  these  only  at 
atated  parts  of  the  pi«yert,  and  according  to  certain 
roles.  The  greater  put  of  the  prayer  is  recited  on 
le  notc^  the  last  two  or  three  words  bcdng  aang  to 
•  "- -  ---'  In  the  longH' 
~  y  omitted. 


■  of  the  scale. 


the  proximate  n 

Gjrers,  the  terminal  inflection  is  generally  o 
i  iKitAM  IntoDing  and  Chanting  are  son 


rmonj.   I: 


used  interchangeably,  but,  thoogli  there  is  gnmi 
common  to  both,  each  has  a  domiuii  pecoli^  to  ':^i 
Intoning  may  be  defined  as  ecclesiaatical  rectitr-. 
and  when  several  voices  are  employed  in  its  perian 
ance,  they  aing,  for  the  most  part,  in  unison,  hnai 
ing  into  harmony  at  the  termio&tioQ  of  the  clawi  ? 
sentence.  Chan&ig  embraces  re<3tatiTe  andrlij^ 
both  divisions  being  in  contiimona  harmonj.  I: 
the  Anglican  service,  as  performed  i 
churches,  all  those  parts  of  tlie  ril 
generally,  which  are  not  set  to  rhyt 
are  intoned;  these  embrace  that  part  of  the  Dm 
ing  and  evening  service  whicli  precedes  the  d^ 
psalms,  the  litany,  and  the  pr»era  in  nmeraL 

John  Marbeck  (I5S0)  was  the  fint  in  Engliadi: 
adapt  the  offices  of  the  reformed  church  to  mssc. 
his  work  contained  melody  only.  He  was  foUoni 
by  Thomas  Tallia,  who  flourished  during  the  rapi 
of  Henry  VIIL,  Edward  TL,  Muy,  and  Eaialid: 
The  grave  melody  (founded  od  the  ancient  bs^ 
and  sublime  harmonies  of  Tallis  h^ve  never  tm 
equalled,  and  have  continued  in  aae  till  the  pias 
day  with  but  slight  modification.  Tallia  seam  » 
have  invented  Uie  f»m  of  the  Andean  i^is 
now  used  for  the  peahna.  In  the  Roman  QiHtk 
Church  these  are  sung  to  the  Giworiau  tonea  S» 
QlUKlORlAtr  Chaht.  The  canbcles  are  im;  H 
rhythmical  music  of  a  more  elaborated  ehir^ 
in  which  form  th^  ore  technically  named  '^ 
vices.'  The  lessooa,  previous  to  tlie  Ust  irn' 
(1661)  of  the  Book  ofOomnuni  Prajftr,  weie  iatiK^: 
since  then,  tiie  invaiiable  practioe  him  beentomi 

The  practice  of  intoning  eiisCed  amtmg  the  if 
at  a  very  early  period,  and  there  is  great  pit- 
ability  that  the  eocleBiastical  cbtuit  in  aeetai  s 
throughout  Christendom  is  bat  a,  momfintin '  | 
that  which  formed  part  of  the  oaoient  Jewish  Ad. 
The  eastern  and  western  churches,  at  vsiiua  '■' 
most  points,  are  at  one  on  this.  MohammtdiiJ 
also  make  use  of  this  mode  of  prayer ;  and  baitcio  f 
tribes  (American  Indians  and  South  Sea  UluKkD'  \ 
are  wont  to  propitiate  their  faJae  gods  in  *  spfo* 
of  rude  chant ;  sU  which  seema  to  point  to  »« 
deeply  seated  instinct  of  human  nature,  and  to  iw- 
cats  an  intuitive  perception  of  the  trnth,  thi*' 
solemn  and  reverential  manner,  diadnct  fnn  v 
manner  of  ordinary  intercoime  with  his  feQ"*^  < 
beet  befite  the  creature  in  his  approaches  to  tl( 
Creator.  The  Lutheran  Chun^  Kod  the  Cbint  ■  , 
England  have  continued  the  practice,  thoogfc  "T  , 
to  a  pennissory  and  non.-essential  extent.  Ta  l**^  | 
uses  it  in  her  cathedral  and  collegiate  choRbK  ^  , 
in  these  vast  edifice*  its  advantages  over  re*"! . 
are  strikingly  manifest.  ' 

INTOXICATION.  Whether  indnoed  ijj^  ) 
mented  liqnora  or  by  distilled  spirits,  ii  «"^^  I 
tbe  alcohol  contained  in  either  Uttt  ""^'^■I  \ 
intoxication  ensue.  These  may  be  oonaidei™  ^^  j 
two  heads;  1.  As  theyimmediatsIyiaaliiMtb*' 
selves  during  a  single  act  of  intoxio»tioa|''°; 
2.  At  they  gradually  srise  throngh  ths  Inq^ 
repetition  of  the  act  The  one  pders  to  tl>»i«" 
of  drunkenness  simply,  the  other  to  tl**  '*^ 
(Intemperance). 

The  effeots  of  aloohol,  in  a  single  tet  '^.'^^Z 
cation,  vary  according  to  the  way  in  '™iL  i 
spirit  iios  been  taken.  II  swallowed  r^*^'^ 
large  quantities  or  in  a  concentrated  (Dn°-^ 
agency  is  that  of  ■  powerful  narcotic  P""*"'' jj— i 
mode  of  action  here  is  partly  throng  *j^ 
impression  by  the  alcohol  on  the  n"^'??:  ^ 
stomach,  and  partJy  by  its  absorption  li*»?J 
blood,  and  its  transmission  thus  to  »"  ^  jb 
is  proved  to  take  place  with  great  'M""^ij|iJ 
individaal  lolls  into  a  deep  itapor,  bw  *'"" 


\^ 


t.Google 


INTOXIOATION. 


shaatlf  nJe.  The  ikiji  ia  covered  Mrith  chill; 
dMnpa ;  uie  polu  i«  feeble^  or  perlu^w  wholly 
imperceptible  ;  the  bMathing  ia  dov  and  weak, 
thoogb  somotimes  Iftboiioiia  uid  oiortiiig ;  the 
eyes  are  rolled  npwRrda,  with  Contracted  or,  occa- 
moDallj,  dilated  pupils ;  Hm  jaws  aie  clenched,  and 
there  are  frequently  conTuhdODa.  Whu«  death 
follows,  it  may  enaae  iit  a  few  minatee,  or  after 
a  period  vaiTing  from  a  tingle  hoar  to  a  day. 
Where  the  qoantity  taken  u  rwallowed  more 
■lowly,  ai  in  ordinary  drinking,  the  consequences 
are  tho«e  which  are  too  familiariy  known  u  char- 
acteriaiaig  a  fit  of  dmnkennes^  and  are  the  prodnct 
of  the  more  gradual  and  lean  exceniTe  absorption. 
The  firat  eS^  ia  that  of  a  feeling  of  wellbeing, 
diffuaed.  orer  the  body,  and  imparted  to  the  mind. 
Thia  gradually  lesda  to  a  atate  of  exhilaration,  and 
thence  to  boisterous  mirth  and  loqoacity,  attended 
at  Grab  by  a  awift  tran^tioc  and  Tivacity  of  the 
ideaa,  hnt  apeedily  lapaing  into  indistjuctneffi 
and  confoaion.  In  the  mcreaiing  whirl  of  excite- 
ment, the  individnal  loiM  all  seose  of  prudence 
and  aolf'govtntmeiit^  betrayi  himaeU  by  hit  india- 
cretiona,  pror^ea  foty  ana  ridicnle  by  hia  follies, 
or  incare  daogv  by  ua  ncUeaanesa.  Along  with 
thia  m«ntal  oondition,  tlie  flnahed  face,  flaahing  eye, 
and  tbiabbiug  biain  shew,  atfint,  the  correaponding 
state  of  excitement  of  the  bodily  functtons ;  wbile, 
along  with  the  sahaecineQt  coniuaioD  of  tiiDoght, 
the  reeling  gait  and  Vie  look  of  stolid  incompre- 
hensian  denote  the  enthnlment  that  baa  followed. 
In  a  fnrthar  stage,  the  memory  fails,  the  individual 
manndeiB  and  mumbles  in  his  speech,  and  the 
surrounding  objects,  recenUy  seen  miperteotly  and 
misappreheaded,  wholly  cease  to  impress  Viitn.     At 

powerleaa,  and  stupor  intervenes,  frota  wMdi  he  a^in 
awakena  to  conaoiouaneaa  after  an  indefinite  luunber 
oE  honjB }  but  then  nanallj  to  anffer  from  qoalms  of 
sickneaa  and  other  feelings  of  pain  and  depr««*bn, 
entailed  npon  him  by  a  natural  law  aa  the  reaction 
from  hia  exceaa,  and  only  dispelled  after  a  still 
longer  interval  The  outline  of  the  effects  may 
vary.  With  aome,  the  progress  of  a  fit  of  dronkea- 
neaa  is  ncrer  attended  by  hilarity  or  other  con- 
apicuoua  excitement,  and  a  dreamy  and  anbdned 
forgetfolneaa  aeema  all  that  is  produced  or  that  ia 

I  aought  for.    With  aome,  even,  it  leada  to  a  state  of 

I  qutfulousnesa  or  of  unreaaaning  melancholy.  With 
othera,  the  condition  is  one  of  furious  madness, 

I  hesitatanK  before  no  extreme  of  violence  and  outrage. 
It  ia  cMefly  to  the  after-efiecta  of  the  paroxysm 

'  that  we  are  to  trace  the  original  growth  and  ulti- 
mata inveteiBCT  of  the  dnmken  hMat.    The  uneaay 

:  sensationa  of  depreaaion,  following  npon  the  excite- 
ment of  the  previous  debauch,  are  souKht  to  be 
relieved  by  a  freah  reourrenca  to  the  atimuant ;  and 
a  morbid  appetite  ia  thua  created  which  craves  its 
relief,  and  finds  it,  in  the  renewed  administration 
of  spirituous  drinks,  just  as  the  natural  appetite  of 
hunger  develops  those  sharp  disquietudes  that  are 
allayed  by  food.  Thia  moA)Ld  appetite,  in  so  far 
aa  it  is  morbid,  may  in  itself  be  regarded  and  treated 
aa  a  disease.  But  the  nnivereal  health  shews  nlti- 
mately  signs  of  a  more  deep  injury.  The  cheeks 
b^in  to  Aave  a  Uoated  and  flabby  look,  with  a 
complexwn  that  either  weats  a  peculiar  pallor,  or 
versea  into  ihadea  61  purple,  wMe  the  noae  not 
rarely  preaenta  a  suspidons  tiiwe  of  crimaon.  The 
appetite  for  ordinary  food  fails,  the  dig«ition  is 
impaired,  the  sleep  is  distnrbed,  and  the  vigour  of 
frame  sod  capacity  for  exertion  sink  accordingly, 

,   the  limbs  often  aching  and  trembling,  and   the 

I   heart  drooping  with  a  miaerable  feeling  of  nervous 


full  development  of  what  ia  known  as  the  drunkard's 
delirium,  or  ddiriian  tremau,  a  form  of  temporary 
insanity  characterised  by  a  state  of  abject  terror, 

he  is  surrounded  with  monstrona  phantaama,  of 
that  he  ia  devoted  otherwiae  to  horrora,  diaaatera, 
or  crimes.  One  effect,  and  a  leading  one,  at  the 
cnatonuuy  presence  of  alcohol  in  the  blood  of  the 
drinker,  la  to  reduoe  the  vitality  of  that  fluid,  ao 
that  it  tends  to  aoatain  only  the  lowest  forma  of 
nutrition  and  animaliaatien,  and  deposits,  in  ae^t 
part,  merely  an  inert  fat  within  these  organs  where 
it  should  minister  to  the  growth  and  mainten- 
ance of  a  delicate  construction,  destined  for  uses 
essential  to  life,  Thoa  we  have  fatty  depoaits,  or 
changes  of  higher  structures  into  fat,  in  ue  heart, 
the  liver,  and  m  the  blood-vessels,  the  coats  of  the 
last  becoming  easily  mptored.  Hence,  liability  to 
diseases  of  the  heart  and  of  the  liver  often  followed 
by  dropsies,  or  to  afTections  of  the  other  intestines, 
or  to  attacks  of  apoplexy  and  palsy.  If  not  cut  off 
abruptly  in  bis  career,  the  life  of  the  drunkard 
becomes  one  long  malady  towards  its  close,  the 
final  condition  bemg  usually  one  of  imbecility  of 
mind  and  body,  yet  with  throes  of  suffering  to  the 
last  It  hsa  been  authoritatively  shewn  that,  while 
the  average  expectation  of  future  life  to  the  ton- 
perate  man  at  flftv  may  be  reckoned  at  twenty 
years,  that  of  the  dnuikard  at  the  same  age  is  only 
four  years.  Again,  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one 
and  thirty,  the  deaths  among  druSurds  have  been 
found  to  be  more  than  dve  times,  and  between 
tbirty-one  and  fifty,  more  than  four  times  what  occur 
among  the  general  community  at  the  like  age&  See 
DiPSOiUKU.  and  DiUBim  Tkzmxhs  in  Butt. 

iNTonCA'noN,  or  IJrcnxehhibb,  is,  in  point  of 
law,  no  excuse  for  any  wrong  done  by  the  dnmken 
party.  Crimea  which  are  committed  in  a  atate 
of  dronbenness  are  punishable  in  the  same  way  aa 
it  the  actor  were  sober,  though  it  ia  diacretionanr 
in  the  court  to  mitigate  the  eenWce.  Aa  regarda 
contracts  entered  into  by  a  drunken  party,  there  ia 
no  peculiarity,  unless  the  fact  of  drunkeimess  woa 
token  advantage  of  by  the  sober  party,  in  which 
case  it  lies  on  the  drunken  party  to  prove  this. 
Cases  may  no  doubt  arise  where  the  drunkennesa 
may  be  an  element  of  fraud,  and  so  the  contract  or 
deed  may  be  rescinded  or  set  aside.  Themereactor 
state  of  dmokeimees,  when  privately  indulged  in,  ia 
not  on  offence  against  the  law ;  but  if  it  be  shewn  in 
pubhc,  it  may  become  so.  If,  for  example,  a  person 
be  drunk  in  the  streets  or  a  public  plaoe,  he  waa 
made,  b^  a  statute  of  James  X,  liableto  he  fined 
5&,  or,  if  unable  to  ^y,  to  be  committed  to  the 
stocks  for  six  hours.  By  a  more  modem  enactment 
of  18T2,  called  the  Intoxicating  Liquors  Licensing 
Act,  which  repealed  the  older  statuto,  every  peraon 
found  drank  in  a  hii;hway  or  public  place,  or  in  a 
liceosed  house,  is  liable  to  a  penalty  oC  ten  shillings  ; 
and  on  a  second  offence  within  12  months,  to  twenty 
shillings,  and  on  a  third  offence  within  12  months, 
to  forty  shillings.  To  be  drunk  and  riotous,  or  be 
drunk  while  in  charge  of  a  horse  or  carriage,  or  of  a 
gun,  is  puniahabla  with  a  fine  of  twenty  ahillinga,  or 
imprisonment  for  one  month.  Local  acts  also  often 
impose  other  penaltiea.  In  Scotland,  aeveral  ancient 
statutes  were  passed  agajnat  drnnkenneaa,  which, 
however,  are  in  deanetnoe.  In  aeveral  local  ^dice 
acts,  a  penal^  is  imposed  on  drunkennees  m  the 
streets,  and  the  Police  and  Improvement  Act  of 
Scotland,  25  and  26  Vict  c  lOl,  a.  254,  sabjects 
drunken  peraons  in  the  atreets  to  a  penalty  of  40s., 
or  14  d^'  imprisonment,  in  alt  places  where  that 
aot  isa^pted, 

'  at 

. Ol 


Ak 


INTEAD08— mVALIDINO. 


INTRA'DOS,  tiie  under  m  inner  tide  or  soffit 
of  ui  Arch  (q.  t.}.  tlta  upper  or  outer  cisTa  bedsg 
called  the  ACfnufo*. 

INTBE'NCHMBNT,  in  a  eeneral  seme,  n  any 
work,  consistuig  of  not  leas  l£iui  &  ponpet  and  a 
ditch,  which  fortifies  a  poit  agadoBt  the  attack  of 
an  enemy.  Aa  a.  means  of  prolonging  the  defence 
in  B  regidar  work  of  permanent  fortification, 
intreBchmenta  ore  made  in  Tsrious  ports,  to  which 
the  defenden  sacceuivelj  retire  wheu  driTen 
io  from  forward  works.  Bastions  are  ordinarily 
intrenched  at  the  gorge  by  a  breastwork  and  ditch, 
forming  either  a  re-entering  angle  or  a  small  front 
of  fortification.  Such  a  work  across  the  gorge  of 
the  Kedan  at  Scbostopol  caused  the  repulse  of  the 
British  attack  in  September  1835.  A  cavalier,  with 
a  ditch,  is  also  an  intrenchment.  An  army  in  the 
field  often  strengtheiu  its  position  by  intrent^mients, 
as  by  a  cojUinuS  Une  of  parapet  and  ditch,  broken 
into  redans  and  curtains,  or  by  a  line  teiih  infer- 
vaU,  consisting  of  detached  works  of  more  or  lea* 
pretension  flanking  each  other.    . 


mciit.  Formerly,  the  mtrodnctiou  wa*  onfy  to  be 
foond  in  large  musical  works,  such  aa  symphonie*, 
OTertures,  oratoriaa,  kc ;  bat  now  it  is  found  in 
every  roikda,  frmtnaia,  polonaiae,  waits,  Sta.,  oa  tlie 
prinoipk  that  it  it  cDDajdered  abrupt  to 
OMut  all  at  once,  wHliout  iceparing  the 
audience  for  what  I*  to  come,  hi  a  stricter 
sense,  introdDction  is  applied  to  the  piece 
of  raosio  mtb  which  an  opera  begins,  and 
which  immediately  follows  the  ortrtoNh 
In  some  cases,  the  overture  and  introdao- 
tion  are  united,  the  composition  going  on 
without  any  formal  pause,  as  in  Glnck's 
IphigfnU  en  Tauride,  Mozaifs  Idomatio 
aitd  Don  Oiovanai.  As  tlie  overture,  which 
contains  a  harmonieal  sketch  of  the  opera, 
should  make  a  permanent  impresaion  on 
the  audience,  the  costom  of  nniting  it  with 
the  introdnction  haa  vety  ^ropeny  been 
diaoontinoed,  and  the  intramiotuat  treated 
as  an  independent  movement. 

INTBOMI'SSION,  in  Scotch  Law,  is  the 
BMUnption  of  legal  authority  to  deal  with 
another's  property.     It  is  divided  into  legal 
and  vidons;    Legal  iirtromission  is  where 
the  party  is  ezj^essly  or  impliedly  author' 
ised,  eitlier   by  adjudgment   or  deed,  to 
interfere,  as  by  drawing  the  renta  or  getting 
in  debts.    Yicions  intromissioo  is  where  an 
heir  or  neit  of  kin,  withont  any  authority, 
interfer^e  with  a  deceased  person's  estate; 
as,  for  eiample,  where  a  perjon  not  named 
b^  a  will,  or  without  the  authority  of  any 
win,  collects  the  property  of  the  deceased 
person,  as  if  he  were  regularly  appointed.      By 
iO  doing,  tie  vicious  iutromitter  incuts  the  respon- 
nbility  of  paying  all  the  debts  of  the  deceased. 
The  vttiosity,  however,  may  be  taken  off  by  the 
intromitter    being    Tcgolarly   confirmed    executor. 
The  corresponding  please  in  Bo^and  to  a  vidous 
intronutter  is  an  exeeal/ir  de  ion  tort 

IKTBU'SION,  the  Scotch  law-teim  for  a  trea- 

INTUI'TION.  See  iMsmicT,  and  CovMOH  SnrBi. 

fNTUS-SUSOE-pTlON,  or  DTVAGINATION, 
is  fie  term  applied  to  that  partial  displacement  of 
the  bowel  in  which  one  portion  of  it  passes  into  the 
portion  immediately  adjacent  to  it,  just  as  one  part 
of  the  finger  of  a  ^ove  is  sometimes  pulled  into  an 


it  part  in  the  B(^  of  witikdmrn^  the  hai 


adj.e_ 

liable  to  be  nipped  aad  cbMienlatAd  by  Oe  ;a 
tin  irtiich  era^luia  it,  aad  all  tube  dangsof  Has 
(q.v.)  isnlts,  witli  far  Vm  oh*DC«  of  aooo^ 
iiiterfeTeBoe  on  tha  part  of  tll*  ■imyua  or  -fbymet. 


It  ii 


It  of  the  is 


obstruction  of  tihe  bowels. 

suaception  tmy  -nrj  from  a  few  limsi  te  a  Im 
or  more.  £veQ  when  inflanmiaJdoit  M  Mt  tf,  Ai 
affection,  althoogh  in  the  lijuhiMl  Atm^tn  pedm,  ■ 
not  of  neeeasity  fatal  !l£a  iimgnuted  inlia 
nortifiea  and  »l""g*",  while  sdlii  aiiiii  ia  ertuble 
between  the  peritoneal  surface*  of  tba  upprr  ui 
lower  poitdona  at  their  plMe -of  junctiaa,  aothitai 
oontimii^  of  the  tnbe  u  pieaci  v ed,  althoa^ahip 
portion  mav  be  Atittojed.  If  tlie  — " — *  -  •*— ' 
eskengh  to  Deal  tit*  shock  of  the 
ffoxa,  dooghing,  &&,  »  eomideta  : 

riTULIir.    See  'ELaciMtAXK. 

rirmJS,  or  Dnn7nS,ageiiiis  of  apel,tD«liia 
the  Barbary  Ape  (q.  v.]  belon|^  The  Baibaiyif' 
is/,  igteamu. 

IKVALIDEB,  wonnded  vefcenuns  of  tlie  Trod 
amy,  laaiitaiDed  at  the  ccqienae  of  1^  state.  Qi 
S04d  da  IntxUida  ia  an  catabli^unent  in  Tvi 
where  a  number  of  thsae  old  soMiera  aie  ousitoii 
Its  d^cl  I'^Ttains  the  tomb  of  the  Great  Kipolra 


and  is  an  object  of  mneb  attxaction  to  all  irut^ 
It  was  founded  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1671,  and  dufflS 
bis  reizn,  and  fin  a  long  time  afterward^  ***? 
place  M  retirement  for  &e  aged  servaitti  at  cof* 
tavonrites  aa  well  aa  for  invahded  soldleie ;  ^^ 
abnse  waa  put  an  end  to  by  St  Germain  ia  "™ 
XV. 's  rogn.  In  1789,  the  Hfltel  had  a  rerem*  ■ 
£08,000,  but  during  the  time  of  the  BepuUK  « 
property  waa  alienated,  and  the  institntiDi'  <^ 
ported  from  the  pubhc  revenue.  The  H**?*  j 
oocommodato  SOOO  men,  and  tlie  aetoal  munw  » 
inmates  is  not  much  below  tbtt.  , 

INVALroiNG  signifies  the  letom  hsW- *  ' 
to  a  more  healthy  ^mate,  of  aoldJer*  or  •"?' 
whom  wounds  or  the  severj^  of  foreign  *''*;  ' 
'      ipable  of  actiTe  duty.   »»  "^  1 


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INTABIABLE  PLAm-QTTEBHBIS^HIBB. 


I   to  Ida   Antf  m  aoaa   h   lu 

■tiSM  tiks  (tap. 
XnTABIABIiE  FLAITE.  The  posltioit  of  » 
point  in  spacs  is  determined — m  expluiied  in  the 
article  Co-okdikatis — by  referring  it  to  plnoea 
inteieeotiiig  one  anotiier  at  right  anglES ;  and  in 
■■certwning  the  motion  of  the  point  \>j  thu  me&ns, 
tliA  planca  mtut  either  be  immovable,  or  allowance 
most  be  made  for  theii  altered  poedtioD,  an  operation 
of  conmderaUe  complexitT.  In  aatrocomj,  none  of 
the  obrioml;  marked  pknes,  Euch  aa  tnat  of  the 
Ecli^io  (q.  v.)  ca  of  the  £qo»tar  (q.  v.),  ponem  thia 
re^Dirite  qnahtj^  of  iHAj  ao  aa  to  form  b  comreni^at 
boaia  for  determining  the  poaition  of  hesvenlf  bodie* 
'with  abfolvte  ezac&faa.  Laplace,  therefore,  con- 
ferred a  boon  on  utroncmy,  whan  he  disooTezed 
tiuit,  in  4^  •oIm'  ayatMn,  tha«  do«a  edit  'an 
invariable  pliBe,  about  wMdt  the  orUti  perpetually 
oacillate^  deriatin^  from  it  only  to  a  Twy  maU 
extent  on  either  mde.  Thia  plana  paiw  thnm^ 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  tbe  solar  syitem,  and  it  la 
Bu  mtnatad,  that  if  all  the  planet!  be  projected  on 
it,  and  if  the  mass  of  each  planet  be  multiplied 
into  the  area,  corresponding  to  any  given  time,  which 
i%  deacribad  by  the  projeeted  rai£iu  vector,  tiie  stun 
of  snch  prodncta  wilt  be  a  "'«■•"'"'""     By 


to  determine  the  exact  poaition  of  the  plane,  and 
to  compare  observatkow  tomrther  by  means  of  it' 
{Ctrant*  Sittom  of  nytbM  Jtironomif.)  3nch  a 
piano  is  not  pecnliar  to  the  solar  i^atem,  bnt  mnst 
exist  in  all  aystems  wbem  the  bodiea  are  aotad  on 
by  no  other  1oK»  than  theii  mutual  attraotiinL   See 


INTB'OTA  BT  ttLATi,  *   ph 
Scotch  hnr  to  d«aota  all  tiiinga  whiob 
broBght  aptm  the  pnmiaea,  as  : 
tnra,  tools,  ntwisiln.  fto. ;  also^  !■  eaaa  of  thirlage, 

IS  VK'CTED,  or  ISVKCKED.    See  EtrmuixD. 

INTBNTION.    SwPAmot 

IirVEITFORT,  a  list  or  achedole  of  goods  or 
property  setting  forth  the  pMticoIan,  so  as  to  inform 
parties  interested.  The  term  is  noed  in  En^and  in 
reference  to  an  executor  or  adminiatiator  making 
out  a  lilt  of  tin  deoeassdperson's  effects.  In  Soot- 
land,  it  is  also  laed  in  refersnce  ta  the  proper^  of 
an  in&nt,  pnpil,  or  minor,  whose  estate  is  ondsr  the 
cats  of  a  gnardian,  tutor,  cantor,  jndioial  botor.  In 
Scotland,  it  is  also  nsed  in  connection  with  the 
Tikwa  pViWiiBl  and  daads  anddoenmaiits  jrodnead 
or  used  m  a  aim  or  action,  then  called  an  mrentocy 
,  of  pmeaa.  So  a«  to  an  inrentoiT  of  titka,  that  ii^ 
I   the  titles  «tf  «n  estate  shewn  to  a  pnrofaasei; 

IKVBKA'BAT,  a  email  royal  and  parliaowti- 
tary  burah  and  seaport  of  Scotland,  the  conn^  town 
of  Argyleahiie,  is  pictureaqnel;  situated  on  the  west 
shore  of  Loch  IVne,  where  the  river  Ajttj  fsHs  into 
the  loch,  40  milea  north-wtst  of  Qlasgow.  It  con- 
aiibi  of  one  principal  stnet  mnning  paiaHel  to  the 
loch,  and  a  sqnare  with  a  chuich  in  ue  eentie.  An 
obeliak,  standing  near  the  chnioh,  eommemorates 
the  death  of  17  ^tlemem,  all  Campbells,  who  were 
executed  here  without  trial  in  1688,  tor  their  adher- 
ence to  Presbrterianiara.  Close  to  the  towa  itands 
Inveran^  Castle,  the  chief  reiidence  of  the  I>nkea 
of  Arg^Ie.  I.,  the  ancient  town,  the  capital  of  the 
We«t  Bi^ilaods,  was  tttoated  at  some  dtstanoe  to 
the  north  of  the  present  town.  Not  a  vestige  of  it 
sow  remains.  The  trade  of  L  is  chiefly  in  herring- 
ashing.     PepL  in  1871,  906. 


IKTEBOjUMILL.  a  town  in  the  anivii 

OtagD,  New  Zealand,  toRuerly  capital  of  Sout- 

whtn  a  pforiaetk  lies  at  m»  Btontt  of  As  Mew 
Birer.  Ilpowesaea  foMbanhaandawenJdHwches. 
The  ■nronnding  district  is  princip^^  taken  an 
with  pastoral  operations.  Tha  town  ia  a  telegnph 
statioB,  and  two  newspaper*  aie  paUiahed.  It  is  a 
terminvs  of  the  BlnffWbonr  ana  InvereaigQl  Rail- 
way ;  and  several  otlter  lines  are  in  eovrss  of  aoB< 
stmcticB,  or  pfojeoted.  Po^x  (1871)  19SIX 
IITTERNXrBS,  aro7*l,parUame>itary,aiidmniU' 
ipal  bur^  ntiiated  at  the  month,  and  moatiy 
a  the  right  bank,  of  the  river  Nesa.  It  ia  the 
chief  town  of  the  county  to  which  it  (pT«a  uane, 
may  be  r^arded  as  tha  capital  of  the  Hi|dk- 
I.  Ita  environs,  well  cultivated  and  beantifimv 
wooded,  an  almoat  nuronsded  br  motmtaiDS  and 
hills  «1  vanons  beighta,  fonning  altogedter  a  most 
picturesque  and  interesting  landiMapfc  Pop.  (1S71) 
14,S1I);  annnal  value  of  real  property,  £6!E,I1S; 
corporation  revenue,  £3205  a  year.  It  unites 
wiui  Fortroee,  Nairn,  and  Forres,  in  returning  one 
member  to  parliament,  The  first  charters  of  L 
as  a  bank  are  graotsd  by  King  William  the  lion 
(1166— iSh  *,b.).  By  one  of  thtae,  it  ia  stipu- 
lated that  when  the  king  has  made  a  ditch  round 
the  bnrgh,  the  burReases  ehall  make  a  palisade  on 
the  edge  of  the  dit(£,  and  keep  it  in  good  repair  for 
ever.  In  1411,  the  town  was  burned  by  Donald, 
Lord  of  the  Isles,  on  lus  way  to  Harlaw  (q.  v.). 
Macaulay,  writing  of  the  year  16S9,  describee  L  *a 
'a  Saxoa  colony  amoiw  the  Celta,  a  hive  of  toadeis 
and  artisans  in  the  mi£t  of  a  popnlatiMi  of  loungers 
and  plunderers,  a  solitary  outpost  of  etTiliaatioD  m  a 
region  of  barbariana.'  The  Castlehill,  on  the  sontb 
tide  of  the  town,  part  of  an  old  sea-terrace,  was  tha 
site  of  a  castU^  which,  in  1303,  was  taken  by  the 
adherents  of  King  Edward  L  of  England,  but  sub- 
sequently retaken  b;^  thoee  ti  King  Aoheit  Bruce. 
King  Jamas  L  is  said  to  have helda parliament  in 
^  caatle  in  1427.  An  iron  saspen«on-l»idge,  con- 
■teucted  iu  1866,connecta  the  two  parts  of  the  town. 
In  the  ^gh  Street  stand  the  town-aroes,  and  beside 
it  the  fiimoas  Claoh-Da-cuddin,  a  lozenge-shaped 
blue  slab)  formerly  regarded  as  the  palladium  of 
tiie  bui^  In  the  same  street,  are  the  Town-hall 
and  Exchange,  built  in  1708.  Of  the  cM  religious 
foundations  of  L,  there  is  little  mors  tliaa  mere 
tradition.     The  Dominicans  seem  to  have  had  a 


sStxd,  a 


•nt  in  ika  town.    Amtmg  moi«  modan  h 
and  foandationB,  may  bs  enomerwtad  Bail 

<d,  MtaUiabad  1747 ;  the  spire  of  tha  old  Jul, 

ISO  feat  Id^  built  in  17S1,  cnriraaly  twisted  by 
the  earthquake  of  ISIS,  and  ri&oe  rtadjustad;  the 
Koyal  Academy,  1792;  the  County  BuildioM  and 
jaii;onthaatteof  theeaatle,18S6;  andStA^nw*! 
Cathedial,  a  fine  Oothio  building,  the  fouBdatioB. 
ttoaa  of  wUeh  was  laid  in  Oetober  1866  by  Dr 
Lo^riey,  AiAbJahop  ot  Caaterbuiy.  There  ia  a 
SB^  WMillen  nantdhcttay,  a  Workmen's  CHob  nd 


slu^  thnMighont  the  county  has  greatly  dimin* 
idled  their  uipoctaoae.  It  has  t&es  hatbonrs, 
built  at  different  times,  and  a  conmdaralde  amount 
of  shipping  by  the  Mony  Tirth  and  the  Cale- 
doniau  Canal,  whiidi  couneeta  it  witJi  the  wast 

TIfVERKBSa-BHIRE,  the  largest  county 
of  Scotland,  includes  Badcnoch,  Olenroy,  and  the 
valley  of  the  Spey  on  the  east ;  Locbaber  on  tlie 


vLiUu^le 


IKTERTEBRA.T£  ANUULS-INTESTITDBB. 


1 


■onth;  Qleneig,  Glen  Garry,  Ariuift  Moydwi,  and 
Vnaenf  County  on  the  wett;  Glan  Utqiilxut  and 
Glen  Moniitoa  tmrurda  the  centre.  It  iudadee 
also  StntQulaH  on  the  north;  and  Mveral  ol  th« 
weat«ni  i^mda,  vit.,  Skye,  Harm,  North  and 
Sonth  Uist,  and  Barro,  Ac  The  mainland  portion 
Kei  betreen  N.  Ut.  66'  4ff  and  ST"  36',  and  W. 
Ions,  3*  30'  and  G°  65' ;  and  ia  bounded  on  the 
E.  by  the  countiee  of  Aberdeen,  Banff,  El^o,  and 
Nairn ;  on  the  S.  bj  Perth  and  Ar^leahire  i  on 
the  W.  by  the  Atlantic  and  Itou-ahire ;  and  on 
the  N.  by  Sou-Bhire.  It  meaBurea  from  north-east 
to  tonth-ireat  SS  nulea,  and  from  north-weat  to 
■oath-eMt  S7  milea ;  and  has  an  area  of  42S6  square 
mile*,  of  vhich  more  than  two-tbirda  coniiat  of 
barren  heath.  The  wildect  and  most  monntainoua 
portion  is  towards  the  west,  comprising  a  tract 
TO  miles  in  extent,  and  designated  the  Sough 
Bound*.  The  roost  extenmve  moss  in  Great  Bhtam 
lies  on  the  south  of  Badeaoch,  wher^  in  the  natur- 
ally formed  wooded  islands,  large  herds  of  doer 
find  a  refuge.  These  inoisea  had  at  one  time  been 
mostly,  if  not  wholly,  oOTered  with  trees,  some  of 
them  of  great  magnitude.  In  Strathspey,  three 
tiers  of  stocks,  one  above  another,  have  been  found, 
shewing  that  a  succesnon  of  forest  trees  mnat 
have  grown  up,  fiourished  for  ages,  tutd  then,  one 
after  another,  diaappesred  by  the  work  of  time  or 
the  aie.  At  present,  the  natural  pines  occupy  a 
larger  space  than  in  any  other  count;  of  Bntain. 
There  are  also  many  thousand  acres  of  plantations 
of  ordinary  foreet  treaii.  Some  mountains  attain 
considerable  altitode.  Ben  Nevis,  now  ascertained 
to  be  the  highest  in  Or^t  Britain,  is  4400  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Cairngorm,  }urtly  in 
this  county,  is  40S0  feet  high.  The  geological  for- 
mation of  the  count;  is  various ;  but  primary  rocks 
ooDtisting  of  gneiss,  mica-slate,  nwute,  porphyry, 
and  trap  rocks,  mostly  prevail  The  most  fertile 
soil  of  the  county  rests  on  the  red  sandstone  iu 


extent,  aa  Loch  Ness,  Loch  Iiochy,  Loch  Laggan,Lodi 


Ericht,  and  a  number  ttf  other  locha  fanning  sibs 
of  the  sea.  Tha  princtpa]  liveia  are  the  Nea^  ^PJ' 
Lachy,  Beauly,  Findhom,  Nairn,  Gsiiy,  UonistOL 
and  the  Foyers  (q.  v.).  The  ooim^  b  dividEd 
among  80  or  90  proprietors,  a  few  of  «1m«>  powts 
above  100,000  acres  of  surface.  The  old  rained 
rent  (1674)  waa  £6099;  the  valuatioa  for  1873— 1371 
was  £308,137.  The  asseaament  on  the  laud  for  sD 
county  jpnrposea  amounts  to  £5S00.  Ajxeriiag  to 
the  agncolturat  returuB  of  1S72,  the  total  aensgt 
under  all  kinds  of  crops,  fallow  and  gnts,  tu 
118,352:  40,099  seres  were  under  com  cn^ps,  IS.'St 
under  green  crops,  24,579  under  clover  and  grsMea 
nnder  rotation,  38,872  witli  permanent  pasture  [a- 
elusive  of  heath  and  mountain- land).  Of  the  laad 
under  Crops,  1778  acrea  wero  wheat,  7083  bariej, 
30,006  oats,  lOSl  rye.  Of  land  under  green  cnfii, 
S423  acres  were  potatoes,  10,657  turnips,  159  mctna, 
ka.  Of  live-stock,  there  were  8371  borses,  47,0S 
cattle,  788,001  sheep,  and  6099  swine.  There  ait 
comparatively  few  antiquities  worth  noting  in  the 
county.  These  ooniist  principally  of  remsin  (f 
vitrified  forts  and  mint  of  old  oaMlea.  Tlie  hxaie 
which  decided  the  fate  of  the  Stuarta  was  foigbt 
16th  AprU  1746,  on  CoUoden  Moor,  a  few  mia 
from  Inverness.  The  Gaelic  language  is  still  geur- 
ally,  but  in  scaroel;  any  district  exclosively,  qukn. 
Pop.  in  1871,  87,531.  The  constituency  retnn*  w 
member  to  parliament. 

INVEBSION,  in  Music,  is  the  tmiaposingaf  « 
of  the  two  notes  of  an  interval  by  an  ocb»e  apwart 
or  downwards,  to  a  poaition  the  r«veiae  a  thK 
which  it  before  occupied  with  respect  to  tlw  alia 
note,  so  that  if  the  ti-ansposed  nc^  was  the  hmtr 
note  of  tha  two,  it  shall  now  be  t±ie  hi^isr  les, 
and  mce  vend.  The  new  interval  thus  formed  taka 
its  name  from  the  complement  of  the  octan;  I> 
example,  a  amsoD  inverted  beoomes  an  octsf^  ■ 

a  fourth  becomea  a  fifth,  a  fifth  beoomes  a  foartk, 
a  sixth    bec<nnes  a  third,   a   seventh   beoomes  i 


following  shews  how  these  arise : 


By  inversioii  diminished  intervals  become  aogm  ented, 
and  augmented  beoome  diminished ;  major  become 
minor,  and  minor  beoome  major ;  but  pmect  intei^ 
vals  axe  alao  perfect  when  invarted.  For  inversion 
of  chords,  see  Choks.  An  important  use  is  also 
made  of  the  word  inversion,  in  roerenoe  to  a  whole 
passage  or  phraae,  for  which  see  article  Cochtib- 

INTE'RTEBRATE  ANIMALS  {TmertAraia) 
are  those  »"'■"»<■  which  have  not  a  vertebral  column 
or  spine.  The  division  of  *ninn.1a  into  Vtrl^>r»lt 
and  Inveritbrait  is  a  natural  and  unavoidable  oue, 
acknowledged  in  all  systems  of  zoology.  But  these 
groups  being  formed,  the  one  on  a  poaitdve,  and  the 
other  on  a  native  character,  are  by  no  means  of 
equal  value  in  the  classification  of  the  animal  king- 
dom. In  Ouvier's  system,  the  invertebrate  animsJa 
form  three  of  the  great  divisions  of  tiie  animal 
kingdom — viz.,  Mdwltca,  ArtiaUaia,  and  Eadiata, 
each  of  which,  like  Vert^trata,  exhibits  a  peculiar 
type  of  structure.  There  are  also  animals  of  lower 
organisation  than  those  which  can  with  certain^  be 
referred  to  these  divisions,  although  included  b; 
Onvier  amongst  tbe  Badiaia,  fonnmg  the  Acriia 
and  ProUaoa  of  recent  systems.  Amongst  the  lower 
invertebrata  aniniaJs,  much  more  than  amongst 
«ia 


vertebrate  animals,  the  arrangement  into  grco^ 
must  be  regarded  as  at  present,  !u  a  great  measnR. 
tentative  and  provisioual;  althon^  m  the  higbr 
departments  of  Invertebrate  Eoologr  many  tf  tin 
cliaes  and  other  groups  are  very  wSl  defined,  He 
orranisatioa  of  Borne  of  t^iem,  sh  Insects,  hcwrnr 
different  from  that  of  vertebrate  aninuJi,  B  Mt 
evidently  lower,  but  exhibits  a  perfectiou  as  sdisir- 
able  as  in  any  of  thera,  whilst  all  vital  powtsi  ui 
most  fully  displayed. 

INTE'STITURE  (Lat  in,  and  veilio,  to  dotlic). 
in  fendal  and  ecclesiastical  history,  means  the  (ct 
of  giving  corporal  possession  of  a  manor,  oSk,  « 
benefice,  accompanied  by  a  certain  ccremomal,  siA 
aa  the  delivery  of  a  branch,  a  banner,  or  an  inftm- 
ment  of  office,  more  or  leas  designed  to  aigniff  tbc 

Cer  or  authority  which  it  is  supposed  to  connj. 
contest  about  ecclesiastical  inveatttnm  ii  s) 
interwoven  with  the  whole  coureo  oE  medioJ 
history,  that  a  brief  account  of  its  origin  and  attsn 
i>  iodiapensable  to  a  right  understanding  «f  nuy 
of  the  most  important  events  of  that  period.  IU 
system  of  feudal  tenure  bad  become  so  munml 
that  it  affected  even  the  land  held  by  e> 
and  attached  to  most  of  the  higber 


dignities,  monastia  as  well  a< 


According, 


hyCoU^lt 


mVESTITDBX— INTOOATION  OF  ANGEI^  AlfD  SADTTS. 
in  virtiu  of  the  eedesiutkat  offioa 


ccclenutios  wlio, 
which  tha^  lield, 
attached  to  mch  offices,  began  to  be  regarded 
beoomiofF  by  the  Terj  fact  feudatory  to  the  luaeiain 
of  theee  lande ;  and,  ae  a  not  unoatiml  teeolt,  the 
■uzeraina  thon^t  thenuelna  entitled  to  nlaim,  in 
referenee  to  Uieee  peraooagei,  the  game  rights 
which  the;  enjoyed  over  the  other  feodatoriee  of 
their  domune.  Amoog  tkeee  righta  naa  that  of 
grsntiiig  Bolenm  iurestitnre.  Now,  in  the  caee  of 
biahopa,  abbots,  and  other  church  dignitaries,  the 
form  of  investitnre  conaiited  in  the  dehvery  of  a 
paatoral  ataff  or  oroaier,  and  the  placins  a  ring 
upon  tha  fingw ;  and  as  these  badges  of  omoe  wan 
emblematio^~the  one  of  the  ipiritoal  —     '  — '~ 


of  thia  ri^t  by  the  lay  suzerains  beoante  a  snbject 
of  oonitant  and  angry  oomptaint  on  the  part  of  the 
chnrch.  On  the  put  of  the  suzerains  it  was  rephed, 
that  they  did  not  daim  to  grant  by  thia  rita  the 
ipiritnal  poweta  of  the  office,  their  function  being 
•olely  to  gFut  poaanoaion  of  its  temijoraUtiea,  and  c3 
the  tempOTsl  i»nk  thereto  annexed.  Bntthechnrch- 
pBity  niged,  that  the  ceremonial  in  itself  involved 
the  granting  of  spiritiul  poweia ;  ioaomoch  that  ' 
order  to  prevent  the  cl«^  from  electing  to  a  s 
when  vscuit,  it  was  the  practice  of  the  emperors 
to  take  possession  of  the  crosier  and  ring,  ontil 
it  ahonld  be  their  own  pleesore  to  graot  inves- 
titnre to  their  favonrites.  The  disfavour  in  which 
the  practice  had  long  been  held  found  ila  moat 
energetic  ezpmaion  in  the  person  of  Oregory 
VIL,  who  having,  in  the  year  1074,  enacted  most 
rtringent  meaames  for  the  rejavasion  of  smony, 
proceeded,  in  1073,  to  ccmdemn,  under  ezoommu- 
nication,  the  practice  of  invcatdtnre,  aa  almost 
Deceaaarily  coimected  with  Nmony,  or  leading  to 
it,  Thia  g^ohibition,  hovrerer,  as  ia  observed  by 
Moaheim  {a.  326),  ooly  regarded  iaveatitiu«  ia  tas 
objectionable  form  in  whuh  it  was  then  practised, 
or  investiture  of  whatever  form,  when  the  ofGoe 
had  been  obtained  simoniacallj.  Bat  a  pope  of  the 
same  centory.  Urban  IL,  went  further,  and  (1095) 
absolutely  and  entirely  forbade,  not  alone  lay 
investiture,  but  Ihe  taking  of  an  oath  of  fealty 
to  a  lay  aoaerain  by  an  ecdeaiastio,  even  though 
holding  under  hiii  oj  the  ordinary  feudal  tenure. 
The  contest  contiiineo  dnrii^  the  most  of  the  11th 
ceataiy.  In  the  be^nningof  the  12th  a,itaBanmed 
a  now  fonn,  the  p<^ie,  Paacal  IL_,  having  aotuaUy 
agreed  to  surrmder  all  the  poaaoaaiona  and  ronltiaa 
with  which  the  chnnb  had  been  endowei^  and 
which  alone  foimed  the  pretext  of  the  claim  to 
inveatitnre  on  the  part  of  the  emperor,  on  condition 
of  the  emperor  (Henry  V.)  giving  up  that  claim  to 
inveatitnre.  This  treaty,  however,  never  had  any 
practical  effect;  nor  was  the  contaet  finoUy  adjusted 
until  the  eelelwated  concordat  of  Worms  m  1122,  in 
which  tba  emperor  agreed  to  give  up  the  form  of 
iaveetitare  witA  lie  rtnjr  and  paMonxi  ituff,  to  oant 
to  the  dogy  the  tight  of  free  electi(HUi,  and  to 
restore  all  the  [iiiiw  nasi  mil  of  the  church  of  Borne 
which  had  becm  aeized  either  by  himself  or  by  his 
father  ;  while  the  pope,  on  bia  port,  consented  that 
the  elections  shoold  be  held  in  the  presence  of  the 
emperor  or  his  official,  but  with  a  right  of  appeal 
to  the  provincial  synod ;  that  investiture  might 
'  e  given  by  the  emperor,  but  only  hy  Iht  touch  of 


the  real  evil  of  simony  and  cocmpt  promotion  of 
unworthy  candidates  for  ohnrch  di^iities.  Still  the 
principle  upon  which  the  opposition  to  inv^ture 
woe  founded  waa  olniDat  a  neccseaiy  part  of  tile 
medieval  system,  and  Hosheim  (iL  ^)  regud*  it 
as  '  perfectly  accordant  with  the  religious  pnodples 
of  the  age.  It  vaa,  io  fact,  but  one  of  the  many 
forms  in  which  the  spirit  of  churchmonship  has 
arrayed  itself,  whether  m  ancient  or  modem  time^ 
Bgiuiut  what  ara  colled  the  Erastian  tendencies 
which  never  fail  to  develop  themselvea  under  the 
shadow  of  a  state  church,  no  matter  what  may  be 
its  creed  or  its  conatitntion. 

IirrBBTlTnRB,  the  term  used  in  Scotch  Uw 
to  denote  the  giviiu;  feudal  poeseasion  of  hoitabla 
property.  It  was  formerly  given  to  the  Toaaal  in 
presence  of  the  para  cums,  out  lotterlv  boa  been 
anpeneded  by  infeftanent  or  saaina,  and  now  it  ia 
effected  by  mere  registraidon  of  the  deed  of  con< 

UTTOCATION  OP  ANGEM  AND  SAHTTS, 

the  act  of  addressins  prayers  to  the  blessed  spirits 


ioe  of  addMSsillg  pnyerg 
to  oD^^els,  especially  to  the  angal-guardiaa,  to  the 
Viipn  Mary,  and  to  other  aamta,  prevoili  in  the 
Boman,  the  Greek,  the  Boaao-Oredc,  and  the  eastern 
churchta  of  all  the  various  ritea.  Ia  the  Chriatian 
religion,  the  principle  of  the  unity  of  God  ezdudea 
all  idea  of  subordinate  sharers  of  the  divine  nature, 
such  as  ia  to  be  found  in  pagoiuBm,  and  all  alike, 
Boman  Catholics  «a  well  as  nototants,  agree  that 
its  very  first  princi^ea  exclude  the  idea  of  rendering 
divine  worahipi  no  matter  how  it  ma;r  ^  otodified,  to 
any  other  than  the  One  Infinite  Brang,  But  while 
Fntestonti  oony  this  prindfle  so  far  as  to  exduda 
every  Spwies  of  relioous  worship  and  evety  form  of 
invooation  addressed  to  angels  or  aunts,  as  trench* 
ing  won  Ood's  lumour,  and  irreconcilaUe  with  the 


of  wonhip  and  the  only  fountain  of  mercy,  tba 

Boman  Catholic  reluion  permit*  and  sanations  a 

worship  (called  dtndaa)  of  the  saints,  inferior  to  the 

supreme  worship  (lotrsia)  offered  to  God,  and  on 

invocatioD   of  the  aunts,  not  for  the  purpose  of 

obtaining  mercy  or  grace  from  themselves  directly, 

but  in  order  to  ssk  their  praveis  or  intercession 

with  God  on  onr  behalt    For  tliia  dootrine  snd  the 

talogous  pracUca,  thfiy  do  not  advuca  ths  direct 

ithcnty  ra  Scripture  (except  a  fair  psnages  which 

em  to  them  to  imfQy  the  interc<Mamanion  of  ths 

two  worids,  aa  Matt  xiii   3,  Luke  ziv.  17,  Exod. 

xzxiL    13),  but  rely  on  what  to  them  is  equally 


the  actptn;  and  that  the  bishops  and  other  chorch 
dignitaries  ahonld  faithfully  discharge  all  the  feudal 
dutie*  which  belonged  to  their  principality. 

Such  waa  the  compact  entered  into  between  the 
oontending  parties,  and  for  a  time  it  had  con- 
siderable effect  in  resbaining  one  class  of  obuaea; 
but  it  went  only  a  little  way  towonta  eradicatiDg 


decisive  testimony,  jiz.,  the  unwritten  word  of  Ood 
conveyed  by  traditoon.  Origen  (OppL  iL  p.  273J 
apeaka  of  the  belief  that  '  the  saints  assist  na  by 
their  prayers'  aa  a  doctariae  whidi  ia  'doubted  by 
Cyprian,  addressing  the  oonfeesors  going 
~ ,  engagea  by  antioipation  their  prayera 
when  they  shall  have  received  their 
n  (Ep.  60,  Dodwell'a  edition).  To  the 
e  dted  the  testimonies  of  Basil  (OppL 
ry  Kazianzen  (0pp.  i  S8S),  Gregory  of 
17).  Ambrose  lu.  200),  Chmoetom 
(iv.  449),  and  many  other  Fathers,  as  well  as  the 
liturgies  of  the  various  ancient  chorches,  whether  of 
the  Greek,  the  Syrian,  <a  the  Egyptian 

On  the  other  hand,  Protestant  historiona,  even 
admitting  the  full  force  of  these  testitaomes  to  the 
existence  of  the  practice,  all^  that  the  practice 
is  an  eariy,  bnt  unscriptural  addition,  dating  only 
from  the  infusion  into  the  church  syatoa  of  Alex- 
andrian   Neo-platonism    and    Oriental  *" 


■yGooc^le 


INTOICE-IODanL 


whioh  Uie?  believe  to  hnfe  left  tnww  wrm  ^ 
the  iD-otUed  orOiDdox  ChriatUaitj  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  oeatoriea.  But  lesriag  ande  the  doetriaal 
costroTen;,  the  fact  at  leut  i«  certaiB,  that  in 
the  fourth,  and  atOI  more  in  the  flf&  and  toBtrwiBg 
eentoiiea,  the  mage  ma  tmiTenBl;  tmd  a  asrioia 
eridsDce  of  ita  prevalenoa  ia  fomished  bf  the  fact, 
tiiat  the  very  eiceta  to  whicli  it  wu  curied  waa 
oondunned  ai  a  heray  (that  of  the  C(dl;ricli«ni) 
bf  thote  who  themielfei  coofeaaed  the  lawfulMaa 
of  the  practice  when  oonfioed  ' 
mate  Hnuts.  That  tim^^*-^  eioeeae 
and  siniilar  abaJM*  aa  to  the  nat 
Oe  legiliDiBte  invocatim  of  the 
IJiroD^  the  tnediaTal  period,  Brana*  Oathcdioa 
theiMalTei  admit,  altiiODgh  tU?  dies*  1 
•    ■   llwSe 


tiepnctiee, 
d  limit*  of 


taatUng  of  Ae  dMHeh ;  and  tita  mnlttpliad  devo- 
tioM  to  t^  Bunta,  eapeaal^  to  the  Blaaaed  Virgin, 
^  eSoacy  claimed  for  tbam,  and  the  extramdinaiy 
legendj  co 
whieh  the^ 
amottf  the 
fint  Befon 


nie  Council  of  Trent  {2Sth  Sen., 


thia  aabject      It  dedarM    'that  t 


men ;  tiat  it  ia  eood  and  naefal  n^pliaiitly  to 
Invoke  tbem,  and  to  Kaort  to  dteir  pnycta,  aid, 
and  help,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  benefitl  of 
Qod  through  hia  ion  Jema  Chriat  our  Loid,  who 
alone  ia  our  Bedeemec  and  Saviour.'  Am  thil 
decree  it  ia  inferred  tbat  the  Cath<^c  doctrine  on 
the  aainta  doea  not  procnbe  the  praetioe  of  invoking 
(hem  as  necenuuy  or  enential,  but  only  as  'gvM 
and  useful,'  and  that  what  is  to  be  asked  of  titem  is 
not  the  direct  b«eto«Bf  of  grace  and  meicy,  as  from 
themselves,  but  only  their  prayers,  their  asaiatancet 
and  their  help  in  obtaining  benafltl  from  Ood; 
and  ijthon^  msny  forma  <a  xn«ver  irhich  Me  in 
nse  amonE  Catbolioi  bear,  eneeiaUy  to  a  Proteatant 
reader,  aJI  the  appeatanc*  M  direct  appeal*  to  the 
Mints  thamaelves  lor  the  benefit*  whidk  ai«  impend, 
fst    aU    Catholic    anthoiitiM    are    ' ~ 


mterpreted,evai  Wth 

Catholics,  with    the 


most  Bnperfidally 

iderstood  explsoa 


explsoatioii,  that 


all  die  ^wer  of  tbe  saints 
ezdosively  in  their  prayers  for  as,  and  seconding  oar 
prayers  by  their  own.  See  Benarmine,  Coiitl  itci  rim 
tU  Saitetarvm  StaSiudine,  lib.  i  cap.  xviL 

Protestants  object  to  the  invocation  of  sdnts 
and  id  angels,  that  it  is  without  evidence  of  divine 
anthority,  contrary  to  the  whole  tenor  of  Scripture, 
and  derogatory  to  tbe  mediatorship  of  Christ.  They 
aak  what  reason  can  be  adduced  for  believing  that 
prayen  addressed  to  saints  are  even  lieard  W  tl>«m, 
or  that  they  have  always  a  knowledse  of  tbe  wor- 
ship addressed  to  them  I  They  farther  deny  that 
the  prayers  addressed  to  sunta — and  particnlarly  to 
the  Vimn  Maiy — are  always  capable  of  ezplanation 
as  merdy  an  aahins  of  their  prayen  on  behalf  of 
those  wba  invoke  toom,  and  quote  many  instances 
inproot 

IITTOICB,  a  list  or  *eoonnt  of  mefchandiBe  or 
goods  sold,  either  sent  along  with  the  goods  tham- 
aelves or  separately. 

INVOLTTCILE  (LaL  a  wrapper  or  envelope),  in 
Botany,  is  a  groap  of  bracts  snrroonding  flowers  in 
their  unexpanded  state,  and  occupying  a  place  on 
tiie  floiol  axis  beneath  them  after  their  expansion. 
Tbe  bracts  which  form  an  involucre  arc  generally 
grouped  in  a  whorl     In  mnbelliferons  flowers,  then 


eownwowlT  sn  inrcfaorw.  no*  (h1^  to  tk 
nt  to  eaoB  divisim  d  tai*  "'"^*"'.  or  nriB- 1 
M  former  is  oaUsd  tka  ffemtral  imiroimtn,a 
riinpl7dMlMwIuert;tfaaUtbr  a 
or  iMofaesk    The  onp  of  the  a 

4c,  may  be  regarded  ar  —  ' 

nrVOLUTK.    See  ErouirK. 
INTOLUTIOir  ixo   ETOi:.rmOJr  an  (n 
openttJone  tbe  ocaverse  d.  coda  otlaer.     TLb  obJKi 
(U  tlie  '  fint  ia  to  raiae  a  nuabcf 
which  i*  effeotad  by  oontannonalv'  lai 
nimibv   W    itoeU    tiU  the   niunber   < 
eoa^  to  tb*  ntuobw  daeignatai]^  ^ia  powev, 

2  saaaed  ta  the  tWnt  pow«r  ia    2  jc  2  x  %  e 

7  laaed  ta  the /n>rA  power  ib    7  x  7  x  7x   . 
3M1,  Aa.     Evolntion,  oa  tiks    othac  haad,  is  fl> 
extniettoa  of  a  root  il  aafa 
laatlNd  for  diaoorezing  unat 
te    a   acatain  powsr,  will   give 
aoaibar— •■  g.,  the  aqnaze  root  of  M  im  8,  t&it  It, 

8  i*  tbe  nnmber  which,  raiaed  to  th*  aaoond  pwa, 
wiU  give  M;  3  ia  the  bnith  root    at  81,  t£st  it 

3  TSMed  to  tbe  foaith  power  ia  3L,  mad  m)  ol 
Ike  qimbria  eaprmiva  ii  the  two  operatiivi  in 
aafollew:  ff*  neana  tkat  fi  is  to  be  raiaed  to  tk 
third  power;  [T*}^  mraas  tlwt  tlie  aqnare  or  wKaJ 
pewerof  Vistabeiaasedtotbeflfthpowo';  V*« 
j^  or  9^  tignifiee  that  the  ertra.ctioii  of  tto  meal 
cc  sqaare  root  of  9  is  required;  .^/»56  or  2S^IU 
the  foarth  root  of  256  U  to  be  extittcted;  asl  k 
on.  Involution  and  evolutioii,  like  mo/tiplicslis 
aad  division,  or  diKrentiation  ud  integration,  Jib 
in  tiM  extent  of  their  application. ;  tb  fomo',  ^ 
direct  operation,  can  alwaj^  be  oompletai^  wis^ 
there  are  uumberlees  cases  in  which  the  latter  ftis 
to  express  the  r«eult  with  perfect  aooniscy. 

I'ODHVB  (symb.  I,  eqmr.  127)  ia  «aa  of  a  guar 
of  four  non-metallio  alsmenta  to  iriueb  A*  ta 
Rklogena  (q.  v.)  has  bsift  applied.  It  dMirm  in 
te from  Or.  Uifl^ TioM-lilM, tai  oODaeqaa«M<'i^ 


magniJioentpurideodaariAimin  *  absta  of  vi9<^ 
At  ocdinarr  ten^vatiBVa,  it  Dsaall j  oooanis  sH  ' 
dark-gr»T^*teitaig  scales;  it i^ ho wawi.wjatj*  ' 
M»,  ana  sowetjines  appsua  aaan  ootehMnaain 
s  tfaomUe  base.    It  is  aofl^ and  Adioiti  resdO/a 
teitnnrtion,  h— the  high  sneeiflo  gravity  aH<^»" 
evolves  a  pecoHar  and  diaagresaUe  odovr,  a*** 
indicates  its  sreat  vtdatility.    It  fnsea  at  ZSS*." 
at  about  330'  it  boils,  and  ii  oonverted  intsv 
pnr(ds  vapour  to  wtaieh  it  owe*  ita  lume;  i^^'j!'* 
acnd  taste,  and  oommvnioatw  a  hrtiwiuA^J"!* 
colour  to  the  Ain.    It  is  ytrf  ali^^ktly  wdisl'  ' 
water,  but  disaolvM  nt^Dj  in  wstaar  solaliaa  «  I 
iodide  of  potassinm  aad  M  hydriodio  aeid,  ■»■  I 
alcohid  and  ettier.     Iodine  vapour  is  the  hMnia  i 
of  an  known  vapenrs;  its    neoifiG  gravis  ■>^  I 
B-Tie.      It    eombiDM    direst^   with    plwspiKnK/ 
snlphor,    and    the    metala.      Ita    faahavioor  ^  | 
hydrogen   is    aoalogou*  to  that   of    ^^'"'S.^t  1 
bromine  (eee  Htdboobmjbio  Aoid),  but  it*  amMsa  i 
are  we^er  than  thoee  of  the  la«t-nam*d  eltBi^ 
It  likewise  ocmbines  with  nwnerona  argW  ^ 
stancee,  and  the  oocoponnd  wUah  it  """J^ 
starch  is  of  soch  an  intaaae  Una  aelMr, Ja*** 
BolntJon  of   stai«h  fonw  the   best  t«^  ^  t* 
presence  of  free  iodine.    By  meana  of  thii  **^ - 
part  of  iodine  may  be  detected  when  dJMoIna  n 
one  million  parts  ol  vat«r.  ■ 

The  following  an  soma  of  the  moat  ■"F^^ 
iodine  compounds.  With  hydroge^  it  ft'^'f^ 
one  compound,  Iigdriodic  add  (HI),  a  ""St!! 
pungent  add  gsa,  which  in  moat  r"l|*™Lj 
snakgons  with  bydroohlorio  add.  It  ii  «*"*" 
by  the  action  of  water  on  tviodid*  of  !*«V"* 


hyCoogle 


,  be  obtnned 
of  h  jdriedio  acid  witli  tha 


Irilluncy,  and  othen  mn  of  patA 


lodMa  of 


eapadallT  iiMRtMB«d  iodide  of  . 
iron,  and  the  iodide*  of  meroniy, 

Iodide  of  potunnm  it,  next  to  qniiiine  and  morpHa, 
the  moat  important  medicine  in  the  pharmaeopmia. 
It  QTyBtalliaei  in  colonrlen  cabea,  iraich  are  totne- 
timei  clear,  bat  ncntJlv  have  an  opaqtie  whituh 
apnearanoo,  and  are  tolable  in  water  and  gprit  Jt 
in  decompoiMd  and  the  iodine  let  free,  hy  oblorme, 
bromine,  fuioing  nxtrio  acid,  and  oeone  (q.  v.). 
There  are  Tarioua  vaya  of  obtaininE  tliis  salt ;  tiio 
foUoiring  is  one  of  the  best   Jf  iodiiie  be  added  '- 


m  (olntion  <d  potaah  until  a  brown  tint  begine 
kroear,  iodide  d  potaniiiBi  (EI)  and  iodate  ot 
potaah  (KOJO.)  are  tortDei.    B7  gentle  if^iitlc 


the  residDe  obtained  ly  en^wration,  the  iodate  ii 
deconpoted  into  Iodide  of  poManmn  and  ozwen,  bo 
th«t  al]  that  temaini  it  fated  iodide  of  potaaninn, 
which  it  ditsolTed  in  water,  and  allowed  to  ei7*lani»e. 
Iodide  of  iron  ia  formed  oj  digettmg  iron  wire  or 
filings  in  a  doaed  vestd  wiUi  fonr  ttmet  tlie  weight 
of  iodine  tospended  in  water.  Direct  rombination 
takes  place,  and  a  pale-green  tohltion  it  formed, 
which  by  evaporation  in  vacuo  yieldi  crTstali.  It  it 
the  aolation  which  ia  moat  commoiilj  enploTed  in 
mediciiie,  bat  aa,  on  ezpoanre  to  the  air,  it  become* 
decompoeed,  and  iodine  ia  Hberated,  it  it  yasuiSfy 
mixed   with    strong    wjTap,    trtudt    ictBtda   this 

There  are  two  iodidet  of  meremy,  tie.,  the  D|een 
•nh-iodide  (Hg.I)  and  the  red  iodide  (Hgl).  They 
may  be  fotned  either  by  the  direct  onion  of  the  two 
elements,  or  by  the  doable  decompositian  of  iodide 
of  potaaeiom  and  mercarial  wlte.  Tha«  are  two 
well-defined  compoonds  of  iodine  and  oxygen,  tib., 
iodio  acid  [10.)  and  periodio  add  (10,),  corres- 
ponding to  chloric  ana  percblorie  acid,  neither  of 

wnaHy  in  » 

.  ,    t  cttlainm,  is  very 

e  earth's  enrfaoe.  It  eiiata 
ah  and  plants,  and  in 
^  _ .  J  also  f  Dond  in  aereral 
minerala,  m,  for  example,  in  certuo  Mexican  ailrer 
ores,  in  3il<^»n  zinc  oree,  in  phosphorite  from  the 
Upper  FalaliiMte,  and  in  coal. 

Iodine  WW  diecorered  in  IS11,  by  Ctonrtois,  in 
the  waste  liqnora  produced  in  the  mannfacture  of 
carbonate  d  soda  from  the  ashes  of  aea-weeds.  A 
few  ;nn  later,  Gay-Luasac  disooTered  that  it  wai 
a  Bimide  elemmitatT  body.  It  is  obtained  from  the 
half-fated  oab  of  dried  sea-weeds,  which  ia  known 
"  *a  ooantrr  aa  Kelp  (q.  v.),  and  in  Normandy 


I  Vaiek,  I 


ifq-v.) 
■  the 


oderalde  qnu^ity.    "ItM  k 


iodidet  of  Bodiom, 
MM  ^rti^T"  in  oon- 
it  libemted  br  the 
neee  and  toliuinria 
add.  Most  of  ovr  ocniMvoial  iodine  is  prepared 
in  Olaagow. 

The  prqwistiona  of  iodine  an  employed  eztsB- 
RveW  m  medidne  and  in  Fhotomjdiy  (q.  v.). 
Iodide  ol  t»  1 1  mill  III,  and  the  prsparMiona  of  iodine 
geneially,  me  almoat  entitled  to  be  regarded  as 
spee^ea  in  eaaea  of  goRre,  bronchocele,  or  Dertw- 
ahire  neck.  Got  of  364  cawa  (aollected  by  Bayle) 
wbU  wse  treated  with  iodine,  274  were  oared. 
•Manmi  Lngol,  and  oUiers  hare  ihawn  the  value 
of  the  iodins-treattmant  in  torofula.  The  jmfmn- 
tiont  of  io£ite  are  alto  eminently  ■ncouefol  as 
naolrenls  in  chronio  hidnxatjon,  aiid  enlargement 
ot  tii»  li*«v  tpleen,  nicne,  tc    In  nany  fi^ma  of 


1  oertaiu  affectiont  ot 


ajtiea,  doe  to  a  lyphilttio  taint,  iodide 
iHof  tbefBeatertterriMj  and  ttt  value 
tBktot  of  uronio  lead-poitoniiitf  it  not 


.   .  9  iMd-pntonmg  it  no 

^ooerally  ksown,  erai  in  the  medical  prafenioiL, 
aa  it  deaerrea  to  be.  nie  iodide  ot  potMrnnm  dit- 
•olvea  the  oompmndt  of  lead  with  albumen,  fitrine, 
te^  which  abo«nd  IB  the  body  inebronicIeM-poiiMi- 
ing;  and  theae  ditulved  oompounde  are  exoeted 
by  the  kidnejv.  In  theae  oatet,  lead  may  often  be 
detected  in  the  wine,  almoet  immediately  after  the 
adntinistnLtton  of  the  iodide.    Thii  salt  has  a  "^wil" 

recorded  of  mercurial  salivation  having  come  on 
during  the  use  of  io^e  of  potawiinm,  in  conae- 
qoeaoa  of  tike  liberation  of  mercury,  which  had 
beaa  previDoaly  fixed  in  the  system. 

Iodide  of  iron,  which  may  be  ^en  either  in  Q^up 
<v  in  the  form  of  Bhmcard'a  FiDa  (an  exceueiu 

iia  <t  aluaMe  in  sanrfnlons  afieetiona  of  the  riaodol^ 
aystem,  in  irtiioh  the  naa  both  of  iodine  and  of  iron 
it  indicated.  The  iodides  of  menniry  have  been  m^e■ 
scribed  with  good  effect  in  varioBa  forma  of  sj^pmliB. 
Th^mnat  be  pvenwith  caution,  on  acconnt  of  their 
enargy,  the  average  doaa  cf  the  red  iodide  bong  a 
fcactkm  (jiy  to  ^)  of  a  cain.  Pure  iodine  ia  Heldam 
jneaoribed  int^nally;  out  in  the  form  of  tincture 
and  ointment,  it  ia  a  moat  useful  topical  application 
in  oases  of  gottre,  local  enlargements,  disaaaea  of 
jointsi  chilUaina,  ^0. 

In  large  doaea,  iodine  and  most  of  the  iodidet 
act  a*  irritant  poiaenai  b&t  very  few  fatal  easet 
ate  oa  raoord.  In  the  event  of  ptdaoning  with 
the  tinctare  ol  iodine,  tha  first  pdnf  it  to  eraonate 
the  atomaeh ;  uid  th«  vomiting  ia  ataitted  by  the 
copiona  use  of  te]^  Kquidt,  ooutaining  atarchj 
matto*,  u,  for  instance,  starch,  floor,  or  arrow-root 
boiled  u>  water ;  the  olgect  bemg  to  form  iodide  ot 
ttarch,  which  it  compuativdy  inert. 

lO^A,  tiu  modem  name  of  the  moat  famous  ot 
the  Heteidea,  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  a 
Tiiirt«fc.ni  reading  of  n  tor  u;  the  word,  m  the  oldeet 
manaaanpts,  bemg  ckoriy  written  iouo.  frooi  the 
6th  e;  to  the  17tli  e,  the  iahnd  was  moat  generally 
called  /,  Ii,  la.  I<^  Bo,  Sy,  Bi,  Hii,  SU.  Hu,  Y, 
or  Yi — that  is,  timply,  '  tlu  lalond ; '  or  IcolmidB, 
I-aOmmb-KUIe,  or  ilH-Cohan-£tUe-4hat  is,  'the 
lalsid  of  Coltmba  of  the  Church.' 

It  ia  absnt  three  milea  long,  and  vuies  in  loeadth 
from  a  i^e  to  a  mile  and  a  hall  In  I87I>  it  had 
a  population  of  236.  Its  area,  computed  by  Bade 
'Hoilies'  (or  'five  hides  of  land,'  aa  the 
reoderad  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle], 
at  2000  in^erial  acne,  of  which  rather 

fourth  pmt  is  under  till^e.    The  soil 

it  natoriJly  froitfnt  and  yidda  earlier  crops  than 
most  Mita  of  Oteat  Britain,  barl^  sown  betcre 
the  nuddle  of  Joae  being  ready  for  the  dckle  in 
Ai^fDsb  This  nmorkaUa  fertility  was  renrded 
as  miraoukna  in  tLt  dark  ages,  and,  no  doubt, 
led  to  th«  early  oconpation  of  lono.  I>anii,  the 
hi^ust  point  (^  the  uland,  ia  330  feet  above  the 
sea-leveL 

Ite  lustoiy  begins  in  the  year  G63,  when  St 
Oolnmba  [q.  v.),  leaving  the  ahona  of  Ireland,  landed 
upon  L  with  twdve  disciplea.  Having  obtained  a 
raronfc  of  the  ielaod,  as  well  from  hia  kinsman  Conall, 
the  ton  of  Comghall,  king  of  the  Scots,  as  from  Bniidi, 
the  asm  (rf  Melchon,  king  c^  the  Hcts,  he  bailt  upon 
it  a  monaaterj,  which  was  long  regarded  aa  the 
mother-church  of  the  Picts,  and  was  venerated  not 
only  among  the  Scots  of  Britain  and  Irdand,  but 
among  Ihe  ,Ajigle«  of  the  north  of  England,  who 
owed  their  oonveraion  to  the  self-denyinc  miwion- 
arita  of  lona.     From  the  end  of  the  6th  to  the 


UJilliedLlyGOO'^le 


IONIA— IONIAN  ISLANDS. 


end  of  the  8tli  c,  L  wm  acarcd^  lecond  to  tnj 
monasteiy  in  the  Britiah  Idea ;  and  it  waa  tlua 
briUiuit  era  of  ita  umals  which  roaa  in  Johnaon': 
mind  when  ha  deacribed  it  aa  'that  illuatHoua 
island  irbich  was  once  the  loniiiiaiy  of  the  Calt 
donian  regiona,  whence  UTSge  dans  and  rovin 
barbariani  deriTsd  the  benefita  of  knowledge  an 
bleaungs  of  TeligioD.'  Bat  neither  piety  an 
■ning  availed  to  save  it  from  the  cavages  of  tlie 
fierce  and  heathen  Nonemen.  They  burned  it  in 
796,  and  a(wn  in  802.  Its  '  family '  (as  the  monks 
were  called)  of  68  peraona  were  martyred  in  806. 
A  aecond  martyrdom,  in  825,  ia  the  sabjeot  of  a 
contemponry  Latin  poem  by  Walafridus  Strabua, 
abbot  of  the  German  monastery  of  Beichenan,  in 
the  Lake  oC  Constance.  On  the  Chriatmas  evening 
of  9S6,  the  island  waa  again  wasted  h^  the  None- 
men, who  alew  the  ahtrnt  and  15  of  hia  monka. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  next  centtiry,  the  monastery 
was  repaired  by  St  Margaret,  the  queen  of  King 
Ualcolm  Canmore.  It  waa  visited  in  1097  by 
King  Magnus  tbo  Barefooted,  of  Norway.  It  waa 
now  part  of  tliat  kingdom,  and  so  fell  under  tJie 
eccleiiastical  jtmadiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Man  and 
the  Archbishop  of  Drontheint.  In  1203,  the  biahopa 
of  the  north  of  Ireland  dispated  the  authoritv  of  the 
Manx  biahop,  polled  down  a  monastery  which  he 
had  begun  to  build  in  the  island,  and  placed  the 
abbey  nnder  the  rule  of  an  Irish  abbot  of  Deny. 
The  Scottish  Church  had  Ions  eUimed  jurisdiction 
'    ".,  and  before  the  end  of  t£e  13th  c,  the  island 

nnder  the   rule    of   the   Soottiah   king.      Ita 

abbey  was  now  peopled  by  Clngniao  monks;  and 
a  nunnery  of  Auatm  caooneaaea  waa  planted  on 
its  shoraa,  Towards  the  end  of  the  ISth  c,  it 
became  &a  seat  of  the  Scottish  Biahop  of  the  Ides, 
the  abbey  church  being  hia  csthe^al,  and  the 
monka  hia  chapter. 

No  building  now  remaina  on  the  island  which  can 
clum  to  have  sheltered  St  Columba  or  his  disciples. 
The  most  ancient  ruins  are  the  Laithrichean,  or 
Foundations,  in  a  little  bay  to  the  west  of  Port-a- 
Churraich ;  the  Cobban  Cuildich,  or  Coldees'  Cell, 
1  hollow  between  Dunii  and  Dunbhuirg ;  the 
1  or  hill-fort  of  Donbhoirg ;  and  the  Gleann-an- 
Teampull,  or  Glen  of  the  Chuicb,  in  the  middle  of 
the  island,  believed  to  be  the  dte  of  the  monastery 
which  the  Irish  bishops  destroyed  in  1203.  Ht  Gran's 
Chapel,  now  the  oId«at  church  in  the  island,  may 
prolMbly  be  of  the  latter  part  of  the  llth  century. 
St  Mary's  Nunnery  is  perhaps  a  century  later.  The 
Cathedral,  or  St  Mary's  Church,  seems  to  have 
been  built  chiefiy  in  the  early  part  of  the  I3th  cen- 
tury. It  has  a  choir,  with  a  sacristy  on  the  north 
side,  and  chapels  on  the  sonth  aide ;  north  and  aoutb 
transepta ;  a  central  tower,  about  75  feet  high ;  and 
a  nave.  An  inacription  on  one  of  the  columns  of  the 
choir  appears  to  denote  that  it  was  the  work  of  an 
Irish  ecclesiastic  who  died  in  1202.  On  the  north 
of  the  cathedral  are  the  chaptet^honae  and  other 
^maina  of  the  conventual  or  monastic  buildinga. 
In  the  '  Keilig  Gran'— ao  called,  it  is  Bappoeed,  from 
St  Gran,  a  kinsman  of  St  Columba,  the  first  who 
found  a  grave  in  it— were  buried  Ecririd,  king  of 
Northtunbrio,  in  6M ;  Godred,  king  ol  the  Isles,  in 
11S8 ;  and  Haco  Onnc,  king  of  the  Isles,  in  1228. 
No  monuments  of  these  prince*  now  remain,  "nie 
oldest  of  the  many  tombatonea  on  the  island  are  two 
with  Irish  inscriptiona,  one  of  them,  it  ia  believed, 
being  the  monument  of  a  bishop  of  Connor  who 
died  at  Lin  1174 

After  centuries  of  neglect,  this  interesting  iiland 
seems  now  t«  be  in  the  way  of  improvement.  It 
possesses  a  church  connected  with  the  Establiah- 


in  1863  by  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  ptoiprM<»  of  L; 
by  which  meana  tooiiiti  and  antitiaariMi  explMBi 
are  enabled  to  make  rinta  of  latiatactory  dnratioi. 
Daring  summer,  ateamets  from  ObKn  (aee  Hb- 
sisis)  call  at  I.  twice  a  week;  they  ImmI  pamnitgm 
by  boata  at  Baile  Mor,  the  only  willMgs  on  tl< 
island,  and  usually  atay  an  hour,  to  allow  tine  foe 
vidting  the  ruina. 

lO'NIA,  the  ancient  name  of  the  moat  floorishiii; 
country  of  Ada  Minor.     It  racelved  ita  name  fnB 
the  louiana  {one  of  the  four  most    &ncient  triba 
in  Greece),  who,  again,  according   to    the  mytbr 
logical  account^  derived  theirs  front   Ion,  the  soa 
of  Apollo  by  Creusa,   a   daughter     of    a    king  td 
Aihena.  According  to  the  uso^y  received  tnditiiSL 
they  were  driven  out  of  the  PelopoiuiBaiia  by  the 
Achaiaus,  and  removed  to  Atticm,    -wlieiuie,  about 
1060  K  a,  bands  of  them  went  fortb   to   aettla  « 
the  coast  of  Asia.     L  was  a  beaatdful   uid  fertik 
counby,  extending,  according  to  Ptolemy,  fn/ia  tbt 
river  HermuB  to  the  ri-tez  Meander,  along  the  eoaM 
of  the  £gean  Sea,  but  Herodotus  aod.  Straibo  make 
luiger.    It  soon  reachect  a  high  pa^ 
of  proeperity ;  agriculture  and  conuaeroe  Sour^ud, 
and  great  cities  arose,  of  which  Ephesoa,  Smyiaa, 
Clozomeuce,  Erythrs,  Colophon,  and.  Miletna  war 
the   most    celebrated.      These    free     cities,  whidi 
fonned  the  nucleus  of  the  lomAK  IiKacux,  wot, 
however,  ersduolly  subdaed  by  the  kin^  of  Ljdii, 
andpassea  (657  B.C.)  under  the  sway  of  uiePernm. 
but  were  allowed  a  condderable  measure  of  intsnul 
liberty.    During  the  great  Persian   "war,  the  cm- 
tingent  which  they  Were  compelled,   to   furnish  to 
thejT  Oriental  masters  deserted  to  the  Oreeka,  at  the 
battle  of  Mycale  (4TS  B.a.),  whereupon  the  looism 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Athens,  apon  whic^ 
the^  DOW  became  dependent.    After  the  FelapRr 

-~" they  were  subject  to  the  Spartan^  wJ 

._.  E.C.}  to  the  Persians  till   the  time  <f 

ler  the  Great    From  this  period,  L  ahani  . 

the  fate  of  the  neighbouring  countries,  and  in  Mac 

added    to   the   Roman    empire    by   PMnp^i 
alter  the  third  Mithridatic  war.     In  later  timei,  it  . 

so  ravaged  by  the  Turks  that   few  traces  d  . 

former  greatness  are    now  left. — The   latun  ' 

e  regarded  aa  aomewhat  effeminate.     They  w  ' 

wealthy  and  luxurious,  and  the  fine  sjrta  [see  loJK' 

Abcbttbci-dbk)  were  cultivated  amongst  Ihem  it  ' 

much  eorher   date  than  amongst  their  kinsnin  , 

.  the  mother-country.     The  Ionic  Dialai  eicdi 

the  other  Greek  dialects  in  softoeaa  and  sncoUi' 

ness,  chiefly  from  the   greater  number  of  rowtb  . 

introduced. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS,  a  group,  or  rather  ebui.  ! 
running  round  the  west  coait  of  Epirua,  and  Tot 
and  south  of  Greece.  It  consists  of  about  #  ,' 
islands,  of  which  Corfu,  Paxo,  Sant«  Uaura,  Iheab  , 
Cephalonio,  Zante,  and  Cerigo,  are  of  oonlMenb'*  j 
size;  the  total  area  is  about  loil  aqoate  miles,  •»  | 
the  population  (1864)  228,631,  is  mostly  of  Om*  : 
descent.  The  proportion  of  females  to  males  i>  J 
a  100  to  116.  The  collective  term  'Ionian'  »  "  i 
Qodem  date.  After  the  division  of  the  Bomiii  , 
ikapire,  these  islanda  were  included  in  the  M>^  ) 
lalf,  and  ao  continued  till  1081,  when  the  DBke  a  \ 
Calabria  (subsequently  kiog  of  Naplea)  took  pow*'  | 
don  of  them.  From  thia  time  they  nndmrsd  >  i 
continual  change  of  maaten,  till  the  oommeneem*"  \ 
of  the  16th  c.,  when  they  by  duress  cane^  i 
the  possession  of  the  Yenetiana,  who  in  1797  eeon  | 
them  to  France.  'Diey  were  aeiaed  by  Bum*  ■<!'  ' 
Turkey  in  1800,  by  France  in  1807,  ij  Britda  ■»  { 
1809,  and  on  November  B,  1816,  wcm  fonD«l  int>» 
republic  ('The  3eptinaularRepaUie')Di>d«ra>P^ 
tectorate  of  the  Utter.    WM&  they  w      ——^  ' 


they  were  oww*** 


hyGoogle 


IONIAN  MODE— IOWA  OITT, 


with  Entjlmiul,  tha  government  vm  carried  oa  by 
two  usembliea,  and  tha  Lard  HigK  Commimoner, 
who  was  tbe  represeotAtiTe  of  Her  Majesty.  The 
iower  atacTabls  consisted  of  40  memben,  vbo  re- 
qnired  to  be  noblas;  29  were  elected  by  tbe  isUndera 
themselves,  aod  11  by  the  Lord  High  Commis- 
aioner ;  their  term  of  office  wa>  five  jean,  during 
which  period  they  held  three  seasiona,  oi  thi«e 
tnoDtlis  each.  The  etTtate,  oompoeed  oF  five  mem- 
ben, which  the  commissioner  badpower  to  increaie 
to  seven,  formed  tbe  executive.  The  commitBioner 
waa  invested  with  extensive  powen ;  he  could 
con-vohe  an  extraordinarv  meeting  of  parliament, 
confirm  or  reject  the  rseolaticni  of  tha  lenate,  and 
veto  all  bills  passed  4)y  tbe  leKialatare.  Up  to 
1S48,  tha  preai  waa  reatncted,  and  the  goremment 
was  rc«Ily  %  deapotdsm,  but  in  that  and  tha  follow- 
ing yeftr  wide-spread  dislike  of  the  IJnglish  govern- 
ment became  apparent.  1\>  remove  whM  were 
annposed  to  be  griavancea.  Lord  Beaton,  then  Lord 
High  Commiadoner,  introdnced  iweeping  changes  in 
the  conttitatiQn,  inclndiog  vote  by  ballot,  lowering 
of  tha  frsocliiae,  and  freedom  of  tbe  press.  A 
demand  was  then  made  for  sonezation  to  the  king- 
dom of  Qreece,  and  an  ioBurrectioa  broke  ont  in 
Augaat  1S19  in  Cephalonia.  It  waa  sappresaed  by 
Sir  Henry  Ward,  who  had  sncoeeded  Lord  SeatoD, 
with  what  was  considered  by  some  penona  as  nndue 
severity.  Fresh  concessions  were  granted,  but 
without  ^peasing  the  malcontents.  ^  the  end  of 
1S9^  Mr  Gladstone  was  sent  aa^s  ap^     — 


Many  large  temples  were  erected  in  this  style 
in  Asia  Mmor  and  Qreece.  Among  the  finest 
examples  now  existing  are  the  temples  of  Erech- 
tbeus  and  Minerva  Polios  on  tbe  AorDpolis  at 
Athens,  Apollo  Didvnueos  at  Miletus,  Minerva 
Poliaa  at  Priene,  and  Bacchus  at  Teos ;  and  tha 
temple  of  Fortune  at  Rome. 

lOKIC  SCHOOL  is  the  coUectivB  name  given 
to  the  esriiest  Qreek  ^ulosophsrs,  Thales,  A^axi- 
mander,  Anaxuneoes,  Heiaclitus,  and  Anaxaooras, 
on  account  of  their  following  one  general  tendency, 
and  belonging  for  the  most  part  to  Ionia.    See  the 

Dgiaphies  01  these  philoaophera. 

I.  O.  XT.,  a  memotandnm  of  debt  ^iven  by  a 
borrower  to  a  lender,  so  called  from  being  made  in 
this  ahbreriated  form : 

LoKDOH,  January  \,  UTS. 

MrA-R,  l.0.V.£3X). 

CD. 

It  is  a  convenient  document,  because  it  requires  no 
stamp,  and  yet  it  is  valuable  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  the  debt,  in  case  an  action  is  after- 
wards brought.  If,  however,  the  L  0.  U.  contain 
Boy  promise  to  pay  tbe  deb^  then  it  will  amount 
'~  a  promissory-note,  and  be  void  unless  it  have 

I'OWA,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America,  waa 
organised  as  a  state,  with  governor  and  Ugialaturt^ 
in  1846.    It  lies  between  4W*  ay  and  4r  SiTn.  lat. 


0  continue  their  c 
Is.  They  bad  cost 
United  Kingdom  £100,000  per  annum,  and  had 
been  a  perpetual  source  of  annoyance.  In  1SG3,  the 
election  of  the  son  of  the  king  of  Denmark  as  con- 
Btitutional  king  of  Greece  supplied  Englaad  with  an 
opportunity  oE  getting  rid  of  this  troublesome 
dependency.  On  the  29th  March  1S64,  a  treaty 
was  concluded  at  London  by  which  they  were 
Annexed  to  Greece,  and  since  tbia  period  they  have 
iormed  a  province  of  tbe  Hellenic  kingdom.  In 
February  1867,  they  were  visited  by  a  series  of 
shocks  of  earthqnake,  moat  violent  in  Copbalonia, 
ivheie  they  caused  great  dentructioTi  of  life  and 
proper^,  and  almost  destroyed  the  two  chief  towns. 
See  Murray's  Handbook  [for  Qreece  and  lite  Ionian 
Jtlande,  by  B.  Q.  Watson,  4th  edition,  IST2. 

IONIAN  MODE,inMuaio,  oneof  theoldohurcb 
modes,  said  to  be  the  same  as  the  ancient  Greek  mode 
of  that  name,  and  the  only  one  of  the  old  church 
modes  which  agrees  with  our  modem  system  of 
munc,  the  Ionian  mode  b^g  the  same  as  our  key 
of  C  major.  The  character  of  the  Ionian  mode, 
however,  most  have  appeared  to  the  aoraents  more 
properly  defined  than  it  can  to  us,  as  it  was  the  only 
one  of  their  modes  which  had  a  major  third  and  a 
sharp  seventh. 

lO'NIO  ABOHITECTURE,  a  rtyU  of  Greek 
architectnre  which  took  its  origin  in  Ionia,  and  seema 
to  have  derived  many  of  its  characteristic  features 
from  Assyria.  See  Qascuji  AnoHTraoTCWt.  The 
cfakf  peculiarity  of  Ionic  architecture  ia  the  capital 
of  the  Colnmn*  (q.  v.),  which  is  decorated  with 
ejttiil  ornaments  c^ed  Volates  (q.  v.);  The  columns 
have  also  bases,  which  were  not  used  in  Doric  archi- 
teetore.  Tha  oomioe  ia  distinguished  by  the  dentil 
band,  sn  ornament  first  inboduccd  in  this  style. 
The  Honeysuckle  ornament  (q.  v.),  so  much  uaod 
in  lonio  anJiiteotuFe,  is  one  of  the  features  which 
indicate  its  eastwn  origin. 


by  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  from  n 


2^^ 


is  separated  by  the  Missouri  River. 
counties,  with  Des  Moines  for  its  ».,..»«  * — 
population  in  1840  was  43,112 ;  in  I8S0.  192,214 ; 
m  1860,  674,948;  in  1870  1,182,933.  The  rivera 
are  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  on  its  eastern 
and  western  borders,  and  the  Des  Moines,  Iowa, 
Ked  Cedar,  and  their  branches.  The  surface  is 
undulatingjuid  beautiful,  with  alternate  forests  and 
prairies.  Tliere  are  no  mountains  ;  bnt  bold  bluffs, 
with  piotureaqna  ravines,  line  the  rivers.  In  the 
north-east,  there  are  rich  deposits  of  lead,  and  coal 
in  the  aouth  and  west,  with  iron,  mart>K  clay, 
gypsum,  &c  The  soil  ia  excaedindy  fertile,  and 
^e  climate  healthful ;  the  peach  bloMoma  in  the 
middle  of  April,  but  the  winters  are  aavsre,  with  an 
average  of  26*.  The  ohtaf  productions  are  wheat, 
maize,  flax,  tobacco,  cattle,  and  hc«*.  It  haa  not 
much  direct  foreien  commerce,  but  trades  exten- 
sively with  tbe  Atiantic  and  Gtolf  towns,  and  with 
the  interior.  The  chief  river  ports  of  L  are  Keokuk, 
Fort  Madison,  Bnrlingtou,  Muscatine,  Davenport, 
Clinton,  Bellevue,  and  Dubuque.  There  are  many 
manufactories,  and  in  1872  there  were  3144  miles  of 
raUway.  In  1870  there  ware  7322  public  schools, 
49  cotieges,  and   103   other  schools,  with  a  total 

tendance  of  217,6M. 

IOWA  CITY,  a  dty  in  Iowa,  United  States  of 
America,  fornieiiy  the  capital  of  tbe  territorial 
government,  is  situated  on  the  Iowa  River,  80 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  built  on  a  saccetaion 
of  plateaux,  rising  from  the  river.  The  first  ia  a 
puHJo  promenade ;  the  third  is  orowned  by  the 
capitol,  now  the  state  university.  It  has  also 
county  buildings,  and  the  state  asylums,  with 
tactoHM  on  tbe  falls  of  the  river.  There  i*  steam- 
boat navigation  to  the  Missiaaippi,  and  eoni 
with  the  east  by  railway.    Pop.  (1870)  6914. 


hyCoo^le 


IPBCACUASHA— QSWICn. 


IPEOACUATUHA,  tbe  nune  boHi  of  »  Tery 
valoable  medicine  uid  of  Uia  plant  producing  it. 
The  plant  {C^AaSlu  IptoaaiaiAa)  belong  to  tlie 
natom  order  CiRdutnoBecB,  and  growa  in  dkinp 
■hadr  woodi  in  BfsziI  and  •ome  other  parti  at 
SontB  AmsriCA.  It  ia  Bomewhftt  ■hrab'by,  with  a 
ten  oUonxo-laneeolate  le&veB  atai  the  «aida  tA  the 
biUulic^X^-stalked  heada  of  bowU  wiiito  ^wers, 
fjpl  loft  dwk  pui^ile  beriiea.  The  part  of  L  used  in 
medicine  ia  the  loot,  which  U  simple  or  divided  into 
a  few  bnmchet,  flaxuoui,  about  at  thiok  ae  a  gooae- 
qnfll,  and  ia  oompoaed  of  ringa  of  wioua  aize,  Bom»- 
what  fleshy  when  freah,  and  appeaiiiig  aa  if  cloael; 


dnoed  by  Xbe  tune  pWt;  tlie  difietenoe*  anaiug 
from  the  age  of  the  plant,  the  mode  of  dicing,  ttA. 
I.  root  ia  prepared  lot  the  madcet  by  mere  drying. 


-  ^      —  ,  -    -  drying. 

It  ia  coUaoted  at  all  leaaODa,  although  chiefly  from 
Janoaiy  to  March ;  tba  plant  ia  never  cnltivsted, 
bat  ia  Bonelit  for  in  tiie  tortsta  chiefly  by  Indiana, 
aiane  of  whom  devote  ytemaelvea  for  months  at  a 
tims  to  Uiia  occupation.  It  haa  now  beoome  acaroe 
in  the  nei^boorbood  of  tovne. 

Tariooa  otber  planta,  containing  emetine,  are 
naad  aa  anbatituta  for  true  ipooacnanba.  The  ,L 
of  Veneanda  ia  produced  by  Bareottemma  giotuuTR, 
of  the  order  Aieupiadta;  and  to  thia  order  belonga 
Tylophcra  atlkmaiiea,  the  root  of  which  ia  found 
a  vamiUile  inbatitute  for  L  in  India. 

It  is  in  the  bark  of  the  root  Hut  the  active 
principle,  the  enuline,  almoat  entirely  lies,  and  la 
good  apedmeni  it  OHoiuita  to  14  or  16  per  oeot. ; 
the  other  IngredientB,  such  aa  fatty  matteia,  atarch, 
lignine,  &o.,  being  almoat  entirely  inert.  Emetiiie 
is  represented  by  thefonaalaC,,H,rNO,,.  It  ia 
a  white,  inodorous,  almost  ioMpul  powder,  moder- 
ately soluble  in  alci^ol,  and  bavii^  all  the  citanuj. 
tera  of  the  vegetable  alkaloids  It  acta  aa  a  violent 
emetio  in  dosea  of  Xth  of  a  grain  or  less,  and  is  a 
powerful  poiaoo,  llie  incautiDUB  inhalation  of  tbe 
fast  or  powder  of  L— as  in  tbe  prooess  of  powdt 


ing  it — will  often  bring 

In  amaD  and  rg>eated 
a  grain  or  leaa — L  incre 
secreting  organa,  especially  of  the  bronchial  mucous 
membrane,  and  of  the  skin.  In  lai^;er  doeas  of 
'   '     5  graina  it  exdtea  nausea  and  depres- 


unload  the  stomach  in  ci 
debility,  or  in  diildhood. 
orant,  and  diaphorstic,  it  ia  preacrilied  in 
of  the  icsforatcry  organic  aa  cataarb,  hoo[nng^)ao^ 
BsUima,  sc. ;  in  affeotiana  of  the  alimontary  cauL 
■s  indigaatdim,  dyacoter^,  Ac;  and  in  ''  '  ' 
whidi  it  ia  denied  to  utoreMe  thn  m 
Aid,  aa  in  diabetes,  febrile  afledaona,  fti.. 
Beaidea  the  Powder,  the  most  naeCul  pim]fttitiim 

are  theWineof  L— <rf  whiohtJiei' —  '- j-"- 

a  diaphoretie  and  ezpaotorant  i 

and  the  Oompoond  L  Powder,  oaamrtonlT  kaovn  « 
Dovei't  FoaOa-  (q.  v.).  To  prodooe  the  fnll  eSeot  m 
a  sodoiiSo,  a  doae  of  t«ai  graina  of  XtoTer's  fondff 
•honld  be  followed  by  oo^ooa  dxwishts  of  wkitt- 
wioe  whey,  beade-pouet^  or  aixne  otaer  warm  tad 


B  of  &  , 


■hey,  beade-pouet^  oj 


IFHIOENfA,  in   Gnaan  legend,   a  dao^tkr 


I,  an  adopted  danshtc 
',  having   oHend^   1 


or,  BocMdiw  <"  ' 


by  aacrificinf  to  the  goddeoa  the  med  ' 
beantiful  Hii^  bom  withm  the  year.  ^Hiia  hantaad  i 
to  be  Iphigenia.  Agamemnoo  long  ddaycd  &c  . 
fulfilment  ^  hia  vow,  bat  at  lengU)  the  Itap  : 
expedition  drew  on,  and  the  Ora^  fleet  boig  , 
detained   in   Anlis  by  a  ealni,  tiw  eeer  Cakhai  , 


Diana  beiaelf  havine  earned  bier  ofF  ia  a  claad  Id 
Tauris,  where  ahe  became  her  ptiertaw,  bnt  ma  , 
afterwarda  reoognisad  by  btr  btotiMr,  OreatM,  i^  ; 
carried  her,  almig  with  the  image  of  Dian%  to 
Attica.  The  Wend  ia  of  poat-Hoaurie  orinn.  It  ' 
baa,  however,  beoi  muoh  wnniriit  into  Oreau  \ 
po^ry,  and  afforded  many  *abjeo&  to  paintora  sad  J 
•culotora.  In  modem  liteiatars,  it  haa  ben  again  I 
employed  with  great  power  of  genoDa  and  poetic  tit  | 
by  Ooethe  in  lus  Iplmgetua  onfTauriM.  i 


Ctmvolvubu.  The  species  are  numerous.  "Hief  f 
mostly  natives  of  warm  countries.  Some  of  tbtoi 
are  often  to  be  seen  in  flower-nrdens  and  hot-  [ 
houses,  beins  very  ornamental,  and  readily  cc 
trellises  with  their  twining  stems,  Urge  leave*,  u 

Urge  beautiful  flowers,    lie  roota  '' '  *■*" 

yield  a  reainoua  substance,  which  , ,    . 

tiea  resembling  those  of  jalap,  and  Um  true  Jsl^ 
(q.  V.)  plant  itaelf  haa  sometimes  been  refenw!  to 

IPSAHBUIi.    See  AxoDBUCBOI. 

I'PSrCA.    See  UoDicA. 

IPSWICH,  a  market-town,  parliameid*(7  ^ 

municipal  borough,  and  river-port  of  Englsa* 
capital  of  the  county  of  Suffolk,  is  agrteaUr 
situated  on  the  river  Orwell,  at  the  foot  d  a  imp 
of  hills,  68  milea  north-eaat  of  l^taAon.  Tbn  <>1» 
porldona  of  the  town  conaiat  of  narrow  and  aaV^ 
streets,  some  of  the  old  hooiea  of  whieb  ate 
mented  with  enriona  carved  WM^ 
numeroaa   churches    and 

a  town-hall,  a  mechanics'  uukuunHi^  <•■>•  —.,. 
700  membera;  and  a  Working  Men's  Collsge. ^ 
200  members.  Of  its  ednwOinsial  eetablithmMfc  "' 
principal  is  the  gTammar-aafaaol,  founded  br  Cm™*" 
Wolsey,  and  endowed  by  Queen  BinMa.^*^ 
an  income  from  endowmeat  of  £116^  ^  ^J^ 
six  Bcholarsbips,  eicluiive  of  an  AIlNrt  adolMWi^ 


of  then  I 


tyCoogle 


byGoogle 


byGoogle 


byGoogle 


byGoogle 


TBAE-AJEUI— IBELAND. 


founded  ■■  a  mamoiul  at  the  Iftte  Printie  Codboi^ 
wid  tiro  exlubitioiia  »t  Psiubroke  CoUsoe,  Cam- 
bndga>  Than  mre  I>rga  iroD  aod  m^)  lutoriai, 
breroiei,  cou-milla,  and  sbip-biuldiiiz  doc^a.  In 
1889,  £213  vewela,  of  ITS/UW  bona,  enterad  and 
cleared  the  pork  Tlie  azpcrtB  are  diiefly  agri- 
cii](iii>l  prodjioa,  and  apicaltonl  ""j^*™"'***  "^d 
nariiiiwij;  inporti^  irine,  «oal,  iroi^  and  tunlMr. 
The  town  can  ba  awroadied  bj  vsaaab  td  400  ton*. 
It  Modi  two  nemWa  to  the  imperial  pariiaioant, 
Pop.  (1871)  40^7.  I  WW  lulUnd  1^  tha  Danei 
m»91,andigaiBinl00a 

IBA.'K-A'JE1[I,  a  large  pnmnM  of  Pens,  la 
bomiiled  on  the  ST.  br  the  javvtBoee  of  Azeibijaii, 

Ehonaan.  On  the  S.  and  W.,  the  boundariea  are 
not  definiteW  lud  down.  In  the  extreme  north  kre 
the  fSbnix  Uomttaina,  and  timai^ut  llie  proriiioe 
us  MToral  other  r*"™^  iH  of  uem  nunung  from 
nnth-eut  to  north-weat.  A  sreat  portioa  of  the 
tmfsce  of  the  pnnuM  oennm  of  derated  tahla- 
luda,  bnt  ther«  an  alw>  nnneroiii  fertile  valleTi 
traTKved  hy  riTcn.  Uttaj  of  Oie  riven  of  L  are 
RnComd  tip  by  aaaidy  tnioti  into  wbieh  Uiey  flo«. 
Tba  chief  towtii  of  me  proriuee  are  the  Mpital 
Tdisnn  and  Iipahan. 

UU'K.A'BAB^  a  diiMct  in  Tsiker  in  Asa, 
the  anneot^  Babyikiaia  (a.  t.],  oompriaea  the  rnini 
of  the  anmBDt  cittM  of  B^ylon,  Seleneia,  and 
Ctedpbon.      Dnrins    the   laat   2fi0    yeaia    oE   the 

1  which  TWOMiied  to  the 


aod  CoDDsnght,  iHtich  again  are  nibdivided  into 
S2  ooDotiei.  T^  following  table  exhibits  Ute  area 
of  the  difTenot  provinoea  aud  ooauliN,  the  number 
of  inhabited  hrinmi.  u>d  tina  povolation  in  1S61  and 
1871, 


IBBFT,  a  diitrict  town  of  the  goTenuuent  of 
PcriD,  Eaitem  Kiuiia,  aince  177S;  loanded  (ISSO) 
bj  Btiiaiaa  emigranta.  The  town  a  sttnated  on 
the  riTert  Irbit  and  Nitza,  in  lat.  ST  SIT  N.. 
mi  bag.  B2*  fiO'  E.,  i«  1760  mUea  diriaut  frooi  St 
Petenbni^  and  cont^na  4244  inhabitant!.  It  ii 
i^iiiu^abS  for  its  extensiTe  fair,  the  Uraert  in 
Bnnia,  after  thkt  of  Kijni-NovWod.  The  fair 
ti^  place  anuiuilly  from  the  ?7tli  of  Febnuuy 
till  the  end  of  Harcb,  has  been  institnted  for 
more  than  200  yean,  aad  attracts  about  10,000 
merchant*  and  Tiaitor*  fioai  Bouia,  Siberia,  Feraia, 
Bokhua,  Jtc  !rhe  jsincipal  good*  are  cloths,  lilk 
■tnil^  brocades,  angar,  ooffee,  china,  and  hard- 
vara  from  BnsBia ;  tea  uid  oankeen  from  Chints 
throDghEiachtat  foie  and  fish  from  Siberia;  ootton 
Mufh  fram  Bokhara,  &e.  The  whole  anantity  of 
H'oia  brought  to  market  is  Tslued  at  i£^,000. 

IltBLAND,  an  island,  fanning  part  of  the  Umted 
^"■gdom  of  Ore»t  Britain  and  IreUnd,  liea  between 
^ 61* 26' aod  ar  23*  N.,and  long.  B"  Sff  «n("  '"" 
WW.  It  ia  snshed  on  the  N.,  W.,  aad  £  , 
the  AtUntie,  and  on  the  B.  I^  a  stnit,  oaUed  at 
u^ieat  plaoe  the  Nor&  Cbaual,  the  Irish  Sea, 
■M  8t  GeoKe's  Channel,  whidi  iraantes  it  from  the 
wgvidand  of  Great  Britain.  Its  meafast  length, 
pmFair  Head  in  Antrim  to  Crow  H^d  in  K^, 
IS  306  inilee,'bat  its  uiwitset  meridional  length  ia 
^  loore  than  226 ;  its  OMateet  breadth,  bcXwean 
tas  eztnoH  pMnta  of  M^o  and  Down,  is  182 
^•^  hut  b«£»Ban  Oalw«r  Bay  and  Dnhhn,  it 
*  not  more  than  12IX  1^  total  area  is  about 
^ViH  sqosM  mika,  of  which  15,464,826  acrea  are 
srable  land;  4,357,338  acres  are  ucoltiTated; 
31fl,Gn  an  eoreied  with  wood ;  49,236  are  ocon 
F^  oj  tons  ot  2000  iahabitanta  and  npwarda , 
^u  the  lake*  and  -waten  of  the  country  coyer 
«I.«4«ewa.  Pop.  (1871)6,411,416.  t  is  divided 
Uto  the  loor  prorinoH  of  Ulster,  Ldnster,  Monster, 


M^J:^ 

"^ 

'"sff- 

(im 

Mfitt 

I.I.I,    ,    , 

t,»7«,Jlfl 

tK.m 

t,M9,Ha 

1,«B7.MB 

ns^.-.-. 

a«Q.(u 

tJ,ta 

U1,MI 

ii3,m 

IMS],       ,       . 

S,0«7,J»1 

ofcrw 

i,9M,«n 

1,1U,»S 

Duds. 

sss,-.-.-. 

Ss 

*tI'3* 

m.no 

Ttrmuu^,      .       . 

ifi.m 

Ip^M,.       .       , 

au,Ht 

Talil,        .       , 

s.m.Mt 

M1.M) 

J,8M,W8 

l.>t*.MS 

Bllfo,         .       .       . 

■  Ml.TH 

iis,ait 

lM,tt» 

ToW.    .       . 

un.Mii 

MI.»M 

m.m 

R11.UI 

a«»nlTBlil(Inl«d) 

10,S16.MO 

aso,SM 

£.101,759 

B,1W.Mi 

Fhtfiitai  Avptct, — L  is  of  obloog  farm,  and  like 
Ctreat  Britain,  Uie  eaetem  ooeat  is  iwinparatively 
nnbrokeo,  while  the  we«t,  north,  and  south  am 
deeply  indented.  It  is  an  undnlatiiu;  or  billy 
ooantry  lew  nigged  titan  the  Highlanrts  of  Scot- 
land, and  not  so  tame  as  the  eastern  section  of 
"^8  ."^  '**  ^^^  *>*  von  ronnded  thiu  ahmpt, 
and  lie  not  somac^in  suigea  as  in  detaohed  dnstere 
nnnd  the  coasts.  Uiese  maantain  tmsta  CHrcfy 
mnr*^n^  t^tsct  thsn  tweuty  milee  '"TfrTu^^  koA  they 
seam  to   form  a  broad  fringf  ^    ^'"    ~~'~    * 

while  the  interior  sppean  as 
flat  or  gesitly  swelling  land.  The  ,  ^  . 
•re  the  Moume  Mountains  in  Down,  which 
ihaiT  highest  elevstion  in  Slieve  Donard,  2796  feet 
above  uie  sea ;  the  mountains  of  Wicklow,  which 
riwi  to  a  height  of  3039  feet;  and  Macgillicnddv 
Seeks  in  Kerry,  which,  in  the  peak  of  Canan-TnaL 
the  loftiest  pomt  in  Ireland,  reach  3414  feat  The 
pvrely  flat  or  lavel  portions  cd  the  island,  with 
the  exewtaon  of  nme  One  in«ts  of  fertile  valley- 
Und  in  Kilkeuv,  Tifipeisn,  and  limmick,  oonast 
mainly  of  bog  or  monus,  which  occniHea,  aooording 


to  Dr  Esoa,  2,830,000  actes,  or  about  a 

part  of  the  entire  soperflciea.    The  largest  of  Quae 

— — — ■  !-  •*--  T —  of  ^'Wi  which  stretches  in  a 


t.Google 


a  l^zm  portion  of  Eildue,  Orlow,  King's 
Qneef  a  comities — having  a  summit  elevation  of  2S0 
teet.  ExteniiTe  tracts  of  deep  wet  bog  also  occnr 
in  Longford,  Boaciffiimon,  and  other  countiea,  and 
ff.'va  a  peculiarly  drcuv  and  deiiolate  aspect  to  the 
■cenery.  Notwithstanding  the  ^nantitj;  of  water  in 
theae  boga,  they  exhale  go  roiMma  injurioni  to 
health,  owing  to  the  large  quantity  of  tannin  which 
thCT  contain. 

Hydroffraphy, — The  principal  river  of  L,  and  the 
largeit  in  the  United  Kingdom,  ii  the  Shannon 
(q.  v.).  The  itreams  which  drain  the  eastern  part 
«'  the  central  plain  are  the  LiSey  and  the  Boyne  ; 
the  Bouth-ealtem  part,  the  Suir,  the  Barrow,  and 
the  Kore ;  white  the  waten  of  the  north-eastern 
part  are  collected  into  Louf^  Neagh,  chiefly  by 
the  Blackwater,  and  thence  discharged  into  the 
sea  by  the  Lower  Bann.  The  rivers  txttntai  to 
the  great  central  plain  are  necessarily  short.  The 
principal  are  the  Erne,  flowing  to  the  north-west; 
the  Foyle  and  the  Bann,  to  the  north  ;  the  I^gan, 
to  the  north-aut ;  the  Slaney,  to  the  sonth-east ; 
and  the  Bandoo,  Lee,  and  BUckwater,  flowing  in 
an  easterly  oonwe  through  the  county  of  Cork,  the 
moat  soutbem  coonty  in  the  island.  None  of  these 
riven  are  natonlly  of  importance  to  navif^tioo. 
The  Shannon,  however,  haa  been  made  navigable 
to  it*  soutco  by  means  of  locks  and  lateral  cuts ; 
the  Barrow,  by  similar  means,  to  Athy ;  the  Foyle, 
by  cansi  to  Strabane ;  and  several  of  the  others 
have  been  artificially  united  by  such  lines  as  the 
Newt;,  UleteF,  BotbI,  Orand,  Athy,   and 


r  mtersect  a  c 


isiderable 


other   canals — which 
X>ortion  of  the  island. 

The  lakes  of  I.  [called  loughs)  are,  aa  might  be 
eipected  from  the  surface-character  of  the  countn-, 
both  numerous  and  extensive  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  island-  The  largest  is  Lough  Neagh 
in  THster,  ooveiing  an  area  of  100,000  acres.  I^e 
other  lodghs  of  consequence  are  Loughs  Erne  and 
Derg,  alio  in  XHster ;  Conn,  Mask,  and  Conib,  in 
Counauglit ;  the  Allen,  Rce,  and  Derg,  which  are 
eroansious  of  the  river  Shuinon,  and  the  lakes  of 
Killaney  (q.  v.)  in  Kerry.— The  hays  and  salt-water 
loughs  which  indent  the  island  are  alto  numerous 
and  of  considerable  importance.  About  seventy  are 
suitable  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  commerce ; 
and  there  are  fourteen  in  which  the  largest  men- 
of-war  may  ride  in  safety.  The  principal  are 
Loughs  Foyle  and  SwUIy,  ou  the  north  coast ;  the 
Bays  of  Donegal,  Sligo,  Clew,  and  Onlway,  the 
ca^iary  of  the  Shannon,  Dingle  Bay,  and  Bontry 
Bay,  on  the  west ;  the  harbours  of  Cork  and  Water- 
fotd,  on  the  south ;  Wexford  harbour,  the  Bays 
of  Dublin,  Drogheda,  and  Dundalk,  and  Longhs 
Carlingford,  Strangford,  and  Belfast,  on  the  east. 
. — The  islands  are,  generally  speaking,  small  and  of 
little  importance.  On  the  east  coast,  the  largest  is 
Lambay,  about  twg  and  a  half  miles  off  the  coast 
of  Dublin ;  on  the  south  and  south-east  coasts 
are  Clear  Island,  the  Salt«es,  a  dangerous  group  of 
islets,  about  eiaht  miles  south  of  the  Weiford  coast, 
indicated  by  a  loatine  light,  and  Tuscar  Eock,  abont 
eight  miles  east  of  (^msore  Point,  also  a  dangerona 
ledge,  rising  20  feet  above  the  sea,  and  surmounted 
by  a  light-house  after  the  model  of  the  Eddy- 
stone  ;  OQ  the  west  coast,  the  SkelligS,  Valentia,  the 
Blaskets,  the  South  Arran  Isles,  Innisbofiu,  Innis- 
turk,  and  Clare,  Achil  or  'Basle'  Island,  and  the 
Inniskea  Islets;  on  the  norUi  coast,  the  North 
Arran  Isles,  the  Tory  Isles,  and  Bathlin. 

Otology. — A  great  series  of  grits  and  slatea  of 
Cambrian  age  occnr  in  the  south-east  of  L ;  the 
upper  portion  contains  a  few  fossils  of  zoophytes  and 


consist  of  Sags,  slates,  and  grits  many  thonacod 
feet  in  thickness,  extending  over  large  poctaona  id  < 
Eildare,Wicklow,  Wexford,  and  WaterfonL   Semi 
detached  patches  occur  to  the  west  of  tliia  dialik-t.   . 
forming  the  Keeper,  Arra,  and  Inchiqnin  Momitum. 
A  tract  of  similar  beds  stretches  from  &M  o^be 
of  L,  near  the  source  of  the  Shannon,  to  tha  emit   ' 
of  Down.    The  strata  in  proximity  to  the  WiAlow  ' 
and  Dublin  granites  are  converted  into  rkbv  jwd 
mica-slate.    This  is  the  condition  of  all  'Sub  beda  in   ' 
the  north- weet,  in  Don^al,  Tyrone,  and  Mkyo  ;  tlaev 
appear  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  biidilT  altered 
stnta  of  the  north  of  Scotland.    Detk 
of  Upper  Silurian  n 
side  of  the  island,  in  Keny,  Galway,  and  Mayo. 

Between  the  Silurian  and  Old  Red  Sandstone  i*   ■ 
an  enormous  thickness  (11,000  feet)  of  aandrtoiM 
grit  and  shale  in  Kerry  and  Cork.    Theae  atrata   ] 
Bie  almost  wholly  unfossilif erous. 

Old  Bed  Sanddone  strata,  oonaisting  of  red  aad 
yellow  sandstone  and  slate,  cover  a  large  tract  of 
the  south  of  I.,  stretching  almost  continuonaly  frtm 
thf  extreme  w«it  of  Cork  and  Kerry  into  Wateifcwd   . 
and  Kilkenny,  being  stopped  by  the  Silmiaa  nx:ki 
of  Weiford  and  Culow.    Along  the  baaea  of  tl>e   . 
Silurian  mountains  of  the  south  eenire  of  L,  and  is 
the  southern  portion  of  the  ooun^  cf  Cor^  occnn 
a  ^^at  thicknws  of  sandstone*,  wludi  hare  hiUMTta   ' 
yielded  no  fossils  j   some  MologiBtB  refer  theae  to   | 
tbe  Old  Bed  series,  others  bold  them  to  be  Lowsr   I 
Carboniferous.  I 

The  CarionlfiTrmi  tAmabme  is  extenaivefy  derd-  ' 
oped  in  L,  occupying  the  whole  of  the  centre  of  the  I 
country,  except  m  uioae  places  already  alluded  to,  ' 
where  tiie  older  rocks  appear  on  the  sorface.  TUs  i 
great  tract  is  an  extensive  plain  covered  with  drift,  ' 
and  with  peat-moss  and  freahwator  mail,  in  -which  I 
are  found  the  remains  of  Hegaarot  Hibemiais  and  ! 
Boa  longifrotu.  In  Kerry,  Cork,  and  Wal«rf(»d,  j 
the  strata  are  very  much  contorted,  the  rriiil  waiiH  I 
are  changed  iat«  anthracite,  and  so  sque^nd  and  I 
crushed  as  to  be  got  only  in  small  dice-like  &u-  ' 
ments.  Further  north,  the  strata  are  nearly  hon-  I 
zontal,  but  the  coal-fields  are  limited,  and  the  leams  1 
arecenerallyof  inconaiderBblethicknBm.  Th^oecnr  I 
chiSy  in  Tipperary,  Kilkenny,  Tyrone,  and  Antrim.  ' 

Small  deposits  of  Permian  tiraia  are  found  at  I 
Ardtrea  in  Tyrone,  and  at  Cultia  sear  Belfast ;  I 
the  sandstones  of  Boan  Hill  near  Dungannon  a»  ' 
probably  of  the  same  age.  The  red  and  vari^atcd  [ 
marls  containing  beds  of  gypsum  and  rod-salt,  i 
which  exist  on  the  coast  noriJl  from  Belfast,  are 
probably  Triatric  Beating  on  thna  marl*  are  a  I 
few  tbijt  beds  of  Li/u.  Orelaaoat  strata  oocnr  in  I 
Antrim  and  Derry.  I 

Clirrtale. — Though  the   climate  of    L   beai%   as 
might  have  been  expected,  a  stzong  resemblaitee  to  ' 
that  of  Great  Britain  [q.  v.},  it  has  yet  a  chantcter  ' 
peculiar  to  itself,  owing  to  the  nuuied  difference  in   I 
the  configuration  of  its  surface,  its  greater  distance  i 
from  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  its  bein^  as  it  I 
were,  more  completely  bathed  in  the  wann  wateis 
of  the  Oulf  Stream.    The  mean  annual  temperators 
of  the  central  parts  of  tbe  countrr  is  about  EETIl, 
rising  in  the  south  to  Sl*'6,  and  falling  in  the  north 
to  48^-6.    There  are  thus  3°-0  of  difference  betwecs 
the  eitremo  north  and  south,  and  it  may  be  noted 
that,  speaking  geuerally,  this  difference  is  constant 
through  ail  tiie  seasons  of  the  year.     The  mean 
temperature  in  winter  is  41°-G;  in  spring,  ifH;  in 
Bommer,  60°-0;  and  in  autumn,  fll"-0. 

The  annual  minfall  averages  from  25  to  SS  iochea, 
except  in  the  neighbourhood  of  hilla,  where  tbe 
precipitation  is  considerably  augmented;  thus,  at 
Valentia,  in  Kerry,  the  rainfall  of  J661  amouatHl 
to   73   inches,  and  doubtiess  this  large  fall  was 


t.Google 


e  aitiuted 


greatly  exceeded  in  thoae  puta  which  s 
Among  tbe  higher  MUt,  The  rainfall 
particnlu-l;  in  the  irest,  is  greatl]'  in  azceea  of  the 
other  leaioiu,  owing  to  the  low  tempcntnre  of  the 
eurface  of  the  gninnd  daringwinter,  which  laddenl; 
chilla  the  warm  and  moist  soath-wert  winda  that 
prsTail,  especially  at  this  time  of  the  year,  and 
amdenaea  their  Taponr  into  lain.  Since  in  Great 
Britain  the  chief  moantain  rangea  are  in  the  welt, 
it  followB  that  over  the  whole  eastern  slope  of  tba 
island  the  climate  is  diier,  the  amoont  and  fre- 
quea<^  of  the  rainfall  much  leas,  and  the  aunsiiine 
more  brilliant  than  in  the  west.  In  I.,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  hills  in  the  west  do  not  oppose  such  a 
eoniinuons  barrier  to  HxB  onward  progress  of  the 
sonth-weat  winds,  bat  are  more  broken  up  and  dis- 
tributed in  isolated  raoaps.  It  follows  that  the  sky 
is  more  clonded,  and  nun  falls  more  frequently  in 
L,  and  the  climate  is  thus  rendered  more  genial  and 
fostering  to  vefetation ;  hence  the  appropriateneas 
oE  the  name  '  limerald  Isle.'  Again,  owing  to  its 
greater  distance  from  the  continent,  the  pai^bing 
and  noxionB  east  winds  of  spring  are  Ichs  severely 


1  by  England,  Scotland,  and 
1  die  aoutit-west  of  their  respective 
countries.  Thus,  Qneenstown,  in  the  sonth-west  of 
I.,  enjoys  an  average  spring  temperature  as  hi^  as 
•W-0,  whicb  is  about  the  highest  in  the  Bntish 
Islands,  and  nearly  3°'0  higher  than  the  east  of 
Kent,  which  is  nearly  in  the  same  latitude. 

Since  wheat  ripens  in  these  latitudes  with  a  menu 
Hinimer  temperatnre  of  66°<',  it  follows  that  the 
cUniate  of  L  is  quite  sufiidGnt  for  the  successful 
cultivation  of  the  finer  sorts  of  grain,  which  are  sub- 
jected to  much  leas  risk  in  backwud  saaBOns  than 
Is  the  case  in  North  Britain,  where  the  ■nmmn- 
temperature  is  only  a  degree  and  a  baU  from  the 
eitreme  limit  of  wheat-ciutivation.  Also,  coosidei^ 
ing  ite  remarkably  open  winters,  which  lengthen  ont 
the  period  of  grazing,  its  mild  and  genial  cUmate 


equally  weu  adapted  for  the  rearing  of  cattle.  These 
eonsideraliona,  combined  with  the  fertility  of  the 
scnl,  open  up  for  L,  as  far  as  the  {dtysioal  conditions 
sre  concerned,  a  prospect  of  great  national  pros- 
peiity,  based  On  moat  remarkable,  though  as  yet 
only  partially  develcMd  agricultural  resources. 

Sou  and  Kq^tfofion. —Until  the  middle  of  last 
century,  L  was  almost  exclusively  a  pasturing 
eountry,  and  in  1727  an  attempt  was  made  [nnauc- 
cessfuUy,  however)  to  paas  an  act  compeUins  land- 
holders to  '  till  five  acres  out  of  every  hundred  in 
their  possession,  and  to  relesae  tenants  to  the  HUne 
extent  from  the  penal  covenants  in  their  leases 
sgainst  tillage.'  The  result  of  thia  state  of  things 
is  the  wretehedly  poor  system  of  agriculture,  fnuu 
which  L  still  suffers  largely.  The  natural  fertility 
"'""" ' — is  nevertheless  greati 


Oau,       .        ,  I.SM.IM 

Birltf,  b>r«.  ind  rjr,    U9,U4 


Elj; 


rti,      ],S1S,M(        I,MO,n«  1,8! 

produce  in  1S71  and  1S72  v 


BuleT,  ber*,  *Dd  rj*. 


ITHip., 


KugeL  sod  uhbag*,      .       Tei.BO  ei«,71«  .. 

KH^ir and elurer,  '    .     S,i\t',HS        a,m',9K  » 
JAve-aloci. — Aocording  to  the  census  returns  of 
1861,  the  estimated  value  of  the  live-stock  waa 
£27,737,393 ;   for  1861,  £33,434,3S& ;  and  for  1871, 
£37,615,211. 
Fi^Urit*. — In  her  fisheries,  L  is  supposed  to  pos- 
es an  slmost  inexhaustible  mine  of  wealth,  but, 
range  to  say,  they  are  mnoh  n^lected.    The  lor- 
iun£ng  aeas  abound  with  ood,  ling,  hake,  herrings, 
pilchard  Ac,  and  yet  the  Irish  markets  are  exten- 
sively supplied  with  cured  fish  from  Scotland  and 
the  Isle  of  Man.    The  number  of  vessels  and  boats 
in  the  sea-fisheries  in  1846  was  20,000,  em- 
100,000  men  and  boys;   but   in  1872,  it 
reased  to  8000,  employing  only  31,000  per- 
sons.   The  inspectors  of  fisheries  have  recommended 
the  advance  of  a  loan,  for  the  repair  and  purchaae 
of  boats  and  gear. 

Mana/aeturta. — Aocording  to  MKifullocIi, '  Ireland 
not,  and  never  baa  been,  a  manu&cturiug  eouutry. 
Its  unsettled  turbolent  state,  and  &e  general 
dependenoe  of  the  population  on  land,  have  hitherto 
formed  iosiiperable  obataclea  to  the  formation  of 
lutactarinK  establishments  in  most  [uui* 
of  the  country ;  whilst  the  want  of  coal,  capital, 
and  skilful  workmen,  and  the  great  ascendency  of 
England  and  Scotland  in  all  departments  of  manu- 
facture, will,  there  is  reason  to  think,  hinder  Ireland 
from  ever  attaioing  eminence  in  this  dqiartment.' 
Linen  is  the  staule  manufacture,  of  which  Belfast 
and  the  surrounding  district*  of  Ulster  are  the  chief 
aeats.  The  export  of  linen  monnfacturea  from  I.  to 
Great  Britain  was,  in  1864,  £10,327,000.  The 
manofscture  of  woollen  stufls  is  limited  to  a  few 
localities,  as  Dublin,  Cork,  Waterford,  Qneeo's 
County,  and  Kilkenny.  Silk  and  cottou  manufac- 
tures are  also  carried  on,  but  only  to  a  comparatively 
inconsiderable  extent.  In  1870,  the  number  of 
factories  (cotton,  woollen,  worsted,  Sox,  jute, 


^  154  V 


e  flax -factories,  e 


55,039  persons.    A  great  _ .  .    , 

females  has  of  late  yean  spmng  up  in  the  north  of 
L,  in  the  working;  of  patterns  on  muslin  with  the 
needle.  Belfast  is  tbo  centre  of  this  manufacture, 
which  employs  about  300,000  persons,  chiefly 
females,  scattered  through  oU  Uia  counties  of 
Ulster,  and  some  localities  of  the  other  provinces. 
About  forty  firms  are  engaged  in  the  trade,  and  the 
gross  value  of  the  maniSactured  goods  amoimts  to 
about  £l,400,00a  Silk  manufactures  since  their 
iutrodnction  by  f  rench  emigranta  in  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  have  been  almost  entirely 
confined  to  Dublin  ;  but  poplin  is  now  exten- 
sively manufactured   there,  sjid  in  a  few  other 

e^Ktrtation  of  the 
agricultural  produce  of  the  conub^  has  always  been 
tSe  chief  conunereiol  business  carried  on  in  Ireland. 
By  far  the  peater  port  of  this  trade  is  carried  on 
with  Great  Britain.  It  cannot,  however,  be  traced 
later  than  1S26,  when  the  commercial  intaroourse 
between  Great  Britain  and  I.  was  assimilated 
by  law  to  the  coasting-traffic  carried  on  between 
the  different  ports  of  England,  except  in  the  single 
article  of  grain. 
The  number  of  SMling  and  steam  vessels,  with 
M5       ^ 


a  I77S  Teagela,  tonnage  21S,lE 
men  being  11,867. 

OoMmmenL — The   goremment   of   I.,  Haca  tha 
Union  in  lSOI,isiiieatio&l  with  that  of  Great  Biitaia. 


ecutiYO  goi 

Coimcil  and  Chic^  Secretary ;  and  the  law  la  admiiui- 
tm«d  bj  »  Lord  Ohanoellor,  a  MaMflr  of  the  Boll^ 
and  twdva  jadgea  of  the  snpreme  courts  of  Qneen'a 
Bencth,  Common  Fleas,  and  EzcheqDer.  Coantf, 
peace,  and  municipal  matten  are  condacted  much  m 
the  same  way  oa  in  Gngland,  with  the  eioeptioa  of 
an  armed  national  coiutaliiilaTf  or  police  ian»  of 
nearly  12,000  man,  with  S48  honeo. 

JUliffion. — A  vut  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of 
I.  are  Koman  Catholics ;  but  the  established  church 
was  a  branch  of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  England 
till  January  1^1,  whan  it  was  at  length  diaestab- 
lished,  after  much  opposition.  Aocording  to  the 
statistics  of  1871,  the  number  oE  Boman  Catholica 
WAS  ^I50,B77;  of  Protestants,  1,260,568;  and  oE 
Jews,  258. 

Jiducatien.—T.  poasesiea  Mveral  muTersitiea  : 
Dublin  UniTBtsity  (q.  v.),  was  founded  by  Queen 
Eliwbeth  in  1S91 ;  the  Queeu's  Colleges  ol  Belfast, 
Cork,  and  Galway,  were  opened  in  1849,  and  are 
united  in  one  university.  Maynooth  College,  for  the 
edncation  of  Boman  Catholia  priesta,  is  supported  at 
the  public  eipenisa,  and  is  attended  by  520  atudents. 
There  are  also  sevoral  Irish  colleges  and  medical 
schools  in  connection  with  the  London  Univeraity. 
The  primary  bcIumIs  of  L  ate  mostly  under  the 
management  of  the  *  Commissioners  of  National 
Education.'      This   system,   established    in    1833, 

Eroceeda  on  the  principle  that  '  the  schools  shall 
a  open  alike  to  Cbriabaiui  of  every  denomination ; 
that  no  pnpil  shall  be  required  to  attend  any 
rcligioaa  exercise,  or  receive  any  religious  instruc- 
tian  which  his  parents  may  not  approve ;  and  that 
sufficient  opportunity  shall  bs  afibrded  to  pupils  of 
each  religious  persuasion  to  receive  separately  such 
religious  instruction  as  thdr  parents  or  guardians' 
may  think  fit.'  The  following  table  exhibits  tho 
progress  of  the  system  - 


T-. 

.Si 

uSU 

IMO 
IBM 

l!37B 

IM^OOO 
LOJUM 

tnjn 
*m;so9 

10S,3S8 

Taking  the  pupiU  of  1871,  we  find  the  number  of 
Koman  Catholic  children  to  be  622,016  ;  of  Presby- 
terian, 113,227  ;  of  Episcopalian,  78,789 ;  belonging 
to  other  sects,  7666.  Beaides  these  national  schools, 
the  'Church  Eduoatiou  Society'  had,  in  1870, 
62,166  scholars,  of  whom  44,662  belong«i  to  tlie 
established  church,  3747  to  other  Protratant 
churchea,  and  37G7  to  the  Roman  Catholic. 

HitUrrn. — According  to  ancient  naUve  legends,  I. 
was  in  remotf  times  peopled  by  tribes  stgded  Fir. 
bolga  and  Caoauns,  eventually  subdued  by  Uileaians 
or  Qaels,  who  acquired  supremacy  in  the  island 
Ttia  primitive  inhabitants  of  L  are  now  believed 
to  have  been  of  the  same  Indo-European  taoa 
with  the  original  population  of  Britain.  Although 
I.,  styled  lernis,  is  mentioned  in  a  Greek  poem  five 
centuiies  before  Christ,  and  !>ytlie  minet  of  Hibemia  . 
and  Jwerna  in  varioos  foreign  pi^an  writers,  little  ! 
it  knoWQ  with  certainty  of  her  inhabitauta  before  I 
^  tih  e.  after  Christ,  wheo,  under  the  appellation 


formidable  br  thttr  deacasta  unon  th*  Bomia  i 
j»i3vince  of  BritaiiL  Iheae  ai^teaitiaoa  were  cob- 
tinued  and  extended  to  the  ooMta  of  Ganl  tm  Uc  ' 
time  of  IdogaiTB  MaoNeill,  monanh  of  IteUmd  (430  ' 
'  ~  '  -  whMB  raign  St  Pafaick  (q.  v.)  attfaipted  tlw  > 
»n  of  the  nativaa.    Altbong^  CUmstiaiutf  ^ 

'—' dy  introdnoed  in  ■oma   jartB   of 

encountered  great  ntrstiirlra,  aad  I 
me  new  ftJUi  was  not  fully  established  in  L  tiU  i 
about  a  century  after  bis  deceaae.  ^ 

From  tha    earliest  period,  eat^  proviiioa   of  I.   | 
appears  to  have  had  ita  own  king,  mbject  to  tha 
Ard-Righ  oi  monarch,  to  whom  tha  oeabml  dis- 
trict c^led  Meath  was  aUottad,  and  wha   uanali;    I 
resided  at  Tara,     Each  olan  was  gorezned.  hj  a   ^ 
chief  selected  from  its  most  impt^tant  famOy,  and   . 
who  was  required  to  ba  of  mature  aga,  cap»Ue  ol 
takiuff  Uie  field  efliDiBntIf  when  occaaion  raqniTed.    ' 
The  uwi  were  peculiar  m  Uieir  nature^  iliaj^iiiiiaul   1 
by  professionat  jnrista  styled  Sreioiu,  who,  aa  veil   I 
03  the  poeta  and  men  of  learning  reMaTod.  hi^   I 
consideration,  and  were  endowed  with  laikda  sod   ] 
importiuit  privilege*.     Cromlecha,  or  atone  tomtia   i 
and    etroatnrea,    oompoaad    of    lane   nnoemented 
stones,  aacribed  to  t£e  pagan  Imo,  still  exnt  ia   1 
various  parta  of  Irelandl     Laoasliriiie  h«ivU.tt— . 
or  stockaded  islands,  styled  Crcatn6gt  or  fnMmijit   1 
(q.  T.),  in  inland  lakes,  also  appear  to  have  beeo  in    l 
there  from  early  ages.     Of  artioles  of  meta^    I 


in  the  Museum  of  the  'BMyaX  Irish  Ac*dany  at  ' 
Dublin,  It  is  remarkable  Uiat  a  p«ater  Dmnbei  I 
and  variety  of  antique  golden  artidaa  of   remote    | 

Thave  been  found  in  L  than  in  any  other  put  [ 
Northern  Europe ;  and  the  majoti^  of  the  | 
gold  antiquities  illustrative  of  British  histtHy,  now  | 
pteaerved  in  the  Bri^sh  Mnseom,  are  Iiidi.  I 

In  tha  6th  ts.,  extensive  monasteries  vrere  foandal  i 
in  L,  in  which  religion  and  leaning  wne  aealoosly  | 
cultnated.  From  these  eatabliahmmti,  nimunias  j 
missionarieB  issued  during  the  suooeading  centnriM;  ' 
oarryina  the  doetrinea  oi  Chiiatianitf  under  gnat  ' 
diffioultie*  into  tha  still  pagan  oountnea  of  Euhicv 
whose  inhalntanta  thav  anrpriaed  and  impraMed 


their  seU-dsvotion  a 

of   distinction  from        ^ 

fiequented  L,  and  reoeivad  g 


-  been  wciibed  the   ' 

origin  of  tha  peoulior  st^e  of  art-ornanieada*^™     ' 
specimens  of  which  ore  still  extant  in  Iriah  m 
scripts,  and  which  was  h 


entirely  for  letteia,  Among  the  eminent  native 
Irish  of  theae  time*  were  Cdumba  (q.  v.),  or 
Colum  Cille,  founder  of  tha  oalebrated  iiiiiiimUiij 
of  lona ;  Comgall,  who  eatabliahed  the  oonveot 
of  Bangor,  in  the  oonnty  of  Down;  Ciaran  of 
ClonmaoDoise ;  and  AdamnaUt  abbot  ot  lona,  and 
biographer  of  Columba,  Of  Um  Irish  miaaionahea 
to  the  continent,  the  more  distiBgoished  were 
CiJombanus  (q.  v.),  founder  ot  Bobioi  Oalliu  of 
St  Gall,  in  Switzerland;  DichuiU,  potroniBad  hj 
Clotsjre ;  and  Ferghal,  or  Vir^ua,  via  evang^oer 
of  Carintbia.  The  progies*  of  Irish  dvilisation  was 
checked  by  tha  incurdona  of  the  Scandinavians, 
commencing  towatd*  the  close  of  the  8th  «,,  and 
continued  lor  upwards  of  300  years.  fMablithing 
themselves  in  towns  on  the  eastern  onaat  of  L, 
with  the  aseistanoe  of  friendly  native  tribea,  they 


Bumamed  Borumha,  moiuwob  ol 


t.Google 


cIoBB  of  tha  Stli  to  the  ISHi  &,  L,  sMioii^  luiHHd 

by  tba   SoUkdinaTiaiiB,  prodaoed 

merit,  among  whom  wen  .SagOM, 

Cormac  HadCnllamui,  king  itf  Mu   ....  ... 

of  Ca^el,  the  reputed  antEor  of  Cormiuft  Olouary , 
Cuan  (yLochaiiii ;  OiUa  Modnda ;  FUn  of  Moiuut«r- 
boioe ;  And  Tis;erho«iih,  the  aonWIifit.  The  Irish 
acholwB  who  dimng  the«e  timea  wH^iured  highest 
eminence  on  the  coatment  were  Joaiwes  Erigeim, 
the  farooitle  of  Chulei  the  Bald  of  France ;  DungiU, 
one  of  ths  Mtronomen  conBoltod  by  CharlemagDe ; 
DichniU,  the  geographer ;  Conogh,  or  Donatiu, 
Biahop  of  Keaole ;  and  Marianoi  SootoB.  Of  the 
atate  of  the  arb  in  Ireland  during  the  oame  period, 
elaborate  apecimena  anrvire  in  uie  shrine  of  8*^ 
Patrick'i  bell,  the  Crow  of  Cong,  in  Mayo  {I2th  c.) . 
the  Limeriek  and  CAthel  croBiei«,  and  the  Tora 
brooch,  All  diipUyinjg  minute  «IU1  and  ^uliar 
Htyle.  To  tiiese  bnua  some  are  incluted  to 
aiaign  the  Book  of  JTeffa,  a  Latin  copy  of  ths  four 
GoBpela  in  the  uiih  character,  in  tha  libraiy  of 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  which  Mr  WertiWood  has 
pronounced  n  be  the  most  elaborataly  executed 
manuacript  of  early  art  now  in  exiatence,  and  of 
portioni  i£.  which  fac-iimilei  ora  given  in  his 
work  Pidaogrm^aa  Baera  Pieloria,  Of  the  Irish 
artjiitectare  of  the  period,  examplea  Burrive  at 
CasheL  The  well-knowa  round  towers  of  L  are 
beliered  to  bava  been  creotad  about  tbi«  era  ai 
belfiiea,  and  to  aerre  as  place*  of  secnrity  for 
eccleiiutica  during  dilturbancei.  The  ikill  of  ths 
Irish  mnaieiana  in  ths.  12th  c  is  atteated  by 
the  enthuDaatio  encomiuma  beatowed  by  Oiraldua 
Cambrenaia  upon  thcdr  performances.  The  Soandi- 
naviana  hare  left  behind  them  in  L  no  traces  of 
ciTiliaatioD  except  coins  stcnok  at  Dublin,  Water- 
ford,  and  Idmenck,  in  which  towna  they  wera,  for 
tho  moat  part,  subject  and  tributary  to  the  native*. 
Ihe  fim  atop  towarda  an  Ai^-Iforman  descent 


him  to  take  posseasion  of  the  island, 
of  paying  to  the  papal  treaemy  a  etipnlated 
ammal  revenue.  Political  ciicomatancM  pieveDted 
Henry  from  entering  upoa  the  undertaking  till 
1166,    when   Dsrmod   MacMurragb,   the    deposed 


kinc  of  Leiniter,  repaired  to  him,  and  obtained 
anttaority  to  enlist  b    '      '  '  '        ■  ■    ■  ■  ■  ■ 

!ed  to  aid  hi . — r™ o p 

mod,  retumiiig  to  I.  m  1169, 


with  a 


n  reoovermg 


itbe  king* 


b»  induced  to  aid  him 

with  the  aid  of  his  foreign  mercenaries,  and  still 
more  numerous  Irish  allies,  snoceeded 

Kt  of  his  former  territorial,  and 
blin  and  other  towns  on  the  e 
After  his  death  in  1171,  the  socceuio 
dom  of  Leiniter  was  olaimed  by  his  son- 
Ricfasfd  ntzGislebert,  Earl  of  Fembroke,  surnamad 
'  Strongbow.'  In  the  foUowii^  year.  King  Henry, 
— ^*'-  I  formidable  armament,  visitol  L,  received 
s  from  «everal  of  the  minor  native  chiefs, 

_om  &«  chief  adventurer*,  granting  to  the 

latter  charter*  anthotiaing  them,  aa  hi*  nibject*; 
to  take  possession  ot  the  antin  island,  in  Tirtoe 
of  the  grant  made  to  bim  by  tiie  pop*.  The  otiirf 
Anglo-Norman  adventurer*,  FittOitlebsrt,  La  Gro*, 
De  Cogan,  De  Lacy,  and  De  Onm,  enoonntarad 
formidable  opposition  before  they  soooeeded  in 
establiiduiig  themselvea  on  the  lands  wbioh  they 
thna  rlti'm*-^  The  government  was  committed  to 
a  viceroy,  and  Uie  Norman  l^al  syitem  was 
introdoced  into  sncb  parts  of  the  island  as  were 
reduced  to  obedience  to  Bngland.     The  youthful 


into  L  in  1311^  to  onib  tita  nfeMtoiv  npirit  af 
hia  btkron*^  who  had  binvwwt  fimnidal^  thnMigb 
thai  alliMwea  witli  tha  luttivea,  Dniing  the  13& 
a^  tba  jdndpal  An^Norman  adTentoren  nu>- 
eeedad  in  eebiblishing  thcmaslvea,  with  the  feudal 
instjtntiona  of  their  nation,  in  torn*  put*  of  L, 
by  tha  aiistonce  or  suppiesaiiH)  of  n^iva  olani. 
Ilia  Fitsgetald*,  or  Oeraldinea,  acqniied  ahuoat 
anboanded  power  in  Kildare  aM  East  Mofijter, 
or  Desmond ;  tha  Le  Botillers,  or  Bittlan,  in 
Ormood  or  West  Unoster ;  and  tiie  De  Buigbs,  or 
BnriMS,  in  Gonnaoght.  After  the  battle  of  Bon* 
nockbi^n,  ths  native  Irish  of  the  north  invited 
over  Edward  Bruce,  and  attempted  to  overthrow 
the  "t^gJ"*'  power  in  Ireland.  Ijia  court  of  £oin% 
at  ths  instigation  of  England,  i^Tiwmmi]Ti^f^^^^ 
Bmoe  vrith  bis  Irish  atliea ;  but  ^though  hia  enters 
priae  failed  of  ancce**,  IJia  genra'al  resolt  WM  k 
oomporativa  ooUapse  Ol  the  WngTijh  dominioa  in 
Ireland.  Tba  deacesidants  af  the  most  powerful 
sattlen  gndoaHy  beoama  idsntifled  with  the  nativaa, 
whose  language  habit^  and  laws  they  adopted  to 
Ma  great  an  extent,  tdbat  the  Aiujlo-Iriah  pwliamMit 
passed,  in  1387,  the '  Statote  o(  Eilkeni^,'  deoieeing 
ezoommatiicaticin  and  heavy  penalties  against  «U 
ihoae  who  followed  the  onstoma  of,  or  allied  them- 
selve*  with,  the  native  Irish.  Ttus  statute,  how' 
'  loperative  ;  and  although  Ricbaid 
14th  c,  made  expeditions  into  L 
with  Urge  forces,  he  failed  to  effect  any  practical 
result ;  Mid  the  power  and  influence  of  the  natives 
increased  ao  much,  that  the  authority  of  ths 
t'^gl"^  crown  became  limited  to  a  few  town*  on 
the  oosst,  and  the  diatrict  termed  '  the  Pale,'  com- 
prisins  a  small  dronit  about  Dablin  and  Drogheda. 

In  1634.  ITiomaa  Htzgerold,  *on  ot  Uke  viceroy 
of  Henry  VULL,  revolted,  but  not  maetiiig  with  ado- 
qaato  support  from  his  Anglo-Irish  connections,  ha 
was,  after  a  short  time,  aappressed  and  executed, 
Heniy  received  tbe  title  of  King  of  Ireland '  in 
1541,  by  an  act  passed  by  the  Anglo-Irish  parlia- 
ment in  Dublin ;  and  about  the  same  period,  some 
-'  the  native  princes  were  induced  to  acknowledge 

n  aa  their  sovereign,  and  to  accept  peerages.  The 
doctrines  of  the  liebrmation  met  httfe  favour  either 
with  the  descendanta  of  tbe  old  English  settlers  or 
with  the  naUve  Irish.  About  the  middle  of  the 
16th  a,  Shane  O'Ndll,  a  prince  of  the  most  powtrfol 
ancient  family  of  Ulster,  attempted  to  sapprei*  hie 
rivals,  and  to  assume  the  kingship  of  that  province^ 
in  wbicb  ho  was  eventually  nnsnooeasful ;  but  after 
bis  death  In  IS67,  hia  suooessor  reooved  tiie  title  of 
Eari  of  ISrone  fnm  Miabeth.  The  attem^  of  the 
Fi"g>'»*'  sovamment  in  L  to  introduce  the  Beformed 
fuui  and  T'ipgi"!'  institatitma  stdnied  up  gnat  dis- 
in  udand.  Among  tha  fiiit  to  revolt  was 
the  Eari  of  Desmond,  after  whoae  deatii,  in  1663, 
hi*  vast  estates  in  Unnster  yren  panelled  out  to 
English  settler*.  Soon  after,  the  chief  clans  of 
Ulster  took  up  arms ;  and  in  opposing  them,  tha 
forces  of  Elizabeth,  oommanded  by  officar*  of  high 
'on,   enoonntered   nuwy   nrenea, 

ofwhiebwaaUiat  inlNSat  tha 

hattls  of  tlie  Yellow  Foid,  neac  Ama^  where  tha 
EWiih  aiD^  woa  roated  and  ita  gSDOral  alain. 
Pluopni.  of  Spain,  at  the  Kdidtation  of  tha  Irish 
chiefa,  despabchsd  a  body  ol  troops  to  their  aadst' 
ance  in  1601,  which,  hatahg  in  ths  extrona  south, 
instead  of  in  the  north,  aa  bod  been  expected,  wera 
imable  to  effect  anything,  and  wera  oonstnined  to 
surrender.  Although  Elixabeth  was  sninKotad  bv 
number*  of  native  Irish,  the  northern  chuls,  O'NeiU 

~  O'Donnell,  held  out  till  ths  onsen's  govsmmant 

e  to  terms  with  them  in  1603,  reoognising  them 

as  EkiJm  of  Tirone  and  TiroonneU.  In  ICOi,  these 
their  paraonal 


i^le 


IRELAND— miAETEA. 


to  carry  oat  that  project  of  wvelling  out  the  north 
of  Ireland  to  S«ottisli  and  English  iettlen,  wMA 
ia  nnullr  known  m  tha  'PUtntatioD  ot  Ulster.' 
The  Iriah  took  adTuitage  ot  tiie  contentknu  in 
England  to  lisa  in  insorrection  (1641)  uid  lotMacTe 
the  Protestanta.  It  ia  believed  that  nearly  40,000 
fell  Tictims  to  their  foiy.  The  coantrj  continued  in 
a  state  of  an&rchj  till  1649,  when  Cromwell  OTerran 
iL  At  tiie  !ReTolntiaii,  the  native  Irish  generally 
took  the  part  of  James  II.,  the  Bn^iih  and  Scotch 
*  colonists '  of  William  and  Msiy  ;  and  the  war  was 
kept  on  for  four  years  (1688—1692).  From  thia 
tune  tJU  1776,  history  records  little  b^ond  the  pass- 
ing of  penal  statutes  B.gSiinEt  the  Boman  Catholics. 
In  1778,  parliameat  r^txed  the  stringent  preasure 
ot  these  acts ;  but  the  widely  spread  disaffection 
which  they  cuised  gave  birth  to  □mneroQS  societies, 
resotting  in  the  rebellion  of  1798,  which  was  not 
snppressed  till  1800.  On  January  1  of  the  follow- 
ing yssr,  the  legislative  union  of  Great  Britain 
with  I.  was  oonaumoukted,  and  front  this  period  the 
histoty  of   the   country  merges  in  that  of   Great 

IBELAND,  Asms  op.  Hie  insignia  of  Ireland 
have  been  variously  given  by  early  writers.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  a  commission  appointed 
to  inquire  wlkat  were  the  arms  of  L,  found  them 
to  ba  three  crowni  in  pale.  It  has  been  snpposed 
-  that  these  crowns  were  abandoned  at  the  Refor- 
mation, from  an  idea  that  they  might  denote  the 
feudal  sovereignty  of  the  pope,  whose  vassal  the 
king  ot  England  was,  as  lord  of  Ireland.  How- 
erer,  in  a  'MS,  in  the  Heralds'  College  of  the  time 
of  Henry  YIL,  the  arms  of  L  are  buzoned  azure, 
a  harp  or,  stnnged  areent ;  and  when  they  were 
for  the  first  time  placed  on  the  royal  shield  on  the 
f  James  L,  they  were  thus  delineated; 
s  on  a  wreath  or  and  azure,  a  tower 
I  triple-towered)  or,  from  the  port,  a 
hart  epringing  argent.  AnoUier  crest  is  a  harp 
or.  The  national  flag  of  L  exhibits  the  hairi  in  a 
field  verL  The  royal  badge  of  L,  as  settled  by 
aign-maniul  in  1801,  is  a  harp  or,  stringed  argent, 
and  a  trefoil  vert,  both  ensigned  with  tha  imperial 

IREIiAS'D,  ITew.    See  New  Irilamd. 

IBEIiAND  ISLAIfD,oneoftheBermndaa(q.v.). 

IREIT-^nrs,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
ante-Nicens  Christian  writers,  was  on  Asiatic  by 
birtii,  but  is  known  in  history  solely  through 
his  connection  with  the  Greoo-Ganlish  church  of 
Southern  France,  of  which  he  was  a  bishop.  He 
was  a  scholar  of  Polyoarp,  through  whoiO  he  may  be 
regarded  as  having  sat  at  the  feet  of  St  John  the 
apostle  and  evang^st.  L  was  a  priest  of  the  church 
<f  Lyon  under  the  Bishop  Pothinus,  upon  whose 
mar^rdom,  in  the  persecution  of  Marcus  Aurelius 
in  1 77,  he  was  himself  elected  to  the  same  see,  which 
ha  continued  to  govern  for  twenty-five  year*.  L 
is  commonly  believed  t«  have  soflered  martyrdom 
at  Lyon  in  the  persecution  under  Septiniins  Severus 
in  S02.  Hi»  principal,  indeed  ahnost  his  only 
petfect,  work  is  tiiat  which  is  commonly  cited 
as  Advermt  Hartau  (Against  Heresies).  It  is 
directed  against  the  Chiod:ioiam  of  his  own  age, 
and  i*  most  valoable  as  a  picture  of  the  doctrinal 
and  moral  condition  of  ttiat  age.  Most  of  his 
otiiw  works  also  were  doctriruil,  but  they  are 
known  only  by  description  or  by  frasments.  The 
earliest  editon  of  the  works  of  this  Father  is  that 
of  Erasmus  (Bsael,  1536).  They  have  been  several 
times  re-edited,  the  moat  prised  edition  being  that 


of  the  Benedictine,  Dom  Massnet  (Paris,  1710^  ud 
Venice,  1734).  ^  ' 

IRE'NE,  »  celebrated  Byzantine  empress,    -was  ' 
bom  in  Athens  about  752  a.j>.    Her  1)00017  "■'^  ' 
talent  excited  the  oduiiration  of  the  Emperor   Le« 
IV.,  who  married  her,  769  J..i>.    She  is  believed  to 
have  poisoned  her  hnsband,  7S0  A.D.,  after  wbiii 
event  she  became  regent  during  the  minority  of  ha 
son,  Conetantine  VL,  then  only  nine  year*  ai  M^t. 
A  great  worshipper  of  images— in  fact,  this  ipeoe* 
of  idolatry  had  during  the  lifetime  of  her  hi 
caused  her  to  be  banished  from  the  imperial 
— she  quickly  began  to  plot  for  their  rest 
and  with  thia  piirp(»e  assembled  a  cooncif  ai 
at  Constantinople,  786  A.I>.,  which,  however, 
broken  up  by  tilt  troops  of  tbe  capitoL     A.  uet 
coundl  held  at  Nice  in  the  following  year  w>a  i 
successful,  and  imo^-worship  was  re-eetahliahe 
the  Bostem  Churdi.    In  788  a.i>,  her  aimy 
defeated  in  Calabria  by  Charlemagne,  who  '* 
the  Byzantine  empire.     In  790  A.  D.,  C 
succeeded  in  taking  the   goveiument  oat  of  ha 
hands ;  but  seven  years  uWr,  she  consed  Imn  to 
be  deprived  of  his  eyes,  and  shut  up  in  a  dnnnu^ 
where  he  soon  died.     Still  she  was  not  fi«e  troat 
anxieties.  Her  two  favourites,  Stauracius  and  ^^r^ 
were  constantly  embroiled  with  each  other,  and  their 
jealonsies  only  ceased  with  the  death  of  the  fesiam, 
800a.i>.    She  now  tried  to  secure  her ' 
the  throne  by  .a  marriage  with  Charl 
the  Frank  emperor  had  apparently  u 
a  woman  who  hod  committed  so  many  crimes,  and    i 
the  Bcheine  proved  abortive.    Two  y^rs  Utu,  her    I 
treasurer,   Nicephoms,   rebelled   against   her,  and    I 
suddenly  seizing  her  person,  banished  htr  to  the    I 
isle  of  Lesbos,  where  she  was  forced  to  apin  for  a    1 
livelihood.      Here  she  died  of  zrie^  803  Jk.lt.     LI 
was  a  wise,  able,  and  energetic  ruler ;  but  her  crimes     | 
were  so  great  and  unoatuol,  that  histoty  caa  speak    | 
of  her  character  as  a  whole  only  in  the  language  ri    , 
reprobation.   The  Greek  Chnrch,  however,  on  accoont    , 
of  her  zeal  for  imagu-woiship,  has  placed  her  in  the    - 
catalogue  of  its  saints.  \ 

IRIAKTEA,  a  genus  of  palms,  all  Soath  Amen-    1 
can,  having  lof^,  smooth,  foinUy  ringed  stems,  and 

Knate  leaves  with  somewhat  triangular  leafieta. 
e  leaf-stalks  rise  from 
a  sheathing  column.  The 
PiaatcBA  or  FizrctaA. 
Palk  (7.  eaiorAiza),  com- 
mon in  swamps  and 
marshy  grounds  in  the 
forests  of  the  Amazon 
district,  is  lemarkable 
for  sending  out  roots 
above  gr«iud,  which 
eitend  obUquely  down- 
wards, and  often  divide 
into  many  rootlets  just 
before  they  reach  the 
soil ;  the  tree  as  it  grows 
Still  prodncing  new  roots 
from  ahicher  point  than 
before,  whilst  the  older 
and  more  central  ones 
die,  so  that  at  last  a 
lofty  tree  is  supported 
OS  on  three  or  four  legs, 
between  which  a  man 
may  walk  erect  with  a  PuLiuba  Palm  llriartta 
palin    of    seventy   feet  eearhaa\. 

above  his  bead.  Ilie  outer  wood  is  very  hard,  so 
as  to  be  used  for  harpoons ;  splits  easily,  and  into 
perlbctiy  straight   laths  j    is   excellent  for  flooca. 


C,5l,zadty  Google 


lEIDRa^miSH  (QAELIO)  LAKQ0AGB  AJfD  LlTBRATUIiR 


I  exported  to  North 


ceiling  Bhelvea,  &c ;   vtd 
Amenott  for  mnbrellii-EtickB. 

IRIDE"^,  or  mroA'CE^  t,  nstaral  order  of 
endogemma  plants,  mostly  herbaceous,  although  a 
few  ore  aomewhat  shrubby.  They  hare  rery  gciier- 
ally  eithec  nrat-atocks  or  eorma.  Tho  leaves  are 
generslly  sword-shaped,  in  two  rows,  and  tquitanl 
(bo  placed  that  one  seems  to  ride  on  Uie  hack  of 
anotlier).  The  perianth  ia  6-pttrtito,  coloured,  often 
Ter;  beautiful,  in  some  regular,  in  others  irregular. 
The  rtamena  are  three,  with  anthers  turned  out- 
wards. The  ovary  is  inferior;  there  is  one  style, 
with  three  stigmas,  which  are  often  petal-like,  and 
add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  flower.  The  fntit 
is  a  3-celled,  3-valved  capsule.  Almost  600  spMiea 
are  known,  of  which  the  greater  number  are  natives 
of  warm  conntries.  They  are  particularly  abundant ! 
in  South  Africa.  A  few  are  Bntish.  Irit,  Qladiolut, 
and  Croait  are  familiar  examples  of  l^e  order. 
Saffron  is  the  principal  economical  prodncL  Acridity 
is  a  prerailing  chancteristic,  and  tome  species  are 
medicinal ;  but  the  conns  uid  root-itocks  of  some 
are  edible. 

IRrDIUM  {sym.  Ir,  eq.  M,  sp.  gr.  15-93)  is  one 
of  the  BO-cBlled  noble  metals.  It  is  occssioiially 
found  native  and  nearly  pure  in  considerable  masses 
amon^  the  Uralian  ores  of  ptatdnnm,  but  is  usually 
combined  with  osmium  as  an  alloy  in  flat  Bcalea.  ft 
b  a  veiv  bard,  white,  brittle  metal,  which  may  be 
melted  by  the  o^hydrogen  blowpipe,  or  by  the 
heat  of  a  voltaic  current.  la  its  isolated  form,  it  is 
unacted  upon  by  any  add,  or  by  aqua  regio,  but 
aa  ao  alloy  it  dissolves  in  the  latter  fluid. 

It  forms  three  oxides,  IrO,  lr,0,,and  IrO,,  which 
pasa  readily  into  one  another,  luid  thus  occasion  the 
various  tints  which  solutions  of  the  salts  of  this 
metal  assume.  It  was  in  consequence  of  these  vary- 
ing tints  that  the  name  of  indiom,  derived  from 
/rw,  the  rainbow,  was  given  to  this  metal.  Three 
sulphides  and  chlorides,  correspondinK  to  die  oxides, 
have  been  obtained.  This  metal  was  discovered  at 
the  same  time  as  osmium,  in  1803,  by  Smithson 
Tennant. 

litis,  in  Classic  Mythology,  the  daughter  of 
Tbanmns  and  Electra.  She  is  described  (in  Homer) 
as  a,  vir^  goddess ;  bnt  later  writers  state  tiiat  ahe 
was  married  to  Zephyrus,  by  whom  she  became  the 
mother  of  Eros.  She  was  employed,  like  Mercury, 
as  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  and  to  conduct  female 
souls  into  the  shades,  as  he  conducted  those  of  men. 
Sbc  is  frequently  represented  on  vases  and  in  bas- 
rclicb  as  a  youthful  winged  virgin,  with  a  herald's 
staff  and  a  pitcher  in  her  nands.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  this  myth  originated  in  the  physical 
phenomena  of  the  rainbow,  which  was  pereanified 
at  lirst  OB  the  measencer  of  peace  in  nature. 

The  broad  colourocT  ting  in  the  eye  ia  called  the 
Tiu&  See  Etk.— Iris  is  sLo  the  name  of  one  of  the 
Planetoids  (q.  v.),  discovered  in  I&4T. 

IRIS,  or  FLOWER-DE-LUCE,  a  senua  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Iridax,  haviue  Uie  three  outer 
segments  of  the  perianth  reflexe<t  the  three  inner 
arehed  inwards,  and  three  petal-like  stigmaa  cover. 
ing  the  stamens.  The  species  are  numerous,  chiefly 
natives  of  temperate  climates.  The  Yelu>w  ]., 
or  Cork  Fi^a  {I.  pteudaconu],  is  a  well-known 
native  of  moist  grounds  in  all  puis  of  Britain,  often 
spreading  over  a  considerable  extent  of  land,  and 
conspicuous  even  at  a  distance  by  its  tall  leaves 
and  large  deep  yellow  flowers.  The  Stinkino 
I.  (/.  fielidiuima,)  is  very  abundant  in  some  of  the 
southern  parts  of  England,  but  does  not  extend  far 
north.  It  nas  livid  purple  flowers.  The  leaves  have 
a  very  disagreeable  smelL  The  south  of  Europe 
prodncea  a  peater  number  of  species,  as  also  does 


North  America.  The  flowers  of  mort  of  the  spedee 
are  boautifuL  Some  of  them  have  receiveid  much 
attention  from  florists,  particularly  7.  xiphium,  some- 
times called  Spabikh  L ;  /.  EipUoidM.orENOUBH  t; 
sod  /.  Oeroumica,  or  Cohuon  L,  aU  conn-rooted 


spedes,  and  all  European.  Many  fine  varietae* 
have  been  produced.  The  Peesun  L  (7.  Pernea), 
the  Snakx  B-HKA.D  L  {/.  tubtrota),  and  tJie  Ckugk- 
DOtnAS  I.  [I.  Susiana)  are  also  much  esteemed.  The 
Persian  I.  is  delightfully  fragrant.  The  roots  of  all 
f^ese  species  are  annu^y  enorted  in  considerable 
quantises  from  Holland.  Maaj  other  species  are 
of  frequent  occorreuce  in  flower-gardens.— The  fresh 
root-stocks  of  /.  pieudacorut  are  very  acrid,  m 
are  those  of  many  other  n>eciea.  Those  of  /.  Fhr- 
enlina,  I.  pailida,  and  I.  Oemaaka  are  OmuB 
EooT  (^.  v.).  Those  of  /.  dicAoloma  are  eaten 
in  Siberia ;  those  of  /.  edviia  at  the  Cape  of  Good 

IRISH  (GAELIC)  LANGUAGE  un>  LITER- 
ATURE. The  Irish  (Gaelic)  is  one  of  the  still 
Uving  Cleltio  languages  (see  Celtio  Natioxs).  The 
alphabet  consiBtB  of  the  following  eighteen  letters — 
a,  b,  c  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  i,  m,  n,  0,  p.  r,  I,  t,  u,  corres- 
ponding in  their  forms  with  the  Roman  oboracten 
of  the  Cth  0.  after  Christ,  In  Irish,  there  is  no 
iudefinite  artide ;  nouns  are  masculine  or  feminine, 
and  ondently  a  neuter  gender  existed.  Tho  nomi- 
native and  accusative  are  the  same  in  form,  M  are 
also  the  dative  and  ablative ;  the  nonruDative  and 
vocative  feminine,  and  the  genitive  and  vocative 
masculine,  always  have  similar  terminations.  Nouna 
substantive  have  five,  and  nouns  adjective  four 
dedcnaions.  Verbs  are  active,  passive,  regular, 
irregular,  impersonal,  and  defective  i  their  moods 
are  indicative,  consuetudinal,  past  indicative,  im- 
perative, inSnitive,  and  conditional ;  regular  active 
verbs   have  no   subjunctive ;   the   tenses   sre  the 

L  present,  consuetudinal  present,  preterite,  consuetud- 
inal past,  and  future ;  m  the  tenses  of  the  passive 

,'  voice  there  Is  no  distinction  of  number  or  person. 
Prepositions  are  rardy  compounded  with  verbs  or 
adjectives,  instead  of  which  the  Irish  use  preposi- 
tions or  adverbs  placed  after  the  verbs.  Adverbial 
phrases  composed  pf  two  or  mora  parts  of  speech 
are  very  numerous  both  in  ancient  and  in  modem 
Irish.  The  simple  conjunctions  are  few,  bnt  there 
are  many  conjunctional  phrases.  Interjeddous  are 
numerous,  and  vary  throughout  the  provinoeo.    The 


— CTTTTIS^ 


I!,  Google 


IBI8H  H0SS-IBI8H  BEA. 


ngnlu  vonifioation  of  tlie  Imh  ooniieta  of  four 
dicaiuit  nutns,  >1yled  (^laohaB,  Proighiieaati, 
BniiliiigBieht,  snd  Dan  Diresdi ;  <rf  the  List,  thsre 
us  fiTB  Bpecieo,  each  distmgaiihed  by  pecnli 
.    There  '       '  ... 


ao  aiao  claaeee  of  popiSar  poetry 


i  aathoritiee  on  the  Iriih  lansiiue  ue 
the  Iriah  Grammar,  by  J.  O'Donoran  (ISU) ;  the 
Ommraa^ea  OdUett  at  J.  C.  Zeam  (1866) ;  and 
,  IriA  eiamt  (1860),  paUiahed  by  the  Iiiih  Arohn- 

oloactl  and  Celtic  SdciolT. 

pxtge  OTA  to  be  fonnd  in  aepulchral  inaoriptioiu 
m  Jreland,  and  in  the  ^oesea  or  inteipratatianB 
affixed  to  I^tin  woida  m  doclunenta  tranooiibed 
by  Iiiih  eooleeiaBtica  of  the  8th  and  Bnoceeding  oen- 
turiea,  now  pnserred  in  some  oontinental  librariea. 
The  principal  anciant  Temaoular  manoBcnpts  in 
Ireland  are  LeaiAar  na-h-  Uldltrt,  and  the  Boot  of 
Lander  (12th  o.);  the  Boota  of  BaHymott,  Leoan, 
and  Dim  Doighrt,  or  Laihhar  Breae  (14th  c);  all 
compiled  from  older  writioga  on  hietorical  uid 
miKellaneotui  enbiects.  The  most  aocieot  oona- 
Bcrijita  in  Ireland  contoiitiiiK  original  matter  in 
the  Iriah  laaeowe  are  the  Book  if  Armagh  (9th 
0.)  and  the  Boi£  of  ffymnt,  of  %  •omewhat  later 
date,  both  eoelenMtical  in  their  contents.  The 
wiitkigs  extant  in  the  Gaelic  language  of  Ireland 
cmjon   of   eoolenaaidoal   document!,  laws,  bardic 


antiuirs,  proverbs,  oompilatiotu 
the  11th  c,  popular  poetry,  political  and  gatirlcal 
poenu  and  aongi,  oompaBed  by  native  Gaelic 
writers  in  Ireland  within  the  last  ceatmy.  Of 
the  ecclenaatacal  docnmentt^  the  next  in  import- 
ance, after  the  Book  of  Armagh  and  the  Book  of 
Byitaa,  are  the  metrical  FeatoWea  of  .lingua  CeUe 
De  (9th  c),  the  Martyrology  of  Tallaght  (lOth  o.), 
and  that  of  Morianna  D'Oorman  (12th  c).  In  thia 
department  there  are  alao  extitot  monV  lires  of 
■amti,  monastic  mlea,  derotionot  and  rel^oru 
noema.  A  large  body  of  old  Iriali  juriapnutence, 
known  as  the  Bnhon  Lawn,  ia  preaerred  in  manu- 
acripta  of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries.  Ot  the  Irish 
bardio  or  aemi-hiatorio  talea,  numben  ore  extant 
ranging  in  date  from  the  13th  to  the  18th  oentory. 
The  pnncipo]  Irish  hiatorio  tiacta  are  those  on  the 
tribute  ttyled  BoritnOm,  the  wms  of  the  Danea  with 
the  Irish,  and  the  wars  tA  Thomond.  Copioua  gene- 
a]<^:ie»  of  the  prinripal  natiTSfamiliea  exist  in  Torions 
toannBcripta,  and  from  auch  aouroea  MacFirbia,  a 
leu^«d  truji  antiquary  of  the  17th  c,  made  on 
elaborate  compilation  known  oa  Leahhar  Oenealadi, 
<t  the  '  Genealogical  Book,'  now  considered  a  '  *  ' 


authority.  The  chief  compoaers  of  poama  on  tJie 
hialorjr  of  Irelond  were  Eochadh  O'Flin  (lOth  c], 
Oilta  Coemhain,  and  Flan  of  Moiuwtei4)oice  (llth 


century).  Hie  moat  hnportant  andent  Iriah  aunali 
are  tttcoe  of  Tighemach,  of  Ulster,  of  luiafallen 
and  of  Connacht. 

The  Iriah  maunseripta  on  medidne  contain  original 
treatises  by  natiTe  phynciana  of  the  l4th  and 
)BUi  centuriea,  with  commentariea  on  tie  then 
known  medical  anthora  of  Earope  and  ibo  Bnat. 
The  Iriah  tronalations  from  foreign  langnagea  are 
chiefly  Teniiims  of  medieval  latin  and  contmental 
books — hiatorie,  acientiflc,  romantic,  and  religious. 
Of  original  adages  and  proverbial  aentenoea,  ereat 
ntmibOTB  eriBt,  of  various  ages.  The  privUeges 
enjoyed  by  the  Irish  poets  under  the  clan  ayabem 
enaUed  them  to  devote  themselves  to  the  produo- 
tioB  of  elaborate  metrical  compoaitiona,  many  of 
iriiieh  poBMoed  Ugh  erceUence,  and  elicited  the 
— -—  *  "  -  it  Spenser.  Dnrins  the  wars 
the   barda    were 


stJmulatiDg  the  chiefs  to  whtnn  th^  wire 
The  merit  (rf  the  elegiac  pomn  on  tha  oaaaaa  <■ 
the  Earls  of  Tirone  and  'urcannell  by  &car  b«d 
Mao  an  Bluurd,  who  ocoompanied  tfaem  in  axik 
(1608  A.D.),  attracted  the  attcmtioii  of  the  critical 
Lord  JeSray,  who  beoams  Boqnainted  irith  it 
fhwiiiorTi  Mongan^B  TiSigTub  Tenion  in  tiis  mebA  ol 
ths  ocigiiiaL  Among  tJie  natrvs  writm  in  IicJaad 
after  t^e  establiahmont  of  tJie  ™    *'  ■    * 


atyled 

o/  (Ae  Kvtgdcm  by  A*  Fota-  ila^ett,   extending 
from  the  oarliert   period  to  1616  4.IX,  -'-•--'   — 


native  Irish  fonHd 

dionling  them  in  t1 

3  composed  numert 

the  Stuarta,  and  denunciatory  of  Oie 


Igrat 
and  ridicnling  them  is  the  OaeUo 
Lch  they  composed  numerena  oongs 
"' '-  anddens""'"* '  "" 


toS™S5 


™f-' 


and  tiieir  adherents.  Hembeia  of  old  Iriah  familia 
who  attained  high  disldnction  in  military  BeTTice 
on  the  conldnent,  retained  with  pride  the  Gae£e 
tongue;  it  was  aUo  commonly  spoken  by  tha 
EoldietB  in  the  Irish  Brigades  m  riance,  and  in 
the  American  army  during  the  War  of  Independ- 
ence. Variaua  attempta  were  made  since  the  middle 
of  the  lost  c.  to  print  Ooelic  documenta,  but  tiw 
critical  knowledge  of  the  language  in  its  atdiaic 
forms  having  fallen  into  abeyance,  soch  publicstiODS 
proved  entirely  unsatisfoctory,  nnlal  the  subject  was 
token  up  about  1830  by  government,  dnrios  the 
progresa  of  the  Ordnance  Survey  of  Ir^and.  From 
this  may  be  aaid  to  date  the  true  Irish  acfiodl  of 
accurate  historic  and  linguistia  learning,  which  has 
Hioco  produced  many  v^nable  volumes,  nniW  the 
superintendence  of  the  Antiquarian  section  of  Um 
Boval  Iriah  Academy  and  the  Irish  _ 

and  Celtic  Society.     On  the  works  issued  by 

two  bodies,  which  for  many  years  have  included 
nearly  all  the  most  erudite  scholots  of  Ireluid, 
pbilological  and  historic  students  most  now  depend, 
as  other  publications  on  these  subjechi  tiK,  with 
few  exceptions,  illusory  and  misleading 

The  Irish,  in  its  modem  forms,  is  atJU  spoken 
commonly  by  the  rural  classes  and  native  land- 
owners in  Connaneht,  Uunater,  the  remote  parts  (A 
Ulater,  the  south  oE  Leinster,  as  well  as  in  the  island* 
oS  the  western  cooat  of  Ir^nd.  The  provincial 
dialects  vary  considerBbly  in  words,  pronuuciatiMi, 
and  idioms.  The  Irish  enuEranta  have  carried  their 
lougoage  across  tiie  Atlantic,  and  8<mgi  and  pocsns 
in  the  Irish  langnsga  and  character  ooeanoiially 
BDpear  in  Amancan  newspapers  Pi^esBmahips 
of  the  Irish  language  exist  in  IMni^  Qdlege, 
Dublin ;  m  the  Que^  Colleges  at  BdfMrt,  Cotk,  and 
Galway;  and  in  tlis  Boman  Catliolio  CoUsgB  at 
Maynooth.  The  chief  eollactions  of  Irish  iiuuiii- 
those  of  the  Royal  Irish  Aco^imy  and 


IRISH  MOSS.    See  GARuaEEN. 

IRISH  SEA,  a  contdnoatiDn  northward  of  St 
George's  Channel  (q.v.),  separates  the  nortii  of 
Irdand   from  the  central  distaiotB  of  the  TTnitDd 


t,  Google 


miTO-IBOK. 


Kiiigd<nL  BetwMD  lia  ooMte  of  Loath  and  Lan- 
caster, tli«  L  8.  hu  >  width  of  190  milea ;  its  greatest 
leuth  bstwesn  8t  Oeorge'*  Channel  on  the  ionth 
and  the  North  CSutnnel  on  the  norUi  ii  alio  about  120 


ipiTIB  ii  the  teim  applied  to  infiunmation  of 
the  Iris.    See  En.    Ihe  oavity  waou  which  the 
jrii  i>  itretched,  and  the  ilia  itself  which  ptojecta 
into  that  cavit;,  and  divides  it  into  an  anterior 
a  poaterior  ehamba,  ate  lined  '   ''  ' 

-  -'^— e  whiA 


<  lined  or  inToded  hy  a 
■a  the  laiger  aennu  mem- 
branea  of  tibo  bod;r>  loch  aa  thejdania,  peritoneum, 
ic,  and  oonaeqnentlj  the  inflanunatimi  of  thi* 
membrane  it  of  Uie  adhedTe  hind.  Bee  Ihtlah- 
•UTIOH.  When  it  ia  added  that  the  eERuioii  of 
Innph  may  limit  or  entirelj  atop  the  morementa  of 
the  iria,  uid  may  altet  the  form,  or  eren  dose  up 
the  apertore  of  tbe  papl,  the  aeriooa  nature  of  the 
diieaae  will  be  at  once  peroeived. 

The  alg'ectiiit  aymptrana  of  irilda  (those  which  can 
be  obeerrad  by  Uie  phyaician}  are  i  1.  Eedneai  of 
the  eye,  ariainf  from  TasonlaritT  of  the  aolerotic ; 
2.  Clutnse  in  the  colonr  of  the  iria.  When  lymph 
ia  eShMd  In  the  textaie  of  the  iri^  a  gray  or  blue 
eye  ia  rendered  yeUowiah  oi  gneniah,  while  in  a 
dark  eyo  a  reddidi  tint  ia^oduoed.  Tb»  brilliaacy 
of  the  ookmr  of  the  iria  alao  ^M^^ean.  When  the 
inflammation  ia  Teij  nolent,  <x  hu  been  unchecked 
by  remediae,  mppnmlioa  may  take  place.    3.  lire- 


the  cryatallme  leai.  The  (^'tdtse  lymptomB  (thi 
of  which  the  patient  alone  ia  ooniaiolu)  an  intol 


around  the  eye. 

The  csiuea  of  iritiB  are  varioiu.  "the  disease 
may  triie  from  actoal  injnry  in  aorgical  operations 
penonned  on  the  eye ;  fntm  over-exetiion,  and 
too  prolonged  oontinnona  use  of  the  eye  (thus,  it 
is  common  among  needlewomen,  engnveta,  and 
watchmaksn) ;  or  froni  acme  coostitntioaal  taint, 
especially  syphilia,  goat,  rheumatiBm,  and  sovfula. 

The  tre^ment  of  iritis  vuies  to  some  extent 
according  to  the  oanae  which  induces  it,  bat  the 
great  lanediee  are  three.  1.  Biood-Utling,  for  the 
punxae  id  moderating  the  febrile  diatorbance,  and 
of  &cilitating  the  opcratioii  of  the  aeoond  remedy, 
which  ia,  2.  Mavurg,  which  used  to  be  ^ven  m 
lar^  doeea  [such  ai  two,  three,  or  four  grains,  with 
a  little  opium,  every  four  or  lix  hours),  but  wiiich 
ia  prefenbli^  ^ven  in  small  doses,  such  aa  two 
or  three  gnina  of  hvdiarg.  c.  orett,  witb  a  Ettlo 
hycacyamuK,  two  or  three  times  in  the  twenty-four 
lioim.  This  dose  should  he  lessened  as  aoon  as  the 
month  bwiw  to  be  tender,  and  by  that  time  the 
lymph  will  be  found  to  break  up,  and  leave  the 

EpU  clear.  3.  Btliadoima.  The  pupil  should  be 
pt  well  dilated  by  the  apphcation  of  the  extinct  of 
belladonna  to  the  skin  round  the  eye,  or,  far  better, 
bj  the  instillation  into  the  eye  of  a  weak  solution 
n  sulphate  of  atropine,  with  the  view  of  preventing 
adheaion  of  the  iris,  or  of  breaking  or,  at  all  erenta, 
of  stretching  and  elongating  any  adhesiTe  bands 
that  may  be  formed;  and  thus  of  preventing  any 
impairment  of  the  movements  of  the  iris,  and  any 
irresnlarity  of  the  pnj^  after  the  inflammation 
shiJl  have  abated. 

IBEUTBE,  cajntal  of  the  Russian  government 
tii  that  name,  ia  the  residence  of  the  gDVemor- 
general  of  Eastern  Siberia,  and  the  eeat  of  a 
bishop.  It  is  sitnated  on  the  rioht  bank  of  the 
*  ice  with  the  river  Irknt,  in 
:.  104°  26'  E.,  and  ia  3Sti 


Angara,  near  it 


I  disiant  bvm  8t  rotersbarx.      The  town  ii 
t  UM  £Mt  above  fhe  level  of  the  mb,  and 


provinee    i 


Djoya  a  very  healthy  climate,  though  in  winter 
ha  cold  is  so  severe  aa  to  treeie  mercury.  Tba 
treets  are  straight  and  wide,  but  ill-paved,  and 
hs  housea  moiQy  built  of  timber.  The  beet 
bnildin^  are  the  palace  of  the  governor-general, 
the  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  and  the  hall  of  the 
American  Company.  Besidee  these,  the  town  con- 
'□s  a  public  libiaiT,  a  muaenm  of  natural  history, 
i  Kline  other  pnblio  institutions.  The  popnlatlon 
1867  was  27,431,  consistmg  mostly  of  Bnsstana 
and  Bnriata.  L  was  founded  m  1661  by  a  Coiwack 
chief  named Iwan  Poehapo^ and, owingto ita  por- 
tion on  1^  great  thoron^fare  betweoi  &«tem  and 
Weateni  S^ria,  between  Chins  and  Rusna,  it  soon 
became  the  oommereiil  centre  of  Siberia,  eepMsially 
for  the  tea-trade.  The  cmrentof  the  Angara  is  so 
rapid  that  the  sbongeet  botta  cover  It  but  seldom 
with  ice.  Naverthdea,  it  is  navigable,  and  oonsti- 
'-'--  "-  -  -nsinway  tor  the  goods  bound  for  Eiachta 
of  Lake  BaTka^  aa  well  aa  for  those 
coming  from  Eaatarn  Siberia,  Bussian  America,  and 
China  to  Itkutak.  The  fonner  are  chiefly  fiira  and 
metala ;  the  latter,  tea,  meat,  and  flsh  ^m  Lake 
Baikal  The  oonunnnicatious  between  L  and 
Jakutak,  and  the  oUier  northern  towns  of  Siberia,  are 
carried  on  by  the  river  Luia,  The  manufa<AnreB 
of  I.  are  purehr  local,  and  sutiply  tho  half-noiaad 
Bnriats  and  TnngusM,  Inhabiting  the  adjacent 
luntry. 

IRKUTSK,  a  government  of  Eaatem  Siberia, 
bounded  by  the  gavemment  of  JenisseiBk,  the 
of  Jakutak  and  the  Chinese  Em^^ 
. .  on  area  of  267,606  aqnore  miles.  The  - 
..  .  _  partly  fertile,  portly  hilly  and  manhy;  the 
climate  in  gmeral  aevete.  The  Baikal  and  fier- 
ohinak  Moontaina,  with  their  nnmeiout  bnuicjkea, 
'ive  the  country  a  high  alpne  charaoter ;  besides 
lese,  the  SoIIih  range  extends  along  the  southern 
borden,  and  the  Jfcblonovy  or  Apjue  range  along 
the  eastern.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Lena, 
Shilka,  Ag^ ;  the  largest  lake  is  the  Baikal 
(q.  v.).  The  productions  of  the  country  ore  rye, 
irtieat,  barley,  oats,  rhubarb,  hops ;  reindeer, 
sables,  ermines,  foxes,  seals ;  fish—Bturgeon,  cod, 
silure;  minerals— gold,  silver,  lead,  jasper,  ameUiysts, 


."(72,833.  I 

Russians.  The  inhabitants  ore  lur  tuq  uamu  y*"^ 
employed  in  agriculture,  and  to  some  extent  in  lish. 
ing  and  hunting.  As  a  local  industry,  the  manu- 
facturing of  so  eicellent  oil  out  of  stJin^-pino  nuts 
deserves  notice.  The  foreign  Commerce  consists  in 
with  China,  carried  on  throuf^  Troitiko- 
Savsk  uid  Kiocbta  (q.  v.),  and  hoi  risen  to  great 

iportance  in  recent  tmies. 

The  government  of  I.  is  divided  into  five  districts 

Irkutsk,  Terkholenak,  Bolaganak,  Nijneudimk, 
and  Kirensk.  The  capital  is  Irkutsk;  the  other 
towns  are  Telms,  with  a  cloth-faotoiy,  Troitzko- 
Savsk,  Kiachta,  Kirensk  on  the  Lmia,  Nijneiidinsk, 
and  Verkholensk. 

IRON  (qrm.  Fe  pjat  firrmii,  eq.  88,  9>  gr. 
7-S44]  occurs  more  abundantly  than  an^  oftw 
mataL  In  its  native  form  it  i«  chiefly  found  in 
meteoric  stones  (see  Atmui^),  and  in  certain 
ores  td  platinum,  and  ia  aonsequently  of  compara- 
tively rare  ooauTrence^  Imt  t^  eo-called  ii 


ir,  iiuHi,  jasper,  ameujy 
'    amber,   rock-salt,   i 


below,  and  also  oy  reducing  the 

by  means  of  hydrogen  gaa  and  heat,  when 

It  M  obtained  in  the  form  <rf  a  fine  blank  powder, 


i.,Coog'le 


or  hy  hetHne  ^^  protochlonde  in  a,  glm  tube 
UuddbIi  wUch  K  cnirent  of  diy  hydrogen  ii  paaaed. 
In  tliu  case,  pnr«  iion  ia  depoeited  aa  a  gliatanisg 
mirror  on  (hegUaL 

This  important  metal  vill  be  mott  eonTcniently 
considered  under  the  three  Head*  of 

1.  Chmiittry  of  /ron.— Chemically  pure  iron  ia  of 
BO  little  general  interest  that  we  shall  coaBne  our 
remarks  on  the  properties  of  this  metal  to  thoae 
which  are  eihibit'^d  by  bar  or  wrought  iron.  It* 
colour  is  gray  or  bluUh-whita ;  it  is  hard  and 
lustroos,  takes  a  hi^  palish,  is  fibrous  in  texture, 
and  when  broken  across,  exhibits  a  ragged  fracture. 
It  requires  a  very  intenae  heat  for  its  fusion,  but 
before  melting  passes  into  a  soft  pasty  condition, 
in  which  state  two  pieces  of  iroa  may,  by  being 
hammered  togeUier,  be  oiiited  or  welded  so  com- 
pletely OS  to  form,  to  all  intents  aod  purposes,  a 
single  portion.  At  a  ted  heat,  it  may  be  readily 
forged  into  any  shape ;  but  at  onliDaTy  temperaturee 
it  possesses  very  litUe  malleaUlity,  ae  compared  witji 

Cd  and  silver.  In  dudolity,  it  stands  very  high, 
ng  barely  exceeded  l^  gold,  silver,  and  pUtinnm ; 
and  in  tenacity,  it  is  only  exoeeded  by  cobalt  and 
nickel.  Ita  susceptibility  to  magnetism  is  one  of  its 
most  remariuble  characteristics.     See  Maonbhsic. 


At  a 


n  at  the  forge,  

ing  wire  is  introduced  into  a  jar  of  oxygen.  In 
diy  ur  and  at  ordinary  tempenturea,  the  lustrous 
■urface  of  the  metal  remains  unchanged ;  bat  in  a 
moist  atmoepbere  the  surface  rapidly  becomes  oxi- 
dised and  covered  with  mst,  which  consists  mainly 
of  the  hydiated  oxide  of  iron.  At  a  red  heat, 
iron  decomposea  water,  and  liberates  hydrogen,  the 
oxygen  combiniiu;  with  the  iron  to  form  the  black 
or  mafOetio  oxide  (Fe,0,},  which  occurs  in  minute 
crystab.  This  ia  one  of  ike  ordinary  methods  of 
obtaining  hydrogen. 

The  afiimtiea  of  iron  for  most  of  Uie  non-metallio 
elements  are  very  powerful.    Tlie  chief  of  the  iron 

a.  Oxida  of  Iron Iron  farms  four  deSnita  com- 

poonds  with  oxygen — viz.  (1),  the  proioxiiU  (FeO], 
which  is  the  base  of  the  green  or  ferrous  sedts  of 
iron;  (2),  the  sesjnioTirfe  or  prtwriifo  (Fe,0,),  which 
is  the  base  of  the  red  or/erric  milt;  (3),  the  blaii  or 
magrulic  oxide  (FcjOt),  which  is  regarded  by  some 
chemists  as  a  compound  of  the  two  preceding  oxides ; 
and  {i),  ferric  aod  (FeO,).  The  protoxide  cannot 
he  obtained  in  an  isolated  form,  but  it  fonns  the  base 
of  various  feiroua  salts,  and  combines  with  water  t« 
form  a  hydrate  (FeO,HO},  which,  on  the  addition  of 
an  alk^  falls  in  white  fiakes. 

The  most  important  protosalts  of  iron,  or  ferrona 
■alts,  are  the  carbonate,  the  sulphate,  the  phosphate, . 
and  the  silicate. 

Carbonait  of  iron  (FeO.CO,)  exists  naturally  in 
various  minerals,  and  may  be  obtained  artificial^  by 
precipitsting  a  soluble  protosalt  of  iron  with  car- 
booate  of  potash  or  soda,  when  the  carbonate  falls  in 
white  flakes.  On  exposure  to  the  air,  it  absorbs 
oxygen,  and  gives  off  carbonic  acid,  and  is  thus  con- 
v«ted  into  the  bydrated  peroxide.  SvlphaU  of  iron 
(FbO,SO,  +  TEG)  is  obtained  by  the  solution  of 
iron,  or  its  sulphide,  in  dilute  salphuric  acid ;  in 
the  former  case,  there  is  an  evolutien  of  hydrogen, 
and  in  the  latter,  of  sulidiuretted  hydrogen.  The 
renctiona  in  the  two  cases  are  exj^eased  by  the 


_.    .  SO,.HO=iFeO,80.  +  H 
Fea  +  SO„HO  =  FeCSO,  +  H3. 

"in  evaporation  of  the  solution,  the  salt  ia  obtained 
n  clear  blnish-green  rhomboidal  ciyatals, 
leven  atoms  of  wat 


Rust,  as  boa  been  already  mentioned,  ia  a 
ith  a  little 


applications  in  technology  are  noticed  in  the  artidt 
ViTBioLB,  Blue  asd  Oebzn. 

PhoaphaU  of  iron  is  obtained  by  precipitatiiig  a 
solution  of  a  protosalt  of  iron  witli  phoaphate  <f 
soda,  when  a  white  precipitate  of  pha*phat«  of  ins 
is  thrown  down. 

All  these  salts,  especially  the  carbonate  and  sol- 
phate,  are  extenafvely  used  ii         ''  ' 

SUieaie  and  [&ae[diate  of 
several  minerals.  i 

The  'ptrocdde  of  iron,  termed  alao  seaqnioxide,  nd  | 
oxide,  or  ferric  oxide,  ia  obtained  in  an  anhydiw  . 
form  by  igniting  the  protoanlphate,  and  is  known  ia  1 
the  arts  under  Uie  names  CoUolliar,  Orocu*  of  Man,  ' 
or  Rovqe,  according  to  the  decree  of  levintiDa  ts  | 
which  it  has  been  labmitted.  It  is  aa-ghjvA  fcr  I 
polishing  daas,  jewelleiv,  Ac,  and  is  also  naed  as  a 
pigment.  It  ooctuv  both  in  the  anhydrous  sod  in 
the  hydrated  form  in  vorioos  minerals.  I 

The  hydrated  peroxide  (2Fe,0„3HO)  ia  obtained    1 
by  precipitating  a  solution  of  a  poialt  of  iron  or    I 
af  a  feme  salt,  with  an  excess  of^potaah,  »■""""".    | 
or  alkaline  carbonate.      It   falls   as  a   yitlUtwisk-    I 
brown   flocculent   precipitate,   which   wImd   itrisd 
forma  a  dense  brown  mass.    This  hydrated  penoidB 
of  iron,  when  freshly  prepared  and  anapcnided  in 
water,  is  regarded  as  an  antidote  '  -    •      - 

ing.     Euat,  as  has  been  alread 
hydrated  peroxide,  oorabioed  witl 

The  most  important  of  the  peisalta  of  iron,  <a  fenic 
salts,  are  the  oeutral  and  the  basic  sulphate,  whose 
formuhe  are  Fe,0„3S0,  and  Fe,0„3SO,.6FB,0, 
respectively,  the  nitrate  (Fe,0„£U40,),  ^e  phos- 
phate, and  the  silicate:  Of  these,  tJie  neotial 
sul;fhate,  the  phosphate,  and  tlie  silicate  occur  in 
various  minerals.  The  nitrate,  which  ia  obtained 
by  the  solution  of  iron  in  nitric  acid,  ia  a  iraeful 


has  not  been  obtuned  in  a  free  state,  and  is  only 
known  as  a  conatitiient  of  certain  salts,  must  he 
passed  over  without  comment. 

b.  Haloid  mill  C(f  iron — the  chlorides,  bromides, 
and  iodides — next  require  notice.  There  are  two 
chlorides — viz.,  a  protochloride  (FeCl)  and  a  per- 
chloride  or  sesqmchloride  (Fe,Cl,).  The  latter 
may  be  obtained  by  dissolving  peroxide  of  iron 
in  hydrochloric  acid.  The  tincture  of  the  seaqni- 
chloride  of  iron  is  perhaps  more  generally  employied 
in  medicine  than  any  other  preparation  of  this  metaL 
The  protiodide  is  an  extremely  valuable  therapeDtie 

c  There  are  probably  several  tuipAidet  or  tal- 
phurttt  Iff  troa.  The  ordinary  sulphide  is  a  proto- 
Bulphide  (FeS).  It  occurs  in  small  anantity  in 
meteoric  iron.  It  maybe  obtained  artificially  by  the 
direct  union  of  the  two  elements  at  a  hi^  temper- 
ature, or  by  the  precipitation  of  a  protosalt  of  iron 
by  sulphide  of  ammoniuio.  It  exuta  in  glistening 
mosses,  varying  in  colour  from  a  ^yiah  yellow  to 
a  reddish  brown.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  bnt  in 
moist  air  becomes  rapidly  oxidised  Into  protosnlphats 
of  iron.  With  acids,  it  develops  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. The  bisulphide  of  iron  (FeS,)  is  the  irDit  pyrttes 
of  mineralogists,  and  the  maiidie  of  oommerce. 
Under  the  latter  name,  it  is  used  eitenavely  in  the 
preparation  of  oil  of  vitrioL  There  are  also  other 
sulphides  of  less  importance. 

The  protoaaUt  and  the  peraaUt,  or  theyerrxncj  and 
the  ferric  *aila,  give  totally  different  reactions  with 
the  ordinary  tests.  The  solutions  of  the  former 
have  a  greenish  coloor  and  a  peculiar  metallic  taste, 
while  those  of  the  latter  are  generally  of  a  brownish- 

Kllow  colour,  and  are  very  acid.      Sulphuretted 
droeen  gives  no  precipitate  with  an  acid  sedation 
of  a  urroat  ult,  while  it  gives  a  milky  preciiati^ 


t.Google 


peroxide  from  the  Istter.  Fenocjuiide  at  potaa- 
■ium  givea  with  ferrous  utta  a.  white  preeipltftte, 
-which  (OOQ  becomes  bias,  while  with  ferric  tlJta 
it  At  once  prodncefl  a  blus  precipitate,  even  in  ji 
Teiy  flilnte  aolation.  Tincture  of  galls  (tarniio  acid) 
prodncea  no  immediate  chuiga  of  oolonr  with  the 
lerroiia,  but  a  deep  blaokiih-Uae  colour  (iok)  with 
the  fenio  ulta.  Snlphooyanide  at  potaaiium  nro- 
dncea  no  change  with  the  fcnoat,  hot  pvt*  *  deep 
blood-rad  tint  with  tike  fenic  aalt^  Snooiiiate  and 
beazoata  of  anunooia  produce  DO  precipitats-oT  chaogo 
of  oolonr  with  the  former,  while  with  the  ktter,  if 
the  sohition  ia  not  too  acid,  thej  throw  down  pale 
reddiah-brown  piecipitatca. 

2.  Jfam^tKlart  of  Iron. — The  iaoreaaing  nie  of 
iron  ia  a  prominent  ohvacteriitio  of  the  preaeat  t,^ 
and  every  d*^  eeea  some  new  application  of  it  in 
the  arta  of  Me.  Althongh  the  most  useful  of  the 
metaJs,  it  was  not  the  first  known.  Tlie  difficulty 
of  reducing  it  from  its  ores  would  n&tnrally  make 
it  a  l&ter  adjuisition  than  Gold.  Silver,  and  Copper 
(q.v.).  See  also  Bbokze,  and  Broneb  Period. 
The  rednetion  of  the  ore  known  m  the  black  oxide 
ot  iron,  howeTsr,  has  been  carried  on  in  India  from 
a  very  early  time. 

In  EuiDpe,  the  rich  specaUr  and  other 

Spain  and  Elba  were  much  used  during  the  Boman 
period  ;  in  Greece,  also,  iron  was  known,  though,  as 
among  the  Romans,  its  uae  waa  subsequent  to  that 
of  bnniza.  We  are  informed,  too,  by  tbe  Roman  his- 
torians that  this  metal  wu  employed  by  the  ancient 

'  Britons  for  the  manufiicture  of  spean  and  lances. 
The  Romans,  during  their  occupation  of  Britain, 
maoufactnred  iron  to  a  oonaideiable  extant^  aa  ii 

I  evidenced  by  the  cinder-heaps  in  the  Forest  of  Dean 
and  other  places.  The  rude  processes  then  in  nse 
left  so  much  iron  in  the  cinders,  that  those  of  Dean 
Forest  furnished  the  chief  nipply  of  ore  to  twenty 
furnaces  for  between  200  and  300  years.  In  those 
early  timely  the  iioD  ores  were  reduced  in  a  simple 

I  conical  furcace,  caQed  an  aii^bloomery,  erected  on 
the  top  of  a  hill,  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  blaaC 

'   oE  wind.    The  furnaces  were  subBequeotlj  enlarged. 


Lord  Dudley  iatrodnced  coal  for  this  purpose  ;  but 
the  iron-maeters  being  unanimously  opposed  to  the 
change,   Dudley's  improvoment  died  with  himself. 


But  as  this  method  was  not  jmjperly  understood, 
the  production  of  English  iron  declined  with 
the  chance  of  foel,  till,  m  1740,  it  wsa  only  three- 
fourths  01  what  it  had  formerly  been.  About  tan 
years  after  this,  however,  the  intniductioD  o(  coke 

ave  renewed  viaour  to  the  iron-trade,  and  then 
lowed  ia  rapid  succession  those  great  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  which  have  given  to  the 
history  of  iron  the  interest  of  a  romance.  The 
introduction  of  Watt's  steam-enoine  in  1770,  the 
processes  of  pnddling  and  rolliog  invented  by  Henry 
Uort  in  1784,  Bnd  the  employment  of  the  hot-blaat 
by  Neilson  of  Glasgow  in  1330,  have  each  been  of 
ineatinutble  service.  The  greatest  improvement 
introduced  into  the  iron'manuf  actnre  in  recent  times 
is  the  process  of  Mr  Benemer  for  the  prodnction  of 
nalleaUe-iron  and  steel,  patented  in  18S6  {see  Beb- 
SEUEB  Pnoctsa).  Though  as  yet  a  failure  as  re. 
■pects  malleable- iron,  this  process  has  created  a  new 
era  in  the  manufacture  of  steeL 

Iron  ores  ara  abnndontly  distributed  over  the 
tlobe;  the  chief  kinds  being— 1.  Mwnetic  iron  ore; 
'•   "  '   •         ■■•  '  red  iron  ote;    3. 


L  Bed  luematite,   specular,  < 


Bnwn  luematite  or  brown  iron  ore ;  1  Carbonate 
of  iron,  iaclading  spathic  ore,  clay  ironstone,  and 
blackband  ironstone. 

The  ore  richest  in  the  metal  is  the  mofftteUe  (see 
MAdNnrsM),  or  blaei  rxeide  ttf  iron.  When  pure,  it 
contains  nothing  but  oxygen  atid  iron,  its  <?h*minal 
formula  being  FejO,,  which  gives  73  per  cent  of 
iron  by  weight.  It  occur*  in  dark  hea^  masses  or 
black  ciystals,  and  is  found  in  the  older  primary 
rocks.  Sweden  is  famous  for  this  ore,  and  for  the 
iron  produoed  from  it,  whidi  is  esteemed  the  b«st 
in  Europe.  Tba  celebiatsd  mines  of  Dannemora, 
in  that  ooontry,  have  been  constantly  worked  since 
the  loth  century.  Rnssia,  to<^  ha*  great  iron 
works  in  the  Ural  Mountams,  which  are  supplied 
with  this  ora.  So,  also,  havo  Canada  and  seveAl  oC 
the  American  state*,  a*  Yirginia,  Fennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  Aa,  The  rock  formatioDS  in  wMch  magnetic 
iron  OM  oooun  contain  no  ooal,  hence  it  is  umost 
always  smelted  with  wood-charcoal,  which,  as  it 
contaiuE  no  sulphur,  i«  one  great  cause  of  the 
superiority  of  the  iron  produced  from  it. 

Bed  hamuUite  differ*  from  the  last  only  in  con- 
taining proportionally  a  little  more  oxygen,  iti 
formula  betug  f  BjO,,  that  is  to  say,  70  per  oent  of 
iron  by  weifhL  Thero  ara  several  varieties  of  Uii* 
ore,  bat  omy  two  need  be  referred  to.  The  lust 
of  theses  ipecalar  iron,  ao  called  from  its  bright 
metallic  lustre,  ocean  in  la^  and  beautiful  cm- 
talline  nissse*  in  the  island  of  E3ba,  where  it  has 
been  worked  for  more  thau  2000  years,  and  ia  Lke- 
wise  found  in  many  other  parts  of  the  world-  It  is 
of  a  steel-gray  cofonr,  assuming  a  red  tint  in  thin 
fragments  and  when  scratched.  The  other  varied 
is  kidney  ore,  whose  origin  is  (till  a  coriooa  problran, 
*«  its  deposits  occur  sometimes  in  veins,  and  some- 
times in  apparently  regular  beds.  Its  characteristic 
form  is  in  large  kidoey-shaped  nodnlw,  with  a  fine 
radiated  structure,  llxis  shape,  however,  ia  only 
assumed  in  the  cavities  of  massive  deposits.  Red 
luematite  is  sometimes  called  bloodstone.  It  is  nsed 
for  poliehieg  metAla,  and  yields  a  blood-red  powder, 
nsed  as  a  pigment.  This  valuable  iron  ore  is  fonnd 
iu  many  couatries,  but  perhaps  nowhere  in  graater 
abundanoa  than  at  Whitehaven  and  Ulvenrtone^  iu 
the  north-west  of  England,  where  splendid  masses 
of  it  occur,  15,  30,  and  even  60  feet  in  thicknesa 
ThMetwo  distriota  produced,  in  1872,  about  1, 767,410 
tons  of  luematite. 


peroxide  of  iron,  \ .  _ 

red  luematite,  except  that  it  contains  about  14  per 
cent  of  water.  It  is  generally  found  massive^  taoK 
rarely  crystalline,  onaa  varie^  oocuiring  in  small 
rounded  nodules,  i«  called  pea  iron  ore.  When 
mixed  with  earth  or  clay,  it  forms  yellow  ochre  and 
brown  umber,  so  largely  used  as  pigments,  but  the 
latter  aUo  contains  manganese^  Brown  hnmatite  i* 
now  au  important  ore  m  Bn^and,  abont  2,000,000 
tons  being  annually  raised,  it  occnis  in  different 
geological  formations,  chiefly  in  Devonahire,  the 
Forest  of  Dean,  and  iu  an  euthy  form  in  Nortbiamp- 
tonsbire.  It  is  the  ore  ohieSy  smelted  in  Franoe 
and  Oermany. 

Bog  iroA  ore  is  a  variety  of  brown  hamatits, 
usually  containing  phosphorus,  which  oocure  in 
marshy  districts  of  recent  formation. 

CarbonaU  of  iron,  when  fonnd  in  a  comparatively 
pure  and  crystallised  state,  is  known  as  tpaiitic, 
tpathott,  or  marry  iron  ort ;  but  when  impnce  and 
earthy,  as  day  jronslons  and  Uadixoid  iroruftine. 
Spathio  ore  wa«  little  worked  in  England  previous 
to  1851,  soon  after  which  it  was  discovered  in 
Somera^ahire.  It  forms  mountain  maasee  in  various 
parts  of  PruMia  and  Austria,  and  is  now  much  in 
demand  to  yield  the  qnegeleisen  required  in  the  I 


Bettemer  prooeas.  In  iti  pnrert  tc«m  it  oontaiiwIS 
per  oent.  M  iron  {  and  in  ooloor  it  variM  from  white 
to  ba£F  or  dark  trown,  Borne  spMinuna  of  it  taking 
a  bMDtifal  poliih,  and  looking  Uka  marUa.  The 
olaj'  and  blackbuid  ironitonel  va  ewantiallv  miz- 
tnra*  of  cartxHiate  of  iron  with  oUy,  bUexband 
IiaTinff  alao  a  oonndmible  propoTtitm  of  ooal7  or 
bitmnmoni  matter,  ^mm  dnll  earUt;<looking  orei 
OMur  abnndantly  In  Great  Britain,  and  form,  after 
ooal,  the  eccatelt  of  bo  mineral  iManrea.  Abont 
two-thii£  <rf  all  tiie  ora  mined  in  tha  ocnmtr^  ia 
obtuned  from  the  ooal-meMorei,  where  fortawttetr 
both  the  fnsl  and  12te  Hmeatai^  indJmenuble  for 
the  i«dnot>an  of  the  inm,  ate  alao  found.  Tbt 
ocean  at  balls  or  mtdnleB  in  the  ihalea,  or  in 
tinaoDibedi.  Someof  theasisamaarefDlloffoMa 
ahelli,  and  the  ore  li  then  called  '  mnawlband '  iron- 

Abont  twenty  ]re«rs  ago,  tite  throe  ^^eat  iron 
diitricts  of  Britain  were  £ath  StaSoVd 
Wilea,  and  Central  Scotland,  each  prodi 


equal  qnantitiea,  and  togother  yielding  abont  fonr- 
flltbs  at  the  totid  prodnoe  of  tbe  conntrr.  No— 
however,  the  Sootb  Staffbrdihire  fidd  ia  beoomi 


«ihaaated,  its  prodnoe  bsing  only  about  a  fourth  ot 
what  it  waa,  while  that  ^  the  Sonth  Wales  and 
Scottiah  distijeta  baa  inmeased,  and  ii  now  yield- 

aaonnally,  the  formw  a  millioD  and  a  quarter, 
the  latter  more  tban  three  million  tone  of  ore. 
North  Staffordshire,  Sbn^idiiTe,  Deib^ihire,  and  the 
West  Biding  of  Yorkshire  are  the  pnnoip^  remain- 
ing diatricta  yielding  ores  from  uia  carboniferoiu 
b^  The  iron  from  the  West  Riding  ore  is  ' 
b«st  in  Britain  as  regarda  qnahty. 

Oilhere  is  yet  another  grut  iron  dirtrict,  yielding 
an  ore  belonging  to  a  more  reoent  formation  than 
the  carboniferona — namely,  the  lias.  This  deposit^ 
whidi  lees  than  30  years  ago  was  nnknown,  is  nov 
prodacing  iron  to  the  enormons  amount  of  1,200,000 
tons  per  aminm.  It  is  tha  IroDStone  of  the  Cleve- 
land Hills,  in  the  north-east  of  Yorkshire,  which, 
from  ita  resemblance  to  oommon  aanditane,  paaaed 
nnnotieed  till  1S47.  Abont  that  time,  isolated 
block*  of  it,  fonnd  on  t^  aea-ooast,  were  disoovered 
to  oontain  abont  30  per  oent.  of  iron.  On  fm-ther 
examination  of  the  dieteiot,  those  were  prored  to  be 
detached  piecee  of  a  massave  bod,  no  less  tban  16 
feet  thick,  which  conld  be  traced  for  many  milea 
along  Oie  aides  of  the  hills.  Some  idea  of  the  value 
of  this  vast  deposit  of  iron  ore  will  be  fomid  in  the 
fact,  that  the  ironstone  seams  of  llie  coal-measures 
seldom  exceed  20,  and  are  worked  as  low  as  8  inches 
in  thicknees.  Another  mass  of  ironstone  of  great 
thickness,  also  beloo^itt  to  the  Has  bedi^  was  more 
recently  discovered  m  North  Isnoolnlhire.  In  the 
oolite,  too,  beds  of  brown  iron  ore  have  been  dia- 
oovered  in  several  oountiea,  bnt  chiefly  in  Nortiiamp- 
tonshiie,  where  it  baa  been  worked  with  ao  mnch 
spirit,  that  about  a  miWoQ  tons  of  ore  per  aiinDm 
arenowrused. 

To  those  remarkable  discoveries  may  be  added 
that  by  Mr  Rogers  of  Abercam,  who  first  deteoted, 
some  years  ago,  the  value  of  the  spathic  ore  in 
the  Jfcvoniaii  rocks  of  Somersetshire,  now  largely 
ivorked.  We  may  state,  too,  that  a  hsmatito  vein 
which  promises  to  lie  of  some  value,  has  been  worked 


fortl 


1  Hill 


yewiy  obtained  in  Great  Britain  from  tbs  rsaidne  of 
iron  pyrites  (snlpbide  of  ina)  which  has  been 
btuned  to  yield  its  snlphnr  fw  the  manufaotors  of 
anlphnric  acid. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  the  msnnlactnre  of 
Iron,  we  nve  two  analysea  of  British  ores :  the  first 
fi  by  Hr7.  Sinller,  takm  from  a  lariea  pablished  in 


NeverthdeH,  tbe 
g  them  are  aaoK- 
,    ,      the  low  price  of  iron  viQ 
permit  of  ita  i»«s  being  treated  with  th«  sanie 
care  as  the  ot«s  oC  lead,  oopper,  tin,  and  some  otbs 

Iron  ore  is  stili  reduced  in  the  sonth  of  Eanne  by 
the  old  and  imperieot  prooeas  of  the  Cstslan  H>rg^ 
not  ualike  a  common  smith's  foTg&  In  Qi«»t 
Britain,  however,  as  well  as  in  all  oUier  conntriei 
where  iron  is  lu^v  smelted,  the  blast-fnmace  t* 
veraolly  employed,  by  means  of  which  the 
obtained  in  the  state  of  crnda  or  cart  iron. 
For  the  finer  kinds  of  iron,  charcoal  is  the  fnd 
employed,  becanee,  unlike  eoal  or  coke,  it  contains 
no  aulphuret  of  iron  or  other  injurious  ingRtdieDt^ 
The  RuBsi&n  and  Swedish  furnaces  smelt  wittlt  diar- 
coal,  and  on  tbia,  as  much  as  on  their  jiurv  ores, 
depends  the  high  reputation  of  thsir  iron.  A  stditary 
charcoaJ-fumace  at  Hlverstone  in  England,  and 
another  at  Lorn  in  Scotland,  are  still  woikin^— the 
otily  relics  of  times  past,  when  this  wss  the  <m1y 
fuel  employed. 

As  a  preliminsry  process  to  the  actoal  smefting 
a  the  blast-fnmace,  day  and  blaokband  ironstonea 
re  ^erally  roasted.  This  is  accomplished  by 
ireakuog  the  ore  into  small  pieces,  spreading  it  in 
opeo  heaps  on  the  gronnd,  and  TningUng  H  more 
or  less  with  small  coal  aooording  to  Uie  nature  of 
the  ore.  Blackband  commonly  contains  enon^  of 
carbonaceous  matter  to  bum  without  the  ad£tion 
of  coaL  The  pile,  which  may  contun  from  one  to 
several  thonsand  tans  of  ore,  is  lighted  at  the  wind- 
ward end,  and  bums  Eradnally  along,  tdded  by 
oeosmonal  fins  in  tlte  sides,  ttll  the  whole  he^t  has 
undergone  calcination,  the  time  r«cmired  for  this 
pnipose  being  gnurally  abont  a  month.  SomelimM 
the  operation  at  roasting  is  performed  in  deaa  kilns, 
instead  of  open  heaps,  a  mode  by  which  the  ore  ta 
oonndered  to  be  more  noiformly  roasted,  and  with 
considerably  len  fuel  Of  late  yeats,  the  kilns  ar« 
often  heated  by  the  waste  gaees  of  tbe  Uast-fumaoe. 
" '---^—   dsy  iionitoae  loses  &um  SSto30, 


t.Google 


and  bUckband  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  ita  weighty 
the  loM  OMuiatiiig  ohiefly  of  oKrbonio  xnd  and 
■water,  bnt  mlphur  and  other  volatile  sabcfauioea  are 
alio  diimpated  in  the  prooen.  The  roasting  also 
coovertt  the  pTotoxids  and  oarbooate  of  iron  into 
peroxide,  whioh  prerenti  the  formation  of  alagt  of 
■ihoite  ot  iron,  moh  ala^  owing  to  the  diffiool^  of 
reducing  them,  canaing  a  loM  of  iron.  In  this 
counby,  rioh  oiea  like  trie  mt^pietio  or  red  hiematite 
an  not  mbjeoted  to  oaloinataou,  bat  they  are  ao  in 
Sweden. 

The  older  type  of  Uaat-fomaoe  coniiata  of  a 
mauiTe  towar  of  atone  or  biiok-work  atrenfrtheaed 
with  iron  btnden ;  the  nerer  idaa  ii  to  bmld  it  of 
comparatLTely  tiim   brick-wofk,  and  aaminnd  it 


entirely  with  rtrong  iron  platea.  In  either  caae  aa 
Inner  lining  of  refnotory  fire-briek  ii  given  to  it, 
which  ia  aeparated  from  the  outer  portion  of  the 
wall  by  a  omtow  ipaoe  filled  with  land.  Internally, 
they  vary  muah  in  form,  bnt  perhaps  the  barrel 
thape  ii  the  moat  prevaleDt,  and  moat  of  them  oon- 
traot  towards  the  bottom  in  tiie  shape  of  an  inverted 
oone.  Racent  ones  have  been  bnilf  from  80  to  100 
feet  in  ht^ht,  instead  of  not  mora  than  60  aa  for- 
merly. The  blast-pipe,  with  its  tny^v-bnuMdiM, 
satToands  the  hearth,  and  oa  one  aide  there  is  a 
reccoa  and  openings  for  nuining  oft  the  metal  and 
alas.    See  Blabt-vdkhaob. 

Fig,  1  ii  a  Motional  view  of  a  hot  blant-famaoe, 
with   tiie   blowing.eDgine    and    other   appliances. 


Elg,  1,— Hot  Blaat-fnmaoe. 


which  is  taken,  ' 


ith  s 


B  modification,  from  Itir 


Fairbaini'i  work  oa  Iron.  It  may  be  well  to  state 
ben  that  one  engiae  aaually  supplies  the  blast  to 
several  fnmaces.  A  is  the  body  irf  fornace ;  B  the 
hearth,  above  which  are  placed  ths  tuyeres,  C  ;  D  is 
the  bell  and  cone  arrangement,  around  which  there 


gangwjty  to  enable  the  workmen  to  feed  the 
rnsce.  The  blowing-engins  ia  diewn  at  F.  Air 
torced  into  the  furnace  by  means  of  the  blowing 
cylinder,  O,  from  which  it  passes  into  the  receiver, 
n.  tnd  thence  along  a  pipe  mto  the  he»ting-oven,  L 
"—  a  large  sorfaoe  of  p"-    '   ' "■ 


expoaed. 


1°  to  1000°  F.    At  Bome  temperature 

vithiu  this  range  it  enters  the  lower  part  of  the  fur- 
DKe  by  meana  of  the  tuyeres,  C  Some  of  the  larger 
blowiag.eogjnes  diacharge  60,000  oubio  feet  of  air 
par  minnta,  nnder  a  pressure  of  31  Iba.  per  square 
■ndi  Bee  Blowino-macbikbs  in  Scpp.,  VoL  X. 
The  bell  uid  cone  at  D  is  for  the  purpose  of  clos- 

,  |°g  the  mouth  of  the  furnace  so  as  to  save  the 
V'Ute  gasee,'  ohiefly  carbonic  oxide,  which  are 
uloired  to  escape  in  open-mouthed  famacea  (aee 

I  J^.i-MT-TiTitNACKj,  Theso  are  conveyed  away  by 
pipca  from  openings  Jost  onder  the  cone  at  D,  and 
A'vtaimed  to  raise  steaoi,  heat  the  blast,  &0. 

I  ihe  operation  of  gmeltmg  is  thus  performed  :  the 
"'■fted  on,  ooal,  and  lime  (Snx)  are  either  hoisted, 
or,  if  the  nature  ot  the  enrand  permita,  moved  along 

I  >  pUtform  or  g^neway  M  the  gallety  near  the  ttni 
01  the  famaoe,  and  fed  into  it  at  intervalB  throo^ 
the  openfaiga  in  the  nde,  when  the  month  is  open,  or 

L  Of  lowering  the  oone  D,  when  it  is  doaed.   We  may 


hoe  state  that  the  fanuoe  ti  kept  oontinually  burn- 
ing except  when  nnder  repair.  The  materials  are 
of  coarse  raised  to  a  very  high  heat,  and  gradually 
fuse  into  a  softened  mass.  The  olay  of  the  iron- 
stone then  unites  with  the  lime  to  form  a  coarse 
glats,  or  slag ;  the  oxide  of  iron  at  the  same  time 
gives  up  ita  oxygen  to  the  fuel,  and  allows  the  metal 
itself  to  ooUoot  on  the  hearth  at  the  bottom  of  the 
furnace,  united  with  from  3  to  S  per  cent,  of  carbon, 
which  it  takes  from  the  fuel,  forming  the  variety 
called  cast  iron.  Every  twelve,  and  lometimea 
every  eieht  boors,  the  metal  is  run  off  from  the 
furnace,  by  means  of  a  tap-hole  at  the  bottom  of 
the  hearth,  into  rows  of  parallel  moulds,  called  pigs, 
which  are  formed  in  sand,  henee  the  name  'jrig-iron.' 
The  slag  which  floats  on  the  melted  iron  is  ran  off 
by  an  opening  at  the  top  of  the  hearth.  If  the 
famace  is  working  well,  the  alag  should  be  of  a 
l«ht-gray  colour ;  a  dark-brown  or  blank  oolonr 
shews  that  too  much  iron  is  passing  into  it. 

The  quantity  of  materials  necessary  to  yield  a 
ton  of  pig-iron  may  be  taken  roundly  as  follows  :  2 
tons  of  calcined  ironstone  ;  21  tons  of  coal,  of  which 
about  8  ewta.  are  reqnired  for  the  blowing-engine 
and  hot-ur  rapes ;  and  from  12  to  16  cwti,  of 
broken  limestone.  The  proportions,  however,  vary 
in  different  disMcta  aciMirding  to  the  nature  of  the 


than  000  loot  in  some  ot  the  larger  furnaces. 


e  known  aa    gray  iron.     Ko.   1  ia  Uigeat  and 


brightest  in  the  ATsin,  bring!  the  highest  price,  and 
is  beat  adapted  for  fine  cwtingi.  lios,  ^  3,  aad  4 
become  SDOceaaivelj  lesi  in  the  gnin,  of  A 
lustre,  and  lighter  in  eolfior,  but  up  to  No. 
known  as  foundry  pigs.  After  No.  4  the  metal 
cease*  to  be  gray,  and  though  higjier  numben  are 
sometime*  employed,  the  other  qualities  are  more 
usually  known  as  forge,  mottled,  and  white  pig- 
irona.  Gray  iron  has  its  carbon  partly  in  tSe 
chemically  combiaed,  bat  cliiefly  in  tbe  uucont- 
bined  or  graphitio  state,  and  requires  a  higher 
temperatare  to  melt  it  than  vhite  iron,  though  very 
fluid  when  melted.  White  iron  has  it>  carbon 
wholly  in  the  combiaed  state,  and  ia  chiedy  arail- 
kble  for  oonvenion  into  malleable  iron.  Uiematite 
pig-iron  suitable  for  making  Bessemer  steel  has  an 
exceptionally  high  value. 

Tbe  bot-blsat  process  which  has  been  described 
above,  was  introduced,  in  1830,  by  Mr  Jamea  B. 
Neilson  of  Glasgow,  and  hai  been  productive  of 
very  remarkable  effects  on  the  iron  trade.  The 
whole  invention  consists  in  umply  heating  the  air 
blown  into  the  fnmacc,  and  yet  the  saving  of  fuel 
by  this  is  about  one-hatf,  and  the  production  of  iron, 
BiDoe  it  came  into  use,  baa  enormously  increased. 
The  '  cold  blast '  is  still,  however,  to  a  limited 
entent  employed,  and  produces  the  strongest  iron, 
though  neceaarily  at  a  much  higher  cost.  The 
difference  in  qaaUty  appears  to  be  caused  by  the 

rLter  heat  in  the  case  of  the  hot  blast  faciliteting 
passage  of  impurities  into  the  iron. 
Of  htte  years,  much  attention  baa  been  givei 
plana  for  saving  fuel  in  the  blaat-funiac&    Previ 
to  the  introdoction  of  the  hot  blast,  as  much  a 
tons  of  coal,  as  coke,  were  consumed  for  every 
of  pig-iron  made.    Even,  when  this  is  reduced  to 
under  3  tons  of  raw  coal  per  ton  of  pig-iron,  fully 
three-foiuths  of  all  the  heat  produced  is  still  wasted 
in  open-mouthed  furnaces.    The  method  of  savi 
the  waste  gases  by  closing  the  mouth  of  the  fi 
nace,  aa  shewn  in  fi(^   1,  now  generally  adopted 
when  coIlb  ia  used,   is   attended  with    so   much 
economy,  that,  in   the   Cleveland   district   alone, 
600,000  tons  of  coal  per  annum  are  saved  by  adopt- 
ing it.      There  biding  a  difficulty  in   closing  the 
mouth  of  the  furnace  when  raw  coal  is  Use^  Mr 
Ferrie  of  Monkland,  a  short  time  ago,  patented  a 
self-coking    blast-furnace,  by  which,  among  other 
advantages,  the  gases  can  be  saved.     It  lus  now 
been  in  use  for  some  years  in  Scotland,  and  pro- 
duces a  ton  of  pig-iron  with  34  instead  of  63  owts.  of 
coal  previously  required.    Boising  the  temperature 
of  the  blast  to  from  900°  to  1000'  F.  has  also  been 
attended  with  a  saving,  and  so  likewise,  in  some 
districts,   has  an  addition  to  tbe  height   of   the 
furnace. 

We  pass  now  to  the  consideration  of  malleable  or 
wrought  iron.  It  difiers  from  cost  iron  in  being 
almost  free  of  carbon.  The  great  object  in  the 
processei  adopted  for  the  conversion  of  cast  into 
malleable  iron,  accordingly,  is  to  deprive  the  former 
of  its  carbon.  But  it  is  also  very  deainble  to  cetrid 
of  deleterious  ingredients,  such  as  ailioon,  sulphur, 
and  phosphorus,  which  latter  are  generally  present 
in  minute  quanUties  in  the  cast  iron.  The  ordinary 
processes  for  the  manufacture  of  malleable  iron  are 
ratling,  p^iddting,  thinglinj/  or  liananerina,  and 
rolling.  The  reSnery  is  shewn  in  section  in 
tig.  2.  It  eoDsists  of  a  flat  hearth,  A,  covered 
with  Band  or  loam,  and  surrounded  with  metal 
troughs,  B,  through  which  a  stream  of  water  is 
constantly  (lowing,  to  keep  the  sides  from  melting. 
C  are  the  tuyeres  io  connection  with  the  blowing- 
engine.  The  cast  iron  is  melted  with  coke  ou  the 
hearth,  and  a  blaat  of  air  kept  blowing  over  it, 
which  causes  its  carbon  to  unite  with  the  oxygen  of 


the  wr,  and  pa«  off  m  carbonic  oiide  gu  Oiim 
also  unites  with  silicon  to  form  silica,  and  wili'.™ 
to  form  the  oiide.     The  silica  of  the  wd  umw; 


J;'lg.  :i— Uefinecy. 

with  oxide  of  iron,  produces  a  slag  of  silicate  i 
iron.  The  refined  metal  is  GnaUy  ran  ont  ii  I 
cakes  on  a  bed  of  east  iron,  kept  cool  by  a  Aan 


About  10  per  cent  of  iron 
reSnery. 

Fig.  3  shews  »  puddling  furnace  in  lan^tiidim! 
sectiou.    B  represents  the  hearth ;  A,  tbe  gnu  i< 


Fig.  .1.— Puddling  Famaee. 

■place  ;  and  C,  the  chimney,  which  hat  s  dutpff 
at  the  summit,  to  regulate  the  draught.  Tie  jnB 
is  separated  from  the  hearth  by  means  of  » t™^ 
D,  which  prevents  the  direct  contact  o(  Uie  *"» 
with  the  iron.  White  pig-iron,  or  at  ks*  «™ 
kinds  as  contain  carbon  in  flie  combined  ststt  "•7- 
are  beat  suited  for  puddling,  because  they  btrnW 
pasty,  and  so  more  easily  worked  than  FV ''" 
mtaining  graphitic  carbon,  which  does  not  (ofw 
ito  this  condition  previous  to  fusion.  Itiaonl^™ 
ime  districts  that  the  '  refining '  proceM  i>  ■joo" 
sed.  in  others  a  poridon  only  o£  the  V^mK 
.jniaoe  charge  is  refined;  and  in  nuking  inlaw 
kinds  of  mi3leahle  iron,  the  pig-iron  is  not  Pf 
viously  refined  at  alL  There  are  two  ways  of  poJ*- 
hng  now  practised:  the  first  or  older  ">■■  J*" 
apSicable  to  refined  iron,  ia  called  dry  p^_ 
'n  it  the  decarburiaation  is  prodneed  chielr  "> 
taa  current  of  air  paa™ng  throngh  the  fanw*  i 
econd.  or  newer  pi^  is  called  "*  P-^ 
_  _  . .  iiing,  in  which  case  the  oiidiaing  of  the  e«wa 
is  effected  chiefly  by  tuemotit*,  niagnetto  ort|^~ 
slags,  and  other  easily  reduced  materiift  ■"'  "  , 
"ime  eittent  also  by  the  air.  «-       ' 

The  operation  of  puddling  thon^  di&iiU ' 


dbyGooglxr" 


Btill  Iiot  bma  previona  vorkiag.  In  about  half  aa 
hoar,  when  ths  fnmuia  is  in  working  order,  the 
charge  is  melted,  and  ia  then  itirred  or  'rabbtad' 
for  a  conddBTsble  tjjne,  when'  it  begins  to  '  boil '  bv 
the  formation  and  ncape  of  carbcmio  ciide,  which 
forou  jets  of  bine  flame  all  over  the  aui&ce.  Qrad- 
ually,  aa  the  oarbon  of  the  pig-iron  is  more  And 
more  ozidiBed,  paity  moawa  in  malleable  iron  lepar- 
ate,  aad  theaa  are  removed  in  balls  commonly 
weighing  about  80  Ibft,  bat  aometimEa  larger.  About 
an  hoar  and  a  half  is  raqniied  to  work  oEF  a  charge, 
and  it  takea  from  22  to  26  cwta.  of  pig-iron  to  pro- 
duce a  ton  of  malleable  iron.  Siemen'*  regenerative 
gas-furnaoe,  in  which  inferior  fuels  can  be  utilised, 
la  applied  to  puddling  aa  well  as  to  other  metal- 
lurgical proceiaes ;  but  onr  apace  is  too  limited  to 
give  1107  of  its  details,  or  to  describe  the  more 
t  revolving  paddling  fumAce   of  Mr  Danka, 


n-hunmer,  < 


whidi  is  the  moat  promiaing  of  any  of  the  attempts 
yet  made  to  puddle  iron  by  mechanical  meAns. 

The  proceos  immediatelv  following  the  puddling 
or  boiliDir  ii  caHed  'iihiiitrlinir '  uiil  pemmitt^'in  ham. 


b  passing  them  through  _ 
aguetisr  till  they  are  sumeiently  consolidated,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  dndeis  forced  oat  For  a 
deaonptioo  of  the  steam-hammer,  which  is  much 
need  for  heavy  forgings  aa  well  ss  for  ahinghng,  see 
that  head.  Puddled  halla  which,  have  undergone 
shingling  are  called  sjoi*  or  bloorru.  l^ese  are  next 
passed  through  heavy  roUen  termed  'forge'  or 
'  puddle-bar  rolls,'  and  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  flat 
bar.  For  all  the  better  kinds  of  iron,  tiie  bars  thna 
treated  are  out  into  abort  lengths,  piled  together, 
reheated  in  a  famaoe,  and  again  passed  through  the 
forge  rolls.  Once  more  the  iron  is  cut,  pil^  and 
hei^ied,  and  then  passed  thtongb  the  'mill-train,* 
consisting  of  what  are  termed  the  'bolting'  or 
'  rough  rolls,'  and  finally  through  the '  finishing  rolls.' 
Both  these  sets  of  rolls  in  the  case  of  plates  and 


are  pitun,  bat  ia  the  case  of  bars  are  grooved, 
so  aa  to  form  theui  into  the  required  shape,  such  as 
flat,  square,  round,  octagonal,  or  T-ahaped  iron. 
Fig.  4  indicates  the  arrangement  and  appearance  of 
tlie  'rough'  and  '  finiahing  rolls '  of  a  bar  mill -train. 
Thero  ta  atill  another  important  variety  of  iron, 
viz..  Steel,  the  manufacture  of  which  remains  to  be 
described.  Steel  differ*  from  malleable  iron  in 
coDbuiuDg  a  varying  proportion  of  carbon,  nsnsUy 
from  '5  to  1'8  per  cent.  When  rich  in  carbon,  it 
closely  resembles  cast  iron  in  oompoaition,  except 
that  it  is  mora  free  from  impurities.  Steel  can  be 
made  by  adding  carbon  during  the  direct  reduction 
of  a  pure  iron  ore  in  a  fomace  or  crucible,  bat  the 
reaulti  of  thia  method  are  scarcely  ever  uniform. 
The  finer  kinds  of  steel  ore  still  mode  by  the  old 
cementation  process — that  is,  by  the   roundabout 

Slan  of  first  converting  cast  into  malleable  iroo,  by 
epriving  the  former  of  its  carbon,  and  then  adding 
carbon  again  by  heating  the  iron  with  cbarooid 
{see  BusrlB  Steil).  In  making  aaj  kind  of  steel, 
however,  the  getting  rid  of  silicon,  phosphorus,  and 
sntphur  is  as  important,  and  a  matter  of  more 
difficulty  than  the  securiag  of  any  required  propor- 
tion of  carbon. 

Aa  blistered  ateel  is  full  of  cavities,  it  is  necessary 
to  tender  it  dense  and  uniform,  especially  for  the 
finer  pu^iose*  to  which  ateel  is  ajiplied.  By  one 
meUiad,  it  is  converted  into  what  is  called  '  ahear 
steel'  niis  is  done  bv  braaking  the  bora  of  blister 
steel  into  short  lengths,  heatiog  them  in  bundles, 
and  partially  welding  with  a  foige-hammer.  The 
rod  so  formed  is  heated  again,  and  now  brought 
nnder  the  action  of  the  tilt-hammer.  Here,  by  a 
succession  of  blows,  it  is  formed  into  bars,  wluch 
are  much  more  compact  and  malleable  than  blister 
ateel,  sod  oonseqnei^  better  fitted  for  edge-toola 
aad  the  like.    If  the  dngle-shear  ateel  ia  doubled 


iijKin  itself,  and  again  welded  and  drawn  into  bars, 
it  is  called  double-shear  steeL  By  another  method, 
vis.,  that  of  melting  the  blister  steel  in  fire-clay 
crucibles,  snd  casting  it  into  ingots,  'Cast  Steel' 
(q.  V.)  is  made.  This  is  the  best  kind  of  steel,  being 
tinely  granular,  homogeneous,  dense,  and  weJT 
adaptedfor  the  finest  cutting  instruments. 

Steel  is  now  largely  made  directly  from  pig-iron 
by  puddling,  much  m  the  same  way  as  that  process 
is  applied  to  the  production  of  malleable  iron  (see 
Krufp's  Stkhi.  in  Sdtp.,  Vol  X.).  By  another 
plan  (Dchltan's  process),  [ue-iron  is  granulated  and 
heated  in  a  crucible  with  tiie  oxides  of  iron,  and 
manganese,  and  firo-clay,  the  result  being  cast  steel 
The  Siemena-Msrtin  process  consist*  in  melting  pig- 
iron  along  with  malleable  iron  and  BAsemec  steel 
scrap,  about  7  per  cent,  of  spi^eleisen  being  added 
towards  the  end  of  the  process.  Ths  operatioa  is 
conducted  in  the  Siemens  regenerative  furnace,  and 
the  product  in  this  cose  is  alui  cast  ateeL 

Thero  are  also  several  modes  of  manufacturing 
Bt«el  direct  from  the  ore,  such  as  by  the  old  way  in 
the  Catalan  forge,  and  by  Chenot'a  prOoes^  in 
which  hydrocarbDoa  ore  uaeiL 

Bessemer's  method  of  producing  malleable  iron 
directly  from  onide  p^-iron  ta  apt  to  be  oellular 
and  unsound,  defects  which  the  inventor  lias  never 
been  able  to  overcome.  Steel,  however,  is  aucceas- 
fully  made  by  his  process,  which  eonsista  in  blowing 
air  through  molten  pig-iron  till  the  whole  of  the 
carbon  and  silicon  is  removed  by  oxidation,  and 
then,  introdncino  into  the  melted  iron  a  given 
quantity  of  apieg^eisen  (a  peculiar  kind  of  cost  iron), 
containing  a  known  percentage  of  carbon  j  and  »o 
steet  moy  be  produced  with  any  required  propor- 
tion of  carbon  (see  BiSBBMKa  P&ocBsa).  The 
Bpiegeletsen  dinolves  in  the  iron,  rendering  the 
metal  mor«  fnsiUe  and  very  liquid. 


orodert,  ohekpeet, 

heavy  portionl  of  eogiiieeriDg  work,  moh  u  bed- 

JUttea  tat  mmhin—^  Dflinden,  oolumiu,  autenu, 
iw-jaamiTB  boilen,  iratw  uid  gu  pipw,  rollsra, 
^rden;  and  tha  lik&  A  luge  qiMireity  in  otm- 
snmed  in  tite  nannfiwtnK  of  'lioUow-wara,'  iriuoh 
moludea  pots,  vuat,  and  othar  oooking-TeHeli.  For 
omamBntal  object^  a^in,  it  ia  almoat  exoliudrelj 
med,  became  bare  iu  propei^  of  bong  readily 
caat  into  monldi  givei  it  a  great  adTanta|a  on  the 
soore  of  ohc^meM^  Tliaa,  fMinUiiMi  atataee,  Taaea, 
sate*,  bdoabadia,  gardMi-ieata,  candelalmL  ■tors*, 
leaden,  and  many  smaller  deowated  artiolei^  even 
to  tba  minutaneat  of  a  watafaKoard  and  hteutpin, 
are  almost  inTaiiably  mada  of  eiut  iron. 

Ualleable  iron  dineia  oonoderably  in  its  proper- 
ties  from  caat  iroo.  The  latter  is  practically  in- 
compresaible,  but  it  can  be  oomparativdy  easily 
torn  asunder.  Malleable  iron,  on  the  contrary, 
poaseasee  great  tenacity ;  it  is,  moreover,  very 
malleable  and  ductile,  especialty  at  a  high  temper- 
ature, BO  that  it  oan  be  rolled  into  sheets  as  thin  as 
paper,  or  drawn  into  the  finest  wire.  Further,  it 
poaaesseH  the  valuable  property  of  welding— that  is, 
two  ueccs  can  be  completely  united  togeUier  by 
a   white  heat.     Malleabk  iron   is 


wireworit,   and  the  , 

merely  sheet  iroa  dipped  in  melUd  tin.  It 
maiustay  of  the  railways  and  the  electric  tele^aph, 
and  has  almost  displaced  timber  as  a  material  for 
steam-ships  and  sailing-vessels.  It  is  also  much 
used  for  roofs  and  bridges  of  lai^e  size.  For  some 
years  past,  great  interest  has  been  attached  to  the 
manniaotDre  of  rolled  armour-plates  for  wsr-ships. 
Several  were  shewn  in  the  late  International  Exhi- 
bition (1862)  of  large  size ;  one  of  them  measured 
21  feet  3  inohea  long,  6  feet  3  inches  wide,  and  GJ 
inches  tMok,  and  wgbed  about  13  tons.  Since 
then,  tiiese  platea  havs  been  made  13  inches  thick 
for  f ortificaboni. 

Sled  powoMta  sereral  valuable  propmties  which 
do  not  belong  to  either  oast  or  wrought  inm.  It  is 
harder,  denser,  and  whiter  in  colour.  It  is  also 
more  elastto,  takes  a  higher  poUsh,  and  msta  less 
easily.     Like   malleable  iron,  it  is  also  weldable. 


of  hardness.  If,  ^r  instance,  a  piece  of  steel  be 
heated  to  redneas  and  ploDj^  into  water,  it  is 
made  hard  and  brittle ;  but  if  it  be  a^ain  heated 
and  alow^  cooled,  its  original  softneas  is  restored. 
By  gMitly  reheating  the  steel,  it  will  acquire  a 
mdinon  of  tint*  indioatiiu  varioas  degrees  of 
Eatdnen,  begiiming  with  pale  sb«w  colour,  and 
passing  anooeMtvely  to  full  yellow,  brown,  purple, 
and  finally  to  blue.  The  atraw  colour  is  the  result 
oE  a  temperature  of  about  440°,  and  the  blue  of 
abont  S70°  F,  the  former  being  the  hardest,  and 
the  latter  the  softest  tempering. 

The  chief  use  of  steel  has  liitherto  been  in  the 
manufacture  of  files,  ed^-tools,  and  cutlery,  for 
which  its  peculiar  propertiea  render  it  so  admirably 
adapted,  A  large  quantity  is  also  consumed  in  the 
manafaotnre  of  needles  and  ateel-pena,  But  the 
u«e«f  tteel  is  no  liwBet  confined  to  the  production 
of  theae  oomp*rativ^  amall  artioles.  By  meaui  of 
improved  maobineiy  wd  {Boceases,  steel  ia  at  preaent 
manufaotored  cm  a  toale  that  wat  little  dreuned  of 
twenty  yeais  ago,  ao  that  snoh  objaote  as  field-gnns, 
tatliw-azles,  tana,  iNnlwidatai,  and  the  like  are 


now  being  mads  oE  this  matasiaL  !I3ib  snpMnor 
tensile  strength  of   steel,  which  is  aibont   duyolile 

that  of  malleahle  irrai,  gives  it  a  gnat  — '~-~*~jr 
where  lightness  i«  required.  Boilen  made  of  ■tint 
consuue  leas  fael  than  iron  ones,  as  thimur  filalra 

Peih^B  few  things  illustrate  mm  atriki^^ 
than  irtm  the  gnat  difference  in  valoe  OaA  exMta 
between  the  same  material  aooording  to  the  qnjJtty 
and  form  in  which  it  is  sent  into  the  mas^M. 
Thus,  while  we  write  (1874),  the  price  of  wdisia^ 
pig-iron  is  about  £5  per  too,  but  some  of  it  cf  nn 
superior  quality  is  doable  that  price.  MaTIi  aTiw 
iron  in  the  form  of  bar*  may  be  itA  as  knr  as  iflO 
per  ton,  Swedish  ban  bung  worth  £20  par  ten,  aad 
Lowmoor  bar*  (the  finest  Enghsh  iron)  aboot  £34. 
Beesemer  steel  costs  £20  per  ton,  blister  ataal  ia 
bars  or  rods  £40  per  too,  and  superior  ahear  or  emmt 
steel  £60  per  ton,  while  the  finest  kinda  faring  a 
considerably  higher  pricft 

In  1740,  the  entire  quantity  of  iron  nude  ia 
Qreat  Britain  ii  believed  not  to  havo  exoeeded 
25,000  tons ;  in  1S02,  the  aunnal  make  waa  esti- 
mated at  170,000;  in  1S28,  at  TO^SM;  and  Id 
1S39,  at  1,612,000  tona  In  1.854,  the  first  ytar 
of  the  carefully  collected  statistics  now  pabluhed 
annually  hy  the  Mining  Record  Offioe^  the  ptridace 
waa  3;069,83S,  and  from  that  time  to  the  present  it 
has  nadually  risen  to  nearly  7,000,000  toes.  A 
very  large  amount  of  this  pig-iron  is  oonverted  into 
malieabto  iron,  aa  there  are  now  upwards  of  7000 
puddling  fnmaces  in  the  country.  In  tha  United 
States,  abont  2,000,000  tons  of  pig-iron  won  made 
in  1S72,  being  more  than  double  the  quantity  made 
20  yean  ago.  On  the  continent,  the  iroo  maaa- 
factnre  IB  rapidly  extending  in  France,  Bdfioin, 
Pmnia,  Attstria,  Sweden,  and  Ensaia.  It  is  re- 
markable that  as  mnch  aa  200,000  tons  of  steel 
were  made  in  Prussia  iu  1671  by  the  Bessemer  and 
the  puddling  processes,  a  very  large  quantity  at  this 
material  beiog  also  niade  in  Swolen  and  Aoatria. 
Notwithstandrng  the  activity  of  tlia  iron-trade 
abroad,  the  produce  of  Great  Britain  is  atill  about 
equal  to  that  of  all  other  countries  put  togaUier. 

3.  Iron  in  ilt  Pkyiiolyieal  and  Therapoitia  Sda- 
limt. — Iron  is  an  essential  constituait  of  the  oolour- 
in^  matter  of  the  blood-corpnacles  of  all  vertebtate 
animals ;  and  according  to  the  best  anthoritiee,  1 
port  by  weight  of  iron  it  fonnd  in  230  parta  ol 
blood-corpusdes,  and  the  total  quantity  of  this 
metal  in  the  blood  of  a  man  weighing  140  pounds 
is  about  38  grains.  It  is  the  presence  of  iron  in  the 
blood  that  commnnicatea  to  Uie  sdies  of  that  fluid 
their  reddish-brown  colour,  the  iron  being  fonnd  ia 
them  as  the  peroxide.  Tie  ashes  of  the  hair,  ot 
birds'  feathers,  of  the  contenta  of  eggs,  of  the  gastric 
juice,  of  milk,  and  indeed  of  most  animal  fluida, 
contain  traces  of  this  metsL 

Nothing  is  known  wiUi  certain^  r^atding  the 
chemical  condition  of  the  iran  in  the  animal  body, 
that  is  to  sav,  whether  it  it  present  as  a  nnttoxide^ 
a  ^peroxide,  &a.  It  it  introduced  into  t£e  syatem 
with  the  food  and  drink,  and  any  ezeeas  beyraKt 
what  ia  re^ nind  i*  ditoWged  with  the  eKrementa. 
■on—"  -"  insnffldent  quantity  ia  contained  in  the 
,  chalybeate  medicines  beoome  necesaaiy. 
.  that  I*  set  free  within  tlie  systmu  l^  the 
constant  dlsintegntion  of  blood-coqnudea  is  carried 
out  of  tiie  system  psrtlv  by  the  urina,  psrtiy  by 
the  colouring  matter  of  the  bile,  yihich  is  hi^ily 
ferroginout,  and  probably  is  in  part  eliminated  by 
the  hair,  ^e  exact  port  which  the  iron  plays  in 
the  body  U  uncertain ;  but  it  is  most  probable  that 
the  power  which  the  blood-oorpusclea  possess  as 
— ^ — '■ —  "'"  mainly  dne  to  the  presanoe  of 


dt.Google 


IRON  BABK  TREE— mON  MASK. 


Wheo  from  any  cwue  tha  blood-«arpaacUa  &re 
t«daced  in  nnmMr,  the  cUte  known  ta  Anamia 
(q.  V.)  ia  prodncad,  whtoh  ia  acooD^wied  by  general 
weauieaa  and  denngcd  fouotaoiu.  In  thia  coaditdon 
oF  the  ayatein  Uie  iron  Eomponnda  at«  of  ineompu^ 
ably  mora  lerrica  llian  any  other  lemediea.  In 
Chfomna  (q.t.),  which  ia  doaely  aUied  to  nluBinia, 
in  amenorrhiEa,  and  in  certain  painful  nerroua 
affectiona,  the  aalta  of  iron  are  of  eapeoial  aarrice. 
The  fonna  in  which  iron  may  be  preacribed  are  very 
numerouB,  and  vary  conaiderably  in  their  utility, 
according  to  tlie  roadineaa  with  which  they  get 
taken  up  into  the  blood.    Amongat  the  moat 


rslly  oaed  ferroeinoua  mediciiiea  may  be  mentioned 
the  tdnctnre  of  the  ■eaquicblorido,  the  aaccharine 
cu'bonate,  the  compound  iron  mixture  (containing 


the  carbonate),  the  aolphate,  the  potaaaio-tartrate, 

acTersl  citrate*  (egpedally  the  citrate  of  iron  r  ' 

'ne),  ^    A  courao  of  Chalybeate  Watera  (q. 


ita  ordinary  medicJDal  form. 

IRON  BABK  TREE,  a  name  given  in  Anftralia 
to  certain  ipedea  oC  EuealgpluM  (q.v-),  and  parti- 
cularly S.  retiaifera,  on  account  of  iha  extreme 
haidneaa  of  the  bark,  These  treea  attain  a  heisbt 
of  80  or  100  feet,  and  a  droomference  near  the 
baae  of  20  to  25  f^t.  The  timber  ia  veiy  valoable 
for  Bbip-buildinSi  and  for  other  pnrpcoea  in  which 
hardneu  anddurabtlity  are  required.  It  with- 
■taada  viciaaitudea  of  weather  for  a  great  number 
of  yeara  without  injoiy,  or  even  underground 
rcmaina  uniiijured  for  45  yeara  or  more.  (B^nett'e 
Oathcringt  of  a  Jfaturalial  in  Aujfralaiia,  1860.) 


III.,  and  conferred  for  diatinguiihed  aerviae*  in  the 
wir  which  waa  then  being  carried  on.  The  deoota- 
tion  ia  an  iron  croea  wiui  ailver  mounting.  The 
gnuid  crois,  a  croaa  of  double  the  aizc,  waa  preaented 
exclnidvely  for  the  gaining  of  a  deaiaiTe  battle,  or 
the  capture  or  brave  defence  of  a  fortreaa. 

IRON  CROWN,  the  crown  of  tha  ancient 
Longobardian  kinn,  given,  according  to  an  un- 
aathcnticated  toa£tion,  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great 
to  Queen  Theodolinda,  and  preaerred  tdl  lately  in 
the  aacriaty  of  the  cathedral  of  Mom*.  Henry  of 
Luxembnrg,  is  1311,  ia  the  firat  German  emperor 
who  ia  known  with  certainty  to  have  worn  it.  In 
1S59,  it  waa  removed  by  the  Auatriana  to  Uaotun, 
and  is  now  in  Vienna.  The  outer  part  of  the 
crown  conaiata  of  a  golden  hoop,  with  enamelled 
flowen  and  precioua  atonea,  in  form  like  an  ancient 
cliadem,  within  which  ia  a  thin  plate  or  £llet  of 
iron,  which  ia  declared  by  a  tradition  long  oppoaed 
by  the  chuKh  at  Milan,  but  adopted  by  the  oon- 
gr^tion  '  dd  aacri  riti '  at  Eome,  to  have  been 
biunmered  from  one  of  the  nails  of  the  true  croaa; 
hence  the  crown  ia  alao  called  ii  taera  chiodo. 
Whev  Napoleon  L  waa  elected  king  ot  Italy  in  180S, 
he  took  the  relic  from  the  Ixtoro  of  Monia,  where 
it  had  remained  from  the  time  of  Charlea  V.,  and 
crowned  himaelf  with  it.  diadaining  to  receive  it 
from  the  hands  of  a  biahop  ;  and  at  the  same  time, 
he  founded  an  order  of  kml^Uumd,  taking  ita  name 
from  the  iron  orown.  The  reigning  kings  of  Italy 
were  to  be  grandnuMt^a  of  tiie  order ;  and  the 
members  of  ttie  order,  at  fint  620  in  number,  and 
afterwarda  9SS,  wero  either  dignitatiee,  oommaoden. 
or  knighta.  The  badge  waa  the  iron  crown,  and  in 
the  middle,  the  French  eagle  with  raiaed  wiiwa. 
Bound  the  ring  of  the  crown  waa  the  motto,  i>io 
me  la  tUede.  guai  a  chila  loeea  ('Ood  gave  it  to 
me,  woe  to  huu  who  tonehea  it'>— the  words  used 
by  Napoleon  wben  placing  the  crown  on  his  head ; 


and  the  front  exhibited  the  effigyof  Niqideon.  Ibm 
order — forgotten  after  the  faU  of  Nuoleon — waa 
restored  and  re-modelled  in  1816  by  Ue  Empuor 
Franda  L,  who  gave  it  the  name  ot  the  Auatrian 
Order  of  the  Inwi  Crown,  limited  it 


Iron  Crown  of  Itily, 

the  lat  olaaa  to  20,  of  the  Sd  to  30,  and  the  3d  to 

SO,  exduaive  of.  the  prince*  of  the  uoperial  houses 
He  intiroduced  a  new  deoecatiou  in  place  of  the 
former  one,  conaiatiiig  of  a  gold  crown  of  the  lame 
form  with  the  iron  crown,  on  which  ia  placed  the 
Auatrian  eagle  on  both  aides,  bearing  upon  the 
obverse  a  blue  eacutcheon  upon  the  breaat,  with  the 
letter  F  (Francii)  in  it;  and  on  the  roverae,  the 
year  ISIS.  The  knighta  of  the  1st  olaaa  have,  in 
addition,  a  silver  atar  embroidered  on  the  left 
breast,  with  the  iron  crown  in  ita  ceoCre,  and  round 
its  blue  edge  the  wwda  AvUa  a  aueta.  Thera 
ia  also  a  tricokmred  costume,  coaaistiuK  of  » 
yellow  under-garment,  white  itoddnga  ana  iboea, 
and  a  bine  velvet  cap  and  mantle. 

IRON  MASK,  Thb  Mam  with  the.  The  atorv 
of  the  priaoner,  so  called,  confined  in  the  Baatile  and 
other  priaons  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XTV.,  has  long 
kept  up  a  rosiautio  intereat.  The  first  notice  of 
him  was  given  in  a  work  entitled  JUimoiret  Seerett 
pour  aennr  d  VHUtmrt  de  Parte  (Amst.  1745—1746). 
According  to  this  writer,  he  waa  tlie  Duke  of 
Vermandoia,  a  natural  son  of  Louis  XIV.  and  JDe 
hi  Vslliire,  who,  having  given  a  box  on  tho  ear  to 
hia  half-brother,  the  grand  dauphin,  had  to  expiate 
it  with  imprisonment  for  life.  The  aasertion  was 
without  foundation,  for  the  Dnke  of  Vermandoia 
died  in  camp  in  1683;  but  tho  confidence  with 
which  it  waa  made  caused  a  deep  seosation,  and 
the  romance  of  Mouhy,  UHovant  av.  Ma^vx  de 
Fer,  which  immediately  followed  {Hacue,  1746), 
waa  read  with  all  the  moro  avidity  uiat  it  waa 
prohibited.  Voltaire,  in  hia  SOdt  de  Louu  XIV., 
treata  the  anecdote  historically.  According  to 
him,  the  priaoner  was  young,  and  of  a  noble  figure. 
In  journeying  from  one  prison  to  another,  he  wore 
a  mask,  and  was  at  laat  tranalerred  to  the  BaatQe, 
where  he  was  treated  with  great  distinction;  and 

The  first  anthentio  infoniiation  with  regard  to 
the  Iron  Mask  waa  given  by  the  Jesuit  Griffet,  who 
acted  for  nine  years  af  confessor  in  the  Baatile,  ia 
his  TVaiti  de»  dWerenUt  Sorlei  de  Preave>  qui 
KTvent  d  iuMir  Ut  t'iriiS  done  FfTlstoire  (Li*ge, 
1769).  He  brought  forward  the  MS.  Jonmal  of 
Dujonca,  the  lieutenant  of  the  Bastile,  according 
to  which  Saint-Mats  arrived,  on  the  18th  S •-  - 


_iOO<^l( 


IRONMONGERY— mONr. 


1698,  from  tbe  Ills  de  Siinte-Margueiite,  bring- 
ing  with  him  in  i.  litter  ■  prisoner  whom  he  had 
■Iready  hiul  in  custody  »t  FigneroL  The  pru- 
ODsr's  lunns  wu  not  mentioned,  &od  his  f&ce  was 
always  kept  concealed  by  a  mask  of  black  velvet. 
The  journal  mentions  his  death  on  the  19bh  day 
of  Navember  1703,  and  that  be  was  buried  ia 
the  cemetery  of  8t  Pauh  This  is  confirmed  by 
the  register  of  burials  for  th«  parish  of  3t  Paul's, 
where  the  prisoner  is  tnentioQed  under  the  name 
of  Marchiah. 

After  long  alienee,  Voltaire  returned  to  the  sub- 
ject in  his  E**ai  mr  Ua  Mmn,  but  he  brought 
forward  nothing  new.  In  the  seventh  edition  of 
the  DielUmtiaire  Philotopiiqut,  be  related  the  stoiy 
anew,  under  the  head  Anna,  corrected  his  errors  aa 
to  time  from  the  journal  of  Dujouca,  and  concluded 
witJi  the  assurance  that  he  knew  more  about  the 
matter  than  Griffet,  but  chose,  as  a  Frenchman,  to 
be  silent.  An  addition  to  the  article,  apparently 
by  the  editor  of  the  work,  freely  states  the  opinion 
that  the  Maak  was  an  elder  brother  of  Lonis  XIV. 
The  writer  makes  Ann**  of  Anstria  to  have  hod  this 
son  by  a  favourite,  and  being  thus  undeceived  oa  to 
her  supposed  barrenness,  to  have  brought  about  a 
meeting  with  her  husband,  and  in  consequenoe  born 
Louis  XIV.  Louis  is  held  to  have  first  learned  the 
existence  of  this  brother  when  he  came  of  age,  and 
to  have  pnt  liim  in  oonfinement,  to  guard  against 
any  possible  unpleasant  consequences.  lingaet, 
in  the  BaitilU  blBoiUe  ('The  Bartile  Exposed'), 
ascribes  this  paternity  to  the  Dnka  of  Bntiingham. 
Saint-Michel  published  a  book  in  1790,  in  which  he 
relates  the  story  of  the  unfortunate  being,  and 
points  to  a  secret  marriage  between  Queen  Anne 
and  Cardinal  Mamrin.  'W^t  is  remarkable  is,  that 
the  court  oontinned  to  manifest  an  interest  in  the 
matter,  and  took  every  means  to  keep  the  idontiW 
of  the  prisoner  in  the  dork.  When  the  Bsstile  fell, 
the  prisoner's  room  was  eagerly  searched,  and  also 
the  prison  register;  but  all  inquity  wu  vain. 
The  Abbs  Soulavie,  who  published  MHufHra  de 
ilartdtal  RicluUim  (Lond.  and  Par.  1790),  tries  to 
make  out  from  •  document  written  by  the  tutor  of 
tikat  unfortunate  prince,  that  the  Iron  Mask 


double  birth,  and  to  avoid  this,  Louis  XIIL  had 
caused  the  last  bom  of  the  twins  to  be  brought  up 
in  secret.  Louis  XIV.  learned  of  his  brother's  exist- 
ence only  after  the  death  of  Mazarin,  and  that 
brother  having  disoovered  his  relation  to  the  king 
by  means  of  a  portrait,  was  subjected  to  perpetnal 
imprisonment  ^lis  view  of  the  matter  was  that 
almoat  universally  prevalent  till  the  time  of  the 
Eevi^ution.  It  is  also  followed  in  Zschokke's 
German  tragedy,  and  in  Foutnier's  drama,  founded 
on  the  story. 

The  fliat  conjeotare  of  what  till  recently  seemed 
to  be  the  truth  is  conbuned  in  a  letter  datod  1770^ 
written  by  a  Baron  d'Hmss  to  the  Jovmal  Ency- 
chptdique.  The  same  is  repeated  by  Loius  Dutens 
in  his  Inlerctpted  Corrapondaice  (1789),  who  de- 


Iron  Mask  was  a  minister  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua. 
This  minister.  Count  Matthioli,  hod  pledged  himself 
to  Louis  XIV.  to  urge  his  master  the  duke  to 
deliver  np  to  the  French  the  fortress  ol  Casole, 
which  gave  aoceaa  to  the  whole  of  Lombardy. 
Though  largely  bribed  to  m^ntain  the  French 
interests,  he  oegon  to  betray  them  ;  and  Louis  XIV., 
having  got  conclusive  proofs  of  the  treachetr,  con- 
triveif  to  have  Matthioli  lured  to  the  Frcach 
frontier,  secretly  arrested,  23d  April  1679,  and  con- 
veyed to  the  fortress  of  Fignerol,  which  was   bis 


first  prison.    The  conclnwon  of  D'Hds*  »ad  I>iiteB9, 

Uiat  Matthioli  was  the  lien  Mask,  thoagfa  aente, 
was  only  a  conjectnre.  Bnt  the  docnuenti  since 
discovered  and  published  by  M.  Ronx-Fanllac  in 
his  Rechercha  iattoriipia  el  criSquf  »«r  rjTammf 
□u  Masqut  de  Per  (Par.  1800),  by  H.  Delott  in  Ins 
Hiitoire  dt  V Homme  aa  Ma*fm  de  Fer  (Par.  1835), 
and  M.  Marius  Topin,  in  his  Matt  wU\  Ae  Ir^m 
Matk  (1869),  seemed  to  leave  little  doubt  <xi  tbe  aab- 
ject,  and  the  public  had  appKrently  made  up  ita  mind 
that  the  secret  was  at  last  discovered  ;  Wt  a  aoil 
more  recent  work  by  a  French  officer,  M.  Th.  lun^ 
La  Vliilt  lur  U  Matque  de  Fer  (Let  EmpoiMmMenrii 
rTaprii  de*  Doeuiaenlt  inidUs  det  ATdinfa  de  la 
Ouerre  et  aulru  dipSt*  publiet,  IGGl — 1703  (Par. 
1873),  has  concluslvdy  shewn  that  Matthioli  could 
not  have  been  the  mysterious  prisoner,  and  en- 
deavours to  prove— we  would  almost  ventote  to 
say,  sueceetU  in  proving — that  the  Man  in  the  Iran 
Mask  was  the  unknown  head  of  ■  wide-spread  and 
formidable  conspiracy,  working  in  secret  for  the 
assassination  of  Louis  XIV.  and  some  of  hii  ablest 
ministers.  The  severity  of  M.  lung's  labonrs  with 
reference  to  this  snhject  will  be  understood  whfn 
it  ia  stated  that  in  the  comae  of  his  icaearehea  be 
hod  to  examine  some  1700  volumes  of  despatches 
and  reports  in  the  bureau  of  the  Hinlitir  ol 
War. 

I'BONMOKGERY,  a  term  ap^died  to  Uie  smoQ 
manufactures  of  iron  or  hanlwaie  kept  for  geoenl 
le  in  shops. 

IRONS,  otherwise  called  Bilboes,  are  diackJet 
iron  Into  which  the  ankles  of  a  prisoner  are  fixed, 
and  which  slide  on  a  long  iron  oar.  Refractcsy 
sailors  and  soldien,  who  evince  violent  behavionr, 
and  become  unmanageable,  are  commonly  pnt  in 
irons,  several  being  placed  side  by  side  alcog  ths 
same  bar.  In  esses  of  extreme  violence,  the  wruts 
may  be  similarly  treated,  but  instances  of  this  latlct 
'  ihment  are  rare.  The  punishment  of  *  potdng 
ins '  is  more  common  in  the  navy  than  in  ths 


IRONWOOD,  a  name  bestowed  in  difCertnt 
nntries  on  the  timber  of  different  trees,  on  aooouBt 
its  great  hsrdneis  and  heaviness. — ifttnHident 
vera  belongs  to  the  natural  order  JfyrtoceiB,  and  is 
a  native  of  Java  and  other  eastern  "I -"-I'  It  has 
ovuto-lanceolate,  Bhoitlv  atalked,  smooth,  sharp- 
pointed  leaves;  and  aiillaiy,  mony-fiowered,  atalW 
cymes.  Its  wood  ta  much  valued  by  the  Ctuwss 
and  Japanese  for  making  mdders,  anchors,  JU. 
and  is  imported  into  Britain  in  sm«U  ijuantitia 
under  the  name  of  Ironwood.  The  bark  la  used  ia 
Japan  aa  a  remedy  for  diarilua  wad  mooooa  dis- 
charges.—JTfiua  ferrea,  a  tree  of  tlie  natnral  orda 
Gvttiferte,  is  a  native  of  the  £ast  Indies,  and  is 

Slanted  near  Buddhist  temples  for  the  sake  cd  its 
'sgront  Sowers,  with  which  the  images  of  Baddha 
decorated.    The  fioweis  resemble  small  ^lila 


mduiala,  of  the  order  Diotmacea,  is 


and  for  furniture. 

IRONY  (Gr.  eirfaeia,  from  dtifl  .        

is  the  name  given  to  that  peculiar  style  of  tbon^t 
and  expresdon  by  irfiich  voids  ar«  made  to  eooTsy 
a  meaning  exw^  oppoaed  to  their  literal  stsae. 
When  skilmUy  used,  irony  is  one  of  the  moat  cradling 


;  CooqIc 


mOQUOIS— mRIGATION. 


and  imnitible  fignrea  (d  rhetoda  Ia«buiceB  will 
readilj  occur  to  ereiy  reader  of  birtcn  uid  litei»- 
tore.  One  of  the  nMst  oel^rated  is  uat  raonded 
in.  Scripture,  vheie  Elijah  taunte  the  diaoomfitad 
priesta  of  Baal  on  Uonnt  CanneL  The  great  maater 
of  iretijr  in  ancient  timea  waa  Socratea,  who,  aa  haa 
been  bappljr  taid,  ndaed  it  to  tiie  dignity  of  a 
philoaophio  method. 

IROQUOIS.    SeelHDUim. 

ISBA.TIONAI1  NUMBERS,  a  tenn  applied  to 
thoae  roota  of  nombera  irhich  cannot  be  accuratelj 
expreaied  by  a  finite  number  of  fleuies.  For  inatance, 
^2  is  an  irrational  number.  If  the  diameter  of  a 
circle  ia  one  foot,  the  drcmnferenoe  is  an  irrational 
aomber.  Irrational  numbera  have  been  defined  to 
be  nnmbera  which  are  inconuneuaurable  with  unit;. 
They  are  alao  coniroonly  termed  Surda. 

IBRAWAT)!  (aaid  to  tnean,  like  Miaaiaaippi, 
'  father  of  wateiB '),  the  great  river  of  Farther  Tnrti«^ 
iB  believed  to  riae  in  I^bet,  near  lat  26°  N.,  and 
long.  99*  E.,  terminating  in  lat.  i6°  SC  H.,  and  Iod^ 
96°  £.  Its  oooTBe  ia  prettr  nearly  due  aonth,  and 
haa  been  eetiniated  at  1200  milea  in  leoKth.  After 
receiving  the  Ning-thm,  the  Uogonny,  me  Bhamo, 
and  the  Longtchaen,  it  begiiui  to  fans  ita  delta 
about  17°  H;  which,  between  the  Kaogoon  on  the . 
caat  and  the  Baaaein  on  Uie  west^  compriaea  10,000  ; 
square  milea  of  foreat  and  paatuivge,  cniioualy : 
■       ■  'cable   network    of   the 


facilitiea  of  oommonication,  the  L  appears 
decidedly  auperior  to  the  Indna  and  the  Oengea, 
being  navi^bla  even  at  low  water,  for  veaaela  of 
200  tent,  as  far  aa  Ava,  which  ia  400  milea  from 
the  aea,  and  for  canoea  aa  f ar  aa  Bhamo,  which  ia 
180  milea  higher  vp.  The  L  auoceeaively  traverses 
China,  Bnrmah,  and  Fegn.  Aa  the  region  laat 
menticmed,  fonning  the  lowest  part  of  its  basin,  ia 
a  province  of  British  India,  the  L,  u  a  whole,  may 
be  aaid  to  be  virtually  under  the  control  of  Eng- 
Lmd.  In  both  our  Burmese  van,  it  oonatitiited 
the  line  of  advance  for  oar  aimiea. 

IRRBDU'CIBLE  CASE  occun  in  the  aolntion 
of  Oobio  Eqnatiniia  [q.  v.)  by  Cardan'a  method  when 

p  ia  n^alive,  and  —^  greater  than  ~  (ababacting 


from  thengn).    Tiaat  oonditioaa  render  >/(■ 


"CM) 

an  imaanaiy  quantity,  and  thna  Cardan'a  fumula 
faila  in  ita  apphcation.  The  difficulty  is  get  over  by 
the  aid  of  tngouometry. 

IBREliEyAITT,  a  term  used  in  Scotch  law  to 
denote  that  what  is  aud  or  put  forward  by  an  oppo- 
nent in  an  action  haa  no  beaiing  on  the  subject,  even 
if  it  were  true.  The  oorrecpomiag  term,  in  Eogliah 
law,  is  tbat  the  pleading  contaiung  the  irrelevant 
matter  ia  demomkhle. 

IRRIOA'TION  (I^t  watering),  a  method  of 
producing  or  increaaing  fertility  in  aoila  by  an  arti- 
ficial anmtly  of  water,  or  by  inimdating  them  at 
atated  penoda.  Irrigation  was  probably  first  reaorted 
to  in  cotmtnes  wb^  much  of^  tJie  land  mnat  other- 
wise have  remained  barren  from  dnnight,  aa  in 
Eigypt,  where  it  Waa  extensively  practised  nearly 
:HK)0  yean  before  Cbiiat,  and  whme  great  syetems  of 
canala  and  artiticiBl  lakea  were  formed  for  the  par- 
poae.  Eztenaive  worka,  intended  for  the  irri^tion 
of  large  diatricta,  existed  in  timea  of  remote  antiquity 
in  Siusopotamia,  Persia,  India,  China,  and  gome 
other  pwta  of  the  Eaat ;  and  in  anch  of  these 
coimtnea  la  have  not  entirely  lost  their  ancient 
proiperitj,  such  works  atill  exist.  In  many  parts 
of  the  world,  the  necessity  of  irrigation,  at  feoat  at 
certain  aeasuns  of  the  year,  is  ao  atrengly  felt,  that 


the  araicnltnre  even  of  comparatively  rode  tribea 
depends  on  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  accom- 
phshed.  Some  plants  also  require  a  very  abundant 
anpply  of  water,  and  irrigation  has  become  general 


miToaacea  mio  sncain  Dy  tne  JMtmans,  cat  waa 
very  little  practised  till  the  beginning  of  the  preaent 
century.  In  Europe,  irrigation  prevails  ohiefiy  in 
the  south,  where  it  waa  extenaively  practised  by 
the  Bomans,  from  whom  it  was  adopted  by  the 
Lombards;  and  it  ia  moat  extenaivoly  prootiaed  in 
Lombardy,  and  in  aome  parts  of  Spain  and  of  the 
south  of  France,  ao  that  tho  great  plains  and  voUeya 
of  the  Fo,  Adige,  Tagus,  Dooro,  and  other  rivers, 
are  obnoat  entirely  subjected  to  a  ayatematio  irri- 

Stion,  which  prodigiouBly  increases  tWr  fertility, 
la  extent  of^  irrigated  land  in  Uie  valley  of  the 
Po  is  estimated  at  1,000,000  acc^  and  the  increaae 
of  rental  thna  caused  at  £830,000. 
Irrigatioa  in  Britain,  and  in  moat  parte  of  Enrope, 


by  converting  the  land  into  Wa^^r-meadowa.  The 
value  of  it,  even  for  this  one  piirpoae,  doea  not  seem 
to  be  Bofficientty  understood.  Poor  heaths  have 
been  converted  mto  luxuriant  meadowa  W  meana 
of  irrigation  alone.  But  in  the  oountriea  m  which 
urigation  ia  moat  extenaively  practtaed,  the  pro- 
ductioQ  of  all  oropa  depends  on  it 

The  irrigation  of  Isjid  vrith  the  aewage  water  of 
towna  ia,  under  another  name,  the  application  of 
liquid  manure.  In  no  small  degree  the  water,  of 
rivera  and  of  apringa  depends  on  its  organic  and 
mineral  constituente  for  ita  (-rtjMyng  propertiea, 
so  that  the  apiilicalion  of  it  is  not  in  foinciple 
different  from  that  of  liquid  manure ;  but  it  must  oe 
home  in  mind  that  the  men  abniulance  of  water 
itself  is  of  great  importanoe  for  many  of  the  moat 
valnable  planta,  as  IIm  moat  nntoitiDiia  aohatlaM* 
brought  into  contact  with  their  roota  ai«  of  no  use 
to  them  nnleaa  in  a  abate  of  aolution ;  whilst  it  b  an 
additional  recommendation  of  irrigation,  tiiat  tho 
aupply  of  water  moat  favourable  'to  tho  growth  of 
many  valuable  planta,  ia  destructive  of  some  which 


ahoold  be  free  from  mud  and  such 
impurities  as  mechanically  olog  the  pares  of  leaves, 
or  cover  np  the  hearit  of  plants,  and  interfere  with 
their  growth.  Irriraition  is  far  from  being  so  exten- 
sively practised  in  Great  Britain  as  nnnmn  desirable. 
The  e^dent  of  water-meadovrs  in  £kigland  is  atated 
to  be  not  more  than  100,000  acm  Tbay  are 
moatly  confined  to  the  west  and  sontli  of  Ei^Uod. 
Individnal  farms,  irrigated  with  sewage  water,  are 
to  be  met  with  tn  Nottinghamshire,  Staffordshire, 
Lancashire,  Cheshire,  and  in  one  or  two  counties  in 
Wales.  The  moat  anooeasful  instance,  however,  of 
aewage  irrigation  in  Great  Britain  ia  to  be  found 
near  Edinburgh,  where  an  extenaive  tract  of 
meadowa,  lying  between  Fortobelloand  Leith,  yields 
a  rent  of  £20  to  £40  an  acre ;  the  graaa  is  cut  fnim 
three  to  five  timea  a  year,  and  aa  much  as  te^  tons 
an  acre  have  been  obtained  at  a  catting.'  See 
SmvA.Gt,  Haxuhm. 

The  method  of  forming  and  laying  out  water- 
meadows  will  be  easily  gaUierod  from  the  following 
sketch  of  the  difierant  spedea  of  irrigation  as 
practised  in  Uiis  oountry. 

].  Btd-work  Irrigation. — This  method  can  only 
be  conveniently  applied  to  ground  which  is  nearly 
level.  It  consists  in  laying  out  the  ground  into 
beds  or  lidgea,  from  30  to  40  feet  wide, 
ig  to  the  nature  of  the  aoil,  having  their 


Cooi^le 


nutiTAfiiLnT— mTiNK 


impar  onda  Wing  in  a  soitle  Blape  fmm  ons  aide  to 

rf  tlwbed*  -  ' "^-  '— '-- '--^ 

briiin  tbtt  1 

OMa  tUKj  he ;  and  tliii  wmdaotoi  must  b«  tap«rad 
off  tomnU  iti  fnitliar  and,  in  oidar  that  the  dlmin- 
iahed  anpplr  of  vater  may  itdll  orerflow.  From 
tlkif  aoaoocior,  inuJl  drains  called  /aedan,  are  led 
down  along  tlie  otom  of  eadi  ridga.  In  we  lowwt 
pait  of  the  ma^ow^  a  nuin'-dndn,  whidh  nmat  be 
made  naadf  aa  lane  aa  tha  oondaator,  in  oat  acKM 
tlie  lower  audi  of  the  beda,  and  the  water,  after 
bariog  aerved  the  poipose  of  imgation,  ia  led  into 
it,  hy  meana  of  iKudl  draina  cut  ia  the  fonowi. 
The  feedeiB  ahould,  like  tixe  oaadiictor,  t^m 
towarda  their  furthei  eitremitj,  both  for  the  piir- 
poaa  of  retarding  the  velocity  of  tha  water,  and 
of  piueuiting  a  ""ftil'l'^  OTerm>w  along  their  whole 
lenffth.    On  the  contraiy,  the  amall  ^^m  ahooid 


__^ aation  (rf  ttia  eonduetor  and  feeders  ihould 

be  BO  regulated  to  the  vato-aupply,  that  the  bed* 
rt*ii  b^  whoUj  laid  nnder  water  so  the  dnath  of 
about  MM  inoh.  The  ezpenaa  of  bed-voA  miga- 
tion  langea  from  £30  to  £40  par  aore. 

2.  CaMt-uork  Irrigation  oiffera  materially  from 
the  former ;  it  can  be  applied  to  land  whether  lerel 
or  not,  ooata  culy  £i  pef  Mre,  and,  in  the  ojHnion 
of  many,  ia  quite  aa  efCeotive.  The  conduotor  formed 
aa  before  ia  led  along  the  hi^hiet  tide  of  the  field, 
than  wilii  the  aid  of  a  level,  a  iQcoeeaion  of  perfeotly 
lerel  guttera  (which,  of  couive,  muat  be  winding], 
are  drawn  aoroea  the  field  in  the  aome  dareotion  aa 
the  oonduotoi;  and  not  more  thaa  ten  yaids  from 
each  otbar  ;  tlieaa  are  orcaaed  by  '  ' 
from  tha  conductor  -     "     ' 


the  fiei£ 


taper  towarda  their  lower  extremity,  aerve  for  amall 
dntua.  Tbia  plan  ia  more  effactiva  than  the  foimer, 
whea  tha  aapply  of  water  ia  limited  i  and  aa  It  can 
be  applied  to  a  hillaide  aa  well  aa  to  a  level  field, 
ita  applieation  ia  rapidly  axtendiitg, 
Imgaliou  ia  on 

formed  all  round  the  aidea.  At  right  asglt 
«j  uieatv  draitu  or  oooduita  are  drawn  taoa»  the 
field  in  parailel  liuel.  WLeu  the  land  ia  to  be 
irrinted,  water  ia  let  into  the  ditches,  and  thence 
to  the  oroea-drainBi  till  it  riaet  to  the  level  of  the 
inrfMe;  and  when  the  ground  ii  to  be  laid  dry,  the 
■de-ditcbea  an  emptied  by  aluicee.  The  bottom 
of  the  ditohea  ia  below  tM  level  of  that  of  the 
to  that  th^  aerva  both  aa  eonductor 


The  firat  two  method*  of  irrigation  are  only 
applied  to  patture-landi,  and  the  tUnt  to  feu 
and  drMnea  moraitet,  tiudli  are  apt  to  become 
tlia  laat  metacid  would  be 


Tba  management  of  watar-meadowi  reqnira 
neat  ikiU  and  oare,  but  ve  oaa  only  bore  mentian 
the  chief  point*  to  be  attended  to,  which  are  theaa  s 

to  a  part  which  it  can  effectually  irrigate;  too 
aneh  wMei  or  too  rapid  a  flow  tend*  to  waah 
av*7  tlM  acoli  the  meadow  mi^  ba  kept  under 
mtar  for  a  fortnight  at  a  timet  u  November,  bnt 
the  time  abonld  ba  i^imTni^tufc^  jjH  April  or  Uay, 
when  regular  watering  ahoiUd  ccMe ;  after  the  great 
i*  oat  or  eaten  down,  the  water  mav  be  let  on 
for  a  few  d»a ;  and  it  i*  neceeaaiy  Utat  between 
the  time*  of  watering  the  land  ahonld  be  laid 
perfectly  dry.    Special  preoaution*  are  neceaiary  in 


winter,  to  gnard  a^in*t  any  bad  eSWa  reagltiif 

fromfroati  M  ' 

raBlTABTLIIT in  Fbnti, «  ttnaembrtdto 


**Tg"*°  phenamaw  vny  inWaaWag  aadariggi, 
bvt  (Ima  whiah  none  eanaaoted  with  vtMtabli  iOt 
■M  moi*  iuMifaatly  undeaatood.  Sack  at  Ai 
phmniwt  of  what  ia  wutUy  oalled  Ibe  jb^  (4.1.. 
^planti;  the  motioii  of  the  ^omo  (^.v.)  d  mq 
cryptmmie  planta  by  meAO*  of  eiliai  tMUMiu  1 
of  OeiJWriii,  iWiitoiaiioei*,  and  oUmw  irf  the  Iwat  1 
Alga;  tha  aaooeetive  appfoachea  of  the  ifcrnwiJ  ' 
Pamodtia  paiuMrit  to  the  piatil ;  the  maiwutii  d  1 
the  leavw  of  the  Mnmg  Plant  (q.  r.)  ti  [ndk;  nd  ! 


of  Minadut,  lot.  Many  explanatioai  ban  ^» 
pmmoaed  of  thaea  pb^umam,  bat  nma  tttWuttj. 

nf  iht  iiii*>oi iif  iiijIbiUM  eiialinjiiei  tn  thmrnmr 

tyttcn  of  mJTP'i",  whi^  haa  be«  im^iaadli^ 
i*  not  the  dighteet  pnio^  doaely  aa  acMe  d  Ike 
phoioBena  reaembla  thoaa  of  anlBal  life  Ik 
aiplanatiaa*  whiok  have  bean  [aopcaed  m  » 
better  than  mere  gtuaaoa  .  8m  Udsolb. 

I'BBITANGT  (Lat.  Jrrilwa,  of  no  <«M),  a  Un 
in  Sootoh  htw  to  denote  eomething  U  tbi  utct 
of  neglect  or  injury  whioh  deetroya  or  nita 
void  an  eziiting  ri^t ;  in  Englieh  law  it  ■  a&d 
Forfeiture.  Thus,  mere  ia  Um  initaa^  (tf  1  (a- 
right  from  non-payment  ef  tbe  dn^  tcr  tan  jvn 
--iBsrriirr  OLanu,  in  a  Sootoh  entail,  k  a  dua 
which  makea  void  oertain  pnihiMtd  icte  of  tti 
heir  of  entail,  auoh  a*  adling  the  propcaty. 

IBBITATION  It  tlie  torn  applied  to  any  auriil 
eicftatoent  <^  the  vital  aetiona  not  ammatiDi  H 
inflammation i  audit  iaoftai,batnot  alrn^aaai  . 
ol  that  condiaon. 

In  oaaea  of  irritation,  reonarknbi*  t^ft^i'tc 
■ymptoma  are  often  obaerved.  ^ua,  imiatw  4 1 
(udculuB  oocaaioiu  intense  aiokneas  tad  voniinj^ 
But  of  all  Bonrcea  of  lympatbetic  morbid  afectKU 
of  this  claaa,  irritation  of  the  stomach  and  iDtotoa 
!i  at  once  the  moat  common  and  the  mttt  laMran 
The  ordinary  ai^  h«uladM  ia  the  Mtt  faqvA 
form  of  tbia  sympa^etio  affootiooi  bat  ii  taM      | 

.     .    ,    ,.      .    .., ...  jaet^do^  , 

to  resemble  tboae  of  acute  inflammaliOD  rf  t^P'^ 

toneum,  the  heart,  the  plenn,  or  the  meBbniaa 

thebraio.    It  is  to  DrHaidiaUHallthattteBtdi 

is  mainly  due  of  pointioc  out  thote  caiM  it  v^ 

irritation  to  closely  resembleaiikflammatioB.  Hel^ 

thewn  that  blood-letting  aflbrds  a  certain  bom  ^ 

diagnosis  in  these  caae&    In  true  inflsmniit"*! '' 

or  lo  ounces  of  blood  may  be  taken  bffon  ^  ■" 

~~iy  symptoms  of  faintness;  wiaia  in  i"'^*^'^ 

■s  of  a  very  few  ounce*  (nine  or  ten)  of  b!«d*u 

use  the  meet  decided  syncope.  I 

IRTI'SH,  a  river  of  Siberia,  an  affloenl  of  «>:  ' 

Obi(q.v.].  ( 

I'KVIME,  a    royal  and    parliamentaiy J"^ 
■auort,  aikd  mark^towa  oT tha  ctoaly  «.>?'  ' 
Scotland,  is  aituatad  on  both  banlu,  bnt^P^X 
on  an  eminenoe  on  the  nght  bank  of  the  nTCi  !"]>« 
which  ia  heie  crowed  by  a  handtome  dux  j"^  i 
about  a  mile  above  the  embouchure  of  t^  '''"'  "  ' 
the  ISrth  of  Clyde.     It  is  11  milea  north  of-lF. 
and  29  uules  aouth-weat  of  Glasgow  bj  a^l- 
The  harbour  has  now  become  so  mndnuotd  op 
as  only  to  admit  voesela  of  about  100  ton  l™"* 
The  'Academy'  is  one  of  the  most  floariiiiD(*»* 
tioual  institutioas  in  the  west  of  Sootlial    WT 
buildinft  and   the   manufacture  of  l>**;5"'j 


jaoonets  and  checks,  are  a 


t.CuLigle^ 


IRTHra— IETINGIIB8. 


•  mniliiii.    TttB  Bluppiiw  trade  for  t— bIb 
tt  teas  buideo  i»  oWMidtnUf.    L  vaitM 
wiUk  Ajr,  OampbettowiL  Obao,  and  lumauKf  in 
aenilitig  a  menilMr  to  paiL    P«p.  (1871)  6866. 

ISVISa,  WuanBOTiar.  a  ■<■■*»"£"■■*■-*  Amiri- 
CMa  antbor,  wm  bont  in  the  atj  of  Now  Tork, 
April  3,  17S3.  He  wm  tha  yonngMt  ton  of  Williua 
Irrin^  who  Iiad  omigiatail  from  Sootland,  and 
setU^  in  New  York  is  a  merohaiit  bdora  the 
RevoIntLon.  Wuhiiuton  L,  at  the  age  of  16, 
entered  a  law  office ;  but  ha  profited  iMigHj  bj  hu 
fatbo'a  well'Ctoeked  libnrj,  Chaooer  and  SwoMr 
being  hia  faTonrite  aothoiBi  Nev  York,  at  tUl 
period,  WW  a  mail  town  of  about  EO,0OO  inht- 
oitanta,  manT  of  iriunn  wei*  daaoendanti  of  the 
oripsal  DntoB  wttlerr,  having  quint 


"EaroM;  Mtnmad  to  N«v  YcA  in  1807, sod 
tnbuM  a  Mciea  of  gwiiil  and  hnmonna  mmyu  to 
A  periodiMl  oaHad  S^iaaffmuiL    In  1800^  he  wnte 


»  tmrleaqna  ehrouida  writtaD  in  ao 
honwor,  that  it  has  aranelimea  be«a 

Hafing  no  tnaKnatiim  for  law,  he  Bulged  in 
counuce*  witb  hia  bcotlMn  aa  a  ailent  partnai,  but 
dented  hia  ti>M  to  litmtare,  and  in  1813,  adited 


, _»  Philwi^phia.     At  tiw 

oloaa  of  tha  war  in  1615,  ha  Tinted  Endand,  wba» 
be  vaa  mimly  welooiDad  iij  Oarapbell,  whoM 
biogiaphf  he  had  fbimarlf  writMu,  and  waa  intro- 
duoed  by  hia  to  Walter  Soott.    Wbila   lie  waa 

failed,  and  ha  wm  aaddenly  redooed  to  poverty, 
•od  the  mn«Milj  of  writing  for  hia  bread.  The 
StetAiool,  pwtKina  of  which  had  appeared  in 
New  Toik,  waa  oSwed  to  Morny,  and  afterward* 
tQ  CoMtaUa^  bat  WM  refoaed  by  both  of  thaaaoele- 
bi«ted  pabUAnL  After  an  nnaoooeaafol  attempt 
of  the  attthor  to  pnbliib  it  on  hia  own  aocoont, 
Mnnay,  mi  aeotfi  reoommandation,  took  the 
SiaiAiooi,  paving  £SIX>  for  the  oopyright,  whiob 
be  afterward!  Incwaaed  to  £tOO.  It  had  a  ohana 
in  ita  beaatj  and  fmhiWM,  and  waa  a  anrpme 
a*  the  iraik.  of  an  American,  and  waa  therefote 
t  laTOvr.  _I.  went  to  Fari%  and 


Bmetbri^  Hati,  and  in  1 
nMwflcr.     He  waa  tiuo  inri 


Tata  ttf  «  TnmHa:  He  waa  tiien  invited  by 
Everett,  the  *->—««■  ambMudor  t«  Spain,  to 
mooatafiay  him  to  Vf^Al,  to  tranikte  dooumente 
oonneeted  with  tiw  life  of  Colnatbiw.    With  thue 


(/  Oaltmiim;  Tha  Comal  tfOmnada, 
rAf^ttomini  (1832),  a  portirai  of  which  was  written 
in  theaBontpaUoeirftheUoraiihkinai;  Legatd* 
of  Ik  Oat^atA  ^  8fv»  (1836) ;  and  Mtiawiift 
and  Ut  AoMaar*  (ISW).  In  182^  L  ntmnad  to 
Ettdand  aa  aeoretary  to  the  Ameriran  lentioo. 
In  1831,  he  leoeired  the  honora^  dapea  of  XLD. 
from  UiB  nnirenty  of  Odnd;  md  next  year 
tetomed  to  Amviea,  where  be  waa  reatarad  with 
giMt  ettthnriMm.  A  riiit  to  the  Boo^  Moon. 
&ini  prodMed  hit  Tow  o*  rt«  Pnmiu.  He  aba 
onrtribotod  iketaliea  of  Abbotdoid  and  NewrtMKl 
Abbey  to  the  Ori|idb  JfiMoHmi^  and  from  the 
pBMit  of  John  Jaeob  Aator,  wrota  A^mia  (1837), 
and  the  Adttcukrm  of  O^labt  BamtviOe;  alM  a 
aeriea  of  atoriea  and  eea^a  in  the  f  aictoioeber 
Magaibte,  ooOeoted  nnder  Oe  title  of  Wt^eef* 
Rood.  In  184%  he  wia  appointed  misiater  to  Simsu 
In  1848  waa  p^didied  hia  £(/e  ^  OolitoiiU ;  and  U* 


giai*  weak,  the  £i«  o^  ITwUwImi,  wm  pnUiahad 
&lS6ff-ia59L  An  eationofhiawDikainlCToli. 
natjied  a  aale  <rf  WHfiOQ  toIi.  He  ^ent  the  laat 
yvMi  of  \m  life  at  Swu^nda,  in  hia  own  'Sleepy 
EoUow,'  on  the  bank*  of  the  Hndaon,  near  Tany- 
town,  with  hii  nieoei^  where  ha  died  anddenfy  of 
diaeaae  of  the  hewi  Korembor  2%  18119.    He  waa 


.  the  town 
S1^_17D2;  ttodied 


lETHTO,  RtT.  ErwAKD,  w 
of  A'nft",  Dtun^jeaahire,  1 
at  the  nnivetiity  of  Edinlni  ^ 
hii  eunionlum  for  the  mimatzr,  bo 

SD  1819)  to  Dr  Chalmei*,  uen  a  miniiter  in 
laagow.  Eii  aarmona  did  not  proT«  vny  popular. 
ClhalniacB  hinuelf  waa  not  aatiafled.  In  182%  L 
reoeiTed  a  oall  to  the  Caledonian  Chnrch,  Eatton 
Gardoi,  London,  which  he  accented.  TTiii  inoiMU 
a  preacher  in  the  metropolia  was  nich  as  bad 
ret  previooily  been  witneued.  After  some  yean, 
werer,  the  world  of  faahion  ffA  tired  of  L ;  bnt 
waa  not  till  hia  more  striking  aiiwalaritiea  of 
opinion  ware  dereloped  that  bahion  finally  deaertad 
hun.  At  like  oloae  of  182S,  he  began  to  annonnce 
hia  oonviotiona  in  regard  to  the  aeoond  pemmal 
advetit  of  the  Lord  Jeana,  in  which  he  had  beoome  a 
firm  bellerw,  and  which  he  dedamd  to  be  near  at 
hand.  Hii*  waa  followed  up  by  the  faanalation  <f  a 
Spmiih  work,  Tha  Oovrng  qfiU  Mtm<A  fa  Jf qMv 
md  Oiorg,  by  Juan  Joi^fat  Ben  Bora,  whioh  pra- 
f«Med  to  be  written  by;  a  Chriatiao  Jew,  bnt  wa«, 
in  reality,  the  oonmiriiiim  of  a  Spanith  Jetuit. 
L'a  introdnobirv  proace  i*  r^rded  a*  one  of  hia 
noat  remarlcable  literary  penormance*.  In  1828, 
ippeared  hi*  BomUU*  on  vt*  Saentmeni*.  He  now 
began  to  elaborate  hi*  Tiew*  of  the  incarnation  of 
Qmat,  aaserting  witli  great  emphaaia  the  dootrine 
of  hia  oneneea  with  a*  in  all  the  attribvtea  oE 
htimanity.  The  language  wUeh  he  held  on  this 
■ubjeot  drew  npon  him  the  accnaation  of  heresy ; 
he  waa  oharged  with  ""'"tjining  the  ""f"l"«"  of 
Cbriatfs  natan,  bat  he  paid  fittte  heed  to  the 
alarm  thna  created.  He  waa  now  deep  in  the 
study  of  the  propheciea ;  and  when  Uie  new* 
oame  to  London  tn  the  early  part  of  1830,  of 
certain  extraordinary  manifeatations  of  prophetic 
power  in  the  west  of  Scotland  (see  iRvnrarrm),  I. 
w»*  prepared  to  boKeve  tiem.  H&raned,  worn, 
baffled  in  bis  meat  sacred  deairea  for  the  regenera- 
of  the  great  Babylon  in  which  he  dwelt, 
ied  by  the  religioti*  public,  and  satiriaed  by 
^jresa,  the  gnat  preai^her,  who  strove  above  all 
things  to  be  faithfol  to  what  aeemed  to  blm  the 
tm^of  Qod,  sraqied  t^  the  new  wonder  with  a  pu* 
sionate  eamennesa.  Matten  aeon  oame  to  a  cnri*. 
L  was  arraigned  befora  Uie  prMbytny  of  Iiondoo 
"130,  and  oonvioted  of  hemy;  ejected  from  tus 
chnrch  in  £^ent*s  Souare  In  1832 ;  and  finally 
depoaed  in  183%  I7  the  preabytery  of  Jbman,  wUcn 
had  Uoenaed  li™.  TTi*  defence  of  liiiH**lf  on  this 
laat  oocadon  waa  one  of  hia  nuat  splendid  and 
cnhHine  efforts  of  oratotr.  Hie  maio^^  of  tiis 
congregation  adhered  to  him,  and  gradoalff  a  new 
form  ol  Christianity  was  developed,  commonly 
known  aa  IrvingiEm,  though .  L  had  really  very 
little  to  do  with  its  davalopment  Shortiy  after, 
his  heidth  tailed,  and  in  obedience,  aa  he  believed, 
to  tiie  ^arit  of  God,  be  went  down  to  Scotland, 
where  he  ouik  *  viatun  to  oonnrnptian.  He  died 
at  GHa^in^  Deoembw  8,  ISM  in  the  4SI  yiar  of 
his  atn.— See  CkAjWu  MUeAemmni*  Jl*»^,  •o^ 
Ibi  OUphantfa  LU^  of  SAuard  In^ng  (London, 
1862). 

ntTIHOITSS,  tiie 
nation  cl  a  body  of  C 
^TTg*i^*^  which  iapli 


a  bnt  improper  deaig- 
who  objeot'  to  any 


LniizrdtgGooi^le 


Edward  Irving  (q,  v.),  then  a  muiirter  of  the  Sootch 
Chunih,  Hsgent  Sqakro,  Loudon,  delivered  a  leriee 
of  lectoTM  OQ  Bpiritnal  gifts,  la  which  he  DiaiiitAiDed 
thatthose  which  we  are  in  the  habit  <f  calling  'extra- 
ordinary' or  'miiaculoua'  were  not  meant  to  be 
confined  to  the  primitire  church,  bat  to  be  con- 
tinned  through  the  whole  period  of  tlie  preaeat 
dlBpensatioo.  Abont  the  eaniB  time,  as  if  to  confirm 
the  viewE  of  the  great  preacher,  there  occutrcd  at 
Fort-Glasgow,  in  the  weat  of  Sciri^land,  ceitoin 
_, 1. It  w»«  alleged  that  mitBCuloUB 


After  what 
a  sofficient  inveitigation  on  the  part  of 
membeni  of  Mr  Irviog'a  church,  " 
•■^  ■;   the   i-'-^--= - 


Mmeof  tba 
concluded 

1  his   c 


manifeatatioaB  shortlj  after  occarred  __  .  . 
church,  which  were  alio  proaounoed  to  be  genuine. 
Tbey  were  held  to  be  of  two  kinds  :  let,  speaking 
in  tongues,  and  2d,  prophesyiog.  As  the  former 
bore  no  resemblance  to  any  language  with  which 
men  were  coaTamant,  it  wasbelieved  to  be  strictly 
oa  '  unknown  tongue,'  the  ^oly  Ghost  '  usin^  the 
tonffue  of  man  in  a  manner  which  neither  his  own 
intellect  conld  dictate,  nor  that  of  any  other  man 
comprehend.'  The  latter,  '  propbeiying,'  consisted 
chieny  of  '  eKhortations  to  holiness,  interpretations 
of  Scripture,  openings  of  prophecy,  and  explanations 
of  symbols.'  After  some  time,  Irving  was  deposed 
from  his  office  for  heresy  by  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
but  meanwhile  the  religious  opinions  with  which 
his  name  is  associated  bod  betti  oaauming  a  more 
definite  and  ecclesiastical  shape.  The  fi^  result 
was  the  ApottoUc  Catholic  ChunA,  the  constitution 
of  which  is  briefly  as  Collowa ; 

There  are,  aa  in  the  apostolio  time*,  /oar 
ministries;  1st,  that  of  'Apostle;'  2d,  that  of 
'Prophet;'  3d,  that  of  'Evangelist;'  and  4th,  that 
of  '  Fostor.'  The  apostles  are  mvested  with  spiritual 

S-erogatives ;  they  alone  can  miuister  the  Holy 
host  by  the  laying  on  of  hands ;  to  them  the 
mysteries  of  Ood  are  revealed  and  unfolded  to 
the  charch  j  and  they  decide  on  matters  of  order 
and  discipline.  Nothing  that  transpires  in  any 
charch  in  the  vts-y  of  'prophetic  utterance '  con 
be  authoritatively  explained  save  by  them ;  and 
the  various  '  angels  of  the  churches '  are  bound 
to  bring  all  such  utterances  under  their  cognizance, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  rightly  interpreted. 
The  function  of  uie  '  prophet  *  has  been  already 
indicated.  'The  work  of  on  '  evao^dist '  mainly 
consists  in  endeavooring  tol'bring  m'^thoae  who 
are  without.  The  'angel'  of  the  Catholic  Apostolio 
Church  corresponds  with  the  bishop  of  other 
Christian  denominations.  The  ministers  of  each 
full  congregation  comprise  an  ongel,  with  a  fourfold 
ministry  (consisting  of  elders,  prophets,  evangelists, 
and  pastflrs),  and  a  ministry  of  deacons  to  take 
charge  of  temporal  matters.  This  ministry  is 
sappoited  by  bthea,  the  people  giving  a  tentn  of 
their  income  for  the  support  of  the  priesthood. 
Ghureh  afiuiB  ore  manned  Dy  a  council  of  miDisten 
of  all  classes,  whose  section  and  arraagemeat  are 
conceived  to  have  been  foreshadowed  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  Mosaic  Taberoacle. 

The  Crtholio  Apostolio  Church  doe»  not  differ 
from  other  Christian  bodies  in  regard  to  the  common 
doctrines  of  the  ChruridoQ  religion  ;  it  only  accepts, 
in  what  it  oonaiders  to  be  a  fuller  and  more  real  sense, 
the  phtltomeita  of  Christian  life.  It  believes  that  the 
wooder,  mystery,  and  miracle  of  the  apostolic  times 
were  not  aoddenbd,  but  are  essential  to  the  divinely 
instituted  church  of  Grod,  and  its  mun  fonctiou  is 
to  prepare  a  people  for  the  seoond  advent  of  Chiisb 


In  regard  to  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord  ■  Sap«l,  j 
the  doctriaa  of  the  objective  presence  is  h^d,  bol 
both  transubstaatiatioa  and  consubatantiodon  an  . 
repudiated. 

The  Catholic  ApostoUo  Chnreh  haa  eatabfialitd  ' 
itself  in  England,  Scotland,  Canada,   the   United 
States,  Prussia,  France^  Switzerland,  Ireland,  Bel- 
gium, BuBsia,   Denmark,   Sweden,  Australia,   and 


age.  Tha  inoid^uta  of  his  ufe,  as  recorded  in  fli  iiiaa. 
ar«  vrell  knoini.  He  died  at  Hebron,  a^d  ISO  yeaia, 
leaving  two  tons,  Jacob  and  Esau.— 3.'«  ckancter 
has  always  been  vary  diffovntt^intenmied.  Wliat 
has  been  called  by  some  hia  nuld  and  gmtle  dispo- 
sition, simple  pastoral  mity,  others  have  temed 
weakness  and  wont  uf  character.  His  (for  tlie  man 
part)  blameless  ways,  however,  coll  forth  otir  love 
and  esteem.  Tha  Midrssh  ascribes  to  him,  a 
allusion  to  Gen.  xiiv.  63,  the  insfcitutioii  of  tbe  - 
afternoon  prayer.  ■  i 

I5AA0  I.,   OtntamrvB,  emperor   of   Conitanli- 
nople,  was  the  first  of  tl^  fom^  of  the  Cconneni   ' 
who  attained  to  that  dignity.    His  fatller  TWamwJ    < 
his  brother  John,  and  ninuelf  vrae  employed   in 
important  miUtary  aad  civil  capacdtiet  hy  Basil  IL 
(976—1025);  but  duriag  the  reign  of  Uie  latUr's  I 
unbeoile  and  tymnnicar  aaccessors,  ia  «diase   tya  , 
it  was  criminal  for  any  one  to  excel  in  wisdom 
and  ability,  L  was  exposed  to  oonstderaUe  dai^ec  ' 
Such,  however,  was  bis  pmdenoe,  and  tba  afiocboi  | 
of  the  people  for  him,  that  the  emperors  'UnwiD-  . 
ingly  suff^ed   Urn   to   live  unmolested ;   and  <■ 
the  deposition  of  Michael  VL  (1058—101^,  JL  wh  t 
elevated  to  the  vacant  throne.     On  his  aoc«iBoa, 
he  foond  the  aSaits  of  the  empire  in  what  waa  by 
this  time  their  normal  condition  ;  r^MUion  •  • ""  — 
aggression  without,  and   the 
He  Buooeeded  in   establishing  a 
ecoQomy  in   all   branches    of  the 
and  ia  ocder  still  further  to  Jiglifani  uu 

the  people,   called  upon  the  dergy  to 

their  share.  But  the  clergy,  then  as  now,  zttamA 
to  endure  the  imposildon  of  any  such  Hirdr—, 
and  the  patriarch  Michoal  is  reported  to  hsTC  evcH 
threatened  Tiim  with  deposition.  But  deatli  dflliT«a«d 
L  of  this  formidable  opponent^  and  the  dsrgy  wen 
compelled  to  submit.  In  1099,  he  repelled  tbs  Hait- 
corians,  who  had  encroached  npon  his  poaBaanaas 
in  the  north-west;  but  soon  aflenrariU,  to  tbs 
great  grief  of  bis  snbjects,  he  was  attacked  bj  a 
violent  fever,  and  believing  his  dissolntioti  npymarh 
ing,  appointed  his  famous  general,  Oiiilisiiliiiii 
Ducaa,  aa  his  encoessor.  He,  however,  reoomed 
from  his  illness,  bat  resigning  Uie  crown,  retired  to 
a  convent,  where  ho  lived  for  two  years  in  the  odour 
of  sanctity,  and  died  in  I06I.  Ha  was  one  of  tlK 
moet  virtuous  emperors  of  the  East,  and  to  inrmt 
learning,  wisdom,  and  prudence,  united  on  ado 
trative  ability  and  energy,  that  would,  had  hia 
been  at  longer  doratiotCtiave  gone  far  to  ronn 


duration,  have  gone  far  to  rwononta 
a  effete  Byzantine  empire.  Nor  was  he  defiGient 
in  literary  attainments.  We  still  posaess  by  bim 
Scholia — hitherto  nnedited-~<in  Homer,  his  fawmite 
author ;  further,  a  work,  CharaeleriMet,  adL,  of  Ute 
QreeL  and  Trojan  chiefs  mentioned  in  the  Iliad; 
and  finally,  a  treatise  On  the  Wortt  of  Hmmr. 

ISABELLA  of  Castile,  queen  of  Spain,  bora  on 
23d  April  1451,  was  the  daughter  of  Jdui  H, 
king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  and  in  1169  married 


fflABELLA  THE  CATHOUO— 180HLL 


Ferdinand.  V.,  lunumed   'the  Catiiolic,'  Unj 
Ar^OH.    Oa  the  dMtK  of  b«r  brother,  Henry 
in   1481,  ihe  ascended  the  throne  of  Castile  and 
XieoD,  to  the  eKoliuioa  of  her  elder  suter  Joa 
She   b»d  won  the  sapport  of   great  port  of 
■tfttee  of  the  kingdom  duiinK  her  brother'B  life,  and 
the  viotorioua  anna  of  her  Eusband  compelled  the 
consent  of  the  re«t  (see  Fduhkahii).      L  was  s 
womiui  of  remarkable  energy  and  talent,  and  poa- 
Bcssed  no  ineoumderable  beauty  and  mui^  winning 
grace,  althoagh  ^iroud,  ambitious,  and  deficici  ' 
' — le  womanly  gentlene«a. 

«  always  ptcwmt  in  meetings 
I  of  coundl,  fuid  inmited  (m  toe 
f  use  of  her  name  alosg  with  that 
of  Fetdinand  iu  all  public  docn' 
tnents.  She  died  at  Uedina  del 
Campo,  on  26th  Nov.  1504,  after 
haTing  exacted  from  her  husband, 
of  whom  she  was  always  jealous, 
B  promise,  confbmed  by  oath, 
never  to  marry  again. 

ISABELLA.    IL,   oneen     oi 
Spun.     See  Strpp.,  VoL  X. 

ISABELLA  THE  CATHO. 
Lie,  ORDEROf,  a  Spanish  Order 
of  knighthood,  founded  by  Fer- 
dinondVlI., in  1S15,  as  a  reward 
of  loyalty,  and  for  the  defence  of 
tbe  poBieuions  of  Spanish  Amer- 
ica.   It  is  now  conferred  for  all 
Order  of  IsiheUa  kinds  of  merit.     The  sovereign 
the  Catholic,      is  the  head  of  the  order,  which 
is  divided  into  the  three  classes 
of  Orafid  Crosses,  Commanden,  and  Knights. 

ISAl'AH  (Hah.  ToAayahu,  'Salvation of  God'), 
the  moat  sublime  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  was  the 
son  of  one  Amoi.  He  uttered  )us  ocades  in  the 
reigns  of  U^i^i,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah, 
king*  of  Jndah.  Seeding  his  outward  life,  almost 
nothing  is  known.  He  appears  to  have  redded  at 
Jerosaieni,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  temple,  was  mairiad, 
and  had  three  sons,  nreu  him,  he  says, '  for  signs 
and  for  wonders  in  IsraeL'  The  period  of  nis 
death  ia  not  known,  but  accoidinA  to  a  rabbinical 
legend,  apparently  accepted  by  l£e  writer  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (zL  37),  (Sanh.  103  b,  Ac), 
he  was  sawn  asunder  by  order  of  King  Manasseh, 
who  abhorred  his  oracles  (cf.  Joe.  Ant.  z.  31). 
If  this  statement  is  well  founded,  I.  must  have 
been  nearly  100  years  old  when  he  was  thus 
barbaionsly  mnrdared. — The  prophecies  of  L, 
viewed  in  their  litersrr  aspect,  do  not  e^bit 
a  continuons  unity  of  design;  they  consist,  of  a 
acriea  of  'visions'  beheld  at  different  times,  and 
amn^ei  neither  exactly  in  ohronologicBl  nor  mate- 
rial order.  The  compiler  or  editor  of  the  whole 
is  believed  by  man^  not  to  be  I.  himseli  Verse 
38(h  of  chap.  xxxvIl  i*  regarded  by  the  majority 
of  schoUn  ol  note  as  conclusive  proof  of  a  latffi' 
hand.  The  grand  controversy,  however,  is  not  con- 
cerning the  BTTangement  of  these  prophecies,  but 
cooceming  their  authorships  Did  they  all  proceed 
from  one  and  tbe  same  person,  or  are  different 
anthtBS  discernible!  Orthodox  critics  maintain  the 
nnity  of  aothonhip,  and  assert  that  L,  if  ha  did  not 
edit,  certainly  wrote  the  whole  66  chapteia.  The 
first  who  doubted  this  was  the  Qerman  scholar 
Koppo  (1779—1781),  who  suspected  that  the  last 
Z7  chapters  (40~^)  were  the  work  of  a  kter 
hand.  He  was  followed  by  DOderlein,  Eichhom, 
and  Jnati,  and  the  same  view  has  been  substan- 
tially adopted  by  Paulus,  Bertholdt,  De  Wette, 
Gesraiius,  Hitag,  Knobel,  Umbreit,  and  Ewald. 
The  chief  atguments  agaiott  the  luuah-authoiship 


are :   I.  That  tbe  subject-matter  of  these  burdens 
relates  to  what  happened  long  after  L's  death,  100 

CLTB  at  least,  vit.,  tbe  redemption  of  the  Jews 
m  csfitivity,  consequent  upon  the  oveHhrow 
of  tbe  Btbyloniau  monarchy  by  the  Medo-Persian 
army.  2.  That  the  writer  speaks  of  the  exile  as 
something  present,  and  of  the  desolation  of  Jndah 
as  a  thing  that  had  already  taken  place.  3.  That 
Cyrus  is  mentioned  by  name,  and  an  intimate  know- 
led^  exhibited  of  ms  career.  4  That  an  extra- 
ordmarily  minute  acquaintance  with  the  condition 
and  habits  of  the  exiles  is  sfaewn.  6.  That  the 
sentiments  sre  far  mO^  spiritnaL  6.  That  the  style 
is  totally  diSerent,  being  more  smooUi,  flowing, 
rhetoric^  and  clear.  To  these  objections,  Heng- 
stenberg,  Hftvemick,  Keil,  Henderson,  Jahn,  MlUler, 
Alexander,  and  others  have  replied  more  or  leas 
satisfactorily.  Their  principal  orgnment  is  tlie  pre- 
dictive character  of  prophecy.  In  these  propbedes, 
we  have  tbe  fint  distiiict  and  vivid  announcements 
of  a  Messianic  deliverer  (whence  L  has  been  called 
the  'Evangelical  propbet')-  As,  however,  they  are 
found  chi^y  in  Uie  lost  27  ciiapters  (the  suppcaBd 
work  of  a  Deutero-ls^sh),  it  has  been  inaile  a 
question,  by  those  who  do  not  believe  in  propheoy 
m  the  usual  sense,  whether  the  '  deliverer,  who 
redeenu  the  people  by  his  own  sufferings,  is  a 
literal  prediction  of  Jesus  Christ  on  the  pan  of  tbe 
prophet^  or  only  a  personification  of  the  sanguine 
hope  of  deliverance  that  animates  bis  patriotic  and 
regions  soul, 

^e  style  of  L  possesses  an  sstouishing  richnea 
and  variety.  It  reaches  the  pinnacle  of  grandeur, 
and  melta  mto  the  softest  pathos.  JSwald,  a  master 
of  reethetio  as  well  a»  of  philologio  eritieiHm, 
attributes  to  him  'the  most  profound  prophetic 
excitement  and  the  purest  sentiment,  the  most  inde- 
fatigable and  Buccrasfol  practical  activity  amidst 
all  perplexities  and  changes  of  outward  life,  and 
that  facihty  and  beauty  m  representing  thought 
which  is  the  prerogative  of  the  genuine  poet,  .... 
In  the  sentiments  which  he  expresses,  in  the  topics 
of  bis  discourses,  and  in  the  maimer  of  expression, 
L  unifonnlf  reveak  himself  as  the  kingly  prophet ' 
{Prophitai  da  Allta  Btinda,  voL  1  p.  166,  *c). 
Among  the  chief  commentators  on  L  are  Jerome, 
Aben-Ezro,  Abarbood,  Vitringa,  Lowth,  Hender- 
son, Calmet,  Hitzig,  SosenmUUer,  Oeeenius,  Hang. 
stcnbcrg,  and  Alexander. 

I'SAB,  or  ISEB,  a  river  of  Qermany,  rises  in  tbe 
Tyrol,  to  the  uorUi  of  Innsbruck,  and,  entering 
Bavaria,  flows  generally  in  a  north  and  north-east 
direction,  and  joins  tne  Danube  at  Deggendorf, 
after  a  course  of  about  180  miles.  Mumch  and 
Landshut  ore  situated  upon  its  banks.  In  the  first 
part  of  its  course,  it  is  on  impetuous  mountain 
torrent;  and  even  after  it  leaves  the  Alps,  it  has 
many  rapds  and  islands,  but  for  a  great  ^art  of  its 


I'SCHIA  (tbe  ancient  ^nana),  an  island  ntuated 
between  tbe  Bay  of  Naples  and  that  of  Qaeta.  It 
is  about  24  square  miles  in  extent,  and  has  a 
population  of  28,000  inhabitants.  I.  is  a  favourite 
place  of  summer  resort,  and  is  noted  for  the  excel- 
lence of  its  mineral  waters,  and  nutnerous  nrings, 
the  great  richness  of  its  soil,  the  eiqmsite  flavour 
of  its  frmts  ond  wines,  and  the  enchanting  character 
of  its  scenery.  Its  highest  point  is  the  volcanic 
Monte  Epcnneo,  2G74  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  of  which  the  eruptionB  have  been  numerous 
uid  disastrous  i  that  of  1302  was  of  two  months 
duration,  and  occasioned  a  serious  loss  of  life  and 
property.  Tbe  Idke  of  Ischia  appears  to  occupy  an 
extinct  crater  of  Um  vidcano,  and  abonndi  in  fisii. 


L.iii^.:xiivCioo'^le 


ronndad  an  all  tidei  )>;  gudeai,  u  finely  ututted 
on  th*  lira  Ttmh,  uuid  nuwnifioent  Alpme  •oenery, 
!8   milM  «Mt«Mrth-eut  of   Salzbnis.     It  b  the 


rf  wMch  it  ii 


ohief  town  of  the  disbiat  called  the  ,. . __. 

(q.  v.).  nie  abutxcoi  of  L,  and  tita  aitlt  b«th«  which 
wen  eetebliahed  here  in  182%  have  attracted  to  it 
vaat  nuobon  of  Tiiitoni  Th»  emperor  and  Duuij  o{ 
Hm  Aortrian  nobility  have  boilt  villaa  here,  ~  ' 
the  town  haa  alao  aoqnirad  celebrity  from  hj 
been  the  aoene  of  TMiotu  diplomabc  confora 
Pop.  (1S69)  6842. 

ISB'O,  Lasm,  or  LA.CU8  SETINnS,  a  lal._  __ 
Nottluni  lUlf,  ntaatod  botweoi  the  proTinoaa  of 
Bernino  and  Bneoi&i  Ita  aztoema  length  fnmt 
aoMh  to  •ovtb  ia  about  20  miles;  ita  annwe 
biMdth,  e  milea:  and  ila  BMteat  depdi,  964 
On  ita  bank*  i»  aitoated  um  town  <«  laetk 
lake  u  fed  bf  the  ii*en  Odio  and  Boriana  The 
enmnndiog  eoenerj  ia  highly  interesting,  broken 
into  piohmaqne  heighte,  |  and  atndded  with  fine 
viUaii^  nnejaraa,  and  <diT»'gudaii& 

ISlSUB,  a  lirer  td  the  aoirth-eaat  of  France, 

ia  Savey,  at  the  wertern  beae  of  Mount  leerao, 
flowB  in  a  eenenl  «oath-wcat  direction  throng 
Savoy,  and  through  the  deparbnmti  of  Iikie  and 
Dnuae,  and  ]oiiiB  uic  Khone  8  milea  abore  Valenoe. 
"  I  length  ia  about  190  mile^  for  the  laat  CO 
^  '*  -"irigable,  bnt  not  without  difficulty, 
■•  iw  i:uwui(u  a  interrupted  by  ahoala  and  itlindt. 

IflftHK,  a  dcpartmeDt  ia  the  ■□ath-aait  of 
France,  ia  bonnded  on  the  N.  and  W.  by  the  rirw 
BJusu^  on  the  R  by  the  department  of  8aTci& 
and  on  the  &  had  8.  E,  by  thoae  of  Brome  and 
Haatea-Alpee.  Area,  2,078,799  aorea,  of  which 
nearly  a  half  ia  in  arable  land,  and  a  fifth  in  wood. 
Fop.  (1872)  57ei,3aft.  The  aurface  ia  level  in  the 
north-wcat,  but  beoomea  monntainooa  aa  one  pro- 
ceeda  aouth,  where  Uie  aoenery  ia  very  impoauib 
Mount  Olau,  on  the  louth-eaatern  border,  ia  12,6m 
feet  high.  Hie  chief  rivora,  beaidea  the  Bbooe,  are 
the  utn,  from  which  the  deparbnent  derivea  ita 
namc^  and  ita  afflnenta  tbe  Drao  and  Romanohe. 
The  deparbnant  ol  L  ia  cms  of  the  lioheet  ot 
I^anoe  in  mineral  [vodnotiona.  Mine*  of  iiwa,  lead, 
oq^er,  and  ooal  are  workedl,  and  sold  and  aUver 
ooonr.  ThoTineiaoarefiillycnltiTatedinthevBlIeyi; 
6,324,000  gallona  ot  wine  are  said  to  be  produced 
annually.  ArrondtMemen^  Grenoble,  I»  Tour-du- 
Fin,  St  Maroellin,  and  Vienne ;  capital,  Orenoble. 

ISERLaaif,  an  important  mannfactniiog  town 
of  Fmaaian  Weatphalia,  ia  aitnated  in  a  piobireeqiie 
and  moontaiuoDB  diatnct,  on  the  Bear,  »  tributary 
ol  the  Bohr,  18  milee  west  of  Amebci^  The 
'idnstry  of  L  ia  chiefiy  directed  to  the  manufaotore 


ISBUXIA  (anc  ^teptia,  a  dty  of  the  Sam- 
nitea),  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  pronnoe  of  Campo- 
baoso.  ia  dtuated  in  a  commanding  podtion  oa  the 
creet  of  a  hill,  24  milee  west  of  Craipobaaso,  and  ia 
(orrounded  I:^  ecenny  <rf  romantia  beauty.  The 
modoni  town  ooDJtata  (jiiefly  Ot  one  kme  and 
narrow  itreet,  and  ia  enrroonded  by  walla,  Among 
nnmetoua  other  antiqnitica  in  a  BobterraBean  aque- 
duct, hewn  in  the  eolid  rock,  which  atUl  taf^liea 
the  foimtaiDa  and  numnfactoriea  with  water,  and 
remajna  unimpaired  throu^ont  ita  entire  ooniae  of 
one  mile.  L  waa  much  mjured  by  an  earthquake 
in  180S,  when  Bome  of  ita  finest  buildings  wne 
mined.  "WooHeuB,  paper,  and  earthenware  are  here 
manufactured.    Pop.  8634. 

I'SHIU,  a  river  of  Siberia,  an  affluent  of  the  Obi 
(q.T.L 


haodnuud  trf  Ida  wife  Suh.    Hia  d 

forett^d  before  hia  birth  by  an  anoel,    who   ^wt 
Hagar  sitting  bv  a  well  in  the  wildnMaa  oai  Um 
-way  to  ^nr,  whither  she  had  fied  to  BTimdtbahaiBk  . 
treatment  of  her  miabeaa  :  'And  heirill  ba  a  wild 
[liierally, 'awild  aM-l  man;  hia  hand  yiwetsiaaj 
man,  and  every  man's  hand  aoinit  him  i  Mtd  M   ' 
shall  dwell  in  the  presence  m  all  hia  ln«thna*  t 
(Qen.  xtL  12).     Eipelled  Sam  hM  fatlMr'a  hemtij   | 
along  with  hia  mother,  when  he  waa  about  the  ^s 
of  n,  he  went  into  the  aonthan  wildenaai  lAats    i 
he  eieir  np  to  manhood,  and  beoame  fanmia  ••  aa    | 
areher.    Soriptore  Teprceentg  L  in  a  not  mdlavoar-    . 
able  light,  and  it  wee  predicted  tiiat  he  ■*«™'M    I 
become  a  great    nation.      This   '  great  r**™** '  m    . 
commonly  believed  to  be  Uie  Arabian ;  and  tbore  is    | 
no  good  reason    for  doubting  that    at    least    Ub    | 
norfAcTTi  Ai^a — tite  wild  I 


e  Peraian  Onlf-^uay,  to  a  oertain  de^ta,  ba    I 


for  the  Qotian   (^t    the   fonnden   at   tha    j 
Joktanite  and  Coahita  monarchka  in  the  ■ 
Arabia  were  of  T^hnmlitin  origin ;  and  the  ilii  liji     | 
tion  giveD  ia  Scdptnie  of  the  obaracter  and  faafasti  I 
of  I.  and  hia  deeoealaBta  does  iMit  in  tiia  leaat  wply 
to  these  menanhiaa.    The  Bedoaiiia  cJ  NoctMtn  • 
andOn^AiaUa,  on  the  other  hand,  an  full  of 


Mrtfiati  in  Faleatine  to  Mount  Araf&t  lu 

I'SIAO  TABLK,  a  mcammant  much  i 
qnoted  br  aioIuMila^Uta  previous  to  tiie  diaoov«y 
-"  '•tatodyphki,  beutg  «  flet  rectangular  bninse- 
;  inuid  wiUt  niello  and  silver,  abont  4  feet  8 
m  long,  by  8  feet  in  hu^t.  It  wa«  sold  t^  a 
.  V  ti  the  Couatable  de  fionrboa  to  a  locksmith, 
and  bon^t  of  the  aame  by  Cardinal  Bonbo  in 
1697,  paoed  after  his  death  to  Uodana,  and  finallj 
to  Tunn,  when  it  ia  now  depoaited.  It  ccmaiats 
of  thiee  rowa  of  figorea  of  Egyptian  deitias  Md 
emblema.  Ita  objeM  waa  mppoaad  to  have  beai 
votive^  or  even  to  have  been  the  nativity  of  the 
finperor  Trajan ;  bnt  it  '  '     ' 


113,  T, 


Wilkinaon,  Sir  G.,  Maniu  and  Out. 


I'SIDORE    QF   SEVILLE   (IsmoRin   BawA- 

tOBSB),  one  of  the  moat  diatingnished  eodeaastaea 

the  6th   century.     He  ia  palticnlaliy  reoiark* 

lie  BB  amouff  the  eaiheat  repreaentatiTea  of  the 

church  of  Spain,  and  of  that  great  movement  ia  tiia 

Western  Church  by  which  the  docbinal  and  mnal 

syitem  of  Chriatdanity  waa  bron^t  into  hanaen  j 

with  the  habits  and  inatitutions  of  these  varioD* 

races  and  nationalities  which,  by  suuoeaaire  imnii- 

"rationa  and  wars,  were  eventnallT  erected    into 

lie  Hiipano-Oothic  kingdom,   whidi  exsrdaed  *o 

owerfnl  ut    influence   on  what  ia    called    Latin 

hnstiuiity.    He  was  bom  about  660  or  670,  at 


were,  like  himself,  bishojis,  the  fint  of  Oarthageaa, 


half-ecoleaiaatical,  halt-civil  councils  of  ToMo  ia 
619  and  in  633,  which  were  held  under  hia  !■«•>• 
dency,  and  the  cauona  of  which  may  afanost  be  asid 
to  have  formed  the  baaia  of  the  cnnsMtatieaal  law 
of  the  Spaniah  kingdoms,  both  for  dmrdi  and  for 
state,  down  to  t^e  great  oenatitntaanal  ohangsi  <d 


ISIDOBIAX  DBORBTAIA-ISIS. 


obJEct  all  the 
I*irB  anterior  to  hii  tima.  TTiH  death,  whkh  oomured 
in  83B,  fonna  one  of  the  most  remarkable  aoeeea  in 
earir  Ohrutian  hiitorj.  When  he  beiwne  aeruible 
of  tbe  B^ipRiacfa  ot  deattt,  he  inninioned  h^  flodc  to 
his  bedaide,  exhorted  them  to  mntnal  forbeannea 
«ud  obaiity,  pny*d  tiuir  forgiveneM  for  all  hi* 
own  ahorbKiDUngi  in  hi*  dnfy,  and  directed  'all  hia 
promr^  to  be  dirtributed  among  the  poor.  Hia 
■woaui,  whioli  an  in  tht  mort  vanoiu  depaitmente 
of  uowledge — th«ologieaI,  aaoetical,  litu^cal, 
acripfaml,  hiMoiieal,  ptuIo«ophleal,  and  eren  ^lilo- 
logical — wen  flnt  jiubliihed  in  IfiSO ;  bnt  the  mort 
complete  edition  a  that  of  Arerali,  7  toIb.  4to 
(Boiu  1TS7— 1S03}.  We  are  indebted  to  L  for 
Dumy  fngmente  of  Qreek  and  Latin  authon,  among 
the  number  aereral  of  whom  hardly  any  other 
been  preeerrod. 


Ismo^IAN  DBOBSTTALS,  aba  oaUed  Fxui 
J>>DHnii4,  a  (pnriona  oompilatioa  of  the  0th  c, 
-which,  by  a  tii^nUr  conbioatioD  of  oircunutaaoea, 
obtwntd  clrreoc;  in  the  Western  Church,  and  ooa- 
tinoed  for  isTtind  oentmiee  to  enjoy  unqneatioaed 
authority.  tJp  to  Uie  9th  c,  the  only  authantio 
collection  of  deoretali,  that  of  Dionyaiui  Eiiguna, 
commenced  with  the  decreei  of  Pope  SIriciua  in  the 
end  of  the  4th  century.  The  so-called  iHidoriaa 
Decretals  stretoh  back  through  the  predeoeBSon 
of  Siricini  iqi  t«  dmnent  htmaclf,  and  oomprise  no 
fewer  than  S9  dooioea  or  ffpivblet  anterior  to  the 
-fame  of  Kridns.  In  *  later  part  of  the  Isidorian 
collectioa,  moieorar,  arc  intcs^latad  nearly  forty 
similar  dociinuiits,  unknown  till  the  titno  of  l^iat 
compilatioii.  AU  tbeM  doonmenta  are  prewated 
not  merely  a«  snthentio,  bat  h  the  genuine  pro- 
doctiooa  of  the  particolar  popes  to  irhom  they  are 
attribated.  The  subject-matter  ot  theee  deorotals 
ia  most  divenified,  oomiouing  the  authority  and 

— '~' '*  """ 1,  the  whole  system  ra   the 

" '  "'■■  seTersl  (wdera  to 


privilegM  ot  the  pope,  t 
liiersiohy,  with  the  relatioi 


IB  s  soong  and  synemaoa  assumption  of  the  papal 
supremacy ;  bat  it  it  at  the  same  time  more  than 
doubtful  whether  the  direct  object  of  the  author 
was  the  eialtation  of  ^e  papal  prerogative.  It  is 
much  mora  likely  that  the  object  was  to  protect  the 
rights  of  Iriihops  gainst  the  arbitrary  rnle  of  the 
metropolifauia.  D^n  Mil^^1^n  thinks  it  probable 
that  the  anthor  beliered  that  he  '  was  not  asaertiag 
for  Rome  any  prerogathe  which  Eomo  heWoU  had 
not  claimed'  (Latin  Chrutianity,  iL  378).  Cstholjo 
lustcmans,  indited,  go  fuithar,  iai  while  th^  admit 
and  danoBDoe  the  domsy  band,  Oontend  uiat  the 
easy  and  nnirsisal  acoeptanoe  which  the  decretals 
met,  funidMa  the  stnnigaat  p«samption  that  the 
diadpIiBe  whidi  thn  hava  elaWsted  and  meOiod- 
ised,  was  already  in  fnllposacasion, although  without 
tJia  formal  and  written  law  which  the  daniw  adven- 
turer attsBipted  to  proride  in  the  decretob  of  the 
early  pontiA 

It  is  cnrioDB  that  the  author,  the  plaoe.  and  the 
date  of  this  vngnlat  for^ary  are  bUU  matter  of 
nmwrt^^.  It  M  certain  that  it-  did  not  oome 
from.  Bcoaei  and  the  moat  probable  conjecture 
aaaigna  its  oripa  to  Hants,  at  somo  time  botvreeo 
the  yean  810  and  S4T.  Itwat  introdnoodnndertbe 
unmeot  ladoraof  Bsrille,  aaapart  of.  the  genvine 
ooUactioB  known  as  his,  and  was  beUered  to  hare 
been  brought  from  Spaia  by  Bioal^  the  AiohUsht^ 
of  Menti.  It  is  haidly  pasnble,  in  an  age  ot  dia- 
cnaoMt  like  onr^  to  dcobt  that,  when  the  decretala 
fint  kppaared,  erea  the  moat  snperficial  in^ni^,  or 
Uie  ali^iteat  critical  invectigation  cd  the  hutoneal 
KroMM,  would  have  nfficed  to  detaet  the  fraud. 
'  It  ia  impoBsibl<s'  "^  Dean  Milinanj  <  to  deny  that 


delibwtte  sanetion 


at  least  by  dlanf  withMt  tm 

Uie  Boroao  ponl^  gave  thair 

to  this  KTeat  historic  fnuid ; '  uui  ye*  n  a  equauy 

impoMible  to  fix  tiie  limit  bqrond  which,  in  an  ace 

so  nnoritioal,  Hterary  or  hiatorieal  crednlity  mis^t 

not  be  eanied  withoat  provoking  its  snacqitibih^, 

or  disturbing  its  peace. 

From  the  flret  Qlrcnlation  of  the  false  deoretali 
down  to  the  ISth  c,  no  doabt*  were  raieed  tmtd- 
ing  them.  Nicholas  of  Ciua  and  Cardinal  JSizn- 
cremate  were  the  fltst  to  qnsetioQ  their  gmnlneneM ; 
bst  after  the  RefaimatiMt,  the  qneeUon  was  folly 
opened  The  cantnriatars  of  llagdeburg  demon- 
strated their  utterly  ^oorjidial  oharaoter.  A  ref^j^ 
wsB  attempted  by  iMber  de  la  Twre;  but  the 
question  may  be  said  to  have  been  finally  satUed 
by  BlmdeL— See  Hihntn'i  Latfn  (ArMiafriM,  iL 
370—380;  Walther'e  JCifeAoHMU,  p  ISS;  Ofrdrff's 

I'SINOLASS.    SeeGBLAtiKB. 

I'SIS,  the  name  of  an  BEyTitian  deity,  the  lister 
and  wife  of  (Mris,  called  t^  that  peo^s  So, 
dsughtflr  of  $tl>  or  Chronos,  and  Nn  or  Khea ; 
accoiding  to  other  Tersiona,  o!  Hermes  and  Bhea, 
bom  on  the  4th  day  of  the  Ep^omenm,  or  five 
days  added  to  the  Etaftian  year  of  SijO  days. 
After  the  murder  of  Osiris  by  Typhott,  and  the 
throwing  of  Mm  in  a  coffin  into  the  Tanitio  nioutii 
ot  the  Nile  on  the  17th  Athyr,  L  was  informed  of 
the  deed  by  the  Pans  and  Satyrs,  and  went  Into 
mooming  at  Coptoe ;  and  bearing  from  Home  children 
where  the  cheat  had  bean  thrown,  proceeded  to  seek 
for  it  in  company  with  Annbia,  and  discorered  it 
enclosed  In  a  tiunariak  coltunn  fn  the  palace  of 
Molcander,  at  Byblos ;  and  sitting  down  at  a  foun- 
tain in  giiefi  was  disoorered  by  the  Bmbmaial  scent 
of  her  hair.  And  inrlted  to  the  court  by  the  Queen 
Astarte,  to  nurse  her  children.  One  of  these  she  fed 
with  her  finger,  and  endeavoured  to  ren&er  immortal 
1^  placing  hiTn  in  flames,  while  she  herself,  under 
the  form  of  a  swallow,  flew  ronnd  the  oolnmn  and 
bemoaned  her  fate.  Having  obtained  the  coluam, 
I.  took  out  the  chest  of  Osiris,  wrapped  it  In 
linen,  and  Lunented  eo  deeply,  tlmt  the  youn^it 
ot  the  queen's  sons  died  of  frioht.  She  then 
set  forth  with  the  chest  and  eldest  son  to  Egypt, 
dried  Dp  the  river  Phadras  on  her  way,  and 
billed  with  her  glances  the  eldest  son,  named 
Maneros,  who  had  spied  har  secret  grief  in  the 
desert.  Having  deposited  the  chest  in  a  secret 
piiLoe,  she  prooeeded  to  Buto  to  Horns ;  but  Tjphon 
discovered  the  diest  and  divided  the  body  into 
28  or  26  portions,  and  eoattered  it  over  the  country. 
These  the  goddess  aeaia  sought,  and  found,  except 
the  phallus,  wbioh  had  been  eaten  by  fish;  and 
wherever  she  found  any  of  the  limb^  she  set  up  a 
tablet,  or  sent  an  embwoed  portion,  depoaited  in  a 
figure  of  the  god,  to  the  pnnoipal  oitlea  of  Egypt, 
each  ot  which  subsequent^  claimed  to  be  the  tnie 
birth^sce  of  Osiris.  After  the  battle  of  Horus 
and  Typbon,  L  liberated  Trphon,  and  had  her 
diadem  torn  oS^  and  replaced  by  one  in  the  shape 
of  a  oow.  She  was  the  mother  of  Haroeris  by 
Ositia  before  her  birth,  and  ot  Harpooratee  after 
the  death  of  Osiris.    She  buried  Osiris  at  Fhihe. 


into  the  star  Sothii 

miTetnl  throa^ont  -„_.,  — . 

wonhipped  at  FhiUs    and  at   Babastis,  where 

■peeial  leativnl  .wa«  celebrated  to  her;   and  her 

tears  were  supposed  to 


ita,  she  is  colled  the  goddess  moflior. 


-.Gooi^le 


of  the  niD,  and  regent  of  Uie  god&    In  her  terra- 
txiil  duunotcr,  she  wean  upoo  hei  head  the  throne 
whioh  reprelent«d  her  name ;  in  her  celestial,  the 
dke  and  homi,  or  tall  plnmea.     She  ia  often  seen 
■ucklinR  Honu ;  BomebmeB  she  has  the  head  of  a 
cow,  indicating  her  identity  with  the  cow  Athor, 
of  whom  the  wua  waa  bom.     Occadonall7,  she  is 
identiSed  with  other  female  deities,  such  aa  Faaht. 
On  her  head,   she  wean    the  Tultuje  Ejmbol 
maternity.     Hei  attributes  were  aasnnied  by  t 
qneeni   of   EKTpt,  and   deoTntra   aat   and   gave 
naponaea  in  the  character  of  tlie  yonthful  laia. 
^□le  wonhip  of  L  wa^  inbodiued  into  Bome  by 


Sulla  (S8  b.  c.f  from  Tithoiea,  amd  ahaied  the  &te  of 
that  <rf  other  Egyptian  deities,  being  associated  wit' 
that  of  ScnquB,  Ajrabis,  ajid  othen,  and  the  templi 


with  a  fringed  border,  knotted  at  the  chest. 
On  the  Alexandrian  ooina,  I.  appears  as  Phecria, 
before  the  Pharos,  holding  a  full  saiL  The  feativaU, 
■ecluston,  rulea  of  chastity,  attracted  many  followen^ 
hut  Uie  worship  was  not  altogether  considered 
reputable  by  the  Bomana.  It  was  more  extended 
and  respected  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  provinces, 
but  fell  before  Christianity  ^1  A.l>.).  L  was 
worshipped  as  the  giver  Ot  dreams,  and'  in  the 
twofold  character  of  restorer  of  health  and  inflicter 
of  diseases. 

The  m^th  of  I.,  as  ^ven  by  Plutarch,  appws  to 
be  a  fnaion  of  Egyptian  and  Hcenioian  traditions, 
and  the  eaotetical  ex[Janations  offered  by  that  writer 
and  othen  shew  the  hi^  antiquity  and  nmntelli- 
gibility  of  her  name.  She  waa  thought  to  mean 
the  cause,  seat,  or  the  earth,  to  be  the  same  aa  the 
Egyptian  Neith  or  Minerva,  and  Athor  or  Veaos  ;  to 
bethe  Greek  Doneter  or  Ceres,  Hecate,  or  even  lo. 
Many  monuments  have  been  found  of  this  goddess, 
and  a  temple  at  Pompeii,  and  a  hymn  in  her  hoaonr 
at  Antioch.  The  repreaentationa  of  her  under  the 
Boman  empire  are  most  numerous,  L  having,  in  the 
pantheiatic  spirit  of  the  age,  been  compat«d  with 
and  figured  aa  all  the  principal  goddeases  of  the 
PanOieon.— Plutarch,  De  Itidej  Herod,  a  c.  119} 
Ovid,  Mel.  ix.  776 ;  Bunsen,  Eggpet  Place,  1  p.  413 ; 
Wilkinson,  Sir  O.,  liana,  and  GutL,  iii.  276,  iv.  366 ; 
Birch,  OaO.  Ant  p.  31. 

1819.    SeeTHAioB. 

IBKANDEEOO'N,  or  ALEXAITORErrA,  a 
seaport  of  Asiatio  Tnrkey,  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  ia 
aitoated  on  •  gulf  of  the  same  name,  60  milfs  west- 
north-west  of  Aleppo,  of  which  it  ia  the  port.  Its 
harbour  is  the  bert  on  the  Syrian  coast ;  bat  the 
town  itself  though  much  improved  within  lateyeors, 
i*  etill  poor  and  miserable.  Numerous  vessels  of  large 
toonaBe,  and  with  cargoes  the  value  of  which  is  con- 
aidentbly  upwards  of  a  million  sterling,  annoally  enter 
and  clear  the  port  Oalla,  ailk,  cotton,  and  fruits 
are  exported  ;  and  the  ehief  imports  are  rice,  com, 
salt,  and  goods  of  British  manufacture.    Pop.  1000. 

rSLA  DB  PllfOS,  an  ahnost  cireular  island,  of 
SOO  tqaare  miles  and  900  inhabitants,  is  the  largest 
of  the  Bomerous  aatellitei  of  Cuba,  lying  off  the 
south  ooast  of  the  Queeu  of  the  Antilles,  pret^ 
nearlv  on  the  meridiui  <A.  the  capital,  Havana.  It 
i*  oelebrated  for  its  eiodlent  shmate,  exuberant 
fertili^,  rich  mines,  and  valuable  timber. 

ISLAM,  or  E3LAM  (Anb.),  the  proper  name 
of  the  Mohammedan  religion ;  designatmg  complete 
uid  entire  snbmistion  of  boi^  oodsoul  to  Oo^bia 
will  and  hia  service,  as  well  aa  to  all  those  arbdes 


MSDAiriBM).  IsUro,  it  is  held,  was  once  the  religion 
of  all  men;  but  whether  wickedness  and  idolatiy 
came  into  the  world  after  the  murder  of  Abel,  or 
st  the  time  of  Noah,  or  only  after  Amm  Ibn  Lohsi, 
one  ot  the  fiiBt  and  great«st  idolaten  of  ArsUa, 
are  moot-pointB  among  Moalim  ja  word  derived 
from  IdanCi  theologiana.  Evey  child,  it  is  believed, 
is  bom  in  Islam,  or  the  true  faith,  and  would  ooa- 
tinue  in  it  ttU  the  end  nera  it  not  for  the  wicked- 
ness of  its  pOienta,  '  who  miwuide  it  early,  and  lead 
it  astray  to  Mo^sm  (see  QnxBBxs],  Judaism,  or 
Christianity.'    See  Mosammxd,  KoBiH. 

IBIiAMABAD.    See  CHmAOOna, 

ISLAIfD  (Ang.-Sat.  takaut,  '  properly,  t^e-lan^  a 

rt  of  land  surrounded  by  water,  as  the  eye  in 
face ' — Wedgewood ;  loe.  ey,  Dao.  Oe,  meaning 
iole,  ood  akin  to  eye ;  the  i  in  island  CTcpt  ia 
throuKh  the  influence  of  fV.  file,  derived  from  Lak 
Qeogr^thy,  land  surrounded  with 


NewHoll 


ot  the  terms  is  somewhat  vague ;  even  the  great 
Kostem  and  Western  continents  are  surrounded  with 
water.  In  the  ocean  between  New  Holland  and  Asia, 
and  to  the  eastward,  islands  are  more  numcrooa  thaa 
anywhere  else  in  the  world.  There,  also,  the  largeat 
islands  are  found.  Excludins  New  Holland,  tha 
largest  islanda  in  the  worid  are  Borneo .  and 
Greenland ;  after  thesc^  New  Guinea,  Hadanacar, 
Sumatra,  and  Gnat  Bntain.  Islands  are  oft^  in 
lopa,  and  when  the  number 


Kroopa,ati.     ^___, „__ 

olage  it  oaUed  tu  archipelaga  Soma  islands  har* 
the  appeaianoe  of  intimate  motc^ioal  oonmotian 
with  the  continents  near  which  they  are  sitoated, 
and  some  ot  such  connection  witb  esii^  other  that 
they  seem  as  if  they  were  Ha  remaining  parts  «€ 
a  former  continent ;  othen,  geneially  Si  a  nwce 
circular  form,  have  their  nolcgical  (diaraeter  mon 
complete  in  itself.  In  the  South  Seas,  iliare  Me 
two  very  distinct  classes  of  "i  »■"<«,  the  M>e 
moontoinons,  and  often  with  active  volcanoes ;  the 
other  low  and  flat,  formed  of  coraL    See  Cobal 


a  joy,  and  possesied  ereiytiu)^  i 
oould  oontnbute  to  it. 


where  the  favourites 
death,  dwelt 
abundance  that 

rSLAT,  an  island  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland, 
belongiag  to  the  group  ot  the  Inner  Hebrides,  and 
to  the  county  of  Ars^,  lies  west  of  the  praiinsula 
of  Eintyre,  from  which  it  is  distant  about  16 
miles,  and  south-west  of  the  island  of  Jura,  fnan 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  called  the  Sound 
of  Islay.  Ureatest  length,  24  miles ;  greatest 
breadth,  17  miles;  area,  dMut   220   square  mflea; 

(1871)  814a     In  the  ncnth,  the  isUnd  is  hilly, 

along  the  eastern  shore  runs  a  ridge  riiinK 
800  to  upwards  of  1600  feet  in  heisht. 
central  and  weatem  diatricta  are  undidst- 
_  or  fiat.  Asricultore  has  of  late  yean  been 
greatly  improved;  the  number  of  acrea  under  culti- 
vation ia  abont  ^000,  and  abundant  crops,  both 
white  and  green,  are  produced.  There  are  eight 
distdlleriea  on  the  island,  which  produce  about 
400,000  gallons  of  whisky  annually.  Chief  exports, 
black-cattle,  sheep,  and  whisky.    Lead  and  copper 


ISLINGTON,  a  suburb  of  London,  but  m  cloael; 


teitAUr— isoiioBPHiau. 


1  -with  it  u  to  foim  put  of  H,  ia  situatad 
two  miles  north  of  St  P*iil'>.  Fop.  in  18G1,  96,329; 
in  1861, 1GS,341 ;  in  1371, 213,778 ;  it  is  renurkabls 
foir  the  wmtber  of  iti  religioni,  eduiMtionil,  uid 
benevolent  wtUtaHoia, 

IBMAfL,  m  tomi  uid  riTer-poiiinthe  priDdpal- 
i^  ofMoldavia,ciiitheiuirtlil«iLkoftheKiBabRuich 
of  the  Danube,  abont  40  miles  froni  the  month  of 
that  Tiver.  It  wa«  t«ken,  destroyad,  and  its  garriaoit 
pot  to  the  sword  by  SuwarofF  m  Seoember  1790  ; 
'  a  of  Butsi*  after  tlia  peace  of 


treaty  of  Paris,  185$ ;  and  now 

bisD  prindpalily,  Mtddavia.    It  . ^__, 

ant  trade  m  corn,  a«  well  as  a  oonsidMaUe  general 
trade.  Pop.  above  20,000.  Frarioni  to  its  lerer- 
sioD  to  Tntkej',  it  was  the  station  of  the  Bnnian 
fteet  of  the  Dannbe. 

ISMUl),  IBHID,  or  IZMID.    See  Niconkdu. 

ISsrK,  or  IZNECK.    SoeNiOBA. 

ISOBAKOHB'TRIO  LINES  [Or.  iao*.  equal) 
are  lines  connecting  together  on  a  map  Uiose  placea 
wliich  exhibit  the  same  mean  difference  between 
the  monOiIy  ertremes  of  tlie  barometer.  Thrae 
oscillations  are  greater  in  aoioa  conntrics,  as  Hindu- 
stan and  Newfmmdland,  than  in  othen,  as  Western 
Knrope  and  the  Antillee. 

.  ISO'OHRONISH  {Or.  uoi,  equal,  Onmot,  time). 
A.  pendnlom  ia  isocdironons  when  its  vitoAion*  are 
performed  in  eqnal  times,  whether  these  ntoitions 
be  larse  or  am^ ;  bat  it  can  onlj  possMS  Uiie  pro- 
perty by  being  constrained  to  move  in  a  cyelotdal 
arc.  See  CroLom.  This  is  managed  by  causing 
the  string  to  wnm  and  nnwrap  ifanlf  ronnd  two 
e^iaal  t^doidal  imeds,  the  mameter  of  whoee 
generating  drde  is  eqnal  to  half  the  length  of  the 
pendnliim.      Isochtoniem  is  doeelj  approximated 


ISOCRATES,  a  celebrated  Oreoan  onttor,  was 
bom  at  Athena,  436  B.  c  He  had  »  weak  voice, 
And  mnch-natnnl  limidity,  whioh  shut  him  oat 
from  a  political  career ;  bat  he  tanf ht  rhetoric, 
and  wrote  orationa  for  others,  for  whi<S  he  received 
large  anms ;  and  though  he  did  not  mingle  in  the 
stnfe  of  putiee,  he  was  earnestly  iotereeted  in  tha 
csoae  of  his  country's  inde])endence  and  hononr. 
The  fatal  battle  of  ChKroneu  broke  bia  heart :  he 
refnaed  to  taste  food,  and  died  aftm  an  ahetinenoe  of 
aevetsl  dare,  338  B.C,  in  the  BSth  year  of  his  ^e. 
I.  was  a  mend  of  Plata.  His  orations,  of  which 
upwards  of  twenty  are  extant,  are  chaiacterised  by 
extiema  carefnlneaB  and  elegance  of  a^le,  but  are 
not  to  be  compared  with  those  of  Demosthenes  in 
fervour,  or  with  those  of  Lysios  in  natural  beanty 
and  simplici^.  l^e  beat  modem  editions  are  those 
of  Lange  (Balie,  1803),  Ad.  Coraea  (Paris,  1S07),  G. 
8.  Dobeon  (Lond.  1828),  and  Baiter  and  Sauppe 
(Zurich,  1839). 

ISODTSA'MIC,  ISOCLIlnCand  laOGOTNIO 
LINES  (Or.  i«M,  equal,  dynamit,  force,  klino,  to 
bend,  gonia,  an  angle),  or  lines  of  equal  force,  eqnal 
inclination,  and  equal  declinatian,  are  three  systoms 
of  lines,  which  being  laid  down  on  mapa,  represent 
the  magnetism  of  the  globe  as  exhibited  at  the 
earth's  surface  in  three  classes  of  phenomena^  tho 
fairing  intensity  of  the  force,  the  varying  dip  or 
inclination  of  the  needle,  and  its  varying  declination 
from  the  true  meridian.  See  Mionetibii. 
ISO'LA  BB'LLA.  See  BoBXimuN  Ibuhib. 
ISOLA  QBOSSA,  or  LUNGA  (Great  or  Lcmg 


Island),  one  of  the  many  ialaoda  which  lie  off  the 
western  coait  of  Dalmatia,  in  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
extends  between  43°  or  and  44*  11' N.lat  Greatest 
lenjE^  27  miles ;  gTeat««t  breadth,  3  milea ;  pop. 

I50LA  ISAHSA.    See  Bokboioun  Isuhds. 

ISO'MBRIBU  (Erotu  the  Greek  woid  iiomlrtt, 

imposed  of  equal  parts),  a  term  applied  to  those 

or^tnic   compoonda   which  are  identinal  in  Uieir 

ultunate   or   percentage  oomposition,   but   present 

oomponnds,  or  itomeridti,  are  divisible  into  meta- 
menc  compounds,  or  melOtneridci,  and  polymeric 
oon^onnds,  0FjwJ|nneriil«4. 

In  all  metemerio  compound^  the  equivalent 
miber  is  the  tame,  while  in  all  polymerio  com- 
pounds the  equivalent  nnmbers  are  aimple  mnltiples 
of  the  equivalent  of  the  lotreet  number  of  the  groap. 
As  an  Ulustiation  of  metamerides,  pnqnonio  add, 
(HO,C.H,0,),  oceUta  of  methyl  IC,H,0,C.H,0,), 
and  fonmo  ether  (0,H,0,C.HOJ  may  be  taken. 
Their  rational  foimuhe,  whicn  axfuees  their  prob- 
able constitution,  are  perfectly  distinct,  yet  it  will 
be  at   once   seen   that    they  all  have   the    same 

ipirical    formula    (C,n,0.),   and    consequently 

B  same  percentage  oompoaitian,  and  the  same 
equivalent  number,  viz.  74. 

Aa  on  illustration  cf  polymeridei,  the  hydiocarbou 
homologous  with  defiant  gaa  may  iM  taken.  Olefiant 

Eia  represented  by  the  formula  CtHj,  ptopWene 
C,H„  butylene  by  C,H„  amylene  by  C,,H,,. 
iMo  substances  have  the  ssme  percentage  oom- 
oosition,  but  difierent  equivalent  iMimbel*,  all  the 
formulfB  being  multiples  of  the  more  siinide  fonntila, 
C,H„  which  represents  the  composition  of  an 
alcohol-radical,  methylene,  which  has  not  yet  been 

The  carbo-hydntes,  which  are  represented  l^ 
the  general  formula,  CAiOn  pesent  well-ma^ed 

exunplee  of  isomerism.  Thni,oellnloss(0„H,(0,,), 
starch   (C,,H,,0,,),  and  gnm  (Ci^,«0,,),  are 

— tamcrio;  wUle  grape-ingar  (Ci^BnOi,)  pos- 
ies the  same  percentage  composition,  bnt  twice 
_  high  an  equivalent  number,  as  hydratad  lactic 
acid  (C,H,0,),  and  the  same  percentage  com- 
position, bnt  three  times  as  high  an  equivalent 
number,  as  hydiated  acetio  acid  (CtH^Oi) ;  hence 
the  three  last-named  substances  ate  polymeric 

ISOMO'BPHISM  (derived  from  the  Greek  words 
tioa,  equal,  and  nurrphe,  form)  strictly  signifies  simi- 
larity of  form,  bnt  it  is  now  restricted  by  chemists 
to  those  snbetuices  which  are  not  only  similar  in 
their  ciystBUiQe  form,  bat  are  also  imologoua  in 
their  chemical  composition.  The  diamond  {C), 
magncUc  oxide  of  uon  (FeO,Fe,0,),  and  alum 
(K0,SO,  +  A1,0„3S0,  +  24»q.),  all  wyatalliae  in 
octohedra,  bnt  there  is  obnoosly  no  analogy  in 
the  chemical  composition  of  these  enhetancea;   ~ 


(•■•0.I     ... 

.  .  „.  y  oystallise  in  octohedi», 
bnt  (as  their  formaln  shew)  aie  also  analogous  in 
their  chemical  composition.  Hence,  the  members 
._....,.■  ,  u  ^^g 


B  (FeCCr.Oj,  not  only  oystaUise  jj 
'  8  their  formaln  shew)  a 


the  members  tn  the  former 
group  prwent  only  one  of  the  conditions  of  chemical 
isomorphism.  In  most  CM«e,  however,  as  Mibcber- 
lich  (to  whom  we  owe  most  of  our  knowled^  of 
this  subject)  hss  shewn,  the  chemical  composition 
of  sobsteneeB  that  conenond  in  form  is  oiudogoos ; 
and  that  chemixt  has  further  endsavoored  to  prove 
that  crystalline  form  is  independent  of  the  chemical 
nature  of  the  atoms,  and  that  it  is  determined  solely 
by  their  grouping  and  relative  jiosition ;  the  some 
number    of   atoms    combined   tn   the   same   way 


lyCOOglt 


in    hu    Cheniioal  Fhytki,   giTU    fifteen  I  tliraegroai«—bDeotelemeiitB,suiltwoatctn 

Anenio        I  Chloride  of  Patusiimi,   Ed  |    Alomina,  A1,0, 

Antimony  Iodide  of  Potasiiiun,         £1  BMqniozide  ot  Inm,  I^'tOt 

Tdlnrinm  Bromide  of  Potumum,  KBr  SaMloioiide  of  CShraminin,  0,0* 

I  Flnoride  of  Fotunum,    KFl  |    SsiqiiicKida  of  Ifangueae,  Hn,Ot 


icnl  eompMitio 

jrt  iRined  at  in  tii«  Mianoe  of  mTitallognphy ; 
Mid  in  ohemwtay  it  lu*  been  of  MMntial  mttIo*  in 
&H)ilitkting  tho  olMnflcation  of  oompomidB,  and  in 
detwmiiiinK  the  combining  nomban  or  atomio 
wid^ti  of  tb<  elementary  bodiei. 

ISO'FODA  (Qr.  equal-footed),  an  order  of  Mala- 
oottncoos  Cnutaceana  of  tlie  notion  EdriophUiaima 
(q.  T^,  laaeOj  aqoatio— lome  muiiie,  some  inliabit- 
uti  (A  fnah  waten — IntaoiiM  t«n«itrial,inliatdting 
damp  pla<M%  aa  the  armadillo,  woodlonaa,  ko.  The 
body  ia  flattened.  The  titorax  coniiati  of  seven  «eg- 
menta  bearing  leren  pali  of  feet — lix  in  tlk«  yotmg ; 
befMetheir&rtmonltins.  Th«  females  have  nttull; 
large  plates  attached  to  &»  thoneia  tegmenta,  meet- 
ingto  fonn  a  pooch  for  the  egsi  and  young. 

The  intareatang  foeaila  called  TrUot&a  Jq.  v.]  are 
Boppoaed  to  be  liopoda,  ta  neariy  related  to  them. 

IBOTHElUtlAL  LINBB  (Gr.  mm,  equal,  and 
Atrwoi,  waim)  are  linea  laid  down  on  mapa  to  con- 
owt  togethar  pUeca  of  the  vme  maan  temperature. 
—ItoOSrtd  lAm  [Or.  tUraa,  nuomer)  are  those 
whidh  oonnaet  plaoes  of  e<inal  mean  aommer  tern- 
pnatnnL — Ito^tmSKol  lAnti  (Or.  cWmAi,  winter) 
oonneot  places  of  «qnid  mean  winter  temperature. — 

" ' 1  Hnmboldt  waa  the  firrt  to  lay  down 

I  of  linea  on  mna  in  1817>    Their 

^ ntoenoe  to  elinu^  n)ete<»tilog7,  and 

the  aeoara^ila  diatribntion  of  planti  and  aniinala, 
can  Saidlj  b«  over-eatimated. — If  the  irtiole  aoi&ce 
at  the  earth  irara  nrnform,  it  la  evident  that  iao- 
thermal  linea  would  piedaelj  correspond  with  the 
deareea  of  liddtode,  and  there  wonld  be  no  iaotheral 
UM  iaoohaiiooiial  lin^,  aa  distiogniahed  from  the 
isothermal ;  bat  neither  woold  the  earth  be  habit- 
able for  man,  or  Boitable  for  almoBt  any  of  the  animml 
or  vegetable  tribea  which  aotoally  eiiit  npon  it. 
Isothermal,  iaotheral,  and  iaoeheimonal  lines  — 
thai«fore  laid  down  alttujether  from  obaemt 

recoided  and  compared.    In  kytng  them  down, 

matt  be  taken  to  make  allowanoe  for  the  elevation 
of  each  place  of  observation  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  they  being  all  laid  down  as  for  that  leveL 
Isotbennal  lines  are  nsmed  accordiiiK  to  the  mean 
temperators  which  thay  indioate,  the  line  ol  60°,  the 
line  of  60*,  Ac.  They  are  far  from  eorrespondins 
with  parallelB  of  latibide,  nor  are  they  parallel  with 
one  another,  but  are  eorred  in  «ach  a  manner  as  to 
indicate  two  northern  and  two  southern  poles  or 
oenbes  of  greatest  coll  It  is  in  tlie  extra-tropical 
parts  of  the  northotn  hemiaphere  that  theee  enrva- 
tures  are  greatest    The  northam  [ 

situated  In  the  atetio  i^ona,  ona 

Siberia,  nearly  in  the  mendiaa  of  Jakntak,  and  the 
other  to  tho  north  of  America,  neaily  in  the  meiidiMi 
of  the  most  western  part  of  Budaoa'a  B^ ;  tnA  the 
(aothermal  lines  throudiont  the  greater  part  of  the 
northern  hemisphere  descend  to  a  lower  latitQde  in 
the  east  of  Ana  and  in  the  east  of  Anjtriea  than 
eliewhen,  sacending,  however,  to  a  oompantiTely 
high  tatitnde  on  the  western  coaate  of  both  the 
gnat  oontinenbi.    ^oa,  the^e  of  60*  F.,  which 


pasaes  throng  tha  nor 
af  Irdand,  and  there 


loa,  the  I 
irth  of  I 


kUtade,d«oand8  below  the  latitade  of  NewToA, 
OIL  ttw  eaatem  coast  of  Americki  'Qim  dialMtn—  a( 
tha  iaothermal  Unea  are  also  remarkably  Wfooa  in 
differtut  parti  of  the  world.  Una,  in  the  e«t  ol 
North  America,  frmn  Charlevton  to  I^brador,  Iha 
mean  aimtial  t«mpentai«  varies  more  than  a  dayw 
and  a  half  for  every  deMee  of  latitnde ;  whBat  ia 
Central  Europe  the  vanatioii  is  only  shout  nine- 
tentha  of  a  aegi^  and  on  the  weaton  ooaata  ef 
Bnrope  still  leas. 

The  isotheial  and  iaoeheimonal  linee  are  neiUicr 
parallel  amim^  themselves  ncr  with  the  isoUmTpal 
unaa,  and  it  is  m  tU*  that  a  dnif  di^aaioa  ti  oott- 
lliiiiiilal  anil  iif  liiiiiiliii  iliinatw  ■iiiiibh.  Iliiiiiiiimaaa 
of  tha  former  and  the  winters  of  the  latter  anjoynig 
ooapamtively  large  pt^Mrtiana  of  the  heat  «f  tte 


mean  tempatatara  <^  thdr  latituda.    See  COMASEt 
HvnosoiiOaT,  and  TntHnrsuL  TuawM^roaM. 

IBPAHA'N,  properlv  ISFAhAn,  a  famona  ci^ 
of  Fenia,  captal  of  the  province  of  Irak-Ajem^ 
and  fonnerly  c^tal  of  the  (mtire  oountry,  is  litiiatiH 
on  the  Ze&dernd,  in  an  extenaive  and  fertile  plain, 
226  miles  south  of  Tehran ;  Ut  32*  ^K  N.,  lou. 
51*  47  E.  Hie  Zendemd  ia  here  600  fast  bra^ 
and  ia  eroaaed  by  three  noble  bridge^  one  of  tbem 
1000  faat  IB  Imgth,  and  having  H  amliaa.  Onrvcs, 
ondiarda,  avsnna^  and  ouIlivBted  fieUa  soiroaMt 
tha  oity  for  milaa ;  but  the  penuMot  baartj  of 
Vm  viomitT  csi^  aarvaa  to  make  the  oootnat  all  tte 
more  atrUdng  betwasn  the  f oimcr  aplMtdMp  af  tha 
Aij  and  ila  preaeat  ruinaa  condfiiim.  MOaa  <tf 
stMel  ate  now  almost  tanaatieaa,  and  mMf  of  tha 
palaoa  are  daatrtad,  and  r^ikOy  falliDg  to  daeaiy. 
In  tha  Ohitar  Baalt,  aa  •xtenaire  plaaania-fnNuid 
on  the  apath  of  tha  city,  ia  a  pabea  oallad  tba 
OAdU  Mtow,  or  'IWty  CcdnmuC  eoea  a  bnarita 
royal  rasidaBeak  Along  the  frtmt  of  tUa  palaee  ■• 
a  doobla  range  of  oidnmna,  each  rinna  fiom  tha 
backs  of  foBi  Uona  in  white  marUa.  The  [illaia 
aie  inlaid  with  mhrors,  and  tba  valla  and  nuf 


r  of  lis  fa 


■ubnrb  JnU^  on  tl 

ono«  a  flovriahing  _ 

inhabitant^  ia  now  little 

rniua.    L,  however,  is  atill .  — - .,.  — 

tha  aaat  of  tstenaive  maimfaetnrei^  inolndiBg  all 
aorta  of  wovw  fabric^  from  liidi  goU  brocades 
and  figured  velvets  to  octomon  calioMa.  ^inketa 
and  ornamental  soodi  in  great  variety,  with  fire- 
Bword-bla£^  ^****       '       ~" 


also  manufadmred. 


many  of  it!  edifices  have  hesn  .,    

impmtaut  article  of  conuscme,  is  now  landy  cvlti- 
vated  in  -the  nsigUmidiood.     Pon    eattaaafad  at 
60,00a 
L  was  a  trading  town  of  frnportano^  and  the 


ISKAEL-ItALIAN  ARCHEPECTUEE. 


Capitol  of  IrtiL,  imdci  the  coliii  of  Bagdad.  It  wu 
taken  by  Timllr  in  1387,  whan  70,000  of  the  inhabit- 
ants  Me  wid  to  h>ie  been  maaucred.  During  the 
17th  c,  under  Shfth-Abbu  the  Great,  it  beoune 
tha  o^tal  of  Fenu,  vid  reached  the  dimax  of  its 
proapciity.  Ita  waili  were  then  2i  miln  in  circuit; 
and  it  is  nid  to  hkTe  Had  betveen  60(^000  and 
1,000,000  iikhabitanta.  It  was  then  the  empoiinm 
of  the  Aaiatio  world;  the  merchandiee  at  all 
iution«  «iuielied  its  bazars,  and  anbaaaadoni  from 
EoTOpa  and  the  But  ecowded  it*  court.  In  1722, 
it  waa  davartated  by  the  Afghani,  and  Knne  time 
afterwards  the  seat  of  gavenunent  wai  tranaferred 
to  Tehran  (q.  t.). 

I'SBAEL,  KtNQDOK  or.    See  Jews. 
IBSOIBE  [anc  latiodurum),  a  town  of  France,  in 
tba  department  of  Fuy-de-D&me,  at  the  oonflnetiM 
of   tlte  Couze   and  Allier,  20  mile*  *oiith-eatt   of 
Clermoat.    Fop.  (1872)  fiS31. 

ISSOTJDUN,  a  manufaotuRug  town  of  France,  in 
the  departanent  of  Indre,  ia  aitoated  ou  the  river 
ThioUe,  on  the  railway  from  Orleans  to  Limoge^ 
18  miles  north-east  of  GhAtaaurouz,  The  principal 
mumfactnres  are  woollen  cloth  and  yam.  Pop. 
(1872)  11,090. 

ISSUE,  in  Iaw,  mean*  the  point  of  fact  in 
dispute  which  ii  sabmitted  to  a  jtiry. 

I'SBUS,  anciently,  a  seaport  on  a  gulf  of  the 
some  name  in  Cilicia,  Asia  Minor,  catebrated  for 
a,  Tictoiy  which  Alexander  the  Cireat  obtained  hei« 
over  Darius  (333  B.a),  by  which  the  camp  uid 
family  of  Darius  fell  into  his  hands.  Ita  exact 
site  has  not  been  ascertained. 

ISTAUI',  a  town  of  Afghanistan,  sitnated  22 
mile*  north-north-west  of  Csbiil,  on  a  tribataiy  of 
tbe  Cabul  rirer.  In  1842,  it  was  partially  destnwed 
by  the  British.  Frevioos  to  that  event,  it  had 
15,000  inhsbitantB,  who  were  employed  chiefly  in 
sjHiming,  weaving  and  dyeing  cotton. 

rSTHMUS  (Or.),  in  Geography,  a  nan«w  neck 
of  land  joining  two  portion*  of  land.  The  name 
istbmuB  was  by  the  ancients  often  employed  without 
any  addition  to  dedgnate  the  Isthmus  oE  Corinth, 
joining  the  Pelopoonesn*  to  oontinental  HeUas. 
Here  thexe  wai  a  famous  temple  of  Neptune,  and 
liifre  also  ware  celebrated  the  Isthjoax  GAua  (one 
of  the  four  gleat  national  festiTols  of  Oreece),  at 
first  eveiT  third  year,  and  afterwards  every  fifth 
j'car.  Thay  were  said  to  have  been  originally 
Instituted  by  Sisyphus,  and  afterwards  restored 
by  Thesens.  The  games,  like  those  of  Olympia, 
consisted  of  athletic  exercises,  with  the  addifion 
of  competitioaH  in  mnsic  and  poetry.  The  victors 
were  crowned  with  garlands  of  &-,  and  their  statues 
were  placed  in  the  temple  of  Neptune.  Down  to 
the  destroctioa  ot  Corinth  by  the  Koman  general 
Mummiua  (146  b-c],  the  management  oT  1' 
games  was  in  the  hsnds  of  the  rulers  of  that 
Uiongh  the  Athenians  always  enjoyed  the  sea 
honour.  The  Romans  added  the  coarser  and  I 
brutsJ  amusements  of  gladiatorial  exhibitionB  and 
lights  with  irild  beasta  The  spread  of  Christianity 
was  fatal  to  their  pcmulority,  but  we  still  ret  * 
them  in  the  reigns  c^  ConstaDCine  and  Julian. 

I'STRLA,  an  Austrian  marsraviate,  which,  with 
the  county  of  OOra  and  Oradiska,  sind  the  town 
and  territory  of  Trieste,  forms  the  Austrian  crown- 
land  of  the  ooast-districts  or  EUatenland.  It 
consists  of  a  peuinsola  projecting  into  the  north- 
east comer  of  tlie  Adriatic  Sea,  logethtc  wiUi  the 
adjacent  Quamero  Islands. 
ISTOBNirE.  SeeZvoKNiK. 
tSWABA   (from   the   Sanscrit  b',  to  po 


power,  hence  literal!} ,  .    ,  .   . . 

to  different  Hindu  £vinitiei,  but  in  mytiic 
occeptatiou  mostly  dssignatss  S'rvA  (q.  v.). 

.ITA'LIAN  AEOHITBOTUKE.  This  term  is 
usually  limited  to  the  style  praotiaed  by  the  Italian 
arohiteda  of  the  Ifith,  16th,  and  ITth  oenturies,  and 
which  ha*  nnoe  been  wio^eA  in  every  ooantry  io 
Bnrop*.  ntia  style  origiDated  in  a  revival  ot  the 
ancient  architeotore  of  Rome.  Although  Gothic 
anduteotore  had  been  pi*ctised  in  Iti^  daring 
the  13th  and  14th  cectories,  it  had  never  been 
thoroughly  natoralised.  The  Italian*  always  diawed 
preference  for  the  round  arch  over  the  pconted 


northern  form ;  and  ai 


and  largeness  of  parts  indicatiTe  of  a  'Irlti*  1 
As  early  as  1360,  Qiovanni  Fisano,  in  the  ' 
sculpture  of  the  pulpit  at  Pisa,  shewed  a  remm 
to  the  ancient  models.  Amolpbo  di  Lapo  built 
the  cathedral  of  Florence  (1290—1300),  and  in  hU 
design,  proposed  a  great  done  (a  remarkably  Roman 
feature)  orei  the  ciosnng  ot  the  nave  and  transept 
This  he  did  not  live  to  complete;  but  he  prepared 
tha  way  for  Brunelleschi,  the  chief  um  of  whose 
life  was  the  accomplishment  of  the  great  dome  ol 
tha  cathedraL  He  went  to  Rome  to  study  the 
anciant  buildings  there,  at  that  time  neglected  and 

devotmg  a  considerable  tl 
moaoment*,  he  retorned  t 


bjBQchelos 


time,  the  r«vival  of 


Ume,    WHS    m?l*^    VI    UMUim^    ^.v™."«.i~-»     ..ouv    «<« 

T^ioly.    It  WH  enoooraged  by  the  popsa  and  otbsr 

L.oo 


^le 


Italian  Architects  over  Earope.  At  fint,  tbs  Soman 
monldinge  uid  onuuuenti  only  were  copkd  and 
applied  to  the  exiating  forma.  Aa  the  ancient 
style  beoune  better  midentood,  its  general  prin- 
ciidea  were  gradually  adopted,  until  at  length  the 
Modem  Itahon  a^le  wM  formed.  Thia  i^e  may 
be  defined  as  ancient  £oman  Brohit«ctnia  applied 
to  the  fonna  and  nqnirementa  of  modem  bnildiDga. 
It  hoa  been  admirably  applied  to  domestic,  bnt  it 
has  DSTer  been  so  sncceesfmly  used  in  ecclesLaatical, 
ediScee.  The  domee  of  the  Italian  churches  render 
tiie  interiota  of  these  buildinga  very  impresBive, 
and  are  a  feature,  for  the  introduction  of  irhich 
into  the  west  of  Europe,  we  are  indebted  to  this 
aiyle  ;  bnt  the  facades  of  the  churches  ore  broken 
up  into  atorioa,  and  want  the  unity  °f  *  Gothio  front. 

Italian  architecture  ia  divided  into  three  atylea 
or  achools,  accordiDg  to  the  places  where  it  waa 
jwactiaed— viz.,  the  Floreatiiie,  Boman,  and  Vene- 
tian. The  Florentine  bnildinga  are  masaive  and 
grand  in  effect ;  they  ore  indebted  to  ancient  Bomoo 
«rt  chiefly  for  detoua,  the  oatlinea  being  tiie  aame 
M  thoaa  of  the  older  bmldines,  formed  to  init  the 
requireiDeiita  of  the  place,  florenoe  being  a  turbu- 
lent <dty,  every  man  who  hod  anything  to  lose  bad 
literally  to  make  hia  house  hia  castle.  Accordingly, 
the  basement  floor  is  masaiTely  built  with  Itfge 
blocka  of  stone,  and  the  windowa  are  amoll  and 
plain.  The  Soman  school  naturally  Tcaemble*  more 
closely  the  ancient  Soman  buildinoa  so  nnmerons  in 
that  city— ipilastera,  arcades,  ko.,  being  freely  oaed. 
In  Some,  the  plan  of  including  two  or  mora  stories 
in  one  order  of  oolumtu  or  pilasters  with  their 
entablature,  witii  an  attio  or  low  atot;  above,  flrat 
onginat«d,  and  woa  afterward*  extoudvely,  but, 
as  already  explained,  not  aucceatfully  apjuied  ' 
chnrchea. 

The  VenetUn  style  ia,  m  might  be  expected 


crowded  with  apecimeoa  of  all  kinds  from  the 
earliest  to  the  latest  reDSiaaiice,  and  retains  its 
individuality  at  style  from  Hnt  to  last.  Each  sbny 
is  marhed  by  a  «epara(e  tier  of  colamns  or  pilasters 
with  their  entablature ;  the  windowa  an  arched 
and  ornamented  with  columns,  and  the  apandrils 
commonly  filled  with  figures.  The  outline  is  varied 
in  form,  and  is  usuaLy  Gniahed  with  a  balusbade, 
broken  by  pedeetoU,  and  crowned  with  sculp- 
tured figiuea.  It  is  from  thij  tnaet  pictureoqne 
of  the  ^lea  of  the  Italian  remussonce  that  the 
other  countries  of  Enrope  derived  their  pecoliar 
forms.     See  JUna]bbai4C^  Euzabzihaic,  CotQtrB- 

IXAXIO  TERSIOIT  [Vdui  Tlala],  the  name 
given  to  a  translation  of  the  ScriptnreB  into  Latin, 
which  preceded  the  Yu^te.  Ita  origin  is  com- 
monly supposed  to  date  mm  the  midd^  of  the  2d 
century.  The  Italic  Venlan  was  in  general 
down  to  the  time  of  Jerome,  who,  being  dise  ' 

■with  the  imperfections  which  it  exhibited, 

took  to  revise  and  amend  it,  but  ultimatwy  pro- 
duced the  new  translation  known  as  the  Vulgate 
(q.  v.).  The  Italic  Venion  ot  the  Old  Tertament 
was  mode,  not  from  the  Hebrew,  but  from  the 
Septnagint. 

ITALY.  The  geograpbical  territory  comprised 
under  the  name  of  L  consista  o(  a  conaidenble 
stretch  of  peninsular  mainland,  cloeely  resembling 
a  boot  Id  shape,  besides  several  ialands,  situated  in 


Boandariet. — Ita  boundaries  on  the  N.  are  Austria  ] 
and  Switzerlood,  on  the  S.  the  Mediterranean,  ou  { 
the  W.  France  and  the  MeditertsaeOD,  and  on  the  , 
E,  the  Ionian  and  Adriatic  Sess ;  while  ita  natural 
limits  ore  strongly  defined  by  tbs  Alp*  and  tile 

Area.— The  kiozdom  of  Italy— which  comprii_ 
the  whole  peninsu^  with  the  small  exception  of  the 
republic  of  Son  Marino — embiAces  on  area  of  114,699 
English  square  miles ;  and  a  population,  in  1871, 
of  26,716,309.  It  ii  compoaed  of  the  following 
provinces : 


t.  IVrin, .      , 

Piedmaatud  UcaiU, 


Sirdlnls, 
id  BkhIi,  '    . 


M.  TtkIk^  . 


31.  VlDcnis, . 

Vniliit,    . 
U.  BnloEIU,  . 


T16-S1 

tu-io 


BcggtoBxlUi, 
EmlUa,    . 
it.  AncoDM,   . 


.  AtTuto  CItarlon  [Chietl], 


.  Tarn  dl  I^farn  (Cuertij, 


Mi  Ttm  d'Otruto, ' 


j,nt-at 

1.4M-M 


1S7.«M 
111,8*1 


byGoogle 


byGoogle 


I 


7-eori 


byGoogle 


FxKiMllH 

fi^l'-^^Sii'^^V . 

4U,4U 

CkKbrU,     ....       .       . 

i.»9,.ie 

sidir, 

S,B8B.3S3 

Talil,       . 

iM.n»n 

M,7«,aM 

Nortbam  I.  is,  for  th«  moat  parts  o 

EAt  plun — Uu  baam  of  the  Po, 
mbwdy  uid  >  conaidanble  pcvtioa  of  Pietwiont 
and  Vauoe,  btnmded  on  the  nwth-weat  and  partly 
oQ  Uieioath  by  diSenot  Alpine  range*.  Throughout 
Central  I.,  the  great  Apennine  duiD  gives  a  pio- 
toTesqae  irregnlarity  to  tho  physical  oonSgnrstion 


scenery  e 


lits  a  aavage   grandeur.      Along    the 

it-plaina,  aa  wdl  aa  in  the  anh-Apeii' 

]  rallqr*,  the  raral  ohanna  of  thia  portitHi  il  L 

are  exbeme,  ii4ule  the  brilliant  floi*  aiM  Tesetation 
impart  to  it  a  norel  ohanoter  of  beanly.  Tne  chi«f 
monntain-ay«tem  of  L  i«  the  frontier  ridoe  d  the 
AIp«  (q.v),  amd  ita  noblo  contumaticu  t&e 


— » (q.T.)- 

Volamic  ZoM. — L  likewise  oonipriaea 
able  ttreb^  of  Tolouiio  cone,  whioh  tiavenea  the 
peoinanlk  from  die  oantre  to  the  aonth  parallel  with 
the  Apenninee,  and  of  which  the  moat  remarkable 
■ctiTe  tnmmitB  an  VeanTioa,  nur  Naplea ;  Etna  in 
Sidlv ;  and  Sbomboli  in  the  lipari  Isles. 

Pwiaa. — The  great  pUina  of  L  are  tboaa  of 
Lombardy,  which  itretohea  from  the  Minoio  to  tlia 
Ticino  and  the  Po ;  of  Piedmont ;  the  VenetiAa 
plaini  i  the  plain  of  the  Soman  legationa ;  the  plaio 
of  the  Ccanpo  PtUee,  on  which  stands  Vesiivim ; 
the  Apnlian.  ^ain  ;  tlia  long,  narrow  Ne»politan 
plain  of  the  Pnnilirttn,  100  miles  in  lengUi,  and 
24  miles  in  breadth,  stretching  along  the  gnlf  of 
TarentoL 

Riven. — The  zreat  majority  of  the  rivers  of  X.  are 
only  navigable  lor  imall  ooasting  boats  or  bar^ 
By  far  the  most  important  is  iiie  Po  (q.T.),  wluch 
riMa  on  the  borders  of  France,  and  flows  into  the 
Adriatic.  It  has  nnmerous  tributaries.  Amoogthe 
otbeis  may  be  mentioned  the  Ad^e,  Brenta,  Piave, 
TagliamenCo,  Atemo.  Sangro,  Metaoro,  Ofanto, 
Bradano,  also  belonging  to  Uie  Adriatic  basin  ;  the 
Aino,  the  Tiber,  tiie  Ombrone,  the  Garisliano,  and 
the  Voltnmo,  which  belong  to  the  Mediterranean 
basin.  The  daiaical  and  historical  asaociationi  of 
many  of  the  Italian  streams,  even  when  mere 
rivulets,  invest  them  with  perennial  interest. 

Canal  Bydan. — ^The  canal  system  of  I.  is  most 
extenmve  in  the  north.  Nine  principal  canals  in 
Lombardy  adminiater  to  the  irrigatirai  of  the  plains, 
and  to  the  pntpoaea  of  oommercial  oommtmication, 
contributing  in  no  small  dagree  to  the  prosperi^  of 
the  district.  The  Na^^  OratuU  m  TicinelJo  is 
the  finest  hydraolio  constmotion  in  L  ;  it  oommuni- 
cstes  between  the  Tieino  and  Uilan,  and  has  a 
oouraa  of  28  miles  navigable  for  vessels  of  Isj^ 
size.  It  was  begun  in  1179,  The  IfavigUo  Mar- 
teaano,  38  miles  longi  unites  Concesa  on  the  Adda 
with  Milan ;  the  Naviglio  di  Favia  is  13  miles 


length;  UiabifDraatedibt«ffZii>(fOs<^Kaanitflathe 
Po  with  the  Adige.  SS3  canals  intereeot  Kedmont, 
extending  over alenj^  of  1932 kilomftbns.  Vetiioe 
comprises  903  navigable,  and  40  minor  csnals. 
Nnmeians  canals  have  been  constructed  for  the 
drainage  of  the  Pontine  Marshes.  This  ^FStem  of 
water-communication  was  early  carried  to  a  high 
degree  of  effitdency  in  I.,  and  is  of  incolculaUe 
service  in  the  agriooltaral  distriots. 

Laka.—The  moontaia  lakes  of  I.  are  famed  for 
their  picturesque  beauty.  They  are  mostly  in  the 
Docthem  provin6es  of  Lombardy  and  Yenctia.  The 
principal  are  Maggiore,  Lu^no,  Como,  tseo,  and 
Garda.  The  Roman  lakes  of  Perugia,  Bolseno,  Bad 
Btacciano,  that  of  Caatiglione  in  Tnscsny,  and 
Ceiano  in  Napjee,  also  deserve  mention. 

Springi. — The  mineral  and  thermal  springs  of  L 
are  innumerable,  and  possess  a  great  variety  of 
curative  and  sanitary  properties. 

CUmale. — In  the  northern  provinces,  the  climate 
is  temperate,  aalnbriona,  and  frequently  severe  in 
winter  ;  in  tbe  centre,  it  assumes  a  more  genial  and 
iunny  character ;  while  the  faeat  of  the  southern 
extremity  is  almost  of  a  tropical  intensity.  Tbe 
moKular  clearness  of  the  atmosphere  sets  off  the 
landscape  and  monumental  beauties  of  L  with 
brilliant  effect.  The  drawbacks  of  I.'s  climate 
are  the  piercing  tramontana  or  mountain  winds ; 
the  deadly  sirocco,  which  blights  all  nature  at 
seasona  along  the  western  ooast ;  and  the  malaria  or 
noxion*  miaamata  which  issue  from  the  Maremma 
of  Tnsoany,  the  Pontine  Maishea,  and  the  Venetian 
lagoons,  Renting  peatilential  fevers  and  aguish 
disoasee  in  tbe  summer  seaaon.  Tbe  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  leading  divisions  of  the  ■  caaatry 
throughont  a  whole  year  wm  as  follows  :  Milan, 
06°  4'  of  Fabrenheit'a  scale ;  Borne,  G9° ;  Palermo, 
62°  0* ;  and  in  Sardinia,  60°  6'.  The  hizheat  tem- 
perkturs  at  Borne  rises  to  95°,  and  in  Sicily  from 
97*  to  104°. 

PToduttt. — The  staple  products  of  I.  are  corn, 
wine,  oil,  raw  silk,  rice,  (uivea,  and  fruits,  besides 
hemp,  flax,  cotton,  which  are  largely  grown,  and 
even  the  augac-cane  is  snccesafully  cuftivoted  in  the 
Two  Sicilies.  Agriculture,  however,  eic^t  in  tbe 
north,  is  in  a  very  backwara  conditioa.  Nevertfae- 
leaa,  the  annual  yield  of  cereal  crops  is  considerable, 
and  not  only  euffioes  for  home  consumption,  but 
likewise  for  foreign  export.  The  northern  prov- 
inces or  great  plains,  Tuscany,  and  the  ialanda  of 
Sardinia  and  Sicily,  furnish  moat  of  the  grain  of 
Italy.  liie  minor  alimentary  products  are  beans, 
pease,  Indian  com,  lupines,  and  chesnuts,  which  ate 
hvr^y  used.  The  wmea  of  I.  are  very  numerous, 
but  owing  to  the  defective  mode  of  their  manu- 
facture, are  unfit  for  exportation,  as  they  can 
neither  bear  transport,  not  do  they  improve  by 
age.  The  wines  of  Naples  ore  esteemed  the  best, 
smoUquantitiea  of  the  lamons Laerima  ChriM  and 
the  Fhio  d'Aiti  being  exported,  while  the  Sicilian 
wines  of  Marsala  form  a  considerable  export  trade. 
The  most  superior  oil  and  olives  ore  furnished  l^ 
Tuscany,  Lucca,  and  Cfaples;  the  oil  of  Florence, 
anil  that  of  QaUipoli  andT  Fnglio,  beiiu  imequolled 
for  purity  and  sweetoess.  Suk  is  (£iefly  manu- 
factured in  the  northern  provinces,  the  cultivation 
of  the  mulberry  and  tbe  rearing  of  the  silk-worm 
forming  in  Lombardy  a  pnuciptJ  occopation  of 
the  popnlation.  In  Lombardy  alone,  upwards  of 
17,01X1,000  mulberry-trees  ace  required  to  furnish 
food  for  the  worms  ;  and  the  silk  exported  from 
the  Lombardo- Venetian  provinces  alone  yields 
on  annual  revenue  estimated  at  about  £3,000,000. 
The  best  manufactured  silk  cnmes  from  Piedmont, 
Tuscany,  and  the  Itoman  provinces.  Tlie  cotton- 
plant  IS   grown  extensively   in  Sicily,  and  yields 


SH  I 


SuiliM  wa  «xqiiiKto  in  flaTonr,ftnd  embrM*  Mroml 
tropkwl  ipMiv.  Onn^eo,  kmou,  •Imando,  Sgt, 
date*,  meloiu,  and  tba  piatkcliio-nnt  an  eommoa  to 
»U  oiohardi,  and  He  Iv^y  eiportad.  A  oootider- 
kble  oheMe-tnde  eiiabi  m  the  nartium  proriuon, 
that  ol  Lombard;  akaM  yieldiiu;  a  TeTenas  of  mora 
than  £2,000,000.  I.  alao  furaU£«s  Tarioua  Taliuble 
■otMtawMa,  mdi  aa  solpbar,  alma,  ko.  All  tiie 
dome«tia  animal*  of  Weatem  Europe  are  to  be  louod 
in  L,  beudw  bnfCaloea  and  oameim  whicli  an  not 
nncommon.  The  fanna  cd  L  inoliUM  moat  of  Uie 
Britiab  ipeiuai,  boddM  the  wolf,  lynx,  boac,  marmo^ 
vuHore,  ibia,  flamingo,  and  p«tioan.  On  the  ooaii 
ol  the  aoutlierii  proTinoea  am  to  be  fonnd  many 
^eoiea  <^  African  water-fowl.  The  ortolono  and 
beca^/ieo  era  email  biida,  mnoh  Mtaemed  U*  thair 
flaroar.  The  nootomal  flrefliet  are  a  nmaAable 
tetibm  of  iweot  life. 

^AtrU*. — The  aea  and  freah-water  fialiariei  of 
I,  an  oooadtrable  i  the  UediterraDoan  furniahing 
imFm^T"  QoantitiM  ot  tnnnj,  anohoviea,  lardinea, 
mallet,  [Uihardi,  and  maokeml.  The  export  of 
anehoviee  and  "f^iin—  it  of  vast  extent.  The 
riTer-fidwriea  yield  aUmon,  trout,  itnigeon,  lau- 
IH^(^  tnob,  and  barbel,  tux  ;  and  th«  It^oona  eon- 
tain  Bxodleiit^  flaTonred  eela.  See  OoiouoaHIo. 
The  oTwtaaeau  and  elieU-fiah  U  the  Italian  mm 
are  of  0«at  tmttj  and  delicate  flavour,  and  are 
favowMB  arii<de  of  Italian "" 


t  the    rappreeaioD    of  m 
id  lale  of  their  laitcla  by  gi 


except  PMdmont;  but  emce  the  late  p«iaea]<Aaii0a  | 
<rfL,freedomof  relinODibdiaf  IB  eaeoanged  by  &e  i 
govnnmenL  1^  Boman  Catholio  eloigj  n<a  esti- 
mated at  7  in  the  1000  of  the  eutii*  noDolatian.  I 
The  chnrah  revenaei  of  L  have  eoflerad 
dimiiiiitioii,  owinft  to  the  an] 
orders,  and  the  I 

SduaMon. — The  man  ot  the  Italian  pe<q>Ie  are 
inoredibly  illiterate ;  the  primary  elementi  of  edn- 
eatiDii,  reading  and  frritiog,  are  b;  no  means  oni- 
T«ul  even  among  tiie  better  olaaea.  A  great 
educational  impnlae,  however,  hae  been  imparted  to 
all  the  raocmtly  united  atetw,  in  whioh  mw  poldis 
and  odoved  icboob  are  daily  being  isaagniated. 
Normal  lohai^  on  the  Britiah  principlet  have  been 
foonded  for  the  ttainiag  of  L'e  future  1  Mchwi.  Tbe 
govsroment  haa  darotad  to  the  canee  of  edneatioa 
a  great  part  of  the  oonfiioated  nn^erty  el  idigions 
otdeni.  Bfflidcathie,  £600,000  naonnally  voted  by 
parliament  tor  ednoation.  The  mtiverntaM  «f  L  ara 
numeroQa,  many  of  tiiem  beiog  of  trtfwnt  diAa  attd 
Eon^ean  fame.  ^Hie  ddrf  an  tiuMa  at  Salno, 
Bologna,  Naplea,  Padna,  Rome,  Femgia,  Pin,  Biuu, 
Favia,  lurin,  Parma,  Ploraioa,  Catania,  Oa^ari 
"     nU),  Genoa  (renmddled  and  extended,  1783), 


le  of  Italian  oounmptiML 
mong  the  anotta  ct  L  may  be  notei 
bh.  faqitl  (d  varvMU  Unda,  marbln 
boi,  aJiim,  ailki^  velveti^  olout  of  goli 


._ .  rice,  flab,  fawta  of  variotu  Unda,  marbhL 

alabaater,  aalpboi,  aJiim,  ailki^  velveti^  olout  of  gold 
and  (ilTO,  p«rfam«%  monuca  in  atone  and  wood, 
oarvingi  in  irood,  "■"""■■  and  ainiilar  onlinary 
paatei,  poroelain,  m^oliea,  preaerved  fraita  ana 
meeiti,  mnncel  inatrament%  jewdlaiy,  and  objeots 
«f  art 

Armg  tmd  Naen—Tba  latert  atatiddoa  of  the 
military  and  naval  forot  of  the  kingdam  of  L  give 
the  following  Aombera  :  0^  July  1,  187G,  the  army 
compriaed  alotal  of  400,426,  oommanded  by  13.6M 
offiaere,  not  included  in  tba  number  |riv«n  above. 
The  staff  nmnbered  1430 ;  infantry,  220.709 ;  deptta, 
21^960 1  benaglieri  or  Bbaip  -  shootws,  37,402  ; 
cav^,  3i,106;  artUlery,  48,248;  corpe  of  engin- 
e««s,  961S ;  oarbinaere,  20,970 ;  local  troops,  1614 ; 
satutary  aervioe,  3217 ;  divew  eatabEshroeiitB,  7487. 
If  we  take  into  account  the  proviDoial    '"il'*'»| 


„  1,  mmibering 

182|7I1,  the^totnl  war-roll  of  L  amounts  to 
867,886  men.  In  September  1875.  the  Italian  fleet 
ooosiited  of  40  war-veesels  and  2t>  tnniporte — 66 
in  aJJ,  carrying  335  guni,  with  a  force  of  13316 
sailors  and  marinea  ;  besidea  1075  offioers  ol  all 
gntdea,  from  one  admiral  and  one  vioe-admiral 
down  to  those  in  charge  of  the  oommiiarist, 

FiHanau. — The  revenue  of  the  kingdom  of  L, 
for  the  finanoial  year  1874,  was  £61,768,000; 
the  expenditure  waa  £66,639,000  ;  defioit,  about 
£4,0OO,0O&    The  public  debt  at  the  end  of  1874 


iblic  debt  in  the  expenditure  of  that  year 
were  x»>,288,674— mem  than  a  half  of  the  levose 
of  the  kingdom. 

Se^gioit, — The  dtmuaant  form  erf  idigioii  o(  L  is 
the  Eoman  Catholie.  Hie  natira  Proteatanta  dwdl 
dnefly  in  the  Waldeuiaik  vall^a  ol  Piedmont,  ai^ 
&nmbw  only  about  WfiOO.  Tlure  are  alao  between 
40,000  and  60,000  Jaws  soattared  throndtontL,  vAo 
are  duafl v  ennged  in  wwnmwce.  Poutieal  nthar 
than  thaaJcffiMl  roaaona,  however,  befMS  the  tixii- 
tion  of  Uie  temporal  power,  brmtght  Uia  p^xtoy  into 
gieat  disiepate  among  the  pngreaive  and  oatioiial 


(in  17M), 
ModMU(r 


fiiiXery.— Tba  anidont  histosy  of  L  will  be  ■ 


,  The  Wertcn  Bmnan  Eo^irs 
fdl  baton  amixadhinda  d  baibanna  matwanina, 
dnaDy  minpnafiil  of  the  Honili,  irito  melatmed 
their  leader,  Odoaeer,  king  ot  Italy  (476  a.  n.,). 
Aft<r  l»  rmn  of  military  despotism,  ha  waa  dain, 
and  hia  foUowcm  vanMiahad  I^  the  Oatngott^  lad 
br  a«r  gnat  king  The  "  '  ■"■  "  ■ 
Goibb),  m  tiieiT  tnm, 


king  ot  Italy  (476  a.  Bl). 

■ry  deapotism,  ha  waa  dain, 

idled  I7  the  OatngoUi^  lad 

Dhaodoin    The  Ostroootfea  (aee 

ished  (US A.  DO; 


^having 


s,tlM  first  ezsicfa. 


Ike  Lombards,  in  Uiair  tnm,w 
by  Pepin  (76^  and  ChaifemaaBe  (774),  tb 
whomwaacTownedempBcvoIlt^.  ThaLamliaida, 


however,  retiuned  the  great  duohiee  of  .  ___   

Spolehv&o.,  till  the  advent  of  the  Notmaaa.  In842 
the  Saraoena  invaded  L,  and  tedt  poaasaauM  of  many 
imjMctaBt  plaeea  on  tbe  aovt^an  ooaa^  wUc^  tbcy 
h^d  till  1016,  when  thay  ware  driven  ant  I9'  -^"^  - 


Normaaa.  On  the  &11  of  tlM  Cariovingian  iljnailji 
(888),  the  ovwn  of  Italv  feU  to  Bem^rin  L,  1^ 
of  the  Frioli,  irtiose  oeseraidant,  Bere^arina 


did  homiwe  to  Otbo  I.  of  Geraaany  aa  Ua  lofd- 
psiamonnt  (951) ;  aad  is  HI,  Odt»  dcnoaad  hk 
vassal,  and  saaumed  aovefagn  ririita  over  uw  Italian 
kingdom.  From  thia  period,  Uw  (diiil  towna  of 
Itafy  r^ndly  eaiergad  from  their  previous  ina^- 
nificsnoe.  A  foremoat  object  of  Othie  and  hia 
•nooesaora  waa  the  abaaement  of  the  papacy ;  and 
for  a  time  thaw  empwofa  uei      '  "  '   *  ' 

themaelvaa  the  right  of  nomin 

8t  Peter  tlu  eaMlidate  moat 

rul&  The  annaaaion  of  Koniad  waa 
varioos  tanudtnooa  risings  OE  the  ItaliaM's^inat 
tliHt  Oennan  mleta,  who  had  grown  the  objeci  of 
gMMraldateatatJML  .  Important  laodal  aaodifieatioaa 
Smiagthiaiaigntaidad  atill  farther  to  weaksn  the 
great leikbl  lOTds,  and  to  exalt  the  infsBoa-  vamala 
«id  oiticeDa.  Itnd«r  tite  t«^  of  hia  aneasMoa, 
Hemy  IIL,  we  find  the  qarit  of  aaaocaatinn,  alike 


munid^  goTeramant  (1100),  an  the  thres  moat 
notable  BTents  that  ocouned  nndw  the  Flanooiiian 


ye»n^  whi^  howercr,  waa  vatted  in  ■nioidal  ooq' 
llicta  betwMB  tlie  two  faatiana  of  the  Guelphi  and 
GhibeDisea.  The  moat  terrible  inoideiit  of  thia 
period  waa  tlM  nMsacre  of  the  Sicilian  Veapera 
(q.T.).  Notwitiutaudiiig  the  ioveterate  istemeci&e 
fenda  of  Italy,  it  ma  »  penod  of  graat  iplendour 
ftnd  pniaperiiy.  The  free  oitiLea  or  H^blios  of 
Italy  rivalled  kingdonia  in  the  extent  and  import- 
ance of  ^lax  oommerae  and  manafaotnrM,  the 
advaaoeoie&t  of  art  and  amtxuM,  the  magnifioence 
of  their  pnblio  edifices  and  monnmenta,  and  the 
prodiipooa  indindoal  and  national  wealtit  to  vhidi 
tluiy  attained.  Unhappily,  a  spirit  of  liTaby  and 
intolerance  gttiw  np  dnring  tfaii  period  of  medieval 
■[Jeadour,  and  in  the  arbitmiy  attempt  of  tikeae 
etatea  to  aeonie  nipreiBaof  orei  ewdi  otber,  they 
gnidnaUy  worked  thw  own  daafamctioiL 

fmn  the  SiciUan  Tfapen  (1282^  to  Hie  reign  of 
Heaiy  TIL  (1306),  the  ohief  hirtOrioal  incidenta  are 
the  war  helnneD  OeoMi  and  Piaa,  ending  in  the 
abasement  and  nltimate  decline  of  the  latter  (12S1) ; 
the  qiuneli  of  the  Onelphio  factiom,  the  Bianehi 
and  the  Neri,  in  Tuscany ;  titep^alefforti  lot  their 
reconciliatJon  (1301) ;  the  reaidenoe  of  the  popea  at 
ATignim  (1301 — 1377);  and  the  rise  into  importance 
of  the  olisBTohio  republic  of  Venioe  (1311).  During 
the  Giat  half  (d  the  14Ui  a,  the  Qerman  emperors 
made  aaTwal  fmitleea  attempts  to  K^n  politioal 
'    '     '    '  '  n  ISfiS,  the  Emperor  Ciualtm 


B  of  aeverol  pettf  tyrants,  of 
which  the  foremost  vera  the  Visconti  or  lord*  of 
MiUn,  replaoed  that  of  the  enmeron.  From  the 
mifldle  of  the  14th  □.  to  the  end  of  the  16th,  the 
coUectiTe  history  of  L  ceassi^  eaoh  ci^  being  ruled 
bv  some  powenul  local  ftunily — ai,  for  example, 
Verona  by  the  Delia  Scala,  Padua  hj  the  Carnn, 
Ferrara  by  the  Este  fmitliaii,  «nd  Mantua  by  the 
illuttnona  prinoea  of  Gonzaga ;  Milan  bj  the  Delia 
Torre,  ViKsonti,  and  Sfona  familiaa.  See  also 
Genoa,  Pisjt,  TioBJOict,  Vamat,  Natlb,  Sm. 

Fnsm  149S  to  1525,  I  wm  the  theatre  of  the 
sanguinary  strugdes  between  Fnwoe,  the  native 
rolas,  and  the  Hapatiur^  bat  the  battle  oi  Favia 
( 1S29)  thoroolBUy  eetahtuhed  the  ascendeney  of  the 
Gemuui  emperor,  who  appranted  otbt  the  variom 
states  mien  of  faia  own  leleotion.  During  the 
1711i  &,  no  evente  of  note  bmHi  the  history  of  I. ; 
the   country  being   at    peaoo,  the    Turions   (tates 

their  decteased  limits  permitted.  lb  the  foUowina 
century,  lome  tanritMial  ohaDoes  «eta  effected 
during  tike  war  of  the  &3Muab  i 
179%  L  pattiallf  entered  the  Ear 
formed  aoainst 
irr«fliBtiU&    Si 

October  1797,  fte 

feired  to  Aortria,  while  tbe  rest  of  the  eonntry, 

part  a  dependaney  of  E^aaceh  In  this  anomalooa 
condition  it  lenuiaed  during  tbe  ml*  of  KapoleoD. 
After  the  battle  of  Waterioi^  the  final  leoonakit*- 
tion  of  I.  waa  deereed  as  follewa  bj  the  aoaovas 
of  Tieiuis:  tiie  kingdom  of  "-r""^-  rericlsd  to 
the  Hooas  of  SsToy,  to  whidi  were  added  aQ  the 
provinces  ol  the  Geaoaea  repulilia ;  the  Lenbode- 
Venetian  kii^gdooi  fell  to  AattoiA;  the  prinnirilrtiT 


179%  L  pattiallv  entered  ua  European  coalition 
'  against  Aanoe,whoaBarmB,howevff,pn>Ted 
By  'Ute  trea^  of  Campo  Forauo,  17th 


annexaa  ubsm  ana  u«mn,wara  natosed  to 
familT  of  Esta;  Luecn  was  twted  a dnchy  for 

ri^tlnl  Duke  of  Fanna,whMs  henditaiT  state  1 

oonfened  on  Maria  Louisa,  A.aD^resa  of  Um  heneh ; 


Uie  dnohy  <rf  Tusoau^jr  waa  lastomd  to  the  Anstio- 
L(«nine  dynsstr;  tiie  F^al  States  to  the  pope; 
the  Jongdtan  «  Nq^  to  the  Bourbons;  while 


the  petty  state  of  San  M^ino  was  allowed  to 
retain  its  republican  fonu ;  and  Monaco  remained 
an  iadepsodent  [oincipalitjr  nndv  iiba  Prince  of 
Vslentdnoift 

By  (die  oongrasB  of  Timua,  I.  waa  again  nat  at 
Hie  feet  of  the  papacy  and  of  Aostria,  and  this  at  a 
period  when  ^ogreariTe  aapirationa  w«m  Btr<mgly 
re-awakened  lu  the  Italian  peo^e.  The  ^tem 
of  reaohtte  op^nsDon  Bdt^ted  oy  tiia  tMnatated 
ndera  speedily  produced  an  irreocmtulable  hostihty 
betwesD  themaelTea  and  their  lubjecta,  and  a  net- 
work.  of  wmnk  sooietiee  for  the  orranisatiDn  of 
national  rentanoe  spread  throu^out  the  entire 
land.  The  fint-boits  of  tbcir  coxaniaation  werethe 
of  1620  and  1821  in  FieSmont  and  Najdee, 
indoonatitutional  rights.  Austrian  inteiVen- 
.  «Ued  both  these  moremaitB :  and  in  1631, 
when  a  rimilar  riring  oooaned  in  Modena  and  Uie 
States,  it  waa  tnbdned  with 


,    .  army.    Inti    .  

...  distinct  tendency  towards  nationsl  nni^ii  per- 
ceptible;  and  o^  cm  the  aooessftti  of  OhailiB  Albert 
'    ihethrane<4eiedmant(1831)wsathit{pwididea 


tk  ntodem  L  i«oponnded  by  Joseph  M«««™i  in  sn 
addieas  to.tte  bng,  n^ng  nim  to  aswmc  the  rOle 
of  liberator  and  leader  of  Jtaly.  Hh  king  of  Pied- 
—— *■  by  yieldiltf  ir  ■'™**  i*a™«—  *«  *u..  m^,^^  <j  v:- 
pn^aiedur 

med^ 


...  -  ; „ , —  of  hia 

s  pn^iaied  for  Piedmont  [sv-eminenoe  throo^- 
the  counbry.    Iba  scoeaEion  of  Pitts  IX,  in 


s  followed  by  wise,  liberal 


and  Piedmont  _  ..^    .  ..    . 

the  otb«r  dates  reaolntely  refused  erery  measure  of 
reform,  and  br  a  rimnltanecaB  outbreak  in  Sidly 
and  Milan  in  Jauaary,  the  treat  revolution  of  I64S 
was  inangnratad  in  Italy.  The  rendution  (d  France 
in  FebruaiT  imparted  a  strDt^  impulse  to  that  of 


ily  Naples,  nedmm . 
oeded  eoutitubonal  righte  to  the  popular 
The  Milanese  unanimonaly  revoltett  against  Anatrian 
rule  on  the  ITUi  of  March,  and  after  fire  days  of 
henna  ^hlang,  the  Austrians  wen  expelled  from  the 
dty,  and  Bsdetdiy,  with  70,000  tro^  CMmelled 
to  retreat  from  itai  walls.  On  the  2Uh,  Charles 
Albwt  entered  Lombsidy,  the  avowed  champitm  ol 

Of  LooBitribnted  their 


indcmndenee, 
«.    iJltheeov 


beet  troops  for  the  war,  and  on  the  Bonan  vohw- 
tecrs  settang  ont  for  Lomhardy,  the  ^ope  himaetf 
in  pnbho  pronounced  a  solemn  benediction  on  their 

B>t  ere  a  month  had  elapsed,  Pius  IX  anddenly 
halted  in  hia  career  of  libentor  of  Italy,  and  aban- 
doning the  national  oanse,  lauuehed  (19th  April) 
a  serera  OMsnre  against  'this  nuinvC  and  hurtful 
war,'  which,  chiefly  by  bis  own  benediction,  hod 
bsMi  oonsecrated  in  the  eyaa  of  at  least  the  more 
ignorant  of  the  people.  The  reoall  irf  the  Ns^mhtaa 
tro<H  was  tlie  firrt-fniita  cf  the  eneyoUoal  letter, 
which  may  be  euDSkdared  1^  tocsin  of  tbe  subse. 


ide  way';  at  the  oloae 
of  tte  year  Borne  becave  agitated ;  the  pooe  fled 
teGwta;  and  en  tbe  ath  of  Fabraaiy,  Oe  Bensa 
B^iuUio  was  BrodaaMd,  nndw  tba  ^esideaoy  of 
MitT-'-'  Ob  the  same  d^r  the  Grand  Dake  of  IW 
mmj  ahnnHnnsil  his  alaitt    Piaimnnt  again  aaanwcil 


4le 


The  treiiiiharoiu  Fretiah  expedition  agiuiiRt  the 
fioman  nipuldic,u)d  the  retom  of  the  pope  '  """ 
■re  the  oonclndii^  aoti  ot  thiB  great  revolnl 


Mve  Piedmont,  the  king"  of  which  kept 

with  hia  tabjeots,  and  observed  the  coiutitution&I 
ionaa  ooneeded  in  1848.  Austrian  troo^  exercised 
n  cnuhina  tymuijr,  and  from  time  to  tune  Europe 
ahnddered  M  die  t«cital  of  the  dork  craeltiei  piao- 
tised  in  the  dungeons  of  Naples  and  Rome.  In  the 
Conneia  of  Pam,  at  the  close  of  the  Buieiaa  war 
(1856),  Cavour  (q,  v.)  forcibly  exposed  the  on- 
avoidable  dangers  of  a  continnance  of  Austrian  and 
papal  miBnile.  He  strongly  urged  the  expediency 
of  a  withdrawal  of  French  and  Anstrian  troops  from 
Borne  and  the  Wations.  In  the  be^nning  of  1S59, 
Victor  Enunaanel  proclaimed  from  the   Sardinian 

Sarliament  his  intention  of  actively  aiding  in  the 
eliverance  of  the  oppressed  Italian  population  from 
the  yoke  of  Anstiia.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year, 
Sudiuia  and  France  jointly  prepared  for  war  with 
Austria,  and  in  April  185S  tile  war  conunenced- 
The  victories  of  Magenta  and  Solfsrino  were  quickly 
followed  by  the  abrupt  and  inooncliuive  peace  of 
Villafranca,  11th  July  1869,  by  which  a  confedera- 
tion of  the  Italian  states  with  the  papal  protectorate 
was  proposed  sa  the  best  solution  of  L's  diffioultiea. 
The  whole  of  L  eneroetically  rejected  the  scheme ; 
and  early  in  1860,  ^e  various  states  whose  sove- 
nigns  were  in  flight  from  the  Lombard  eampaisn 
To&ntarily  declared  in  favour  of  annexation  to  tna 
kingdom  of  Fiedmoat.  On  the  18th  of  March, 
Parm^  Modena,  and  the  Emilian  provinces  were, 
incorporated  vith  Sardinia ;  and  the  grand  duchy 
of  TnscsOT  on  the  22d.  On  the  17th  March,  the 
law  by  lAicb  Victor  Emmanoel  aanimed  the  title 
of  King  of  Italy  was  promulgated  amidst  universal 
rejoicings.  On  the  24th  l^rch,  the  provinces  of 
Ifioe  and  Savoy  were  ceded  to  France.  On  the 
6th  of  the  ensuing  May,  Qaribaldi,  with  about  a 
thousand  Tolunteerg,  set  sail  from  Oenoa  for  SicOy, 
where  a  revolutionary  outbreak  had  taken  place. 
His  twift  and  comparatively  bloodless  conquest  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
incidents  in  modem  history.  Meanwhile,  the  Sar- 
dinian genarals  Cialdini  and  Farini  having  advanoed 
into  U^  P»P>^  provinoes,  the  papal  taitx^  nnder 
Lamorici^  were  rooted  at  Cistelfidardo,  which 
was  followed  by  the  oapture  of  4000  j^iaoners 
at  Loretto,  and  the  anrrender  oi  Hjoooivain  at 
Ancona.  Thence  the  Sardinian  forces  manned  into 
the  Abmoi,  while  Victor  Emmanuel  proceeded  in 
person  to  Najdes.  On  7th  November,  at  Teano, 
Garibaldi  unconditionally  relinquished  to  his  sove- 
reign the  southern  provinces  liberated  by  his  genius 
and  valour.  Vmbria  and  the  march  of  Anoona 
were  next  incorporated  witlk  the  kingdom  of  L 
The  kingdom  oi  L  was  formally  recognised  by -all 
the  greu  European  poiven  with  the  exception 
of  Austria.  On  the  death  of  Cavour,  June  1861, 
the  minister  of  Baron_BicBsdi  was  formed,  bat 
after  ■  briu 


and  IDtJi,  a  great  aggregate  meetinK  of  deputies 
from  all  tiie  liberal  clubs  of  the  kingdom  waa  held 
nnder  Garibaldi's  presidency ;  and  on  the  20th, 
having  prenoaaly  been  entertained  at  a  grand 
banquet  by  the  royal  prinoea,  he  set  out  on  his 
almort  tiiiimphal  tonr  t£rooxhont  L,  wiHi  the  view 
of  tmaaiising  rifl«-alnbi  amidst  the  youth  of  all  the 


expedition  in  aid  of  Venice,  led  u  stringent  and 
unlooked-for  measures  of  repression,  mnisterial 
orders  were  next  transmitted  to  Garibaldi,  pro- 
hibitinc  any  further  oi^uisation  of  the  rifle  socie- 
ties. On  the  20th  of  June,  Garibaldi  arrived  in 
Turin,  and  on  the  28th  landed  at  Palenno.  in  SicQj, 
where  he  met  with  a  warm  reception  from  Prince 
Humbert,  the  heir-apparent  of  the  Italian  crown. 
On  Oie  4th  of  Joly,  the  ministry  was  serioiialv 
disturbed  bv  the  warmth  with  which  OanhalJi 
denounced  Uie  f^ach  occupation  of  Rome.  On  the 
Tth,  a  grand  review  at  Palenno  was  held  in  his 
presence.  Volunteers  speedily  hsateued  to  join 
him,  with  the  avowed  intention  of  proceeding  to 
Rome,  despite  the  royal  proclamation,  which  accnaecl 
them  of  rebellion  a^inst  their  sovereign.  A  apecial  | 
message,  accompanied  by  the  royal  proclamatioii,  l 
was  forwarded  by  the  king  to  Qaribaldi,  who,  nndsr 
the  impression  tliat  be  posseased  the  covert  appro-  | 
bation  of  the  sovereign,  declined  to  desist  in  his  | 
eipeditioD  to  Rome,  but  expressed  his  ""'^flfi 
sentiments  ot  loyalty  to  the  king.  On  the  22d 
August,  Sicily  was  declared  in  a  state  of  lie^  the 
lib^al  clubs  were  dissolved,  and  an  aimed  force 
despatched  to  pursue  and  disperae  the  volunteers. 
Ganbaldi  reached  Catania  en  the  18th,  and  aoma 
days  later  succeeded  in  efiecting  a  landing  on  the 
coast  of  Calabria  with  the  greater  part  of  hia 
followers.  General  Cialdini  having  becai  appointed 
oommissioner  extraordinary  in  the  island  of  Sicily, 
with  full  powers  over  the  civil  and  military  auUio- 
rities,  proceeded  to  the  moat  stringent  measures  to 
effect  the  capture  of  Garibaldi.  The  'affair  of 
Aspromonte,'  in  which  QoriboldTB  small  foroe  of 
vofnnteeis  were  compelled  to  surrender,  their  heroio 
leader  ordering  them  not  to  fire  on  tlie  royal  troops, 

put  an  end  to  "--      -" ' ''-'--      "* - 

wounded  chief 

fortress  of  Varignano,  at 

granted  to  him  and  bis  followars  by  the  Italian 

monarch  enabled  him  to  proceed  to  Pisa,  whence  ha 

retmned  to  bis  island-home  of  Caprera. 

On  tJie  meeting  ot  the  houses  of  parliament^  the 
ministry  of  Katuri  had  to  sustain  a  formidable 
attack  from  the  Uberal  members,  who  demanded 
Hie  impeachment  of  the  premier  and  his  coUeagnea, 
Ratazn,  finding  himself  onsu^ipoited  by  any  section 
of  the  bouse,  after  an  nnavaifing  defence,  leaigned 
his  portfolio  on  the  lOQl  of  December,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded in  office  by  Signor  Farini  (q.  v.) 

At  the  close  of  the  Geiman-Itmian  war  (see  Gek- 
MAKV  in  SuFP.,  Vol.  X.),  Vecetia,  on  3d  October  1866. 
became  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Ital^  by  treaty  with 
Austria.  Turin,  the  chief  town  of  Piedmont,  waa  the 
capital  from  18S9  till  1865 ;  the  court  vras  tnoaferreil 
to  Florence  during  the  latter  year.  In  1867,  the 
French  army  began  to  be  withdrawn  from  Borne,  and 
the  national  aspiration  to  have  the  Eternal  Cl^  as 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  seemed  now  near  its 
ruuisation.  Someof  the  French  troops  remained  at 
Boms  ontit  tlie  urgent  neceeuties  of  the  Fianco- 
Pmssian  war  compeUed  the  Emperor  Napoleon  to 
wiOidraw  them.  The  last  detacbment  left  the 
pontifical  territory  on  8th  August  1S70 ;  and  on 
the  SOth  of  the  following  month,  the  Italian 
troops,  nnder  Qeneral  Cadrona,  entered  Borne  after 
a  short  resistance  by  the  Pontifical  troops,  who 
ceased  firing  at  the  request  of  the  pope.  On  2d 
October  1870,  the  kingoom  of  Italy  assumed  the 
last  of  its  extensive  limits,  when  the  whols  of 
the  papal  states  were  absorbed  by  it,  and  Boma 
was  its  recognised  capital ;  and  thos  were  nalised 
the  aspirations  of  many  generations,  the  dnsma 
of   Matdni,   and   the   pohcy  of  Coont  Cavour. — 


ilowiog  antbors,  klongwith  nuu^  oUieni, 
Iuv«  beeo  connilted :  Sismondi,  S^mblia  qf  Italy; 
MacchutTelU,  Ittorie  I^ortrUme;  Omcoiardini,  Gloria 
tT/uUia;  DeuoA,  iKnoIuEioni  if /<afia;  Sotta,  5foHa 
tT/taiia:  Belho,  ins. 

Ilalkm  Langiiagt  and  LiUralwft.~th»  Italiaa 
I&Dgoager  the  moat  mniical  of  ijl  the  toneiei  of 
Europe,  il  descended  from  Qua  Latin,  and  there 
IiHiVe    been   Tariona    opiniona  m    to   toe 

which  the  tranaitioD  took  place.    In  the  vi-,., 

ever,  of  the  acieuti£a  atedenta  of  language,  Hubzv 
is  nothing  apecial  in  the  oase ;  the  ohangea  are 
rafficiently  aoconnted  for  by  that  tendency  to 
phonetia  dsca^  or  oomptdon  vhkh  ia  always  at 
-work  in  a  livins  tongue,  and  which  ia  specially 
aotiTo  in  a  chaotio  and  transitioQ  state  of  society 
like  that  of  L  at  the  dowiif aU  of  the  Boman  empire. 
The  already  corrupt  dialects  ot  the  nnedocated 
become  predoxninant,  and  being  redeaaed  from  the 
fixing  inflnence  of  a  writteo  lit^tore,  depart  more 
and  more  from  the  gzmtunaticid  standara ;  uid  in 
the  case  of  X,  the  barbarian  intruders  would,  to  a 
still  greater  degree,  mntilate  the  Latin,  and  iutro< 
duce  mnltitudeB  of  words  from  the  northern  tongues. 
For  some  centuiieB,  this  oonrtpting  prooess  went 
oa,  in  the  ooune  of  which  t^  utm  gradually 
divested  itself  of  its  original  claasical  pec^Haritias, 
and  d^enerated  into  the  impnre  or  Tulnr  form 
known  aa  the  Ronuma  ruitiea,  or  Uitgna  Somaaaa, 
which  became  the  prevailing  Wguage  of  tihe  Tarions 
races  of  South-westem  Bimipe,  and  recmred  from 
each  some  of  the  most  sahent  characteristics  lA 
their  own  natiTe  dialecta. 

This  '  rustic  lAtln '  may  be  termed  the  direct  off- 
spring of  Tjtin  anii  the  parent  of  Italian :  in  the 
compootione  of  the  Provencal  poets,  we  find  one 
form  of  it  elevated  to  tlie  nknlc  of  a  poliahed,  or 
iUiulrt,  written  language  ae  car]^  aa  die  10th  c., 
while  the  form  which  prevailed  id  Italy  continued 
aa  late  as  the  IZth  c,an  oncouth  and  tulnr  dialect, 
contemptnoDsly  excluded  from  all  learned  compoai- 
tion.  In  tbe  Sidliaa  court  of  the  Hohenataofen 
emperor,  Prederiok  IL,  tte  Italian  dialect  was  first 
.rescued  from  this  state  d  degradation  ;  adopted  by 
this  monarch  aa  the  choice  laogoage  of  hia  court,  it 
became  the  medium  of  his  own  and  his  bod's  literary 
and  poetic  creations,  while  his  learned  friend  and 
eecretaiy.  Pier  delle  Vi^ie,  may  be  termed  the 
earlieit  Italian  poet;  Ids  odee  and  canionea,  com- 
poaed  a  hundred  years  before  Dante,  are  written 
in  wonderfully  pure  Italian.  The  university  of 
Napbe,  Kod  several  of  the  Sicilian  achoola,  -i 


in  all  ages  been  the  elevator*  and 

guardiana  of  language ;  and  we  find  Italian  in  the 
l2th  and  IStii  centoiiea  honourably  onployed  by 
the  poets  of  tiie  age,  especially  by  tluiae  of  l\iKUUiy, 
whose  own  oral  dulect  soon  took  precedence  over 
all  the  others  in  polished  eipression  and  gram. 
matical  accuraoy.  The  chief  Italian  poets  of  this 
age  are  Quido  GuinoelU,  Quido  Ohisiheri,  Fabrizio 
and  Oneeto  of  Bolwna,  Onido  Lapo  of  Mantua ;  and 
the  Tuscan  poets  (^ttone  d'Areizo,  Bonagiunta  da 
Lucea,  and  Bnmetto  *'■■'*■"■  Fioreotino,  the  muitrioua 
preceptor  of  Dante.  Fnt  Ouittone,  a  member  of 
the  order  of  the  Oavalien  Qaudenti,  haa  left  several 
compoeitioDS  of  merit,  including  sonnets  and  odea, 
but  his  most  intonating  litMiaiy  legacy  conaista 
of  forty  letto*  in  prose,  which  are  reguded  as  a 


valuable  speoimBn  of  early  Italian,  being  tiis  most 
ancient  epistolaiy  oompoaition  in  the  language; 
The  writiii^  of  these  early  poets  possess  moro 
linguistio  than  poetic  interest,  and  are  to  be  found 
in  vacioQS  oollectiong,  chiehy  in  the  Rimt  Antieha 
(1S13),  the  Fotti  AntuM  by  Alacd  (I66B,  and  the 
modern  work  of  Bumnoci,  MaaaeU  delia  LeUtrabira 
ddPnmoSeedo  (Florence,  183T,3vola.).  Brunetto 
Latin!  (1260),  the  preceptor  of  Dante,  was  repnted 
'  a  man  of  great  sense  and  science.'  His  wo^  II 
Taoro,  is  a  marvel  of  heterogeneona  knowledge.  II 
TetartUa  is  a  curious  compendium  of  moral  ptecepts, 
and  H  Pata0ia  a  still  more  curious  produetjoii,  t^ 
obeceue  levity  of  which  earned  for  him  a  place  In 
the  I'ufetna  of  his  pupiL  Guido  Cavalcant^  the 
cherished  friend  of  Dante,  waa  more  of  a  philosopher 
than  a  po^  Italian  also  Ix^n  to  be  now  adopted 
aa  the  vehicle  of  learned  andsciantifia  VOSQ.  The 
historifial  chronicles  of  Matteo  SpincJa,  a  Neapolit 


about  1280}  is  tiie  first  hiatorical  writer  whose 
style  ia  elevated  and  poliahed.  In  short,  contem- 
porary with  the  appearance  of  Dante  (q.  v.],  tlie 
Italian  dialect  waa  rapidly  supcrEcding  Latjji  in 
grave  prose  compoeition,  as  well  as  in  jioetry,  and 

became  the  recognised  oral  and  written  polite 

of  the  entiro  country,  while  various  local 
vere  preserved  in  use  amongst  the  illi- 
terate claiees  of  the  people.  It  has  been  finely 
observed  that  Dante  found  the  Italian  language  f 


its  cradle,  and  exalted  it  to  a  throne ;  the  DvAaa 
Commedia  imprinted  on  the  Italian  boigue 

and  majestic  character,  which  at — 

to  rank  with  the  ' "'  " 


igae  a  grave 

qualifiedit 

-—-„-»  of  Greece  uid  Htfrne. 
i«d  by  Dante  to  the  language 
e  of  Ms  country,  baa  continued 

Xcts,  Francesco  StabQe,  or  Cecco 
by  the  church  (1327),  and  author 
of  L'Aeerha,  a  critical  attack  upon  Dante,  and 
a  wonderful  mixture  of  learning,  acuteness,  and 
superstition  ;  Francesco  da  Barbermo  (1264—1318)  ; 
and  Cino  da  Fiatoja,  the  learned  jurist  and  poet, 
whose  work  on  jurisprudence,  H  Comeaio  niZ  Codioe, 
and  pleasing  amatoiy  verses,  won  for  him  the 
commendations  both  of  Dante  and  Petrarch  (1270 
— 1336),  claim  mention  before  the  great  name  of 
Francesco  Fetrarca  (q.  v.)  (1304—1374),  the  creator 
of  Italian  lyrical  poetiy,  and  the  enricher  and 
nerfecter  of  its  language;  The  lustre  of  Petrarch's 
lame,  however,  is  not  derived  from  his  sonnets 
alone.  Apart  from  their  eiquiaito  beauty  and 
pathos,  their  classical  eleguice  and  simplicity  of 
diction  render  them  au  abiding  standard  of  Italian 
poetry.  Italian,  which,  in  ita  poetical  capacities,  wa 
have  seen  created  by  Dante,  poUshed  and  refined 
by  Petrarch,   was   first   moolded   into   a  perfect 


,^.  ..,.     DecaTnerrme  ia  a  series  of  tales,  and 

Boccaccio's  best  known  work.  Boccaccio's  style 
is  deeply  tinged  by  his  eultore  of  classical  Utera- 
ture;  and  in  his  straining  after  the  pompous 
majesty  of  Latin  construction,  he  frequently  exceeds 
the  structural  capabilitieB  of  his  own  language, 
which  is  naturally  direct  and  simple  in  the  order 
of  its  con^)osition.  Franco  Sacchetti  (1336—1400) 
of  Florenoe,  and  8er  Giovanni  Fiorentino  (1348),  also 
oomposed  tales  distinguished  by  the  excellence  ot 
the  language ;  while  Dino  Compagni  and  Oiovanui 
Tillani  enriched  the  historical  hteratore  of  L  with 
excellent  chronicles,  written  in  a  spirit  of  fumees, 
and  with  great  beauty  ot  style; 

The  14th  c.  waa  lavishly  productive  o(  great 
original  literary  creations,  the  writers  of  that  age,  or 
I  TrteeniitU,  according  to  their  Tuscan  appellation. 


T/Google 


being  H  diiUngtdihed  for  the  idUIiim  origliMUtj> 
oTaefr  gBBhu  aa  thcw  of  tha  ISth  e.  mn 
fun«d  fot  their  sbatniM  erndition  tod  phlkwqAf. 
Italiu  WW  the  choaen  Ungnua  of  Oia  TVwMtML 
and  in  their.  writEiiM  attaued  a  hl^  d«gtM  of 
nfinement  umI  pnrit;-  On  tlie  othei  hud,  tba 
■oholMtio  writert  at  th«  ISth  o.  almott  ntli^ 
eiclnded  Italian  ftcm  their  worka,  lubatitBtiDa  kr 
the  laoonaga  of  Duito  and  Fetrarch  a  fanhy  fotn 
of  QmA  or  Latin.     To    thia     ' 


probablr  be  atbribnted  tiie  lusnid  denli^nnait  at 
Uterkton  dnrbz  a  period  in  wUA  tbe  nual  mag- 
nifloeni  mteetioii  wm  affxded  boUi  by  the  pon- 
SScil  and  MTeidgn  eovrti  of  Italy  to  the  Iittt«tara 
and  art  of  the  oentsry,  and  vheii  th«  diaooreiT  of 
priDting  b^Wted  an  Impolw  to  the  inteDeotnal 
fltaltty  of  Cbristendom,  Vottmaai  amoiu  tha 
and  art  weie  Qie  Hedid 


and  Famra;  thehotue  of  Juagon  at  Na^esj  and 
the  Pontiff  at  Rome.  ManOio  Fidno,  Pico  della 
Mirandola,  Leon  Battiata  Albertf,  are  some  of  the 
moet  diatmgniahed  vriten  who  discarded  tbdr 
mother  tongue  and  adopted  I^tin ;  while  a  host 
tt  entnunaun^  hiBtoriaiA  duW<u^>ta>  and  theo- 
li^^tf  openly  pronoaneed  the  Snutrimii  Italian 
laocnAge  »>  Tnlgar  dialeeb  unfit  for  ohiloaoiAieal 
or  teamed  compoaitiDn.  Bnt  tUa  deDasement  of 
Hterarj  tatte  vaa  hwpily  ot  brief  dnratlon,  and 
to  Lorenxo  do'  Medici,  entitled  tha  '  iEVtber  of 
Lettera,'  is  owing  the  literaiy  rerinl  of  the  Italian 
tocgneb  Under  thia  princely  patron  of  letten, 
aria,  and  aclenoea,  pablic  libranca  were  founded 
or  repleniahed,  leuned  aocietiea  inangniated,  rich 
antii^oarian  beaanrea  collected,  muTardties  opened, 
and  a  true  ataoJd&nl  of  literary  tnith  and  beauty 
once  more  aet  up.  His  friend  and  prot^fi,  Angelo 
Ptdiriano,  wrote  elegantly  both  in  Italian  and  LiSdn, 
and  oompoaed  the  dnt  tegnlai  dramatio  wotk  in 
the  former  language,  nnder  the  title  of  L'(hfto. 
Towaida  the  cloee  at  tfaa  15(li  a.  and  the  opening 
of  the  ISth,  %  taste  for  the  romantic  and  heroic  in 
poe^b^antoahewitself.  Thia taate was cnltiTated 
by  Dniante  da  Qnaldo,  by  lAid  Fold  (q.  t.)  in  \aa 
Morganle  Maagiore,  and  by  the  atill  mwe  funons 
Matteo  Boiardo  (q.T.),  wboae  Orlando  Innamorato 
eTideoUy  aoggeated  tM  sreateat  of  all  the  watts  of 
thia  kind,  the  Oriando  Pvriato  of  Ariosto.  But  by 
Sar  the  moat  imporbuit  bistoncsl  works  of  the  time 
were  written  in  Latin— for  exunple,  thoee  of  Sildo 
Ftccolomini,  Marc  Antonio  SAbeUicna  (died  IGOfl), 
Bernardo  Ginsdnianul  (died  1489),  and  Qeorgins 
Stella  (died  1430).  During  the  centiiry  of  scholastio 
erudition,  the  spring  ot  Italian  doqucnce  flowed 
wiUi  dnggiah  comae  nntil  the  Impaanoned  and 
nnatadiedontory  of  Jerome  Savanarola  (burned 
1498}  revired  1^  traditions  of  ancient  Borne,  and 
reminded    his    hearers   that    Cicero    too    was    an 

Tha  ISth  0.,  though  not  mailced  by  mnoh  onstlTB 


of  letten,  the  iaveation  ot  printing,  the  discoreiy 
of  a  new  world,  and  the  opening  ap  of  a  maritime 
channel  to  the  wealth  and  trafSo  of  the  Indies, 
oo-operated,  one  may  say,  in  prgdndng  that  won- 
derful development  of  ait  and  enterprise  which  the 
tocceeding  age  exhibited ;  while  the  advancement  of 
learning  and  adenoe  was  promoted  and  ^ptematiaed 
by  the  toonding  of  numeroua  nnivenitiea  and  lite- 
raiy  institutions,  the  aim  of  theee  latter  being  the 
didusion  of  general  knowledge  and  eound  prsdical 
■cienoe.  Hany  of  the  magnificent  ^pographical 
ircasurea  with  which  the  great  public  libranea  ot 
Italy  abonnd,  belong  to  tms  golden  age,  and  ar« 


do*  to  Um  •itMto  fe 


&  it  ooDfeMMDy  the  Auntan  u«  «1 
Italian  Mta^  Mt,  and  aoenoe.    In  a  nUxw  o<   | 
-'-"'*-- '        el  AnoBt 


■pkBdid  nauM,  the  bri^ttaat  are  those  oi  AnoBto  j 
(q.  T.),  Taaao  (q.  7.),M&c^iaTaIli  (a.  t.\  Gidcdaidiu  I 

vtedwi&thao" 


'    iBWItdyn 


wlio,anderttMti  , 

modelt  tt  MM  and  noUe  ItaliMi  eompoHtka.    ne 
Orimdo  AriMO  ot  Arioalo,  held  to  b*  Oa  finl 


beantiea  were  eommitted  to  nHanory,  m  ordo  to 
be  aung  aa  the  aotaoa  of  labour  in  t^  field  <v  dty. 
He  nert  paatwoA  (rf  Hm  oantory  wia  L»  Oo-v- 


Dobl«  In  B^rHaod 
-■'  -  (IM4— 159S). 
nl,  71  Oral 
Cortem  and  UAvtrnMit;  RnoeUal;  and  &aBia 
da  ValTasone^  in  bis  ^  Caeeia  and  I/Angdaia 
<or  The  Wan  of  the  A^da),  baa.  irtiich  Hihoa 
CTobal^  borrowed  some  TMnabk  hinta  p5!B). 
Giangiorrio  IMaaino  wrote  the  first  iMtal^  Italka 
drama,  EofiMitba.  Beaidea  this,  Um  TaOia  e( 
LudoTico  HartelU,  Vba  Oanaee  tl  Spemna  Sperati 
(1600— 1S88),  the  ToTTitmmdo  of  T^^  and  tha 
Edipo  of  Andrea  dell'  Angdllaia,  diame  meatwa 
— the  Uit  is  considered  &•  beet  ItaliMi  bMcdr 
of  the  time.  The  oomediea  of  BentiTodio^  Salnab, 
Cect^  FinsnzDola,  and  othera,  are  atauoKd  with 
that  pleTtuling  anrit  ot  licentaonaneM  wnidi  di>- 
%uns  many  of  Uie  finest  prodnotiafia  of  the  a^fc 
The  popular  dtamatio  pieces  or  Commute  dtff  Arte, 
enjoyed  as  ioA  repute  aovng  tlie  kwcr  rlaaira  m 
the  hi^er  dnma  did  in  oottrity  and  patiidaB 
oirclea.  Some  of  the  chief  oommaen  of  thme  jaato- 
mimic  nmediea  are  Flominio  Saal)^  Angdo  Beoko, 
Andrea  Oolmo.  The  writeta  of  paetmal  dnmu 
innndate  this  (pooh,  bat  Mme  oan  inMiiMtta  witt 
Quarini  (q.  v.)  in  hi*  aweet  idyllio  woA^lt  Pmar 
Fido,  foOrj  m*  firat  combined,  dnriBg  thii 
century,  with  miude — one  of  the  eariiert  ejientie 
compoeitione  being  the  D^fne  ot  RimiadDi  (died 
1621).  The  sonneta  of  Midiael  AngtJo  eioel  te  a 
certain  dignity  and  oridnality  of  thoo^t.  Vittoria 
Colonna,  cde^ated  in  ue  Terse  <A  Anosto,  wai  tha 
meat  illnstrious  poetess  ot  ber  tuD*;  wfakh  [n- 
dneed  niuneroas  irther  female  writaa,  whoaa  wcm 
hBTe  been  collected  and  pnUiahed  by  DomsMehL 

FoTsmost  MBong  the  proae- wi  iteta  stands  HMchi- 
avelli ;  his  Arte  ddla  Ouerra  (Art  tA  War),  I^erk 
Fier^MK  (History  of  Flomoe),  and  politinl 
treatise,  /I  iVineim!  (The  Prinoe),  all  excel  id  Umst 
varioua  atylok  OioTanid  Bottrop  Qiannotti,  and 
Parata,  are  also  political  writeia  ot  hi^  netit 
(Jreater  than  dther  is  E^anoeaoo  Oaiocur£iii,  triiMe 
SitUny  qf  Italy  hoa.  only  one  blemish,  Tia^  vsat 
of  brevity.  The  works  of  Bembo  (q.  t.),  hnterin 
and  poet,  exhibit  the  Italian  languee  aubjected 
to  a  regular  grammatical  syslem.  tjtMKtnra  wil 
historicaJly  beated  by  Barfaierl  and  Doai ;  ar^  by 
Vasari,  Cwnd,  and  I^mani;  and  acchiteetan,  by 
Vurnola  and  PsDadio. 

The  prognaa  of  tha  age  ia  equally  perceptible  ia 
philoaaphy,  which,  bnrsbns  Che  fatten  ot  aeholMtio 
foimalism,  diqiaya  the  'ronoat  freedom  oi 


Brno 


hyGoogle 


knowledgB  dftta  from  tiia  lOth  c^  one  of  the  mort 
noted  being  the  academj'  Ddls  Cnuck,  foiuid«d 
at  irior«noe  for  tiie  prnarratiaii  and  peneetiog  of 
the  Itdisn  bnooaga. 
His  t7tl>  o-i  d  Um  pnlifio  In  ^wt  litenij  a 


.ts   praieceMor,  U    netwEhdeM    tho  gtA& 

■^  of  Xtuiaii  Bcjcnee;  it  pKidnoed  •  beat  of  fllni- 
tnona  diaoonniB  in  pliiiowd!^,  mMuauMxm,  uid 
phyme,  Siidt  wm  tli«  fame  « Italiui  MiBnu  at  thia 
penod,  tliat  th»  nidmritiai  of  Harenos,  Haplea,  nsB, 
and  TotiicB  va«  tlwonged  with  totmga  rtndent^ 
Learned  lodeties  for  the  cnltiTatiini  and  praoiioal 
demonateation  of  the  plivlloal  loianOM  irare  opened 
thronKfaovt  Italy  (Ma  XoAiisvT).  Libnrica  vera 
coHe^ed  and  enriched,  to  afford  arm  bcilitT  to 
leam«d  icearch.  The  moat  cdebratea  MTanta  an 
the  wnrld'famoiti  Qaliko  (q-t.)i  IiaiMelli  (q. 
BoreDi,  the  aatrooomtr  CaMini  (a,  v.),  and  Tm 
the  pn^  and  InMtaptur  of  GalDM ;  M^^^i 
BelliaL  anatoinkM  and  phTilaiaBS.  GoBtempoL_, 
with  theae,  we  find  CK«n  vmoenso  QnTina,  lAaae 
lectorea  on  civil  lav  attiaoted  andknoM  fron  all 
Europe.  In  Uibmo)^  eMopaailfon,  Um  best  known 
woAa  an  Barn's  (arnoo*  BittotT/  pf  Aa  OomtcU  of 
Trent;  iti  eqnallj  famoM  nfotatum  by  FaDavieiiw) 
The  Hidorf  of  A«  War*  nf  Sia  Sdlmiamta,  by 
Bentiro^o ;  and  of  Tkt  0(«i(  Wam  nf  Franitt,  t^ 
Davila  <q.  v.).  A  few  of  the  gnat  name!  of  Itten- 
tore  u« — Bianchi,  an  acnte  tiunker  on  poUtieal 
and  social  icienoe;  Monte-Caoonli,  avUuv  of  the 
Apharigmt  nf  the  AH  of  War,  written  with  Spaiiaji 
breTity  of  ityia ;  Baitoli,  the  Jesnit  hiatoriaii ;  and 
Seffleij,  die  Jeaiiit  orator. 

The  poeta  of  the  1711i  o.,  at  leaat  HarinI  (q.  v.)  and 
hia  Bcbcol,  display  a  d^enerate  ta«te>  FoiMneat  for 
triTial  Qonerit^  fdaa  glitter,  and  aftifloialify,  are  their 
duaaeteristioa J  bnt  aeretal  of  Ua  oontempoiuua 
— Chiabrera,  Qnidi,  Tueoni,  aotiiM  of  flw  admi^ 
able  mock-hendo  poem,  Lti  BeoMa  Bapita  (The 
Stolen  Ful),  Rlieafa  (q.  v.),  and  othov,  have  written 
with  a  erave  energy  of  it^e  and  a  waimtii  of  Kotl- 
mcQt  devaHng  to  any  age.  The  theataioal  and 
operatlo  repreeentationfl  M  the  TarioTii  aorereign 
coittia  were  of  ezoeeding  eplendonr,  aa  if  in  OMn- 
penration  for  the  paucity  of  dnmatlo  oompoaitioDi. 
In  the  18th  c,  a  Tigorona  reriTal  of  poetry  and 
letten  took  plEtee.  Giannone,  in  hiaton;  Onatao, 
m  literatnre;  CiriUo,  in  ]^yaia;  Mawnohl,  in 
archeology  i  uOenoreei,  in  politioal  economy;  the 
brother*  O^ianl,  in  their  reepeciiTe  sdenoea  of 
architecture,'  politiecil  eeon<ai7,  end  lAiklogy; 
Filat^iieTl  {4>  ▼•)  ■■"l  Beocaria  (q.  t.)  in  the  pul- 
oeophy  of  tnrironideuoej  Uario  Fagano,  in  the 
Kienoe  of  dnl  law ;  FoU  (174»-18SS),  Volta  (1746 
-1826).  GalTwd  (1737-179B),  Sou^  (1748-I8S2), 
and  SpaHanzani  (1729—1799),  in  pejvoal  adenoe; 
Maffei  and  Calaacui,  in  poeby,  are  some  of  the 
cuno)  by  which  wis  penod  wia  ennobled.  The 
ISth  c  can  alao  boast  of  the  greatest  namee  in 
Italian  dramatic  literature,  Metaetamo  (q.  t.)  (1696 
— 1782),  who  is  considered  the  master  of  the 
putoral  dracoa  ;  flowing,  aweet,  and  silvery,  the 
Ungooge  of  bis  gentle  miue  preaenta  a  etranga 
contrast  to  the  brevity,  stersneu,  and  danieal  plain' 
oess  of  Ita^a  neatest  tragedian,  Tittorio  Alfiari 
(q.  V.)  (1749— 1803),  by  whom  a  thoron^i  revidnlkni 
waa  effected  in  the  drama  of  his  coontry.  h.  do  leM 
marked  reformer  of  comedy  is  hia  eontempoiaiT, 
Cwlo  Goldoni  (q.v.)  (1707-1793). 

Ihiring  the  present  (19th)  century,  the  gemna  of 
Italy  haa  revived  anew  in  science  and  literature. 
By  the  beat  writen  of  the  day,  a  sound  Italian 
shrle,  untainted  either  by  Oalbcunna  w  by  the  fidae 
iditter  of  the  ftiwaCMtt  aohool,  baa  been  adcvted. 
One  of  tlie  beat  modem  poets  of  the  olaaaical  adiool, 
I   Tlnomao  Monti,  haa  materiaHy  aarirted  ttii  Ktaaiy 


retotm;  the  reaolnte  oombatant  of  the  adtool  of 
Harini,  his  fine  worka  are  rigidly  moolded  on  Aa 
nm  TVsoMliMatylei  and  ui  hia  ««^  poem,  AmvU. 
MM  the  langoaM  ia  impngnated  with  a  Danteaqne 
pandamr,  ^iioh  haa  oanad  it  to  be  laid  that  the 
B^t  of  Dante  haa  inaplred  the  wotka  <rf  Monti 
Hia  bwnalatkn  of  tlte /(lad  w  '  "    ' 


M /(lad  and  that  of  the  CWyaaeV 

by  Findemonti,  are  tiw  beat  elaaaioal  tnnalationa  ia 
Italian.  In  the  waywaiil  wid  fervid  genins  of  XJga 
PmooIo  (q.T.),  wa  find  the  r^eotiontd  the  vieian- 
tndea  and  politieal  dun*  of  hia  times ;  hia  lyrical 
work,  /  5(^>It*^  ia  written  with  extntne  poliah  and 
&nltleas  tMte,  which  may  also  be  said  erf  the  lyriea 
of  Lec^MdL  Botta,  Biooi,  BagncJl,  Ariel  8ef^ 
FHuufi,  aitd  Loiend,  dasarvo  mention  aaiong  tba 
modem  poets.  Grosst  ia  a  spirited  poet,  irtio  has 
written  oMsfly  in  the  Uilaneae  diueoL  In  tha 
poignant   and  imbittered  venes  of   Boehet,   we 


ffilvio 


cal  snfferinaa.  „  ,..., 

.  waa  absacR-  famous  tot  hia  poetio 

Ingedy,  .Aawssra  da  JNmiiri^   previoas   to   his 

. u_  I . — "Tian dnngaon. 

I  post,  and  tha  most  diatin- 
Uanta'a  2)Miw  Cbmrnedia  ; 
Battasta  NieooUni,  whoaa  diam^   AmMa 
BmefOf  is  one  ei  tha  finest  worts  of  modnn 
Italian  g«anisi  Leopardi,  poe^  phikdogi^  and  phil> 

Hamuli, 


«rdi,  poe^  piiikdogisL  and  phll- 

.],  the  firat  Italian  satuioallniat 

e  19th  0. ;  Mameli,  tha  patriot  poet,  who  fell  ia 

1848  at  Borne  I  Pnti,  Aleardi,  Dall'  Od^ik^  Cai«anOk 

and  Montaoelli,  are   aoma  of  the  most  eoua^oii- 

I  worahippara  of   tha  Italian  mwe  in  the  19ttl 

itory.      Amnng  the  moat  siii  iiiasfiil  novelista  are 

Manitmi,  irticae  Promad  Spoti  has  omated  a  new 

aohool  of  fiction ;  Boaini  (Monaea  tfi  Moma,  Z/ttiM 

ainaei,  II  Oinla  UgaOno),   Caaia    {MarghmiUt  H 

PuiUHa),  QiobbI  (jfoTKi  VttBOKti),  and  D'AxegUo, 

whoee  patriotio  novels  have  exerased  a  wide  wo.- 

I  DDtheyonlJidtbeoooatTy.  &lortKtramo»ea 

YiiTJr  ifiii  rnjiJarrinniliilsnf  nlsMJrsl  usiiaiiina 

rraaai    has  written  novds  fall  of  the  noUesI 

po^iy.     B«(Mda  and  Bnfflni  an  also  wwthy  d 


Miohid,  IsdMll*  Albriin  (whose  fafagraphy  ol 
Oaaova  ia  a  graosAd  and  aeeomte  dalinsaticm),  aad 
Kgnm*  FcRmol,  whose  edooational  wttka  pnssfsi 
h^  mnit.  ^e  modem  Ustorians  d  Ituy  an 
very  Bamarcas.  Balbo's  Stunmart/  ^  Ib^ia» 
miory,  Botta's  HitUtry  ofltait,  OcdaM^a  Ifofht, 
Amaift  akiUim  Ftmn,  Oanttf  *  ooloaaal  work  on 
Unhtnal  HiHorn,  Zaa:»  Gompmdi>m  ^  ItaU* 
Bithrg,  and  SeomlTs  Billon  tf  ilotim  LtgUK- 
Hon,  an  amoi^  the  b«st  wmka;  iriiila  tntsesti^ 
bktOTical  monosra^  el  Tarioos  Mtioda  or  stataa 
have  bem  paUtthad  by  Caaetti,  Canale,  BroOKio^ 
A"^1H,  Cattaneo,  like  graphie  noorder  of  tha  rising 

at  Milan  m  1648,  and  lie  learn' "  -    *  " 

ArehMo  TriaHmala,  or  aeriea  of 


Macsnij  Oioja,  and  Beuagnasl  able  ^tmants; 
nie  pcditioal  wiitinga  <rf  Joseph  Maednf  (q.  t.^ 
apart  fnm  their  pomeal  tendanoie^  have  azaMsad 


MU  tendaoow^  hi 

tha  yrath  of  ttaly  by  tb 

moni  tone  Mid  beantj^IsBgn^Sii  ThaTariDoa 

Ida'  of  ^ulosephy  hava  fmind  adhennts  and 

exponndinln  BmcHI,  aali^(1770— 184«),  Maml. 

.„    !>«.— MJ    Qtoberil,  and  TammaaeO)  maaUr  aQ 

'    'itio^philaaaphyiwUle  Testa, 


Fnndil,  HHtrianl,  and  Cattaneo  ai 
el  speoolafive  and  independent  philosophy.  Anti< 
qnariaB  and  anhMokgieal  smenoe  has  bsen  Mf 
0InBb«tedby  Tn^i.!  p^uunieci,  Manno,  lotti^ 
yhnnafi,  and  8asttnLBo«i,  romigaai,  iWnriet 


y,Cooj^le 


netdeotedl 
TuiHi  an 


Hie    most    couiplAte   ___ 

tnie  are  Orcaeunbeiii,  Stmia  ddia  Volgar  Poaia,  6 
Tola.  (Boma,  1698 ;  Venice,  1731) ;  Quadrio,  Slaria 
•  Stgitme  iPogni  FoetiOy  7  toU.  (Bolonia,  1739} 
Tin&Mobi,  3tOTUt  ddia  Lttterahtra  liaUaaa,  l', 
Tdi.  (Modeiik,  1772—1783;  18  Tola.  1787—1794, 
12  TOta.  Borne,  1765 ;  18  toIi  Milan,  1822-1826) ; 
ConiMU,  Steoli  dtUa  LtUtralura  liaiiana,  9  vols. 
(SlMci%  ISIS— 1819)  i  Moffei,  Sloria  ddia  LeOtra- 
tura  ItaUma,  2d  ed.,  4  vok.  (Milan,  1834)  i  Cimor- 
am  (UOui,  184B)i  Giudici  (Florence,  1847); 
Larati  (1831). 
ITA'SCA,  Las&    Sw  MKBMnrn. 


ITOH  (known  also  as  8CAB£B8  and  FSOBA) 

it  a  ContuioDi  Teaicular  diseaae  of  the  akin.  All 
parts  of  Uie  body,  unless  perhaps  the  hekd,  an 
ualde  to  be  affected,  but  the  most  common  seata 
td  the  diieaae  are  the  irriats  and  handi,  and 
Mpeciallj  between  the  fingers.  The  first  sign  of 
tbia  affeotioD  is  an  itching  seniation,  which,  npon 
minute  examination,  is  found  to  proceed  from  a 
minute  ocoical  reside,  while  flie  ac ' 
of  efadermii  piwent  a  moie  toalr  ■ 
is  DatnraL  This  conditioii  of  the  akin  is  due  to 
tiie  presence  of  a  minute  acanui,  the  Iicb- 
(q.  T.),  which  bunows  within  the  epidennia, 
excites  the  cutaneous  irritation.  The  affeoted  parts 
itch  with  increased  intensily  when  the  patient  is 
warm  in  bed,  or  after  the  use  of  atjmulating  drinks 
or  exciting  condimenta ;  and  as  he  cwihot  nfrain 
from  Boratchin«  himaelf,  the  Tesiol«a  get  n 
broken,  and  Become  intenpersed  with 
Uttle  bloody  poinbi. 

The  itch  bang  wqnilariv  le^uded  as  a  Kmewhat 
disreputable  auction,  and  being  hu^ilv  oontajpoiUL 
it  ia  Tenr  important  tn»t  it  should  be  aistingimhed 
' — 1  oQua  cutaaeoas  disorden.     W"™»,  prnrioo. 


bedding  wb  ,     . 

from  tne  disorder.  In  aooe  caaea,  the  proximate 
oanse  of  the  diseaae,  Um  itch-insed^  ia  conTeifed  to 
tiie  sound  person  in  ita  perfect  form ;  while  in  other 
casQs,  the  otb  or  embtyoa  anipended  in  the  fluid  ot 
the  Tesioles  maj  be  the  mode  of  transmission. 

Tbe  disease,  if  not  oared,  will  go  on  for  an 
indefinite  period,  probably  for  life;  but  in  cold 
and  tempente  cljioatee,  never  givee  riae  to  seriona 
injiny  to  tlia  health,  Numerous  external  remedies 
baTe  at  different  tdmea  been  employed  for  the  cure 
of  tUa  disease,  but  the  great  remedy  is  sulphur, 
wUch  m^  be  regarded  as  a  speoifia.  In  the  case 
at  an  amilt,  Sb,  Erasmus  Wilson,  our  highest 
English  authority  on  skin-diseaaes,  recommends  that 
'  foar  ounces  of  sulphur  ointment  should  be  well 
rubbed  into  the  entire  skin  before  the  fire,  and 
partdcnlarty  into  the  affected  portioDa,  morning  and 
evemng,  for  two  days.  It  ia  deaitable  also  that  the 
patieut  should  wear  a  flannel  shirt,  and  retun  the 
Mme  during  the  whole  of  the  beatanent  On  the 
morning  of  the  Q^xi  day,  the  patient  should  take  a ; 


diaaaae,  prceente _   . , 

and  at  most  only  a  pricking  aeniatioii^  and  nothing 
like  the  iiritatian  of  itch ;  while  pmngo  and  lichen 
are  papular  diaorders,  and  are  not  accompanied 
by  the  presence  of  vesicles ;  moreover,  none  of  these 
dlniWuw  are  cont^iouB. 

The  itch  is  slwaya  communicated  by  contact, 
«thet  lEnmediately,  as  by  the  act  of  ■*"^'"g  hanr'- 
or  throng  the  medium  of  ariaclea  of  oloQting 


lonnd  to  be  efieoted,'  ' 

When  patients  strongly  object  to  Uls  anudl  of  ] 
Bnlphur,  which  ia  iKit  imfreqnenily  the  cas^  an 
ointment  made  by  digesting  over  a  vapour-batli,  for  ' 
24  hotm,  three  parts  of  atavesacre  in  powder,  with  , 
five  parts  of  lard,  and  then  straining,  may  be  mod.  ■ 
Aooording  to  M.  Bourguignon  (who  has  nude  I 
numerouB  experiments  on  the  deleterious  actioa  of  . 
mediciuea  on  the  living  itch-mite],  thia  oinlziuuit 
will  oure  the  dinmnn  in  umr  days.  ' 

ITOH-MFTB  (Aeana  leabUi  or  Sarecpte*  JCoMei)  , 
ia  supposed  by  some  naturslista  to  have  been  ' 
referred  to  by  Aristotie  in  the  fith  book  of  bis  i 
Hutoria  Aidmaiiiaii,  cap.  31.  But  althotujU  the 
itch  was  undoubtedly  known  bot^  to  the  Qieeka  I 
uid  Koman^  there  is  no  certain  eviduLce  that  a  I 
mite  waa  recognised  as  the  cause  of  the  diseaae  I 
earlier  than  by  Avenzoar,  an  Arabian  phjaician  i 
of  the  12th  century.  Throughout  the  wltola  of  | 
the  middle  agea,  arid  till  the  present  centtuy,  the  l 
necessary  connection  between  the  diaeaee  and  the  | 
mite  waa  universally  reoogniaed,  aa  ia  obviooa  from  . 
the  writings  'of  Scaligar  (lUT)  and  other*;  and  | 
a  paper  read  by  Adama  before  the  Bi^al  Society 
in  1W6,  contains  two  very  good  figoiea  A  th«  mite.    I 

the  first  ten  years  of  this  oentuiy,  nianT   . 

>ners,  not  succeeding  in  fliiHing  the  ■.nimal,  | 
expressed  donbta  conoeming  its  existeDoe,  And  in 
1612  there  occurred  a  remarkable  incident  in  the  I 
history  of  this  mite.  M.  Galea,  tlie  chief  apotheeaij 
to  the  Hospital  of  St  Louis,  tempted  by  a  prin 
offered  by  one  of  the  unbelievers,  publiahed  in  that 
year  a  treatise  on  the  itch,  in  whidi  he  declared  that 
he  had  seen  more  than  300  of  the  mites,  and  in 
which  he  gave  a  drawing  of  the  animal,  vrhid^ 
althoi^h  it  differed  materially  from  the  deluieAtiona 
of  earlier  observers,  was  at  once  accepted  aa  an  exact 
repreaeutation  of  the  true  parasite,  and  waa  oopied 
for  Bei>atal  yean  into  all  woAa  treating  the  itch, 
until  Baapail  discovraed  that  M.  Galea's  ^- 


a  tissue  <a  deoqitions,  and  that  the  animal  whidi  he 
had  figiu«d  waa  the  tAtm-mittl  The  eiiateitCe  of 
the  it^-mita  waa  now  more  distiusted  than  ever, 
until,  in  163t,  Bmncei,  a  Conican  itudent^  demon- 
stinted  the  preeence  of  the  creature.  Many  pointa 
rcfjarding  the  structure  and  kabila  of  this  curiona 
animal  have  been  since  revealed  by  the  ini — ^~ 


tions  of  QisB,  Easpail,  Hebra,  Gudden,  a 
""  I  la  Foad  and  Bourguignon,  who  ha 

the  Trench  Institate  1  Pradktd  Traiti^  tm  icft*    ' 


eqiecially 
pRaented    I 


Enlomolog]/  and  Comparatm  Fathology  of  At  Tuk 
ai  it  oeeitrt  in  Man  and  Ihe  Domatk  AnimaU,  which 
haa  been  published  in  the  hut  volume  (1862)  of  the 
Jfemotre*  prttenUt  par  divert  Savants  A  FAeajtmU 
da  Seienee*. 

The  adult  female  mite  ia  considerably  larger  than 
the  male ;  it  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  andforma  » 
roundish  gra^jnah-wliite  corpnacle,  not  unlike  a  starch 
granules  it  la  about  }tb  of'a  line  in  length,  and  f  th 
m  breadth.  When  seen  under  the  nucroaoope,  it 
inte  a  truncated  tortoise-like  shape,  and  is  seen 
1  studded  with  hairs  and  bristles.  The  head 
terminates  in  two  pain  of  mandibles,  and  as  thai 
mandibles  afford  good  characteristic  distinetions  of 
the  species,  repreeentations  ore  ^ven  in  fig.  2  of  the 
maiuuble  in  Uie  female  itch-mite  and  in  fig.  3  of 
the  mandible  in  the  angar-mite. 

In  order  to  penetrate  the  homv  layer  ot  the 
epidermis,  the  mite  asnuoea,  aooorifing  to  Onddui, 
a  neariy  perpendicolar  pottticm;  and  to  avoid  aa 
much  trouble  as  poeaible,  it  uaually  select*  inch  qiota 

give  lesst  resistance,  each  as  the  space  between 

)_fingers,  the  inside  (^  the  wrist,  kc  Once  fairlv 
buried,  it  does  not  again  come  out,  bat  bunows,  and 


ITfiAOA— rVAN. 


forms  tortiunu  gkUeriei  iritliin  the  skin.  Tliefle 
gsUeriea  resemble  tlie  nutrk  which  ia  formed  when  > 
pen  ia  dmwD  lightly  orer  the  ikin  withont  canaing 


It  kbdomtiul  yitw 


while  in  penons  with  a  cottne  dirty  tkia  they  ai  _ 
ukioh  tint.    At  ceitun  intervftU,  the  ^alleri 


Fscape.     Tbe  vericlffl  ohanuiteriBtio  of  the 

ease  »i«  •ttribated  to  a.  poison  ejected  by  the  mite. 

The  miles  •»  Bm&llet  md  maeh  scarcer  than  the 

Then  are  nnmerotu  ipeoicB  of  itch-mite  (5ar- 
mptet)  wbieh  infect  the  bwer  anjioala.  One  of 
them  [S.  tanb)  prodaoM  ManfK  (q.v.)  in  dop  ; 
another  {8,  «gm},  a  oompandVely  large  ipeciea, 
■ometiinei  oocon  is  home ;  anotibet'  {S.  bouia)  in 
oxen  in  aome  parte  of  Europe ;  another  [S.  ovit)  in 
■heep^  Scms  of  theae  are  occanonally  tranifeiTed 
to  bmoan  beings,  and  canm  irritatioii  and  annoy- 
uice,  whicJi,  however,  ieemi  to  be  limited  to  the 
life  of  the  individual  mitea  trantfemid,  the  aitnation 
not  beintf  congenial  enou^  fot  titeir  increase. 

For  fioihra'  iufomatioa  on  the  itnuctore  and 
habita  of  this  animal,  the  readm-  ia  refenred  to  the 
second  volmne  of  Kflohenmeiater'a  work  on  Par^. 
ntee  (tnntUted  ^Dr  the  Sydenham  Society),  and  to 


ITH'ACA  (now  THIAKI),  one  of  the  Ionian 
Iiland«(q.T.),and  the  smallest  of  them  except  Faro. 
It  lies  17  tnilea  weat  of  the  mainland  of  Orefce, 
and  2  toLleB  north  of  Cepbolonia.  The  anrface  is 
monntainons,  but  there  are  many  pleaaant  valleys. 
Length,  la  miles;  breadth,  4;  area,  about  44 
»qaare  miles.  It  was  celebrated  among  the  anciants 
u  the  principality  and  home  of  Ulyeaee ;  and  BOme 
Cvclopean  ruins  near  Porto  MqIo  are  called  by  the 
islandere  the  ruinn  xit  the  Castle  of  XJlyseea.  In 
IBTl,  the  popnlatiou  of  the  island  was  about  13,000, 
of  whom  about  2600  were  in  the  town  of  Vatbi,  its 
seaport  and  oapitaL 

ITHAOA.  a  village  in  the  state  of  New  York, 
America,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Cayuga 
Lak^  162  miles  wast-by.aonth  from  Albany.  It 
hat  a  large  trade  in  coal,  and  SO  mills  and  manu- 
lactorieg.    Pop.  (1870)  10,107. 

ITI'NEBART  (I«t.  iHneraritim,  derived  from 
(Irr,  a  journey),  the  name  given  by  the  Romaus  to  a 
tabia  u  the  itagea  between  two  places  of  import- 
ance, with  the  distances  &om  ana  to  another.  The 
itineraries  of  the  ancients  oontribnte  mnch  to  onr 
acqaatntanca   with  ancaent  geography.      Of  these. 


the  most  important  are  the  ItineniTia  Antonini  and 
the  /finentnuTn  ^wroso^mttanum.  The  Itineraria 
Antoninl  are  two  in  number,  the  llirKrariamprmin- 
darum  and  the  Ituierarium  marinuTit,  the  former 
containing  the  routes  throng  the  Boman  provinoM 
in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa ;  and  the  Litter  the 
principal  routes  of  navigators,  who  then  sailed  only 
along  the  coasts.  They  t^e  their  name  from 
Antoninus  Caracalla,  by  whom  they  were  publiahed, 
as  corrected  up  to  his  time,  but  they  seem  to  have 
been  originally  prepared  at  an  e«rher  date. — Hie 
Iliaerariiem  Sieroaoli/rTtilamim  was  drawn  up  S33 


debni)  to  Jemsalran.    Of  these  itinerariM,  TariouB 
editions  have  been  published. 

ITINERATINO  LIBRARIES  are  smaU  oob 
lectiona  of  books  for  popular  reading  contained  in 
boxes,  one  of  which,  after  being  stationed  in  a  village 
for  a  certain  length  of  time,  is  transferred  to  another 
village,  when  another  takes  its  place ;  and  so  on 
with  any  assigned  number  of  boxes,  each  with  its 
special  assortment  The  prind^e  of  ihif^ng  about 
boxes  of  books  in  this  way  m  rural  diatricti  is 
referred  to  in  the  memoirs  of  Oberlin  (q.  v.),  and 
has  been  long  known  in  Wales,  as  well  oa  the  Eigh- 
landsj  but  it  met  with  no  significant,  approval, 
until  it  was  improved  upon  ana  carried  practically 
into  effect  on  a  broad  scale  by  Samuel  Brown,  a 
merchant  in  Haddington  (died  1839),  who,  taking  a 
deep  interest  in  popmar  instruction,  set  on  foot  iSn* 
eratmg  hbraries  m  several  villsfies  of  !East  Lothian, 
1S17.  The  books  were  assorted  to  the  extent  of  £0 
volumes  in  a  box.  At  first,  them  were  four  boxes  ; 
and  as  the  time  allowed  for  each  was  two  years 
at  a  village,  the  inhabitants  of  four  Tillages  had  the 
perusal  of  200  volumes  in  the  space  of  eight  years, 
at  one-fonrth  the  expense  of  the  whole.  Hie 
undeAaking  was  begun  and  locally  superintended 
from  motives  of  benevolence,  and  the  books  were 
supplied  gratuitously.  The  success  attending  this 
economic  method  of  (stablishina  librarie*  in  a 
coontry  district,  led  to  its  extension  over  a  wider 
sphere,  on  the  principle  of  readers  paying  a  small 
sum  per  aimiun,  also  of  forming  the  aswotmenta 
of  books  from  Uie  nsed  new  works  in  a  central 
BubsoHption  librajy.  There  are  several  itineratina 
divisions  in  use  in  East  Lothian  and  other  parts  M 
Scotland,  as  also  in  England,  and  12  divisions  were 
some  time  ago  transmitted  to  Jamaica,  where  they 
were  to  be  under  the  charge  of  miasionaries.  From 
all  that  can  be  gather^,  the  establishment  ot 
libraries  of  this  simple  class  proves  a  TsJoable 
auxiliary  to  schools,  chnrchea,  ana  other  agencies  of 
social  improvement.  For  a  variety  of  partioolan  on 
the  subject,  see  a  small  volume,  iSome  Acecimt  of 
Ilineratmg   Libmriu    and    l&eir    Foander    (Edin. 


Holstein,  and  the  oldest  in  the  duchy,  ia 

the  StSr,  in  a  valley  backed  by  Soely  wooded  hills, 
about  50  miles  by  water  nortii-west  of  Hamburg; 
Tobacco,  chicory,  sugar,  and  brandy,  are  manu- 
factured, and  important  horse  and  cattle  markets 
are  held  here.  I.  also  carries  on  a  considerable 
general  trade  by  water  with  Altona  and  Hamburg. 
Pop.  6691. 

The  original  castle  around  which  L  gradually  arOM 
was  built  by  Charlemagne  in  809.  I.  waa  twice 
taken  by  Tilly  in  the  Thirty  Veals'  War,  and  in 
1667  a  great  portion  of  it  was  burned  down  by  the 

I'VAN,  ta  I'WAN  (the  Russian  form  of  John), 
the  name  of  a  number  of  Buatian  tsxars. — ItaV  L 
(1462— 1G06)  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  tha 
Russian  empire.    He  was  at  first  only  Oiand  Daks 


dbyCuugle 


of  the  Rimiiji  raiacipilitiM  to  bii  ownawkj. 
UT2.  lu  muiied  ZoS, »  ni«oe  of  the  '"^  ^ 


not  likely  to  be  forgotten 
bj  the  Kmoan  emparon,  althon^  they  may  not 
M  c^anly  niged  Xhia  mmiage  opened  up  a  w&y 
alio  lor  the  entnuiee  of  Xhiropean  civiliaation  into 
-Itax  n.  (lfi33-)fiSl)  did  mnch  for  the 


■■  well  ■■  for  ita  ezteuunDjanu,    

a  oommeicial  trn^  vitii  Qneco  EUcabeth,  after 
the  "W'"''  had  diaoovered  the  way  to  Aichaooel  br 
■ea.  He  bore,  bowerer,  the  nunaiue  of  tbe  Crue^ 
and  merited  it  I7  bii  deed*,  amongat  which  vsb  the 
slaDghter  of  6O,0OQ  persons — other  aocouat*  moke 
the  nnmber  only  2S,0w— at  NovoKorod  in  «iz  we^B, 
on  aooount  of  a  nqipoaed  plot  to  deliret  ap  the  ci^ 
and  •unonnding  territory  to  the  king  St  Folaad. 
—Irtx  TEL,  bom  23d  Augiut  1740,  wai  the  ion  of 
tlte  Doke  Anthony  Ulna  of  Bionswick-Wolfen- 
bnttd,  and  the  Raanan  Grand  Dncheaa,  Anna 
Oarlowuh  Tb*  Empreoi  Anna  Iranowna  adopted 
hbn  M  her  ttm  and  heir,  bnt  she  dying  eoon  alter, 
and  Eliiabetii,  the  danghter  of  Peter  £,  ■( 
throne,  he  waa  immuoned  dwing  the  nn 
Ua  life  i  and  by  the  ordcn  nther  of  the 

Oatharine  LL  or  of  her  oomutJIorf,  waa  pnt 

by  the  offican  of  the  ganiaoa  at  SchlnaMlbniK 
where  he  was  eoafined,  on  ISth  Deoembef  1764 
Thoae  Ennian  iTaiu  are  aometimea  differenUr  nnm- 
made  to  b<«in  nuttu 
e  only  Grand  Dokea  1 

IVES,  St,  a  monioipal  and  pkriianentary  bo 
c^  England,  in  the  oonni^  of  Cornwall,  Mant 
•itnat^  on  the  noith-eMt  abora  of  the  bay  erf  tlw 
tame  name,  with  an  ootlook  on  the  Bristol  Cauumel, 
abont  10  nulw  nortb-north-MMt  of  Fmnnoa.  I(  ii 
a  TOj  old  and  potweaqne  town;  ita  ohnnli 
granite  bnildjng  M  the  earlf  pwt  of  the  15th 
■tandi  on  the  beach,  and  !■  reaened  by  the  apny  _ 
roogh  weather.  Ita  harbour  admifai  TMMla  of  200 
tona.  L  ii  the  head-qoartm  of  Um  ^lebard-fiaheiT. 
In  the  Tidnity  are  Mreral  important  tin  and  oooper 
Bunea.  Fop.  (1871)  of  parliaioentar;  bctfongh,  wnicb 
ratntnt  one  member  to  padiameA^  10,034. 

ITES,  St,  a  amall  mai^et-lown  of  England,  ii 
Hontingdoniliiie,  la  ntuated  On  the  leftbank  o 
UuOna^  8  milea  aaot  of  Hnntingdon.  A  Teiy  large 
weekly  cattle  and  com  market  ii  held  here.  Brew^ 
ing  and  malting  are  the  ohief  btauchea  ol  industry. 
Pop.  (1871)  32«. 

rVI'ZA  (ano.  Ebutiu),  one  of  the  Baleauio  lalee 

ill.  T.),  Ilea  about  60  milea  Bouth-weat  o(  Majorca. 
t  la  S3  milea  long,  and  12  mQefl  broad:  :pop. 
Il,O0a  Ivin,  the  ohief  town,  haa  a  pop.  id  6970. 
Bait,  the  principal  article  of  ozport)  la  axtHwrelj 
manntaotnred  on  the  ahora. 
ITORT  wai  file  name  formerly  ^ran  to  the 


.  of  the  teeth  of  all  '"'"i"-!!  bat  it  _ 
now  reatoicted  to  that  modificatiou  of  daiUne  or 
tooth-inbetance  which  in  tranarene  aectiona  ibewa 
linea  of  different  ooloun  running  in  oironlar  aroa, 
and  fonning  \ij  thai  deooaution  minute  kiMiige- 
ahaped  ipMsa.  By  thla  oharaoter,  whieh  i*  pre- 
sented by  evny  pcoiion  of  any  traurerae  aeotfon  of 
an  elephant'a  tuu,  trae  irory  may  be  diftingniahed 
from  tntsrf  other  land  of  tootb-anbatanoe,  a^  from 
vnrj  eonnterfeit,  wheUier  deriTed  from  tooth  or 
bone.  Althoo^  no  other  teeth,  except  thoae  of 
Hie  elephant,  preaent  thla  (duxactariatie,  many  other 
animal  I,  inch  aa  the  walma,  narwhal,  hippc^otamni. 


.     .  ^e  arte  as  thoaa  for  which 

true  ivory  it  emidayed.    The  irory  of  the  toska  of 
tbs  African  elephant  i>  held  in  the  hi^eat  aab'Tna. 

deoiity  and  wbiteneaa.  Hie  tuika 
from  a  faw  oonoea  in  waght  to  mem  than  170  Iba.' 
each.  HoltiapChl  itatea  that  ha  haa  aeoi  foosil 
tiuka  from  tlie  banka  at  the  riyen  tA.  Nertheni  ' 
Siberia  which  wei^ted  186  Iba.  each.  Thve  an 
Twiona  nhnwii-al  proceaaca  1^  which  it  may  be  dyed 
of  vaiioua  eoloorB,  aa  black,  blue,  green,  yellow,  ml,  ' 
and  riol^  I 

iTCcy  artidea  can  be  made  fiexible  and  stnu- 
tnnaparentbyinmuT«oninaaolationof  phonrfxorie  ' 
add  of  ap.  gr.  1-130,  till  they  become  bsnamoBnt.  , 
iniey  are  than  to  be  taken  out,  washed  with  water, 
and  dried  with  a  soft  cloth,  when  they  an  found  to 
be  as  fleziUe  aa  leather.  They  harden  on  expaame 
to  dry  air,  but  nmme  Uieir  pBani^  wlum  immeraed 
in  hot  water. 

Much  inqwrtant  infoimatiom  on  the  aabiaot  trf 
iTory    genenlly    will    be    found    in 

Ibe  tniki  <A  Sm  el^hant  hsTs  fan  najr  wly    ; 


an.    L  la  fraqu 
mot.    fnHithe 


amtiomd  in  the  Od  Twta- 


Oieeka  it  beoHM  a  moat  important  ' 
the  haada  of  tlia  aeulplur  FludiM  ' 
B  statue  waa  [nduoed  t£  tiie  Olympaan  Japitv,  at 
auoh  marvalkina  beauty  and  Jmpwing  ma^Mtrtliat 
it  was  oonsdered  a  miuortane  to  die  witluntt  hftTt^ 
aeen  iL  By  the  Bomana,  who  wse  supnUed  from 
AMoa,  it  waa  also  ezteBsivaly  oaad,  aJM  1^  tliam 
"lewbakt^Barop*.  Hm 
mbtlna  bad  its  origin  in    , 

.     .    _  _ J*  been  a  mncb  ntned 

material,  and  fonnedy  Mpidfed  indinotly  mneh  «f 
the  ivory  aiDt  to  Eniope.  The  value  <t  irory  im  to 
'aon  to  the  MM  and  •oondneaa  of  the  teeth, 
the  weight  el  fire  poanda,  tiksy  ate  tailed 
mwiodbm,  and  are  of  the  least  Talae,  rarely  rMch- 


art  of  woAing  in  ironr 
India,  irtiere  it  has  m 


ing  fin  riiillings  per  potmd ;  but  dooUa  that  prioa 

baa  be^  sItmi  mi  terth  ti  nnnmally  lane  bx&    i 

Hm  quan^  imported  into  Great  Britain  bow  all 

parts  rather  exeeeda  fiOO  tons  per  annum,  the  mloe 

of  vriiioh  is  Mariy  £U»fiOa. 

The  io-oalled   irarT  obtained    bom  the  Uppo- 

itamus  is  In  enmcial    favour  with  dntiati  )or 

akiog  lalae  teeth,  on  acooont  ol  its  pnie  white    ' 

odour  and  freedmn  bom  grain.    The  fosd  vnrj, 

which  is  found  in  oonddsnble  quantity  in  Sbvn    [ 


brittle ;  it  la  alao  whitsr,  and  wants  its  waxy  soft. 
"ess.  At  present  the  demand  for  iroTy  is  i^idfy 
icreoaing,  owing  te  the  ^eat  taste  and  ikill  ^  SODM 
I  the  aniats  who  work  in  this  matariaL  and  as  the 
supply  increaaes  but  very  alowly,  it  la  Hkelv  to 
beocBne  my  dear.  The  works  in  ivory  eihil 
ths  IntamationBl  Bxhilntion  (18021  shewed 
extraordinary  advanoe  in  the  beautiful  art  of 
carving  and  1 '     ' 


I  Jthe 


ITOBY,  YsuTABu.  This  outious  material  ia 
furnished  by  one  of  the  moat  heaatifnl  of  all  th« 
palm  tribe.  It  grows  cm  the  Andean  Tdains  Qt 
Fern,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Mj^daJraaTand 
other  parte  of  South  America,  ile  alera  of  this 
palm  (the  PhyUUffitu  mnerooatpa)  is  short  and  { 
procumbent,  but  it  has,  proceeding  from  its  anwn, 
a  msgnifloeut  tuft  of  hght-green  pinnated  leere*  ' 
of  extraordicaiy  siee  and  beauty ;  they  an  like 
immense  oetrioh-feathera  risjng  from  SO  to  40  foet  in     1 


IVORT.BLAOK— rVT. 


bave  DeHher  ulyx  nor  oordU.    The  froij 

fts  large  M  a  auta'a  he«d,  oounati  of  mM^ 

leathoy  dmpeg  aggn^ltd  together,  and  < 


taof  < 


;nlar  farm,  each 


nTit  bdsg  nearly  as  large  aa  a  han^  ^g ;  they  are 
called  Oorroao  nuii  in  commerce.  The  kemela  of 
-UieBB  nati  wh«n  ripe  are  exceedingly  liftrd  and 
vrhite,  in  fwst  they  reaemble  ivory  bo  oompktaly 
thai  lew  nuoea  have  erer  bean  better  appliea  than 
tihat  of  T^etable  ivory.  They  Ilatb  of  late  come 
into  ertensive  use  by  toruerB  in  the  manafactnre 
of  buttona,  ambrella-handlee,  and  tmall  trinkets, 
and  BO  oloiely  resemble  tme  ivory  as  frequently  to 
deceive  competent  judges.  Two  or  three  miUians 
of  these  nnta  are  now  imported  annually,  and  are 
chiefly  nsed  by  the  liondcm  and  Bfnnijigliiam 
tnmera. 

rVOSY-BIiACK.    See  Bom-BuoE. 

ITRE'A,  a  town  of  Piadmont,  and  capital  of  a 
provinoo  of  the  same  name,  has  a  population  of  10,S19, 
And  is  ntoated  "~  ^'""  '""  "" — ""       ""'  '^ —  ■n.u.— 


Et  bank  of  the  Dora  Baltea, 


BQppceed  to  have  been  a  templa  of  Apollo,  and 
contains  an  audeob  aepnlchral  monmnant  (A  tba 
a^  of  Anguitus.  The  caniival  of  L  is  famed  for  ita 
pictoresqne  allegorical  pageants. 

TVBY-SUK-SEINE,  a  mannfacturing  town  of 
Prance,  in  the  deparbnent  of  Seine,  is  sitoated  on 
the  left  bank  of  toe  river  of  that  name,  three  nules 
above  Paris.  Glas^  earthenware,  and  chemical  pro- 
ducts are  the  chief  EUumlMtarai.  Fop.  (1872)  11,176. 

IV  X  {Jledera),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natiand 
order  AToliaeea,  .consiiting  of  shrubs  and  treea, 
mostly  Datives  of  bwioal  oountries.  The  floweis 
have  five  or  ton  pctau,  and  five  or  ten  convarging 
or  consolidated  s^leo.  The  fruit  is  a  berry  wil£ 
five  or  ten  cells.— The  Cohhoh  Itt  (if.  hdix] 
in  a  well-known  native  of  Britain,  and  of  most 
parts  of  Europ«^  althon{^  it  ii  mote  rare  in  tiia 
Dorthem  eonntnea.  Its  itmg,  creemug,  bmnched 
stem,  climbinK  on  treea  and  vaUs  to  a  great 
height,  and  cuMely  adhering  even  to  very  liard 
BnbetuiceB  fay  means  of  tortkts  which  it  throws 
ont  in  great  abundance  along  ita  wliole  length, 
acquires  in  very  aged  plants  almost  the  thickness 
of  a  Email  tzee.  Its  C-Iobed,  shining,  stalked, 
evergreen  leaves,  clothing  bare  walla  with  green 
Inznriance,  serve  to  throw  off  run,  whilst  the 
rootlets  of  the  stem  anok  ont  the  moisture,  so  as 
to  render  damp  walls  dry,  contrary  to  a  common 
prejodioe,  that  ivy  tends  to  {Mdooe  danpa«M  in 


walls.  It  inJQMi  tmM,  however,  both  by  abetiact- 
ing  tiidr  sap  and  by  oonstrictiaa.  The  flowering 
branches  of  ivy  have  orate,  entin  leavcB,  veir 
different   from   the   otlieTS.      Ita    Bmall    greenidi 


Iiy,  showing  the  Rootleta. 

oalli 
,  which  are  also 
foand  in  a  gnmmy  eiudation  obtained  by  incisiODS 
from  the  stem,  and  occudonally  used  in  medicine  as 
a  depilatory  and  a  stimulant,  and  in  Tamish-makiDg. 
An  ointment  mads  from  the  leaves  is  uied  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  to  cure  boms.  In  Ggypt^ 
the  ivy  was  sacred  to  OsiriB,  in  Greece  to  Bacchus 


as  Eryiith  Ivy,  is  porticuTarly  eeteemed  for 
leaves  and  luxuriant  growtii-  It  ia  said  to  be  a 
native  of  the  Canarv  Isles.  Ivy  grows  readily  from 
cuttings. — H.  viabetiifera,  a  native  of  Amboyna,  is 
said  to  produce  a  finely  aromatic  wood ;  and  H. 
UrAinQuKxa,  a  Ceylo&ese  epeoiea,  ^elda  a  rednous 
■ubstance  whidi  andls  like  tiupeotiiM. 


i.GuuijIe 


THE  tenth  letter  in  our  alphabet 
has  in  £ng.  the  power  of  iM  ;  in  Fr., 
of  zA;  and  ia  Ger.  of  y.  Both  the 
■otmd  and  tile  ch&racter  hive  spnmg 
out  of  the  original  Towel  i.  When 
such  a  word  as  luliva  is  pronounced 
rapidl;,  it  natnraUj  slides  into  YvHtti. 

Bomans,  thongh  the;  h«d  bnt   one 

character  for  both,  recognised  tbia  dUtinc- 
tion  hotween  the  vowel  and  the  Bemi-vowel  j 
and  in  the  cue  of  each  words  aa  cuttu,  maiut, 
writeiB  doubled  the  t,  and  wrote  one  or  both 
_  aa  cuUns  or  cuilua  There  is  little  doubt  that 
the  original  Roman  sound  of  this  aemi-vowel  was 
that  of  Eng.  y  (youth),  atill  given  to  it  in  Oermon. 
But  aa  thia  Bound  hits  a  tendency  to  convert  the 
oonaonant  preceding  It  into  a  sibilant  (see  letter  C), 
BO  it  has  a  tendency  to  become  itaeU  aibilant,  and 
ful-  alides  into  Fr.  zhul-,  Eng,  <Mu^.  Thia  tranai- 
tion  had  already  taken  place  in  the  Uter  agea  of  the 
Latin,  at  all  events,  in  the  popular  pronunciation, 
aa  appeara  from  such  inscriptions  as  wngiuTUa,  for 
coTjjunda  J  Zetu,  for  Jetu, 

It  waa  the  Dutch  acholara  of  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  that  first  introduced  a  regular  distinction 
between  the  consonantal  and  vowel  powers  of  i,  and 
marked  the  former  by  the  distinct  character  j  (a 
long  i,  projecting  below  the  line).  The  character 
has  been  adopted  in  the  modem  Teutonic  and 
Romanic  longnoges,  with  the  eiceptdoD  of  Italian, 
which  represente  the  sound  by  pi  or  mrs  «s  Qiovanni, 
from  Lit.  Johawau;  viaggioTt,  from  Lat  ntaior.  In 
Span.,  it  has  a  gattaral  power,  and  ia  interchange- 
able with  X,  aa  Xera,  or  Jtret. 
JA'BUtn  {MyeUria),  a  genus  of  bird*  of  tho  aame 


family  with  storks  and  adjutants ;  the  chief  dis- 
tinction from  the  atorks  being  that  the  bill  is  a 
little  curved  npwarda.    The  apedes  are  few,  but  are 


JABUTIOAHA.    See  EiraxMU. 

JA'CA^A  (Potto),  a  genoa  of  Uids  of  tiie  order 
GraUa,  commonly  ranked  in  the  ftmily  Bt^Uda, 
natives  of  the  wann  parts  of  Aaia  and  uie  Agi«*i^ 
idanda,  Abica,  and  South  America.  In  general 
appearance,  they  much  reaemble  galUnnlaa  and 
cootK  The  feet,  thongh  not  webbed,  ai«  ad^ted, 
by  the  great  length  of  the  toes  and  dawi,  for 
walking  on  the  soHace  of  weed-covered  lakes  and 
awampa,  the  native  hanats  of  thage  birds,  where  they 
never  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  traveler. 
The  CoKuoN  J.  (i*.  Jaeana)  is  a  South  American 


long;  bli 


_  Qoiana  and  Bnail.    It  is  about 
black,  except  the  back  and  part 
'      *  -  '-  -'■ '^oo&or. 


an  of  a  tai^t  duanat  w 


JAOABA'KBA  WOOD,  a  very  hatd,  hesvy, 
brown  wood,  also  called  Hoteuiood,  from  its  faint 
"I  rosea.  It  is  brought  from  South 
prodoced  l;^  severu  traea  of  the 
cenua  Jacaranda,  of  the  nataral  order  BignoHiaeat. 
Several  spedes  of  this  genua  am  called  (kuvia  in 
Bra^  and  ate  there  acooonted  anti>Byiiiilttic — 
Several  apeoiea  of  the  nearly  allied  ^ui  Tecoma 
also  have  an  extremely  hard  wood,  as  irpaUapftu 
a  native  of  the  Caribbean  Islands.  The  BraxD 
Indiana  make  their  bows  of  the  wood  of  T.  toaipkora 
or  Pao  ^arco. 

JACK.      'The  Jewish   Jacolut*  waa  cormpted 
through  Jacquemes  to  Jaqae*  in  France,  and  Jamet 
EDgtandi    and   Jaqua   being   the   oommoneat 
^b4«A..  -.**»&  in  -y^Q  former  country,  was  nse<?  — 


Christaan  ui 


pila  ten.  feet  bigb  in  the  •tadiCMe  ti  the  bell-tower 
of  Eton  College.  The  J.  la  ft  loaul  Uid.  It  ia  euily 
doDMitioftted,  and  bMomoa  vtoy  (eit  utd  funUiar. 
It  liM  conndeiaUb  powtn  of  Bumuny,  ud  even 
imitate!  the  humaii  Toioa. 

JA'CKSON,  a  town  of  North  iLjneriaa,  oapital  of 
tiie  state  of  MiiaiBdppi,  is  litaated  on  a  plun  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Peail  Biver,  lAich  beoomei 
naTinbla  here,  fort?  milea  eut  of  Ylckabni^,  and 
about  ISO  milea  north  of  Kew  Orleuil  bj  railway. 
Being  the  capital,  it  is  the  seat  of  several  impoitant 
state  Institationn,  as  tiie  lunatic  aaylnm,  inctitutioni 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  prUon.  Here,  in 
aTerage  yean,  from  30,000  to  40,000  balea  of  ootton 
an  abipped  annuall;.    Pop.  (1370)  4234, 

JAOKSON,  a  flouriduog  eitjr  of  North  America,^ 
in  the  atate  of  Mii'higii.Tij  ig  aitoated  on  the  left 
bank  of  tiie  Grand  BiTer,  ^6  milea  weet  of  Detroit, 
and  36  milea  aonth  of  Lanmng,  with  both  of  which  it 
ia  ooineoted  by  railway.  In  Qm  vidnity,  are  numei- 
ana  factories  and  milli  of  varioua  kinda.  Agricul- 
tnnl  ixaplemmita  are  ezteniiTaly  manofactured 
here,  and  there  ii  a  douriahio^  general  trade. 
Within  tiM  oil;  lin^^  there  ia  a  mma  of  bituminoua 
eoal—tkat  mateoM  oocnii  alio  in  the  Tteintty. 
Pop.  (1870)  11,447. 

J  AOKBON,  Andrxw,  General,  and  aercoith  Pred> 
dent  of  the  United  States  of  America,  was  bom 
at  Wubaw  settlement,  South  Caiolinis  Hareh  IS, 
1767.  His  father,  who  waa  a  Sootohman  by  birth, 
emigrated  to  America  in  IT6Ci  and  aoon  afterwards 
die^  leaving  to  his  widow  a  half-cleared  farm  in 
a  new  settlraoent^  with  no  nagroei  to  aaaiat  in  its . 
cnltivation.  When  S.  gnw  up,  he  waa  aent  to 
etody  for  tiis  ohuzoh,  wt  on  vm  breaking  out  of 
tbe  American  leroliltion,  he  and  hia  brothers  were 
summoned  to  the  field,  and  the  elder  loat  hia  life 


?errv,  Andrew,  though  bnt  thirteen 
years  old,  fought  with  hu  remaiiiiag  brother  nnder 
Sumter,  and  remained  with  the  army  nntil  the  end 
of  the  war.  The  life  of  the  camp  had  ruined  him 
for  the  clerical  offioa,  so  in  17S4  £a  commenced  the 
study  of  the  law,  and  in  17S7waa  appointed  aolioitor 
for  the  weatem  diatriot  d  South  Carolina,  now  ihe 
■tate  of  Temuaaee.  Thia  frontier  aattlemeut  had 
forito  nei^kboDia  aereral  powtrfol  tribea  of  Indioni, 
againat  whom  3.  foo^  witlt  aneh  atuoeaa  aa  to  set 
from  thcan  the  oon^tlimentuy  titJea  of  'ShaipEnue' 
and  'Pointed Arrow.'  In  17»,  he  waa  a  member  of 
the  canrention  which  modeled  the  conatitution  and 
organiaed  the  state  of  Tennessee,  and  was  elected 
to  the  legislature  as  lepresentatiTe,  and  then  as 
senator,  and  appointed  judge  of  the  supreme 
court  (an  office  he  aoon  resieuod),  and  major-general 
of  the  state  '"'^ifa"«-  In  IS13,  at  an  outbreak  of 
hoetilitiea  with  the  Creek  Indiana,  he  raiaed  a 
Tolonteer  fotoe  of  two-  or  three  Uiouaand  men, 
tfoA  defeated  them.  When  destitute  of  sappliea, 
he  ii  laid  to  hare  set  an  example  of  endnranoe  by 
feeding  on  hiokory-nuta,  and  nenco,  aooording  to 
aome,  to  hare  acquired  the  popniar  sobriquet  of 
'OldBjckory.'  J^  flnal  nctory  (March  27, 1614) 
at  the  EorsMihoe  peninsula,  in  ihe  TallahooM^  com- 
pletely broke  the  power  of  the  Indian  race  fn 
North  America.  lo  conseqnenoe  of  hia  skill  and 
energy  in  Indian  -warfare,  he  waa  app<dn.ted  a 
major-general  of  the  army  of  tiie  Cnit^  Statea: 
anil  in  the  contemporaneoas  war  with  England  had ' 
command  of  the  forces  which  captured  Penaaoola, 
and  defended  New  Orieoos  (q.  t.)  uainst  the 
attack  of  the  British  under  Qenenl  ^wkenhan^ 
December  1S14  The  reanlt  of  thia  addon,  ao 
fUttenng  to  the  pride  of  rtmnrioan^  gave  OMiaral 


In  lS2i,  he  received  the  higheat  vote  of  foar  eaa-- 
didatM  for  the  prendency  of  the  United  States 
bat  by  ijte  inSucowe  of  Mr  Clay,  John  Qnincy 
Adanw  waa  deoted  by  tba  Home  of  B»r4Miita- 
tiTW.  He  mi,  howerer,  in  apile  of  bitter  kod  , 
violent  MVoaitiQn,  elected  bj  tike  demoentie  p^zty 
in  1828,  and  ia  1832  re-elected  bf  a  ctm  more    | 

■*--■—'--  — -- — !*—      ^t:-j  a^^mniiatT*4Miii  ^raa 

.,  --^ He  Totoed  important 

against  large  majoritiea,  and  after  a  long 
itniggk^  dwfcroyed  &«  Bank  of  the  United  SMeai,  1 
and  took  the  firat  ctepa  towaida  a  apede  cozrency 
and  independent  treasury.  But  he  manifeated  too 
much,  perh«is,  of  a  partisan  spirit  in  r^oviiu 
nearly  all  ,his  political  oppoueota  from  offia^  aod 
appointing  his  supporten — an  example  followed  by 
his  aucoessora  of  Wh  parties,  and  vhieh  has  led  to 
wide  oorrnptioii.  His  administration,  aaawhcJ^ 
waa  Euooeeafol,  and  he  retired  with  uDdiantiidied  . 
popularity,    after    witnessing  tie  election   i 


JAOKSON,  Thoku,  an         _  . 

mnenl,  better  known  as  'Stooswall  Jaokaoo,' 
bom  in  Virnnia  in  1SS6.    In  1843;  he  entered  tba 
military  ao^emv  at  Westpeint  aa  a  cadet, 
breveted  second  Uentenant   in   tike  1st    i 
United  Btatea  artiUair  in  1B4&    Ha  wm 
to  Magmdet'a  batterer  in  tke  Mexieaa  war,   and    I 
waa    breveted    captam    tat   ;hia  jnllant   omdoet   i 
in  the  battles  of  Contreraa  and  Cnwuboaoo.      He    ' 
retired  from  the  army  in  18S2,  and  became  ^iv- 
feasor  of  Mathematica  and  Military  Science  in  the 
university  of  Virginia.     At  the  outbreak  of  the    , 
War  of  Seceaiion,  he  waa  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  ihe  Confederate  aimy.  Hia  noin  d«  gium 
of  '  Stonewall '  was  occasioned  by  Qte  flnniMas  ol    I 
his  bri^e  at  the  battle   of  BnU  Btm,  Jnlv  31,    : 
1861.    He  defeated  the  Northern  fcreea  tA  BalTa 
Bluff,  aud  outgeneraled  and  detwted  the  Pedeial    ' 
comioaiiden   in   the  Tlrginia  campaign   of  ISS^ 
after  which  he  led  the  innudon  of  Maryhmd,  and  oop-    | 
tured  Harper's  Ferry.    He  died  of  woonds  received 
from  hia  own  men  at  CbanceUoirille,  tSaj  9, 186a      ' 

JA'COB  (Heb.  YaaUb,  derived  variously  tivm 
'heal,'   Gen.  iiv.   26,  or  from  'to  deceive,^   Gen. 
xzvii.  36],  ona  of  the  three  chief  Hebrew  patriarchs 
He  waa  the  aeoond  son  of  Isaac  and    Bebekah, 
and  on  aooonnt  of  hia  dodle,  domeatia  cliarartpr    ) 
was  the  favourite  of  bis  mother.     Hia  oondnct 
towarda  hia  brother  In  resaid  to  tike  bnihri^t 
(Qen.  zxriL)  does  not  greawr  tedonnd  te  Us  cxadit.    | 
After  an  exile  of  jtl  yean  in  Padanarim,  irtiiflwr    i 
he  had  fled  to  eacape  the  vangeanoe  «f  Eaao, 
ha  returned  to  Canaan  with  two  vivea   (|UdieI 
and  Leah),  two  concnbinea   (BOhah  and  ZIbiali).    | 
twelve  BOOB  (the  fathers  of  the  sabaeqaest  Hateww 
tribes),  and  a  dangbter  named  Dinah,  ^ko  was  the    . 
anint«itional  cauae  of  a  vindictive  massaore  of  the    ' 
Sheohemites  by  her  brothers  Simeon  sad  Levi.     In 
hia  130th  year,  he  and  his  family  went  down  to 
Egypt^  where  his  faroorite  vm,  3<m«^  had  become 
a  gnat  man  under  Pharaoh.    Here  na  lived  for  17 
yeara  Icngar  in  the  land  of  Gosben,  sad  died  n  Ida 
147th  year.    Eia  body  waa  «mbahned.  oaitM  back 
to  Canaan  with  gieat  pomp  by  Ua  ■on^  and  tbcra 
buried  ne«r  Hebron.    Mention  b  {raqnwntly  mad« 
of  J.  both  in  the  Old  and  Hew  Teafaunao^  and 
there  are  also  many  Isgvtda  aboot  hin  in  Bab- 
bfaiioalandPBtlHtio,HV   "       '    ■"    "  ^ *- 


incf  infi  till  Uio  middla  of  tlie  ISth  centoiy.  Thdr 
hovHlity  to  ths  Honn  of  HtnoTsr  brc&e  oat  in 
lebelliona  in  1715  ind  174S,  in  coiueqnenco  of  -^uoh 
not  a  few  ot  them  loot  their  livu  upon  the  aatiScAi, 
title*  were  ittMiited,  and  wtstea  oonfiao&ted.  After 
1740,  their  c*n»e  beoame  m  obritnulT  h(^>elea^  that 
their  aotiTitr  in  a  gieat  meanue  oaaaed ;  anditwai 
not  long  till  it  OMsed  altogether,  and  thoM  who 
■Idll  retSned  their  attaohment  to  the  exiled  family 
acqnieMed  in  the  order  of  thin^  eataUiahed  1^ 
the  RenJnldon.  In  Scotland,  the  hc^tea  and  viahes 
of  the  JacoUte  party  were  eipreased  in  many 
■piiited  MUgi,  which  form  an  intereeting  part  of  Uie 
national  litentare.  See  the  CvUodai  Papert  (Lond. 
1816] ;  Hoeg'B  Jacobite  Selia  (2  TOla.  £diii.  1819] ; 
and  Chambers'B  Jacofiile  MenuArt  (Edin.  1824). — 
The  J.  of  England  were  alio  called  Torit*.  Thej 
were  generally  distdiigniahed  by  warm  attachment 
to  the  Church  of  Engund,  ai  opposed  to  all  diasent, 
if  they  were  not  memben  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  held  very  strongly  the  doctrine  of  ncm-rtdtbmiXt 
or  the  dnty  of  abaolnte  mibmiaaion  to  the  king.  The 
J.  of  Scotland  were  ilao  generally  EpUoopalians 
and  Boman  Catholics.  Mocaulay,  bow  ever,  points 
out  that  the  Highland  clana  wWh  sBpoaeed  the 
Jacobite  cause  did  bo  ou  other  Krounda  than  the 
English  J.,  aud  were  far  from  having  previonslv 
received  the  doctrine  of  non-resirtance.  In  Ireland, 
the  Jacobite  cause  was  that  also  of  the  Celts  as 
opposed  to  the  Saions,  or  the  native  race  against 
tiie  English  cokmieU,  and  of  the  Roman  Catholics 
agunst  the  Protestants.  These  diversities  prevented 
a  complete  union,  and  greatly  weakened  the  Jaco- 
bites.—See  Sittory  of  (A«  ifeteHion  in  17*5,  by  B. 
Chambera. 

JACOB'S  LADDER,  on  shipbo«rd,  is  a  short 
rope-ladder  wiUi  wooden  itepa,  to  give  easy  access 
to  the  shrouds  and  tops.  It  is  also  the  name  of  an 
apparatus  for  rsiidng  light  weight*  a  considerable 
lieight.  One  form,  mnch  naed  in  breweries  and 
disuUeries,  is  an  endleM  revolving  chain  of  buckets, 
filling  tiiemaelvea  at  Uie  bottom  of  Uie  ohain,  aud 
emptying  tliemaelve*  at  the  top^ 

JACOB'S  LADDBB  <i>otnnonfaim  om-ulmm),  a 
herbaceous  perenoial  ^ut  of  the  natonJ  orilt 
PoZmioniaeee,  a  rare  native  of  Britain,  bnt  moi 
common  in  the  centre  and  south  of  Europe,  found 
also  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia  and  of  North 
Aioerica.  It  i«  common  in  flower-Rardena  in  Britain. 
It  has  pinnate  leAves,  with  ovato-lanoealate  leafiets, 
•  smooth  stem  1 — 21  feat  high,  and  a  terminal  raceme 
of  br^t  Uue  (sometimeB  white)  flowers,  with  wheel- 
■hapea  6-lobed  oorolliL  Graat  medicnnal  virtoea 
were  onoe  aaoribed  to  it  bnt  the  only  quality  which 
it  aeems  to  posseoa  i*  a  dight  Minngenoy. 

JAOOTOT,  JiAM  JoeiPB,  the  inventor  of  the 
'Universal  Method'  of  education,  was  bom  at 
Dijon,  in  France,  in  1770.  He  aerved  for  some  time 
in  the  army,  but  in  1790  waa  appointed  by  Napo- 
leon, first  to  the  chair  of  mathematica  in  the  Normal 
Sdiool,  afterwaris  secretary  to  the  Minister  at  War, 
and  a  director  of  the  Folytechnio.  He  retired  to 
Belgium  iu  ISlC,  where  he  was  appointed  lecturer 
on  French  literature  in  the  university  ot  LoQVBJn, 
and  afterwards  directer  of  the  military  Normal 
Schmd.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  183S,  and  died 
thve  30th  Jnly  1S40.  His  system,  propotmded  in 
genersl  roles,  whiiji,  however,  without  hia  own 
explanation,  would  have  been  qnito  muntelligible, 
appean  to  consist  ia  directing  the  student^s  exer- 
lions  to  pazticnUr  suif'sU,  encooraging  and  inciting 
him  in  every  possible  manner  to  make  use  of  bis 
mental  powers,  and  there  leaving  him ;  the  teacher 


leave  bun  to  explain  away  his   own  difficiiHie&  ' 

J.'s  method  very  much  resembled  that  of  Hamilton  | 
(see  Hufn/rOHUH  SmaM],  and,  like  it,  wa«  erode 

and  one-sided-    The  valuable  elementa  of  it  hav*  I 

been  incorporated  in  the  more  rational  and  catholio  | 

methods  of  recent  timeo.     He  wondcrfol  remha  , 

said  to  have  been  prodnced  by  J.  are,  ao  f>r  as  i 

real,  to  be  attributed  to  the  excepticoial  imI  and  I 

energy  that  always  characterise  the  apostle  tA  a  | 
new  system,  as  much  as  to  the  system  itselL 
JAOQUArEtD  LOOM,  a  loom  fitted  with   the 


Joseph  Marie  Jacqnard,  an  ingenious  Freachman,  ' 

a  native  of  Lyon,  who,  bong  neoessitatsd  to  cany  | 

on  the  weaving  business  of  his  father,  for  irtucli  he  i 

hod  a  distaste,  and,  according  to  some  aceantifa,  ' 
stall  further  stimulated  by  reading  an  aoconnt  in 
an  En^ish  newspaper  of  the  offm'  of  a  weminu 

for  any  person  who  should  invent  a  machine  lot  ' 

weaving  nets,  set  hia  wits  to  woA  to  in^i«v«  the  ; 

existing  machinery  for  weaving.    B^  hia  iDTNitMii,  , 

he  enabled  an  Miunaty  woAmiui,  inOi  vxaafnttAt*  ' 

esse,  to  produce  the  most  beantifnl  pattenu  id  a  I 
style  wbioh  had  onlv  previonsly  been  aooomvlialMd 
with  almost  inetediole  patience,  skill,  and  labonr. 


Nevertheless  the  leoepbon  of  his  great  inrentioD    i 
by  the  pubhe  was  most  dispiriting  for  althoorii 
rewarded  with  a  small  pension  by  Napoleoo,  tLe    | 
silk-weavers  Ihemselve*  offered  such  violent  opfio-    i 
sitioD  to  its  introdnotiiHi,  that  on  oim  oceanm  be    ' 
narrowly  escaped  with  his  life,  and  his  T»i«i-liim>  was   I 
broken  up  by  the   body  of  men  who^  nnder  the 
titleof theConseildeaFrDd'homnieB,werea{fMniited    I 
to  watch  over  the  intnests  of  the  I^yomnese  tenders,    i 
and  it  was  destrOTed  in  the  pnblie  sstum  of  Lyos. 
To  use  Jaoquard's  own  langnagtt:  'The  ircm  was   I 
sold  for  Iron,  the  wood  for  wood,  and  ha  him**)*   i 
was  ddivBied  over  to  anivetsal  isncsninj'i'  never^    I 
thelesB,  on  that  sama  spot  iriu>^  the  nacuune  was 
publicly  desteoyed,  a  statue  BOW  stands,  to  shew  tlte   | 
gratitode  ot  a  mca«  enlifjatsned  fsmcratiaL 

Evtti  after  tho  puliat  adoptum  ol  his  msfhinfr^   i 
which  was   paieoce^  Jocqnaid  had  munberiess 
amkoyanoas  to  extend  with  {the  workmen,  as  osna^   | 
oppraed  ignorant  prejudiee  to  its  ■yto  "  "   ' 

masters,  httle  better,  took  it  up  so  Id 

"  failed  in  many  instances,  and  actions' 


1  complete  revohttion  in  the  art  of  weaving  eqte- 
iiolly  m  the  finer  kind*  of  figured  silk  fabric*; 
The  Jaoguard  aj^iaratna  can  be  adjusted  to  abaost 


heJaoquardai^iaratna  can  be  adjusted  t« 

y  kina  of  loom,  ita  cffice  bung  merely  to  direct 
f  the  warp  t£reads  lAich  are 


required  to  produoe  the  pattern,  and  which  pre- 
viously were  effected  by  the  weaver's  fingus ;  its 
arrangements  generally  are  very  complicated,  bnt 
ita    priiiciples  are   remarkable  for  their   exbeme    i 
simplicity  and  certainty. 

In  ordinary  weaving,  the  alternate  threads  of  the    i 
warp,  or  longitudinal  arrangement,  are  raised  so  aa 
to  enable  the  weaver  to  throw  the  shnttle  ctmtain-    | 
ing  Uie  weft  thread  transversely  acroa  from  hia    ' 
ri^  to  hi*  left  hand  bstween  the  wan>  threads  ao    , 
nusad  and  those  left  at  resk     When  t£s  wsft  Is  wo 
psawd  through,  the  raised  warp  threads  SIS  towned, 
and  the  oUier  set  raiaed,  the  shnttle  bmng  then     | 
passed  throng  from  left  to  right.   TioE  is  the  most 
simple  idea  oi  plaiting  or  weaving.    If,  however,  a 
pattern  bos  to  be  prodooed  either  m  plun  matoiala 
or  varied  colours,  it  is  neoessary,  inshad  of  raising    i 


JACQUABD  IiOOU-JAOQUEBIE. 


amd  iliiLiiiii'iiiT  the  vhoU  thieacU  of  the  warp,  in 
fe^To  B^  u  mbove  deMribed,  to  miw  kidIj  noli  m 
axe  Teqmr«d  to  derelop  the  Tarioos  frU  o{  the 
figim,  nkd  tltk,  of  ooniM,  moct  be  done  with  great 


tiia   fomuition  o 


Jacqiuid  u  for  the   pmpoee  id  regulating  thei 
moTementi,  and  its  ntooe  of  aotion  ia  u  foIlowH ; 
The  waip  tiireadi  am  each  (as  in  tlte  t 


these  liftiiig  tlir«ada  (f 


r^'^i      'k      '»     •^ 

t    .i^-. 

a 

:" 

1 

r^ 

i 

-- 

H      D 

t 

( 

-j 

ff 

^ 

' 

< 

? 

M  i 


when  noting  iiiterfeKe,  i«  eat^t  and  raiaed  b^ 
each  iqnrard  motion  of  the  lifbng  bar ;  thiia,  A  lb 
the  lifting  bar,  and  tt  haa  fire  [vojectioni  (J^  i,  i,  1:,  t], 
npoD  v^uofa  the  hooka  of  the  wirei  catch  when  in  a 
mttwis^  poaition,  aa  at  B,  B,  but  which  mist  them 


(he  ngnli^iM)  of  thia  prMinre  upon  tl 
1  neeolM  ia  effected  by  a  revolving  eqaa 


Nov,  the 
horiaontal :  .  ^    ^ 

toMet,  which  haa  each  of  iti  four  ndea  perf  oiated 
with  Towi  of  holea,  wMdw  like  the  needles  and 
lifting'  wirea,  eoii<ap<»d  in  nnmbcr  to  the  threada 
of  the  warp.  Ihia  roller,  when  in  iti  plaoe,  tecuvea 
into  one  row  of  peilontioua  the  whde  row  of 
needlea  where  thej  projeot  throngh  tite  frame  at  A, 
and  it  haa  a  motioa  given  by  the  modtinerjr  which 
bringa  each  row  on  ita  fonr  anifaoM  in  regular  order 
Into  the  same  poaition,  and  if  no  impediment  ia 
offteed,  all  the  needles  are  nndiatnrbed,  and  the 
wn^t  wirea  lift  the  entire  aet  of  waip  thieada  to 
'muen  they  are  attached-  But  in  order  to  prodaea 
tlM  neoeataiy  Tariatiooa  of  motion  required  ^  the 
pattern,  a  aM  of  oards  are  made  each  of  the  width 
of  the  aqnare  roller;  theee  alao  are  bo  perforated 
that  when  placed  on  the  aorface  of  the  roller  their 
perforations  correspond  exactly  with  those  on  the 
roller  immediately  beneath  them ;  W  the  cards  are 
peTfora(«d  in  exact  acooxdance  with  the  pattern,  ao 
that  intervala  ocoor  in  which  there  are  no  perfora> 
bone  to  oorteapond  with  thoee  on  the  roller ;  hence, 
when  the  roller  L  (5g.  1)  is  broiuht  up  to  the  frame 
A,  BOme  of  the  needlee  will  find  entranoe  into  the 
holea  of  the  roller  through  the  corresponding  per- 
forations in  the  covering  cord,  seen  in  section  M, 
Hgf  1 ;  but  others  will  be  prevented  entering  by  the 
^Meoce  of  anch  perforations,  and  the  cant,  fay  the 
renstaoce  it  offers,  will  force  the  needlea  thos 
oppotsA  back  npon  the  spring  B,  E,  E,  removiDg 
thereby  the  hooka  of  the  lifting  wiies  from  the 
action  of  the  lifting  bar.  The  cards  are  looped 
together  at  the  oomers,  and  move  oa  on  endleaa 
chain  on  the  ToUeia,  and  the  entire  eet  of  perfora- 
tions on  the  whole  chain  of  cards  exactly  repre- 
sente  the  pattern  to  be  produced ;  the  same  ■«  the 
notes  repreaent  the  air  in  a  pieoe  dmnaio.  Of 
oonne,  the  simple  operations  here  described  require 
meduHiioal  arrangementa  of  great  nicety  to  re^plate 
them,  and  theee  are  so  comphcated  that  mere  verbal 
description  would  hardly  help  mnch  to  explain 
them ;  indeed,  even  with  die  loom  and  its  apparatus, 
and  ita  combroua  arraneement  of  hundreds,  and 
even  thonaonda  of  cards  before  na,  the  unpractised 
eye   finda   great  difScplty  in   Eompiehending   ita 


a  for 

,   ..    .  width  of  the  doth  to  be  woven. 

^^  C&  the  lifting  wires  passes  tbroogh  a  hori- 
aontal needle  plao^  at  right  an8lM,D,I>,D,D,  D, 
which  hoa  a  loop  formed  for  the  pucpoae,  thua,  at 
/  (Bg.  2).     Thia  ne«dle  paaaea  freely  Ihtoogh  an 


opening  in  the  frame  at  h,  and  is  ao  looped  on  to 
anoUker  rod,  g,  on.  the  spcmg-box  ?,  that  it  movea 
freely  w^umt  fear  tt  dit^fament,  and  if  poshed 
back  into  tha  apring-box,  ia  made  to  preea  upon 
one  of  the  spinl  spnnn  ^  which  reatorea  it  to  its 
pUoe  aa  soon  aa  it  ia  need  from  .prcaaureL  In  the 
diagram  (fl^  I),  thia  preaure  ia  supposed  to  be 
exerted  upon  three  of  the  Htttng  wirea,  (^0,0; 
oonseqnentiy,  if  the  lifting  bar  A  la  aimnltaneoiisly 
raised,  those  three  wires  are  miaaed,  whilst  the  other 
two,  B,B,  beiat   ■         *" 


very  wonderful  iimpMoatioo  of  the  Jacquard 
aaporatiia  was  shewn  in  the  International  Exhi- 
bition (1862),  by  Eussnio  Vincenai  of  Hodena,  by 
which  a  aaving  of  bulk  alone  ia  effected  to  the 
extent  of  two-thirds,  and  the  toil  of  the  artisan 
is  lessened  greatly  by  the  corresponding  lightneea 
of  the  parts  of  the  machine  which  he  haa  to  mov& 
The  moat  remorikable  part  of  this  new  invention  ia 
the  extreme  delicacy  of  the  needle  action,  ao  that 
there  ia  no  abode  when  the  cord  oS^  resiatHM^ 
hence  the  inventor  haa  been  enabled  to  snbrtitate 
paper  for  thick  cardboard,  and  can  conseqnently 
perforate  a  dozen  with  the  same  eaae  aa  one,  henoe 
the  pattern  inxv  be  repeated  without  extra  laboor. 
This  beautifnlhttie  loom  will  certainly  displace  the 
codinaiy  Jaoquord,  if  it  ia  not  itaelf  aupttieded  by 
the  wondrafnl  invention  of  the  electrio  loom  by 
Signior  Bonelli,  for  a  deecripticn  of  which  aee 
Elbctjuo  Loom  in  8dpp.,  Vol  X. 

JACQUEBIE  (see  Jack],  the  name  given  to  the 
inanrgmit  peasants  in  France  in  the  middle  of  the 
14th  c,  in  the  reign  of  John.  The  insarrection  of 
the  J.  broke  out  in  the  year  1368,  when  the  French 
Iring  was  a  priaoner  in  England,  and  France  in  a 
state  of  the  greatest  diaoiSer  aad  anarchy,    llie 


_ 


Tt^UD^Ie 


contina^  oppresaioTi  on  tliQ  p&rt  of  tho  noblM* 
Saddenly  nsmg  sgniiut  their  lordi,  tha  pauuitB 
laid  hundredi  of  oMtles  In  rnins,  mnrdsrad  Hm 
noUefl,  and  violsted  tbeli  mvea  tnd  d&nghtcn, 
pntetiiing  ererj  eoonnity,  and  actiiiA,  h  they 
uid,  on  Ha  prind^  of  dome  u  luM  baen  doiw 
to  them.  He  inBorreotioii  broke  out  in  the  sm^- 
bourhood  of  Faiu,  bat  extended  to  the  banki  of 
the  Hanie  and  the  Oiie.  For  iMtM  weeka  thb 
jmrt  of  Prance  vai  entirdy  ftt  their  menj;  but 
the  m^nitude  of  tha  duiger  indnoMl  the  qnanel- 
■ome  nobles  to  make  oonmuMi  OMua  ftgainst  them, 
and  on  the  9th  of  Jane  the  peasuita  were  datMtea 
-with  great  slaughter  near  Meaox  hf  Oiqital  do 
Bach  and  Outon  Fhebui,  Count  of  FcAx.  Thia 
pat  an  end  to  the  iniaireotion. 

JAOTITA'TIOK  OF  UARBtAQB  b  a  nut 
irhich  was  formerly  competent  in  the  Tl!"g^"^  eccls- 
maatical  coorts,  and  now  u  competent  in  uie  T^gH't' 
Divorce  Conrt,  to  Bettte  a  qneetioa  of  di«i%t«d 
marriage.  If  a  party  boaet  or  profeu  that  he  or 
ihe  la  married  to  another,  the  latter  may  inatitute 
the  suit,  and  call  opon  the  farmer  to  prodaoe  proof 
of  the  marriage,  it  this  il  not  done^  Uien  a  decree 
panes  whi^h  enjoini  tha  party  to  perpetaal  ailence 
on  the  mbiect,  Thia  remedy  la  now  scarcely 
ever  retorted  to,  for,  ia  geneisl,  nnce  Lord  Hard- 
wick't  Act  (I7&6),  there  is  safficient  certainty  in 
the  forma  of  legal  marriage  in  England  to  prevent 
any  ooe  being  in  tgnoranoe  whether  he  or  she 
ia  really  maniod  or  not)7-a  reproach  which,  however, 
ia  often  made  against  the  law  of  Scotlsjid.  1^ 
Scotch  suit  of  a  declarator  of  pntMng  to  nlence, 
which  ia  equivalent  to  jactitation  of  marriage,  ia 
often  resOTted  to,  the  latest  and  moat  notoriona 
instance  of  ila   asu  being  that  in  the  Yelverton 


JADB,  a  name  somewhat  vagaely  applied  to  a 
namber  of  mineraU,  not  very  iHi««iniil«.r — nephrite, 
aiestone,  aerpentjoes  A^^  Nephrite  and  axMtone 
^ipear  U>  be  the  miiusab  of  wnich  Jada  onuunsnts 
re  genMaUy  made.  But  YiT,  or  Chineae  J.,  of 
'hieh  very  beantitDl  vaaea  and  otbu  actideB  are 
CAina,  ii  mppoMd  to  b*  Fidinite  (q.  t.). 
kind*  haa  a  neeniah  ODhmr,  and  wiien 


J.  ^  tit  kind*  haa  a  meniah 

[Ndiahed,  haa  a  rather  dnS  and  greasy  aqwcb 

JAEN,  formerly  aa  independent  Moorish  king- 
dom, ia  now  a  province  of  Spain,  forming  a  portion 
of  the  old  province  or  kLogdom  of  Andiuusia  (q.  t.}. 
It  lies  wholly  within  the  basin  of  the  QoadalqaiveT. 
Area,  51B*  square  miles  ;  pop.  (1870)  392,100.   Con- 

Jnered  bj^  the  Mooni  on  theu'  entrance  into  Spain, 
.  maintained  its  independenoe  aa  a  Mooriah  state 
till  1234,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ferdinand 
III.,  and  was  added  to  the  kingdom  of  Caatile. 

JAEN,  a  city  of  Spain,  c^tal  of  the  province 
ot  ttte  some  name,  is  moat  pictureaquely  sitaated 
in  a  mountoinons  distzid^  at  the  foot  of  a  ragged 
oaatle-crowned  hill,  on  the  Bio  da  Jaeo,  a  tnba- 
tary  ot  the  Onadalqaiver,  about  SO  mile*  north  of 
6mnada>  It  ia  suironndad  by  (dd  Moorish  walls, 
aannonnted  hj  nomberleaa  towen  and  pinnaclea. 
Ihongh  ritoattd  in  the  midst  of  Plenty,  In  a  fertile 
ndAfabonifaood,  the  town  ia  poor.  The  principal 
boiMingt  are  two  eathedrala  and  aaveral  hospitals. 
Oataide  the  walla  are  charming  well-watered  fruit- 
gardens.  Pop.  I8,0M.  In  former  times,  the  town 
was  called  Jayyeau-l-liarir,  'Jaen  of  the  Silk,'  on 
account  of  ita  silk  manufactures,  for  which  it  was, 
but  ia  no  longer,  famona. 

JA'FFA.    See  Jofpa. 

JAFFNAPATAV,  a  napnt  in  Ceytoi,  on  a 


rnn  name  m  vriaoiaias  iv.  luo  waa 
iiu  the  whole  of  hi*  nten  in  tnidlii^ 
ka  of  Qlb  Tentonlo  Eni^t^  inumi  he  finally 
r  by  the  help  of  the  Hnsaitea  of  BobcaDia.    ' 


andala^  propmtion  <n  the  poprilation  o(  I>»A 

JAQEXLONG^  Th^  the  name  of  aa  iOnatriuua 
dynaaty  which  reigned  in  Xiithoviia,  Foland^  ^[ni^ 

and  Bobeidjk    The  name  ia  dmirad  bom 

on,  the  lait  of  a  long  line  of  hneditUT  grand 
:ea  <a  Iithnanil^  who  aaooeeded  to  bia  patri- 
monial poaaeadon  in  13SI,  utd  waa  (1888)  Rppotnted 
auooeaaor  io  hia  father-in-law,  Lewia  Um  Qitat, 
irrtig  of  Poland  and  Hunguy,  in  the  fdmut  01 
tiieae  kingdoma,  after  having  embraced  Chriatiaaii^, 
and  changed  hia  name  to  w i«ili'alaji  1*'  **- 
engaged  daring  tlie  whole  a 
thaStacka<rfaLBT    "     "   " 

ovarthrew  by  the  h   ^  

He  made  an  nnaacoeaafal  attompt  to  wnrt  Bon-    , 
gary  &om  the  Emperor  Simsmnnd,  tbonded   the 
university  of  Craoow  in   IMO,  and  died  to   143i 
at  Grodek.    His  aon,  Wladiahw  T.,  Ung  «i  Fob&d 
(l«Si— 1444),  was  ahio  elected  king  ^HnngatT'  oa 
the  death  01  Albert  of  Anafaria  u  1439^  mmlnh   : 
throng  the  awiitanee  of  Jolm  Hnnyftdr  (q.  t.),   . 
vaivode  of  jfranaylvaola.     After  a  war  <it  tin  j^a^ 
dniation  with  the  Emperor  S^^eriek  HL,  WlBdJaha    ' 
tamed  hia  sword  a^iinat  the  Torks,  iu<nra  them    , 
repeatedly  from  MoHavia,  Wallacbia,  and  Bolgaiia, 
and  retained  to  his  capital  of  Buda  loaded  with 
spoils.    In  144^  Amunth  IL  sued  for  peac^  whid    . 
the  waiiike  Wladialaa  granted,  awearing  m  aolBmn 
oath  by  the  Hidy  Bvanoelirta ;  but  the  pope  havinA 
in  dedance  of  all  buUi  and  equity,  sent  CardinH 
Julian  to  cause  a  rapture  of  the  treaty,  and  abaolrB   ' 
Wlodislaa  from  peijniy,  that  gallant  piizica  Bom-    < 
moned  to  his  aide  John  Hunya^,  and  ttains  joined   [ 
by  Soanderbe^  at  tha  head  u  an  aaziliaiy  inoe  of 
^lirotea,  invded  Turkey,  bat  waa  totally  drfekted 
and  slain  at  Tama  (November  10,  1444) ;  Cardinal 
Julian   beins   also   left  dead   on    the   field.      He 
was  sacceeded  in  Poland  by  hia  brother  Gaaimir 
IT.' (1444—1492),  whoae  three  aoiM,  John  Albert 
(1492— IGOl),  AlazBoder  (IGOI— ISM),  sad   Sin- 
mund  (ISOe— Ifi48),  i^^mad  in  moo^um.     8ig»- 
mond  Angoat  (IMS— 1S70],  the  aon  of  tha*  laat, 
and. one   of  tiie  wtewt  tt   the  Folirii   monardM. 
added  lironia  to  hia  kingdtm,  and  paased  an  adiet 
of   uiuTwaal   toleraticat.     His   aistm  Anne    and 
Catherine^  married   reapeotiTaly  Stephen    Batikoii    > 
of  Trannlvania,  and  }ohxk  m,  of    Sweden,   ai^ 
the  JageUon  dynasty  wsa  aontinoed  on  the  Fohd 
throne  till  1S68. 

WladiahM,  the  fonrth  aon  of  Caaimir  IT.  ot  Poland, 
was  elected  king  of  Bohemia  in  1471,  on  the  deatt  ' 
of  Oeorge  Podiehiad,  and  aUo  auoceeded  Mathiaa 
Oorvinus  in  Hongary  in  1490.  Wladialaa  died  in 
IBIS,  and  waa  aaooeeded  in  bcAh  kingdoma  by  hia 
son,  Lewis  U.,  who  waa  defeated  and  slain  by  the 
Turks  at  Hohacs  (29th  August  1626),  and  with 
whom  terminated  tjie  Jagellons  of  Bohemia  and 


JA'GER.    See  Bkua. 

JA'QBBin)ORF,agmalltowiiofAu8tnaii8£Usia, 
ia  situated  on  the  Oppa,  14  miles  north-nrnth-weat 
of  Troman,  haa  manutacturei  oi  cloth,  hcaany,  b«1 
linm.    Pop.  (ldS9)  8442. 

JAOOKEUTAU'T,  or  JACMJEKHAUT  PDBI,  o 
PUSI,  ia  the  naoM  (rf  a  town  in  Oiiaaa  (85*  Sr  iMK. 
and  19^  4(r  Ut),  odebnted  aa  one  «( tfca  (AM  ^oen 
of  pilgrimage  in-India.  It  <nrea  Hi  ngpntatMn  to 
a  tem^de  erected  there  in  honoor  of  ViahDn,  aiMl 
containbig  an  fdd  of  titi*  Hindu  god,  eaOad  Jatger^ 
<MKt  (oommonlj  Juggemantf,  a  ooiroptian  of  tba  I 
Sansoiit  word  JagtomMa,  l  e.,  lord  ot  tha  worid.  I 
AoOOTding  to^legendralaiedinSia  Aye^Akb«T,    I 


JAQOERT— JAIL  FEVER 


»  king  dariRxu  tt  foimdliig  b  dty  Mot  a  la 

BnJmuti  to  pitdi  upon  a  proper  ipot  The  Sail- 
man.  titer  a  long  •Baroli,  aniTsd  upon  the  bank* 
of  Um  tea,  and  there  mw  a  orow  diTing  into 
the  iT^er,  and,  having  wMhed  ita  body,  nuking 
obeuaDce  to  the  na.  Undentanding  the  langoue 
o(  the  biida,  he  learned  frou  tba  ennr  that  u£« 
remained  then  a  iluvt  tiiDe^  he  wonld  eoin^«hMid 
the  vmdeia  of  thU  land.  Ilw  kin^  apjmaed  of 
thia  occnnenot^  baOt  oa  tha  qxrt  w&re  the  crow 
had  wpeared  a  lam  <Atj  and  a  place  of  wonhip. 
The  Kajah  com  nl^t  heard  in  a  dnam  a  -"'  - 
saying:  'On  a  certlOD  dajr,  oaat  tJdne  eyel  ot 

Bcaehor^  -when  Umh  will  ariaa  oat  of  tba  wa. 

pieoe  of  wood  SS  indhei  long,  and  I(  mUti  bn*d: 
thia  13  Uh  tme  form  ot  tha  ddty;  take  it  np,  and 
keep  H  hidden  in  thine  home  leTen  daya ;  and  in 
whaterw  efaape  it  shall  then  ^pear,  place  it  in 
the  temide^  and  wonhip  ib'  It  happened  ai  the 
Rajah  lu^  draamed,  and  tha  Imaoe  called  by  him 
Jaguijittha  became  the  object  <a  wnahip  of  all 
rank4  of  people,  and  peifoimed  many  mbaclea. 
Aocoiding  to  another  legend,  the  tma^  *™iSS  ^'^ 
the  water  vaa  an  arat^  or  iscanafaon  of  Tuhnai 
it  waa  faehioned  I^  WwakannaDt  the  arehitect 
of  the  gode,  into  a  fourfold  idd,  it^icfa  repreaented 
the  BQfreme  deity,  and  the  tmnple  itatU  waa  created 
over  it,  and  inangoiated  by  the  god  Brahmt  and 
bis  divine  court  ^e  praaetit  temple  waa  finiahed 
in  1193  A.I1.,  nnder  tne  goremment  of  the  cele- 
brated Bajah  of  Orina,  Anug  Bhim  Deo.    Whether 


•anda  of  Hinda  beliflTcra  to  laorifioe  Uieir  liTea, 
in  Uie  hope  of  attainins  etenial  bliM,  by  throwing 
tbemaelTOi  nndw  the  wbeela  of  the  ohuiot  which 
carries  in  prooMdm  the  idol  ol  the  god.  It  ii  Just, 
howe*er,  to  state  that  this  practices  which  in  former 
timet  prevailed  to  a  fearful  extent,  ii  greatly  abating 
in  oar  day*. 

JA'QOBBT,  the  name  given  in  the  East  Indies 
to  the  sngar  obtMsed  by  iMpiiiation  from  the  sap 
intra  at  toddj/)  of  palm^  The  un  of  many  speoee 
of  palm  yields  JaggeiT,  and  probably  that  m  almaet 
aU  nMaicsmitfitM  made  to  yield  it.  llieeaaoa-nut 

E'eloa  mnoh  M  the  jasgery  ol  some  parts  of  the  East. 
m,  at  generally  ■oldand  used  in  Ihe  Bast  lodiee, 
a  coane  kind  <u  sugar ;  chemically,  it  is  the  same 
with  cane-sogar.  The  lap,  which  by  Inipisaatioi) 
yields  jaggery,  becomes  also,  by  fermeutation,  palm- 
wines  andinan  it  by  distillatian  arrack  is  made. 

JAOUA'B  [F^  onfa),  one  of  the  largeet  of  the 
eat  tribe,  and  by  &r  the  most  powerful  and  danger- 
oue  of  the  Amenean  beasts  of  prey.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  American  Tiger.  It  is  nearly  equal  to  the 
tiger  in  nre ;  the  head  is  large,  the  body  thick,  and 
the  limba  robust;  the  tail  u>  long,  uid  of  eanal 
thickness  throughout  The  colour  varies  consider- 
ably, but  is  ustuOy  a  rich  yellow,  with  large  black 
tpata  and  rings,  small  black  spots  generally  appearing 
within  the  rmgs,  a  mark  by  wie^  Ihe  skin  of  the 
J.  may  be  readily  distingoished  from  that  tS  the 
other  laige  spotted  or  ringed  FtUia.  A  black  or 
very  daiC-brown  variety  occdis,  hot  the  character- 
istic  maAingi  may  be  seen  in  certain  lights^  deeper 
in  colonr  than  liie  rest  of  Oie  fur.  Ihe  J.  ii  str^ 
enough  to  drag  away  a  hone,  and  swift  enong^  to 
captmehinses  mi  me  open  pampas.  It  !■  chiefly, 
howenrer,  an  tnhaUtaitt  of  bmJim.  It  aboands  so 
mndt  In  acme  dabiota,  that ^"~ 


Ranches,  making  even  monkeys  its  p 
of   ita   attat^iugmao,  althonsh  Hi 


.   Instance* 

sometimes 
enough  to 


Jaguar  [Felit  oofa). 

approach  enaksures,  and  even  to  enter  Tillages  In 
broad  dayli^t,  in  quest  of  prey.  The  J.  is  often 
taken  in  traps ;  and  it  is  sometiiDea  hunted  with 
dogs,  when  it  geoeraUy  at  last  take*  refuge  in  a 
mt,  end  is  thm  abot  The  skin*  of  jaguars  are 
exported  from  South  America  in  great  nnmbets. 
The  J.  is  foond  in  almort  all  parts  of  South 
America,  bnt  its  range  does  not  extend  north  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien.  It  is  called  OuNcn  {0»(a)  in 
me  parts  of  South  America. 
JAHN,  JoHAiiH,  a  distiiieaishod  Boman  CathoUe 
orientalist  and  biblical  critic,  was  bom  at  Tasa- 
witz,  in  Moravia,  June  18,  ITGO,  received  his  eatiy 
education  atZnaim  andOlmUts,  and  in  1772  altered 
the  PremonxtTatensian  convent  of  Bruck,  where  he 
took  his  vows  in  177^  and  waa  appointed  Professor 
of  Oriental  Languages  and  Biblical  Criticism.  On 
the  snppresaion  of  this  convent,  in  1784,  J.  waa 
transferred  to  the  same  professonhip  in  OlmlltE, 
and  finally  to  the  university  of  Vienna,  where  he  also 
undertook  the  chair  of  Dogmatic  Theology.  So  for 
as  regards  the  Boman  Catholic  literature  of  Oer- 
mauj;,  J.  mM-  be  reearded  ss  the  father  of  bibUca! 
criticism.  But  the  boldness  of  some  of  his  opiaions 
having  aroused  the  alann  of  the  ecclesiastical  author- 
ities, he  waa  honourably  removed  from  his  ohair  in 
the  nciveroty,  by  being  promoted  to  a  canonry  of 
St  Stephen's  at  '^enna,  in  1803.  He  continued, 
however,  to  pursue  the  same  studies  with  great 
reputation  t^  nis  death  in  1816,  and  published  many 
works  In  both  d^uirtmanta,  the  moet  important  of 
which,  passiog  over  his  grammars,  lexicons,  and 
elementary  books  of  the  Hebrew,  Syrioo,  Chaldaic, 
and  Arabic  laogoages,  are  his  Introduction  (o  the  Old 
Tatamaa,  2  vols.  1792,  and  again  in  4  vols.  1802— 
1803 ;  Biblical  ArA»^ogy,  6  vols.  1797— 180B,  ol 
both  which  works  a  compendium  appeared  in  1804, 
and  again  in  1814 ;  a  Manual  of  Qmerai  Her- 
meteiiliK*,  1812;  an  Amendii  of  DissertatioDa  to 
this  work,  2  vols.,  in  1813— 181S ;  and  an  edition  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  4  voU.  1806.  Five  yeaw  after 
his  death,  a  collection  of  posthumous  Scmahtt  was 
publidied  at '  Tubingen,  1821,  tbe  genninenees  of 
which,  although  seemingly  without  reaeou,  has  been 
called  in  question.  Hia  works  have  gone  through 
many  editions  in  Qermany,  and  have  been  tnnslated 
into  several  languages. 

JAIL  FEVER  (known  also  as  Putrid  or  Pesti- 
lemtial  Ferer)  k  now  oonaidered  to  be  merely  a~ 
at  Tyi^ns  Fever  (q.  v.),  and  not  a  dis> 
a.      At   tha   present   time,   owing   to 
nitarv  reEolaboDS,  this  form  of  diwass 
1  jbnt  wa  learn  from  Howatd'a 


-,Goo 


ble 


WngUnil,  although  trnknown  in  thoae  of  the 
tinental  oountriel.  In  the  celebrated  Black 
(g.  v.),  hold  at  Oxford  in  1577,  there  ia  no  ei 
that  the  iliii-niiir  prevailed  amoogit  the  priianen, 
and  jet  it  broke  out  among  the  penons  present 
at  the  triaL  It  ii  little  more  than  a  ocntiuy  and  a 
quarter  ago  {May  1750)  that  tiie  lotd  mayor,  an 
wdermaDi  two  judges,  moat  of  the  jury,  and  a  large 
number  of  spectatora,  caught  this  disease  from 
attending  Uie  assizes  at  the  Old  Batley ;  and  maay 
of  Uiose  who  were  inteoted  died. 

JAJ'NAS  is  the  name  of  a  heterodox  sect  of  the 
Hindus,  numerous  adherents  of  which  are  fonnd  in 
every  province  of  Upper  Eindostan,  in  the  cities 
along  ui«  Ganges,  and  in  Calcutta,  but  more  espe- 
cially to  the  westward ;  the  provinoes  of  Mavar  uid 
Marwar  being  apparently  the  cradle  of  the  seat. 
They  are  also  numerous  in  Guzerat,  in  the  upper 
port  of  the  Malabar  coast,  and  are  scattered  through- 
out th«  peninsula.    They  form  a  Ur^  and,  fram 


1  and  influenoe,  s 


i  division 


a  toOawer  of  Jina,  the  Utter  beint 

dsnominationB  of  their  deified  saints ;  and  as  another 
name' of  these  saints  it)  Arhat,  Uieir  followers  are 
also  c^ed  Arlialtu. 

The  tenets  of  the  J,  or  Arhatas  are  in  several 
respects  analogona  to  those  of  the  Bnddhists  (see 
BimiiHA),  but  they  resemble  in  others  those  of  tiie 
Brahmanicol  Hindus.  With  the  Buddhists,  they 
share  in  the  denial  of  the  divine  origin  and  anOiority 
of  the  Veda,  and  in  the  worship  of  certain  saints, 
whom  they  consider  superior  to  the  other  beings  of 
their  pantheon.  They  differ,  indeed,  from  them  in 
regard  to  the  history  of  those  personages,  but  the 
original  notion  which  prevails  in  this  worship  is  the 
same.  With  the  Brahmanicol  Hindus,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  agree  in  admitting  the  institution  of 
caste,  in  performing  the  essential  ceremonies  called 
fianAtdrojr  (q,  v.),  and  in  recognising  some  of  the 
subordinate  deities  of  the  Hindu  pantheon,  at  least 
apparently,  as  they  do  not  pay  eepecial  homage  to 
them,  ana  as  they  disre^a^  completely  all  Qiose 
Brahmanioal  ritee  which  involve  the  destruction  of 
animal  life.  It  deserves  notice,  too,  that  though 
rejecting  in  Kenerol  the  authority  of  the  Tedsa,  they 
aiUnit  iC  >i>a  quote  the  Yedio  texts,  if  the  doctrines 
of  tlM  latter  are  confonnable  to  the  Jaina  teneta. 

Aoeoiding  to  their  doctrine,  all  objects,  material 
or  abstract,  are  amn^ed  under  nine  oategories,  called 
TaUioa*,  truths  or  prmciples,  of  which  we  need  notice 
only  t^  ninth  and  lost,  called  Mokt/la,  or  liberation 
of  the  vital  spirit  from  the  bonds  of  action — i.  f— 
final  emancip^on.    In  reference  to  it,  the  J. 


only  afS 
defliM  tl 


1,  but  t 


where  they  live,  their  tangibfe  qualities,  the  du_ .. 
tion  of  their  existence,  the  distwice  at  which  they 
are  from  one  another,  their  porta,  natures,  and 
numbers.  Final  emancipation  is  only  obtained  '  in 
the  state  of  manhood  (not  in  that  of  a  good  demon 
or  brute),  while  in  possession  of  five  sensoi,  while 
possessing  a  body  capable  of  volnntary  motion,  in  a 
condition  of  poasibihty,  while  pcssessiiig  a  mind, 
through  the  sacr^uneDt  of  the  highest  ascetLcism,  in 
that  path  of  reotitnde,  in  vhien  there  is  no  retro- 
gression, thrangh  the  pMsesnon  of  perfect  know- 
tedge  ana  visiaa,  and  in  tlw  pnotioe  of  abstinence.' 
Thrae  tA^  attaon  to  final  libwatioD  do  not  return 
to  a  vorldlf  statSi  and  thei«  is  no  interruption 
to  theb  bhas.  Thay  have  perfect  vision  and 
knowledge,  and  do  not  depend  on  weeks.  See  J. 
SteveoMn,  TU  Kahta  Siira,  and  Nam  Tattm. 
The  prindldeB  of  faitli, 


divided  into  religions  and  lay  orders,  YiUia  and 
ffrStixAM.  Both,  of  course,  must  plaoe  implidt 
belief  in  the  doctrines  of  their  saints ;  but  Uie  Tori 
has  to  lead  a  life  of  abstinence,  tacitomity,  and 
oontinencA ;  he  should  wear  a  tliin  cIotlL  orer 
bis  mouth,  to  prevent  insects  from  flying  into  it, 
and  he  should  carrv  a  hroah  to  sweep  the  place 
on  which  he  is  aoout  to  sit,  to  remore  any 
living  creature  out  of  the  way  of  dangor  ;  but,  ia 
turn,  he  nu^  dispense  wili  all  acta  of  mnship ; 
whilst  the  ffrdvaia  has  to  add  to  the  obaervooee 
of  the  religions  and  moral  duties  the  ifEaclJeal 
worship  of  the  saints,  and  a  profound  icfcieuM 
for  his  more  pious  brethren.  The  secular  Jun> 
must,  like  the  asoetio,  practise  the  tooz'  virtoes 
liberality,  gentleness,  piety,  and  p«m>iioe;  ha 
must  govern  nis  mind,  tongue,  and  sicta ;  n**"*"". 
at  certain  seasons,  from  s^,  flowers,  greoi  fruity 
roots,  honey,  gtapea,  tobaoco ;  drink  w>t^  thrice 
strained,  and  never  leave  a  liquid  niicovared,  lot 
ss  insect  should  be  drowned  m  it ;  it  ia  hi*  duty 
also  to  visit  daily  a  temjle  where  some  of  Ok 
imsgM  of  the  Jaina  sainla  ore  placed,  walk  rooud  it 
three  t^mwij  make  ui  obeitance  to  tbe  imue,  and 
make  smie  oSerin^  of  fmiti  or  Bowen,  irtdls 
prononnoing  aoiiM  snch  formula  as  'Salat^km  to 
the  Sslnta,  to  tiiis  Pure  Kdstenoes,  to  the  Sages. 
to  the  Teachers,  to  all  the  Devoat  in  tlio  wtidd.' 
The  reader  in  a  Jaina  temple  is  a  Tati,  but 
the  miniatrant  priest  is  not  seldom  a  Brahman, 
since  the  J.  have  no  priests  of  their  own,  and  the 
presenoa  of  such  Brahmanioal  ministiaiitB  eeeoa 
to   have   introduced  several   innovatioDa   in    their 


wiUi  formulas  belonging  ime 
^operly  to  the  S'aiva  and  S'tkta  worahip  (see 
Hindu  Sects  under  Illliu.),  and  inwgea  of  S'it*  and 
his  consort  take  their  place  in  Jaina  templea.  In 
the  sonth  of  India,  th^  appear,  as  mentimied  bdoi^ 


to  observe  also  all  the  rnwintisl  rites  M  

the  ^ahmanioal  Hindn.  The  festivala  of  the  J. 
are  especially  those  relating  to  eveota  in  the  hie 
of  their  deified  sainta  ;  but  mey  obsem  also  aevenl 
common  to  other  Hindns,  as  the  spring  festfrol,  the 
S'rtpanchanit,  and  others. 

The  J.  are  divided  inta  two  principal  divisiims, 
IHgamiiarat  and  S'toetdmbanu,  The  former  wnd 
means  '  sky-clad,'  oe  naked,  but  in  the  preeemt  day, 
ascetics  of  this  division  wear  coloured  garmeata,  and 
confine  the  disuse  of  clothes  to  the  period  of  their 
meals,    ^vietdmbara  means  '  one  who  wears  white 

Ssrments ; '  but  the  points  of  difierence  between 
lese  two  divisions  are  far  from  bung  resirieted  la 
that  of  dress  :  it  is  said  to  comjnehend  a  list  of  TOO 
topics,  of  which  84  aie  considered  to  be  of  pani- 
mount  importance.  Amongst  the  latter  tl*  men- 
tioned the  practice  of  tha  SVet&mbsias  to  dec<Hate 
tJie  images  of  thdr  saints  with  eaIrinp^  aecUacea, 
armlets,  and  tiaras  of  jdld  and  jewels ;  wbeteaa  the 
Digambaras  ksire  tfaor  imagsa  without  oraameuta. 
Again,  the  SVetlunbanB  anert  that  there  am  twdn 
heaTens  and  sixty-four  Indiaa ;  whereas  tha  Digam- 
bonts  tuointtun  that  there  ore  sixteen  heavena  and 
•me  hundred  Indnts.  In  the  sonth  of  India,  the  J. 
are  divided  into  two  oastes ;  in  Upper  Hiodnatan, 
they  at«  aU  of  one  caste.  It  is  remarkable,  howev^, 
that  anuaigrt  themMlve*  Quij  reooguias  a  nuiab^ 
of  familiM  between  whioh  no  intermarriage  can 
take  place,  and  tlut  Qiej  reeemble,  in  this  respect 
also,  the  anoieiit  Brahmanical  Hiitdtu,  who  estab- 
lished timilar  reatiictions  in  their  religious  codes. 

As  regards  the  pantheon  of  the  Jama  creed,  it  ia 
itiU  more  fantastioal  than  that  of  the  Brahmaui^ 
•eots,  whence  it  ia  borrowed   to   a  great  extent, 


JAKtJTSK— JALAP. 


bnt  wtthont  imj  of  tho  poetical  and  pbUoiophical 
interest  which  inlierea  in  the  aoda  of  tho  Vodic  time. 
The  highest  rank  Bmonrat  -Qieir  numberleas  hoata 
of  diviae  beingi — divided  by  them  into  four  cUsses. 
with  varioni  mbdiTiiinu — thej  aasiga  to  the  deified 
■mints,  which  the;  call  Jiaa,  or  Arliat,  or  Tirlhaiava, 
' — '' ~>riety  of  other  gHnerio  naniea.    The  J, 


of  the  age  to  come ;  aqd  they  invest  these  holy 
peiBonages  with  thirty-dx  Boperhuman  attnbatee 
of  the  most  extravvajit  character.  Notwithatand- 
in^  the  lamencM  of  tbeee  attributes,  they  diitin- 
niiah  the  twenty'foor  Jinaa  of  the  preeent 
bom  each  other  in  colour,  statore,  and  longe' 
Two  of  them  are  red,  two  white,  two  bine,  two 
black  ;  the  rest  are  of  a  golden  hue,  or  a  yellowish 
brawD.  The  other  two  pecnliaritieg  are  regidated 
by  them  with  equal  precisioii,  and  according  to  a 
■yatein  of  decrement,  from  JRMahha,  the  first  Jina, 
who  was  500  poles  in  atatnra,  and  lived  8,400,000 
great  yean,  down  to  ifahdvtra,  the  24tli,  who  ha ' 
d^enerated  to  the  size  of  a  man,  and  waa  n 
more  than  40  yean  on  earth  ;  the  age  of  his  predi 
cessor,  P^ri'iDondUa,  not  exceeding  one  hundnd 
yeaus.  The  preBent  worship  is  almtMt  restricted  to 
tbe  two  lait  Tirthaluraa ;  and  as  the  stature  and 
T«m  of  these  penonagea  have  a  leasonabte  poed- 
bUity,  H.  T.  Colebrooke  inferred  that  they  alone 
are  to  be  considered  as  historical  personages.  As, 
moreover,  amongst  the  disciples  of  Mah&TUs  there 
ia  one,  Indrabhoti,  who  is  called  OatttaTita,  and  as 
GaiitamB  is  also  a  name  of  the  founder  of  the 
Buddha  &ith,  the  same  distingnished  scholar  < 

— ^i-^  iStween  these  na 

ead  to  the  further : 
«  branches  of  the  u 

t'Oold  asi  ^ 

643  before  Chnat— the  date  which  is  commonly 
ascribed  to  the  apotheovis  of  Oautama  Buddha — 
several  reasons  are  alleged  by  Professor  WilsoiL 
As  to  the  real  date,  however,  of  the  origin  of  the 
Jaina  faith,  as  the  same  scholar  jastly  observes,  it 
IB  immersed  in  the  same  obsciirity  which  invests  all 
remote  history  amongst  the  Hindus.  We  can  only 
infer  from  the  existmg  Jaina  literature,  and  from 
the  doctrines  it  inculcates,  that  it  came  later  into 

existence  than  the  Buddhist  sect The  best  essays 

on  the  tenets,  mythology,  observances,  and  lit^- 
Bitore  of  this  sect  are  those  by  Colebroolte  in  his 
MitctUanrou*  Etaayi,  and  by  Wilson  in  the  first 
Tolame  of  his  works  (London,  1862). 

JAEU'TSE  (TaioolA),  chief  town  of  the  terri- 
toiy  of  that  name  in  EBstem  Siberia  (see  Sibkbu). 
It  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Lena, 
lat  62°  1'  N.,  long.  110°  44'  £. ;  distance  from  St 
Petersbuig,  S751  miles :  pop.  in  1S6T,  40S2  inha- 
bitants. The  whole  industiy  of  the  town  consists 
in  candle-works,  but  it  is,  notwithgtandi  ng,  the 
principal   market   of   Eastern   Siberia   for   trrtffic 


back  to  the  port  of  Okhotsk.  The  latter,  also  a 
nomadic  tribe,  bring  to  Jakutak  great  quantities 
of  fuT'Skint,  (^  saues,  foxes,  martens,  squirrels, 
bears,  hares,  Ac.  The  moe:t  animated  penoda  of 
the  year  are  the  months  of  May  and  June ;  in  the 
former,  the  goods  an  despatched  to  the  sea- 
ports ;  in  the  latter,  an  important  fair  takes  place 
atiDuidly,  dnriog  which  the  quantity  of  merchandise 
sold,  cmefly  fnni  and  mammoth  tasks,  amounts  to 
£00,000  in  value.  Hanufaotnred  goods,  hardware, 
fcc,  are  brongbt  bvm  Irkutsk  by  the  Lena,  and 


)  miles,  requires  a  whole 


the  passage,  about 
moath  of  navigation 

JA'LAP,  a  weli-known  purgative  medicine,  is  the 
root  of  Exogonium  Purga,  a  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Oonvoimiiaeta.  It  is  fonnd  in  Mexico  at  an 
elevation  of  about  6000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  in  the  neighbourhood  ot  the  f«wn  of  Jalapa  or 
Xalapa,  from  which  the  name  jalap  is  denved. 
It  is  a  perennial  twining  plant,  with  large  flowers 
and  A  turnip-like  root,  vuying  fnmt  the  stu  of  a 


Jalap  (ExBponviem  Pwrga) : 

hazel-nnt  to  that  of  a  man's  fist  The  roots  when 
fresh  are  white  snd  fleshy,  and  abound  in  B  milky 
juice.  They  are  prepared  for  the  market  by  drying. 
— Jalap  was  long  erroneously  referred  to  other 
plants,  amongst  othere  to  Mirabilit  Jalapa,  known 
m  OUT  flower-gardeos  as  Marvd  of  Pent— The  root 
known  as  Male  Jalap  or  He  Jalap,  with  which  the 
true  jalap  of  commerce  is  often  adulterated,  waa 
recently  declared  by  Mr  Hartwt^  to  be  Ipoauza 
bataloida.  Its  properties  are  somewhat  similar  to 
those  of  true  jalaps  but  it  is  vely  inferior. 
Jalap  seems  to  have  been  bttt  introduced  into 
lis  conntrr  as  a  medicine  about  1609. 
He  dried  roots  are  brown  and  wrinkled  ertemally, 
and  ot  a  deep  yellovriah-gray  colour  internally ;  their 
odour  is  faint  and  disagreeable,  and  their  tasto  ia 
nauseous.  The  active  ingredient  is  the  re«non* 
portion,  which  varies  from  about  10  to  nearly  20 
per  cent,  and  which  is  oomposed  of  two  distinct 
sabstances,  Jalapine  (C,,H,,0,,)  and  Jalapic  add. 
Jalap  resin  may  be  distinguished  from  common 
resin  by  its  iosolubility  in  volatile  oils.  Jalap  is  a 
valuable  cathartic,  but  is  seldom  given  alone.  Its 
piiraative  action  is  increased  by  me  addition  of  a 
little  calomel,  and  its  hydragogue  action  by  bitartrata 
of  potash,  while  its  tendency  to  produce   griping 

~  obviated  by  the  addition  of  a  little  ginger.  H 
extremely  useful  in  those  febrile  amcttons  of 
children  which  are  associated  with  constipation ; 
and  in  diseases  of  the  brain  it  is  a  good  purgative 
to  select,  in  oonseqnence  of  its  derivative  action.  In 
the  form  of  Compound  Jalap  FoiodfT,  which  coniists 
of  one  part  of  powdered  jalap,  two  parta  of  bitartrats 

'      tash,  anda  little  ginger^  it  is  of  great  servira 
me  kinds  of   dropsy,  in  consequence  of  i(a 
hydiagogne  action. 


.,  Google 


vanea  mnn  ten  to  tbiny  gnuns,  a  scrupie  geuonuJy 
acting  miartlT  and  wfely ;  for  children  under  a 
yetr  old  thedOM  ia  from  tiwa  to  five  grains.  The 
tloN  of  tha  compound  powder  U  doable  that  of  the 
ordinaiy  powder.  The  Tincture  qf  Jalap,  in  t''" 
doae  of  one  or  two  dcachnu,  ii  a  nsefnl  addition 
the  ordinaiy  black-dranght  when  it  ia  desired 
Inorease  ita  activity. 

JALA'PA,  a  dty  in  tha  Mexican  confedentii  . 
ia  Moond  in  imtKntaiice  among  the  towns  of  the 
■tate  of  Vara  Cru!i.  It  ia  on  the  grand  ronta 
between  the  capital  of  the  countiy  and  the  seaport 
of  Ven  Craz,  and  is  about  60  miles  west-ncirlh- 
weat  from  the  latter.  Situated  at  aa  elevation  of 
433i![  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  ita  climate 
nay  ba  nud  to  be  that  of  the  temperate  region,  and 
It  ia  a  favourite  resort  of  the  invalids  of  the  coast. 
'Pop.  abont  10,00a 

JAMAI'CA,  aboripnally  Xaimaea,  or  Land  of 
Wood  and  Water,  one  of  the  West  India  Islands, 
and  by.far  Uie  moat  important  of  tlioee  belooKioR 
to  Great  Britain,  is  about  90  miles  to  the  south  ot 
Cuba,  and  atretches  in  N.  lat.  between  17°  40*  and 
18*  30",  and  in  W.  long,  between  76°  IB'  and  78°  25'. 
Ana,  6400  aquare  mites  (rather  more  than  that  of 
Yorkahire) ;  greateat  length,  150  miles ;  greatest 
breadth,  60  nmea.  It  is  trareiaed  from  east  to  west 
by  a  heavily-timbered  ridge,  called  the  Blue  Moun- 
taina,  which  riaea  to  about  7000  feet  From  this 
range,  at  leaat  70  streams  deacend  to  the  north 
and  «outh  shoraa,  but  owing  to  the  ahortneas  an " 
declivity  ot  their  coorsea  they  are  not  navigabli . 
with  the  exception  ot  one,  the  Black  River,  which 


0  the  ii 


found.  Bot  inotHOparably  the  beat  of  tl 
is  formed  by  a  deep  and  capacious  baain  in  ._. 
south-east  quarter  of  the  island,  which  washes  the 
moat  apaoious  and  fertUe  of  the  plains  between  the 
hill-county  and  the  coaat.  Around  this  inlet,  and 
within  a  few  milea  of  each  other,  are  all  the  con- 
siderable centres  of  population.  Fort  Boyal,  King- 
iton,  and  Spuiiah  Town. 

The  climate  Twiec  conriderabljt — the  torrid  belt 
of  the  coaat  gradnally  passing  into  the  temperate 
region  of  the  central  heighta.  The  latter  is  said 
to  be  remarkably  favourable  to  longevity ;  and, 
after  having  long  been  a  retreat  for  the  resideats 
themselves,  it  haa  lately  begun  to  attract  invalids 
troa.  the  United  States.  To  contrast  two  posi- 
tions— the  one  near  Kingston  Harbour,  and  the 
other  at  the  intermediate  elevation  of  4000  feet 
— their  annual  means  ore  stated  to  be  respectively 
81°  F.  and  68°  F.  Earthqqakes  have  occaaioaatly 
occurred,  one  ,of  them,  in  1692,  having  almost  over- 
whelmed Fort  Royal 

In  18Bl,thetotal  population  amounted  to  378,433, 
of  whom  13,916  were  whites,  and  the  remainder 
half-breeda  or  blacks.  At  the  last  census,  that  of 
1871,  the  total  population  was  006,164,  of  whom 
only  13,101  were  whites.  It  thus  appears  that  in 
tiie  preceding  t«n  years  there  had  b^n  a  falling  off 
in  the  white  population  j  while  the  blacks,  or 
coloured  men,  had  rapidly  increaaed.  On  the  jiro- 
duotiveness  and  trade  of  tha  island,  the  emancipa- 
tion of  the  slaves  ia  1834  had  an  unfavourable  eifect. 
Bat,  even  previously  to  the  new  order  of  things, 
the  commercial  crops  had  been  steadily  decreasing. 
To  take  by  Itself  the  grand  atapla  of  sugar,  the  last 
3  yean  of  the  siai-c- trade,  1B03~IS0T,  hod  averaged 
folty  144.000  bogheads  ;  the  4  years  before  the 
commencement  of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  1831 — 
1834,  under  91,000;  the  4  years  of  gradual  abolition, 
1835— 183S,  nearly  70,000 ;  the  Srat  4  years  of  pei^ . 


jfthe 


followed  bv  ill-judged  eonceaaionB  <d  li  |ih»mI> 
and  consbtntiDnal  lighta  to  the  newfy-  liben 
blacks.  The  experiment  proved  a  btlunL   TbaUs 


ravivai  oi  uaae  naa  set  in  appears  irom  ute  laal 
retuma,  according  to  which  the  valtiea  of  »ns^ 
exported  were,  inl869,  £443,078;  in  IS70,  £491,616; 
and  in  1671,  i:592,16a  In  1371,  the  chief  ezpota 
were  in  value  as  followa  :  Bugar,  £692,163;  nun, 
£271,267;  coffee,  £147,562;  logwood,  £115,423; 
while  tha  chief  imwirta  were  flour,  £13S.S00,  a^ 
aalt-Ssh,  £92,801.  In  tixe  same  year,  the  importa 
from  the  United  Kingdom  amounted  ia  £1^1,1^- 
the  exports,  to  £1,248,685.  In  1860,  the  rereBne 
amounted  to  £262,239,  and  tha  expenditnn  to 
£255,239.  In  1S71,  the  revenue  amooated  to 
£434,564 ;  the  expenditure,  to  £430,154^ 

J.  was  diacovered  by  Colambna  during  Us  aeiand 

voyage  in  1494,  and  was  taken  poaeaaion  ^  by  the 

Liarda  in  .1509.    So  great  waa  tha  inhtiin*iiita 

the  conquerors,  that  SO  yean  after  tlie  Smaitt 

'aaioQ  of  the  island  the  n^ve  popoI^ioD  m  said 

to  have  entirely  diaappearM.    On  Hay  3;  165Sl  a 

British  expedition,  sent  ont  by  Oliver  CromwelL 

under  Admirals  Penn  and  Yenableo,  aaaailed  and 

captured  the  island,  which  was  formally  ceded  la 

England  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid  in  167a     Umkr 

English  rule,  the  chief  events  in  (he  history  of  the 

island  were,  in  1705,  the  rebeUion  of  the  Uanwo^ 

a  community  of  runaway  alavea,  who  had  nhtsiwd 

a  tract  of  land  on  the  north  aide  of  the  ialand  ;  is 

insurrection;  and  on  Angoat  1,  1831. 

i .  iL-  fig,y^    The  last  ewoit  was 

„ -.-    libe»«ted 

The  experiment  proved  a  latlunL   Tba 
considered  it  a  grievance  that  ofBosa  in  the        ^ 
ttacy  were  not  more  freqDentljr  oonferred  mi  tbem.    i 
'"'  ey  wished  to  mppress  ooolie  imipigrataoa,  whkh 

ided  to  keep  down  waffee.    They  aouj^t  to  obtain   , 
land  without  rent,  and  the  more  vudent  even  ang. 
gested  the  expulsion  of  the  whole  white  popnlataim   , 
of  the  island.  { 

In  1S66,  the  discontent  waa  at  ita  heigbt.      In 
October  of  that  year,  a  decitioa  cf  the  local  conit 
at  Morant  Bay  agaiost  a  black  squatter,  lad  to  a 
negrorising,  and  t£emaaaacreof  23  whitea.    Uartial   i 
law  was  proclaimed  by  Oovemor  Eyre,  lOOOhoiusB 
were  burned,  soma  rebels  were  hanged,  othtts  were 
flogged ;  but  the  rebellion  waa  moat  effectoally  np-    - 
passed.      For  the  oonrse  he  had  taken,  Qownur 
Eyre  was  thanked  by  the  Jamaica  Asaembl^;  but   , 
in  England  a  different  view  was  taken  of  lua  can.   ' 
dnct    (See  £txb  in  SuFP.)   He  was  recalled,  aod  ttw 
representative  constitution  waa  suspended.   Sir  P.  J.   , 
Grant  waa  appointed  governor,  with  entire  Aatbon^   ; 
to  manage  the  afTain  of  J.,  with  tha  aid  ot  mdviun    ' 
nominated  as  in   the  other  West  India   laUnda. 
A  special  correspondent  of  the  Timtt,  aent   to  the   . 
island  in  1873,  to  report  ou  its  recent  conditjon,  in   : 
letter  published  on  1st  May,  gives  a  very  bvonr-    ' 
ble  account  of  its  reoent  progress.     He  aaya  that   i 
um  the  catastrophe  of   1S65,   which    proved   an   ' 
.  early  fatal  to  the  island,  a  new  life  haa  ^ini^ 
Crima  has  diminished;   education  haa  every  where 
advanced   among  the  black  population,   the  anm 
devoted  to  the  support  of  the  aohoola  bavinf  in- 
creased from  £4622  in  1866,  to  £19,403  in   1S72. 
New  roads  have  been  formed,  harbour*  are  bc^iz 
constructed,  and  an  irrigatioD  canal  is  in  paujjieas 
which  will  give  fertili^  to  60,000  acrea   of  the 
besntif  111  plun  between  Spanish  Town  and  Kingston. 
Thanks  to  the  Cuban  refngees  who  h»v«  taken 
several  of  the  long-foraaken  sngar  estataa,  property 
is  looking  up,  and  the  official  atatementa  shew  that 
the  export  trade  is  increasing.     Although  J.  ha* 
not  recovered  ita  former  commennsl  proiMrity,  the 
negroes  cannot  now  be  desoribed  aa   iifle.      Thev 
cnftivate  their  proviaion  gronnda  with  caj>e,  aa^    I 


JAMAICA  BAIIK— JAUeS  L 


produos  for  uls  eiion|A  wagix  and  ooffoe  to  obtaiQ 
>  oanaidenbU  mpptyS  imported  uid  mannf&otdred 
irticlea.  Extreme  poverty  a  nnknam  amoog  them, 
*ad  andw  their  piesent  govemment  they  are 
desoribad  u  &  l&v-abiding  and  iDofFeosive  oom- 
nunity.  The  ipeeiol  oorraapandent,  in  conclading 
hia  artida,  atrongl;  reoommeDds  eaergetic  young 
EnglLshmeD  of  the  wealthier  claasi  who  contemplate 
emigratioa,  to  take  their  capital  to  the  hiahlands  of 
J.,  and  to  uttle  there  rather  than  in  the  United 
Stkte*  or  in  Sooth  Aioericft. 

JAMAJOA  BARK.    See  Carthbii  Babk. 

JAMAJCA  PEPPER     See  Pomrro. 


JAHBOa    See  Ecozhu. 

JAHB8  (Or.  JaeSbo*,  and  re&Uy  the  lame  word 
as  Jacob]  ic  tti*  name  b<»iie  by  two  or  three  penwni 
in  the  NewTeatament.  Theae  ore  Jomee  the  ion  of 
Zebedee,  and  Jamea  the  '  brother '  or  '  oonlin '  of  oar 
Lord,  who  ia  couiiderod  by  many  to  be  the  same  aa 
James  the  ton  ol  Alpena.  iiXB  the  eon  of  Zebe- 
dee, mmamed  the  mdtr,  waa  the  brother  of  the 
apostle  John,  and  before  hia  call  to  the  aposUeihip 
was  a  fiahennan.  After  the  aaoenaion  of  Christ,  he 
aeem*  to  hare  remained  at  Jemislem,  and  was  the 
firat  of  the  apoatiea  to  suffer  martyidom,  being  slaia 
by  Herod  hi  the  year  44  A.S.  There  ia  an  inoredibla 
lej^nd  of  hia  having  planted  the  goapel  in  Spain, 
and  he  is  the  patron  eaint  of  ihat  country. — Jamu 
the  'brother'  or  'oooain'  of  oar  Lord,  aomamed 


the  Leu,  the  other  apostle  of  tbia  name,  a] 
'  )  have  raided,  like  Jamea  the  Elder,  chit 


to  the  Clalatians,  it  is  dear  that  he  predded  orcr 
the  mother-chorcih  of  Jemialem.  According  to  tha 
tradition  recorded  by  Hegeeippna  (who  flouriahed 
about  tJie  middle  of  the  2d  c),  Ae  waa  oooaidered  a 
miracle  of  '  righteonmesa,'  even  by  the  imbelieving 
Jews,  who  save  him  the  name  of  the  Jv^  The 
enmity  of  ue  more  bigoted  Jews,  however,  pro- 
cured hia  condemnatioii,  and  the  high-priest  Aiianoa 
S,ve  order  that  he  ahonld  be  stoned  to  death. 
ccording  to  Joaephus,  the  exeontdon  of  the  sen- 
tence excited  great  disaatiafaction  among  the  people 
of  Jerusalem.  The  date  of  his  death  oannot  oe 
prectsdy  Axed,  bat  it  waa  probably  about  62  or  63 
A.  p.  'tax  Bpibtlx  Gkkzrai.  or  iJMKs  ia  regarded 
by  moat  Uieologiana  as  a  -composition  of  hia.  The 
primitiTs  ohoivh,  however,  plaoed  it  aometimea 
among  tiie  antS^omaut  (or  aoriptorea  of  doabtFul 
muneneaa),  and  lometiinea  eren  among  the  notha 
>r  apuriona  acripturea).  In  the  4th  c,  ite  authority 
Lcreaaed;  and  the  Council  of  Carthage  (397  a.d.) 
pronounced  it  '  oanonkal.'  This,  of  ooune,  did  not 
"'    "  -'-'        '  ~''~  anUientiaity  i  and  at  tike 

both  its  authenticity 


jorap 


LncAT  (in  the  Oreek  Church),  and  by  Luther,  who 
called  it  'a  downright  utrawy  epiiUe,'  the  work 
of  some  unknown  Jamea,  who  miaonderetood  the 
doctrines  of  the  Apostle  PaoL  Modem  divines, 
generally,  profeaa  to  aee  no  discrepancy  between 
the  teadiing  ot  the  two  apoatleo,  and  imagine  that 
th^  are  looking  at  the  mum  great  verity  from 
difierent  bnt  not  contradictoiy  atand--'  '-  '"- 
JmrnncATtoK).  The  style  is  altar,  ~ 
poetio^  vofT  little  diafignred  with 
indicating  tnat  ita  poaaesaor  waa  a 
ciiltnre.  Compare  Alford'a  Great  TnL  vxO.  4 
1859). 

JAUES  L,  king  of  Scotland  a«K^l^ 
tite  second  eon  of  Bobert  ILL,  by  Aimabella  t 


mond,  d*ngkter  of  Sir  John  Drnmmond  of  StoUiBlL 
His  elder  Drother,  the  Duke  of  Kotheeay,  having 
been  murdered  by  hia  oncle^  the  Duke  of  Albany, 
J.  became  heir  to  the  throne.  Fearing  tiiat  be  also 
might  be  aocrifioed  to  the  unscrupuloua  ambitioa  ot 
Albonv,  hie  father  resolved  to  t/eoA.  him  to  France. 
Accordingly,  in  1405,  he  aet  aul  for  that  country, ' 
but  he  never  reached  it ;  Uie  vessel  in  which  he  was 
embarked  having  been  taken  by  tlie  English.  J. 
Umaeli  waa  carried  to  London,  and  sent  to  the 
Tower.  In  1407,  he  waa  removed  to  Nottingham 
Castle.  In  1417,  he  accompanied  Henry  V.  in  his 
expedition  to  France.  On  the  death  of  Bobert  IIL, 
in  1406,  the  government  devolved  on  the  Doke  <A 
Albany.  On  bis  death,  in  1410,  hie  aoa  Mordocji 
succeeded  to   the    regency.      In    1421,   J.'s   long 

«..ii^tn  .»— .  t^  . A  .    -^  aivinn  hostages  for 

aluwed  to  return  to 
Previona  to  leaving  En^ood,  ha 
married  Joanna,  daughter  of  tlie  E^l  ol  Somenet, 
fourth  eon  of  John  of  Oannt.  To  the  excellent 
education  which  he  had  received  in  Sogland,  J. 
was  indebted  for  the  development  of  hia  vary  oon- 
mderable  powers  of  mind.  Hia  poems,  f^risT*  Kirk 
on  tlie  Qrten  (the  aathonhip  of  whidi,  however,  is 
disputed),  and  Kin^t  QuAotr,  shew  him  to  have 
been  possessed  of  high  poetic  talent.  With  the  acta 
of  his  first  parliament,  in  1424,  the  regular  aeriet  of 
Scotch  atatatea  may  be  aaid  to  begin.  Uonv  excel- 
lent laws  were  pseaed  for  the  regulation  of  trade, 
and  for  the  internal  economy  A  the  kingdom ; 
while  these  were  followed  up  by  an  execntive  vigoor 
which  Scotland  had  never  known  before.  No  sooner 
did  J.  feel  himself  firmly  seated  on  the  throne,  thui 
he  resolved  to  execute  veiweance  on  the  Albany 
family.  By  a  parliament  held  at  Perth  in  1420, 
the  two  aons  of  the  lato  Begent  Mnidoch,  and  hia 
father-in-law,  the  Earl  of  Lennox,  were  found  fpiilty 
of  certain  crimes  hid  to  their  charge,  and  imme- 
diately beheaded.  The  nsxt  few  yeara  of  J.'a  reign 
are  among  the  moat  really  peaceful  in  the  history  of 
Scotland  previons  to  the  union  of  the  crowna ;  the 
whole  enorte  of  the  kiiur  being  directed  to  the 
of  the  internal  cUaorders  of  tiie  kii 


exc^it  tL... 

known.  In  1436,  J.'s  elden  daughter,  Margaret^ 
was  married  to  the  Danphin  of  Fnnce,' afterwards 
Louis  XL    Amongst  those  whom  the  wisely  severs 

Eilicy  of  the  king  had  offended  waa  Sir  Bobert 
raham,  ancle  of  uie  Earl  of  Stnthetun.  He  had 
been  imprisoned  in  l^S,  on  the  impeachment  ot  the 
Albany  family.  Owing  to  this  caose,  or  to  soms 
real  or  imaginary  injury  done  to  his  family,  Qraham 
was    so   irritated,  that  in  143S  he  actually  t 


treasonable  langoage  to  the  king  himself  when  pre- 
aiding  in  parliunent.  For  this  he  was  banished. 
Mid  ttia_po«aesBiaiis  declared  forfeited.    He  retired 


,  to  brood  over  a  plan  of  revenge, 
which  oircnmstanoes  soon  put  it  into  his  power  to 
execute.  In  1437,  the  oourt  held  the  Cnriatmaa 
festival  at  Perth.  The  king  was  about  to  retin 
for  the  night,  when  the  soo^  of  men  in  armoor 
waa  heard  outside  the  gates.  It  waa  Qraham, 
accompanied  by  300  armed  men.  The  locks  of 
the  chamber-door  having  been  pnrposely  spoiled, 
Catherine  Douglas,  with  a  spirit  worthy  of  her 
name,  thrust  ner  arm  into  the  staple,  to  make  it 
serve  the  pnrpoae  of  a  bar ;  but  her  arm  was 
broken,  aiui  the  rofBsua  entered  the  chamber. 
The  king,  who  had  hidden  himself  in  an  apertoie 
under  the  floor,  waa  discoro«d,  dragged  out,  and 
enelly  murdered,  in  the  44th  year  of  hia  ws. 
GnJiam  and  the  other  ringleadeis  were  afterwarda 


bign  order. 

JAHE3  II.,  king  of  Scotluid  (1437—1460),  vaa 
ibe  mm  of  James  t.  mnd  Queen  Josnna,  and  wm 
born  in  1430.  He  wu  downed  at  Sdinboish  when 
onlj  in  the  aixtb  year  of  his  age.  Sir  Wilham 
Crichtan,  the  CtuuiMllor,  and  Sir  ^xander  Living- 
aton,  contriTod  to  keep  poMemion  of  tiu  penon  of 
the  young  kins,  and  eonaeqaently  to  wield  the  royal 
antoiDrity  until  he  had  reached  hil  fourteenth  year. 
The  power  of  the  Hoiue  of  Donghw  had  now  risen 
'-''--  almost  to  overshadow  that 

--,git,c- 

e  youn„ 
The  policy 
I  bad  aa  its  spint,  for 
by  the  maniage  of  the  heiress  of  the  murdered 
yonth  with  her  cousin,  the  family  was  reetored 
to  more  than  its  former  power.  Ihe  yoang  king, 
tired  of  the  nUe  of  Crichtoo,  pat  himself  under 
the  control  of  Donglas.  A  parliament  was  held,  by 
which  Crichton  and  LiTingston  wore  declared  rebels, 
and  their  estates  forfeited.  Dnder  the  rule  of  the 
earl,  the  kingdom  fell  into  complete  anarchy,  and 
became  one  icene  of  violence  and  disorder.  Douglas, 
hoWBTcr,  maintained  the  warlike  renown  of  his 
House;  in  1448,  the  English  having  invaded 
Scotland,  he  gave  them  battle  on  the  banks  of 
the  little  river  Sark,  in  Annandale,  and  defeated 
them  with  very  conaideiable  slaoghter.  In  1449, 
J.  married  Moiy,  daughter  of  Arnold,  Duke  of 
Oelderland.  The  character  of  the  king  appears  to 
have  been  much  strengthened  after  his  marriage. 
Like  most  of  the  Stuarts,  he  posMMod  gnat  animal 
courage ;  be  seems  also  to  have  posseued  much  of 
hie  faUier't  clearness  of  peicepdon  in  fnuning  laws, 
and  of  his  energy  in  ^iforcmg  their  observation. 
ChaGng  under  the  »way  of  Douglas  he  resolved  to 
assert  liis  independence.  Ctichtcn,  who  hdd  pre- 
viously contrived  to  make  terms  for  himself,  was 
constitnted  the  royal  adviser.  Douglas,  driven 
from  power,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Earl  of 
Crawford.  By  the  union  of  these  two  powerful 
nobles,  it  seemed  that  the  n^al  authority  in  Scot- 
land had  virtually  become  extinct.  J.  had  recourse 
to  treachery ;  be  invited  DougUa  to  visit  him  at 
Stirling  Castle,  where,  picking  a  guairet  with  him, 
he  murdered  the  earl  with  his  own  hand.    But  the 


enabled  to  ruse  the  standard  of  rebellion 
head  of  an  army  of  40,000 
to  the  wise  advice  of  his  oooncillor  Kennedy, 
succeeded  in  qnelliag  this  insurrection.  Donglas 
was  compelled  to  flee ;  and  his  lands  were  granted 
to  ihe  Karl  of  Angus.  In  1460,  from  causes  not 
clearly  known,  J,  infiiu^god  an  eiisting  trace  with 
England,  by  laying  siege  to  the  castle  of  Box- 
bo^h,  then  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  While 
he  waa  standing  beside  one  of  the  rudely  made 
cannons  of  that  time,  the  gun  burst,  and  a  fragment 
striking  him,  produced  almost  immediate  death. 
He  di^  in  the  29th  year  of  his  age,  and  24th  of 
hisrtign. 
[E 

of  Ji 
wu  bora  in  1453.  On  the  death  of  his 
the  government  appears  to  have  been  conducted 
by  hiB  mother,  goided  by  the  wisdom  of  Bishop 
Kennedy.  On  the  death  of  the  Utter  in  1465, 
the  younff  king  fell  into  the  hands  of  Lord  Boyd 
and  his  family.  In  1467,  ao  great  inflnenoe  had 
tfaey  acquired,  that  J.  gave  his  tiater  in  marriage 


of  Arran.  da  the  king's  nuiriage,  howevvr,  a 
1469,  with  Margaret  of  Denmark,  power  chai^ 
hands  ;  Lord  Boyd  was  obliged  to  fle«t  and  em 
Arrui  was  driven  into  exile ;  m  which  condition  h) 
died.  In  1474,  hia  widow  married  Lord  Hamlhen : 
of  which  marriage  were  born  James,  CEOSkted  Esri 
of  Airm  in  ia)3,  and  Elizabeth,  who  mairied 
Matthew,  Earl  of  Lennox.  J.  was  sjl  hia  life  nndcr 
the  influence  of  favouriteo.  Conapicnoas  asata; 
these  waa  a  man  named  Cochran,  criginally  » iDasiHL 
Through  his  means,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  broUur 
of  J.,  waa  forced  to  flee  from  the  kingdom,  havim 
been  charged  with  witchcmft ;  while  tiu  Eaii  d 
Mar,  also  a  brother  of  the  king's,  was  actnsDj 
put  to  death  on  the  same  abanrd  accasktMML  "Dn 
rule  of  Cochran  and  other  low-bont  fkiToaritct 
became  intolerable  to  the  ha^hty  Scotoli  nobilitj. 
Diapntoi  having  arisen  with  England,  and.  an  Ei^ 
lish  f^^ce  haviiu  advanced  on  Berwick,  J.  pnt  hmt- 
self  at  the  head  of  an  imy  to  oppoae  tlm  mvaden. 
Angus,  Crawford,  Argyle,  and  otherB  resolved  ta 
profit  by  this  opportunity  to  rid  themaelvea  of  tae 
obnoiioiis  favourite.  They  met  in  oonncil  to 
deliberate  upon  their  plana.  It  waa  oa  tliis  oca- 
sion  Uiat  Angus  accuired  bis  well-known  aobrkiD£t 
of  '  Bell  the  Cat'  Tho  result  was,  that  Godinu  and 
five  other  of  the  leading  favonribes  were  auxod  ud 


Duke  of  Albany  had  joined  the  Englidl  annT.  Da 
a  treaty  being  made,  be  waa,  by  some  nnJtMTi 
means,  restorel  to  his  brother's  favour.  He  dil 
not  long  hold  it,  however.  In  1487,  Margaret  cf 
Deimia»  died.  J.'s  love  of  punnita  which,  for  tJu 
age  in  which  he  lived,  wen  intellectoal,  broa^I 
upon  him  the  contonpt  of  a  warlike  and  illitaut 
nobility— a  contempt  on  which  the  weakneaa  «f  Us 
moral  character  impoaed  no  chei^  A  f^Mknuiacy. 
whose  origin  is  obscure,  ended  in  a  rebellicRi.  having 
for  its  avowed  object  Uie  dethronemoit  ol  tfae  kinc. 
Many  of  the  peers,  however,  Kmuused  lojal.  v> 
that  J.  was  enabled  to  put  hinueU  at  the  bail 
of  a  considerable  force.  Bat,  mainly  thnm^  the 
cowardice  of  the  king,  the  royal  am^  waa  defeated 
at  Sauchie,  18th  June  14SS.  J.  eai^ped  trota.  thf 
fleld ;  but  he  was  afterwards  discovered  by  Me 
□f  the  rebels,  and  murdered.  .  He  died  at  the  age 


the  son  of  Jamea  I 

and  wss  bom  Man^  17.  I47!l  A  tnoven^ 
headed  by  the  Earl  of  Lennox,  havii^  for  ili 
object  the  snbTersion  of  the  new  gowamnent. 
was  soon  quelled ;  and  the  rule  of  the  yttaag  king 
nve  promise  of  being  both  vigorous  and  popnlar. 
The  avarice  of  the  preceding  reign  was  followed  hf 
a  profusion  which  concilisted  the  nobles ;  while  the 
king's  personal  beanty  and  open  manner  wm  Un 
hearts  of  the  people.  The  naval  exploits  of  Sir 
Andrew  Wood  of  Iiatgo,  in  the  beginning  of  thii 
reign,  are  worthy  of  note.  With  a  greatly  inferior 
force,  he  twice  defeated  the  English;  on  one  occa- 
sion, capturing  as  many  aa  five  of  thor  ahipa  U 
war.  Instead  of  avenging  this  defeat  by  foRc  ei 
arms,  Henry  VIL,  then  rfigning  in  Englud,  wisely 
resolved  to  endeavour  to  wu>  Gotland  by  oondlia- 
tion  and  policy.  He  proposed  a  mairiage  between 
J.  and  his  daughter  Margu^ ;  but  his  wise  achoDn 
-vera  for  a  long  time  frustrated  by  the  gold  aol 
Dtrigne  of  tbe  king  of  France.  But  at  length  the 
pradence  of  Henry  prevailed,  and  in  1S03,  3.  awirini 
Margaret  of  Enfund.  By  a  trea^  then  aitcaed  into 
between  Englaiul  and  Scotland,  the  first  peaoe  aince 
1332  waa  otablishcd  between  the  two  oonnbMi. 


JAUB8  T.— JAMES  I. 


1  been  able  to  lee — thM  he  could  euilj 
gain  bj  policy  whrnt  it  wu  hopeless  to  Attempt 
to  Bcdze  by  force.  Had  he  lived  longer,  b  Ustiiig 
unity  might  have  been  eetsblished  Detween  the 
two  conntiiea  ;  bnt  his  son  uid  successor  was  btsu 
hotter  snd  more  headBtrong  than  J.  himi'lf  The 
English  treaty  wu  followed  by  s  period  of  slmoet 
ppeiampled  peace  and  prosperity ;  but  by  the  deatii 
ot  Henry  Vll.,  in  15(W,  all  tbia  fair  prospect  v» 
destroyed.  It  was  uot,  however,  natil  Henry  VilL 
had  been  two  yean  on  the  throne  that  a  rupture 
took  plane  between  the  two  kings.  J.  had  demanded 
reparatdon  for  an  alleged  outrage  on  the  Scottish 
fiaf; ;  Henry  had  retarned  a  contemptooni  answer. 
He  had  further  irritated  the  Sooteh  king  by  coon- 
been  acceaaoiT  to  the  murder  of  Sir  Bobert  Ker ; 
be  had  ijso  decliDed  to  daliver  a  l^aw  of  jewels 
beqneiUlKd  to  Queen  Hargarat  by  her  faUisr.  Long 
sad  angry  negotiationB  followed,  which  ended  in 
James's  rash  and  fatal  invasion  of  England  in  the 
annuner  of  1513.  Hie  disastrous  battle  of  Flodden 
(q.  V.)  was  fought  on  the  9tJi  September  of  that  year. 
The  body  of  James  was  found  on  the  field  after 
the  battle^  He  died  in  the  41«t  year  of  his  age,  and 
26th  of  hia  reign. 

JAME3  v.,  king  of  Scotland  (1H13— 1S*2),  was 
the  son  ot  James  IV.  and  Matwet  of  Englaud. 
He  waa  bom  at  Linlithgow,  lOth  April  1612. 
The  period  of  his  lon^  minority  is  one  of  the 
gloomiest  in  Scottish  history.  Such  wis  the  law- 
leas  state  of  the  country,  that  it  was  impossible  to 
pass  from  one  ^jaoe  to  another  except  in  armed 
.   The  Date  of  Albany  waa  chosen  regent 


by  the  parliament,  but  bis  Eoremment  was  almost 
powerless,  owing  chiefly  to  Uie  jealonsy  and  enmity 
of  the  Earl  of  Angus,  who  had  married  the  queen- 
mother.  UlUmatdy,  Angus  prevailed,  and  the 
doke  retired  to  Fisnce.  for  a  while,  the  Angus 
brancb  <d  the  Douglas  family  ruled  Scotland  in  the 
aame  maimer  aa  the  elder  branch  had  ruled  it  in 
the  b^inning  of  the  reign  of  James  H.  When  in 
his  Beventeenth  year,  the  king,  resolved  no  longer 
to  brook  the  authority  of  the  earl,  escaped  &om  his 
custody.  Angus  and  hia  family  were  banished,  and 
their  estates  declared  forfeited.  In  I53S,  J.  visited 
the  court  of  France ;  and  on  the  1st  Jaouaiy  1537, 
he  was  married  to  Mssdalen,  daughter  of  Francis 
L  This  amiable  qneen  lived  for  but  a  few  weeks  ; 
and  in  the  same  year,  J.  waa  again  married.  Hie 
second  wife  was  Mary  of  Lorrune,  daughter  of  the 
Buke  of  Ouise.  Henry  VITX  having  declared  his 
independence  of  the  pope,  became  desirous  that  his 
nephew  should  follow  us  example  ;  but  J.  remained 
tnie  to  his  ancestral  faith.  The  king  had  two  sous 
by  Mary  of  Goiee,  but  they  both  d!ied  in  infancy, 
wiHiin  a  few  days  of  each  other— an  event  whii^ 
irinmn  to  have  greatly  affected  the  mind  of  James. 
With  tiie  view  of  gaining  his  nephew  over  to  hU 
ecclesiastical  views,  Henry  proposed  that  they 
should  have  an  interview  at  Yoik.  He  aetoally 
went  to  that  dty,  and  remained  in  it  for  six  dan 
expecting  the  arrival  of  J.,  who  never  esme.     Thii 

S'eca  of  real  or  fancied  nedect  greatly  eniaged 
enty.  Ta  lM2,the  En^iah  having  made  an  inoiv 
sion  across  the  border,  were  attacked  and  defeated 
with  great  loss  by  the  Eari*  of  Hnntly  and  Home. 
To  aveiwe  tliiB  defeat  Henry  mot  mo  Doka  of 
Norfolk  into  Sootlaod  with  an  army  of  20,000  men. 
Negotiations  for  peace  having  &iled,  J.  raised  ao 
armv  of  30,000  men  to  onMsa  Norfolk.  The  spread 
of  the  Reformation  had  now  bwun  to  divide  the 
kingdom  1  the  noblea  being  mos^  on  the  reformed 
side,  while  the  king sidedwith  the  clergy.  When 
the  Scottish  army  had  reached  Fala,  news  arrived  of 


Norfolk's  retreat  The  nobles,  actuated  a&et  t^ 
disloyalty,  or  by  thoughts  of  Plodden,  declined  to 
follow  the  king  in  an  invasion  of  England,  upon 
which  he  was  bent.  While  this  ooutrovetsy  wai 
pending  between  J.  and  the  nobles,  a  report  aroM 
that  Oliver  Sinclair,  a  royal  favouHt«,  nad  been 
appointed  to  the  chief  conuaand.  The  anay  became 
a  scene  of  tumult  and  disorder.  While  in  this  dis- 
organised state,  it  WBH  attacked  by  Dacre  and  Mua- 
grave,  two  English  leaders,  at  the  head  Mf  300  men. 
The  Scotch  were  utterly  routed.  TTiia  diahonoor  to 
hia  arms  seems  auita  to  have  broken  the  heart  of 
James.  Heshuthimself upinFalkUndFalaoe,whare 
he  died,  December  13,  IM2,  seven  days  after  the 
birth  of  his  unfortunate  daughter  lufy,  in  the 
3Ist  year  of  his  age,  and  30th  (^  bis  reign. 

JAMES  L  or  Enolans  Aim  VL  or  SooTLam 
(1S67  [Enriand  16031—1626),  only  son  ot  Jiary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  Heni^  Lord  Damley,  was  bom 
within  the  castle  ot  Edinbur)^  19th  Jona  1064. 
On  his  mother's  forced  resignation  ot  the  orown, 
J.  was  proclaimnd  kins  of  Scotland,  29tb  July  1S6T. 
The  direction  of  his  <mildhood  devolved  principally 
on  the  Bar]  of  Mar.  His  classical  education  h« 
received  from  the  famous  George  Bnohwian-  In 
1578,  the  Earl  of  Morton,  then  regent,  waa  diiveo 
from  power,  and  J.  nominally  assumed  tbe  direction 
of  a^iiB.  But  the  new  government  was  impopular, 
and  Morton  soon  sncceeqed  in  re-establishing  bim- 
selL  His  fsll  wss,  however,  ultimately  effect  by 
the  onited  inflnence  of  the  Dnke  ot  Lennox  and  of 
the  Earl  of  Anau-  Morton  was  oondemned  and 
etecated  on  the  chaige  of  having  been  aocessoiy  to 
the  murder  of  Damley.  After  his  death,  Lennox 
and  Arran  ruled  for  some  time  without  control- 
On  the  12th  of  Augnst  1582,  however,  a  party  of  the 
nobles  seized  the  king  at  Ruthven  Castle ;  and  by 
authority  thus  acqoir^  they  imprisoned  Arran,  and 
banished  Lennox.  In  1583,  a  counterplot  restored 
J.  to  fieedom  ;  he  immodistely  restored  Arran  to 
power.  The  confederate  lords  were  obliged  to 
flee  to  EoEland.  In  1666,  through  tbe  conmvance 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  they  returned,  and  with  an 
y  of  10,000  men,  obliged  J.  to  capitulate  in 
ling  Castle.  Arran  was  again  banished-  In 
i.  Queen  Mary,  then  a  prisoner  in  England,  was 
oondemned  by  the  Bnglish  court  to  be  ezocnted. 
Though  J.  remonstrated  strongly,  be  neverthe- 
less, after  his  mother's  execution,  concluded  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  witji  England-  In 
:  of  1689,  J.  went  to  Denmark,  where  he 
married  the  Princess  Anne,  daughter  of  Frederick 
n.,  kmg  of  that  countzy.  From  1691  to  1694, 
the  kingdom  waa  disturbed  by  various  treason- 
able attempto  by  the  Earis  of  Bothwell,  Huntly, 
and  othei  Roman  CatJioUc  lords.  It  was  not 
till  J.  had  marched  ^jatnst  Huntly  in  person 
that  these  disturbaooes  were  suppreaaed.  Cong 
ecclesiastical  disputes  followed  between  king  and 
clergy.  In  1600,  ocouired  the  Oowiie  Conspiraoy 
(q.v.).  By  the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  1603,  J. 
■nooeeded  to  the  throne  of  England.  He  soon 
a  unpopular  with  his  new  subjects.  Tbe 
^  of  the  Roman  Catholics  at  the  severitie*  tued 
towuda  thran  waa  the  cause  of  the  famous  Gun- 
powder Flot  (q.  v.).  The  treason  was  discovered 
on  the  Gth  of  November  I60S.  Nor  did  time 
increase  the  popolarity  of  J.  with  any  class  of  his 
subjects.  Weak  and  good-natnred,  he  impoverished 
his  exchequer  to  enrich  p«.i-««itj»  ;  he  dwaded  the 
prerogative  of  the  orown  by  the  sale  oi  title*  ol 
dignity ;  the  title  of  baronet,  which  be  originated, 
oould  be  bought  for  £1000,  a  barooy  for  £6000,  and 
an  earldom  for  £20,000.  A  Scotchman  ot  the  name 
~  Carr  became  the  roysl  favourite  about  the  year 
1607 ;    honours   vid   emoluments   were   showered 


LioogI 


BncbingbuiL  Under  then  mioioni,  the  name  ftad 
power  of  !BngUnd,  to  formidable  under  Eliz&beth, 
BOi^  t«  iniieniScanoo.  la  1617,  J.  TSTisited  Soot- 
land;   a  tii^  which  hii  aogry  disputes  with  the 


would  ncceed ;  and  in  162%  Chwlei  actiully  v 
to  the  oonrt  of  Spain,  along  with  Buckinghain,  < 
proaecnte  his  anit.     Buckingham,  however,  havii 
quarrelled  wiUi  Wie  leading  r—    -'  ''^-  " — -- 


thM  parli 


ll-read  toholar,  who  wrote,  diluted,  and 
■   a  nerrona,    drivelling  idiot   who 
a  ia  interating  to  the  etadent  o( 
anal  hiitory,  aa  it  waa  during  it 
i  parliament  maj  be  aaid  tu  have  taken  ita  first 
dedded  stand  in  iti  lon^  .oooteat  with  the  orown. 
Hm  parliament  of  1621  i«  eipeoiaUj  memorable  on 

JAMES  II.  Of  Eirai.A)Cfi  iin>  VIL  oi  BocrtiAUD 

(16S5— 1638),  eon  of  Charlea  L  and  Eennetta  Maria, 
was  bora  ISth  October  1633.  In  1643,  ho  wag 
created  Duke  of  York.  In  1648,  during  tlie  civil 
war,  he  made  hii  eacape  to  France.  For  aome  time 
he  served  in  the  French  annj  under  Tureone ;  but 
on  peace  being  made  witli  Cromwell,  he  wai  obliged 
to  leave  both  the  armj  and  territory  nf  Louis 
XIV,  He  then  entered  into  the  military  service  of 
Spain.  At  the  Reatoration,  he  waa  mode  Lord  High 
Admiral  of  England,  twice  oommanding  the  Ei^- 
liih  fleet  in  the  ensuing  wan  with  the  Dutch,  ui 
1660,  he  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Lord  Chancellor 
Hyde.  Onthe  deathof  theDucheaaof  ¥orkin]G71, 
J.  avowed  his  conversion  to  popeiy.  On  the  passing 
of  the  Test  Act  in  1673,  he  was  obliged  to  resign 
office.  On  the  2Ist  November  1673,  be  married 
Mai^  Beatrice,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Modenk, 
Dunng  the  great  irritatioa  against  the  Roman 
CathoGcs  whldi  arose  in  England  on  the  publication 
of  Titus  Oatea's  supposed  £scoveries,  the  Duke  of 
York  resided  for  a  short  while  on  the  continent. 
Tho  bill  for  his  excluiion  from  the  throne  was 
twice  read  before  tiie  House  of  Commons,  and  onlj 
prevented  from  passing  bj  the  prorogation  of  par- 
liament, 26th  May  1679.  In  IBSO,  the  Exclusion 
Bill  passed  in  the  Hoose  of  Commons,  but  wss 
rejected  in  the  House  of  Lords.  On  his  return  from 
abroad,  and  while  the  Exclusion  Bill  waa  before 
parliament,  the  duke  was  sent  dawn  to  govern  Scot- 
land. On  the  death  of  Charles  IL,  efli  Fabroary 
16SS,  J.  sncoeeded  to  the  crown  without  oppositioo. 
He  hud  scarcely  been  many  houn  a  kmg  when 
he  violated  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  constitu- 
tion by  continuing  the  levy  of  customs,  settled  on 
Uie  late  king  for  Ufe  only,  withont  the  authority  of 
parliament.  At  war  with  his  parliament,  in  onler 
to  obtain  money,  J.  was  forced  to  become  the  pen- 
sioner of  Louis  XIV.  In  Passion  Week  1685,  the 
rites  of  the  Church  of  Eonie  were  openly  oelehratod 
at  Westminster  with  foil  aplendoui.  ia  the  same 
year,  the  suppression  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth's 
rebellion  in  England,  and  thut  of  the  Earl  of 
Argylo  in  Scotland,  waa  followed  by  great  severities. 
On  the  western  circuit  alone,  well  known  as  the 
Bloody  Assize,  presided  over  by  the  infamous 
Jefievs,  320  persons  were  hanged.     On  the  meeting 


army,  which  was  a  favourite  scheme  of  hiM.  He 
noticed  in  his  speeoh,  that  in  some  receni  appoint. 
menta  he  had  thought  fit  to  dispenaa  'witS  the 
Teat  Act  After  a  stormy  debate,  goTemment  wu 
finally  beaten  on  the  queation  of  supply.  To  aid 
his  endeavours  in  favour  of  the  Boman  Catiii^ics, 
J.  resolved  to  try  to  conciliate  the  Puiitans,  much 
aa  he  hated  them.  Onthe4thof  April  ISST.ai^Mml 
the  memorable  Declaratian  of  Indulgence,  in  whidi 
he  anootmoed  his  intention  of  prote^iiw  ijiinffitrn 
ia  tlM  free  ezerdse  of  their  religion ;  and  ths  oatin 
beheld  the  extraordinary  spectacle  of  the  Hoom  e 
8taart  leagued  with  republican  and  n  '  " 
against  the  old  Cavaliers  of  England, 
to  conoiliate  the  Puritans  waa,  noweve 
fol ;  and  in  March  1687,  it  began  to  be  evident  that 
the  war  between  king  and  church  must  mooa  roi^ 
a  climax.  At  that  time,  a  vacancy  having  occnrmi  , 
in  the  preaidency  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  a 
royal  letter  came  down  recommending  Aathaaj 
Farmer,  a  tUaatm  Catholic,  to  the  vacant  place. 
For  Fanner  waa  afterwards  snbetitDted  Parker, 
Bishop  of  Oxford.  He  was  known  to  bo  a  HansB 
Catholic,  though  not  avowed ;  beeidea  which,  b>  ' 
laboured  ,under  other  legal  disqualiScationa.  Tk 
Fellows  of  the  college  declined  to  elect  'hj^n.  A 
special  eodesiaaiicat  commission  was  then  sent  to  ' 
CSxford,  eacorted  by  three  troops  of  cavalry  with  ' 
drawn  swords.  Parker  was  installed,  the  Fellowi  I 
expelled,  and  declared  far  e^^r  incapable  of  holding  . 
any  church  preferment.  On  the  27lh  April  IfiSS.  ' 
J.  published  a  second  DeclarB.tiDn  of  Indulgence;  i 
this  he  ordered  to  be  read  in  all  the  chort^ea  in  tht 
kingdom.  The  order  waa  generallr  disobeyed  by  ' 
the  clergy,  and  seven  of  the  bishops  having  Tcntnnd 
on  a  written  remonstrance,  were  committed  tu  tht  ' 
Tower  on  a  charge  of  seditious  libeL  On  the  10th 
June  of  the  same  year,  J.'s  luckless  son,  knovn 
in  history^  a*  The  Pnlender,  was  born.  The  histoiy  ' 
of  the  trial  and  acquittal  of  the  seven  biahops  aa 
the  29th  June  16SS,  forms  one  of  the  moot  glowiiif 
pasaagea  in  the  splendid  narrative  of  Uacaulsy. 
On  the  night  of  the  same  day,  an  invitation  w» 
despatched  to  William,  Prinoe  of  Orange,  signed  by 
seven  of  the  leading  English  pohticians,  to  coch  ' 
over  to  England  and  occupy  the  throne.  On  the  9th  , 
of  November,  William  landed  at  Torbay  with  14.000  ' 
men.  J.  found  himself  deserted  by  (he  nobility.  , 
gentry,  and  army ;  even  his  own  children  tmnel  ' 
against  him.  He  retired  to  France,  where  be  wv  - 
hospitably  received  by  Louis  XIV,,  who  settled  a 
revenue  upon  him.  Early  in  March  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  ne  made  a  bopeleas  attempt  to  regain 
his  uirone  by  invading  Ireland  with  a  small  army. 
with  which  he  had  been  furnished  by  the  king  ol 
France ;  he  was  totally  defeated  at  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  1st  July  1690  He  retomed  to  i 
France,  continuing  to  reside  at  St  Germain's  till 
his  deaths  Cth  September  1701.  There  is  hardly 
a  sovereign  mentioned  in  history  of  whom  one  cui  I 
And  less  good  to  say  than  of  Jmnea  II, 

JAMES,  OiosaE  Payhb  Raikstord,  a  fscuxj  ' 
and  popular  novelist,  waa  born  in  London  in  1801, 
and  commenced  the  career  of  authocahip  at  an 
early  age.  Before  he  reached  the  age  ot  17,  Ik 
wrote  seven  eastern  tales,  entitled  Tla  Siring  of 
Pearit ;  but  the  first  work  that  bore  the  autlux'* 
name  was  SiiJieiini,  which  appeared  in  1825.  Tivta 
this  period  till  his  death,  which  happened  9th 
June  18G0,  in  Veoice,  where  he  held  (idnoe  1858) 
the  office  of  British  consul,  his  publications  were, 

6  might  almost  say,  incessant  The  principal  an 
— Damiey,  De  L'Ormt,  PhUia  Anjfvtttit,  Ham 
Matlaio7t,KiAMary(ifBvrgundy,  He  also  compoaed 


byGoogle 


JAUES— JAHBSON, 


■ome  poetry,  and  aeyenl  butoricftl  woAm  of  a 
biogn^cal  fciad,  sach  ki  CharUmagrie,  The 
Black  Frinet,  and  SitAard  Ccair  da  Litm.  J.'a 
writmgi  are  cheerfol  and  pleaaant  in  apiiit,  but 
hia  notiona  of  tlis  Tonuuttic,  trhetlier  m  acenery  or 
chatsctar,  are  entirely  conTentional,  and  are  apt  to 
make  qoick-witted  raaden  nuila  at  the  javemlity 
of  the  author's  fancy. 

JAMES,  JoHir  Akoeu,  an  enmiaDt  Congraga- 
tionaliat  miuiater,  irai  bom  at  Blandfoid,  Dot*«t- 
•hin,  Jnna  6,  17S5,  atndied  foe  a  abort  tiine  at  a 
duwntinf;  ooUem  at  Goaport,  and  waa  placed  on 
Uis  'ptnuhing  Il«t  at  wventeen.'  He  waa  highly 
popular,  and  when  only  twenty,  waa  aettJad  aa 
pactor  of  the  'church  meeting  ia  Carr'i  Lane,' 
Birmingham,  where  he  remunea  till  his  deaUi,  l*t 
October  1659.  In  the  couiae  of  yeaia,  Angell  James 
caow  to  be  oon^darad  the  most  important  and 
influential  pabUo  man  in  oonneddon  with  hia  own 
denomination,  and  on  acconnt  of  hia  '  erangelical ' 
-viewi  of  religion,  fas  wm  alao  much  esteemed 
boUi  by  the  Low-Chorch  party  in  the  Ji^ngliah 
EataUisWent,  and  by  diraentem  ge&eniUf  in 
Scotland  and  America.  He  published  a  multitude 
of  aermona,  traota,  addreiaM^  and  Email  religioua 
Tolumsa  (the  beet  known  beiiis  the  AiKcioai 
Iitpura^,  wbjah  had — and  gome  ot  them  itill  hare 
— a  Taat  inrcnlation. — See  Dale's  Lye  and  Leitert 
qfJohn  ABfftU  Jamet  (Land.  1662). 

JAICE8  BITEB,  an  im^iortaiit  river  of  North 
Anurioa,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Jackson  and 
CewpMtnre  atreama,  riaea  near  the  middle  of 
Virnoia,  uid  hat  iti  entire  ooune  in  that  state. 
It  Dows  in  an  eaat-south-eaat  direction,  paadng 
Lynchbnrgh  and  Richmond ;  and  widening  mto  an 
eatnaiy  for  the  laat  60  miles  of  ita  ooune,  it  falls 
into  the  Atlantio  at  tiie  louthem  artr^nity  of 
Cbanfieiike  B^.  It  ia  450  miles  in  len^  and  U 
navinblo  to  Bidimond,  160  miles  from  its  month. 
Ua  3iief  faib^ariei  are  the  Appomattox  on  the 
right,  and  the  Chickahominy  on  the  left  bank, 
made  hiatorioal  l^  the  battles  of  1862.  It  w^  at 
Jamestown,  S2  aulea  from  the  mouth  of  this  river, 
thut  the  first  English  settlement  in  America  was 
formed,  1607.  By  the  James  Ritw  and  Eluiawha 
Canal,  which  extends  westward  along  the  upper 
couiBc  of  the  riTer,  from  Jlichmand  to  beyond  the 
Blue  Ridge,  the  nayigation  of  the  Jamei  is  carried 
into  tha  centre  of  Virginia. 

JAJIIS3  TOWS,  the  chief  place  and  only  sea- 
port of  3C  Helena  (q.  T.). 

JA'HESTOWN,  a  village  in  New  York,  United 
States  of  America,  06  miles  south-weat  of  Buffalo, 
on  Cbatanqus  Lake,  and  near  Lake  Brie.  It  has 
a  Urge  trade  and  considerable  manufactnrea.  Fop. 
(1870}  9336. 

JAMES'S  BAT,  a  southerly  arm  of  Hudson's 
Bay,  extends  in  lat.  from  61°  to  66'  N.,  and  in  long, 
from  79*  to  82*  30*  W.  It  ia  so  beset  with  ulands, 
that  its  navigation  is  more  dangerous  than  that  of 
the  other  diviaionJi  of  the  some  inland  aea.  Near 
ita  southern  eitreml^  is  aituated  Moose  Factory, 
tiw  moat  important  station,  next  to  York  Factory, 
of  the  Hndaon'a  Bay  Compaoy  on  the  cout 

JAMES'S  PAIiAOB,  St,  a  large  inelegant  brick 
■tructure,  fronting  towards  Fall  Mall,  succeeded 
'Whitehall  as  the  London  residence  of  the  British 
■overeignB,  and  remained  as  snch  from  WUliam  TTT, 
to  Victoria.  It  was  rtcanstmcteil  and  made  a  manor 
by  Henry  VTIL,  having  before  been  a  hospital 
dedicated  to  St  James ;  Benr^  also  annexed  to 
it  a  park,  which  he  enclosed  with  a  brick  wall,  to 
counect  St  James's  with  Whitehall,  the  then  roval 
residence.    Additions  and  improvements  gradnoUT 


at  the  present  time  little,  if  any,  c^  the  old  itniotura 
remains.  In  1837,  the  royal  household  was  trans- 
ferred to  Bnckiogham  Falace,  and  St  James's  is 
now  used  only  for  levees  and  drawing-rooms. — The 
Court  of  St  James's  is  the  usual  designa^on  of  the 
British  Court 

St  Jaue^b  Park  lies  southward  from  the  polaoa, 
and  extends  over  87  acres.  Within  the  last  forty 
jrears,  it  has  been  greatly  improved,  and  is  now 
richly  embellished  with  avenues  of  tr«M,  and  a  fine 
piece  of  water  in  the  oentee,  which  is  stocked  with 
waterfowL  Oa  the  oast  side  ia  lA^  Parade,  whei« 
the  bodj-goorda  on  dn^  are  mnstered,  and  where 
the  legimeDtal  bands  p^ftrm  in  fine  weather.  On 
the  ontskirtB  are  aitnated  the  BockinghMn  and  St 
Jamca's  Falaoe^  Stafford  Hrase,  'ikarlboroodi 
House,  kc, 

JAMES'S  POWDER  is  a  patent  me-Udne  di«- 
covered  b;^  a  Dr  Robert  James,  who  wot  admitted 
as  a  licentiate  of  the  College  of  Physiciana  in  1766, 
and  died  in  1770,  aged  73.  The  fame  that  he  might 
otherwise  have  acqaired  was  tamiahed  by  nis 
patenting  his  '  fever  powders,'  and  stili  more  by  hia 
falsifying  the  specification  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
render  it  impossible  to  prepare  the  powder  from  his 
directiona.  Hence  the  Compmmd  Poarder  <tfAnU~ 
mony  has  been  substituted  for  it  in  the  British  phar- 
macopceias.  From  the  analysis  of  the  patent  med. 
icine,  for  which  one  or  two  London  chemists  assert 
that  they  have  the  true  original  prescription,  it 
appears  to  oonsist  of  more  than  60  per  cent,  of  tri- 
phosphate of  lime,  which  must  be  i^togetiier  inert  as 
an  anti- febrile  medicine;  of  from  36  to  46  per  cent, 
of  ontimouiouB  acid,  and  a  little  antimonits  of  Lme 
and  teroiide  of  antiinony.  The  pharmacopcsia]  pre- 
^ration  veiy  closely  resembles  it.  Both  James's 
Powder  ([^esoribed  under  the  title  of  PvivU  Jaeobl 
mn'l  and  antimonisl  powder  sre  very  uncertain  in 
their  operation,  at  one  time  pnsmiwiinu  cooaideraUe 
activity,  and  at  another  being  ilmoEt  inert  BiUwi 
may  be  preeuribed  in  doaes  of  about  five  n^na,  oa 
a  sudoriflo  in  fevers  and  rhenmstia  i^ections,  and 
may  be  given  sione,  or  in  oombinstion  with  a  tew 
grains  of  calomeL 

JAMESON,  Rxv.  Joek,  D.D.,  a  meritoriona 
xitch  scholar,  was  bom  in  Glasaow,  Miuch  3; 
.'69,  studied  for  the  ministry,  and  in  1781  was 
ordomed  pastor  of  a  congregation  at  Forfar,  in  con- 
□ection  with  the  Antiburgher  Secession  body.  In 
1797,  he  was  translated  to  Fdinburgh,  where  he 
died  July  12,  1838.  J.'a  refutation  as  a  man  ol 
letters  reato  on  his  Etymological  Dktionary  of  the 
ScoOuh  Languor  (1808—1809),  ot  which  he  pub- 
lished on  abridgment  in  1818,  and  to  which  he 
added  a  supplement  in  1826.  It  is  a  work  of 
great  industry,  and  very  considerable  value  as  a 
eollection  of  Scotch  words,  phrases,  customs,  tc  ; 
but  it  posMSses  little  critic^  or  philoI<^cal  merit, 
according  to  the  present  standard.  His  preliminary 
dissertation  on  the  '  Origin  of  the  Scats'  Ljuigaage ' 
is  an  elaborate  but  uusaccessfnl  attempt  to  prove 
that  the  Scottish  Langnage  is  really  the  Fictish 
language ;  and  that  the  Plate  were  not  Celts,  but 
Souidinavian  Qoths.  Among  J.'s  other  performancea 
may  be  mentioned,  Aa  ^dorieal  Aecoant  of  th* 
Andent  Cvldea  ofJtitia  (1811);  Hermet  Seytkiau, 
(rr  the  Radical  A^inMu  1^  the  OreA  md  Latin  Lani- 
guana  to  the  OoMe  (I8U) ;  An  HiMtorieal  Aeeotmt 
of  the  Royal  Falaea  qf  Seotiand;  an  edition  <4 
Barbour's  poem,  TheSrvet  (1820) ;  and  BlindHorry'a 
£ir  WiUian  WaUaee. 


boi^  April  28,  ISM.   Although  originally  intended 


yGOQl 


ua  nun  to  devou  unueu  to  Tin 
natnnl  histoiy.  After  luLving  p-vta  eridenoe  of 
QonddHBble  ftlalit;^  Mid  indebbmhle  indnttij  in 
vmiioua  aUe  memoin,  he  went  in  1800  to  Fteyber^ 
to  Miady  under  Werner.  He  vu  elected  in  1804  ' 
tbe  chur  of  Nstnral  Hiitoty  in  the  nniveisity 
Edinburgh ;  and  during  the  tena  of  his  protewor- 
thip.  nninbered  among  hii  studeate  m»iiy  of  the 
best  naCnnliata  of  the  present  d^.  In  1S08,  he 
founded  the  WemeriAn  Socie^  of  £dinbnreh  ;  uid 
in  1S09,  brou^t  out  his  SienunU  qf  Gecgnoey, 
in  which  he  gave  »  comprehensiva  ezposition  of 
the  Neptunian  theory  M  it  had  been  modified 
br  Werner.  In  1819,  he  founded,  in  concert  with 
Sir  DaTid  Brewster,  the  Edii^rgh  PhUotoMad 
Jourtuit,  and  in  1826  the  Edii^rgh  Nan  PkOo- 
taphieol  Journal,  of  which  he  continued  to  ' 
the  editor  till  hia  death.  Hii  principal  works, 
addition  to  those  we  have  already  mentioned,  t 
A  Sy^em  of  Minemiogy  (1304} ;  A  Minemlo{!knI 
Deimption  of  ilie  Goanly  qf  I}umbaTtoa  (18D5}. 
which  waa  intended  to  hare  been  the  firet  of 
a  series  of  similar  works  on  all  the  countiea  ( ~ 
ScotUnd ;  Manual  of  IfineraU  and  ilountai 
Jlocki,  tK.  (1821);  and  Elenxaitt  of  Mineralogy 
(1S37).  The  Natural  Eiatory  Muscimi  of  the  -—' 
versi^  of  Edinburgh  waa  largely  indebted  to 
care  and  skill  of  X,  for,  besides  having  carefully 
ftmuiged  its  oollectiona,  which  had  been  almost 
created  by  his  own  douatdooa,  and  those  of  b  few 
other  (cientific  men,  he  obtained,  by  hia  rejiresenta- 
tioo*  to  government,  an  annual  gmnt  for  ita  main- 
tenance. He  was  a  fellow  of  almost  all  the  learned 
■odstiea  of  Enropc 

JAMESON,  or  JAUESONE,Georob. an 
Scotch  portrait-painter,  called  by  Walpole  tiie  Van 
Dad  qf  SeoOand,  w»a  bom  at  Aberdeen  in  1586. 
Of  his  early  hiatocy,  nothing  is  known.  He  waa  at 
Antwerp  in  1616,  rtadying  under  Rubens,  had  Van 
Dyck  aa  a.  fellow.pujiil,  and  returned  to  Scotland 
in  162S.  He  was  hist  patronised  by  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  of  Olenorchy,  for  whom  he  painted  many 
portraits  of  the  kings  and  queeoa  of  Scotland; 
among  others,  'Bcbeit  Brace  and  'David  Bruce' 
His  great  talents  bdng  at  once  acknowledged, 
be  waa  largely  patronised  by  the  nobilitT,  and 
in  1633  Charles  L  sat  to  him.  He  died  at 
Edinburgh  in  1644.  Though  the  pupil  of  Rubena 
and  associate  of  Van  Dyck,  his  productions  bear 
very  httle  reaemblance  to  those  of  either  of  these 
great  masten ;   diatingniahed   for    their  cleamess 


the  former  nor  the  rigour  of  the  latter,  ThoQ^ 
celebrated  only  as  a  portrait-painter,  ho  baa  left 
numerous  historical,  miniature,  and  landscape  pieces. 
His  prodoctinns  are  very  numerooa  ;  the  urgest 
collection  of  them  is  in  the  poaaeaaion  of  the  Earl 
of  Breadalbane ;  and  many  otheca  of  the  Scotoh 
nobihty  possess  paintingB  b^  him ;  there  are  also 
several  in  the  halls  of  the  university  of  Aberdeen. 

JAMESON,  Mas  AniA,  an  EngUsh  authorew, 
bom  in  Dublin,  May  IS,  1797.  She  waa  the 
daughter  of  Mr  Murphy,  a  painter,  and  was 
married  in  1827  to  a  Ur  Jameson,  a  barrister,  but 
soon  after  sepanted  from  her  bnaband,  and  devoted 
henelf  to  Uterature.  She  died  ITth  March  lS6a 
Her  principal  works  are — Diary  of  an  Eanv-y^ 
(1826);  ho9t*oflMPoeU(Wl^)\  CAamctendJo  q/' 
Ehakiptim'*  Women  (1832) ;  Memoiri  qf  tfie  Early 
Itcdian  PaiiUert,  &c  (1846) ;  Sacred  mtd  Legmdars 
Arl(lM&)\  Legtnd*  of  the  MontutU  Orders  (18S0); 
iitgtndt  qf  Ihe  MadonMi  (1852);  QynimotgUaee  Boot 


In  all  her  writing  Mrs  J.  evinces  a  fine  fux?.  i 
delicate,  womanfy  percei>tion  of  Uie  beantifgl,  ud 
a  gentune  poetic  enthnsiaom.  She  is  Rcaidrd  a 
one  of  the  aiat  artcritics  England  has  procbced. 

JA'MROSADEl.    See  EcoDtiA. 

JAHC,  a  town  and  fort  in  the  north  o(  tit 
Punjab,  it  in  lab  32*  44'  K.,  and  long.  74'  H 
K  It  rtanjs,  amid  the  more  sootheriy  niaimttiM 
of  the  Himalaya,  on  both  banks  of  an  affloait  o: 
tlje  Chenab,  the  town  on  the  right  aide,  and  the  Icn 
on  the  left    It  contains  8000  inhabitants. 

JA'NESVII.I.s;,  a  city  in  Wisconsin,  UdM 
Statea  of  America,  on  both  sides  of  Roii  Eifrr, 
45  milea  south-aoutb-east  of  Madison.  It  is  boui 
partly  on  ft  plain  by  the  river,  and  partlj  ra  i 
bluff  100  feet  above  it,  where  the  pnbhc  bruldina 
are  seen  to  great  advaotage.  It  is  connected  viti 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  the  towns  on  the  Mi- 
aisaippt  by  intersecting  railways.  There  is  a  Ixp 
water-power  for  maay  mills  and  factories;  ud  i 
state  asylum  for  the  blind.  Founded  in  1836,  i: 
hod.  in  1870,  a  pop.  of  8789. 

JANIN,  Juua  Oabbiel,  a  very  clever  Frtsci 
critic,  was  bom  at  St  Etienne,  in  the  deputrnti. 
of  Loire,  December  11,  1804,  atodied  at  the  csU^ 
Lovu-U-Orand  in  Paris,  and  addicted  himulf  <" 
joumaUsm  at  an  early  period.  Hia  wondotd 
piquancy  of  style,  hie  airy  grace  of  lantimBil 
and  wit,  and  lua  dashing  pandoxea  of  ciilian 
were  greatly  relished  by  hia  conutrymen  ;  so  ana 
so,  indeed,  that  J.,  without  fear  of  ridicule,  va  i(k 
to  dub  himself  fc  Prince  de  la  Criiigite.  For  Bwr 
years  he  made  and  destroyed  literary  repuWws 
in  the  columns  of  the  /oumal  det  D&xttt  Ht  >" 
wrote  a  good  many  novels,  tales,  narratives  of  toW 
Ac,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  i'Aw  •cl* 
la  jeune  Femme  gumoliitie,  Coniafaniattiquea,  Cflu 
nouMoux,  Voyage  de  Vidor  Ogier  ex  Oiwt  L^ 
Cataeombs,  La  Bretagne  liiitorigve,  *c.,  ^o^.  '' 
Parit  d  ia  Mer,  and  i«  Sj/mphoniet  dt  THtnt 
He  was  made  a  member  of  the  French  Acsdenj  " 
1870,  and  died  in  June  1871. 

JA'NINA,  a  city  of  Turkey,  capital  of  the  eysli*'' 
Jooina  (the  ancient  Epirus),  is  situated  on  the  mSr 
western  bank  of  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  40  m^ 
inland  from  the  ahore  oppoaito  the  island  of  Cottu. 
The  lake  of  Janina,  called  by  the  ancients  PomWu 
of  two  portions  connected  by  two  ehsasn 
eme  length  is  about  12  tnilea,  its  gnaW'' 
breadth  about  3  mil^  At  its  southern  end.  ilo*i 
the  ancient  city  of  Dodona.  The  oity  of  J-  *^ 
in  the  midst  of  an  eiteasive  and  fertile  plain,  *l>if* 

t reduces  b-utts  and  grain  in  abnndance.  lb  ^ 
uildinga  are  19  moeqnes,  8  Greek  <''""^"\' 
Greek  college,  and  two  synagogues.  Gold  bit™* 
is  here  eilensivdy  manufactured  by  Greek  w*' 

,1    __   ^^  -^^^  fgj  ^^  gj^  ^""^  ■ 

and  coloured  linen.  J.  wss  wf 
the  head-quarters  of  the  gifted  but  nnscrupii'*' 
Ali  Faaha  (q.  v.).  It  is  now  in  pari  deserted;  i" 
popuIatioD,  which  was  40,000  under  Ali  F*>t>^  " 
-  ^w  26,000:    little  is  known  of  ita  «ariy  hisloiy. 

JA'NIZABIES  {Jtai-Uheri,  new  soldienS  ' 
Turkish  military  force,  originally  formed  by  "* 
OsnuuUi  sultan  Orkhan,  about  1330,  o^JT^ 
Christian  prisoners  compelled  to  embnce  MoIlUI' 
medanism  ;  and  more  p^ectly  ot«uiaed  Iv  So)*' 
Amurath  L,  after  1362,  when  the  norowr  *" 
'.  to  about  10,000,  and  especial  DnvileE^' 
,.««  conferred  on  them.  They  were  for  m* 
time  recruited  from  Christian  pnsoners;  but  ttf'' 


JAN  MATEirS  LAND— JANBBR. 
yyoniig  Turks  to  »«k 


privile^  loon  indnced  many  7oni 

sdmunon  into  their  body.    Then  nsio  tiru  i  ■■ 

of  J^  one  r^nkrly  orniiiaed,  dwelling  in  bMT*cka 
in  Constuttinople  tna  >  few  other  towna,  and 
whose  niunber  >t  ona  time  unounted  to  60,000, 
but  WM  attenrvdi  rednoed  to  20,000;  and  the 
other  composed  of  inwol&r  troope,  called  Jamaii, 
•mattered  Uuooghont  all  the  tomu  of  the  empire, 
and  amounting  in  number  to  300,000  or  400,000. 
At  the  head  oi  the  whole  Janizary  force  was  the 
Aja  of  the  J.,  whose  power  was  limited  only  by 
the  danger  of  rerott,  and  extended  to  life  and 
death.  The  J.  were  always  ready  to  break  ont 
into  deeds  of  Tiolence  if  their  pay  or  perqnisitee 
ven  withheld.  In  times  of  peace,  they  acted  as  a 
police  force.  They  served  on  foot ;  generally  formed 
th«  r«aerv«  of  tbe  Turkish  army,  and  were  noted 
for  the  wild  impetuoaity  of  their  attack.  The 
saltan's  body.fruard  wss  fomed  of  them.  The  J., 
however,  soon  began  to  be  very  nnmly  ;  aod  their 
history  sboaods  in  conspiracies,  auaasioationB  of 
sultans.  Timers,  agas,  Ac,  and  atrooitiea  of  ereiy 
kind  ;  so  that,  by  degrees,  they  became  more  dan- 
gerous to  the  sultans  tiian  any  foreign  enemies. 
The  attempts  of  the  sultans  to  reform  or  dissolve 
them  were  always  nnmccesaful,  till  Sultan  Mah- 
mond  n.,  in  1826,  being  opposed  in  some  of  his 
meaaurea  by  the  J.  in  CoDstautiaople,  displayed  the 
flag  of  the  Prophet,  sod  sneceeded  in  arousing 
on  his  own  behalf  the  fanaticsl  leal  of  other 
portions  of  his  troops.  The  J.,  deserted  by  their 
a^  and  other  prmdpal  officers  who  remained 
faithful  to  the  snltan,  were  defeated,  and  their 
barracks  burned,  when  SOOO  of  them  perished  in 
the  flames.  A  proclamation  of  June  17,  1826, 
dectsred  the  Janizary  force  for  ever  dinolved. 
All  opposition  wss  defeated  with  bloodshed.  Not 
fewer  than  IA,000  were  ezecnted,  and  more  than 
20,000  were  banished. 

JAN  MAT'EN'3  LAND,  an  island  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  named  after  a  Dutch  navigator  by  whom  it 
•WW*  discovered  in  1611.  It  lies  between  Iceland 
and  Smtzbenen,  and  is  the  noiihemmogt  known 
volcanio  laniL  Its  hiaheat  point  is  the  volcano  of 
~  '  irg,  6640  feet  nigh,  a  conical,  snow-oovered 

.1,  from  which  fisines  and  smoke  have  been 
n  proceed,  and  the  sides  of  which  exhibit 

n  glaciers  and  frozen  waterfalls.    ADother 

volcano,  called  Esk,  about  1600  feet  high,  was 
diooovered  by  Scoreaby  in  1817.  An  intereitinK 
account  of  the  island  is  to  be  found  in  Lord 
Doflfenn's  LeUenfrom  High  Latituda. 

JANSBN,  CoBNiLnm,  a  celebrated  divine,  bom 
of  hnmble  parentage  in  1585,  at  Akkoi,  near 
Leenfam,  in  Holland,  from  vhom  the  sect  of 
Jakbenibis  derives  its  name.  He  was  nephew  of 
the  well-known  biblical  commentator,  and  Bishop 
of  Obent,  of  the  same  name.  The  studies  of  J. 
were  divided  between  Utrecht,  Louvain,  and  Paris. 
Having  obtained  a  profcasonhip  at  Bayonne,  he 
devotS  hinurilf  with  all  his  energy  to  scriptural 
and  patristic  studies,  especially  of  the  works  of 
St  Augustine.  From  Bayonue,  he  retnnied  to 
Louvain,  where,  in  I6I7,  he  obtained  the  degree 
of  Doctor,  was  appointed  Lecturer  on  Sciiptore, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  affairs  of  the 
university,  especially  in  a  contest  with  the  Jesnits, 
on  occasion  of  whidi  he  was  sent  upon  a  mission 
to  the  court  of  Madrid.  In  1630,  he  wss  appointed 
to  ilie  profesHorship  of  Scripture ;  and  having  dls- 
tinguisbed  himself  by  a  pamphlet  on  the  war  with 
France,  Mart  OaUiau,  he  was  promoted,  in  1636, 
to  the  see  of  Yptes.  In  this  city  he  died  of  the 
pUgue,  May  6,  1638,  jnst  as  he  had  completed  his 
great  work,  the  .^v^iMfHtiu,  which  ptoved  the  ocoaaion 


it*  doctrinal,  social,  and  even  political  results, 
whioh  has  arisen  since  the  Reformation.  Ita  main 
object,  in  which  it  coincided  with  the  schame  of 
doctrine  already  condemned  in  Bajus  (q.  v.],  wss  to 
prove,  by  an  elaborate  analysis  of  St  Augustine'* 
works,  uat  the  teaching  ol  this  Father  sninst 
the  Pelupans  and  semi-Fslagians  (q.v.),  on  Oraca, 
Free-wilC  and  Predestination,  was  directly  oppcaed 
to  the  teaching  of  tiie  modem,  and  eepecially  of  the 


Jesuit  schools  (see  Mouxa),  which  latter  teach- 
ing ho  held  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the  semi- 
Pelagians.  In  the  preface,  he  sabmitted  the  work 
to  the  judgment  of  the  Holy  See ;  and  on  its  pabli- 
catiou,  in  1640,  being  received  with  loud  clamour, 
especially  by  the  Jesuits,  and  at  once  referred  to 
Rome  for  judsment,  the  Avj^uittnus — together  with 
the  antasoniat  publications  of  the  Jesnita — was 
prohibited  by  a  decree  of  the  iuquisitdon  in  1S41 ; 
m  the  following  year,  it  was  condemned  as  heretical 
by  Urban  Tm.  in  the  bull  In  EminaiiL  This 
bull  encountered  much  opposition  in  Belgium  f  and 
in  France,  the  AumuUmu  found  numy  parbasna, 
who  were  aaimated  by  a  double  feehi^  as  well 
of  doctrinal  predilection  as  of  antipat^  to  the 
«ll«ed  laxity  of  monl  teaching  in  the  sduxdi 
of  Uie  Jeanits,  with  whom  ths  opposition  to  the 
AvffiaHnva  was  identified.  See  Jscns.  The  most 
eminent  of  the  patrons  of  the  Augmtiiuu  were  tiie 
celebrated  association  of  sotuJars  and  divinea  who 
formed  the  community  of  Fob:c  Sotal  {q,  v.], 
Amauld,  Nicole,  Pascal,  &0.  Nevertheless,  the 
syndic  of  the  Sorbonne  extracted  from  the  Auom- 
letuM  seven  propositions  (gubaequently  reduced  to 
five)  which  were  condemned  as  hereticsJ  hy  Innocent 
X.  in  1653.  Hence  arose  the  celebrated  distiuQ. 
tion  of  'right'  and  of  'fsct.'  The  friends  of  tha 
Anffutlitttu,  while  they  admitted  that  in  point  of 
right  the  five  propositions  were  justly  coudenmed  aa 
heretical,  yet  denied  that  in  point  of  fact  these 
propoaitions  were  to  be  found  in  the  Auguttimu,  at 
lesst  in  the  sense  imputed  to  them  by  the  bulL 
A  further  omdemnation  was  therefore  issued  by 
Alexander  VIL  in  1656,  which  was  rigidly  enforced 
in  France,  and  senendly  accepted  j  and  in  1668, 
peace  was  partially  restored  by  Clement  TX.,  at 
teast  all  overt  opposition  was  repressed  by  the  iron 
rule  <^  Lonis  XTv.  The  more  rigid  Jansenists,  how- 
ever, and  at  their  head  Antoine  Arnauld,  emi^n^ed 
from  France,  and  formed  a  kind  of  community  in 
tile  Low  Countries.  On  the  death  of  Amauld  in 
16S4,   the    coutroversy  remained  is  abeyance  f<v 


of  conscience,'  and  stalf  more  angrily 

perHon  of  the  t^ebrated  Queanel  (q.  v.),  whoae 
Moral  RffleeHima  im  the  New  TMtmtia,  aUhoo^ 
published  with  high  ecclesiastical  antbonty,  at 
various  intervals  from  1671  till  his  death,  1710,  was 
deuonnced  to  the  pope,  Clement  XI.,  as  a  text-book 
of  uodisgnised  Jansenism.  This  pope  issned  in 
1713,  in  the  constitution  '  Unigenitus,'  a  ooudem- 
nation  in  mass  of  101  proposibons  extracted  from 
the  Moral  ReJUetUmt,  which,  however,  met  with 
great  resistance  in  France.  Tbe  death  of  Lonis  XIV. 
caused  a  relaxation  of  the  repressive  measures.  The 
regent,  Duke  of  Orleans,  was  nrged  to  refer  the 
whole  controverBj  to  a  national  coondl,  and  the 
leaders  of  the  Jansensist  party  appealed  to  a  general 
coundL  The  party  thus  formed,  which  tinmberad 
four  bishops  and  many  inferior  ecclesiastics,  ware 
called,  &om  this  drcnmstance,  Uie  Appellants.  Hie 
firmness  of  the  pope,  and  a  change  m  the  policy  of 
there--'-  "- *-'  '■^ —  --'"  '"' "~* 


iLiOogle 


Appellxita  for  tbs  mo6t  part  nibmitted,  the 
recusanta  being  ruited  with  (evere  petuUtieB ;  and 
oa  the  ■coeseion  of  the  new  king,  iWi  XV.,  the 
nnconditioiial  aeceptance  of  the  bull  wM  >t  length 
fomull;  accomplished,  the  parliameot  being  com- 
p^ed  to  register  it  in  a  lit  de  Jiatice.  From 
this  time  forward,  the  Appellants  were  rigoroualy 
repressed,  and  a  large  number  emigrated  to  the 
Netherlands,  where  they  formed  a  community,  with 
ntrecht  as  a  oentre.  The  puty  still  remaining 
in  Franca  peisicted  in  thdr  inTet^te  oppoeitioii 
to  the  buQ,  and  nuuiy  of  tbem  fell  f  ' 
ezceaaee  of  faoatidsm.    See  Coittttlsioha. 

e  locality  alone,  Utrecht,  and  its  dependent 
ehorches,  Can  the  sect  be  said  to  have  had  a  t^plar 
and  pennsneiit  organisation,  which  dates  partly 
from  the  forced  emigration  of  the  French  Janienista 
under  Louis  XIV.,  partly  from  the  c<iatroversy 
about  QueaneL  The  vicar- apoatolio,  Peter  Codde, 
having  been  suspended  by  Clement  XI.  in  1702, 
the  <^pter  of  Utrecht  refused  to  acknowl^; 
the  new  vicar  named  is  bis  plaoe,  and  angrl, 
joined  themselves  to  the  Appellant  pu^  in  Fruoe, 
many  of  whom  found  a  refuge  in  Utrecht.  At 
length,  in  1723,  they  elected  an  archbishop,  Corne- 
lius Steenboven,  for  whom  the  form  of  episcopal 
oonaecration  Was  obtained  from  the  French  biabop 
Vorlet  (titular  of  Babylon),  who  had  bMn  -  - 
pended  for  Jansenist  opinions.  A  later  Jana 
Archbishop  of  Utrecht,  Maindarts,  established  £ 
lent  and  Deventer  as  his  suffragan  sees ;  an 
~  3,  a  synod  was  held,  which  sent  its  acts  to  Bi 
fn  recognition  of  the  primacy  of  that  see,  which  the 
church  ot  Utrecht  professes  to  acknowledge.  Since 
that  time,  the  formal  luooession  has  been  main- 
tained, each  bishop,  on  being  appointed,  notifying 
his  eleddoa  to  the  pope,  and  craving  confirmation. 
The  popes,  however,  have  unifonidy  rejected  all 
advaoceii,  except  on  the  condition  of  the  acceptance 
of  the  bull  Uuigenitus,  and  the  recent  act  of  the 
Holv  See,  in  defining  as  of  Catholic  faith  the  dogma 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Vinpa 
Mat;,  has  been  the  ocoasion  of  a  new  proteab  Tba 
Jansenisls  of  the  Utrecht  Church  still  number  about 
6000  souls,  and  are  divided  over  25  parishe*  in  the 
dioceses  of  Utrecht  and  Haarlem.  Their  clergy  are 
about  30  in  number,  with  a  seminary  at  AmersJoort 
8o  far  sa  they  can  be  said  to  possess  a  theolocio^ 
rpBtem,  it  may  be  desoribed  as  a  oompound  of 
Jonsemst  oDd  ultra-OallicaQ  principUa. 

JANSBENS,  Akbabau,  a  celebrated  Dutch 
painter,  is  supposed  to  have  been  bom  in  Amster- 
dam abont  1d69.  Of  a  thoaghtless  and  excitable 
diipoaitdon,  he  made  himself  completely  miserable 
by  his  matriage  with  a  girl  of  ertnvagiuit  tastea, 
and  spent  hia  latest  years  in  extreme  want.  The 
year  of  his  death  ia  unknown.  Many  churches 
in  Flanders  posaess  pictures  executed  by  him; 
the  most  famous  are  the  '  Burying  of  Christ '  and 
a  '  Madonna  and  Child,'  in  the  church  of  the 
Carmelitea  at  Antweip.  Tljere  are  also  good 
specimens  of  hi*  style  m  the  galleries  of  Munich, 
Vienna,  Dreadan,  and  Berhn.  J.  displayed  gr^t 
vigour  in  drawing  and  deaigniog ;  he  was  an  ■dmix- 
able  oolourist,  and  he  certainly  ranks  next,  among 
the  historical  painten  of  the  period— though  at  a 
ooDsidershle  distance — to  Bubeua. — Cobkbus  J., 
probably  bom  in  Flanders,  died  in  Anist«idam  in 
16G6,  acquired  a  reputation  a*  a  very  fine  painter  of 
portraits  and  historical  subjects. — Another  eminent 
— ^"4  of  this  name  was  ViOTOtt  HonoBiua  J.  (bom 


IT  in  f  om  to  that  ot  a 


and  beautifully  pellucid.  These  mollosci  in  rmsl' 
able  as  inhabitants  of  the  open  ocean,  in  •tiid  tif! 
swim  at  the  surface  of  the  water  by  nieuu  <:'  i 
float  formed  of  vesicles  oootaining  air,  and  ttaoi 
by  the  foot.  To  the  undor-surface  oE  this  flut.  ii 
egg-capeule«  are  attached.  The  veBJcular  Bott  i» 
no  more  anatomical  connection  with  tbe  uuni- 
than  the  shell  has.  The  Janthinn  abouid  in  l^ 
seas  of  warm  olimatea ;  are  plentiful  in  th<  Ibit 
termneaa,  but  rare  on  tha  Bntiah  coasts. 

JAIfUA'RIUB,  St,  a  martyr  of  the  CbiAiE 
'"'  under  Diocletian,  was  a  native  of  SaataSi 
leaat  became  bishop  of  that  see  in  tin  1^ 


J  1661,  died  there  1739). 
JANTHI'NA,  a  genu*  of  gavteropodou 


place  of  his  martyrdi 
where  many  Christians  suffered  the  sum  tf- 
His  body  is  preserved  at  Naples,  in  tb>  <^ 
of  the  cathedral,  and  in  a  chapel  of  tbe  om 
church  are  alao  preserved  the  head  o!  t1i«  an^. 
and  two  phials  {ampuUa)  supposed  to  oostah  iii> 
blood.  On  three  feetivals  each  year,  the  ctid  « 
which  ia  the  day  ot  the  martyrdom,  Septemlx''^ 
and  on  occasions  of  public  danger  or  cslunitr.  s 
earthquaVes  or  eruptions,  the  head  and  tin  |«i^ 
of  the  blood  are  carried  in  solemn  prowra''^ 
the  high-altar  of  the  cathedral,  or  of  the  *™ 
of  St  Clare,  where,  after  prayer  of  grata  <»  ^ 
duration,  the  blood,  on  the  phiala  being  broii^t°^ 
coQtaot  with  the  head,  ia  believed  to  liqn";.  "^ 
in  this  condition  ia  presented  for  the  vectnl^ 
of  the  people,  or  for  the  conviction  of  the  doBl» 
It  occasionally  ha^ipena  that  a  coniidemblB  ikk 
nlapses   before  the   liqusfactioa   takes   pl»«  >^ 

>; ■' altogether  faila.    The  latter  u  "S"™ 

leu  of  the  worst  import ;  and  oo  JW' 
when  .the  miracle  is  delayed  bejW  'r 
ordinary  time,  the  alarm  and  eicitement  of '-- 
congregation  rise  to  the  highest  pitch.  ThtM"' 
are  curious  aa  to  the  literature  of  the  conta«nr 
regarding  this  celebrated  legend,  will  find  "^l 
documaoU  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Bolliai^ 
Atia  Saiielonan  for  September. 

JANUARIU3,  St,  OimiB  OT,  an  oriB  ^ 
knighthood,  founded  by  King  Charles  of  Sto? 
(afterwards  Charles  IIL  of  Spam),  on  the  6tliJi-.' 
1738.  It  was  abolished  after  the  French  ian** 
of  180e,  and  reintroduced  in  1S14  The  btilp  < 
a  gold  octaffoool  white  and  red  enamelled  crA 
with  gold  lilies  in  the  upper  aikd  aids  anglea  ^^ 
obverse  represents  St  Jannarins  in  episcopal  nn 


JAimABT-JAPAK. 


J>iaia  at  I/mn  {va\»ixAy  tha 
of  tlw  tortoK  hidd  »  high  p 
tha  Bmiuui*.    In  vnrj  im£ 


!t  OnuCntn,  who  mnrt  oonoi  (our  noUo 
geneiKfioiu,  or  CaaaUfri  di  Ortma, 

JA'NUABT,  the  fint  month  of  the  Tew.    Itvu. 
ftmoDg  the  BninaTMi,  held   uored  to  Janni  (q.  ^ 
from  vhain  it  derived  iti  tuune,  and  was  added  __ 
the  otUeodar  along  with  Febniai?  h^  Nnina.    It  wai 
not  till  the  I8th  a.  that  J.  naa  univemUy  adapted 

Sr  Enropean  nationa  aa  tbe/rtl  month  of  the  year, 
tliongh  the  BfOtatam  coiuideied  it  aa  anoh  aa  far 
backa«2SlB.a 

JA'NnS  Axo  JAN  A,  two  vei7  old  Latin  divini- 
tam,  mala  and  fetnale,  whoae  samea  an  merelT 
'"'       '  '  J  Diaimi  (probably  the  Sun)  and 

— ^--aly  the  Mood).    Tho  wonhip 

high  iJaoe  in  the  regardi  (rf 

_ii  •my  im^rtaking,  hia  name  w 

flnt  invoked,  eran  before  that  of  ^piter,  which 
tha  more  ijngnlaf,  aa  Jupiter  waa  imquectioaably 
tha  greateat  ot  the  Boman  goda.  Perhap*  it  may 
lie  taken  aa  a'verifioation  of  the  tradition,  that 
Jaoni  was  the  oldeat  of  them,  aod  ruled  in  Italy 
before  any  of  the  otheri  came  tiuther.  He  preaided 
not  only  over  the  bwiimiiig  of  the  year,  bnt  over 
tha  baghuung  of  aaob  month,  each  day,  and  the 
qommenwigieiit  ot  all  enterpriw*.    On  New-Yesr'a 


sftlnted  each  other  kindly,  to.    The  pioui 

Sayed  to  Mm  evei?  mominsi  whence  his  name  of 
aluAiua  Paler  ('Father  of  the  Momiae').  Hs 
is  Tepreaeoted  with  a  sceptre  in  hia  right  hand, 
und  a  key  in  hia  left,  ntdag  on  a  beaming  throne 
(j>i-ubah]y  a  relio  of  tha  onginaJ,  or  at  koet  very 
old  wordiip  of  J.  aa  the  aun).     He  haa  alio  two 


aged,  the  one  looking  forwvd,  and  the  other  bock- 
wajd,  in  which  some  have  profeaeed  to  aee  a  aymbol 
of  the  wisdom  of  the  god  who  beholda  both  the 
paat  and  future,  and  otheni,  aimply  of  the  return  of 
the  vear,  Numa  dedicated  to  him  the  paaaue  doaa 
b3r  tiie  Fonun,  on  t^e  road  connecting  the  Quirinal 
with  the  Palatine.  Thia  paaiase  (emmeoualy  called 
a  temple,  but  which  waa  merely  a  aacred  gateway, 

'■------  ■  statue  of  Janoa)  waa  open  i~  " ' 

It  ia 


war,  and  closed  in  timea  of  peace,  f  t  ia  a  itriking 
commentaiy  on  the  military  habits  of  the  Romana, 
that  the  place  waa  shut  only  thrice  in  700  year*, 
firvt  by  Numa  himaelf,  aeain  at  the  close  of  the  firat 
Pnnic  war,  and  for  the  third  time,  under  Augnatoa. 
It  waa  also  doaed  by  Vespasian  in  71  A.n. 

JAPA1T  (native  name,  Nipon — or  JDOi  ifipon. 
Great  Nipon — Le.,  the  Land  of  tha  Biaing  Sun), 
»  very  ancient  ialand-empire  of  Zaatem  Aaia,  long 
remarkable  for  the  proud  iaolating  policir  of  ita 
mlera,  and  now  oUiniuig  apecial  oanaideration,  both 
on  acooont  of  ita  recent  renewed  relationa  with  the 
tsivilised  world,  and  the  wonderful  ohangea  that 
during  the  laat  few  yeaia  have  been  in  progreaa  in 
the  coontry. 

Japa%  Proper  oomprehenda  four  large  ialands, 
▼)£,  Nipon  (the  Japanese  mainland),  Sikok  or 
Sikop^  Kiuaiu,  and  Yeaso,  and  eztenda  from  31° 
to  46°  ate  N.  lab  The  empire  of  J.— the  area  ot 
which  haa  been  eatimated  at  266,000  aqaara  mites — 
ineiudee  about  3800  small  islands  and  lale^  besLdsa 
the  fonr  la^er  ones,  and  is  sitoated  between  26' — 
62°  N.  Ut,  and  128°— 161°  E.  long.  It  is  bounded 
on  tha  N.  bv  the  Sea  of  Okotsk,  oa  the  £.  by  the 
North  Padoo  Ocean,  on  the  8.  by  the  eastern  Sea 
<rf  China,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Set  ot  Japan.  In 
1871,  the  population  of  Japan  waa  32,866,161. 


Pi^tkal  iWures.— The  iahinda  of  J.  appear  to 
be  of  volcanic  origin,  and  that  part  of  the  Paci&o 
<m  which  they  rest  is  still  int^ely  affected  by 
volcanic  action.  Earthquakes  occur  very  frequently 
in  J.,  although  oertain  parts  of  the  country  are 
ezemipt.  The  Japanese  reckon  that,  on  an  average, 
some  one  of  their  cities  it  destroyed  every  seven 
years  by  this  affeDcy.  J.  haa  been  called  um  land 
of  mountains ;  but  though  these  aM  very  nnmaroui^ 
and  many  of  them  volcanic,  they  are  of  moderate 
elevation,  and  rarely  attain  the  Iimita  of  perpetual 
snow.  The  country  generally  is  of  moderate  elev»> 
tion,  with  fertile  vallaya,  picturesque  landsoapeo, 
and  a  coaat  indented  with  magnidcent  harbonr* ; 
the  aoil  ia  proddotive,  rich  in  mineral  wealtii,  aod 
teemingwith  every  variety  of  a^cultnral  pro- 
duce. The  great  voloanio  monntam  Wonsentak^ 
on  a  promontory  of  Einain,  reatdiea  to  the  line  at 
perpetnsl  snow,  and  ia  both  feared  and  wonhjpped 
by  the  Japanese.  The  celebrated  and  saersd  Foai- 
^amaCBich  SduJar  Peak'),  the  Pamanua  of  J., 
la  an  extinct  volcano,  the  highest  peak  of  which 
raachea  to  the  height  of  14,177  feet  Springs,  lakes, 
and  rivers  are  nnnerons ;  bat  the  laa^  being  sand- 
choked  and  very  impetnona,  are  valuable  chiefly  tot 
the  purpoBBS  of  irrigation. 

Our  knowledge  of  (As  eUmalt  of  J.  ia  yearly 
inoreasing.  June,  July,  and  August  are  the  months 
of  isin,  which  sometiinet  desosnda  in  unceasing 
torrents.  The  months  of  Ootober  and  November 
are  the  pleaaantest  and  meat  genial  ot  the  twalvst 
when  line  weather  is  enjoyed  withoat  the  saorobing 
heat  of  summer.  The  summers  are  vary  hot,  and 
tha  winters  in  the  northern  parts  almost  Siberian ; 
the  thermometer  risiiur  to  96*  in  tho  shade  in  the 
former,  and  sinking  to  18°  below  zero  in  the  tatter 
season.  Alcook  says  :  '  The  thermometer  in  tbe 
shade  (during  the  summer)  ranges  from  70°  to  86°, 
and  averages  80^  between  the  morning  and  the 
evening,  while  it  is  sometimes  below  70  at  night' 
Eurricanea  and  waterapouta  an  frequent ;  dense 
fogs  hide  the  sun,  sometimes  for  fonr  or  five  daya 
together ;  and  about  the  change  of  the  monsoons, 
tndioons  and  equinoctial  gale*  frequently  sweep 
the  Japanese  seas. 

Vtgitiiile  Productiont. — In  Hodgson's  Japan  will 
be  ftmod  a  nstamatio  oatalwne  of  Japanee*  flora 
ly  Sir  William  Hooker.  We  can  only  mention 
a  few  of  the  most  noteworthy  trees  and  }^nts. 
Cbestnnt,  oak  (both  deciduous  and  evergreen),  pine, 
beech,  elm,  cherry,  dwarf-cak,  elder,  sycamore, 
maple,  cypress,  and  toany  other  trees  of  familiar 
— oa  abound.  The  evergreen  oak  and  the  maple 
the  fineat  of  all  Japaneae  trees.  The  graodest 
fonata  of  pine,  and  oaks  of  prodigions  size,  grow  in 
Yesso ;  but  the  S/ui*  vtrnkifera  or  lacquer-tree, 
the  LtmruM  campliora  or  camphor-tree,  the  Broua- 
aonetia  pa^\/T^era  or  wer-mnlber^ — the  bark  and 
young  twip  of  which  are  manuutctnied  by  the 
Japanese  into  paper  and  the  .RftiM  sneosdanaa  or 
vogetahle  wax-oee  of  J.,  ate  among  tiie  remariiable 
and  oharaoteriatic  tress  ot  the  ooontiy.  Bamboos, 
pahns,  inolnding  sago-palms,  and  ISOspedee  of  ever- 
green trees,  likewise  flourish.  Thns,  the  vegetation  of 
the  tropica  is  stianfjely  intermingled  with  that  of 
the  temperate  or  frigid  tone  ;  the  tree-tem,  bamboo, 
banana,  and  palm  grow  side  by  side  with  the  pine, 
the  oak,  and  the  beech,  and  ooniferm  in  great  variety. 
The  Camellia,  the  Paulownia,  and  the  Chrysanthe- 
mam  an  oonapionoua  amonnt  its  indigenous  plants 
Nymphnas  and  Pan  assia  fiu  the  lakes  and  morassea 
The  tobacco-plant,  the  tea-ahmb,  the  potato,  rioe, 
wheat,  barley,  and  maiae  are  all  cultivated.  The 
flora  of  J.  bears  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  that  of 
the  North  American  oontment. 
^TTJcu^ure  it  the  chief  occupation  of  the  J^nese. 


iLiooi^le 


great  care  upon  mamirea,  and  thoronghly  under- 
■taad  croppinfc  and  the  ratetioQ  of  crops.  The 
cultivated  land  ia  chiefly  a  light  friable  loam  of 
great  fertility.  ]t  grows  tea,  cotton,  rice  (the  staple 
praduction),     wheat,    maize,     buckwheat,     milfet, 

Ktatoes,  turnips,  beaus,  and  peaa.  The  rice 
rvest  commences  in  October.  Wheat  is  sown  in 
drills  ia  November  and  December,  and  reaped  in 
May  and  June.  Flails  and  wiDoowing-machinea, 
dmilar  to  those  used  in  England,  are  common. 

Aninali. — Wild  animals  scarcely  exist  in  J.,  in 
conaequenca  of  the  nnireml  cultiTatioa  of  the  scdl. 
A  few  wolves,  foites,  and  wild  boars  still  roanl  in 
the  north  of  Kipon.  Wild  deer  are  protected  by 
law.  The  principal  domesticated  animals  are  horses, 
of  which  there  it  an  iadigoous  race ;  oxen  and  cows, 
used  only  as  beasts  of  burden  j  and  dogs,  held  in 
superstitioui  veneration  by  the  people.  Birds  are 
very  numerous,  and  include  two  kiads  of  pheasants, 
wild-fowl,  herons,  cranes,  and  many  species  common 
both  to  Europe  and  Asia.  There  are  few  reptiles  ; 
and  of  insects,  white  ants,  winged  grasshoppers,  and 
•even!  beautiful  varieties  of  moth  are  conspicuooa. 

Mmeralogj/. — J.  is  very  rich  in  minenJa.  The 
gold  mines  of  Matsumai  and  the  north-east  part  of 
Kambu  have  long  been  celebrated ;  but  tile  norUl 
of  NipoD  is,  according  to  the  Japanese,  one  con- 
tinooos  bed  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  Silver  also 
comes  from  the  islands  to  the  west  of  Mataumai, 
from  the  province  of  Shauday,  and  from  the  islands 
in  the  vicmi^  of  Neagata.  The  iron  mines  of  Yesso 
are  sealed  to  Europeans.  Both  lead  and  copper 
mines  are  worked  within  a  few  milee  of  Hakodadi 
The  sulphur  of  Yesso  and  the  adjacent  islot  is 
olraost  ineihauatible,  and  of  wonderful  purity.  In 
its  abundant  supply  of  coal,  J.  resembles  Great 
Britain  ;  coal-beds  extend  from  Nagasaki  and  Fizen 
to  Yesso  and  Saghalien.  Basalt,  felspar,  green- 
stones, granites  red  and  gray,  rock-crystal,  agate, 
oamelian,  amber,  scoria  and  pumice-stone,  talc, 
alum,  and  other  minerals  are  found  in  greater  or 
less  Quantities. 

/nAodttarKs.— Ethnoloj^sts  have  referred  the 
JapHWM  to  different  types  of  mankind :   Latham 


Turanians,  a  tribe  of  tiie  Asiatic 
stock  ;  Pickering,  as  Malays  ;  Prichard, 
M  belonging  to  the  some  type  as  the  Chinese  ;  and 
in  the  narrative  of  the  United  States'  Expedi- 
tion, they  ore  ranked  as  a  branch  of  the  Tartar 
family.  Physically,  tbe  Japanese  is  distinguished 
by  an  oval  head  and  face,  rounded  frontal  bones, 
a,  high  forehead,  shghtly  oblique  eyes — the  irides 
of  a  brewn-black  cuour,  the  eyebrows  heavy  and 
arohed.  The  complexion  varies  from  a  deep  copper 
ccdonr  to  Uie  fairness  of  western  nations,  but  is 
more  frequently  of  a  light-oliva  tint.  The  expres- 
sion of  the  face  is  mild  and  animated.  T^  Japanese 
'  are  a  people  of  great  qualities  and  exaggerated 
defects.  Tbey  are  honest,  ingenious,  conrteoua, 
clean,  frugal,  animated  by  a  strong  love  of  know- 
ledge, endowed  with  a  wonderful  capacity  of  imita- 
tion, with  deep  self-respect,  and  with  a  sentiment  of 
personal  honour  far  beyond  what  any  other  race  has 
ever  reached.  But  they  are  proud, 'absolute,  revenge- 
fnl,  prof oondly  suspicious,  tiesitatini;,  and  mistrnst- 
fill,  and,  in  the  lower  cisisses,  open^  and  radically 
inunonL  Their  organisation  (until  lately)  woa 
purely  militaij ;  war  was  tixe  only  occupatioii  (with 
the  exception  of  the  priesthood)  which  was  con- 
sidered worthy  of  a  man;  agriculture  was  left  to 
serfs ;  while  conunerca  was  regarded  as  degrading. 
The  fighting-classes  had  the  utmost  contempt  for 
trade,  and  the  entire  P^^pl^  were  deticient  tn  the 
commercial  aptitudes.'     T^e  town  costume  of  the 


in  at  the  waist,  round  which  is  fastened  a  girdb  d 
brocaded  silk.  Over  this  is  worn  a  Icnse,  viJ'- 
sleeved  jacket  or  spencer,  decorated  nith  Ur 
wearer's  armorial  device.  A  cylindrical  cip  ata.-. 
of  bamboo  and  silk,  white  stockings,  and  nest  Anv 
sandals,   complete  the   attire.      TronaeiB  an  [d\ 


worn  by  official  person  I , 

mony.  A  head  entirely  shaven  ia  the  diitincO« 
mark  of  priests  and  the  higher  class  of  mfoai 
practitioners  ;  in  others,  the  hair  ia  shaved  oStta" 
three  inches  in  front,  combed  up  from  the  tucli "» 
sides,  and  glued  into  a  tuft  ot  the  top  of  the  Irai 
where  il  is  confined  by  pins  of  gold  or  tortoiM-Jlol 
The  hair  of  the  women  is  more  abundsJit,  but  otl" 
wise  their  dress  very  much  resembles  that  of  <«< 
men.  In  the  country,  a  short  cotton  gown  i>  ol™ 
the  only  clothing,  and  the  lower  classes  go  slmcrt  u 
a  state  of  nudity.  The  men  are  geneiaUy  eWi>f 
ately  tatooed  over  the  greater  pM*  of  their  M; 
with  figures  of  men  and  woman,  bright-blue  dnffa' 
lions,  tigers,  &c  The  women  have  a  nuaii  to 
painting  and  powdering  their  skin.  ,, 

^aaiKra  and  Ctutoms.— The  moat  reDurW"*' 
custom  ot  the  Japanese  is  that  of  A'atri-wn " 
Hara-hini  (or  Hara  wo  Kiru,  i.  e.,  'belly-™"'' 
legalised  mode  of  suicide,  by  making  two  *''^*'£? 
on  the  abdomen  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife-,  '^ 


once  performed  have  become  obsolete.    Tbot  v- 
still,  however,  professors  of  the  art  in  most  Jj;?  | 
cities.     The  curious  custom  ot  nny-6oe»  M  **" 
consists  'in'oatentatious  secrecy  as  ''^SJ^,  f^L 
or  incognito  in  reference  to  persons.'     WeU-t"" 
events  ore  totally  ignored,  and  individuality  |>"'  I 
rerognised  under  shelter  of  the  nay-boen  T^""^  ' 
The  social  position  of  women  is,  in  soma  ""I^m 
more  favourable  than   in   most    pagan   <^^, 
The  ladies  of  Japan,  however,  live  in  strict  i» 
sion,  and  Uttle  Ulcnown  about  them.     F^'Za 
cation  U  not  neglected.     Polygamy  is  rot  sllo"J 
but  the  power  of  divorce  is  permitted  to  ihe  hmj^ ,. 
bylaw.  The  laws  i^nst  adultery  on  the  p«:"" 
wife  are  severe,  and  death  is  the  penalty,  whicB  »»- 


hold  no  commmiication  with  the  mainland ;  and  tbe 
people  lived  like  fragi  in  a  weU,  till  1863,  when  they 
were  rodel;  awakened  From  their  dreaia  of  peace 
and  teeority  by  Commodore  Perry  (teaming  into  the 
harbour  of  Yokohama,  with  a  Bquadnin  of  United 
Btatea  war-veasela.  He  eictoFted  a  treaty  from  the 
frightened  Bhiognn  (3I(t  Uarch  1S54),  uid  J.,  aEt«r 
a  witbdnmal  of  216  yean,  entered  once  more  the 
family  of  nations.  Other  oonntriea  slowly  followed 
the  example  of  the  United  States  :  Russia  and  the 
Netherlands  in  1855;  onr  own  treaty  followed  in 
1858;  that  with  liVanoe  ID  1860;  with  Portngal  in 
1880  ;  with  Prustia  and  the  ZollTerein  in  1861  ; 
with  Switzerland  in  1864;  with  Italy  in  1BS6; 
and  with  Denmark  in  1867.  By  these  the  eeren 
Japanese  ports  of  Yokohama,  Nagasaki,  Kanagawa, 
Niogata,  Eiogo,  Osaka,  and  Hakodadi  have  been 
opescd  to  foreign  commerce. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  'the  history  of  the 
empire  of  the  Birint;  9ud  is  divisible  into  four  die- 
tinot  period)  :  the  first,  which  ends  with  the  Ituidiog 
of  the  Portuguese  in  1543,  is  purely  local ;  the 
aeoond,  which  extends  from  1513  to  1638,  includes 
the  itotT  of  St  Franeia  Xavier,  the  trade  with 
FortngM,  the  poveontion*,  and  the  final  expnlaion 
of  SnropeauB;  the  third,  from  IS38  to  ISH  <■ 
distinemshed  by  the  Dutch  -monopoly,  and  the 
resolnte  eiolusion  of  all  foreinieni;  in  tiie  fourth, 
since  1854,  J.  ha«  onoe  more  beooroe  acoessible  to 
everybody.' 

In  the  J.  of  1854,  we  went  back  to  Enrope  of  the 
12th  century — to  the  fendalism  of  Bngland  under 
the  Plantageneta.  An  ariitoontic  OMte  of  a  few  hun- 
dred noblee— the  Daiimo*  or  territorial  prinoea  of  J. 
(278  in  onmbw)— nded  large  provlnoM  with  deapotio 
and  almott  independent  authority;  their  inoomes 
reaching  in  one  or  two  hiEtances  to  £800,000.  The 
Shiogan  gave  deep  offence,  both  to  the  Daimioe  and 
the  nation,  by  signing  the  Perry  treaty  at  all ;  bnt 
eapeoially  by  signing  it  without  the  sanotien  of  the 
Mikado,  and  for  ten  years  a  policy  of  Baaauination 
and  de&dly  hatred  to  foreigneFS  (whom  the  govern- 
ment coold  not  protect)  was  oarried  out  This 
resulted  in  the  two  bombardments  of  K^oahiDia 
Chioahin,  by  the  Ensliah  and  combined  fieeta,  which 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  Japanese  to  the  power  of  the 
western  nations,  and  awakened  in  their  minds  an 
intense  deaire  to  raise  their  conntiy  to  an  equality 
with  them.  A  complete  reaction  m  favour  of  the 
desmied  foreigners  set  in  ;  and  a  desire  for  a  strong 
central  government — '  the  unification  of  the  nation 
in  the  hands  of  the  Mikado  ' — who  was  urged  by  the 
most  powerful  of  the  daimios  to  suppress  the  Hhio- 

runate.  The  Shiognn  tendered  his  ><engnatioa ; 
ut,  notwithstanding,  a  eoup  d!ttat  appean  to  have 
been  necestorf  for  the  complete  extinction  of  the 
Shioginn  tmd  hia  party.  Thia  was  carried  oat  in  the 
winter  of  1867—1868,  and  after  a  short  but  sharp 
civil  war  of  some  six  months'  duration,  the  Shiognn. 
with  his  partisans,  were  defeated,  and  the  Shiogunate 
(or  'government  under  generalissimo ')  became  a 
thing  of  the  past  The  da^ios  decided  upon  a 
grand  act  of  self-sacrifice,  and  sappreued  them- 
setvea  'Two  hundred  and  seventy-eight  military 
princes,  possessing  regal  powers,  vast  wealth,  and 
separate  armies,  abdicated  from  pnrely  patriotic 
motives,  the  station  which  their  families  bod  held 
for  twenty  centuries  ! ' 

The  Japanese  government  is  now  organised  partly 
upon  the  French  imperial  system,  ana  presents  the 
following  features  ;  (1.)  The  Mikado  is  supreme  in 
temporal  and  spiritual  matters ;  (2.)  An  executive 
mintatry  divideii  into  eight  departments,  viz. — 
Foreign  Affaire,  War,  Navy,  Finances,  the  Interior, 


cil  of  State  (SIvAn),  memtiera  nnlimitad;  (*.]  i. 
'Great  Council' — bywhich  the  govemmentiirc^; 
carried  on — divided  into  three  sections,  via,  tk 
Centre,  composed  of  the  Prime  Minister,  Vies-Pnu 
Minister,  and  five  advisers ;  the  Bight,  wludi 
inclodea  the  Minister*  and  Vico-lf  inisters  d  lb 
eight  departments;  the  Left,  formed  entirely  of  Ibc 
Counml  of  State,  whose  f  nnctiona  correspond  to  lb; 
French  C'onmil  tTElat.  All  matters  of  hisfa  import- 
ance are  decided  by  the  Great  ConncU  and  thi 
Mikado  i  bnt  ordinary  questions  are  left  to  tu 
ministers,  individually  or  in  cabinet.  An  (JtctJTt 
parliament  is  tn  contemplation.  In  1871  tht^tn- 
vincial  administration  was  taken  from  Um  u- 
daimios;  and  '  prefects,'  with  extensive  powen,  bin 
been  appointed,  one  to  each  of  tbe  75  districts  istu 
which  J,  is  now  divided. 

Great  progress  is  being  made  in  fiitanoe,  tiaa- 
tion,  and  pablio  works,  as  well  as  the  reoonstnutn 
of  both  army  and  navy.  The  budget  for  ISIS  itien 
a  revenne  of  £12,229,631,  and  an  expenditure  ot 
£11,420,386.  This  interesting  document  (foi  wtick 
e  are  indebted  to  an  article  m  BladaBooit  Mjp- 
'      ~  ■  1872)_we  here    give  ii 


Ue*.  St  H  doUan  pw  k(dni '"''ms 

Irt«'ntlreTeniM(uclMdatlH,  Ac),    ,  W.*" 

MlwtUsDno),    .        ,       ...         ,  .        ».W 

Toml  of  iBOtfpm      .        -  ni,Wp»" 

KiraviiiTUBS. 

Imperisl  bansthoU, «'>'"' 

HlBlMrroftinslgBtflUn^     ....         ,  |Jj^ 

V^:'    .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  'sKi* 

C»1onlHtl>nafY«c^ «M.^ 

BdDcatigD fW 

rinaniH  dcpirtnunt  [inslodlng  cart  of  aollsollnc 

Pu'SSriorto;  .'.'.■       ■.'.'.'     K'ttl" 
Uunkipil  sad  prorlBidil  r>TtmB«U,       .       .    ^■^^    '■ 

Coit  or  mannrsstDrinE  new  laiik-Dotis,  and  of         .  „    ' 
MUbUablns  ths  Mint, .....  "*»;    , 

PusiauudiliilHandrelianan^  .    4,*H,IU 

BaluiM  at  IndmnU)  to  EiuwBu  nnren  OB  ttu       ,„    . 

Slmonoukl  •Air, 3"'"! 

iDlerMt  «D  Um  EngUth  losn,  ....  ___3S 
Total  of  npsndltun,  SU.M1' 

Smy\<u,  *m,  lU. 

It  win  be  seen  that  the  bnUc  of  the  m*™U^  ' 
derived  from  the  rice- tax,  which  ia  a  very  *f *" 
and  productive  import ;  bat  as  tbe  principle  o'  ttf'  , 
ing  the  staple  food  of  the  people  is  radically  »«^ 
and  in  this  instance  it  weichs  very  '"'f''''?_5''^^ 
agricultural  popnlation  (absorbii^  one-third  of  w  i 
entire  annual  crop),  the  newly  inaugurated  gc«^ 
ment  is  considering  how  gradually  fo  diminiMi.  w*  ' 
to  replace  it '  by  other  dutiea  less  objeotiousbk, »"  I 
more  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  which  now  p"""  ' 
the  country.'  .      ,,,  [ 

A  Ministry  of  Instmction  was  created  "■  .?JM 
and  public  primary  schools  are  being  estwhrt"  i 
in  towns.  lighthonses,  dockyards,  tJ^"^  | 
of  harbours,  >^  the  construction  of  rosdi 
r«lroada,  have  all  been  in  progress  '^"""S.^  i 
last  three  years.  A  rwlway  from  Yeddo  to  l*^  : 
hama  has  been  made,  and  telegniphs  ""IV^TJ, 
of  erection.    Newspapers  and  printing-ftfe**" 


to  meta]-woi^  u 


perspei^ve  ;  and  of  tbe  art  of  paioting  in  oils  they 
%re  entrely  ignorant 

The  cominerciai  inUrmuTSc  of  J.  it  now  carried  on 
inoitly  with  Great  Britain,  and  the  Dnited  States 
of  America. 

The  foUowine  table  shews  the  extent  of  the  trade 
by  exhibiting  the  value  of  the  total  exports  from 
Japan  to  Great  Biitain,  and  of  the  total  imports  of 
British  and  Iriih  produce  and  msaafoctarei  into 
Japan  during  the  fire  years  ISS7 — 1871  : 


The  principal  items  of  ex|>ort  from  J',  to  Great 
Britain  are  tea  and  unmanufactured  tobacco,  valued 
respectively  at  £40,639  and  £37,66S,  for  the  year 
•  The  staple  British  import  *  '     '  ' 


rerage  rate  of  excbauge,  li.  Hd. ;  the  riu  or  UkI, 
fii.  lOd. ;  the  koban  ^Id),  £1,  9*.  2d.  A  mint, 
manufactured  in  England,  was  set  up  at  Osaka  in 
the  year  1870.  The  new  coins  issued  from  it  are  : 
10,  5,  and  2}  dollar  gold-pieces:  SO,  20,  and  6  cent 
■ilver-piecea ;  besides  iron  and  copper  coins  of 
■molt  value. 

For  the  latest  information  on  J.,  see  Edueaiion  ta 
Japan,  with  an  Introduction  by  Arinori  Mori, 
Hinistar  or  Envoy  from  Japan  to  ibe  United  States 
of  America  (New  York,  1873);  article  'Japan,'  Black- 
aofKTs  Magasme,  Sept  1872 ;  The  Merchant'i  Hand- 
booi,  by  W.  A.  Browne  {Lond.  1872);  Japan,  being 
a  sketch  of  the  history,  govenunent,  and  officers  ol 
the  Empire  (Loud.  1869) ;  Japan  in  Our  Day,  by  B. 
Taylor  (New  York,  1871);  The  Staiemnaa' t  Year-book, 
by  F.  Martin  (Lond.  1873) :  and  for  general  refer- 
ence, see  The  Capital  of  Uie  Tycoon,  by  Sir  Ruther- 
ford  Alcock,  K.C.B.,  ka.  (Lond.  1863) ;  A  Jlemdenct 
at  aagiuaii  and  Hakodati  in  1859—1860,  by  C.  P. 
Hodgson  (Lond.  1861);  ^r^  Bknienta  of  Japanae 
Grammar,  ftc,  by  R.  Alcock,  Em,;  Narraiive  of 
the  Earl  of  Elgin's  Miaion  lo  cWi  and  Japan 
t»  the  years  1857,  1868,  and  1359,  by  I^wrence 
Oliphant  (Lond,  1869);  The  Hitlory  of  Japan,  by 
Engelbert  Kftmpfer,  M.D.  (Lond.  1727). 

JAPATiNING  is  the  art  of  givinj  a  coating 
of  vamish  and  other  tuaterials  to  certain  manufiw- 


I  is  more  genially  applied  in  this  ooanbr 

woi^  upon  which  a  darlc-coloiired  vsniu 

I  applied  with  heat,  but  the  prooeaa  ia  quite  u 


extensively  applied  to  pa}aer-mftcli6  ^rorks. 
LACQDasno.  The  japnmed  works  of  our  manu- 
faotnien  are  chiefly  iron  and  tin,  such  as  c«l' 
boxes,  tin  canisters,  and  other  articlea,  w^iich  in 
thereby  made  more  ornamental,  moA.  ua  at  Uh 
same  time  protected  from  rust 

The  japanning  material  conusts  of  aoime  or 
copal  varnish,  oMne,  or  mixed  with,  ivoiy-black,  to 
produce  a  black  japan  ;  or  with  aaphalt,  to  piodiK* 
a  dark  or  light  brown,  according  to  the  qnantitf 
used.  For  very  cheap  tinned  watcs,  a  aii^ 
coating  is  all  that  is  usually  given.  After  heug 
varnished,  they  are  put  into  a  heated  oral  for  i 
time,  after  which  thev  are  ready  for  use ;  bnt  in 
the  cose  of  more  valoable  articles,  mch  as  tbr 
handsome  coal-boxes  of  iron  which  ars  now  exteo- 
sively  manufactured,  and  which  *i«  still  farther 
ornamented  by  gilding  and  paintinf;,  ■evend  coats 
of  block  japan,  vamish  are  applied,  each  beiDH 
dried  in  the  oven  previous  to  the  application  of 
the  next,  so  that  a  coating  of  sufficient  b~'~ 


beautiful  surface  is  obtained,  in  no  respect  iiiferiOT 
to  that  of  polished  jet  The  polishing  powden  an 
at  first  applied  with  leather,  but  the  finishing  is 
done  by  women,  who  use  the  palma  of  their  hma 
only  with  small  quantities  of  IMpoIL  i 

The  beantiful  block  surface  thus  jirodnced  is  ^ 
admirably  adapted  for  decoration  by  gildins ;  and 
much  taste  is  now  shewn  in  these  matters  by  ov  ' 
muiufactorers,  who  surpass  oil  others  in  the  h^  ' 
finish  and  cheapness  of  japanned  wares,  Unoo'  ; 
LtCQUERina  will  be  given  the  Japanese  ^neen,  , 
which  is  thus  imitated  on  metal,  under  the  name  ol 
japanning,  in  Europe.  '  ' 

JA'PHET,  in  Heb.  YtpKOk,  a  word  appaitntlj    I 
derived  in  Genesis  from  paUiak,   'to   opoi,'  tiop.    . 
perhaps  '  to  stretch  forth,'  and  hence  supposed  t>   , 
mean   'widely   dispersed,'      Geaenius    and    otiiff   ' 
tcholaiB,  however,  suggest  a  derivation  from  yofim.   ; 
'to  be  fair'  or  ' beavitiful,'  in  allusion  to  the  fsir   j 
complexions   of  the  Japhetic  or  European   raua 
According  to  the  Hebrew  record,  J,  was  the  seaad 
son  of  Noah,  whose  descendants  peopled  fii*t  tba   | 
north  and  west  of  Asia,  after  which  th^  pcoceelfd    , 
to  occupy  '  the  ialea  of  the  Gentiles,'  i,  a,  all  tbo 
r^on  about  the  Levant  and  the  jEgeau  Sea   J- 
hat  at  a   kt«r  period,  in  Talmud  and  Hidraali— 
not  merely  from  its  similarity  to  the  Greek  nims 
Jopetns,  UiB  supposed  founder  of  the  human  1^*^^ 
been  used  as  a  typical  expreaaion  fur  >  Greek,'    ^ 
Meg.  71,  b.;  Btr.  S.  40,  i.  Ac 

JAPU'RA,  or  CAQUETA,  a  river  of  SOTlh 
America,  and  tributary  of  the  Amazon,  rises  m 
the  Gianadian  Andes,  in  lot.  1*  26'  N.,  long.  W 
Stf  W.,  and  joins  the  Amazon  about  65°  SCT  E.  In^P 
Its  entire  length  is  upwards  of  1000  mOeaj  tli< 
navigation  is  impeded  t^  cataracts. 

JARGONISING  U  a  phenomenon  obaavtA 
chieSy  in  acute  mania ;  it  consists  in  the  utten""' 
of  uncouth  and  unintelligible  sounds,  which  msy 
resemble  articulate  words,  or  be  little  mow  tin" 
haish  ejacuhttions  and  bellowiogs.  This  sympte^ 
must  not  be  confounded  with  those  imitotioiii  w 
foreign  tongues  or  provincial  idioms,  or  the  p*f  °J 
sioDs  of  the  faculty  of  langna^  chaiactensti''  f 
mania  and  other  forms  of  alienation,  a*  thoe  twnat 
are  not  intended  to  be,  nor  to  appear,  the  vehuJ^ 
of  thought  or  manifestations  of  feehng,    Ih^  ^"^ 


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XABHAO-JASHINE. 


in  the  tame  relation  to  the  aaoitenunt  and  'viokcKW, 
as  the  rajad  motion,  the  fniions  gwlioaI»li<Mi,  and 
the  tendency  to  itqnre  and  deattoy  VTaiything  that 
is  aeem^  aiid  harmouiouk  ^te  tonoinwhiobthoy 
■jra  uttoed  ia  niwrallT  hanh  and  defiant  becanaa 
intense  paamonthrillB  tnroii^  erery  mnade,  throng 
IhtMe  of  the  Tooal  appant^  aa  irell  aa  of  the  ana 
miaed  to  strike.  Jargoniamg  ia,  in  all  probabilitf , 
involnntaiy.  It  occnn  at  the  oommencement  or 
criaia  of  mania,  when  the  power  to  control  the  ideaa 
sad  to  t«^ta  motion  ia  moat  impairad.  It  may, 
boweTer,  M  the  rtanlt  of  volition,  ao  far  aa  that  toe 
indrvidoal  deeirea  and  detenninea  to  apeak,  bot  faila 
from  the  rapidity  or  intenai^  of  bit  emotiona  to  call 
into  action,  and  co-ordinate  the  OTpna  engaged  in 
articulation.  Snch  ntteranoea  may  be  Leard  in 
■oliloqay,  if  the  phiaae  may  be  uaed,  and  during 
Bleei>.  The  feati^  haa  been  aooepted  as  pathog- 
nomic of  mania.  It  hao,  however,  been  noticed  m 
the  delirium  of  certain  atasea  of  fever  and  of  dmnk- 
enneoB,  which  are  mentu  atatea  dependine  npon 
blood-polioiuk  During  perioda  of  profound  abatrac- 
tion,  Bimilar  sounds  are  said  to  have  proceeded  from 
the  lipa  of  sane  and  healthy  men.  In  all  these 
inatancea,  the  natural  openitian  of  the  will  would 
appesr  to  be  enfeebled  or  Euipended. 

JABNAC,  Battlb  of,  was  fought  at  the  town  of 
tluit  name,  in  the  department  of  Charente,  France^ 
March  13, 1569,  between  26,000  Catholics  under  the 
Duke  of  Acjou,  afterwards  Henri  IIL,  and  16,0()0 
Uugnenota  nnder  Lonia,  Prince  of  Condd.  The 
latter  were  oompletely  routed.    See  CONpti. 

JA'BOSLAV,  GoTKBHUEHT  OT,  one  of  the  central 
provinces  of  European  Russia;  area,  about  14,000 
square  milea,-  pop.  in  1867,  999,383.,  The  soil  it 
{;cneially  not  fertile  j  it  hardly  supplies  the  wants 
lit  the  inhabitants,  and  forces  them  to  be  industrious, 
BO  that  the  province  furnishes  nearly  the  whole  of 
Busaia  with  the  beat  carpenters,  maaoDS,  smitha,  ic 
Tbe  staple  industry  is  dreaaing,  spinning,  and  weav- 
ing flgi,  which  ocenpiea  more  than  2^000  hands, 
mostly  near  Jaroelav,  Ugliteh,  and  Velikbe-Selo.  In 
the  northern  districts  of  Mologa  and  Poahekhonje 
the  whole  pc^mlation  ot  many  villaeet  manufacture 
nails,  springs,  and  other  articles  of  hardware.  The 
inhahitanta  of  the  Bostof  district  have  the  reputa- 
tioa  of  being  the  best  kitchen-gardeners  and  fowl- 
brcedeti  of  the  empire.  The  Volga  crosses  the 
covomment  from  west  to  east,  and  gives  a  special 
impulse  to  its  industry.  Ihe  inhabitants  are 
remarkably  haodiome  both  aa  to  form  and  feature 
The  government  ii  divided  into  nine  districts. 

JABOSLAV  (pron.  Yaroslaf),  capital  of  the 
government  of  that  name,  in  European  Bnasia,  is  a 
Lu^  and  fine  town,  situated  on  the  ri^t  banks  of 
the  Volga,  and  ita  afBuent,  the  Kotorod,  in  lat  S7° 
37' N.,  loDg.  39*  63' E,,  at  ■  dlatance  of  IM  milea  from 
Moscow.  It  is  one  of  tbe  most  ancient  Rnsaian 
towns,  and  is  said  to  have  been  founded  hy  Jaroalaw 
the  Great  in  tbe  10th  century.  Boring  the  feudal 
period,  it  waa  the  seat  of  poweifal  feudal  priocet, 
and  several  times  suffered  from  the  invasions  of 
tho  Mongols.    The  town  has  a  vast  jfotlmoidvor. 


I,  Hour,  and  grain,  J. 
mercial  place  on  the  Volga,  the  principal  trade 
being  concentrated  at  Rybinsk,  Si  milea  np  the 
river,  and  at  Itostof^  Chemical  works,  principally 
of  white  lead  and  miniSm,  constitute  a  sort  of 
speciality  of  the  town  and  ita  staple  industry  ;  next 
come  several  tanneries,  aztensive  flour-miUii  on  the 
KotorosI,  and  a  reoenUy  built  ootton-nuJl  of  40,000 
anindlea.  The  once  cdebrated  silk,  and  especially 
luum  and  damask  factories,  are  at  preaent  on  tl:^ 


dedina.  The  population  of  J.  in  1867  amounted 
to  37,370  inhatntanta,  and  it  conatantiy  increwiog 
widk  the  wealth  of  the  town,  owing  to  the  develop- 
■nent  of  steam-navigatimi  on  Qie  Volga  tad  the 
Kamk.  The  extensive  trade  cm  these  rivera  ooonpies 
at  preamtt  no  lets  than  ISO  steam-boatt. 

JA'SHEB,  Book  o?  (Heb.  Brpher  ha-j/oAar,  'the 
Book  of  the  Uoright;'  translated  by  the  LXX 
Biblion  Ion  Bu&oiu,  and  by  tlie  Tulgate,  LSxr 
JvMorvm;  but  the  Peahito  [3ynaa  verrion]  has 
Stpher  Beaihir,  'Book  of  Fruses  or  Hymns'),  is 
one  of  the  lost  books  of  the  ancient  Hebrevn,  which 
it  quoted  twice  (Joshua  x.  13;  2  Samuel  1  18). 
R^rdins  its  character  and  contents,  there  baa 
been  mncn  speculation.  Talmndic  and  Uter  3  swish 
authoritias  identified  it  variously  with  OeneslB  (some- 
times called  'the  Book  of  the  Upright'),  Deuter- 
onomy, Jndge*,  Ac,  to  all  which  notiong  there  is  tiie 
obvious  and  fatal  objection,  that  tbe  two  quotations 
from  it  which  survive  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  of 
these  books,  and  could  not  possibly  be  found  in  tbe 
first  two,  aa  they  refer  to  incidents  which  occurred 
at  a  tabsequent  period  in  the  national  history.  Tba 
conjecture  of  llie  3yriac  and  Arabic  tranalaton 
haa  been  adopted  by  Dr  Lowth,  Herder,  and  other 
scholars,  viz.,  that  the  Book  of  J.  was  a  collection  of 
national  ballads — a  Hebrew  mioBtrelsy,  in  short — 
recording  the  warlike  deeds  of  the  national  heroM, 
or  ainf^^  the  pmiscs  of  otberwise  cdebratcd  men. 
QeteiuuB  la  inchned  Ut  adopt  tbe  same  view,  uid 
iggestt  that  it  may  have  acquired  ita  name,  '  the 
ook  of  the  Upiight,'  from  having  been  written 
cfaieQy  in  praise  of  upright  men.  Donaldson,  in 
his  recent  work,  Joilua;  or  Frajmenla  Ardulypi, 
Canrmum  Helnnicomm  in  SfaiOTetMeo  VeUrit 
TatavtaiU  Ttxia^xunm  ietadlaUt,  contends  for  its 
bfline  a  composition  of  the  ago  of  Solomon,  imd  a 
work  of  Nathan  and  God.  He  conceives  that  it 
originated  in  the  desire  of  the  more  religious  of 
the  commnnity  to  possess  a  reoord  of  tbe  national 
history  which  should  chiefly  set  forth  tbe  righteous- 
ness of  tbe  true  Hebrews,  and  he  attempta  to 
extract  from  the  so-called  canonical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  such  paaaagee  as  be  believed  to  have 
originally  formed  part  of  it.  It  must  be  added, 
however,  that  Dr  Donaldson's  theory  baa  met 
with  little  favour  either  from  tbe  mass  of  German 
scholara  or  from  the  few  in  England  who  are 
competent  to  consider  the  question. 

JABMIN',  JAOQTTn,  tbe  most  eminent  modem 
patois  poet  of  France,  and,  in  the  words  of  hit 
ardent  admirers,  '  the  last  of  the  troubadonra,' 
wot  bom  at  Agen  in  1798.  He  has  given  in  hia 
Soubodt  a  humoroua  account  of  hia  early  life. 
According  to  it,  he  waa  of  very  humble  birtii,  and 
was  set  to  learn  the  trade  of  a  hair-dreaaer,  which 
agreed  well  with  that  of  poet,  aa  he  Mmflf  tays, 
bocanse  both  ore  a  kind  of  head-work.  Hjt  poetry 
ia  full  of  beauty  and  power ;  tba  pathos  of  hia  soiout, 
and  the  wit  of  his  comic  ptecos,  are  muqaalled,  and 
both  have  been  received  with  enthnaiaam  in  France, 
and  other  pad«  of  Europe.  He  waa  made  a  Cheva- 
lier of  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1846.  J.'s  principal 
workt  are  ^e  cal  Jfourt  (1825);  Zou  Cia^i5ar>  (The 
Cbarivori,  1825),  a  comic  poem ;  L'Abugla  de  CoMd- 
CuHU  (The  Blind  Youthi  of  Castel-Cuille.  1830), 
translated  by  Longfellow ;  and  Lot  PamUotoi  de 
Jamua  (Tbe  Curls  of  Jasmin),  of  which  tiie  firat 
part  appeared  1835,  and  the  second  1S43.  He  died 
at  hit  native  town  in  1864. 

JA'SMINE.  or  JESSAMINE  iJatminttm),  a  genua 
of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Jagimnacfo.  This 
order  ia  allied  to  OUacea,  and  contains  about  100 
species  of  obrubs,  some  of  tbem  climbing,  and  many 
of  th^  having  exquisitely  fragrant  flowen.    'QHiy 

i^iOOi 


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JAUKSICE-TAYA. 


Bat  ilthnngh  JMuidiM  is  bttmoMj  wwiod  In 
«ome«f  thM*  mnahMiiMl  impeduMnta  to  tlw  flow 
of  bib  Into  tlw  intwtiiM,  it  NnlU  primuify  and 
aolelT  in  »  grMt  vmaibae  «d  ohm  frixn  Um  laintii 
(rf  Inl*  bang  w^prMMd  or  dsfidant    Tha  ncretic 
HUT  be  Mipfcni— d  to  ■•  to  ouuft  Jaondioe  b^ 
Bwfltn  mmUl  ibock   or   by  oontiniiad  aiisat,. 
Vaiiooi  poiwu  in  the  bkwd  nuj  ako  Mvapnd 
tbs  wcMtioii  of  bllo  to  mob  an  extent  aa  to  ouiM 
jaandioe.    It  may  be  nodnced  in  thia  way  by  tiw 
■aHa  of  etmer  end  «j  marooiy,  by  Ofaum,  end  ^~ 
tiie  pai«OD  crt  Mn«iti ;  aod  it  wUn  ooenn,  ironi  t 
poiaonad  state  of  tiie  blood,  in  the  oonna  of  fen 
SBpedally  fika  linilMit  ferBM  of  toOfOMl  nlimatM 

The  prognoaia  in  janndioe  ia  geoanlly  favonraU^ 
ezoept  iriHB  it  depend*  upoa  atmetniat  diaeaao  of 
th«  livw,  «r  OB  mental  AuMk  or  anzi^.  'Dm 
treabnent  mnit  be  oUidy  ^nided  by  rafertnoa  to 
tbe  oonditlona  wbiA  give  lua  to  !t  in  any  paitt- 
cnlar  aee,  and  abould  neva  be  attMnptad  wtthaot 


JAVA  (Djiwi),  •  the  Qnaen  ot  tbe  Eietem  Andd- 
Ttelago,'  a  meet  valnable  ooloniBl  pMMai&on  of  tba 
Ne^Iasdi,  it  Htoated  in  lat.  If  2—8*  50"  8h  and 
lonft.  106*  12'— lU*  SB*  E.  It  m  washed  Mt  tbe  N. 
bythe8aa<rfJan,eB  (ha  E.  by  the  StawtirfBali, 
on  the  S.  by  the  lodiaa  Oeean,  and  on  &e  W.  1^ 
the  Sttalt  M  Sand*.  Ibe  exkeaw  lewtb  tnm  emit 
to  weat  ia  8e8iniki,th*  bnadthTaiiiN  bomceto 
136  ndle*,  and  the  amftBaU  area  ia  iMkonad  at 
50,260  aqoara  ntilaa.  The  ialaod  ia  hiU^,!and  ant  in 
many  puta  by  deep  gotgv  and  roihing  abeanM, 
The  moootauiB  riae  to  a  hai^t  of  from  4000  to 
10;000  iiMt,  and  an  idothed  to  thmr  aiii  " 
loxnriant  loliaga.  lUrty-aiKcd  the  lofty 
are  Tokanoaa,  of  «4uah  devon  ate  «^  aoBva> 

In  1870^  the  p^nlation  of  J.  and  Madura  {q-t.) 
amoonted  to  UJSJlfiM,  having  mem  than  tieUed 
in  4fi  mair  !Cha  a«Dana  gave  ST.S8S  Bnropaaoi, 
174^  CaiinMe,  Md  IRfiSi  AiaUaiM  and  other 
Orientala.    TbB  Javaneae  belona  to  the  Mal^  (q.T.) 

boae  reUgion  is  s  deeiaded  nper- 
In  mi»al    halnta   and  erruiaatiaa,   Qm 

«  ate  anperior  to  the  inhabit    *     *" 

and  Celebea.    There  are  29  Dutch 
10   Roman   Catholfo  ale 
gOTenmtnt,  which  fixea 


U04,a00| 
ndl,OT 


%191,«a  pieola 

into  Baa(v  We«l^  and  Middle 
22  aabdiTidtms,  called  Beaidenoiaa, 
sior  BoropeMt  offioial,  tbe  Beaidei)^ 
excniisea  gennal  oontnil,aDd  acti  as  judge,  oolleotor, 
and  mMiwrate.  The  Bcaident  lua  Enr^ean  aaatst- 
ant^  no  pacionn  fta  same  fanctiona  in  diatiicti  ^ 


^  ^        ,  .1  intermediate 

racea"at  the  po^  and  the  natirts  of  the  interior 
are  neither  made  aoguajntad  with  tlia  ChriatiaD 
rcligiom  nw  with  Kawpeaneduaatiow.  ThaJTaTaneae 
ore  nnoh  addicted  to  —"*■">  t^aum,  whidi  is  not 
permitted  to  be  grown  Ml  the  WHid,  the  gorenunent 
importing  the  qnantdiy  oonaidwed  neoeeaaiy,  and 

granting  lioeaeea  fo  its  ai 

tumoal   iBTenne,   which, 
£832,308  sterling. 
For  npwacda  of  fMty  year^  J.  has  been  steadily 

g/ivtaang  in  pnMperity.    Its  |a^acin~ ~~ 

only  limiiart  by  1}ie  amoont  of  available 
notw>thstaJ>ding  the  energy  which  the  Batch  have 
dis^yed  in  iocreaBing  the  breadth  ot  ooltiTated 
land,  the  greatest  port  of  the  ialaad  la  stJU  in  a 
state  of  natore.  Bice  ia  grown  aitonsiTely  for 
native  conaomptiiat  and  szportation ;  auga^  ooSee, 
indigo,  tea,  tobaiKO,  Jea,  for  export.    The 


£2;666,76S;  the  exports  to  £4,010,472. 
the  imports  had  liten  to  £4,128,046  ' 
",200^12  in  tpede ;  the  e^orts  to 


In   187ft 

f^'too.oie^ 


Japan.    In  fta  tade  reports  for  I86ft  Holland  ia 


Talua  of  ianABa.  In  the  BMma  year,  the  exporto 
from  J.  to  ^land  amoantad  to  £0,40S,li5SL  and 
auM  to  Orcat  Britain  to  A»,13S.  llus  great 
diffemoa  arises  from  the  laigast  pfoportioii  <3^tba 
^odaota  of  the  iabnd  being  the  pioparby  of  the 
{nvammant,  and  managed,  afan«d,  ddmed  (ex- 
Soaivah  In  Dotdi  ships],  and  weH  in  H^land  by 
tile  Nrtharlands  Trading  Companr,  iriioae  profita 
from  tb»  oommlsaun  allowed  on  the  InnMo- 


taa,  lioi^  SeTljii  ISC^sngar  wM^poita^  to^o 
valoe  of  £3,701,008;  oo&e,   i%BUtBIO;  ii^igo, 

9;  riot^  £082,180.    Some  vmib,  the  «^iwto 

artielea  reach,  a  oonsidetably  higher  &m, 

lamp.  Ihepodiwe^wM  968^  P^_^  o^l^  M 


Bng  aithsr  pMsant  or  ezpaotaot  aalaried  sarTMita 
!  tMooloniiu  goveminent^  actoal^  engi^ed,  under 


duaf  iMbre  (Acial  ot  a  distriot  Is  tbe  Begoi^ 
the  foaner  loeal  pruuML 


The  matnU  pcospvity  of  J.  ii  owing  in  a  great 
eaanre  to  tha  MMTgy  win  which  tbe  Dutch  goren- 
cnt  has  eztandad  oie  growth  and  msanfaoture  of 
thoM  articles  «hich  form  its  tt«ide  exporti.  By  an 
elaborate  and  aUlfally  woikednnit  ayitem  of  ool- 
tnre,  introduced  in  1830,  the  growth  and  prepara- 
tion of  tbe  st^llea  for  anwrtation  have  advanced 
-with  "— *""»  npidity.  ^le  coltivatota  of  the  aoil, 
islivs  diiim,  me  Snnmean  offlcialu  and  the 
rnmoit   aU  share  in  ue  profita,  and  woA 

lonknuly  togethsr  in  devel^iing  the  capabili- 

tie*  of  the  lan£    In  carrying  oat  the  axtenaive 

reantile  toaoMotions  whioh  the  ooltaift^ystem 

rolved,  liw  govtenmcmt  haa  bean  ably  asnsted 

by  the  NethaHands  Trading  Company,   and  the 

result  haa  been  the  chancong  a  bmdeiiMnno  eobtnr 

of  wealth,  ^rtween  1824  and  183^ 

exceeded  the  incoma.    XVom  that 


iveiBge  ot 

atwliug,  to  £9,000,000  in  1857,  in  whidi 

year  the  net  ampins  was  £3,ISOO,O0l> ;  since  then  a 

le  libeoal  pdicv  has  been  followed  and  tbe  bdi- 

IB  ha*  decreaaed.    Bailw^a  are  being  coostnicted, 

and  from  1867  to  1871, 120  miles  were  opened. 

C72tniaf«.— With  the  exceptioa  of  some  manh^ 
dietriete  oa  tho  norUi  coast,  the  climate  of  J.  is 
healthy  and  plfrsisnt  On  tbe  ooaets,  tbe  ther- 
*  idicates  more  than  93*  F.  during 
Hie  average 
Tbe  heat 

,  _^ , constantly 

blow  acToas  the  idand.    ^aag  the  hi|^  landa  of 
tbe  air  ia  not  «ity  bne^,  bat  aooM- 


tbe  diy,  and  64*  in  the  lainv  season.  T 
iaSff  at  noon,  and  70*  in  Uie  eveidng. 
is  moderated  Of  tiie  sea  breesca,  wbidi 

bat  aoDM- 


excellent  nnda,  it  ii  not  difficult  to  reach  the  moit 
beaotifal  and  lalubriouE  districts.  laland  of  Seme- 
rang,  at  an  elev&tion  of  4000  feet,  Eurapeans  enjoy 
a  pkaaant  retreat  doting  the  drj  aeaaon. 

EUlory.— The  history  of  J.,  pravions  to  the 
c,  is  involved  in  bble  and  oMcurity.  It  appears, 
however,  that  the  Javanese,  from  a  vec;  early 
period,  poBiessed  a  coniideisbte  degree  of  dvihsa- 
tlon,  which  was  probably  the  lesult  of  the  labonrs 
□f  Brahmuiical  teachers  from  Hindustan.  It  ia 
impooible  to  say  pTscisely  when  Binda  dvilisation 


■e  mtrodnced  into  J.,  thon^  it  must 

have  tieen  very  early  in  the  Christian  era.  Buddhism 
was  superadded ;  and  there  are  many  old  Buddhist 
temples  scattered  throughout  the  island,  memorialB 
of  the  former  prevalence  of  that  reUgion.  The  moat 
famous  is  that  caUed  Boro  Buddor  (q.  v, ).  Towards 
the  close  of  the  14th  c,  Mohammedanism  found  i 
footing  in  the  eastern  provinces ;  and  in  1475,  thi 
Hindu  empire  was  overthrown,  and  Mohammedanism 
became  tiie  faith  of  the  country ;  yet  as  late  as  151 
when  the  Portogueee  first  visited  J.,  they  found 
Hindu  king  in  Bantam.  In  1595,  the  Dutch  sent 
out  Ml  expedition  under  Hontman,  who,  on  arriving 
%t  Bantam,  found  the  king  at  war  with  the  Portu- 
guese, and  offered  Ihlm  asmitance,  obtaining  in 
return  psnnission  to  build  a  factory.  In  1677.  after 
many  contests  with  the  native  prince*,  the  Dutch 
obtamed  extensive  territories  and  importout  trading 
concessions.  In  1811,  when  Holland  became  incor- 
porated.with  France,  the  British  took  posseasion  of 


by  native  princes.  Slavery  was  totally  abolished 
the  island  on  September  20,  1S59, 1^  the  leeislaturo 
of  Holland.— See  Sir  Stamford  Eaffles's  HuUrry  t^ 
Java  {2  vols.  London,  1817) ;  Crawford's  Eatlem 
Archipelago  J  Java,  or  Hoa  to  Manage  a  Cr^ony, 
by  J.  n.  B.  Money ;  and  the  official  Dutch  Beparta. 
See  Java  in  SUPP.,  Vol  X. 

JA'VXLIIf,  a  shori;  and  Ught  spear  used  for 
darting  against  on  enemy.  In  the  Roman  legion, 
the  first  and  second  lines  (the  Hsstati  and  tlie 
Principes)  were  both  armed  with  two  javeliDS  to 
each  man.  Each  javelin  (Lat.  piium)  woe  in  all 
about  6}  feet  in  length ;  tho  shaft  4J  feet  long,  of 
tough  wood,  an  inch  m  diameter ;  and  the  remainder 
given  to  the  barbed  pyramidal  head.  In  action,  the 
legionary  hurled  one  javelin  on  the  enemy  at  the 
"    '  t ;   the  second  he  retained  as  a  defence 

avaby.    The  Goths  and  oiher  barbarians 
used  a  javelin. 

JAXA'RTES,  now  called  SiH^K,  or  Sis-Daxia 
(L  e..  Yellow  River),  a  river  of  TurkeotBo,  which 


direction  through  the  valley  of  Kbokan,  receiving 
in  its  course  numerous  accessions ;  after  passing 
Obar,  it  divides  into  two  branches  ;  the  largest  and 
most  northerly  retaining  the  name  Sir-Dana,  flows 
weilt-by-north,  separating  the  Rossian  territory 
m  tiie  steppes  of  Turkestan,  and,  after  a  course 
of  1150  miles,  falls  into  the  Sea  of  Aral;  the 
lesser  branch,  called  Eavau-Doria,  flows  westward, 
supplying  some  small  lakes  in  the  line  of  its  old 
cnuinel,  bat  for  several  years  back  has  not  reached 
the  Sea  of  Aral,  though  sixty  years  ago  it  hod  a 
greater  Tolumo  of  water  than  tho  Sir-Dario. 

JAT,  John,  an  American  statesman  and  jorist, 
and  first  chief-justice  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  was  bom  in  tho  city  of  New  Yto^ 


admitted  to  the  bar  in  1T6&  He  took  ft  moderate 
and  conciliatory  part  in  the  Americaa  Bevolatioii, 
was  a  member  of  the  Congress  of  Philadelphia,  waa 
president  of  CongreM  in  1778,  and  minister  to  Spain 
m  177B.  He  was  very  inflnential  in  negotiating  the 
treaty  of  peace,  and  it  was,  according  to  Lo^  St 
" "  ',  but  '  ■    -^^    ■  ■ 

le  Federaiul.  His  servioes 
to  the  Fedoal  party  were  deemed  so  great,  thai 
Washington  oficoied  him  his  choice  of  ths  offices  ii 
his  gift,  and  be  selected  that  of  chief-justice.    H< 


gift,  and 
gned,a&d 


resigned, 
inl7Hi 


governor  of  New  York,  and 
igland.    On  the  defe«t  of  the 


Federal  psrtv,  he  retired  from  public  life,  and  lived 
in  greet  setJnuon,  only  taking  part  is  religious, 
temperanc*^   ond    antJ-sfaveiy   '" 


Is  died  at  Bedford,  New  York,  May  17,  1829. 
JAY,  WiLLiAitan  Eng 


JAY  [Qamdxt],  a  genus  of  the  Crow  family 
{Corvida),  differing  btim  magpiea  chiefly  in  tbio 
retlier  shorter  bill,  and  in  the  shorter  and  tvtmded, 
or  Bometimea  almost  even  tail  They  are  inha- 
bitants of  forests  and  wooded  districts,  chiefly  in 
the  temperate  ports  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North 
America ;  and  feed  more  on  frwta  and  seeds  than 
crows  and  magpies  generally  do ;  but  Uiey  have 
the  omnivorous  chonicter  of  the  rest  of  the  famify, 
and  often  rob  the  neets  of  other  birds,  whether 
containing  eggs  or  yoimg.— The  Commom  J.  (0. 
^ndariut)  is  a  well-known  native  of  England  and 
of  the  south  and  middle  of  Scotlaikd,  although  less 
common  than  it  once  was,  in  consequmuw  of  the 
incessant  war  which  hss  been  waged  against  it, 
both  by  gamekeepers  and  by  the  li^talature  itself ; 
an  Wngliah  statute  of  the  17th  year  of  Qeorge  II. 
having  empowered  grand  juries  to  offer  threepence 


in  Jay  (Oomdui  gUmdarmt). 


taiTmosUy  black,  a  beautiful  mottled  patch  on  each 
wing  rayed  with  bright  blu^  a  brosd  moustache- 
like  stnpe  of  black  extending  for  an  inch  from 
the  base  of  tito  lower  mandibto  on  each  tide ;  the 
head  is  furnished  with  a  crest  of  erectJle  feathers, 
each  of  which  bos  a  streak  of  blsck  in  the  middle. 
Jays  are  most  frequently  seen  solitotr  or  in  pairs. 
Toey  build  in  thick  trees  or  bushes,  and  their  ne«t 
is  a  baaket-like  structure  of   small  sticks,  lined 


,,Google 


ootild  find  better  men  for  erecr  puce  thftn  hii 
own  ooonectioBi.'  The  most  importaiit  act  <rf  hie 
adminirtntion  mi  the  pnrohMe  of  Louinvu  from 
France.  At  tiie  end  of  eisht  tmib,  he  ratired  to  hit 
neidBnce  at  Hontioello ;  But  ba  did  not  retire  to 
repoee  of  idleneea ;  he  kept  up  an  immenBe  oorrei 
pondence,  diEpensed  the  Eocpilalitie*  of  hii  manmo- 
to  TisitoTS  frcmi  eTec7  part  of  the -world,  and  founded 
the  onivenity  of  Vimiua,  of  vhioh  be  waa  for  naaT 


in  theory  and  pnctioe ;  he  held  that  *  the  world 
il  Bovenied  too  mni£^'  and  that  '  that  BOTemment 
ia  beet  which  gorenu  leall'  Thoo^h  a  aige  ilaTe- 
holder,  he  laboured  for  the  prohibition  of  the  alava- 
trade,  and  of  alavery  in  the  territory  bejond  the 
Ohio  River,  and  advocated  Bmanc: 
Hii  writing  oomsiBt  moetly  of  state  jiapere 
letteiB.  Hia  only  litetan  work  waa  hu  ifole 
Virginia,  publlihed  in  1762.  He  had  one  child,  a 
daughter,  and  haa  nnmerona  desoendanta.  HU 
deawi  was  vtrj  TenuakaiAe;  It  oooorred  oh  th« 
4th  of  Jnlf  1^0,  while  the  nation  wai  oelebnting 
the  fiftieth  aBuiToiaiy  of  the  Dedwation  of  Inde- 
pudenoe^  which  he  bad  written.  On  the  eanie  day, 
and  almoat  at  the  suae  hoar,  John  Adatna,  the 

eeoond  prwdent.  who  ha 

Declarabc 

JB'B'FEBflON  OITY,  capital  of  UiMouri,  United 
States  of  Amerioa,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Himoori  Bmr,  12S  miles  from  St  Lonis,  with 
iriiieb  it  is  oonneoted  both  by  the  river  and  the 
Paoifio  Ballwmy.  It  hae  a  bmk  trade  with  the 
hnnten,  and  ovariand  emigrants  to  Califonua  and 
Utah.  The  <iiy  has  a  state-house,  govemor's  rei ' 
denoa,  state  penitentiary,  ka.    Pop,  (1370}  442a 

JEFPRET.FiuiioiS,  Lord,  a  celebrated  Soottieb 
eritic  and  lawyer,  was  bom  in  Gdinborgh,  23d 
October  1773 ;  studied  classics,  logic,  and  '  " 
lettres  at  Glasgow  and  Oxford,  aod  law 
nntTenity  of  his  native  cibf.  In  17M,  he  wai 
to  the  bar.  Two  years  before  this,  he  bad 
a  member  of  the  Speculative  Sodetj'  {in  contieetion 
with  the  university).  J.  soon  became  prominoit 
among  the  membcn  bv  the  keennoM  and  liveliness 
of  his  intellect,  and  tbe  elegance  of  Us  Utvaiy 
taste,  but  his  progress  at  the  bar  was  slow,  pwtiy 
on  aocount  of  the  antipathy  which  than  existed 
to  btervy  lawyers,  and  parUv  on  aoconnt  of  his 
political  opinions.  Meanwhile  be  and  seraal  other 
young  men  then  residing  in  Edinbnrch,  amUtiont 
of  finding  a  wider  oatlet  for  thdr  iamit  than  Hu 
discDsiions  in  the  Speculative  Society  or  the  piaotiae 
of  the  bar  affordeo,  concetvcd  tbe  idea  of  starting 
a  critical  joumaL  The  fint  proposer  of  the  scheme 
was  the  Ber.  Svdney  Smith.  The  result  waa  the 
establishment  df  the  Edmbar^  Senew  {a.  v.),  of 
which  J.  became  editor,  an  cnfioe  he  retausd  ^ 
1829.  His  own  oontribntaons  wne  geneiallv  the 
most  brilliant  and  attnetivo  that  ^ipeared  in  its 
colomns.  On  ethioi,  politics,  and  ma»  of  the  qnee- 
tiona  affooting  the  aoofal  wellbeing  of  man,  ha  has 
written  with  much  clearness,  penetration,  and  force : 
bnt  tlie  thing  oa  iriiioh  ho  &  said  to  hars  placed 
tte  blgbeet  nhw  wm  Us  Trtattm  on  BeoHig  (see 
JBbthxibx),  a  ohanning  mdaatm  of  erititrism,  oca- 
dription,  and  sentiment,  but  <rf  oonbtful  pbfloMpblc 
worth.  After  some  years,  J.'s  practice  at  Hie  bar 
began  to  increase ;  in  jurv  bials,  ha  shone  to  great 
advantage,  and  particiaarn  in  the  trials  for  seiStion 
between  1SI7  and  1822.  In  1630,  be  became  Lord 
Advocate   for  Scotland ;  and  after  the  pansinc  of 


for  th«  01^  of  Edinbnr^  which  he  CMiluiaed  to 
repreaent  tall  ISM,  when  he  ^ad^  ■xchaiued  the 
tnmiail  of  par^  piditics  for  tu  dntiea  of  a  judge  of 
theOonrtofSaswin.  Dnring  the  Utter  ysaram  his 
lita,  J.  residfid  at  Cnugaook  Caatla,  in  tbe  vioini^ 
of  Mmboigb,  where  be  died,  Jannary  26,  1850.  A 
selection  of  his  Eksajs,  in  4  vols.,  appeared  in  1844. 
A  biography  of  J.,  by  bis  friend,  Heniy,  Lord 
Coekb^n  (q.  v.),  a  brother-judge  of  the  Court  of 
Sasdon,  was  published  in  2  vola.  (Edin.  1SS2]. 

JEHO'VAH  (Heb.  Trhovah;  more  oorrecUy, 
Tallve,  rtMveh,  or  ToMrdA;  in  poeby,  TM; 
generslly  believed  to  be  derived  from  the  verii  Aaya, 
'to  be,'  though  scholars  are  far  from  nnanimons  in 


_  .„  .  to  ita  e^nnoloKV)  is  one  of  the  namee  of  Gtod 
employed  in  the  Ola  Testament.  Its  meaning—if 
the  root  be  haya — is, '  Hs  that  is,' '  the  Bmng  ;'  or, 
since  the  word  contuns  all  the  forms  of  the  past, 
presrat,  and  fntnte  teniea,  'the  •tatnal  Oos.'  It  ia 
genanl^  emplmred  to  mpnm  a  difietwit  oone*n». 
Rim  of  &e  Deify  fnoi  that  whkA  ia  "^-rf^J"^  m 
the  word  EUMat  (q.  v.).  Ths  latter  ^ipean  to  be 
the  older  ttsrm,  in  use  bctoe  the  Hebrew*  had 
attained  a  naticmal  svistsBWi,  wbil*  /alvooA  Qxcla- 
aively  seems  to  dsooto  the  nataoaal  Qod,  si^ceme 
over  all  other  deitiss,  and  who,  under  thia  name, 
had,  according  to  Exodus  vi  S^  not  'made  himaelf 
known' to  tha  pattisrchs  before  tlutinuof  Hoses. 
That  J.  is  neci£csl^  the  0«d  of  the  Heteaws  ia 
clear  frcin  the  fact,  that  the  hettthesi  dmtisa  never 
recedve  this  name;  they  an  alw^  ipc^en  of  as 
iEIoAtin.  Moreovegr,  the  aUan,  tAs  aaciifioea,  tbe 
fostivals,  the  tabernacle^  the  ttai^le,  the  priestlkood, 
and  the  prophet^  all  bel^ig  nmrhatiftllY  to  Jehovah. 
Gideon  shouts,  'The  (word  of  Jehovah  and  of 
Gidacm,'  as  a  Bonan  warrior  would  have  invoked 
the  aid  of  Jopitn.  In  one  sense,  the  term  J.  is 
len  broad  ana  univo^  in  its  ap^ieation  than 
Rlnhim,  who,  in  the  first  vataa  of  tha  Bibl^  appears 
as  tiie  creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  vriio  la  Ood 
over  all,  irreapeotive  of  nations;  bat  in  another 
sense,  it  deady  iudioatea  an  advaoos  In  rehgioaB 
oonoMilion.  WhilB  McMm  is  inttoduoad  more  as 
an  Almi^tv  Orsativa  Foww  than  a  'Bdng,'  J. 
is  God  in  full  penonal  relation  to  man-^e  ipeaka 
to  hi*  «natnica,  makes  ocnrMiante  with  Ihen^ 
becomea  their  lawdrer,  and  desiraB  their  homa(^ 
and  wonddp.  The  Hebrew  witters  even  im  their 
repnaentatwrn  of  the  Divine  penonali^  into  vrint 
seem  to  ns  tbe  eztramest  fonns  of  anthropooioi^ism. 
— I>esp  Teverenea  for  the  Deity  and  Oe  Divine 
name  has  led  the  Jewish  ohnroh  to  the  nibstitntwB 
of  Adonai  <Z«rd)  in  tha  pnmmuitMim  lA  J.,  the 
latter  being  vowelled  by  tha  Maei^etba  like  tbe 
fbimer.  | 

A  wy  nice  snd  difficult  om^veny  wit^  leqicot  : 
to  the   anthomhip  and  unity  cf  the  Fcntateoch,  I 
has  long  be«si  eairiad  on  among  scbdan  in  oon-  | 
naddon  with  these  two  namaa.    See  GBNms  and 
PcNTAnucs. 

JBLAIiABAD,  a  town  of  AfjA.ni»fa»i,  stands 
near  the  Cabul,  in  a  fertile  plain,  i^ch  is  separated   . 
from  Peshawar  by  the  famous  Khyber  Pass.     It 
thn*  ooenfoca  a  oommanding  position  on  the  gland  ^ 
rente  betwaoi  India  and  Central  Asia.    Po^  aboot  , 
SOOO.     Ihe  place  aoqniied  an  histoiioal  interest 


held! 


..     .  .„ disasten  of  tbe  fiiat  aipeditioo, 

till  it  waa  relieved  by  the  triumphant  advance  of  , 
the  second.     See  Avoounsuir. 


JBLATO'H,JELATrNA,orELATUA,atown   I 

Ruiaia,  in  tha  govemmeot  of  I^mbov,  is  sitoated 

108  milea  north  of  ths  town  of  that  name,  on  tiw  i 


BulphoT  are  hore  mAaaSMtnnA.    Pop.  (I8ST]  7376l 

JBLETZ,  B,  town  of  Hqb^  in  the  go*anunent 
of  Orel,  ia  litnated  110  niiles  ewt-ioatlL-east  of  the 
town  of  that  Baine,  oa  the  Sosiu.  In  the  viciiiity 
are  eiteoaTe  iron-nunes,  and  the  town  haa  become 
famouB  for  its  -wbeaton  flour,  which  is  eiported 
throughout  Hie  whole  of  EoMlk.  Fop.  {1807}  30,182 

JELLACHIOH  DB  BUZIM,  JoaEFS,  Bison, 
a  distinguiihed  AnBtriui  genw&l,  and  Baa  ol  Croatia, 
was  bom  at  Feterwardem  in  1801.  Hii  father, 
the  deacendant  of  an  old  Croatiaa  family,  wai  a 
general  io  the  Anitnan  lerTice^  and  attained  H»ne 
celebrity  in  the  Torkiih  wan,  ud  in  tluae  of 
Um  iMnah   RmoMim^     The    baron   was    eazlj 

nployed  in  mihtatr  Mrrioa  on  the  TmUah  bonldcc, 

id  dutingniflbed  bimflelf  by  bia 


ad  dutingniflbed 
[e  aaooeaded  alao 


confidence  of  the  Croatiani,  aothatin    _.  . 

of  Vienna  wai  glad  to  aidant  him  Ban  of  Croatia, 
in  order  to  Moora  the  mpport  of  the  Slavoniao 
Croatian*  againtt  the  Ma^ara  of  Eimgary,  and  he 

took  a  very  active  part  in  t^-  — '"  -'  "-- 

Hungarian  rebellion.    He  no* 

f or  govenunent  and  military  t , ___ 

poeby.  He  died  at  Atrram,  Jane  ISSSl  A  oolleotion 
of  bii  poaoB  wai  pobOllied  at  Vienna  in  ISfiO. 

JEXUftL    SeeJanCH. 

JBUfATFES,  a  villaga  of  moderate  bib,  not  far 
^m  Uoni,  in  the  B^kn  ivotIdm  d  Hripaalt, 
which  haa  acquired  an  bktoiio  oalebrity  from  the 
TJctory  won  hei«  by  the  fnaaii  lerublioan^  40,000 
Btrons,  under  Dnmonrie^  on  6th  Horanibar  1792, 
over  the  Amtaiane,  who  were  in  neaily  equal  fdroe. 
By  tbia  -victory,  Uie  way  into  Belgium  waa  Opened 
to  the  French,  and  the  qdiita  of  tbe  aimy  and 
of  the  people  greatly  elevated  by  the  flrat  great 
Tioto^  of  uieii  raw  leviea  orar  the  disciplined  and 
eipenenoed  Aoatrian  -boopa.    Pop.  abont  0OOO. 

JICNA,  a  town  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Saze- 
Weimar-Eiseoach,  and  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
duchy  of  Saxe-Jena,  ia  moat  beantifnlly  mtoated  in 
a  romantic  valley  at  the  oonflnence  <3t  the  Leatra 
withtheSoale.  Poj^ (1871) 8197.  It derivea celebrily 
chiefly  from  ita  nnivernty,  bnt  alao  from  the  great 
battle  foii^t  here  between  the  Freoch  and  the 
Pruwians, — The  Umverata  of  Jtna  vaa  founded 
about  tie  year  1547  by  the  Eloctor  John  Fred- 
erick of  Suony,  who  intended  it  to  aupply  the 
pUce  of  Wittanbei^  aa  a  aeat  of  learning  and  of 
eTBDgelical  doctrine.  It  soon  acquired  a  biKh  repn- 
._^__      mi._   : ^_i  — "--"iBation  waa  obtained. 


mperial  authoTiBBtion  n 


It  ii 


the  Saxon  atatea,  and  ia  anpported 

by  contnbntiona  from  them  alL  Ita  libruy  oon- 
taioa  npwarda  of  S00,000  volnmea.  Tb.a  moat 
floarishiag  period  of  the  oniTeraity  WM  that  of 
Duke  Earl  Angnct,  a  zealona  patron  cf  art  and 
acience,  1787—^800  a.ii.  To  have  obtMned  aca- 
demio  hononra  in  J.  ia  no  amall  recommendation 
to  ran^Joyment  in  otiier  Qerman  nniToraitaee,  and 
many  of  Uie  mo«t  diatingoithed  omamenta  of  other 
nnivetaitiea  have  been  atndenta  of  thia.  Some  of 
ita  profeeaora  were  among  the  first  and  most 
eaccessful  amrportera  of  t&  philoaophy  of  Kant. 
Fidite  fonnded  a  new  achool  of  pMlcaophy  here 
in  1704,  and  the  names  of  Schelling  and  Hegel  are 
alao  connected  with  Jena.  The  brothen  Sdil^get, 
Voaa,  Friee,  Kranae,  and  Okeo,  have  added  to  ita 
celebrity  in  lit«at«e  and  acience.  The  facnl^ 
of  mediciae,  a*  well  aa  tboee  of  thecilogy  and  law, 
haa  reckoned  many  diatii^puabed  name*.  The  moat 
eminent  thaologiana,  however,  have  been   (A   the 


Panlns  may  be  mmtioBed  a 


verai^,  which  about  the  year  ISl 
ia  now  leaa  than  600. 

Th»  great  battle  of  Jena  waa  f  o 
boorbood  of  the  town  on  I4th  0 
Ftnaaian  army,  numbering  about 
under  the  command  of  l£e  Prin 
while  tile  French,  commuide 
amounted  to  90,000.  The  fonnei 
defeated.  On  -Uie  aame  day.  Da 
Med  Doke  of  Bnuuwiok  at  Aaer 
nenoh  againat  60,000  Praaaiana 
batUa  deoidad  for  a  nnmber  oi 
thePmaaian  kiiwdom  and  of  the  d 
TheloMof  thaPniMiatia  on  that 
in  the  eonfliota  of  tlie  preoedinf 
to  60,000  killed,  wounded,  and  i 
the  Icaa  natained  by  the  Sazona, 
Freikcb  pve  ont  their  loaa  to  b 
S70  officers. 


„ . of  the 

of  Bookhanqpton.  His  loholaatio 
finiahed,  he  waa  removed  to  Sodb 
in  order  to  be  inatzncted  in  the  eh 
and  pharmacy  by  Mr  Ludlow,  an 
tbm« ;  and  on  the  expiration  of  h' 
gentleman,  he  went  to  London,  in 
hia  age,  to  proeecnte  bis  ptofeeaoi 
the  Section  and  instruobou  of  tb 
Hunter  ia.  v.),  in  whose  family  h( 
yeara.  tinder  Hunter's  supeainten 
an  en>ert  anatomist,  a  aoimd  path 
expennKntm,  and  a  good  natnralial 
of  the  maater  exortad  a  lasting  efii 
and  Hnnte^a  letten,  which  3.  cai 
evince  the  affectionate  feeling  an 
taatea  iriuch  snbaisted  between  tb 
London,  J.  settled  at  Bericelqr,  ^ 
jnvfeaaion^  knowledge  and  kindl} 

1788,  hia  well-known  memtur^  ' 
History  qf  0\e  Oucboo,  appeared  m 
of  the  Royal  Society,  containing  th( 
tigationa  begim  at  the  reijuest  of 
vean  afterworda,  the  fatignes  of 
having  become  irksome  to  him, 
confine  himaelf  to  medicine,  and  w 
obtained  the  degree  of  M.D.  from  * 
St  Andrews. 

The  discovery  of  the  prcqihyl 
vaccination,  by  which  the  name  o 
immortalised,  was  the  reanlt  of  a 
of  obaervationB  and  experiments. 


He  was  puraning  hia  i^ofessioxkal 
liouse  of  his  master  at  Sodbory, 
country-woman  came  to  seek  adm 
of  am^-pox  being  mantaoned  in  h 
obaerved  :  '  I  cannot  take  that  dia 
had  cow-pox.'  This  waa  brfora  th 
was  not  tiU  177S  that,  after  his  itA 
tershire,  he  had  an  ^portnni^  oi 
the  traik  of  the  tradi&ma  ieq«otii 
it  was  five  years  later  before  he  ' 
sea  his  way  to  the  great  discovery  t 
for  him-  In  the  mouth  ol  Mi^  1' 
with  his  fneod  Edward  Gaidnei 
between  Qlonceater  and  Bristol,  'h 
natuial  history  of  cow-pox;  statet 
to  the  ori^  of  this  afieotion  from 
hone  [when  suffering  from  the  greaa 
diffiarent  aorta  of  diaww  ivlucit  "t^ 


vnneiy  wnicn  anoniou  jjroiM.-ugu  ajjainui.  Huum-jjui  j 
and  with  deep  and  anxioas  emotion,  mentioned  hia 
hope  of  being  abia  to  propagate  that  variety  from 
one  human  brang  to  another,  till  he  had  disBemiaated 
the  practice  all  over  the  globe,  to  the  total  extinc- 
tion o£  amall-poi.' — Baron's  Life  of  Jenner,  p.  128. 
Many  investieationB  regarding  the  different  varieties 
of  cow-poi,  to.,  delayed  the  actual  discovery  for 
no  leaa  tlian  16  years,  when  at  length  the  crowning 
experiment  on  James  Pbipps  {see  Inoculatiok) 
w»s  mode  on  the  14th  of  May  179G,  and  J.'s  task 
was  virtually  accompliahed.  This  experiment  was 
followed  by  many  of  the  same  kind;  and  in  1798 
he  published  his  Gcet  memoir,  entitled  An  Iitquiry 
into  lAe  Cauaa  and  Effectt  of  the  Variolai  Vaecma, 
Although  the  evidejjce  accumulated  by  J,  goemed 
coneluflive,  yet  the  praetlco  met  with  Tiolent  opposi- 
tion until  a  year  had  passed,  when  upwards  of  70  of 
tlia  prindpLU  physicians  and  lurgeone  in  London 
■lEued  a  declaration  of  their  entire  confidence  in  it 
ICs  discoTecy  was  soon  promulgated  throughout  the 
civilised  world.  Hononis  were  conferred  upon  him 
by  foreign  courts,  and  he  was  elected  an  Honorary 
member  of  nearly  all  the  learned  societies  of  Europe. 
Parliament  voted  him,  in  1S02,  a  grant  of  £10,000, 
and  in  1807i  a  second  grant  of  £20,000 ;  and  during 
the  last  few  years,  a  public  statue  in  his  honour  has 
been  erected  in  the  metropobs.  His  latter  days 
were  passed  chiefly  at  Berkeley  and  Cheltenham, 
and  were  occupied  in  the  dissemination  and  elucida- 
tion of  his  great  discovery.  Ho  died  of  apoplexy  at 
Berkeley  in  February  1823. 

JBKA'SH.     See  Gerasa. 

JE'RBA.    See  Gkbbi. 

JFRBOA  (Dipat),  a  genna  of  rodent  quadruped*, 
of  the  family  Murxda,  remarkable  for  the  great 
length  of  the  hind-1<^,  and  kangaroo-like  power  of 
jumping.  The  fore-legs  arc  very  small,  hence  the 
ancient  Greek  name  dipouM  (two-foot«d).  The  tail  is 
long,  cylindrical,  covered  with  short  hair,  and  tufted 
at  the  end.  The  jerboas  are  inhabitants  of  sandy 
deserts  and  wide  giaaay  plains  in  Asia  and  the  east 
o!  Europe,  Africa,  and  Australia,  They  are  borrow- 
ing animals,  nocturnal,  very  destnictive  to  grain  and 


Jerboa  (Dipu*  jEffypliM). 
other  crops,  laying  up  boards  for  their  winter  u 


the  hind-feet  and  the  tail,  they  leap,  although 
they  are  amaH  aaimaU,  several  yards.  Their  &^b 
is  said  to  resemble  that  of  the  rabbit—Closely 
allied  to  the  jerboas  «,re  the  OerWfa  {OerbUlvt], 
smaUquadrupcdB,  also  distinguished  by  great  length 


JERBMl'AH  (Heb.  Yirmiyahu),  a  Hebrew  pro- 
phet vas  the  son  of  Trillria.li,  a  priest  of  Anathotli, 
a  place  about  three  miles  north  of  JenmJem.    He 

Scophesied  under  the  reigns  of  Joaiah,  Jehonlii!, 
ehoiakim,  Jeboiachin,  and  Zedekiab  (G30— 59U 
B.  o.),  and  even  later.  TTiH  character  and  fortuni?! 
are  clearly  discernible  in  his  writings.  To  him, 
a  man  of  an  emphatically  spiritual,  truthfnl,  s«l|. 
sacrificing  nature,  it  was  given  to  predict  in  the 
midst  of  the,  both  politically  and  religionsiy,  roKai 
state  of  the  commonwealth  under  Uie  succeniie 
weak  kings,  its  speedy  destruction.  Fearlcsa 
yet  hopeless,  he  delivers  his  moumfol  mcsi>^ 
from  year  to  year,  and  battles  with  despainng 
heroism  ag«nat  the  inevitable.  Wt<  life  thus  Wime 
one  long  martyrdom.  We  read  of  his  endnriog 
'reproach  and  derision  daily'  (ix.  8);  his  townEmea 
of  Anathoth  threatened  to  slay  him,  if  he  did  not 
stop  prophesying  woe  (xi  21) ;  his  own  brethn^ 
the  house  of  his  father,  'dealt  treacheronily'  with 
him  (xlL  6) ;  so  that  hia  spirit  at  times  fuled  him. 
There  were  two  political  parties  in  Judah  at  Mas 
time— in  favonr  of  a  Chaldsan  and  an  l^yjitiin 
alliance  respectively.  Like  the  earlier  patnotic 
prophets,  J.  repudiated  both  at  first  The  conrae  vt 
events,  however,  had  necessitated  a  compromiw, 
and  the  reUgioua  party — gradually  decreasing  in 
numbers  and  influence — had  declared  a^nst  I^^pt, 
and  in  favour  of  Chaldma.  King  Josiah,  tdo 
belonged  to  it  perished  at  Megiddo,  in  the  viUsy 
of  Esdroelon,  in  an  attempt  to  stop  the  progrest  at 
Pharaoh-Necho  (609  b.  c).  After  flus,  things  grew 
worse.  The  £^ptian  party  became  predominant, 
and  J.  waa  uowlorced  to  take  a  side,  uid  beconie  a 
putiaan  as  well  aa  a  prophet  He  speaks  of  the 
king  of  Babylon  as  God's  servant  and  prophesin 
the  destruction  of  the  temple.  A  oy  arose  frum 
the  priesthood  and  the  prophets  for  his  life,  and  )iB 
escaped  with  difficulty  (uvi,).  At  last  came  the 
jnd^ent    The  best  pintion  of  the   i 

earned  into  captivity ;  and  J.  urged  1 . 

men   to  wait  tor  tiie   period   of   deliverance  vitb 
religions  fortitude  and  patience.    A  sudden  imp' 


oution,  thrown  into  a  pit  to  die,  and  only  rescntd 
by  the  kindnees  of  an  Egyptian  eunuch.  The 
capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  rendered 
the  prophet's  position  more  tolerable.  J.  had  slnji 
preached  submission  to  the  Chaldsons.  He  wu 
even  patronised  by  the  conqueror,  and  offered  a 
home  at  Babylon,  but  he  preferred  to  reside  uaoag 
the  wretehed  remnant  of  the  people  left  in  Jodih 
(xL).  Intestine  strifes,  however,  soon  drove  some  to 
take  refuge  in  Egypt  J.  was  carried  off  along  with 
the  exiles,  and  hers  he  is  believed  to  have  died, 
and  his  grave  was  long  shewn  at  Cairo.  Accordiog 
to  others,  however,  he  came  back  to  JudM.  The 
writings  of  this  prophet  dictated  by  him  to  Bancb, 
have  been  arranged  nilji  little  regard  to  order,  sml 
the  toit  is  in  a  state  of  groat  confusion,  notirith'  i 
standing  that  J.  himself  undertook  two  distinct  ' 
redactions.  They  exhibit  great  tenderness  ud 
elegiac  beauty  of  sentiment^  bat  ladi  the  subUine 
grandeur  of  Isaiah.  He  often  borrows  largely  from  I 
his  poetic  predecessors.  Several  of  the  Psahna  ' 
have  been  attributed  to  li'tn,  especially  by  modem 
critics.  Hitaig  numbers  34,  which  he  believes  to  be  I 
the  compceition  of  Jeremiah.  There  is  no  reason  to  | 
doubt  that  the  Lamentations  are  properly  ascribed 
to  him,  while  the  apocryphal  work  of  hia,  men' 
tioncd  by  Jerome  (Matth.  27),  deserves  little  notice.  . 
Among  commentators  may  be  mentioned  Origi-n.  I 
Jerome,  Theodoret,  Oecolompadiua,  SanctiuSiVenema, 


JKBIOBO-JIEOHE  09  PRAOUB. 


M-ichttdis,   Dmbreit,   Hendenon,    DoUer,   Enobel, 
dndd,  HengBtenberg,  uni  Bunien, 

jmtlCHO,  ODOe  one  of  UiBnmtSonruIungoitia 
of  PaleHtine,  two  lionn'  jocmej  westwuil  iroat  the 
Jordan,  and  six  bonn  north-eait  from  JenutHan. 
WeatwBid  from  J.  liea  s  mite  tract  of  litneetoiie 
monntain.%  riang  in  Btagei  j  bnt  th«  immediate 
Ticini^  ig  -well  watered  and  fruitfol,  yieldkg  datee, 
raisiiu,  belaam,  and  boney,  ^et  a  faTomite  abode 
nJao,  in  early  times,  of  tnuonoiu  Enakea.  The 
capture  of  J.  by  tlie  Israelites  on  their  &nrt  entry 
into  Canaan,  its  destniction,  and  tbe  rebuilding 
-'  H  by  Hiel  the  Bethelitc  in  the  le^  of  Aha^ 
ue  fonnd  recorded  in  Joah.  ti.; 
It  appears  to  bave  been  after- 
^varda  the  Beat  of  a  school  of  prophets  (2  Kings  ii.  4, 
Ac).  Herod  the  Great  resided  in  J.,  and  beautified 
it.  It  wag  deetrcwed  in  tbe  reign  of  VespasiaD,  and 
au^n  rebuilt  nn^er  Hadrian.  In  the  tune  of  the 
Crusades,  it  was  repeatedly  editored,  and  at  loist 
completely  deaboye^  At  the  pment  day,  its  plaoe 
ia  occupiol  by  a  miaerable  ymage  eidled  Iticbo,  or 
£richa,  with  «c«cely  200  inhabitanta. 

JEREED-B]E!EF,  beef  preserred  by  drying  in 
the  Bun.  It  ia  properly  called  tAamti,  and,  like  Its 
name,  is  of  Chilian  origin,  altliongli  now  made  in 
large  quantitiea  in  Uonte  Video,  Buenoa  Ayrei,  and 
other  {daces  in  South  America,  where  the  vut 
droves  of  cattle  on  the  prairies  are  available  for  tbe 
purpose.  He  beaata  ore  slaughtered  when  in  good 
condition,  and  tbe  fleiby  parts  are  dexteroualy 
pared  off  in  aoch  a  manner  as  to  teeemble  a  mcoei- 
"""~  "*  "Vina  beinif  taken  from  the  aame  animiJ. 
■B  rarely  more  than  an 
eipoaed  to  the  snn,  dry 
bofore  deoompoeition  commenoee,  and  in  that  state 
can  be  kept  almost  any  length  of  time.  Sometimes 
the  charqoi  ia  dipped  int«  brine,  or  rubbed  with 
salt,  before  being  dried.  It  is  lai^y  imported  to 
Cuba,  where  it  is  called  latino,  for  feeiung  Ue  slaves. 
The  manufacture  of  charqui,  ot  jerkad-be^  has 
been  introduced  into  Australia,  and  in  188%  ship- 
ments of  it  ware  made  from  Victiaia  to  the  mother- 
eonnby,  bnt  witii  what  success  is  not  known. 
As  it  oontwns  all  the 


1  food,  and  only 


Jerldn-fisad. 


may  become  an  import- 
ant article  of  ooniump- 
tion.  lite  price  is  about 
tln«e-Iuilfpence  or  two- 
pence per  pound. 

J£ltKIIf-HEAD,  a 
form  of  roofing  which 
is  half-gable,  half-hip^ 
The  gabu  generally  goes 


le  couples,  above  which  the  roof  is  hipped  oS. 

JEBOH&,  St  (Eusebius  Hieroktmds  Sofhho- 

I     Nlira},  WHS  born  at  Stridon,  a  town  whose  site  is  now 

ouknowa,  on  tiie  confines  of  Dalmatia  and  Fannonis, 

I     At  some   p^iod  between  331  and  34C — probably 

'     nearer  to  the  latter  year.    His  parents  were  both 

I      Christians.     His  early  education  was  sapeiintendcd 

by  his  father,  after  which  he  studied  Greek  and 

hatia  rhetoric  and  philosophy  under  .^Itius  Donatos 

at  Rome,  where  be  vaa  also  admitted  to  the  rite  of 

baptaim.     After  a  residence  in  Oanl,  he  seems  to 

I     have  revisited  Bome ;  but  in  Uie  year  370,  he  bad 

settled  in  Aquikia  with  his  friend  RnSnua,     '"- 


religious  fervonr  of  his  disposition,  he  retired,  in 
37^  to  the  desert  of  Chaleis,  where  he  spent  four 
years  inpenitential  exercises  and  in  study,  especially 
of  the  Hebrew  Luignage.  In  379,  he  was  ordained 
a  priest  at  Aotioch,  after  which  he  spent  thi«e  years 
in  Constaotiiiople  in  close  intimacy  with  Gregory 
of  NaziiLDzus ;  and  in  3S2  be  came  on  a  mission 
connected  with  the  Meletion  schism  at  Antiocb  (see 
Melbthis]  to  Rome,  where  he  resided,  uotil  3Sfi,  as 
secretoiy  of  tbe  pope  Damasua,  and  where,  although 
already  engaged  in  his  great  ^"ork  of  the  revision 
of  the  Latin  version  of  the  Bible,  he  attained 
to  great  popularity  and  infinence  by  his  sanctity, 
leoraine,  and  eloquence.  Man;  pious  persoos  placed 
themselves  under  bis  spiritual  direction,  tbe  most 
remarkable  of  whom  were  the  Lady  Paula,  and 
her  daughter  Euatocblum.  These  ladies  followed 
him  to  Uie  Holy  Land,  whither  he  returned  in  3S4. 
He  permanently  fixed  his  rosideoce  at  Bethlehem 
Id  3SG,  tbe  Lady  Paula  having  fannded  four  convents, 
three  for  nans,  and  one  for  monks,  tiie  latter  of 
which  was  governed  by  J.  hImselL  It  was  in  this 
retreat  that  J.  pursued  or  completed  tbe  ^^^t 
literoiy  labours  of  his  life ;  and  it  was  from  these 
soUtactes,  all  peaceful  as  they  might  seem,  that  he 
sent  forth  the  fiery  and  vehement  invectives  which 
marked  not  only  his  controversy  with  the  heretics 
'''>vi]uaii,  Tigilautius,  and  the  Pelagians  (q.  v.),  but 
.  en  with  his  ancient  ally,  Ruftnus  (q.  v,],  and, 
although  in  a  minor  degree,  with  St  Augustine. 
His  oonfiict  with  the  Pelagians  rendering  even  his 
life  insecure  at  Bethlehem,  he  was  compelled  to  go 
iut«  concealment  for  above  two  years ;  and  soon 
after  his  return  to  Bethlehem  in  41S,  he  was  seized 
with  a  lingering  illness,  which  terminated  in  his 
death,  September  3D,  420.  His  original  works,  con- 
sisting of^  letters,  tTeatiaeB,  polemical  and  aacetical, 
commentaries  on  Holy  Scripture,  and  his  vendoa 
and  revision  of  former  versions  of  the  Bible,  were 
first  published  by  Erasmus,  9  vols,  folio  (Basel, 
1516),  and  have  been  several  times  reprinted.  The 
best  editions  ar«  that  of  the  Benedictines,  6  vols, 
folio  (Paris,  1693—1706),  and,  still  more,  that  ol 
"  'lani,  11  fols.  (Verona,  1734—17421.  St  J.  is 
'ersal^  regarded  as  the  most  learned  and 
eloquent  of  the  Latin  Fathers.  His  oammentaries 
on  the  Bible  are  especially  valuable  for  the  learning 
which  they  display ;  but  his  opinions  ore  often 
^mggCTated  "ni  fonoifol,  and  through  his  contro- 
venial  writings  tlMt*  nna  *  strain  oiviolent  invec- 
tive, whieh  oontniti  ttnlavonrably  with  the  tone  of 
bis  oontempOTSiT  8t  Aogiutiiia.    See  VoLaAtm, 


doquenoe,  though  he  was  ioferior  in  judgment  and 
modaratioi],  was  bom  at  Prague  in  Uie  latter  hall 
of  the  14tb  oentury.  After  at^nding  the  universify 
of  his  native  town,  be  continued  his  studies  at  Paris, 
Cologne,  Ozfmd,  and  Heidelberg  and  in  1399  took 
out  bis  degree  aa  Msater  of  Aits  and  Bscheko'  of 
Theoli^.  His  leputatioD  for  learning  was  so  great 
that  his  advice  was  taken  by  Tjiti«la«  IL,  king  of 
Poland,  with  respect  to  the  founding  of  the  univer- 
sity of  Cracow  m  1410 ;  and  Sigismund,  king  of 
Hungary,  invited  bim  to  preach  buore  him  atBuda. 
He  entered  with  his  whole  soul  into  the  contest 
carried  on  by  bis  friend  Huss  against  Hie  abuses 
of  the  hierarchy  and  the  profligacy  of  the  cleigT- 
His  seal,  however,  carried  him  too  far ;  he  publicly 
trampled  the  reUcs  under  his  feet,  committed  to 
prison  the  monks  who  did  not  share  his  opinions, 
and  even  ordered  one  of  them  to  be  thrown  into 
the  Moldau.  Wiien  Huss  was  arrested  at  Constance, 
J.  hastened  to  defend  him ;  but  receiving  no  satis- 
factory answer  to  a  letter  in  which  ho  haddemanded 
a   safe-conduct   from  the   council,  he  set  out  od 


,db,Google 


of  Snlzbach,  and  convey^  in  ch^na  to  ConsUDoe. 
Here  he  ma  cast  into  a  dnu^eon,  and  placed  on 
triaL  After  lome  monthi'  impmoiimeiit,  he  reoaated 
hit  oiomoDs,  but  nibaequeiitly  abjured  hia  recan- 
tation irith  homiT,  and  irent  to  the  stake  with 
great  flrmneu,  He  waa  bnnied  allTe,  SOtli  May 
1416.  J.'t  life  haa  bean  written  by  HdlarfTttbingen, 
183fi)  and  bj  Becker  (NSrdlingen,  1858). 

JEBBOIJ),  DocoLU,  dramatut, JonnuJiit,  and 
miscellaneona  writer,  wae  bom  in  London  on  the 
3d  Janoary  1S03.  Hii  aalj  effort*  in  literature 
were  directed  to  the  theatre,  and  aame  of  hii  piecea 
— Mad-eyed  SttMti  (1829),  for  initanoe— rtilT  hold 
poueaiion  of  the  itaro  At  a  later  period,  he  pro- 
doced  sereral  fire-act  comedies,  the  beat  known  of 
which  are  Ttme  Worht  WondtTa,  and  Tlin  BxibtiUi 
of  a  Day.  J.'b  repntatioa  itandi  more  aecorel^ 
on  hii  noT^a,  iketchee,  and  esaaya  than  on  hii 
dramatio  worka.  Hi*  Men  of  Gharaeltr  waa  origin- 
dlr  publuhed  in  Blodaajod.  He  jconed  the  staff 
of  PuRcA  (1641),  and  contribated  to  that  periodical 
A  Story  of  a  Feather,  PvmiXt  Ldiert  to  Alt  Son,  and 
the  world-famont  OaiuB«  ZmAcm.  I^ter  appeared 
T&e  Chronidet  of  Olovemook,  the  kindlieat  and  moat 
delightful  of  aU  bJ*  books,  and  St  OUm  and  Si 
Janut,  bji  moat  elaborate  novel.  For  aeveral  yean 
before hiadeath,heeditedi;te^»  Wtddy Neustpaper. 
He  died  from  diaaose  of  the  heart  at  Eolbara  Priory, 
at  the  age  of  5S. 

X  wii  a  brilliant  rather  than  a  great  man  of 
letter*.  Hia  plays  are  aparUing,  but  they  want 
body  and  mbetance,  and  unintoraating  maUer  '  * 
nerer  perhapa  ao  emgrammatic  a  aettmg  aa  in 
norela  and  talea.  Sit  reputation  aa  a  aocial  wit 
itanda  higher  than  hia  n^iotalion  aa  a  writer. 
waa  greater  in  aooiety  than  in  hia  oloaet.  Like  a 
flint,  every  atroke  bron^t  fire  from  him.  See  L\fa 
and  Betitaint  q/"  Douglat  Jerrold,  and  Douglaa 
JrrroltCa  Wit  and  Hummtr ;  both  by  hi*  eon, 
William  Bknchard  Jerrold  (Loud.  1858). 

JBHSBY— THE  OHAKNBL  ISLAITDS. 
ia  the  chief  of  the  groap  called  the  Channel  lalanda 
[q.  T.).    The  other  lobuiited  ithuida  of  tiiia  group 
are  Onenwey,  Aldentey,  SaA,  Heim,  and  Jetbon. 

Hie  coart  ia  very  dai^rooa,  but  hjht-hoi 

triaced  on  most  of  the  iiland  headlanda, 
the  danganma  rooka  called  tlu  Caaqneti, 
Aldemey.    The  ChauBHy  lalandi  belong  to  France. 

The  following  table  exhibita  the  area— ^ 1-^  — 

of  the  principal  ialandt : 


Ph^ad  Ga>graphif—DeKriptiiM.—J.,  whioh  Uaa 
17  mUea  aouth-veat  of  OnemMy,  and  IS  milea  &om 
the  coaat  of  Franoe,  ia  of  an  oblong  form,  abont 
10  milea  in  length  and   6  in  wi^.     The  land 


Hie  coast  ia  Indented  hy  large  open  bayi  oa  the 
west,  MiuQi,  and  eaat ;  bat  on  the  north,  fay  imall 
rocky  Inleta.  The  intvior  is  moetlv  tableland,  w«ll 
wooded,  especially  in  the  valleyg  along  the  winding 
■tceama.  T.  i»  divided  into  12  pwiahea.  The 
chnrtjua  have  little  arohiteotural  pretmion,  bat 
■n  generany  piotoreaqnely  litaated.    Tb»  prindpal 


bayof  that  nanw.  It  pnaanwiia  a  diminntjre  barfaoar 
and  caatk^  a  good  gnunmar-aohool,  and  exteuive 
vioeriea.  Mont  Oroueil  Cattle  ia  a  grand  and 
impocing  midieYal  lortieM,  looking  over  Gorey 
Harbour.  Soma  parta  of  it  are  said  to  be  of 
the  time  of  Julina  Caaar.  It  waa  the  priaoo  of 
Flyniu  and  the  Pariiamenfariau  ^id  haa  beem 
uaed  aa  a  faanack.  A  good  view  of  the  ialand  m^ 
be  obtained  from  Bo^tu  Bit,  ec  Prinotfa  Tower,  a 

AiDXBirxr  and  OuxBMsn  aredeaoribedi 


Babe  (Senq,  Oart).    Great  and  Little  Saik  are 
one  island,  ocnneotad  by  a  nattuaJ  oauaeway  called 

Oia    Ooupit.      Itiey   are   lofty   table-land*,    with 


Breohon  and  the  Borona,  about  three 
A  it  eisht  milN  from  Gaemsey.  The 
principal  objecta  u  interest  are  the  pierced  rocka, 
cavema,  ana  fiaanm.  The  cavca  are  very  nch  in 
nmphytea.  The  aeignaur  ia  the  Bev,  W.  Colling 
who  residea  on  the  ialand.  There  is  one  pantb 
ohorch,  and  a  lod^ng-hoiue  for  visitors,  kc  The 
coast  is  very  difficult  of  aeceM,  the  only  mtraoM  to 
the  interior  being  through  a  ereux  or  tmmel  cot  in 
the  rock. 

Oeoloffy.—iSott  of  the  Islands  ara 


sandstone.  The  stnoture  of  Gnemsey  ia  hard 
syenite  to  the  north,  and  gneiss  to  iiba  south.  Hu 
geology  of  Jeraey  id  more  varied,  presenting  a 
mixture  of  metamorphic  rocks,  conglomeratea,  and 
sandstones,  with  aremtea  and  quartzitea.  Shale  and 
blown  sand  are  also  prevalent.  3ark  ia  composed 
of  very  hard  ^enite,  with  veins  of  raeenatoue  uid 
faUpar.  Qramte  is  quarried  from  ul  the  islands, 
especially  from  Guemaey,  Herm,  and  Mount  Mado 
'-  Jersey,  both  tor  home  use  and  ezportataon. 

The  lemery  of  the  Channd  Islands  is  exquisitely 

varied  and  beautiful ;  jnobably  in  no  other  area  Ot 

Qombination  of 


beautiful ;  inobably  ii 

a  could  be  fouud  such 


savage  rocks  and  pleasing  landscar 

7%!  eUmale  of  the  C^nnel  Islands  is  agreeable 


and  suitable  to  invalida.  Tbe  prevailing  winds  are 
from  north  and  nortb-weat.  Hie  mean  »nnii«l 
tainfoll  is  3G  inches  in  QuanLeey ;  bat  the  climate 
is  not  overmoist,  the  soil  being  porous  uid  evapc^ 
atioQ  rapid.  The  mean  annoal  temperature  of 
Jersey  is  B0*-8  ;  of  Guernsey,  El'^S,  or  2"-5  warmer 
than  Greenwich.  The  range  of  temperature  is  very 
moderate ;  but  thu  climate  of  Ouemsey  is  rather 
more  equable  than  that  of  Jersey.    August  ia  the 


and  a  second  summer,  called  the  PetU  SU  de  . 
Martin,  generally  sets  in  about  the  10th  of  Octoba, 
and  lasts  till  the  middle  of  December.  Flowering 
plants  and  shrubs  are  a  fortnight  earlier  in  the 
spring  than  in  I^uland. 

The  produce  ot  tbe  iaianda  ia  jmicipaUy  a^icnl. 

ral ;  but  hortioaltare  and  florionltnra  are  anirr^ 

_  Jly  followed— the  latter  e^edally  in  Gnema^. 

The  soil  ia  oenenlly  li^^  deep,  and  fertile    The 

a  of  «nltiTatatm  it  rerj  prunitive.    Hm  prinCB- 

ii  asA-weed,  wbicb  ii^atbaMd  m  vast 

on  the  ihorea,  at  OMtaut  aeaaon^  uihIh 
Ita  amma)  rahi*  to  Qneniaay 
at  £30,00a     A  graat;  qnaoti^  la 
burned  for  the  manufaotnre  of  kelp  »"i^  iaabuh 

Hie  land  ia  h^  in  snull  panels  ranging  fnnn 
five  to  twen^  English  aerea.  Hie  princinu  crop* 
■n  hay,  wheat,  toxnipa,  potatoet,  maogd-wura^ 


opwardd  ol  30  bmlielH  to 

!£&gland  being  24  Tfa«  Channd  Iglands  pcwMM 
an  eicelleEt  breed  of  tiomed  ckUle,  nnialfy  Known 
ai  AldemejB,  rem&rkable  for  their  mull  ri 
Bjramvtc^,  and  (or  the  namtiiy  and  qniility 
milk  which  they  ^ield.  From  IS  to  17  poiutdB  of 
butter  are  aomabmes  obtained  veekly  from  the 
milk  of  one  coir.  Fniit  ii  much  cnltiTBt«d  in 
Jeney,  eBpeciaU;  the  vine,  and  the  peach,  apricot, 
plom,  apple ;  and  the  pear,  particoIarlT  the  Chsli- 
m<mte!,  attain*  extmRdinan'  nze  and  flavour  in 
Gueinsey.  Abont  30,000  bntkela  of  table-frnit 
are  annually  exported  from  the  isUnda  to  London 
and  Paris.  Shrobi  and  fiowen  flourish  abtuidsntly. 
The  Acdimatiution  Society  of  London  recdTe 
faToonble  acconnta  from  the  OnernMy  branch  of 
the  ancceeafal  cnltivation  of  the  Brazilian  anun,  for 
the  mannfActnre  of  anow-ioot,  the  prodnoe  being 
Teiy  large  and  profiUble.  Tegetablea  are  plentifal ; 
and  the  cow-cabba(re  grow*  to  the  height  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet  Ihe  other  producta  of  the  ialand*  ore 
princ^aHy  flth,  viz.,  torbot,  red  mullet.  Jobs  Dory, 
oonger,  taufoni  or  Band-cela,  alio  lobaten  aod 
cflfttan,  large  qnantitiea  of  which  are  eiported.  A 
conaMerabJe  traffic  is  carried  on  in  granite  from  all 
the  iilanda ;  the  bine  granite  from  Onemaev  for 
macadamising  and  the  pink  lyenite  from  Mount 
Modo,  in  Jmsey,  for  paving  pnipoaea,  are  hi^dy 
eateemed,  and  larj/ely  miported  into  London.  The 
quantity  of  eramte  exported  annually  from  the 
harbour  of  St^lampeon  avcragoa  120,000  bun. 

Hittory.-^Tb»  early  histoty  of  the  Channel 
Iilanda  u  mythical  and  legendaiy ;  bat  it  is 
probable  that  the  earliert  iohabitants  were  Bretons, 
The  ialands  wen  under  Bomon  occupation  during 
the  3d  and  4th  oeoturiea,  the  name  of  Ceesarea  or 
Jereev  (Cfesar'a  Ide)  occurring  In  the  Itinerary  of 
the  Astoniaes.  Ouistiaoity  was  probably  mtro- 
duced  by  mioionahee  from  beland  abont  4a)  a.  s. — 
St  Heleriua  being  the  traditional  apoatle  of  Jersey, 
and  St  Sampaon  of  Onemsey.  !ProbabIy  a  mixed 
poputatioD  of  Saxima,  Danea,  Oothi,  and  Qanls 
betook  themselvea  to  these  Ittanda  during  succeed- 
ins  centuries,  a*  the  Franks  poescoaed  the  continent 
The  ialandi  were  taken  pNseedon  of  bv  Bolf  or 
Bollo  previoni  to  his  inraatoo  of  Normanny.  After 
the  Konnan  Conquest,  ilie  islands  were  alternately 
ISnglish,  nnder  William  the  Conqoeroi ;  Norman, 
under  Rufai ;  English,  under  Henry  L ;  and 
Korman  again,  njoder  Stephen.  With  Henry  IL, 
the  allegiance  of  the  islands  reverted  to  the  kioa 
as  Boverei«n  of  Normandy  as  well  as  Englondj 
and  after  the  loss  ol  Normandy,  the  islands  still 
remained  faithful  to  England. 

John  is  said  to  have  given  a  coustitotion  to 
Guernsey.  The  islands  stiUbelongedeoclesisEtioallj 
to  Norman^,  the  Biihop  of  Couumoes  being  their 
diocesan.  Edward  IlL  and  Henry  V.  materially 
weakened  the  papal  bond ;  but  it  was  not  wholly 
severed  till  the  Beformatian,  after  which  (ia  I9SS) 
they  were  attached  to  the  see  of  Wincheoter.  In 
Eeniy  TL'a  time,  the  French  held  Jersey  for  six 
Tears.  During  the  dvil  war,  Jersey  was  loyal  and 
Episcopal ;  OnerDser,  republican  and  Presbyterian ; 
and  traces  of  tlus  divergence  are  etUl  to  be  fonod. 
In  17SI,  during  the  first  American  war,  a  Prench 
expedition,  nn£r  the  Boron  de  RnUemurt  landed 
in  QroQVule  Bay,  and  marched  Into  the  morket- 
plaoe  of  St  Hdier,  but  was  repolsed  with  loss 
by  Uie  garrison  and  militia.  During  the  l^neh 
and  American  wai^  the  islandera  fitted  out  many 
privateer*,  and  obtained  ricb  print.  Smuggling  was 
finally  aniweMed  in  1800.  Hnce  the  peaoe,  the 
Cihaimel  Isknds  have  thriven  and  prospered  by  com- 
merae  and  agriooltnre,  and  espeinallr  by  becoming 


have  been  attracted  liither  I 
soenety  or  the  salubrity  of  the 
AntiquUiet. — Formerly,  thep 
leohs  in  the  islsAds ;  tjie  la 
those  near  Hoot  Orgneil  In  Jer* 
Bav  in  Ghiems^.  A  few  old 
architecture  remain.  The  oldc 
is  that  of  St  Brelade,  aaid  to 
1111. 


than  in  Jeraey,  where  the  Freni 
where  the  fbehah  element  p 
dialect  French,  however,  is  tl 
the  law-ooorts  of  all  the  islands 
may  address  the  conrt  or  ex 
English.  The  church  services 
Fr^ieh  in  the  conntry  parish 
rvioe  takes  place  in  most  of  tb 
IrAabUaaU. — The  proportion 
Jersey  is  very  large,  British  t 
Frenut  20OO ;  tiie  native  poptd 
nearly  all  of  whom  live  in  uie  oo 
are  generallT  frugal  and  indep 
much  divided  into  cliqnea;  (he's 
'"  Qnernsey  are  a  marked  divisic 
Oouenttnaa  and  iatos.— Thouj 
British  crown,  the  islands  hare  i 
ent  sbitiu  and  action.  The  print 
island  is  the  Ueuiauatl-goBenior 
offloer  in  the  army,  and  auprei 
matters  ;  but  he  has  also  oertoin  < 
dnties.  In  Jersey  especially,  hi 
very  extensive.  He  continues 
The  baU^  or  judge  is  the  fi 
eaeh  island.  Hs  is  also  appoin 
generally  for  lifa.    He  presides  i 

itea  allmeaauies  propc 
Buti  the  orown  in  all  < 
jurats  are  twelve  in  number,  ele 
lu&age  of  ratepayera,  for  life.  1 
worts,  and  have  a  voice  in  all 
Quamsq',  they  are  elected  by  tl 
"■  of  the  different  par, 
council* :  in  Ouernw 
eight  out  of  ten  have  a  vote.  B«* 
thece  are  aa  attorney  and  a  to 
each  jalandf  and  a  higA-sheriGT,  ool 
viconUe,  and  in  Qoemsey,  the  prfv 
The  other  memberB  of  the  '  stat 
are,  in  Jersey,  the  conilaUsa  of  thi 
the  14  deputies  of  the.  vingimiert, 
from  the  vmgtainet  of  each  parish, 
in  each  island  consists  of  the  bailiff 
etatee,'  not  convenable  wiUiOut  tl 
pass  ordonnoncei,  which 
1  laws  intended  to  be 
ed  to  the  sovereien. 
ivemor  has  a  veto  on  all  quertloni 
In  Qnemsey,  the  'De£beratar( 
nearly  of  the  same  body,  bat  tin 
'  Elective  States,'  a  mor«  popular  at 
ng  to  222  persons — the  great  mi 
dovxanieri,  eleoted  by  the  ratepaye: 
parishes.  The  donzoniers  (on^na 
parish]  are  the  managers  of  all 
and  elected  for  life.  The  bailifi 
beutenant-govemor  ha*  no  veto,  i 
'  take  effect  without  the  r- 


mbmitted 


ISeicoc 


The  laaa  of  vie  ialanda  are  very  peculiar,  being 
mainly  derived  from  tlie  ancient  cuatomaiy  law 
of  Normandy.  Tho  laws  relating  to  [iroperty  ara 
Bingular  :  arrett  tokea  place  in  Jersey  without  proof 
or  affidavit.  Until  recently,  the  Queen's  writ  had 
DO  power  in  the  iglondB,  utd  the  Act  of  ITabetu 
Corpai  baa  only  lately  been  admitted.  Enoroaoli- 
mentB  on  properiy  are  aometimea  met  by  a  curioua 
appeal  called /Ta/jfo/d  faifi*,  man  jprin«/ repeated 
tnrice.  It  ta  cooaidered  to  be  tbe  remaioa  of  an  old 
appeal  to  RoUo,  Duke  of  Normandy,  and  ii  still  a 
valid  form  of  injunction. 

Eedaiaitiad  Slaie. — There  is  ■  dean  in  each 
island.  The  livings  are  in  (he  (pft  of  the  crown,  and 
of  small  value.  The  principal  educational  establish- 
ments are  Victoria  College  in  Jersey,  and  ElLcabeth 
Colleee  in  Oaemaey.  ui  both,  a  first-class  educa- 
tion IB  given  on  very  moderate  torma,  by  an  excellent 
staff  of  teachers,  and  they  have  various  exhibitions 
at  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 

There  is  regular  steam -oommunication  between 
England  and  the  Channel  Islands,  aUo  between 
Jersey  and  the  French  ports  of  OranvUIe  and  St 
Malo ;  and  in  summer  there  is  generally  an  excur- 
sion-boat onoe  a  week  to  Sark  and  Herm. 

The  islands  are  protected  by  numerous  forts, 
especially  about  the  barbonr  of  refuge  in  Aldemey. 

Book*  of  Brference. — The  principal  hiatorical 
authorities  are  the  Kev.  P.  FaHe'a  Hutory  of 
JtTtqi;  Mr  Duncan's  and  Mr  F.  B.  Tapper's 
UiBtories  of  Gnerraey;  and  Mr  Dally  for  the 
agriculture  of  the  islands,  A  more  recant  and  a 
very  comprehensive  work  is  Tin  Channel  lalanda, 
by  D.  T.  Ansted,  M.A,  F.E.S.,  and  R,  C.  Latham, 
M.A.,  M.D.,  F.R.8.,  Ac.  (Lond.  1862). 

JEBSEY  CITT,  a  city  in  New  Jersey,  United 
States  of  America,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson 
River,  o^pposito  New  York,  o£  which  it  is,  in  fact, 
though  in  another  state,  an  extension,  and  to 
which  it  is  united  by  laxge  and  powerful  steam 
ferry-boato,  lighted  with  gas,  which  ply  night  and 
day.  It  ia  the  etitrep6t  of  the  Ciu^rd  and  other 
ocean  steunen,  and  tbe  terminus  of  the  New  York 
and  Philadelphia,  Eri^  Bastoo,  Morris  and  Essex, 
and  Northern  Bailwayi,  and  of  a  caiuil  for  coal- 
transport.  It  luu  manufactories  of  locomotives, 
machineiy,  glan,  onunblea,  Ac  ;  and  abont  twenty 
churches,  the  fineot  of  which  once  stood  in  Wall 
Street^  New  York,  but  was  removed,  and  carefully 
built  xca,  atooo  by  stone,  in  this  oiW.  Pop.  (18C0) 
29,226 ;  (1870)  8^546. 

JEBU'SALEM  (Heb.  TemJiaiem,  Or.  Hienna- 
olirm,  Lat.  Hieratoiyma;  called  also  in  Arabic  El- 
Kkudt  or  Sl-Kodt,  '  the  Holy '),  the  Jewish  capital 
of  Palestine.  Ita  origin  and  early  history  are  very 
obscure.  Josephus  {Anlig.  i  x.  2)  identifies  it  with  the 
'Salem'  of  which  Melohizedek  (Gen.  xiv.  18)  is  called 
king;  but  St  Jerome  doubts  the  oorrectness  of  this 
view.  Critics  are  better  agreed  as  to  the  identity 
of  J.  with  Jebnsi,  the  dty  of  the  Jebusitea  (Josh. 
xviiL  28).  and  we  know  that  the  Jebusitea  retained 
of  the  strong  podtiona  of  the  hill  of  Zion 
considerable  time  after  the  conquest  of  Canaan, 
ouu  even  after  the  stonning  of  J.  (Jod.  L  S),  while 
the  tribes  of  Jndah  and  Benjamin  occupied  the 
lower  city.  They  were  finally  dispossessed  by  David 
(2  Kings  V.  7).  The  name  J.  is  first  mentioned 
m  Joshua  z.  1,  It  lies  upon  the  original  border 
of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  tiie  Une  of  which  runs 
through  the  valley  of  Hinnom ;  so  that  Zion  and 
the  northern  ci^  lay  within  the  territory  of  Benja- 
min. Ita  histoncal  importance  dates  from  the  time 
of  David,  who  there  fixed  his  residence,  calling  it 


for  a  cons: 


altar  to  the  Lord,  on  the  place  of  the  appari- 
1  of  the  angel  by  which  the  plague  waa  stayed 
EinZB  xxiv.  26).  The  building  of  the  temple 
under  &>lomoa  was  the  consummation  of  the  dignity 
—  9   further   enlarged. 


and  holiness  of  J.,   which  i 


importance  through  the  revolt  and  eeoeesion  of  the 
Ten  Tribes,  tioia  which  date  its  history  is  idcn^ed 
with  that  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  It  was  pillaged 
(973  B.C.)  by  Sesao  (Shishak)  king  of  ^pt 
(2  Chron.  xii.  9),  by  Joaah  king  of  Israel  (4  KmgH 
liv.  13,  H);  and  finally  (688  b-c),  it  was  token, 
after  a  siego  of  three  years,  by  Nabuchodonosor, 
who  razed  its  walls,  and  destroyed  the  temple  and 
palaces  by  fire  (4  Kings  zxv.).  Having  been  rebuilt 
after  the  Captivity  (6w  B.C.),  it  was  again  token  and 
pill^[ed  under  Ptolemy  Lapis  (320  B.O.),  and  under 
Astiochna  Epiphanes  (IGl  S.C.),  after  the  well-known 
and  mysterious  repulse  of  Heliodorus  (17G  B.C);  and 
Pompey  (63  S.C)  took  the  dty  on  the  annivenary  of 


ind,  sparing  at  the  si 


.      „      ,  .    ,  .  these 

beginnings  dates  the  continued  series  of  Bomaji 
aggressiouB,  which  terminated  in  the  complete 
destruction  of  the  city  and  dispersion  of  the  Jewish 
race,  under  Vespasian  and  Titus  (70  A.D.).  From  the 
description  of  the  contemporary  historian  Josephus, 
we  learn  that  at  this  period,  J.,  which  occupied  the 
four  lulls  Zion,  Acra,  Moriah,  and  Bezetha  (separated 
from  each  other  by  deep  valleys  or  gorges),  consisted 
of  throe  distinct  regions — the  Upper  City,  with  the 
dtodel  of  Zion ;  the  Lower  City,  which  lay  to  the 
north,  on  the  hilla  of  Acra  and  Moriah ;  and  the  New 
City,  BtiU  further  to  the  northward.  The  lemple 
stood  on  the  hill  of  Moriah,  and  John  Hyrcanos 
bnilt,  on  the  north-western  azigle  of  this  hill,  a 
fortress  called  Baris,  which  waa  strengthened  aiid 
beautified  by  Herod,  and  called  '  Antonia,'  in  honoar 
of  Mark  Antony.  Herod's  own  palace  stood  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Upper  City,  and  ou  the 
eastern  angle  was  an  open  pla^  called  Xystns, 
surrounded  by  g^eries,  and  communicating  by  a 
bridge  with  t^e  temple.  The  environs  of  the  ci^ 
were  adorned  with  gardens,  parks,  porida,  and  tomba. 
In  the  progreoB  of  ages,  ancient  J.  was  sumninded 
by  three  walls,  the  direction  of  which,  in  some 
portions  of  their  course,  is  difficult  to  be  deter- 
mined, although  it  is  npou  this  that  the  contro- 
versy as  to  the  authentic  site  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
(q.  V.)  miunly  turns.  (A  plan  of  the  city  wiH  be 
given  along  with  the  map  of  PALEsriHE,  q.  v.)  The 
first  and  moot  ancient  wall  surrounded  the  Upper 
(Tity  on  the  hill  of  Zion,  and  joined  on  ita  northern 
side  the  prodromum  of  the  temple.  The  second 
waV,  or  the  wall  of  Ezechias,  endosed  the  hill  Acra, 
around  which  stood  the  Lower  City.  It  waa  con- 
nected at  the  soath-westem  angle  with  the  first 
wall,  from  which  it  ran  in  a  semicircle  to  the  nolth 
and  north-east,  surrounding  the  Upper  City  till  it 
joined  the  fortress  Antonia,  described  above.  The 
third  wall,  built  by  Herod  Agripw,  which  ^doaed 
the  hill  Bezetha  and  the  so-coIIed  Bew  City,  app^n 
to  have  started  from  the  north-western  angle  of  the 
first  wall,  probably  at  the  tower  called  '  Hippiens,' 
and  to  have  taken  a  northe^  and  north-ei^terly 
direction  around  th*  New  City  till  it  met  the 
north-eastern  angle  of  the  temple  wall  It  thus, 
for  a  part  of  its  course,  was  external  to  the  second 
walL  The  site  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchn 
and  the  Hilt  of  CTslvary  ore  thus  auppoaed,  by  the 


that  ii,  tha  aecaod  wall,  olthon^  th^  were  taken 
in  hy  tha  aubsequent  ezteoiian  of  tlie  city  a  short 
timo  oftarwards,  when  the  third  wall  woa  built,  at 
aame  diatance  to  the  west  of  the  aecond,  bv  Ewod 
Agrippa.  The  iDvesti^tion  of  the  exact  direction 
of  the  second  wbU  has  long  been  an  object  of  desire 
with  biblical  antiquaries,  and  it  ia  probable  that 
the  eieavationB  now  projected  or  in  progress  will 
remove  all  uncertainty. 

ITie  city  deBtroyed  by  Titns  waa  rebuilt  by 
Eadmn ;  bat  only  aa  a  heathen  and  Boioan  city, 
undea  the  name  ^ia  Capitolina,  with  a  temple  of 
Jupiter ;  not  as  the  capital  of  the  Jewish  race,  who 
were  forbidden,  under  pain  of  deatli,  to  visit  iL 
Constontine,  under  the  iospiration  of  his  mother 
Helena,  took  measures  to  cousecrato  and  perpetuate 
its  ChnstioQ  memories  by  ascertaining  the  sites  of 
the  various  eventi  in  the  Passion  of  our  Lord, 
ftnd  erecting  on  them  churches  and  other  suitable 
memorials  of  those  scenes  of  the  redemption  of  tbe 
worid,  which  thenceforward  became  an  object  of 
pious  veneration  to  pilgrims  from  every  part  ot  the 
church.  On  the  contrary,  Julian  Uie  Apostate, 
with  the  design,  according  to  tha  contemporary 
Christian  account,  of  falsfying  the  predictioD  of 
our  Lord,  that  '  not  one  stone  should  tie  left  upon 
another,'  encouraged  and  assisted  the  Jews  to 
return  and  Tebnild  their  ancient  capital ;  so  enter- 
prise which,  as  the  >ame  writera^-eupported,  in 
most  respects,  b^  the  pa^n  historian  Ammianug 
Marcellinus  (iniL  1) — affirm,  was  fruatraitcd  by 
an  earthquake  or  eruption,  which  the  Christians 
ascribed  to  divine  inteipoeition. 

J.  again  fell  under  foreign  domination  in  614, 
when  it  was  stormed  by  the  Persian  king,  Choeroea 
IL  It  was  restored  to  the  Emperor  I^racliua  in 
628;  but  in  637  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Calif 
Omar,  and  in  1077  passed  under  the  Turkman 
domination.  During  this  long  period,  the  practice 
of  pilgrimages  to  J.  was  never  entirely  interrupted 
In  considerstion  of  a  tribute  paid  by  each  Christian 
visitor,  a  oontemptuoua  permission  was  accorded 
for  tha  purpose  ;  but  the  cruelties  practised  on  the 
pilgrims  by  the  Turks  being  reported  in  the  West, 
and  especially  by  the  fiery  enthusiast  Peter  the 
Hermit,  arousiHl  the  piety  and  chivalry  of  Europe, 
and  led  to  that  extraordinary  succession  of  holy 
wars  which  far  a  timo  restored  the  tomb  of  our 
Lord  and  the  holy  city  to  Christian  hands.  On 
the  tSth  July  1090,  J.  was  taken  by  assault,  and 
was  declared  the  capital  of  a  Christian  kingdom. 
Throu^  a  rapid  succession  of  undistinguished 
namea,  with  tlie  exception  of  the  first,  tho  cele- 
brated Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  the  new  sovereignty 
was  precariously  maintained  until  1187.  when  it 
fell  once  more  before  the  arms  of  the  great  Saladin, 
since  which  timo — if  we  except  the  brief  and 
empty  pageant  in  which  Fredenck  IL,  emperor  of 
Germany,  having  assumed  tho  title  by  a  collnsivs 
treaty  with  the  saltan,  entered  into  J.  in  March 
1229^tha  ciU'  can  hardly  bo  said  to  have  known 
other  than  Moslem  mleiB.  It  was  retaken  by  the 
Sultan  of  Damascus  in  12.^;  and  althoach  it  was 
given  up  in  1241  to  the  Knidits  HospitalleiH,  they 
were  driven  oat  in  the  year  1244  by  the  Chorosmian 
Turks,  bv  whom  tba  ascendency  of  the  Crescent 
was  finally  established.  It  wss  captured  from  Hie 
Saracens  by  the  Mamelukes  in  1332,  but  recovered  in 
1517  by  the  Saltan  Selim,  whose  son,  the  celebrated 
goliman,  built  the  wall  which  at  present  encloses 
the  city.  J.  is  now  the  seat  of  a  pasha,  with  the 
ordinary  powers  of  a  Tnrkish  viceroy. 

It  TDmains  to  describe  the  present  condition  ot 
Uwcity.    It  ia  situated  in  31- 1&' 43"  N.lat.,3ri3' 


which  it  is  distant  29  miles 
shape,  it  is  an  iire^ilar  sqai 
rounded   by  the   embattled  i 
in  circumference,  erected  by 
The  modem  enclosure,  howev 
ciding  witli  that  of  the  Jewi> 
tion  to  the  changes  producet 
of  the  city  under  Hadrian,  b, 
part  of  the  region  anciently  ( 
was  eiclnded,  the  stream  of 
Christian  period  having  flowet 
Places,  the    modern  city  has 
ably  towards  the  weet    The  foi 
ancient  city  atood  ore  enclosed 
preoincta ;  bat  the  portion  of  tt 
north  of  Beietha  ie  now  eielni 
between  the  bills  having  been  i 
lation  of  ruins,  but  litue  ineq 
observable.    Tha  atra«ts  a 
and  irregular,  and  tlia  hoosai  | 
metrical;  alUiough,  owing  to  i1 
especially  when  viewed  mnn  t] 
number  of  minarata  and  domes  i 
level  of  the  flat-toofed  houses  ' 
of  the  city,  seen  from  wit; 
and  pleaaiDg.    There  are  seven 
principal  are  Mm  Jaffa  Gate,  tl 
the  Stephen's  Gate,  and  the  Zi 
be  drawn  between  tlwBe  four  f 
be  divided  into  four  parls,  whu 
with  the  foor  qoarteis  into  wl 
— Cbristiaa,   Armenian,  Jewish, 
divided;  the  Christians  occnpyii 
the  Armenians   the   south-west 

portions  of  the  space  within  t 
popuhition— which  ts  about  18,000 
medans;  8000  or  9000  are  Jewt 
Christiana  of  the  various  ritet 
i*  the  seat  of  many  at 
s  have  seven  small 
The  Mohammedans,  s 
occupation,  have  hdd 
jha  Temple  ol  ScJomoi 
so-called  Mosque  of  Omar  now 
psaha's  Seraiyah,  or  offioial  remdi 
sito  of  tha  Tower  Antonia.  The  C. 
Sepulchre  (see  Holy  Place),  v. 
which  is  occupied  by  all  t^e  ( 
nities  in  oommon,  haa  been  olreod; 
'   ■  ■  for  their  qwn  woi 

._    ..    .  ,   it  ia  attached  b 

convent,  in  which  Europeans  of  i 
receive  ready  hospitality,  la  1 
Greeks,  Annenions,  Syrians,  Copts, 
hare  convents  or  hospitals  appn 
several  oommunioDS.  That  of  tt: 
Mount  Zlan  is  said  to  be  one  of  tl 
East ;  and  the  same  commnnion  ] 
convent  on  the  reputed  aito  of  the  n 
The  street  leading  from  the  East 
Gate  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre  is 
Dohrota,  and  ia  neliaved  to  folli 
our  Lord's  sorrowful  irocession  fi 
Judgment  to  Mount  Calvaiy.  Ii 
tbe  city  or  ite  immediate^  environs, 
reputed  sites  of  the  Mount  of  Olii 
the  Virgin,  the  Fool  of  Bethesda,  th 
and  the  sites  of  almost  all  the  event 
of  our  Lord  or  of  scene*  connected 
authenticity  of  thtse  site*  has  be 
of  considerable  controveny  in  lat 
Holt  Placb.     Beyond  it*  reUmt 


Jtrutalein  wore,  vut.,  ch^ileti,  onunnzea,  b«Mfl, 
aannet,  to.,  nude  of  motim-ol-iMMi  or  wood.  Mid 
Bold  to  the  pilgrim*,  who  nmolNr  from  6000  to  8000 
BDimaUy.  Conndenbla  i^nantitiea  ofthsM  vUoles 
are  alw  exported  to  Spun,  It>l7,  and  Fianoe.  The 
bead*  are  either  beniet  or  u«  mannfactiiTed  eitliar 
from  date-rtonee  or  from  x  ipeciei  of  hard  Tood 
coUod  Meooa  fruit.  For  the  lus  of  the  Hohammedan 
pilgrimo — for  whom  the  Moaqne  of  Omar  i*  only  in- 
ferior in  lacTedDetB  to  Meoca  and  Medina — there  is 
a  considerable  raaaufactore  of  amnlete  of  black 
atone,  reputed  to  be  a  protection  aguntt  the  plagan. 
In  eooleaiaatical  hittory,  J.  his  not  filled  the 
•paoa  'whioh  mi^t  at  Srtt  tight  be  expected.  Wlien 
the  citv  Tai  rebuilt  after  iti  deatraction  onder 
Titm,  t^  new  city  ^it  was  bo  inconiiderable  M  a 
Christian  oommimity,  that  it  became  a  rsoAagaa  aee 
of  the  metropolitan  of  Cmaiea.  The  Coonoil  of 
Kice  recoc^sed  k  precedenor  of  honour ;  bnt  it  waa 
not  till  the  Coonoil  oC  CfaaloedoD  that  the  church 
of  J.  was  railed  to  the  rank  of  a  patriaraliat«,  with 

t'liriBdiction  over  all  the  bilhopi  of  Palestine.  J., 
.owever,  ranked  laat  among  the  eastern  patriaroh- 
ntea.  In  cranmon  with  tin  other  eait«m  churches, 
J.  followed  in  the  tnun  of  Conatantinopla  in  its 
aeoeaaion  from  the  Wait.  The  patriarch  of  J.  waa 
a  party  to  the  decree  of  nnion  in  the  Council  of 
Florence ;  but  his  flock  eoon  fell  back  into  sohism ; 
and  although  the  titular  rank  t^  patriarch  of  J.  has 
beeb  maintained  in  Borne,  the  chumh  remained 
under  the  care  «f  the  FMncumm  oommmiity,  and 
tJto  Idtin  patriarch  lutd  nerar  redded  in  J.  until 
the  acoesnon  of  the  preaent  pop^  Pius  DL,  by 
whom  the  datr  of  residence  wu  re-establiahed.  In 
the  year  1S41,  the  gorenunenta  of  England  and 
Prussia  united  for  the  eotabliahnient  of  a  Protea- 
tant  bishoprio  in  iL,  the  appointment  to  which  rests 
alt«iiately  with  Englaod  and  with  Frusaia.->-Sae 
Robinaon'a  .SiMicnJ  Seieardie*,  Stanley's  Sinai  and 
Palatine,  WilliMU^i  Hotg  Oily,  Biohaidson's  TrnM^* 
along  (Ae  MtdUmvamn,  Bitter's  Brdhmde,  Sepp's 
For»Aange»  ana  TeuUdim  Rateaden;  and  on 
the  Fatnarehate,  Wiltsch'i  ftreMicfttf  ChagrapMe, 
Le  Qoien'i  Ori«nf  OhritRamu,  Moahmm's  Chvnh 
Hitiory. 

JERUSALEM  A5TT0H0KE,  or  TOPINAM. 
BUBI  {HdiantKas  tuheromu),  a  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Composila,  ond  of  the  some  genus  with  the 
common  Sunflower  (q.  vX  is  a  native  of  BraziL  The 
word  Jertaalem,  in  the  Endidi  name,  is  a  corroptioa 
of  the  Italian  giraeoU,  aunflowsr ;  the  name  ariichoks 
is  merely  from  a  supposed  similarity  of  flavour  in 
the  eatuile  part — the  tuber- — to  the  artichoke.  The 
J.  A.  has  straight  simple  sterna  from  eight  to  twelve 
feet  high,  and  many  rough  ovate  acute  stalked 
leaves ;  and  in  the  end  of  aatumn,  but  rarely  in 
Scotland,  produces  yellow  flowers  resembling  those 
of  the  common  annflower,  but  smaller.  The  thick, 
fleshy,  and  knotted  perennial  root  produces,  pretty 
oloeely  around  it,  oval  or  roundish  tuben,  some- 
timee  Uiirty  or  Art  in  nombin',  which  ore  reddiah 
on  the  outside,  and  whitish  within,  in  appearance 
velj  similar  te  potatoes.  They  hare  a  swet ' '  ' 
mncilaginaua  taste  when  boiled,  and  are  much  : 
watery  and  lesa  nouriBhine  than  potetoes.  They 
ore,  however,  very  potable,  when  properly 
pared  with  ssnce,  and  moke  vety  good  soup, 
plant  it  also  useful  for  fodder  tor  cattle,  yielded 
by  its  leaves  and  the  more  tender  parts  of  tno  stems. 
TTie  fibre  of  the  stems  may  probably  be  found 
voloable  for  paper-making.  The  stems  and  leave* 
contain  much  mtre,  and  have  been  used  for  making 
potash.  The  J.  A.  ia  scarcely  an  agricoltoral  crop 
in  Biitun,  although  it  is  to  some  extent  in 


1  gave  plaooi      It   la 


JemsaJem  Artloholie  ^HdianOau  fuberuw). 

generally  propagated  by  small  tubers,  or  cuttingi  of 
tiiberB,  like  the  potate  ;  and  it*  cnltivatdon  is  in 
most  reepeets  similar,  sjthongh  the  aspect  of  the 
plant  is  very  different. 

JBRVI8,  JoBiT,  Earf  of  6t  Vincent,  a  British 
admiral,  was  born  January  9,  173*.  He  obtained  a 
commission  in  the  navy  aa  lieutenant  in  1766,  «nd  in 
1769  commanded  the  Ahata  frigate  in  the  Mediter- 
roDeao.  When  she  was  paid  off,  he  made  a  tour 
of  inspection  to  the  naval  sisenab  of  Franoe  and 
Northern  Europe.  He  was  then  appointed  to  the 
Foadroya/ai,  the  fineet  two-deck  ship  in  the  Britidi 
navy,  and  engaging  the  Pegate,  74,  off  Brest,  he  tocdc 
her  without  the  loss  of  a  man.  For  this  gallant 
exploit,  he  was  made  K.C.B.  In  1787,  he  was  made 
rear-admiral ;  in  1793,  he  commanded  the  naval 
part  of  the  expedition  against  the  West  India 
Islands,  Sir  C.  Grey  commanding  the  troops ;  and 
so  BQcoessfnl  was  this  expeditioii,  that  although  the 
French  were  well  prepared,  and  ba^A  despwtely, 
ever^  island  fell  iu  suoeesrion  into  aa  hands  of  t£e 
Brittsh.  In  1795,  be  reoedved  the  command  of  tiw 
Meditercanean  fleet ;  and  here,  for  the  flrst  time^  ha 
mode  the  aoqaointance  of  Nelson,  Hood,  Colling- 
wood,  HaUoweU,  Troubridge.  ftc  On  the  14th  Fek 
1797,  with  only  fifteen  sail  of  the  line,  he  fell 
In,  off  Gape  9t  Vinoent,  with  the  Spanish  fleet  of 
twenty-seven  ta3.  Witiiont  a  moment's  hesitatian, 
J.  determined  te  en^^  the  ehemy ;  and  the  battle 
of  8t  Vinoent  was  fought.  The  genius  of  Ketaon, 
however,  contributed  greatly  to  the  nocoes*  of  the 
day.  For  this  victory,  the  king  created  J.  ^ui  8t 
Vincent,  and  parliament  settled  upon  him  a  pen ' 
'*  "*"■"  "  yetu'.    After  having,  br  f^eat  flrmn 


health  to  return  home.  He  wis  soon  applied  to  by 
the  spirit  of  sedition  whica 
ftoelt  in  the  Channel  fleet; 


Ovemment  to  subdnl  the  si 


d  openly  mai 
dhia  endeavo 


niiblio  n 

hii  memory  in  St  Paul's  CkthednL  Hiitory  hae 
snrolled  th«  luuna  of  St  Tinoent  in  the  first  rank 
of  the  eminecLt  nsT&l  ooiruiuwuieta  who  broke  tha 
maiitima  pow«r  of  Fnuca  Mid  Spain,  and  ecUb- 
lialisd  tha  naval  (apraiuwijr  of  Oreot  Britoiii. 
JB'SBAHINK  See  Jiwam. 
JStBBAST,  in  Heraldry,  ipringing  forth,  »  term 
frequently  lucd  as  synonymoiui  viiiLlttuarU,  riling, 

^^ y  as  a  dami-lion  is  often  rcpweented 

f  doing,  from  th«  bottom  line  of  a 
field,  or  npper  line  ot  >n  ordinary. 
Jeaunt  »  Bometimea  oaed  im- 
properly for  naiuant,  or  rising 
from  uie  middle  of  an  ordinary. 
The  ^uaie  Jeinait-deMt  is  used 
with  respect  to  a  strange  haraldio 
derice  representing  a  leopard's 
JeMant-de-Iis.     head  nffronit  with   a   flenrnie-lia 

rang  thTon^  it.  Th«  fomilv 
beu«  aabu^  a  leopard'fl  head 
argent  jessant-de-lii ;  and  Roles,  three  leopards' 
heads  josinnt-da-lis  or,  are  the  arms  of  the  bmily 
of  Caotelope. 

JBBSO.    SeeYxBBO, 

JESStysB,  a  town  of  Bengal  Proper,  capital  of 
a  dirtiict  of  the  same  name,  i«  77  miles  to  the 
nortli-east  of  Calcutta,  in  lat  23"  IV  N.,  and  long. 
89*  Iff  E,  Pop.  QSIl)  8152.  Here,  in  1838,  was 
ereoted,  by  the  semindais  of  the  neighboorhood,  a 
commodious  school,  in  which  instniction  is  given 
in  Bngl'^li,  Persian,  and  Bengali. — The  dittnet  of 
JesBore  contaiiu  SC28  lanare  miles,  and  (IS71) 
2,075,021  inhabitants.  Salt  is  obtained  from  the 
southern  frontier;  and  sogar  and  rum  are  largely 
prepared  from  the  sap  of  the  palm-tree. 

JESSDXME'RE,  a  fortified  dty  of  Bajpootana, 
cqiilal  of  ths  protected  state  of  tha  same  name^ 
contains  about  35,000  inhabitanli).  It  is  in  lat  26° 
S6'  N.,  and  lone  70'  SS  B,,  being  1290  miles  to  the 
north-west  of  Calcutta.  ItfaasieverslJsinatemides, 
and  TsiioDS  tanks  aod  wcUa,  tha  only  sources  of 
water^upply. — Hie  sfofa  of  Jessolmere  coi^iuns 
as  area  of  12,202  square  mils^  and  abont  79,000 
inhabitants;  The  oountoy  is  pow  and  sterile,  and 
the  pahlio  leTenus  is  under  £9iKNX 

JBTBUrre,  or  SOCIETY  OF  JESUS,  a  oelArated 
religious  order  of  the  Binnaa  Cathi^  Church,  wfaidi 
has  filled  a  Urge  spaoe  in  the  eecIesiMlical  and  even 
the  pohtioal  histo^  of  Um  wcrld.  It  was  founded 
in  1034,  b^  the  w^-known  Ignatins  of  Ltnnola  (see 
LoTOLi),  ui  eonoert  with  fnt  asjocJatss  Peter  La 
Fern,  a  SaTOTard;  three  ^ttniaids — James  I^inez, 
Franeis  Xaner,  and  Nicholas  Bobadilla;  and  a 
Portnguesa  named  Kodrigoss.  The  origjnal  objsot 
of  satociation  wss  limited  to  a  pilgtimage  '     "" 


to  an;  country  which  the  pop 
them.  The  new  rule  was  apprc 
S^tember  27,  1510 ;  and  in  th< 
amociation  was  pcactioally  ina 
by  the  election  of  Ignatiua  of 

The  original  constitution  of  th 

ri  so  few  sabaeqaent  modiSc 
described   without   speoifyi 
it  is  commonly  r^ires 
-'    yet  the  authority 
.lect^  strictly  limito 
the  general — who  ia  elected  by 
profasaed  members  selected  for  t 
whole  body  of  profewed  memb> 
irinoas — holds  his  offioa  for  1 


Iisnd,  and  a  miuion  for  the  cm-Tecaion  of 
mndelB ;  but  as  all  access  to  the  Holy  Land  was 
precluded  by  the  outbreak  of  a  war  with  the  Turks, 


turned  their  thonriil 
oomprehensiTO  organisation,  spaciuly  dssiffned  to 
meet  l^ose  more  modem  requirements  which  had 
arisen  since  the  B^ormation.  With  this  view, 
Ignatius  of  Ixmila,  with  Lainez  and  Le  FeTia, 
haTing  meaniriiile  recruited  seraal 


pope, ,  ,     . 

the  great  aim  of  which  was  expressed  in  their 
adopted  motto :  Ad  ma^orem  Da  Olorkan  (To  God's 
greater  glory) ;  and  the  tow  of  wbioh,  in  addition 
to  the  t&eetold  obligations  common  to  all  Catholio 
religious   orders,  of  eluwti^,  porerty,  and  obedi- 


1  his 


fire  assistants  from  the  five  ctu 
not  oblised  to  follow  their  Toioe, 
mons.  Bu^  rai  Uie  other  hand,  1 
by  the  ccmstitutkinB  of  the  ordet 

his  own  anthori^,  to  annul  or  to 
oojutttntions*  In  like  manner,  al' 
of  dapoaiticm  has  e 
dsposed  by  the  sentence  of  a  „ 
in  certain  contingencies  which  an . 
out  by  'Uie  constitutions. 

The  body  ovw  which  this  ganan 
of  four  classes ;  1.  Professed,  wl 
through  all  preparatory  stages, 
extend  over  ten  or  twelve  years 
period,  have  solemnly  taken  th 
above,  including  that  of  obedie: 
It  is  from  tJtia  class  idone  that 

Coadiutois,  qiiritnal  and  tempor 
have  complsted  their  studies, 
re  their  thirty-seoond  year,  oi 
admitted  to  holy  ordeis — beini'  ( 
the  prof  cased  in  pr<a<^iiiift  teadiii 
tion  tA  souls;  the  latter  being  lay-1 
the  minor  and  menial  ofBcea  of 
■Migned.  3.  Scholastic*,  who,  havii 
the  tiovitiate,  ate  eiWBjged  fcT  a  kn 
either  in  pQisuing  t&ir  own  stndi 
in  VbB  vancaa  tohools  of  the  «s 
novices,  who,  after  a  short  trial  se 
admisaion,  are  engaged  for  two  ye* 
spiritual  exorcises,  pn>yer,  meditab 
ing,or  sacelic  practwee,  and  g«ne 
tA  disen>lina^  b'aininc  The  adj 
azecntive  government  ot  the  socr 


tha  vaiions  |covinoea  or  ooontrie* 
'ivided,  is  intrusted,  under  the  ge 
lala,  who  are  named  by  the  genera) 
I  do  all  tha  other  officials,  fmr  tlire> 
iparata  ^ovinca,  tiiere  are  three  1 
itica  profaned  hoosea  oc  resideni 
novitiates.  Not  only  the  snpoiiors  o 
who  are  called  by  diSerent  namea- 
■ions  office-bearars  in  each,  are  i 
leial,  who  receives  at  stated  infa 

Joatierly  from  at^ 
rept^  of  tha  chi 


tha  obligation  of  obedience  is  immei 
served ;  and  one  ot  tite  most  bmi 
agunst  the  soi^ety  is,  that  tins  dn 
implicit  obedimoe  m^es  the  snperi 
final  arbiter  of  conscieooe  for  all  h 
judge  of  good  and  evil,  of  virtue  and 
tbeUM,  whatever   may  be  said  ot 


the  •o-mUed  '  ezomen '  o(  tibe  coniiidate,  there  ii 
(joatuDed,  in  tile  daty  oC  oiradicoca  to  a  superior,  mi 
ei^lidt  leBemtioii  tor  the  nibjecl^  'iinlesi  where 
the  HnpeiioF  should  oomnumd  what  is  mnful.' 

Sach  ia  the  internal  orgaoiaatiou  of  this  leuowned 
Bssociatioa,  llis  iTstem  of  traiaLU)^  apphed  to 
the  formatitm  of  its  membera  eihibita  the  mnt 
profound  knowledge  of  the  human  heart,  and  the 
mo«t  correct  Bj^treciation  of  the  religious  instinct! 
Mtd  impulse*  of  mankind.  The  long  ezerciaeB  of 
the  nontiate  were  designed  by  Ignatius  to  form.  Uis 
indiviiiUial  ehanuiter  in  habits  of  penonal  hohnees, 
and  pnurtices  ot  personal  [uety.  It  was  the  business 
of  the  Mhoal  and  college  to  form  the  social  char- 
acter of  tiie  futore  teadiers  of  men,  and  directors 
of  the  destuiieB  of  society.  To  learning  carefully 
adapted  to  the  actual  condition  and  progress  oi 
knowledge,  they  sought  to  add  manners  and  habits 
calculate  to  iiuipire  confidence,  and  to  disarm 
jodice  and  suspicion.    Unlike  the  older  orden. 


usterity  or  ascetiiSsm. 

respects,   some    ex.    .  . 

B  priotioes  of  other  otdera.    Their  ohurchee 

were  but  dengned  as  supplementary  to  those  of 
the  parish  dragy  {whose  ordinary  costume  they 
adopted  as  their  own  conventual  dress),  without 
the  canonical  serrices,  without  mach  imposing  or 
attractive  ceremonial,  being  chiefly  appropriated 
for  religious  instructiOD,  and  for  the  duties  of  the 
confesBionaL  Their  casuistry  avoided  all  harsh 
and  excessive  rigour ;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  some  of  their  wiiteis  carried  it  to  the  apposite 
extreme.  But  kbove  all,  they  addressed  theia- 
selves  to  the  great  want  of  their  time— edncation ; 
and  tiirough  the  mastery  which  they  soon  obtained 
in  this  importsjit  field,  as  well  as  their  eminence  in 
every  department  of  learning,  divinity,  philosophy, 
history,  soholarship,  antiquities,  and  letton,  they 
attained  to  unboondod  influence  in  every  department 
of  society.  It  may  be  added  that  to  their  eitnor- 
dinary  success  in  thus  drawing  to  themselves,  for 
education,  the  youth  of  evoy  country  into  which 
they  were  introduced,  the  historians  ol  the  society 
sBcribs  much  ol  the  op^Dsttion  which  tbej  encotin- 
tered  fran  the  aniversibieB  and  collegiate  bodies 
whose  monopolies  tiiey  invaded. 

The  organisation  of  the  society  is  settled,  in 
every  important  particular,  by  the  <»iginal  rules 
and  constitutious  of  St  Ignatius.  The  opponents 
of  the  J.,  however,  allege  that,  in  addition  to  these 
public  and  avowed  constitutions,  there  exists  in 
the  society,  for  the  guidance  of  their  hidden  actions, 
and  for  the  private  direction  of  tbe  thoroughly 
ioitiated  members,  a  secret  code,  entitled  Moaiia 
Sterela  (Secret  Instructions),  which  was  meant  to 
be  reserved  solely  for  the  private  guidauce  of 
the  more  advanced  members,  and  which  was  not 
only  not  to  be  communicated  to  the  genenil  body, 
but  was  to  be  boldly  repudiated  by  aJl,  should  its 
existence  at  any  time  be  suspected  or  discovered. 
This  singular  code,  a  mastei^piece  of  emit  and  liuph- 
cily,  wss  first  printed  at  Cracow  iu  1612,  and  has 
been  repeatedly  reprinted  by  the  enemies  of  the 
J. ;  but  it  is  indigoantly  disdaimed  by  the  society. 
The  accounts  of  Uie  time  and  circumstmces  of  its 
discovery  are  suspicious  and  contradictory.  The 
book  has  been  repeatedly  condemned,  both  at  Borne 
and  by  other  authorities,  as  well  as  by  the  society, 
and  its  apocryphal  ohancter  is  now  commonly 
admitted  (see  Btfbier,  DiciiotMoire  da  Anonjpna). 

The  history  of  the  society  is  so  varied  in  vxe 
different  oonntriea,  that  it  w  necessary,  although 


tbe  restontion  ot  the  order. 


'   was   brilliant    and 


Ignatius,  in  1566,  the  Italian  X  hod  swelled  to  1000 
in  number,  and  the  oider  was  established  in  twelve 
provinces.    Ttieir  fint  check  in  Italy  oocoTTed  in 
Venice.    In  the  contest  of  tliis  repubUc  with  Pool    j 
V.  (q.  v.),  the  J-,  taking  the  side  of  Itome,  accepted,    | 
in  1606,  the  alternative,  proposed  by  the   senmte, 
of  leaving  the  Yenetian  territory ;  nor  was  it  tQl 
1656  that  tht?  were  re  .established  in  Venioe,  from    I 
which  time  mej  continued  to  enjoy  nndisbubed 
influence  in  Italy  until  the  ■iipiiiHBiiiii  of  the  differ. 

The  earliest  settlements  of  Uie  J.  outside  ol  Ita^ 
were  in  Portunl  and  Spain.     In  ISIO,  Bodxigoea    I 
—who  was  a  Portuguese  nobleman— ood  Francis 
Xavier  opened  colleges  in  Portugal,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  the  king.    Fmncls  Borgia,  Doke  of  Gsodio,    j 
in  Spain,  was  equally  well  received  in  his  native 
country,  where  the    order  flourished  so   raiadlv,    | 
that,  at  the  time  of  the  suppression,  the  Spanish  J- 
numbered  above  6000.  I 

In  France,  althon|^  a  house  for  novices  was    I 
founded   in    Paris   by   St    Ignatius    in  15^  Uw    ' 
university  of  Paris  opposed  their  introdnotioii  aa    < 
unneceasary,  and  irreconcilable  with  its  privilogos.    | 
They  were  diataatefol  to  Bopporters  of  the  Gollican 
liberties,  and  still  more  to  the  Huguenots.  The  joiist^    I 
the  pailiament,  and  the  partisans  of  absolatism,    '. 
were  alarmed  by  the  free  political  opinions  which    1 
had  found  expression  in  some  of  the  Jeluit  schools.    | 
On  the  other  hand,  the  democratic  party  attributed    i 
to  them  a  sinister  use  of  their  influence  with  conrts. 
And  thus  their  progress  in  France  was  slow,  and 
their  position  at  all  times  precarioas.    It  was  with 
mach  difGdilty  that  the  parliament  of  Paris  con- 
sented to  register  the  royal  decree  wluch  authorised 
their  estebliBhrnent.    In   more  *-han  one  inn*^rt/.*_ 
the  naiversity  protested  against  their  schooU  a> 
invodinc  its  privileges.    In  the  wars  of  the  Learnt, 
they  did  not  fail  to  make  new  enemies;   and  at 
length,  the  oswwsinatiou  of  Henry  III.  by  Clement 
(although  no  evidence  of  any  connection  with  tiM  J. 
Bppearedin  hia  case), and  tbe  circumstano^stillmora     i 
induBtriously  urged  agunst  them,  that  Chaiel,  who     I 
attempted  the  life  of  Heniy  IT.,  had  at  one  time 
been  a  pupil  in  their  schools,  led  to  their  expulsion     . 
from  France  in  1594    They  were  leiniitatod,  how- 
ever,inl603i  but  on  the  assaasinatian  of  Heoiy  IV. 
by  Bavoillac,  the  outcry  against  them  was  renewed. 
Aitbongh  it  seems  qmte  oertain  that  this  clamour    ' 
was  utterly  without  foundation,  yet  the  opinioDs  held    ' 
by  one  of  their  order,  Mariana  (q.  v.),  oa  ths  ri^t 
of  revolt,  although  condemned  by  the  general,  gave 
a  colour  to  this  and  every  similar  impntotiim.    A    i 
less  deep  but  more  permanent  and  formidable  n 


of  unpopularity  already  described,  to  whkii  aew 
point  was  given  by  the  well-known  Jonoenist  oon- 
troversy,  and  by  the  questions  aa  to  ths  imputed 
laxity  of  the  moral  teaching  of  the  J.,  and  their 
alleged  corrupt  and  demoralising  cosuistiy.  What  i 
the  ponderous  and  indignant  prelections  of  the 
Sorboone,  and  the  learned  folios  of  the  Dominican 
and  Angustinian  schools  had  failed  to  accomplish, 
the  wit  and  brilliancy  of  the  celeloBted  ^dlrti 
Provindaia  of  Pascal  (q.  v.)  eSectuaUy  achieved. 
The  laxity  of  some  of  the  Jesuit  casuists  was 
mercilessly  exposed  by  this  brilliant  adversary, 
who  represented  it  as  the  onthorised  teachiag  of  the 
order,  and  the  crafty  maiims  and  procticea  popu-  - 
larly  ascribed  to  the  society  were  placed  b^ra 
tbe  world  in  n  light  at  onoe  exquisitely  amusing 


Bttempta  > 


happy 


nrnpathised  with  the  Tigonnit  nilleiy,  of  Pascal. 
Mw,  itideed,  could  plod  through  the  learned  but 
heavy  BcbolMticum  of  hin  adrenarieo.  In  vain 
the  J.  insisted  that  the  obnoxious  casoista  had 
been  condemiied  b;  the  vociatj  iticif ;  in  vain  they 
sheired  vhers  tiieir  opinions  differed  from  those 
impated  ta  them.  Tne  wit  of  Pascal  renuuned 
unanswered ;  and  whatever  were  the  logical  merits 
of  t^e  controverqr,  no  doubt  coold  be  entertained  ai 
to  its  p^EiIar  isaae.  The  ptmgent  pUaMutriea,  too, 
of  the  Fromneial  Lttten  were  but  a  foretaste  of  the 
acrimony  of  the  later  Janseniatical  controversiea,  in 
which  the  J.  stored  ap  for  tbemaelvea  an  aocnmu- 
lation  of  animosities  in  the  moat  various  quarters, 
the  diTines,  the  lawyer*,  the  conrtien,  which  were 
destined  to  bear  bitter  fruit  in  the  later  hiBtoir  of 
the  aociety  in  France.  Nerarthelesa,  after  a  long 
conflict,  they  enj^ed  ■  tonporaiy  triurapb  in  the 
last  years  of  the  B^ene;  and  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Louia  XV. 

Li  Germany,  the  Jesuit  inititnte  was  receired  with 
genera]  and  immediate  favour.  In  the  Catholic 
torrilurles,  Auitiia,  Bavaria,  and  the  Rheniah  princi- 
psIitiGS,  they  not  only  founded  colleges  and  other 
establidmicnts  of  their  own,  bnt  they  were  appointed 
at  Ingolstadt  and  other  universities  to  hold  unport- 
ant  profei8(»shipB,  and  reoerred  in  many  dioceses 
the  chargB  of  the  episoonl  seminaries  then  newly 
estsMished.  Befrae  the  death  of  the  first  general, 
St  tgnatios,  the  order  could  reckon  in  Germany 
26  colleges  and  10  professed  houses ;  and  T.a.iiiaT, 
the  second  general,  was  able  to  ny  tiiat  there  was 
scarce  a  German  town  of  note  which  had  qot  a  Jesuit 
college.  In  the  mixed 
.i._i_a     Their  gie 

igh  devotii —  — , 

_  ir  and  formidable  polemics.  In  Hanaai^ 
•nd  Transylvania,  much  bitterness  arose  out  of  their 
introduction ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  Bohemia 
and  Morsvia ;  and  through  the  whole  courae  of 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  we  J.,  though  in  many 
instamces  wrongfoUy,  were  regsitded  by  the  belJi- 
ssrent  Protestants  aa  the  aoiu  and  centre  of  the 
Catholic  camp. 

Id  the  NeUierlanda,  they  encountered  some  oppo- 
sition at  fint ;  but  in  1662;  Lainec,  the  second 
general  of  the  order,  came  to  the  Low  Conntries, 
and  a  college  was  opened  at  Louvun,  whioh  event- 
ually became  one  of  the  greatest  colleges  of  the 
order.  In  the  Netherlands,  the  Janseniatical  party 
was  less  numorous  and  leas  influential  thui  in 
France,  and  the  conflict  with  them  waa  less  peima- 
nently  prejadieial  to  the  Jeanita.  In  the  Protestant 
kingdonu,  the  J.  obtained  entrance  only  as  misaioa- 
aries,  and  in  some,  as  in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  under  cireumstanees  of  great  difficulty  and 
periL  From  England  they  were  ezoluded  1^  the 
penal  laws  under  pain  of  death  ;'  neverthelen,  with 

'■ ^  dsvotedncos  which  it  is  impotsibla 

■  through  the  worst 


many  parts  of  Enaland.  They  often  resorted  to 
the  most  mngnlar  iSsgnises,  and  generallr  bme  false 
Dssies ;  and  Hveral  of  'Uie  old  Boman  Catholic 
maaaions  still  shew  the  '  Priest-hole,'  which  was 
o(M)tiiv«d  aa  a  retreat  foe  them  in  cases  of  sodden 
foaargenoy.  Into  Ireland  the^  effected  an  entrance 
almost  at  the  first  foundation,  and  after  many 
vioissitQdes,  towards  Uie  close  of  the  reign  irf 
Charles  IL,  they  had  more  than  one  oonaidientble 


church.    \a  the  ForLuguesa  c 
lases  of  Francis  Xavicr  (q 
The  resultd  of  their  miaaioas 
ElCCI,  ScHALL)  were  even 
as  also  in  Northern  and  Centi 
aU,  their  eitabliahments  in  the 
in   Brazil,  in   Paraguay  and 
Pacific   coast,  in    California,  i 
Islands,  were  missions  of  civilii 
religion ;  and  Sir  John  Bowrin 
present  condition  of  the  nativ< 
FhilippiDea  to  the  present  day 
jodioions  laboma  of  the  earlj^  Je 
Such  was  this  asiociation  in  1 
history.    At  their  fint  centeoar 
bera  already  nombered  13,112,  ' 
provinces.      At  their  suppressio 
they  had  increased  to  to  22,589, . 
of  24  profeaaed  houees,  669  collej 
61  novitiates,  335  residences,  a 
stations  in  infidel  countries,  or 
ates  of  Euro[|e. 

The  decline  in  the  fortunes  of  t 
decisivB  in  its  couBummstion.    Tl 
they  sustained  was  in  FortngaL 
colonial  territory  having  been  efii 
Icingdom  and  the  crown  of   3[ 
'  BeductioDB '   of   Far^uay   (q.  v 
Jesoit  missionariea  posaeased  an 
eign,    were    tnosferred   to 
e  Indians  havlne  reidtted 
Portuguese  ascribed  their  disafF 
misDonaries.      The    Portnsnae 
de  Carvalho,  to  whom   ue  J. 
possessions  m  Portugal  had  Ion) 
of  desire,  inatitnted  a  commissioi 
while  it  was  still  pending,  an  at 
le  king,  Josept^  which  waa  h 
of  tha  J.,  furnished  hint  wiUi  a 
impeachment ;   and  without  vuti 
proof  of  either  accusation,  he  issa 
IT69,   a   royal  decree,  by   which 
[p^ad  from  the  kingilom.      Tl 
lUowed  in  other  kingdonu.    In  I 
Dake  de  Chojaeul,  the  ii       "'  ' 

disgrace  of  the  J.  Was  a 

er  Lavalette,  a 
Martinqne,  had  consignea  to  a  com 
MarseilTas  two  valuable  cargoes,  w 
by  Boalish  cniisers,  and  Lavalette 
meet  tne  bills,  the  Marseilles  men 
euocessfully  against  the  order.     Th 
Lavalette  acted  not  only  without 
the  order,  but  against  its  positive  ci 
appealed  to  the  parliament  of  Pc 
sentence.      The  inqairy  thus  nuse 
opportunity  of  which  the  ancient 
order  in  the  parliament  eagerly  avs 
A  report  on  the  constitatiooa  of  thi 
damnatory,  was  speedily  drawn  up, 
made  for  the  suppression  of  the 
Mmoilable,  in  its  constitation  an 
tnteresta  of  the  state  and  oC  Boci< 
effort  waa  made  to  arrest  the  proc 
powerful  court-faction,  aided  by  the 
of  the  royal  mistress,  Madame  de  P 
was  irritated  by  tha  refusal  of  her  Je^i 
grant   her  absolution  unless   on  co 
separating  from  the  king,  and  bu[ 
press  by  the  philosophic  party,  can 
public  and  private,  agunst  tiie  Jesoiti 
at  oompromiae  was  propoeod  to  the  ( 
^cci,  by  which  the  obnoxious  const 
be  abolished  or  modified  \  but  Ms  un 


trial  in 
I  procurator 


■re,  or  let  them  oeua  to  exist  ),  eat  anon  su 
n^otialion ;  and  »  to;>1  edint  ma  pDbliahed  ia  1764, 
by  whioh.  the  eooiety  wm  ■appresaed  in  the  ^eueh 
territoiy.  Hub  example  vu  foUowed  by  Spaio,  in 
1767,  with  droamitaQae*  of  gr«tt  hatuueM  uid 
■event; ;   and   by   the  minor  Bourbon   ooiirtB   of 


ftnd  from  Clement  XIIL  especially,  they  received 
earnest  mpport.  Bat  hia  aucceuor,  Clement  XIV. 
(g.  v.),  iiu^ing  in  thia  and  all  other  qneiljons  of 
ohiwsh  and  state  to  the  mda  of  peace,  having  in 
vain  endeavoored  to  procore  from  the  oonrbi  b^ 
which  they  were  condemned  a  relaxation  t>t  their 
severity,  and  bein^  preued  b;  the  ambasaadora  of 
Stance  and  Spain,  at  length  iMOed,  July  21, 
1773,  the  celebrated  bull, '  Dominns  ao  Bedemptor 
Nooter,'  by  which,  without  adopting  the  ohargea 
made  against  the  aociety,  or  entering  in  onj' 
way  into  the  queation  of  their  justice,  acting 
•otely  on  the  motive  of  '  the  neace  of  the  obUPch, 
he  auppressed  the  eociety  in  all  the  atatea  of  Chris- 
tendom. The  bull  was  put  into  etecution  without 
delay.  In  Spain  and  Portugal  alone,  the  members 
of  the  society  were  driven  into  exile.  In  other 
CathoUo  conntries,  they  were  permitted  to  remain 
as  individuals  ensaged  m  the  nuniati;  or  in  literary 
occnpatjona ;  and  m  two  kingdoms,  Pmaeia  ondt^ 
Frederick,  the  Great,  and  Russia  under  Catherine, 
they  were  even  permitted  to  retain  a  qnad-oorporate 
exiiteiioe  aa  a  Bociety  for  education. 

What  was  meant,  however,  to  be  the  anppreeaioD  of 
the  society,  proved  but  a  temporary  anlpeniion.  The 
ex-memben  contiDued  in  large  numb^s,  especially 
in  the  Papal  States  and  NorUiem  Italy ;  and  soon 
after  the  £ist  etom  of  the  Bavolution  had  blown 
over,  measores  hefwi  to  be  tahen  for  the  rest<a*tion 
of  Uie  aodety.  The  first  overt  reoMauiaation  of 
Uiem  was  in  1799,  by  the  Duke  of  Fanna,  at  an 
inccnsiderabls  town  oallad  Colomo,  in  which  one 
of  the  earliest  novioea  was  the  afterwards  oelel»ated 
Mai.    lliia  proceeding  on  the  part  of  the 


1801,  Pina  TIL  permitted  the 
Kent  of  the  aooiety  in  Lithuania  and  White  Rusma, 
and  with  still  mor«  foniutlit?  in  Sicily  in  the  year 
1804.  It  was  not,  however,  until  after  the  restora- 
tion, and  tha  return  of  Pins  VIL  from  captivity, 
tiiat  tha  compete  rehabilitation  of  the  Jesurt  order 
was  effeetad,  by  the  publication  of  the  bull  SoUeituda 
Ouamim  Eedmanim,  August  7,  181^  In  the  aame 
year,  they  opened  a  novitiate  at  Rome;  and  in  1824, 
their  andent  college,  the  Collegio  Komano,  was 
RStoi«d  to  them.  ^  Modena,  Sardinia,  and  Naples, 
they  were  re-eatablished  in  1810,  aa  alto  in  Spain, 
when  their  ancient  property  and  potaeaaiona  were 
restored  to  them,  l^ey  were  agam  snppreaaed  by 
the  Cortea  in  1820,  and  anun  restored  in  1836;  but 
at  the  final  change  of  pubUo  affatn  in  Spun  in  183S, 
the  J.  shared  the  fate  of  the  other  rehgiona  eatab- 
lishmenta,  which  fell  under  the  double  influence  tA 
revolution  and  retrenchment.  In  Portugal,  they 
have  never  obtained  a  firm  footing.  Dom  Miguel, 
in  1832,  iaaoed  a  decree  for  their  restoration ;  bat 
almost  before  they  had  entered  into  poaseamon,  tha 
order  was  revened  by  Dom  Pedro  in  lS3a  Their 
position  in  £^uoe  haa  been  one  of  auSerance 
rather  than  of  postdve  authoriaation ;  nerertbelees, 
they  are  v^  numerous  and  influentiJ^,  and  Uieir 
educational  institutions  hold  the  very  highest  rank. 
In  Bel^um,  they  established  themselves  after  tiie 
levolntion,  aitd  way  now  passes  many  large  Mtab- 
Udunenta,  pnfenea  howes  aa  well  as  colleges,  which 
an  veiy  Bumeruttsly  attended  by  the  Cath^  youtik, 
MwaQof  Belgium ■■  of  other  oonnlries.  InHolland, 


C  Scotland.     In  Switseriand, 


mt  poMd, _     _   , 

th^  opened  in  1818  a  oollege  at  Frib(rai{^  iriiich 
became  a  meat  flourishing  estahliidunea^  and  sob- 
aeqnently  they  extended  thenuM^ves  to  Schwyta 
and  Lucerne ;  but  the  war  of  tlis  Soadsrbaiid  ((we 
of  the  main  causea  of  which  aroae  from  the  Jeauit 
question)  ended  in  their  expulsion  from  the  Swiss 
terntoi;.  Of  tlie  Cierman  states,  Bavaria  and 
Ausbia  tolerated  their  i«-establialimeDt  for  ednc*' 
tional  pnrposea.  In  the  Italian  proviDots  of  tlte 
former,  as  alao  in  the  Tyrol,  they  had  aigcryed  a  cer- 
tain freedom  nntil  the  revolution  of  IMS.  InBoMia, 
th^  were  placed  under  sha^  nstdctunia  in  1817 ; 
and  a  few  yean  later,  1830^  u  eonsequanoe  ^  Uicir 


by  a  final  okaee  from  the  Bosiian  territet;,  whence 
th^  still  remain  exoloded.  ^Rm  Italian  rev^ntioa 
of  1846  sariou^y  afFectad  their  portion  in  ibat 
country.  In  that  year,  Pius  IZ.  fMind  it  axpedi^ 
ia  permit  the  breaking  up  of  the  oollege  and  other 
boueee  in  Rome.  T^y  returned,  however,  with 
the  pope  himself,  and  reenmed  posscisien  of  their 
ancient  eetablishmanta.  On  the  proelamatioa  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  th^  withdMV  from  Satdinia, 
Naplee,  Sicily,  and  the  annexed  territories  tu  oeiwraL 
In  the  recent  legialation  of  the  kin^om  M  Italy, 
the  J.  have  been  visited  with  a  specisl  uMsanra  cd 
repreetion.  While  each  of  the  ether  principal  rdigioBs 
orders  is  permitted  to  retain  its  '  mother  honae '  at 
Rome,  in  which  the  general  of  the  order  laxj  r«aid^ 
the  J.  have  bean  required  to  quit  their  ^inc^al 
convemt  of  -Uie  Qesu.  In  Oennany  also  thay  have 
been  treated  with  exertional  asveritT,  being  hdd 

'*-'    -    " ~  lenta  and  adviaaia  of  the 

'atican  Gonncil,  which  are 


oomidained  it  hj  the  government  a*  infrinaw  Ae 
rights  of  the  state.  By  the  kw  of  July  A,  187£  the 
o^er  is  excluded  from  the  empire  ;  its  eetablJA- 
ments  ate  aboliahed ;  and  all  lors^  Jeadti  arc 
ordered  to  be  expelled,  and  the  Qesman  maanbera  el 
the  society,  as  well  aa  of  kindred  orders  and  con- 
ciegations,  to  be  'interned.' — He  literature  of  the 
history  of  the  J.,  whetiier  hoetile  or  friendly,  is 
almost  endless  in  extent  and  varie^ ;  we  shall  wh 
refer  to  two  of  the  most  recent  works  on  eithec  nde 
^-Oioberti's  li  Otmila  Modemo,  1347,  and  Cretincaa 
Joly's  Hidoin  de  ta  Cbmpoffnis  dt  Jaut,  184C.  See 
also  Die  Prauritehan  kifehtK-neatlte  det  Jitkm 
1873,  mi(  midiamg  mi  KaamaOiXT,  by  Dr  Fnol 
HJnsohius  (BerUo,  1873)k 
JESUITS'  BABK.    Bee  Cutohoha. 


rwho  announced  \ 
Luke  L  31).    The  reason  of  the" 
Uie  same  time  declared :    '  br  he  shall  save  his 
lOple  from  their  siiuu' 

llie  date  of  the  birtii  of  J.  is  now  generally  fixed 
few  years — at  least  four  yearB~-b3ore  the  eom- 
eaoemeiit  of  the  Chiistian  era.  The  raasona  of 
this  ojanion  we  cannot  here  state,  but  it  may  be 
observed  that  the  reokoninff  of  dates  from  the  birth 
of  Christ  did  not  begin  tiU  the  6th  a,  wbea  mw 
on  such  a  point  was  very  probable.  The  iswjse 
date  of  tile  birth  of  J.,  however,  oannot  be  datas^ 
can  the  year  of  hia  death  be  modi  n*f* 
stated.    The  o  ...      - 


«n  he  was  probaUjat 
o  the  mrixith  or  da^  «f 
.  nodiiiw  is  known,  althou^  the 
drcumstanoe,  that  shepherds  were  watehing  thair 
flooki  by  oi^t,  makes  it  vwy  oartain  thi4  it  did 


istS7  veu 
e  birth  o 


Witii  tha  Mcoimti  pren  t^  tli 
the  Inrth  Ot  J.,  lua  miiuaiTj,  deatb, 

into  bMTen,  «nry  oua  may  be  anppc 

:   of    dniitiaidty   hftre    not, 

the  hUtorie  troth  d  the  goepel 

._  tha  life  of  J.;  tie  minoles  of  oourae 

sccaptad.  C>eliiu«iidotbarl>eiiheiiWTiteTe»diDitted 
even  th*  bvth  of  the  minolea,  but  sUeged  them  to 
have  been  wtought  bj  magio,  or  to  have  been  too 
few  aai  iDoonnderaUe  to  attest  the  ohumi  of 
JenlB.  Their  modem  mooaason  have,  of  oonne, 
rejected  these  viewK.  Some  of  Asm  hare  cndea- 
Tonred  to  ehew  that  J.  wei  unbitiaiiE  of  euthlj 


iptjng  his  ODoduet  twd  ftirhing  to  the  notioni 
._junon  amDDg  the  Jem,  and  in  particalai  to  their 
expeeUtiMiof  tha  Meamh:  whibt  tfa*? admit  the 
imi'iliiiJli'^  tzoallancrr  ^  the  leligioiu  and  moral 
■yitam  tanaht  W  iam.  The  iaooMrteniy  of  Ukia 
Mhme  ii  Wd  to  b«  obTiow  bv  orthodox  theologiMia. 
Hmj  alltee  that  it  Msneaenta  tite  nohUat  and 

it  ejirtam  of  uonlity  m  baaed  on  inpcatiue. 

ohuaoter  of  J.,  ae  diipl^'ad  both  in  nis  life 
in  hia  teaching  ii  one  of  the  frwt  argnmeata 
'  m  by  the  advooatea  of  Chriituoity. 

cronapondenoe  of  J.  with  Abcania,  Kog  of 
,  dthoD^  we  have  it  in  Euaehini,  oan  only 
ked  wiQi  TmmVi.li  ligeada.     Of  no  greater 


JBSUS,  CoiXBOB  or,  Oxford.    In  IWl,  (Jueen 


Theoha 


!E3izabeth,  on  the  petitioix  of  Dr  Hiuh  Ap-rica,  or 
Price,  gnmted  '     "^  '    *~   "" 

Jesoa  Colluc^  in  which  there  were  to  be  a  prin- 
""''■•"  '   -'  ■-'  --'--'--      In  1822, 


gnmted  a 
.  Coll^c^  in  which  there  were  to  be  a 
dpal,  eight  feDowl,  aad  dgbt  scholars.  In 
Ejng  James  L  gnmted  the  oollegs  a  new  charter, 
including  a  code  of  statntea,  Theee  oriipnal  fonnda- 
tiona  were  set  on  a  new  footing  in  I680  by  ilte  will 
of  Sit  Leoline  Jenkyns,  who  added  considerable 
ondowmeota  to  the  ccjle(^  but  atrao^ed  that  the 


and  18  . 

and  18  Vict  o.  81,  converted  fire  of  the  fellowships 
into  soholarahijis,  and  entirely  mppreaaed  one  fellow- 
ahip.  Of  the  remaining  lello'inlupa,  one  moiety 
waa  oonfined  to  tlia  Pnnoipality,  and  tha  other 
thrown  open.  Foor  may  be  lay  feUowa;  the  others 
mntt  take  oidera  within  one  year  after  ttuQr  ihall  be 
of  siiffideDt  standing  to  be  masters  of  artA  The 
ioholwshipa  are  oonflned  to  Wales,  with  die  excep- 
tlMiot.Kuig  Charles  I't  achoUnhipfl  (confined  to 
Jersey  and  Guernsey),  and  two  others,  which  are 
open.  There  are  nearly  thirty  eihibibons  in  this 
college,  of  about  £40  per  annum.  This  college 
preseots  to  about  SO  living* ;  in  1873  there  were 
about  200  names  on  tha  books.  _  This  was  the 
first  Protestant  college,  and  in   its   statutes  the 

Protcatant  religion 

many  aiutctmenti. 

JB8UB  OOLLEGE,  Camlwi^e,  was  founded  by 
John  Alooi^  Bishop  <4  Ely,  in  l4Sli,  to  whom  the 
king  granted  ba  the  fnrpoae  tha  nnnnaty  of  St 
Radepind,  iriiich  waa  inptwaaad  for  Um 


JESTJB,  SON  OF  BXR&Ci 
JBT,  a  bituminous  minera 
oolour,  not  harder  than  ordin 
of  being  eaiily  cut  and  cam 
very  bnutifnl  polish.  It  ta 
river  of  Lycia,  from  the  hai 
obtained.  In  the  time  of  PI 
river  and  a  small  town  on  its 
the  pieoea  of  jet  obtained  froi 
Ltea,  afterwards  ar ' — '" 


8^     . 

and  jet  It  ia  now  found  ii 
worid.  In  Great  Britain,  it  ii 
Whitby,  in  Yorkshirei  where  il 
fragments  of  Htuminised  wood 

only  a  pecnliar  form  of  pitoh-oi 

37^per  oent  of  volatile  matte 

of  New  Bmnswiok  and  aomo 

It  ia  eleotrical  when  mbbed,  hoi 

black  amber  by  the  Pmssian  1 

it  oeeora  in  aaod  and  ^val  bed 

y«>7  htgfi  qnantitiea  an  ob 

the  department  ct  Ande,  wboe 

ions  artiaans,  who  form 

and  other  trinkets,  wl 

sold  in  Bomou  Catholic   com 

ipplies  fine  Jet  which,  like  t 

oAings,  is  found  in  irregular 

marls  of  the  cretaceous  aeries, 

gault      The   Span! 

principally  1 

for  moumin  .  . 

and  for  that  purpose  is  nsed  L 

otlier  coontriea. 

JB'TSAM  means  goods  cast  i 
(ink  and  remain  nn£r  water. 
Crown  until  the  owner  appear  am 
VurtAAM.  The  anbjeot  is  now 
from  its  effecta  on  the  cywnen,  an 
the  head  of  Jettison  (q.  v.). 

JETTISON  is,  in  the  Uw of 
dom,  the  throwing  overboard  of  a 
In  whole  or  in  part,  in  caaea  «t  i 
lighten  the  veasal  in  a  storm,  ot  t( 
iv  for  other  justifiable  cause.  1 
great  disoretion  is  required,  so  as  1 
proper  time  arrirea  for  resorting 
expedient;  and  in  case  of  part  1 
being  sacrificed,  to  select  which 
~  ist  depend  on   its  o<m  citoanu 

ster  of  the  veasel  is  the  aatho 
bind  all  partial  in  auch  a  stb 


of  the  particular  goods  thrown 
doctrine  of  seneral  average  is  n 
AvsKXQK  &  ease  of  a  storm,  th 
intereated  in  the  shipt  frei^t  and 
"~'~ibate  rateahlr  to  the  loaa; 
,itiona  when  tne  Kpoda  were  < 
WImu  tha  gooda  aaoiutced  b;  jet 
inanxed,  the  insora  has  the  benefi 
bntjon  or  average  j>ro  (onto. 

JBW,  TSB  WABSKUNa.  The 
Wandetui^  Jew,  who  cannot  die,  bu 
mmt  4^  fau  sin,  ia  obliged  to  wandt 
of  tha  earth  tiU  Christ  shall  pronoui 
the  last  day,  seems  to  have  originat 
sage  of  the  gospel  of  8t  John  (ziL : 
says  of  John ;  '  If  I  will  that  he  U 
what  is  that  to  theaT  follow  thoa  s 


13th  c,  when  it  is  Snt  related  bv  Matthew  Pam, 
and  m&jr  be  supposed  to  indicate  the  Jewish  people, 
Kattered  throughout  the  world,  and  noirtiers  find- 
tuff  >  home.  According  to  the  oniraat  legend,  the 
'^^ndeiicg  Jew  ii  Aiuuueroa,  the  Bhoemaher  at 
JeroBalem,  who,  when  the  Sarionr  wished  to  rest 
before  his  house,  on  his  way  to  Golgotha,  drove  him 
awa;.  Another  l^end  states  him  to  be  Pilate's 
door-keeper,  Kortaphilos,  who  struck  Jeeiui  on  the 
bach,  as  he  led  him  out  of  bis  master's  jndgment- 
halL  So  recently  as  the  last  century,  impostors  took 
advantage  of  the  belief  in  this  legend,  and  gave 
themselves  out  for  the  Wandering  Jew  ;  and  people 
wet«  not  wanting  who,  from  time  to  time,  mau- 
tained  that  he  had  appeared  to  them  under  different 
forms.  A  popular  book  relating  in  detail  tl>e  histoir 
of  the  Wandering  Jaw  has  beMi  repeatedly  printed 
in  the  German,  French,  Dutch,  and  liMui  lan- 
guages. The  legend  has  likewise  been  frequently 
worked  up  in  a  poetical  form,  a«  hy  A.  W,  von 
ScUegel  in  tiie  romance  entitled  J>K  Wannatg;  by 
Schubert  ia  his  poem  of  Aluuaer ;  by  Goethe  id 
Aut  meinnn  LAea;  by  Mrs  Norton  in  Tht  Uttdj/Big 
One  {X«Dd-  1M2) ;  and  by  Eiu^ne  3ae  in  his  Xe 
Jvif  errani.    Compare  GtSase,  Dia  Bagt  vom  Swtgea 

JEW1!L  (ItoL  gioidio,  from  gioia,  joy),  a  per- 
sonal ornament,  usually  understood  to  mean  a 
decoiation  in  wHch  one  or  more  pmnoua  stones  are 
set.  FopoUrly,  there  is  much  confitsioa  between 
the  terms  gem  and  jetrel;  the  former  belongs  espe- 
cially to  precious  stonea,  sind  the  latter  to  ornaments 
formed  oF  the  pxedons  metals  with  or  without  the 
aid  of  gems.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Italian 
gioia,  joy,  whence  gioidh,  a  jewel,  snch  ornaments 
being  mdicatiTs  of  pleasure. 

JB'WELLEBY.  The  manufactore  of  jewels  has 
in  all  times  been  a  test  of  the  artistic  powers  of  a 
nation  ;  for,  being  intended  only  for  personal  adorn- 
ment, the  genius  of  the  jeweller  has  been  directed 
to  the  prodnctioo  of  the  lareest  amount  of  beauty  in 
the  most  limited  space.  It  is  probable  that  the 
wearing  of  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver  is  almost 
Bs  early  as  the  discDveiy  of  those  metals.  A  mere 
hole  ^lled  through  the  sm^  pieces  of  gold  or 
silver,  to  enable  Uiem  to  be  strung  roimd  the 
waist  or  neck,  would  be  the  first  stage ;  then, 
when  the  ductility  of  the  metals  became  known, 
they  vrauld  be  beaten  probably  into  bonds  or 
rings,  ^ving  rise  to  ring-money  ;  these  rings,  when 
increased  in  size,  would  become  torques  for  the 
waist,  neck,  arms,  or  ankles,  labrets  for  the  lips, 
and  rings  for  the  ears  and  fingers.  As  refinement 
increased,  these  articles  would  be  made  more  and 
mora  ornamental ;  and  the  original  object,  of  mere 
convenience  and  safety  in  carrying  the  mnch- 
volued  metals,  would  be  lost  in  the  Kcondary  one 
of  peiscnal  adornment ;  the  art  of  the  goidsEnith 
would  be  called  into  play,  and  the  taste  of  the 
natioD  would  be  marked  by  the  good  or  bad  designs 
in  demand  for  t^is  purpose.  Jewels  being  mere 
articles  of  luxury  and  taste,  their  possession  always 
indicates  to  a  certain  ectent  the  wealth  of  nations, 
and  we  are  as  much  impressed  with  the  advanced 
stale  of  the  ancient  Efry^tians  by  the  nice  art  and 
refined  taste  exhibited  m  the  jewellery  found  in 
their  tombs,  oa  by  the  vast  architectural  works  of 
which  tiiey  have  left  so  many  remains ;  indeed, 
modem  art,  with  all  its  wondrous  advances,  cannot 
do  more  than  equal  the  exquisite  workmanship 
of  those  el^ont  golden  jewels  sent  by  the  Me 
viceroy  of  ^npt  tod  M.  Marietta  to  the  Inter- 
national  Eilubition,  which  were   token  from  the 


difierence  between  the  jewellery  of  ancient  and 
modem  times.  Our  goldsmiths  depend  very  much 
upon  the  processes  o!  casting  drawing,  stamping, 
and  other  metallurgical  operations,  uid  prodnce 
thereby  great  accuracy  of  outline  and  high  finish. 
The  ancients  wrought  by  hammering,  chasing,  and 
repmati,  depending  entirely  upon  the  taste  and 
skill  of  the  artist,  instead  of  the  perfection  of  his 
tools  and  mechanical  arrangemeutt ;  coniiequentlj, 
their  works  bear  the  stamp  of  artistic  produc- 
tions, whilst  modem  works,  however  b^ntdfol, 
have  usuoilj'  the  character  oif  mere  manufoctnrca 
executed  with  mechanical  preciidon  rather  than 
artistic  taste;  and  what  they  gain  in  nicety  id 
finish  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  what  is  lost 
in  richness  of  effect.    See  Dumond. 

JEWELS,  Uai  or,  in  HsRUjnT.  ^y  an 
egregiously  absurd  and  unneoeaaary  oomplioBtioD  of 
□omenclature,  introduced  by  way  of  addug  dignity 
to  the  science  of  Heraldry,  tlie  tincturei  of  the  anna 
of  peen  have  Bi»netimee  been  deaignatad  hy  the 
namea  of  precious  stones  :  arg^t  is  pearl  tw  cryital ; 
or,  topaz ;  gules,  mbv ;  aiure,  s^phire ;  Mlik, 
diamond  ;  v^  emerald;  and  purpnre,  ametbyat. 

JEWISH  LITURGY.    See  Litobqt. 

JEWISH  SECTS,  a  te 
Josephus)  to  certain  diveivent  scht  _ 

up  in  the  midst  of  Judaism,  subsequently  to  the 
Syrian  wars.  So  fa/,  however,  from  forming,  aa  the 
word  would  seem  to  imply,  seiwrate  communitiea 
witik  placea  of  worship  and  a  regions  law  of  tiieir 
own,  antagonistic  to  that  of  their  brethren,  the 
disciples  of  the  different  '  sects '  belonged  to  the 
same  religions  community,  adhered  to  the  same 
practical  religious  Law,  and  consequently  could  not 
well  look  upon  each  other  as,  in  a  manner,  heretaca. 
The  chief  points  at  issue  were  certain  abstract 
doctrines,  in  connection  with  the  peculiar  mannw 
in  which  this  Law,  iis  far  as  it  is  contained  in  tbe 
Scriptures,  was  interpreted  and  further  developed. 
While  the  Pharitea  (q.  v.)  claimed  for  certain  famn. 
hallowed  observances  and  doctrinea  not  found  in 
the  Bibie  a  divine  origin,  drawing  them  back 
through  tradition— orally  trensmitted  from  genero- 
tion  to  generation — to  Moaea  and  the  Sinat  itself, 
and  while  they,  by  peculiar  rules  of  an  exegesis  of 
their  own.  mroved  these  same  doctrinee  to  Ue  oftea 
the  very  letters  of  the  KUe 
.)  rejected  the  divine  origin  of 
the  'oral  law,'  as  well  as  certain  spiritual  dogmas 
not  distinctly  set  forth  in  the  Sacred  Itoootd.  An 
advanced  or  exalted  class  of  Pharisees  were  the 
Emeaa  (q.  v,],  who  formed  a  kind  of  brotherhood, 
far  away  (with  only  solitary  exceptions)  fnan  tin 
corruption  of  cities,  chiefly  mtent  upon  tiie  exercise 
of  practical  virtues,  and  ruled  by  a  severe  code  of 
morals.  The  tenets  of  each  of  Uieae  three  '  secta ' 
will  be  found  treated  separately  undw  the  bekdinga 
indicated. 

At  a  later  period,  ihortiy  before  and  after  Christ, 
Domerous  divergent  reli^ous  doctrines,  for  the  most 
part  the  result  tn  a  confused  mixture  of  Judaism  and 
Hellenism,  or  rather  Alexandrianism  (eee  Gnostics), 
were  promulgated,  and  found  odherenta  both  within 


fathen  of  the  church,  but  very  litde  is  known 


founded  with  tlie  large  body  of  the  Hellenists  ia.  t.) 


mnen 


uuperuw 
JOMlA    b 

K  JoMpI 


Habbitanuia  t),  Hentarobt^alt  (Euena  T),  Ac 

Id  the  8Uk  Ctuutun  c  |7S1  ■acoidmg  to  Munk), 
tbe  Sadduccan  doctrine  i^  Uie  inTeli&y  of  the 
'onl  Inr' — »  doctrine  whii^  had  died  out  after 
k  brief  exiitence — iraa  Tevived  again  b^  Anan  ben 
CaTid,  who  is  suppoawl  to  hare  beld  a  high  sriritoal 
office  {Eeth  Gelutba  I  Gaon  !)  at  Bagdad  at  the  time 
of  Calif  Abn  Giafar  Al-Manwr  (764—776  A-S.}, 
and  who,  rejecting  the  Talmud  and  Midtaah  as  the 
work  of  man,  only  allowed  auch  lawa  and  ordinance* 
to  ba  binding  apcn  the  community  which  reaulted 
immcdiatelj  from  a  simple  and  natural  Scriptural 
exeged*.  He  thua  became  the  founder  (d  the 
nuMt  important  *ect  of  the  Saraita,  who,  within  an 
Mtouiihingly  brief  period,  sjnead  over  PalealiDe, 
Egypt,  Qreeoe,  Barbu?,  Spain,  Syritk  Tartaiy,  Byzan- 
tmm,  Vtt,  Mmooco,  uid  even  to  the  ranffea  of  the 
Atlaa.  Tbty  are  now,  however,  foaod  on^  in  noall 
""~Hr»  in  Poland,  0«li<u,  Odeaaa,  the  Crime*, 
antinopla,  Jenualem,  and  Alexandria.  Abro- 
gating the  'rabbinical'  traditdtrnt,  they  et«cted  a 
new  ttsditioDal  tyatem  of  their  own,  to  ba  altered 
and  freelv  developed  bf  each  of  theii  snccMBive 
ipiritiiBl  lieads.  Fiayer,  fasting,  pilgrim*^  ta 
HebtOD,   are  the   points   of   religions  pncbce  to 

I   greatest   attentioa.      Their 

. _Ti  by  theii  antagoniita  allowed 

. )  be  of  the  highest  moral  standard.  They  have 
produced  an  crienaive  special  Hebrew  literature 
of  their  own,  chiefly  consisting  of  works  on 
theolc^,  philosophy,  mathematica,  astronomy,  Ac 
The  greatest  number  of  thsM  is  now  found  in  the 
ImpoiaJ  Libraiy  at  8t  Petertbar^  Some  of  their 
'"'-"■»]  authors  are  Anan,  Shalmon  b.  Jemham, 
i  b>  Noah,  Jeohua,  Jehodoh  Hadasai,  Aron 
Mph,  AroD  b.  Eli^  T-^linh  Beatutzi,  Ealeb, 
Uoaea  Bediizi,  Mardochai  b>  NiMan,  &c. 

Another  ntber  curious  sect,  known  as  the  SK^ 
ten,  was  that  founded  by  Sabbathoi  Levi  from 
Smyrna  (1QS6— I677J,  who  proclaimed  himself  the 
Mrssiah,  and  found  numemaa  followers  through- 
out Gennany,  Polaad,  Italy,  and  Holland.  Sultan 
Mohammed  IV.,  however,  put  an  end  to  his 
miiftion  by  imprisoning  him,  onji  making  him.  adopt 
Mohammedanuni.  tuny  of  hia  disciples  foUcwed 
Iu4  example,  otben  tiu^ed  Boman  Catholics — 
adherinib  withal,  to  their  former  doatrinea  and 
tenets,  oonaisting  chiefly  of  the  belief  in  tha 
Uesaialuhip  of  their  master,  a  distinct  leaning 
to  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  abandonment 
of  the  hope  of  a  final  return  to  Jerusalem  under 
the  guidance  of  '  Messiah  ben  David.'  They  put  a 
thoroughly  mystical  interpretation  upon  the  Bible, 
rejected  nnconititionalJy  the  Tolinud,  and  extolled 
their  special  Kabhaliitic  gospel,  the  Zohar,  above  oU 
things  created.  This  sect  did  not  die  oat  nntU 
tile  end  of  tha  last  century,  Jakob  Frank,  tiieir  last 
■npreme  pontiff  (whose  more  intimate  friends  and 
Itulowen  called  themselves  by  hi*  name,  ^mnhsuj, 
dying  in  a  debtor's  prison  on  the  Bbina  (1791). 

We  have  finally  to  mention  the  modern  Chati' 
ifim— not  to  be  confoimded  with  the  ancient  Choai- 
dim  (q.  V.)— or  Buhteri  (Baal  Sham  Tob),  a  side 
branch  of  the  former  sect,  taking  its  stand  like 
this  on  the  Eabbalo,  but  remaining  ostanaibly 
within  the  proviuca  of  nbbinical  Judaism.  They 
are  chiefly  remarkable  by  their  wild  mode  of 
praying,  their  supreme  ocntampt  for  any  ■— ' 
mystit^  and  religious  science,  by  their  belii 


munity  DDConditionally,  are  supposed  to  be  inveated 
wiUi  divine  powers,  and  who  also  cure  all  their 
bodily  ailments.  The  grandeur  and  pomp  with  which 
these   are   sDironoded,  contrasts   moet    strikin^y 


itance,  ioyiulness,  disinterestedness,  benevol- 
peacefulneaa,  with  intrepidity,  cleanUneas,  and 
,  Braniie,  are  some  of  the  chief  points  of  the 
practical  doctrine  of  this  sect  One  of  the  great 
reproaches,  however,  brought  against  them  is,  that 
their  'joyfulness'  often  leads  them  into  trans- 
gression i  that,  in  fact,  they  are  rather  given  to 
sensuality.  They  are  veiy  numerous  in  Poland, 
Qolicia,  Sussio,  and  Falestioe. 

The  modem  '  Beformers,'  aiming  chiefly  at  a 
simplification  of  the  ceremonial,  and  abrogation  of 
what  they  consider  to  be  abuses  and  late  additions 
ia  the  divine  worship,  cannot  well  be  called  a  sect— 
oltbough,  for  the  most  port,  tliey  have  syn^gues 
and  prayer-booka  of  their  own — ranee  they  belong, 
to  all  other  iotenta  and  purposes,  to  tlie  great  body 
of  the  Jewish  community.  As  the  chief  promoters 
of  this  movement  n^  be  considered  Zunz,  Qeiger, 
Chorin,  Creizenach,  Holdheim,  Hess,  Stem,  kc 
JEWS  (cOTTupted  from  Ydiudim],  the  name 
iven,  since  the  Babylonish  captivity,  to  the  descen- 
ints  of  the  patriarch  Abraham,  who,  about  2000 
years  b.  a,  emigntad  from  Meaopotunio,  on  t^ 
east  side  of  the  Euphrates,  to  Canaan  or  Pales- 
tine. They  were  oridnally  called  Hkbiucws  (q.v,). 
Monotheism,  or  a  belief  in  one  Ood,  the  practice 
ision,  and  the  expectation  of  ultimately 

. „  the  land  ia  which  they  then  sojourned, 

the  three  *^i»*iTigiii>hin^  peculiarities  trans- 
i  by  Abraham  to  Isaac,  and  from  Isaac  to 
Jacob  and  hia  descendBnt&  'The  pictura  of  patri- 
archal hfs  presented  to  us  in  the  oook  of  Genesis 
~  by  an  exquisite  beauty  and  simplicity, 
traces  of  a  great  antiquity.     In  conse- 

a  famine   in   Canaan,    Jacob,    on   the 

mvitation  of  his  son  Joseph,  who  hod  become  chief 


with   all ,,     . 

souls ;'  and  obtained  fnan  Pharaoh  permission  to 
settle  in  the  land  of  Goshen.  Here  the  Hebrews 
Ided,  according  to  Exod.  xii.  40,  430  years ; 
maen  (Exodus)  calculates,  yinirleen  centoriea] ; 
___ording  to  tiiegene*Iogical  table  of  the  I«vitea,m 
Eiod.  vi.  16— 26,  bowevBT,  their  Bojoum  would  not 
have  lasted  longar  than  210  u'  215  yem ;  most  of 
the  raxnmenti^on,  therefore,  take,  with  Josephus, 
the  430  yean  to  indicate  the  period  frmn  Abraham 
~ie  Eiodns  (d  Galat  iil  17).    During  the  life- 

of  Joseph,  and  probably  for  some  generations 

attcowanls,  they  were  well  treated,  and  prosp^«di 
but  a  new  dynasty,  supposed  by  some — with  little 
shew  of  reason — to  have  been  that  of  the  Eykshos 
(q.  V.)  aroae,  and  they  were  reduced  to  relentless 
iLaVEry.  A  deliverer  at  length  a[9>eaTed  in  the 
persoQ  of  Moses  (q.  v.),  a  man  of  grave  and  heroia 
oharacter,  who,  though  brought  up  by  the  daughter 
of  Pharaoh  as  her  son,  and  trained  in  all  the  learn- 
ing of  t^s  Egyptians,  waa  nevertheless  filled  with 
an  intense  and  mdignant  patriotism,  that  aoquired 
an  additional  elevation  from  the  ardour  ot  his 
religious  feeliupt  The  circumstoncea  that  preceded 
ontT  characterised  the  exodus  (about  1600  B.  c.) 
—such  as  the  ten  plagues  and  the  crossing  of  the 
Ked  Sea — are  a  source  of  continual  controveisy 
between  tim  Raticoialistic  and  the  Supronstural- 
istio  scboi^  of  biblical  criljciam ;  bat  the  /act  of 
exodus  would  be  disputed  only  by  the  wildest 
.^.pticiim.  The  entire  history  of  flia  people  is 
pervaded  by  the  memory  uf  this  grand  event,  upon 
which,  as  it  were,  their  whole  national  existence  is 
based;  it  inspires  tlieir  poetry,  and  consecratea 
their  religion  ;  and  the  Passover,  witli  all  its  cere- 
momals  and  mementoes,  was  institnlad  eiprOTly 
to  remind  them  of  that  wondroua  nieW  Qi  auaden 
liberation ;  wHle  tha  Ftsart  of  "Eabfeiaac^a*  ^!»  " 


Cnt.zodhyGoOgle 


wanderingi  thnmgh  the  desert ;  ud  Fenteooat,  the 
*et  of  the  ltfpal«t]DQ  on  Sinu.  Whether,  howsTor, 
in  SIG,  or  area  in  430  yeare,  the  eeTenty  'toul* 
could  b»Te  increued  to  600,000  adult  men,  oi, 
iBolndins  Tnree  and  children,  to  between  2,000,000 
Mid  S,Ow,000  Kndi,  ie  a  point  to  be  detoimined 
lather  by  phjiiologiati  than  bj  theolooiane. 

The  wandoiiis  in  the  wilderaeee  <u  the  SiD 
peniniii]*  ia  smo  to  have  laited  foitj  yean,  though 
a  Ttcori  td  Uie  evaata  of  two  yean  only  haa  been 
pFeaeFved,  These,  however,  are  obrioualy  the  meet 
important,  ••  they  oontain  an  elaborate  acooont  of 
the  giving  of  the  law  (Biod.  ziz.  et  teq.),  whiidt  ie 
renRMnted  aa  «  direct  rerelaldon  made  to  Moeea  by 
Jehovah  himaelf,  who  deacended  upon  Monnt  Sinai 
in  fire,  unid  the  roar  of  thunders  and  the  qosking 
of  billi.  The  antiquity,  however,  of  the  priesUy  or 
eccleaiaatical  portions  of  tiie  Fentateoch  is  keenly 
diapated  by  many  modem  soholan  of  the  h^hert 
reputation,  who  endeavour  to  thew  the  probability 
of  iuch  paaugei  having  been  compowd  and  inaerted 
subeequent  to  the  greii  orguiaation  of  the  priest- 
hood  by  David ;  and  la  proof  of  this,  poitit,  among 
other  eridencee,  to  the  Book  of  Jadgea  (q.  v.),  whioh 
nanatea  the  history  ot  the  Hebrewe  for  300  yean 
qfUr  the  0(»iqiiMt  of  Canaaji,  and  which  yet  oon- 
tains  scarcely  a  single  buc«  of  llie  existence  of  a 
religiona  inctitution  among  them.  Yet  tt  ia  allowed 
aluMst  OD  all  hands,  that  the  faimdaiicnt,  at  lewt, 
of  the  Jewish  theoeraoy,  and  probably  alao  a  lam 
part  ot  the  supentraotiirei  were  tite  direct  w<A 
ot  Moses  hJnu^,  iriio  indosd  appean  to  have  been 


pre'tminenay  fitted  for  thetask  o(  ..  -^— . .     . 

not  to  mention  the  fact  that  the  ritoalistn  of  the 
Hebrews  has  muiy  striking  piinta  of  contact  with 
that  of  the  andoit  X^yplians,  -with  which  be  was 
well  acquainted.  Thu  view,  of  oomae,  doee  not 
interfa«  with  tiie  theory  of  a  later  composition  of 
the  Pentateuoh  (q.  *.)i  in  its  preeent  shape  and  its 
ioecesdvB  redactiona  and  enhugements.  But  what- 
ever period  bs  allowed  for  the  sojourn  in  the  deaert, 
the  rough  nomadio  life,  the  fKqaent  fighting  with 
the  Gerca  Beduiu  tribes,  throni^  whoae  temtMiea 
they  paseed-^baaidea  the  lofty  uiflnencea  of  a  attm 
religion— had  transformed  the  rnnaway  alavea  of 
'E^pt,  by  the  time  they  approacbed  the  eastern 
borders  of  Canaan,  into  a  nation  of  hi^-spiiited 
and  iirematible  wanion. 

Sefbre  proceeding  further,  it  bdiovea  oa  to  trace 
a  general  outline  ot  the  Hoauo  l^ielatkni.  The 
laws  promulgated  under  the  'Covmant'  were,  as 
we  said,  not  entirely  new.  Many  were  nerely  the 
Bolmnn  conflnnalion  of  ancient  patriarchal  tenet*, 
the  wor^p  (A  One  Supreme  Being  through 


b  have  been  adaptations  of  ^rvptian  L 
ru.1. ;_ 1  4.1,  j_  ZUit. 


tioDS.  Othera,  again, 
altered  circnmataocea  of  fbe  oammunity;  and  it  is 
undeniable  that  some  of  the  ardlnances  contuned 
in  the  Pentatench  were  never  carried  into  practice. 

The  Cnnilamental  feai^irea  of  the  religious  as  well  a* 
political  constitution— both  cloaelv  interwoven  with 
each  other — are  the  following  :  God  is  Creator  and 
Lord  ot  the  nnivetsc  The  universe  is  Hia  own, 
and  to  man  the  use  of  all  created  things  baa  been 
intrnated  by  Hia  will.  Qod  ia  tlierefore  the  King  of 
the  people.  By  the  priesta  He  ia  visibly  repreeonted. 
No  man  has  tne  right  to  dispose  of  his  own  liherty. 
The  soil  ia  only  given  to  the  peo[^e  for  the  lunfrnci: 
man  ha*  no  furtber  individual  right  of  poeaeasion 
over  it  EToy  seventh  year  it  ia  to  be  left  to  itaelf. 
IlieMlaof  landiipnliinted;  and  after  seven  timea 
seven  years,  every  lesM  and  morlA^e  of  it  ia  niUl 
and  vrad,  and  it  ia  to  retom  to  l£e  hmis  of  those 


division  of  the  land. 

The  ofiice  of  the  FriMta  (c 
of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (q.  v.[.  ^ 

deacendants  of  Aanm  (q.  v.).  The  Levitea 
in  the  managenient  of  the  eanctuarr  and  the  biAy 
ritai,  copied  ajid  expounded  the  Booka  of  the  I^w, 
kept  the  ganesh^cal  liata,  and  had  the  care  <£ 
the  general  iostniolaoa  of  the  people.  Together 
with  the  priests,  they  had  adminiabative  and 
judicial  functions,  and  they  gave  their  iudnaent 
always  in  the  name  of  Ood.  The  Bigh-Prieat 
(q.v.)  oonstitated  the  highest  oonH^  and  hia  vaa 
the  oracle  (Drim  and  Thummim).  Periodical  Peaata 
(q.  v.]  were  instituted,  in  order  tliat  the  dependi 
from  the  Dr  '       " '        '      "     '  •  -   >  -  - 

by  the 


the  Xlivine  King  sboold  always  be  kmt  in 

by  the  people.    Eveiv  seventh  day  the  Md]' 

should  rest  from  Uboor  (Sabbath),  ' 


year  the  soil  was  t 


t  (Sabbatical  year); 


1  agricultural,  partly  of  an  historical  c 


were  the  Faaaah  (q.  v.),  the  Feaat  of  Weeks  (q. 
and  the  Feast  ot  Tabernacles  (q.  v.).  No  len 
the  flrat  of  the  aeventh  month  to  be  kept  h 
~     ated  a 


The  tenth  ai  the  aame  month  waa  tnatitut 
of  atonement  and  forgiveneaa  of  ain. 
Tbejorm  of  goremment  waa  at  first  a  theocntioal 
peo^e  waa  divided  into  13  tribe^  whidi 
lall  repnblka,  ' 

.... hie  rule  ot  J._. 

assemblies  decided  upon  war  and  peace,  i 
Special  proviaiona  are  also  found  for  the 
of  Um  election  of  a  ktnc.  Aiter  the  . .  ..  .  _  . . 
Palestine,  every  dty  had  n  Judge,  chosen  by  tbe 
head*  of  the  familiea  and  triMa.  Hm  puniahDienfa 
were  either  death,  fiageHntion,  w  fines.  Three 
Levitical  cities  were  named  by  Moeea  a*  anluma 
or  places  of  refuge  tor  msn-elayers  -whose  {[uilt  was 
not  yet  folly  establi:^ed.  Era;  free  dtuan  wia 
bound,  from  his  20th  year,  ta  ndlitaif  aerrice  in 
cess  of  war.  To  the  beoeged  dty,  terms  of  eafnto- 
lation  were  first  to  be  affiled ;  were  tbeae  rejected, 
t^  city  was  to  be  taken,  and  the  malea  were  to  b* 
put  to  the  sword.  In  aU  oUter  esses,  the  viitoes 
of  charity,  Justice,  and  kindness,  even  tanraH* 
animalu  are  rn)eatedly  imprcaaed  up<Ht  the  peo^ 
How  fartheoe  fundamentaf  rale*  wen  eithararoMr 
developed  or  oeglected,  we  cumot   shew  in  Una 

The  'land  ot  promise'  became  their*  at  laat 
(about  1430  B.  c),  nnder  Joshua  (q.  v.],  the  socoeHor 
of  Uooes.  Tribe  after  tribe  was  swept  fivta  ila 
ancient  territon,  and  tor  the  moat  part  eilher 
annihilated  or  forced  to  fiee.  Yet  the  whrfe  bulk 
ot  the  native  inhabitant*  waa  not  extirpated  or 
whollr  expelled,  nor  even  anbdued  till  a  much  later 
perioo:  a  circumatance  fraught  indeed  with  the 
moat  disaatroua  conaeqaences  to  the  new  common- 
wealth. The  country  waa  now  divided  among  the 
tribes.  The  magnificent  pastoral  r^on  to  the  esat 
of  the  Jordan  had  before  been  choaen  by  the  tribes 
ot  Beuben,  Oad,  and  the  half-tribe  of  HanasKh  at 
an  earlier  period,  hecaiue  they  '  had  a  very  gieat 
multttnde  of  cattle '  (Humb.  xxxiL  1) ;  bat  Aey 
now  for  the  first  time  entered  on  possesaioD  of  it 
The  land  west  of  the  Jordan  was  pareeOed  oot 
to  the  remaining— Judah,  Simeon.  Dan,  Benjamin, 
Ephnjni,the  second  half- tribe  of  Manaaseh,  laaadiar, 
Zebulon,  Naphtali,  and  Aaher.  The  tribe  of  Levi 
received,  instead  of  a  province,  4S  citaea  scattered 
throughout  Canaan  and  the  tenlii  part  of  the  fnita 
of  Che  field,  and  were  allowad  senoally  to  aetUe 
individually  throu^out  the  land  where  flitry  dUM 
(Lmtn,  P«i»M,  HioH-MUMT). 

After  the  deatb  of  Joshua  (aboot  ISBO  a.a),tiie 


inititatioiui  j  the  auiKle  tribea  punned  Utat  own 
mdividiu]  interesta;  mtenainiagm  with  tbs  idot- 
atroui  nativea  weakeaed  Ui«  bond  of  union  ttill 
fnrthei ;  and  the  next  conMOaence  wu,  thkt  the 
tribes  were  liogly  Bubdned  by  the  KtuTDondiDg 
natioDS.  At  thia  jniicture  there  arose  at  intervals 
valiant  men  and  women — Shofetim — Jndgei,  who 
liberated  the  people  from  Oieir  oppreMora,  the 
Moabitca,  PhitiBtinei,  AmmODites,  Amalekitea,  &c. 
Fiftiien  of  those  are  named,  some  of  whom  appear 
to  have  been  contemporary  with  each  other,  and 
to  hare  exercised  authority  in  different  parts  of 
the  tyormtrj.  This  period  constitutea  the  'heroio' 
age  of  Bebrew  history.  Among  these  Judges,  the 
prophetess  Deborah  (q.  v.],  Gideon  (q.  v.),  J^>|ithah 
{q.  v.),  the  herculean  Samson  {q.  v.),  and  the  prophet 
damael  (q.  v.),  are  especially  notable ;  the  laat  men- 
tioned was,  in  every  sense  of  the  wrad,  the  n«atest 
Hebrew  that  had  as  yet  appeared  since  the  days  of 
Moies.  With  Uti  besms  a  new  and  U^ter  stsiee  in 
the  development  of  ^  national  ehataetw,  chiefly 
through  tae  instrumentality  of  the  priMtly-  order, 
whoae  s^irituat,  for  the  moat  part  well-directed  and 
hmnanismg.  inHuenoe  was  by  bim  first  exalted  and 
most  diatioctly  brought  to  bear  upon  the  common- 
wealth. Samuel,  the  first  of  the  prophets,  was  also 
the  laat  of  the  repnblican  chiefs  of  the  eonfedenM 
tribes.  Wearied  of  their  inteatioe  feuds,  hai-aased 
by  the  incnlsions  of  their  predatory  neighbours, 
chiefiy,  however,  goaded  by  the  cbaracteriatic  desire 
'  to  be  like  all  the  other  nations '  [1  Sam.  viiL  S), 
the  people  compelled  him,  when  he  had  become 
'old  ana  gray-headed'  (1  Sam.  ziL  2)— while  the 
behaviour  of  nis  sons,  wliom  he  had  made  judges, 
nufltted  Hiem  to  be  his  succeasors—to  choose  tot 
tli«inBking(10S0ii.c). 

The  first  who  exerciaed  regal  authority  waa  Saul 
(q.  v.),  the  Benjamite.  But  though  a  distinguished 
warrior,  and  a  man  of  royal  presence,  he  appears 
not  to  have  possessed  the  nund  of  a  stateamanj 
and  his  wilfulness,  and  the  paroxysms  of  insanity, 
brought  on  chiefly,  at  it  would  seem,  by  the 
openly- expressed  dissatisfaction  of  Samuel,  finally 
alienated  from  him  man^  of  the  bravest  and  best 
of  his  subjects.  After  his  death  on  Mount  Oilboo, 
David  (q.  v.),  his  son-in-law,  was  proclaimed  king. 
This  monarch  was  by  far  thegreateat  that  ever 
■at  on  the  throne  of  Israel  Be  mled,  as  is  com- ' 
monly  computed,  10S8 — 1018  b.  c.  His  reign,  and 
'^-^  at  his  eqaally  famous  son,  Solomon  (q-v.),  ~~' 
-■-^--"-      -^' -'-lofflf"^ ^.^ —    . 


regarded  w 


luaUyf. 
le  golds 


Hebrew  history,  ^e 


&c — were  thoiooghly  subdued ;  the  boundaiiea  of 
the  Hebrew  kiDgdom  were  extended  as  far  as ' 
the  Euphrates  and  the  I{«d  Sea ;  Jerusalem  was 
captor^  by  escalade,  and  made  the  capital  of  the 
conqueror ;  the  priesthood  was  reorguiiaed  on  a 
splendid  scale ;  the  arts  of  poetry,  moaic,  and  archi- 
tecture were  cultivated ;  schools  of  prophecy  (first 
established,  piobably,  by  Samuel)  bq^  to  flouiiah ; 
a  ma^pificeat  temple  for  the  woruiip  of  Jehovah  was 
buUtm  the  eamt^i  BndcommeraalinterconTMwas 
osnied  on  with  Phcsnicia,  Arabia,  Egypt,  with  India 
and  Ceylon,  and  perhaps  with  even^umstnt,  Java, 
and  the  Spice  Islands.  But  there  was  a  cancer  at 
the  HKtt  01  all  this  prosperity.  The  enormous  and 
waate&il  expenditure  of  Solomon  forced  him  to  lay 
■" "  '        His  wealth  did  not 


le  people, 
rather  mi 


although  sifted  with  transcendent  wisdom  and 
the  nmst  nrilliant  mental  powers,  towards  the 
end  of  hii  life  he  nreaents  the  ssd  spectacle  of 
k  oommon  eMtem  oeipot,  Toluptuoos,  idolatrona. 


flnandally,  as  a  spleniud  failure.  Aiter  his  death 
(978),  the  Hebrew  manwehy,  in  wbioh  the  serms 
of  dissansion — ohiofly  jealonsy  sgamst  the  innaeniM 
of  Judah— had  been  silently  growing  up  for  many 
a  year,  split  nnder  Rehoborai  into  two  seotioDs 
(9TS  a.0.):  the  kingdcn  of  Judah,  nnder  Beho- 
boam,  SCO  of  Solranoni  and  the  kingdom  of  Isnel, 
under  Jeroboam,  the  Ephrainute.     The  former  of 


Danite 
,  the  latter,  the  remaining 
ten.  After  19  kinoa,  of  different  dynastiea,  amons 
whom  Jeroboun,  AOait,  Jorun,  Jeroboam  LL,  Pekah 
may  be  mentioned,  had  reigned  in  Israel,  few  (rf 
whom  succeeded  to  the  tluaie  otherwise  than  by 
the  murder  oC  their  pndeo«*K«ii  the  eoanby  was 
finally  conqnered  by  nslmsiiwsar.  king  of  As^ria ; 
its  sovereign,  Ho«hM,  thrown  into  pristm ;  the  mass 
of  the  ptSfiiB  carried  away  cq>tive  ^30  B.a)  into 
the  tar  east,  the  monutainons  regions  of   Uedia, 


tnought  fnnn  Babyko,  Foiia,  i .      ...         . .   .  _  _ 

otJiar  jdaoes  by  Aana^^ar.  These,  mingljng  and 
intomntying  with  the  remnant  of  the  IarMUt«s, 
formed  the  mixed  peojde  called  Samaiitaoj  (q. ' 


T  ki^  of  the  Honas  of  David 

idah,  Jehoaha^kat,  Umah,  Hew- 

iah  distu^^niahed  themselves  both  l^ 


their  abilities  aa  rulers,  snd  by  their  sssl  for  the 
wonhip  of  Jehovah.  Yet  even  they  were,  for  the 
moat  part,  unable  to  stay  the  idolatrous  practices  of 
the  people,  against  which  the  prophets'  voioea  even 
eonU  not  prevail.  Other  kings  weie,  for  the  most 
part,  more  or  lev  nnfaithfm  tlsiiiisiiliin  to  tiie 
religiMi  of  their  &then,  and  nnahla  to  vrithstMid  the 
power  at  the  Egyptian^  As^risns,  and  BahyloniaiM, 
to  each  of  whom  they  in  tnm  became  liibntary, 
nntil  at  last  Nebochadneasar  stormed  Jernaalem 
I  B.  a),  plundered  and  bnmed  the  temple)  pnt 
the  eyes  of  King  Zedekiah,  and  earned  off 
most  ilInstrioiiB  and  wealthy  of  the  inhabitants 
jnisoners  to  BabyloD.  The  uraelites,  who  had 
been  exiled  134  yeara  before  the  inhabitants  of 
Judah,  never  returned.  What  beosme  of  them  haa 
always  been,  and,  we  presume,  will  always  remain, 
matter  of  vaguest  sp«anlation.     See  BuiVLonSB 


Ail  that  we  know  of  the  condition  of  the  Hebrewa 
uring  the  captivity,  relates  exdnaively  to  the 
.  ihabitants  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  And  ao 
mild,  especially  during  the  later  years,  was  the 
treatment  which  tiiey  reoeiTed  in  the  BabylMuau 
empire,  that  when  nbmty  was  annoonoed  to  the 
whole  body  of  the  eaptaves^  only  the  lowwt  of 
the  low  returned,  togrther  with  tiia  Lavitsa  and 
Priests  (d  Tabn.  Eidd.  iv.  1).  The  Book  of  Esther 
likewise  bears  testimony  to  the  vast  nnmban  that 
had  renuuned  scattered  over  the  vast  empiie.  See 
Babylovhh  Cu^'iviTT. 
He  influenoe  of  this  ezQe,  lianrev«r,  was  of  a 
ost  striking  and  lasting  natareL  Babykm  faenoe- 
forlh  became  and  remaifted,  np  to  about  1000  A-B., 
'  seoond  land  of  Isiad' — in  many  wspects  even 
)  highly  priied  than  ^leatiue.  To  this  brief 
}d  of  the  captivity  most  be  ttsioad  maiiy  of  the 
most  im^ortaat  InshtutMU  of  the  ayiusogiM  in 
its  wider  Mnse.  Cianmoa  religions  meetings,  with 
prayer,  ww*  satabUshed  f  auaf  ot  the  HosMo  laws 
were  re-enfoMed  in  thtdr  primitne  rigoor;  sod 
the  body  ot  the  *onl  law'  began  to  stops  itsdf, 
however  mdely,  thai  and  thnre.  Beaides,  there 
began  to  grow  np  and  unfold  HseU  the  belief  io 
a  Mesnah,  a  Deliverer,  one  who  should  redeem  Oie 
peoiJe  from  their  bondage.    The  miMr  '^  ^^  ^**^ 


Cnt.zodhyGoOgle 


belong  to  Gum  period,  and  eipteoe 
Uogoage  the  Lopes  of  tiie  exUea ;  no  Uu  do  mxoy 
of  the  Pulnu  belong  to  this  tiiaa.  '  From  thu 
period,  iikewiu,  the  immortAlity  of  Qie  sonl,  and 
the  belief  in  another  life,  appear  more  diatinotly 
in  the  popolBT  oreed,  in  which,  if  they  had  existed 
at  all,  ttiey  had  been  obaonred  hj  the  more  imme- 
diate houee  and  apprefaenmoos  of  temporal  reward* 
and  poDuhments  revealed  in  the  law.  Bnt  in  the 
writings  of  the  Babylonian  jnDphets,  in  the  vimi 
of  dryboQcs  in  Gzekiel,  and  in  Uie  last  chapter 
Daniel,  theae  dontrine*  aanime  a  Toon  in^mtai 
place  ;  and  from  the  later  bocks,  which  are  nsnally 
called  the  Apocrypha,  these  <^nions  appear  to  have 
entered  fully  into  the  general  belief.  In  other 
reapecta,  particularly  in  their  notions  of  angels, 
who  now  appear  under  particular  namea,  and  form- 
ing a  sort  of  hierarchy,  Jewish  opinions  acquired 
B  new  and  peculiar  colouring  from  their  intercourse 
wiih  the  Babyloniana '  (Dean  Milman's  Biliary  of 
the  Jaa,  Land.  1829,  voL  ii.  pp.  13,  14).  Compai 
articles  DEUom  and  Sivn. 

The  eiile  i>  generally  computed  to  have  laated 
seventy  yean.  This  l(  Dot  Btrictly  correct ;  it 
laated  seventy  year*,  if  reckoned  from  the  appear- 
ance of  Nebndiadnexxv  in  Anterior  Asia  (606), 
but  only  fifty-two  counting  from  the  dMtraction 
of  Jmu^ent.  When  Cyrus,  tie  Persian  king,  had 
overthrown  Uie  Babylonian  kingdom  (538  B.C.),  the 
condition  of  the  Hebrewa  improved  conaiderB' ' 
The  new  moikarch  mnst  have  felt  that  he  oould 
on  them,  as  being  really  strangers  in  the  land, 
neceaaarily  more  or  less  hostile  to  their  con^nerors, 
the  Babyfoniana.  Daiuel  rose  higher  and  higher  in 
dignity  and  power,  and  finallv  became  '  tupr«iiie 
head  of  the  paahaa  to  whom  the  province*  of  the 
vast  Persian  empire  were  committed.'  Tbiongh 
his  inflnence,  Cyrua  was  p^vaijed  upon  to  iasne 
an  edict  permitting  the  exiles  to  return  home.  A 
minute  account  of  the  circnmstsnoes  alteikding 
this  joyous  event  is  given  in  the  Books  of  Eira  and 
Nehonish.  Upwards  of  40,000  persona,  including 
fonr  of  the  twenty-four  conraea  of  priests,  set  out 
leaderuip  of  Zerabbabel,  a  descendant 


tailed  hj  the  Sunaittans,  the  mixed  peopb  <^  Assy- 
rians  and  IsrseliteB,  agunit  whom  the  scrupuloua 
exile*  entertained  strong  religious  and  nuonal 
objections,  the  rebuilding  of  ue  '  Temple  of  the 
Lord '  was  at  last  commenced  in  the  first  year  of 
Darius,  and  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign  it  was 
finally  oompleted.  JHaooai  ;  Zacharuh.]  The 
waste  cities  were  luewise  rebuilt  and  repeopled. 
During  the  long  reign  of  Darius,  the  J.  were  blessed 
with  a  hi^  degree  of  material  prosperity.  Under 
his  anoceasor,  Xerxes,  probably  occurred  the  inddents 
recorded  in  the  Book  of  Esther.  In  tha  seventh 
year  of  Altaxerxes,  the  suoceesor  of  Xerxes,  Ea« 
th«  priest,  invected  with  hi^  powers,  and  aooom- 
paoied  with  a  great  retinue  of  his  professional 
brethren,  headed  a  second  migration.  Thirteen 
years  later,  during  the  reign  of  the  same  monarch, 
Nahemiah,  his  cap-bearer,  but  a  man  of  Jewish 
family,  was  ordertKl  to  proceed  to  Jernsalem,  and, 
aided  by  Eetb  and  otlutrB,  nioceeded  in  secretly 
fortifying  the  city,  notwithstanding  the  oontinu- 
ous  opposition  from  Samaritans,  ^nmonitea,  and 
Aratuans.  The  strictest  observance  of  the  '  written 
law,'  even  of  those  of  ita  parts  which  had  been  for 
some  reason  or  other  disregarded,  was  now  rigor- 
ously enforced,  and  many '  ond  ordinano«a '  were  put 
into  praetioe,  which  do  not  seem  to  have  been  much 
heaid  of  previonaly.   The  supreme  spiiitoal  authori^ 


the  '  Great  Synagogue,'  of  whose  extstoice  modern 
scholars  no  longer  see  any  reason  to  do^bt.  The 
compilation  ana  trsnacription  of  the  »acred  records 
began,  periodical  public  readings  and  expoundings 
of  the  law  were  institnted,  and  the  vast  Tar- 
gumic,  as  well  as  the  so'Calied  rabbinical  literature, 
nnerally  dates — in  its  earliest  beginninp — from 
this  point.  During  the  life  of  Nehemish,  tlM  breach 
between  the  J.  kdA  Samaritans  became  final,  by 
the  erection  on  Mount  Geriam  (near  Suuaria)  of  a 
rival  temple  to  that  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  creation 
of  a  rival  priesthood.  For  more  than  a  hnndrad 
years,  the  J.  lived  quietly  under  the  Peisiaa  yok^ 
too  insignificaiit  to  excite  nuy  attention  from  the 
Greeks,  then  in  the  full  meridian  of  their  political 
and  hteraiy  grestnesB ;  and  ecuity  are  the  accoonta 
which,  as  yet,  have  out  of  the  m«zes  of  ancient 
Jewish  literature  been  brought  to  light,  with  respect 
to  the  iimei  intellectual  life  of  the  J.  during  that 
period.  That,  although  silent,  it  must  have  been 
extremelv  active  and  rich,  is  amply  evidenced  by 
the  sudden  appearance,  immediately  afterwards,  oi 
a  vast  number  of  Uterary  productions. 

Alexander  the  Great,  on  his  way  to  conquer  tbe 
whole  Eaat,  did  not  deem  it  neoeassry  to  stonn 
Jerusalem.  The  inhabitants  sulunitted,  and  he  cron 
deigned  to  have  sacrifices  offered  on  hia  behalf  to 
the  national  god  of  his  new  subjecte,  a  great  number 
of  whom,  and  of  Samaritans,  he  carried  away  to 
Egypt  (where  J.  were  supposed  to  have  imminated 
as  early  as  the  time  of  the  last  kings  of  Judah, 
and  later  under  Artaxerxes  Ochus),  and  peopled  a 
third  of  his  newly-founded  city  Alexandria  with 
his  Jewish  captives.  After  him,  Ptolemy  the  nao.  of 
Lagos,  sumamed  Soler,  one  of  AJexauder's  maxwSa, 
■wmt  had  become  king  of  Egypt,  invaded  Syria, 
took  Jerusalem  (301  B.  c),  and  carried  off  lO^OOO 
of  its  inhabitants,  whom  he  forced  to  settle  chiefly 
in  Alexandria  and  Gyrene.  The  E^prptian  (Alex- 
andrian] '  Dispersion  (Golah) — destmed  te  be  of 
vastest  importance  in  the  development  of  Judaian 
and  Christunity^^Tadually  spread  over  the  wbolo 
country,  from  the  Libyan  desert  in  the  north,  to 
Uie  boundaries  of  Ethiopia  in  the  south,  over  the 
Tenaica  and  part  of  Libya,  and  along  the  botdeia 
the  African  coasts  to  uie  Meditemutean.  lliev 
enjoyed  equal  rights  with  their  f  ellow-mbjects,  both 
Egyptian  and  Greek,  and  were  admitted  to  the 
highest  dignities  and  offices  ;  so  that  many  further 
immjgnuita  followed  of  their  own  tree-wilL  The 
free  development  which  was  allowed  them,  enabled 
them  to  reach.  Under  Greek  auspices,  the  highest 


e  and  art.     In  Greek  s 


by  distant  eonntries.  From  the  number  cf  Jndjso- 
Oreek  fragments,  histerical,  didactic,  epic,  ix.  (by 
Demetrioo,  Uslchos.  Eupolemos,  Artapan,  Aristnoa, 
Jsawi,  Eieoliieloa,  Fbilo,  Tbeodot,  &c),  which  have 
survived,  we  may  easily  conclude  what  an  immense 
literature  must  have  sprung  up  here  within  a  few 
centuries  in  the  midst  of  the  Judso-Egyptian 
community.  To  this  is  owing,  likewise,  the  Ore^ 
translation  of  the  Bible,  known  as  the  Septnagint 
(q.  V.},  which,  in  ite  turn,  while  it  esbanged  the 
people  more  and  more  from  the  language  of  their 
fathers,  the  Hebrew,  gave  rise  to  a  v^  paeudo- 
epigrapbical  and  apocryphal  literature  ((Whica, 
SybilLnes,  Fseudophoclea ;  poems  by  Linns,  Homer, 
Hedod  ;  additions  to  Esther,  Ezra,  the  Moocabeea, 
Book  of  Wisdom,  Baruch,  Jeremiah,  Susannah,  Ac), 
not  to  mention  the  peculiarGneco-Jewiah  philMophy, 
which  sprang  from  a  mixture    -'-"'•' 


Foi  a  hundred  yean,  Jodna  herself  remiuiied 
under  Ggyptiui  rule.  Dating  the  reigiu  of  the 
fint  tiuee  Ptolemlea,  Soter,  Fldlade^hns,  and 
Energetae,  it  pnMpered,  but  after  the  aooeuum  of 
Ftolmny  Philapator.  a  change  for  the  worse  oame 
over  the  fortune*  of  the  Jew*.  Their  bite  became 
harder  still  under  his  son,  Antioahiu  Epipbanea,  or 
Gpimanes  (the  Madnuui).  With  ever?  meani  a 
sniel  and  foolhardy  policy  could  devise,  thia  king 
outraged  the  raligious  feelings  of  the  nation,  and 
endeaToured  to  tear  oat  ereiy  root  of  the  sacred 
creed.  At  different  periods  he  sent  hia  generals 
(o  Jeruaalem  to  pillage  and  bnm,  and  to  force  the 
J«WB  into  the  Oieek  religion.  The  temple  at  Jeni- 
solem  was  tlnnlly  dedicated  to  Jupiter  Olympiua; 
idol  altar*  were  buUt  in  eve^  village,  and  the 
people  forced  to  offer  swine  daily.  Srane  yielded, 
many  fled,  the  grestar  part  pr^erred  marbyrdom 
in  some  shape  or  other. 

At  thia  juncture  the  heroic  family  of  Matathia, 
a  priest  of  the  house  of  the  Aunoneana,  rose, 
together  with  a  few  patriots,  against  the  inunenaa 
power  of  the  Syriana  The  national  canae  quickly 
gathered  atrenfflh,  and  after  the  death  of  Hatathia 
[IGB),  Juda*  Maocabtena  (q.  v.)  led  the  nationat 
hosts  to  victory  againat  the  Syrtana.  After  hia 
death  {161  B.a.),  hia  brothers  Jonathan  and  Simon 
eompleted  the  work  of  deliverance,  and  re-iiuti- 
tuted  the  Sanhedrim  (145  s,c.).  Durins  their  rule, 
alliancca  were  twice  formed  with  the  Komana,  and 
the  country  once  more  began  to  prosper.  Under 
Simon  more  especially,  Syrian  rule  became  a  mere 
shadow :  his  was  an  almost  absolute  power.  So 
much  to,  that  in  the  year  170  of  the  Seleuciilian  era 
(142  B.C.),  a  new  Jewiah  era  was  commenced,  and 
public  docnments  bore  data,  '  In  the  firat  year  of 
Simon,  hi(^-priest  and  chief,  of  the  Jews.'  Simon's 
son,  Johnliyroanus,  after  a  loief  period  of  vassala^ 
to  the  Syrians,  extended  hia  anthOTity  over  Samana, 
Galilee,  and  Idumea — hia  grand  triumph,  in  the 
eyes  of  liii  eountrymen,  being  the  destruction  of  the 
Samaritan  temple  on  Mount  Oerizim  (129  B.C.); 
but  in  reality  hia  most  snrpriaine  auocesa  was  the 
subjugation  ot  the  Idumeans,  and  their  conversion 
to  uie  Jewish  religion.  Hia  son,  Ariatohulua,  added 
Itnrea — a  district  at  the  base  of  the  Anti-LIbanna 
— to  his  dominions,  bnt  died,  after  a  short  reign, 
of  remorse  for  the  murder  of  his  mother,  Salome 
Alexandra,  to  whom  the  secular  dominion  had  been 
bequeathed  hy  Hyrcanus,  but  whom  Aristobulua  hod 
caat  into  prison,  and  caused  there  to  die  of  hanger. 
The  aon  who  suoceeded  him  was  Alexander  Jauniens. 
Conatantly  fighting,  and  ^arallf  beaten,  this  king 
yet,  strange  to  say,  conbived  to  enlaige  his  tern. 
toriea ;  restless  and  enterpriaing  aa  he  was  crue! 
and  MDgninary,  he  gave  his  opponents  no  rest, 
aikd  his  cvponeut*  were  all  hia  neighbours  iu  turn, 
ezcmting  Cleopaba,  queen  of  Egypt.  Attached  to 
tiie  Sadduoaes  (q.  v.),  like  hia  fatoar,  and  probably 
aomeOung  of  a  pagan,  he  was  disliked  by  the  mass 
of  hia  oonntrymen,  and  a  civil  war  of  six  years' 
duration  ensued.  After  a  brief  period  of  peace,  he 
died  (78  X.C.),  recommending,  however,  his  wife, 
Alaiandra.  to  throw  herself  into  the  aims  of  the 
vary  party  who  had  thwarted  him  all  hia  life,  the 
Phariaeet  {q- v.),  aa  the  best  way  of  retaining  her 
authority.  Xluashedid;  andgovemed.onthewhote, 
pnidantljr  tor  nine  ysara.  The  Pharisaic  party,  bow- 
ever,  abased  Uie  power  which  fell  into  their  hands, 
and  a  reaction  took  place.  Aristobulua^  ^oangcat 
■on  of  the  queen,  and  a  prinoe  of  great  spnt,  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  movement,  manihed  to 
Jerusalem,  took  possesBion  of  the  city,  and  ejected 
hia  elder  Iffother,  Hyrcanus  IL,  from  f  '~ 


Great,  fled  to  Aretas,  king  of  Northern  Arabia,  who 


induced,  by  the  promise  of 
territory  which  had  been  acquire 
Jamueua,  to  take  up  arms  on  his  behalf.     Thia  led 


iuterferanco  of  the  Ronuma,  who  were  then 
^  log  both  in  Syria  and  Armenia.  After  several 
vioisaitudet,  Jerusalem  was  captured  (63  e.  c)  by 
'"  ay,  who  had  dedded  in  favour  of  Hyrcanua, 
odna  made  dependent  on  the  Roman  pro- 
vince of  Syria,  and  Hyrcanua  appointed  ethnarcb 
and  high-priest.  Aristobul,  however,  with  his  two 
Alexander  and  AntigonuB,  and  two  daughters, 
carried  captive  to  Rome. 
In  S4  8.0.,  LidniuB  Crassas  plundered  t2ie  temple, 
which  Pompey  had  piously  spared ;  hia  iU.gotten 
'  IS  are  aaid  to  have  amounted  to  £2,00a,00a 
.  fell  shortly  afterwards  in  the  war  against  the 
Partbians,  and  his  companion,  Caasius  Longius, 
succeeded  in  completely  routing  Aristobul's  army. 

Meanwhile,  the  war  between  Cnaar  and  Pompey 
broke  ont  In  Syria,  the  partisans  of  the  latter  were 
numerous,  and  contrived  to  poison  Aristobulua,  and 
execute  his  son  Alexander,  who  Were  Cteeareana 


then. 


cquired   by  Alexander 


er  aod  master),  s 


Hynsanus  IT.  ended  the  line  of  Atmontan 
they  exercised  (nominally)  supreme  authonty  both 
in  the  civil  and  religioua  aSaua  of  Falestine,  L  e., 
they  were  both  sovereigna  and  high-prieata ;  bat, 
A  we  have  already  indicated,  the  real  reli^oua 
.uthority  had  paased  into  the  hands  of  the  priest- 
hood, and  especially  of  the  Sanhedrim  (q.  v.).  The 
Idtnnean  dynasty,  which  succeeded  the  Aamonean, 
virtually  commenced  with  Antipater,  who  nrevailod 
on  Ciesar  to  restrict  Hyrcanus  to  the  high-priest- 
hood, and  obtained  for  himself  the  office  of  pro- 
atoT  of  Jndssa,  while  his  eldest  son  Fhazael  was 
Kiinted  eovemor  of  Jerusalem,  and  his  younger 
,  Herod  governor  of  Galilee.  The  Jewish  or 
iouol  party  took  the  alarm  at  this  suddeu 
rease  01  Idumean  power ;  strife  ensued ;  and  ulti- 
mately Antipater  perished  by  poison ;  but  Eemd, 
by  the  aasistoace  of  the  Romans,  finally  entered 
Jerusalem  in  triumph  [37  s.  c. ),  caused  Antigonua, 
the  last  male  representative  of  the  Asmonean  line, 
and  his  moat  daogerous  enemy,  to  be  put  to  death, 
and  commenced  Uie  difficult  task  of  goreming  a 
people  who  were  gn>wing  mora  and  more  unruly 
every  day.  The  political  events  which  occurred 
during  the  government  of  the  Heroda,  are  brie^ 
touched  upon  under  the  heada  HerOD  (q.  v.), 
AoBiPPi  (q.  v.),  and  Antipatib  (q.  v.). 

After  Herod's  death  (3  B.i\),  Archelaua,  one  o{ 
hia  BODS,  ruled  Judsaa  and  Samaria ;  but  his  arbi- 
trarinesi,  and  still  more  his  constant  attaclu 
upon  religion,  made  )ii"i  hateful  to  the  people ; 
and  Ai^iistuB,  listening  to  their  just  complamta, 
deprived  him  of  bis  power,  and  baniahed  him  to 
Vieone  {6  a-o.).  Judsa  was  now  thrown  together 
with  Syria,  and  was  rated  by  Roman  governors. 
In  the  year  38  A.D.,  the  Bmperor  Csligala  issued 
1  edict  ordering  divine  honoun  to  be  paid  to  him- 
self. Everywhere  throughout  the  Roman  dominions 
the  J.  refused  to  obey.  At  Aleiandria,  a  frightful 
massacre  took  place,  and  for  a  moment  it  seemed 
as  if  the  whole  of  the  inhabitants  of  Judna,  too, 
were  doomed  to  perish;  but  Herod  Asrippa  I. 
(q.  V,},  tetrarch  of  Horthem  Palestine,  and  a  mend 
of  Caligula's,  dissuaded  Uie  emperor  from  canying 
out  his  barbarous  deaign.  About  the  same  time, 
the  Babylonian  J.  became  involved  in  *■  Vi^^^rtA 
with  the  Parthiana,  and  were  slangliiMed.  in  vart 


Cglizodty  Google 


&  bri^tei  day  for  them.  Herod  Agrtppa,  ■  loyal 
frieDd  and  favonrita  of  Um  new  emperor,  obtained 
anew  the  dommion  over  aU  the  parts  once  ruled  by 
liU  grandfather  Herod,  and  many  privite([«i  ver« 
thmngh  hJi  influence  granted  to  hii  Jewish  enb- 
jects,  and  even  to  foreign  Jewa.  They  received  the 
righbs  of  Soman  citizenihip  (41  A.  D,).  and  Herod 
evcQ  tried  to  conciliate  their  relinooi  prejudices  by 
with  -which  he  obaerred  their  law 
may  say,  in  pasnng,  that  wiU 
account  for  hia  peraecution  at  the  ChrlitiaDi) ;  yet 
ilie  national  party  remained  malcontent,  and  in  an 
almost  permanent  state  of  mutiny.  After  ibe  death 
of  Herod  Agrippa  L  (hia  son  being  bat  a  youth 
id  aerenteea)  the  country  was  again  tubjorted 
to  Roman  gorecnon.  The  confnaion  soon  became 
indtaeribaUe.  The  whole  land  waa  overrun  with 
robben  and  ""■*■"■,  some  of  whom  professed  to  be 
animated  by  reltgiout  motivce  (such  as  the  Sicaiii), 
while  others  were  mere  ruffianly  freebooters  and 
ent-throats ;  the  antipaUiy  between  J.  and  Samari- 
taUB  waxed  fiercer  and  fiercer,  and  the  latter  way. 
laid  and  murdered  the  orthodox  Oatileans  as  they 
went  up  to  worahip  at  Jerusalem ;  all  sorts  of 
impostors,  fanatics,  and  pretenders  to  ma^c  made 
their  appearance ;  the  priesthood  ma  nrea  by 
dissensions;  the  hatreds  between  tiie  popoUce  and 
the  Bonun  soldiery  (mostly  of  Oneoo-Synan  origin), 
and  under  the  commands  of  cmel  procorators, 
saeh  as  Albinio*  and  Qessius  Floras,  increased; 
frightful  portents  {according  to  Josephos)  appeared 
in  the  heavens,  tmtil,  in  Ss  A.11.,  m  spite  of  all 
the  preeantionuy  efforta  taken  by  Agrippa,  the 
party  of  Zealota,  ic,  the  Sicarii  or  Assassins, 
Durst  into  open  rebellion,  which,  after  a  horrible 
eanuffe  (Jos^us  calculates  the  number  killed  at 
1,356^80),  waa  terminated  (70  a.  d.)  by  the  conquest 
of  JeroBuem  by  Titus,  the  destruction  of  the  temple, 
and  the  massacre  and  banishment  of  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  the  tinhappy  people,  who  were  scat- 
tered among  their  bretlu^n  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  defence  of  Jemsftlem  (as  narrated  by  Josephos) 
is  one  of  the  most  mogmficent  and  melancholy 
examplea  of  minded  heroism  and  insanity  that  the 
world  affords.  ^tiH,  very  oonsiderable  numbers 
were  allowed  to  remain  in  their  native  conntry, 
and  for  the  next  thirty  years,  although  both  hated 
and  treated  with  rigour,  they  appear,  on  the  whole, 
to  hare  flourished.  lie  Emperor  Kerra  waa  as 
lenient  to  them  as  to  the  rest  of  his  subjects ;  but 
at  soon  as  they  had  attuned   some  measnre   of 

Ealitical  vitality,  their  turbulent  and  fanatical  spirit 
rote  out  anew.  Their  last  attempts  to  throw  off 
the  Roman  yoke,  at  Qyrene  (119  a.  d.),  Cyprus  (116 
A.  p.],  Mesopotamia  (llS  a.  d.),  and  Paleamie,  nnder 
Bar-Cochba  (q.  v.),  (130  A.  s.),  were  defeated  after 
enormoQs  and  almost  incredible  butchery.  The 
suppression  of  Bar-Cocbba's  insurrection  (135  A.  n.) 
mans  the  Gnal  desolation  of  Judoa,  and  the  dis- 
peision  of  its  inhabitants.  Talmud  and  Midraah 
(especially  MidroA  Edia)  appear  to  exhaust  even 
eastem  eztraviguice  in  describing  what  followed 
the  captnre  of  Bither — the  great  stronchold  of  the 
Jews.  lie  whole  of  Judna  waa  made  IQie  a  deaert, 
about  &S5  towns  and  vill^ea  lay  in  ashes,  SO 
fortresses  were  razed  to  the  eronud  ;  the  name  of 
Jerusalem  itself  waa  changed  into  jElia  CapitoUna, 
and  a  heathen  colooy  settled  in  the  city,  from  enter- 
ing which  every  Jew  was  strictly  debarred.  The 
liwdshi[a  to  which  the  tmfortunate  race  were  sub- 
jected, were  again  alleviated  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus 
Pius,  whom  i£e  Jewish  wntens  represent  as  seoretly 
attached  to  their  relidon  (see  Joat's  OetMckU  der 
IiToMteH,  (tc),  and  Better  times  seemed  in  (tore 


jhrist,  and  obtained  from  the  grateful  people  Uw 


nd  generally  speaking. 
1  the  estalilislunent  of 


swine's  flesh;  and 

from  the  close  of  ... 

Christianity  under  Constantina  (330  A-D.),  whra 
their  hopes  were  once  more  dashed  to  the  gromd, 
the  J.  of  the  Roman  emfaie  appear  to  have  IhriTen 
astonishingly.  In  this  period  falls  the  redaction 
of  the  chief  code  and  nasis  of  the  '  Oral  l^w,' 
the  Mishna  (q.T.)  completed  by  Jehuda  Hamuwi 
(the  Prince),  or  Satbtdoth  (the  Saint),  {Resident 
of  Hie  great  school  at  Tiberias  (S20) ;  npon  >riiich 
grafted   snbseqaently  the  two  g;igantic 


complements,  the  Palestinian  and 
the  Babylonian  Qemaiaa  (q.  v.).  The  Babylonian 
J.  were  even  more  fortnnate  than  their  western 
brethren,  though  they  did  not  perhaps  attain  the 
meridian  of  that  prosperity  hll  the  revival  of 
the  Felaian,  on  the  dowmall  of  the  Parthian 
empiiev  Their  leader  wm  called  'The  Prince  of 
the  Captivity'  {RoA  <?du(Aa|,  and  waa  choosn  from 
among  those  held  to  be  descended  from  the  House 
of  David.  He  Uved  in  great  splendour,  sssomed 
among  his  own  people  tiie  style  of  a  monarch 
(though  extremely  submissiTa  to  the  Parthian  or 
Persian  ruler),  had  a  bodyguard,  coanaellors,  cap. 
bearers,  ftc  ;  his  subjects  were,  many  of  them,  at 
least,  Extremely  wealthy,  and  pniaued  aQ  ■<>rla 
of  industrial  occupations.  They  were  meiehanta, 
bankers,  artisana,  huabaadmeo,  and  shepherds ;  and 
in  particular  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best 
weavers  of  the  then  famous  Babylonian  garments. 
In  fact,  hia  government  was  quite  an  onptrbm 
in  imptrio,  and  possessed  a  thorou^y  sacerdotal 
or  at  least  theooratio  chsiacter.  The  reputation 
for  IcarainE  of  the  Babylonian  schools,  Nahardea, 
Sarx,  and  Pambedith*,  waa  very  great  What  was 
their  condition  at  this  time  ^irther  east,  we 
cannot  tell,  but  it  seema  quite  oeitain  Uiat  they 
had  ohtsjoed  a  footing  in  China,  if  not  before  tlie 
time  of  Christ,  at  least  during  the  Itt  century.  They 
were  first  discovered  hy  the  Jesuit  miamonaries  of 
the  I7th  centujTV.  They  did  not  appear  ever  to 
have  heard  of  darist,  but  they  possMsed  tlie  Book 
of  Ezra,  and  retained,  on  the  whale,  a  very  dedded 
nationalism  of  creed  and  character.  From  their 
longnage,  it  waa  inferred  that  they  bod  conte  origin- 
ally from  Persia.  At  one  time,  they  would  appear 
to  have  been  highly  hononred  in  China,  and  to  nave 
held  the  highest  civil  and  military  offices. 

Reverting  to  Europe,  the  ascendency  of  Christi- 
anity, as  we  have  slraady  said,  waa  baneful  to  the 
Jews.  Imperial  edicta  and  ecclesiaBtical  decrees 
vied  with  each  other  in  the  rigour  of  their  intoler^ 
ance  towarfs  this  unhappy  people.  Hey  wtrs 
l>rohibited  from  tnakiOE  converts,  from  inveliDg 
(in  Spain  at  least)  the  divins  blessing  on  the 
country,  from  marrying  Christian  women  or  holding 
Chrisfaan  slaves ;  they  were  burdened  wiih  heavy 
taxes ;  yet  no  persectttion  apparenUy  could  destroy 
the  immortal  race.  About  this  time,  they  are  found 
Minorca, 

...  icea,  in  fact,  cannot  be  dispensed  with; 
Constantine,  daring  whose  reign  a  fierce  rerohitiMi, 
incited  by  his  co-regent,  GaUua,  broke  out  ainong 
the  Arians  and  J'ews  (353),  terms  them,  in  a  pnbHe 
dacament,'tliat  most  hatohil  of  all  people ;' yet  in 
spite  of  this,  they  fill  important  rivil  aad  military 
situations,  have  special  courts  ot  Justice,  and  exer- 
cise the  infloeoce  that  springs  frcsn  tfca  pjwwiiioci 


of  wealth  and  knowIedgOi  The  brief  mle  of  Julian 
the  Apostate  even  shed  a  momeiitarj  gleam  of 
splendour  over  their  deetinies,  and  the  b-aneport 
which  they  manifested  on  obtuning  hii  permiMion 
to  reboild  the  temple  at  Jeruaaleni,  ii  one  of  tiie 
moat  anblime  Bpectaclea  in  their  huctory. 
death  of  this  emperor,  howoTer,  fnirtrated  their 
laboon,  and  the  rapid  increaae  of  eccletiastical 
power  w«i,  of  courta,  hurtful  to  them  in  a  variety 
of  wayi,  althoogh  the  emperon  now  began,  in  the 
decline  of  their  aathority,  to  protect  them  ai  far  as 
they  could.  In  413  A.D.,  th^  were  exduded  from 
the  military  service;  and  in429  A.S.,  the  patriarchate 
at  Tiberias  was  abolished.  After  the  fall  of  the 
West  Soman  empire,  their  fortunes  were  different 
in  different  countriea.  In  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia. 
they  were  for  a  time  almost  unmolested;  in  the 
Byzantine  empire,  they  snffered  many  oppressions  ; 
while  ia  the  6th  and  7th  centuriee,  the  Franks 
and  Spanish  Visigoths  inflicted  on  them  frightful 
pereecntions. 

The  sudden  volcanic  outbont  of  Mohammedamtm 
in  the  Arabian  peninsola,  was  at  fliM  disastrous 
to  the  J.  in  that  part  of  the  worid.  For  several 
centuries,  a  Jewish  kingdom  had  existed  in  the 
Bouth-weat  of  Arabia.  It  was  called  Himyaritis 
or  Homeritis,  and  was  in  a  flourishing  condition 
120  years  before  Christ  Abont  230  a.i>.,  the 
Jewish  religion  even  mounted  the  throne  of  Yemen. 
Twice,  however  (by  the  Ethiopian  kin^  Aidog  and 
EU-Baha),  were  tlie  Jewish  kings  driven  from  it, 
and  the  Chriitian  religion  was  introduced  in  that 
part  in  G30  a.  n.  At  first.  Jewish  tribes  around 
Uecca  and  Medina  entertained  opinions  favour- 
able to  Mohammed  as  an  Arabian  chief,  but  when 
Islam  bq^  to  threaten  their  own  fsith,  and  even 
existence,  they  rose  ia  arms  against  ita  fonnder. 
Mohammed  proved  the  itrooger  :  he  sabdoed  the 
Chaibar  tribes  in  627  A.D.,  and  the  Arabian  J. 
were  finally  dispossessed  of  their  territories,  aud 
removed  to  Syria.  The  «M«ad  of  Mohammedanism 
throagh  Asiatic  Turkey,  Persia,  Egypt,  Africa,  and 
the  south  of  Spun  was,  nevertheleas,  oii  the  whole 
advantageous  to  the  Jews.  Exce^n^  acddentat 
persecnUons,  such  as  those  in  Manntama  (790  a.d.) 
and  in  ^ypt  (1010  A.I1.),  they  enjo;^  under  the 
califs  andAiabian  princes,  comparative  peace.  In 
Moorish  Spain  theu  nomben  greatly  increased, 
and  they  beeame  famous  for  their  learning  as  well 
as  for  trade.  Ttey  were  eonnMUors,  secretaries, 
aatroIogen,orphy*iciaiis  to  the  Moorish  rulers;  and 
this  period  may  well  be  considered  the  golden  age  of 
Jewish  literatttre.  Poets,  orators,  phflosophets  of 
highest  eminence  arose,  and  not  isolated,  but  in 
considerable  numbers;  and  it  is  a  well- established 
fact,  that  to  them  is  chiefly  due— through  the  Arab 
me^mn — the  preservation  and  sabsequent  spreadiug 
of  ancient  classical  literature,  more  especially  phil. 
osophy,  in  Europe.  There  are  some  medical  works 
belonging  to  ancient  Greece  even  now  extant  only 
in  their  Arabic  translations,  the  originals  being 
probably  tost  for  ever.  Different  from  their  fate 
tutder  Moslem  rule  was  that  which  they  had  to 
endure  in  Christendom  abont  this  period  Only  few 
and  far  between  weiv  those  Christian  monarchs  who 
rose  above  the  barbarism  of  the  churohes.  Abont 
the  besinning  of  tiie  11th  c,the  Byxaatine  emperor, 
Basil  IL,  renewed  the  persecution;  fttan  quite 
different  cansM,  the  same  thing  had  alrea^  b^un 
in  Babylonia,  where  Uie  califate  had  pwied  Into 
the  hands  of  rulers  hostile  to  the  J. ;  and  befve 
Qie  oloae  of  tiie  llth  c,  the  Prince  of  the  Cap- 
tivity had  perished  on  the  scaffold,  fbe  schooiB 
were  closed,  the  best  of  the  community  bad  fled  to 
Srain,  and  those  that  remained  were  ndnced  to  an 
■bjei!t  owidHion,  from  which  tiwy  have  n«er  risen. 


at  intervals,  a  spirit  of  Christian  intoltvanM  might 
break  ont,  but  they  enjoyed  for  thie  most  partiha 


and  9th  centuries  in  France,  espeaially  in  Paris, 
Lyon,  Langnedoc,  and  Provsnoe.  At  the  oonrt 
of  Louit  If  Dtbomuure,  tbnj  were  aotually  all- 
powerfuL  Aftw  877  A.S.,  however,  when  the  we^ 
Carlovingians  had  b^^  to  rule,  and  the  church 
was  advancing  with  imperious  strides,  a  melancholy 
change  ensned—kinf^,  bishops,  feudal  banms,  MM 
even  the  municipalitMa,  all  joined  in  a  oamiral  of 
iraecntion.  From  the  lltb  to  the  14th  c,  tlujr 
story  is  a  sncceoaive  leriea  of  Tussssrira  All 
snner  of  wild  stories  were  eirattlated  against  them ; 
was  said  that  they  were  wont  to  steal  tiie  host, 
and  to  contemptuoualy  stiak  it  through  and  throu^i 
>  Christian  chihbmi  into  uair  honsea,  and 
lemj  to  poison  w«Ut,  &&  Hot  were  alto 
hated  for  their  exoeatiT*  nsurj,  thoudi  men  oan  be 
no  doubt  that  more  Uama  is  attaohaUe  to  thoas 
whoM  tnanny,  by  deprnins  titan  of  the  ri^t  to 
I  hmd,  had  oomprsssedaieir  aotivity  into  the 
narrower  ohaunelt  el  trsfflo.  Oocsaionally,  however, 
their  debtoii^  hi^  and  low,  had  raoourse  to  what 
they  called  Ohrisilan  relipon  sa  a  rm  esn  maaoa 
of  getting  rid  of  their  obugationa.  'nms,  Fh^ffM 
Auenste,  under  whose  rale  Hm  Jews  seem  to  have 
held  mortwta  of  enormous  value  on  the  estate*  (rf 
church  and  state  dignitariea,  simply  oon&scated  the 


debts   due  to  them,  foroad  than 

'n  their  possession,  seised  their  goods,  o&d 

Qiem  from  franca;  but  tiie  daere*  i^jwaM 

to  have  taken  cAot  chi^y  in  the  north ;  yet  in 

leM  than  ao  reals,  th«  «un«  ^ond  but  waatefnl 

uarch  waa  ^ad  to  let  them  eoota  back  and  ttka 

^  their  abode  in  Paris.  Louis  DL,  who  waa  a  voit 
pioos  prinoe,  among  oilier  religions  aoti,  oaaosUed 
a  third  of  the  claims  which  tne  J.  had  apinat  hii 
snbjecta,  '  for  the  benefit  of  his  sonl.'  'An  edict  waa 
also  issued  for  the  seixnre  and  deslrutftion  of  their 
sacred  books ;  and  we  are  told  that,  at  Paris,  twenty- 
four  carta  tilled  with  copies  of  the  Taiinud,  ke.,  were 

igned  to  the  flames.    In  the  nign  at  Plnlippa 

Fair,  they  were  agaiu  expelled  from  Pnnoa 
(1306  A.S.)  with  the  ususlaaoonrpanimenta  of  enidty ; 
but  the  state  of  the  royal  flnm— »t  reodmd  it 
neceaaary,  in  little  more  than  a  doaui  vean^  to  raoall 
them ;  and  Aej  were  allowed  to  enfane  varment 
of  the  debts  dne  to  tl|etD,  on  ooDditiiHi  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  should  be  given  up  to  the  king  I 
But  a  religions  epidemic,  known  m  the  Bimug  ot 
the  Shepherd*,  having  sdxed  the  common  people 
in  Langnedoc  and  the  oentoal  iegi<nis  ot  Franca 
(1321  A.i>.),  they  signalised  themadves  by  borribla 
massaena  of  the  detested  race;  so  horrible,  indeed, 
that  in  one  place,  Teriun,  on  the  Qan>iine,  the  J., 
in  the  madness  of  their  agony,  threw  down  their 
childnn  to  the  ^InsCtan  mob,  from  the  tower  in 


Which  they  were  gathered,  hoping, 

._  , ' -ilfuiyot^thei 

Mplogna  brd 
laid   to  their 


e  following  year,  the  t> 


^  ehaige.      One 

I  in  inude  pro- 

to.    .ai  OMiMt,  a  im 

Bile  roind,  and  ItO  ^ 


sad  of  what  followed 
vinoea,  enry  Jew  was  bar 

more  resolute  autiytt;  as  they  qnuiM; 

the  place  of  tonMDt,  thev  sang  h^rmns  as  tboiwE 

they  were  going  to  a  wedeunK.    Fually,  in  ISW, 

they  were  inde&iitely  banialMd  fran  tha  middle  of 

Their  first! 
period  of  iha 


4?ie 


to  the  monka  of  CroyUnd,  833  *.  d.  Willum  the 
Conqaercr  and  bii  son,  WiUiun  Rufui,  fkTanred 
them  ;  the  latter,  on  the  occasion  of  a  pnblic  debate 
between  them  and  the  Chiiitiaaa,  even  iwore  witb 
humoroui  jmifanity,  that  if  the  nbbiiu  beat  the 
biBhope,  'by  tha  face  of  St  Lulto,'  he  would  turn  a 
Jew  hiinaalf.  The  same  rechlesa  monarch  carried 
hii  contempt  for  the  religiooa  institutions  of  hii 
kingdom  >o  for,  that  he  actually  fanned  out  the 
vacant  bilhoprica  to  the  J. ;  and  at  Oxford,  even 
then  a  seat  of  learning,  they  poaieased  three  halls — 
Lombard  Hull,  Moaes  Hall,  and  Jacob  Hall,  where 
Hebrew  was  taoght  to  Christiane  aa  well  as  to  the 
yonths  of  thur  own  peisuasion.  As  they  grew  in 
weidth,  tJiey  grew  in  unyiopnlarity'  On  the  day 
of  the  coronation  of  Bichard  the  Lion  Heart  (1189 
A.n),  some  foreign  J.  being  perceived  to  witneaa  the 
■pectacle,  from  which  their  nation  had  been  atrictly 
exclnded,  a  popular  commotioa  against  them  broke 
tmt  in  London ;  their  bouses  were  pillaced  and 
bomed;  and  though  Sir  Richard  Glanville,  the  chief- 
jnaticiary  of  the  realm,  acting  under  the  orden  of 
the  indignant  king,  partially  succeeded  in  arresting 
the  havoc,  and  even  in  brmgiag  some  of  the  mob 
to  justice  (three  were  hang^),  yet  the  barbarous 
bigotry  of  prieata  and  people  prevented  anything 
like  just  OF  aalutary  punishment.  Similar  acenea 
were  witueaaed  at  Norwich,  Edmundsbury,  Stam- 
ford, and  York;  in  the  last  of  these  toima,  moat 
at  the  J.  prefan«d  rohmtary  martyrdom  {Kidduth 
HaiAem)  in  the  synagogue  to  forced  baplJmn. 
When  Richard  returned  from  Palestine,  their 
prospects  brightened  a  little ;  though  stiU.  treated 
with  great  rigour,  yet  their  lives  and  wealth 
were  protectef— for  a  consideTatioD  I  John  LacL- 
lomf  at  first  covered  them  with  honour,  but  the 
popolar  and  prieatly  hatred  only  became  the 
stronger ;  and  on  a  sudden,  the  vacillating  and 
unprutciplsd  king  turned  round  on  his  prot£g£B, 
after  they  bad  accumulated  great  wealth,  and 
imprisoned,  maltreated,  and  ^undered  tbem  in  aH 
""  '  Henry  IIL,  they  were 
t&eooin 


parti  of  tliB  country.  Under  .  ,  ..  .  . 
mukrted  enormoualy.  Accused  of  olipping 
of  ^  realm,  they  had,  aa  a  penalty,  to  pay  into 
-Oie  royal  exchequer  (1230  a-d.)  a  tiird  of  their 
morable  property.  1o  this  reign  belongs  the  no^- 
exploded  atorr  of  the  cruciUxion  of  the ,  Christian 
bOT,  Hugh  of  Lincoln.  The  aoceosion  of  Edwud 
did  not  mitigate  their  misery ;  some  efTorts,  indeed, 
were  made  to  induce  them  to  give  up  their  pro- 
feanon  of  usury,  as  was  also  done  in  France  and 
elaewhma  doling  the  same  period,  but  the  fact  is, 
that  they  were  bo  heavily  t^ed  by  the  sovereigns 
or  govemmenta  of  Christendom,  and  at  the  same 
time  debarred  from  almost  every  other  trade  or 
ooonpation — partly  by  special  decrees,  partly  by 
the  vulgar  prejudice — that  they  coiUd  not  afford  to 

Eroaecute  ordinary  avocations.  The  attempt  made 
y  the  Dominicaii  friars  to  convert  them,  of  oourae, 
fuled  utterly ;  and  in  1253,  the  J. — no  loiter  able 
to  withstaud  the  constant  hardahipe  to  which  they 
were  subjected  in  person  and  property — b^ged  of 
their  own  accord  to  be  allowed  to  leave  the  country. 
Richard  of  Cornwall,  however,  persuaded  them  to 
stay.  Ultjntately,  in  1290  a.  d.,  they  were  driven 
from  the  shores  of  Inland,  pursued  by  the  execra- 
tions of  the  iafniiated  rabble,  and  leaving  in  tha 
handa  of  the  king  all  their  [noperty,  debts,  obliga- 
tiona,  and  mortgagee.  They  emigrated  lor  ^»  most 
part  to  France  and  Oennaoy.  Their  number  is 
estimated  at  about  16,D0a 

In  Germany,  they  were  looked  upon  as  the  special 
pTopwty  of  the  sovereign,  who  bou^t  and  sold 
them,   and   wen    designated    his   KammerbMiiJiU 


the  time  of  Constantine.  About  the  Sth  c,  Uiey 
are  found  in  all  the  Rheoiah  towns ;  in  the  10th  e^ 
in  Saxony  and  Bohemia;  in  the  Ilth,  in  SwaUa, 
Franconia,  and  Vienna ;  and  in  the  IZth,  in  Bnw- 
denburg  and  Sileaia.  The  same  aort  of  treatmeot 
befell  uiem  in  the  empire  aa  elsewhere  ;  they  tuud  to 
pay  all  manner  of  iniquitoua  tazes^body -tax,  capita- 
tion-tax, trade-taxes,  coronation-tax,  and  to  present 
a  multitude  of  ^fta,  to  mollify  the  avarice  or  supply 
the  necessities  of  emperors,  princes,  and  barons.  A 
raid  against  the  J.  was  a  favourite  pastime  of  a  bank- 
rupt noble  in  those  days.  The  Crusades  kindled 
a  spirit  not  in  Germany  only,  however,  but  through 
all  Christendom,  hostile  to  the  '  enemies  of  Christ.' 
Treves,  Metz,  Colosoe,  Mainz,  Worms,  Spires,  Stras- 
biarg,  and  other  cities,  were  deluged  wiui  the  blood 
of  the  '  unbelievurs.'  At  such  epochs,  the  passions 
of  the  populace  and  of  the  lower  der^  could  not  be 
restrained.  The  word  ff^  (said  to  be  the  initiala 
of  Jliemob/ma  ffl  perdila,  Jeruaalem  is  taken) 
throughout  all  the  cities  of  the  em[nre  becaine 
the  aignal  for  msasocre,  and  if  an  insenaate  monk 
sounded  it  along  the  streetl,  it  threw  the  rabble 
into  paroxyams  of  mnrderous  rage.  The  J.  were 
expelled — after  being  plundered  and  maltreated — 
from  Vienna  (1196  A.D.),  Mecklenburg  {1226  a.  n.>, 
Breslau  (1226  a.  d.},  Braodenburg  (1243  A.i>.[,  Frmnk- 
furt  (1241  A.D.),  Munich  (12§6  a-d.),  KUmbew 
(1390  A.».),  Prague  (1391  a. d.),  and  BaUabon  (1476 
A.  s.).   The '  Block  Death,'  in  inrticular,  occuioned  a 

Ct  and  wideapread  persecution  (1348 — 13S0  A.D.). 
/  were  murdered  and  burned  by  thousands,  and 
many  even  sought  death  amidst  the  can9^rati(«s 
of  their  synagogue*.  The  race  almoat  disa|f>eared 
from  Germany ;  only,  however,  to  return,  for  tbeir 
servioea  were  indispensable.  Only  here  and  there, 
however,  they  posMBsed  the  rights  of  citizens,  or  were 
allowed  to  hold  unmovable  property ;  in  general, 
they  were  permitted  to  proaeeate  only  commerce 
and  uiur^  and  the  law  ^umed  on  them  its  hanhest 
aspect  "Repeatedly,  too,  the  emperoia  gratified  at 
once  their  piety  and  their  greed  by  canceling  their 
pecuniary  claims.  In  many  places,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  live  in  certjiin  parti  of  the  town,  known  as 
the  JudauCroMe  (Jewa'  Streets). 

Switzerland,  whither  they  came  at  a  comparatively 
late  period,  commenced  to  persecuta  them  about  the 
middle  of  the  14th  centuiy.  In  Hm  course  of  the 
16th  c.,  they  were  expelled  from  Schaffhansen, 
Zurich,  Geneva,  Thuigau,  and  other  places.— Their 
treatment  was  more  humane  in  Poland  and  IJthn- 
ania.  As  early  as  1264  A.  D.,  they  enjoyed  in  thoe 
countries  certain  important  privileges.  Favoured 
by  Cosimir  IIL,  their  numbers  were  swelled,  after 
1348  A.D.,  by  fugitives  from  Qemuiny  and  Swit- 
zerland— Russia  and  Hungaiy,  like  most  other 
countries  of  Christendom  during  the  middle  agia, 
received,  persecuted,  and  banished  them. 

In  Spam,  the  oondition  of  the  J.  was  long  hi^Jy 
favourable.  The  horrible  persecutions  of  the  Gothic 
princes  in  the  6th  and  7th  centuries,  made  i^  of 
course,  absolutely  ineviteble  that  the  first  j^eam  of 
a  Moorish  scimitar  on  the  coast  would  turn  them 
into  allies  of  the  invaders.  During  the  whole  of  the 
brilliant  period  of  Moorish  rule  m  the  Peninsula, 
they  enji^ed,  indeed,  what  muat  have  seemed 
to  them,  m  oomparisoD  with  thnr  common  fate,  a 
aort  of  £lysian  life.  They  were  almost  on  terms  of 
equality  with  their  Mohammedan  mastery  rivalled 
them  in  civilisation  and  letters,  and  probably  sui~ 
passed  them  in  wealth.  The  Spanish  J.  were  conse- 
quently of  a  much  higher  type  than  their  brethren 
in  other  parte  of  Europe.  They  were  not  reduced 
to  tha  one  d^rading  occupation  of  11SU17,  thoof^ 


thev  followed  tb*t  too ;  on  tiie  contniy,  tbey 
lnuMndmen,  Ueded  pnptieton,  ^tmcujw,  fiuncUl 
admioiatetora,  &«. ;  the?  mtjoyed  «peewl  privilege*, 
and  had  conrti  of  juatice  foe  th^Melve*.  Kor  wm 
thii  (tale  of  tltiiigi  eonfined  tothoM  portioui  of  SpuA 
noder  the  aoTereigntr  ot  the  Uoon ;  the  Christuui 
mouarcha  of  tha  north  and  middle  ^ndoaUr  came  to 

Spreciate  the  raloe  of  their  jwmces,  and  we  lind 
em  fat  a  time  protected  and  eocouraged  by  the 
tul««  <rf  AiagOD  and  Castile.  But  the  extravagance 
and  conaeqoent  porertr  of  the  noble*,  a<  well  aa 
the  iDCTEasng  power  of  the  prieathood,  ultiinately 
brought  abont  a  diiastrona  change.  The  eotatea  of 
the  noblei  and  {it  ia  also  believed)  tboee  attached 
to  the  catbedrala  and  ehnichea,  were  in  maiw  caaea 
mortgaged  to  the  J. ;   hence  it  waa  not  difficult 


Graduallj,  the  J.  were  deprived  of  the  privilige 
of  iiving  wheie  thej  pleased ;  their  rifhta  were 
diminiahed,  and  theii  ta^cea  augmented.  In  Seville, 
Cordova,  Toledo,  Valencia,  Catalonia,  azid  the  ialand 
oF  Majorca,  outbnrata  of  prieatlf  and  papular  violence 
took  place  (1391—1392  *-i>0;  inxmenae  numben 
were  mnrdered,  and  wholesale  theft  waa  peipetrated 
by  the  religiona  rabble.  Gecape  waa  poaaible  only 
thnnigh  flight  to  Africa,  or  bv  accepting  baptiam 
at  the  point  of  the  aword.  I^e  number  of  theae 
raionxd  ccnverta  to  Christianity  u  reckoned  at 
aXMMM.  The  fate  of  the  J.  in  Spain  during  the 
16th  c.,  howercr,  beg^n  docription.  Peiaecution, 
viijeat  ccmvenion,  maaaacre,  the  tortnrea  of  the 
inqoiaitdon — we  read  of  nothing  but  these !  Thoii- 
■aoda  were  bnmed  alive.  '  In  one  year,  280  were 
burned  in  Seville  alone.'    Somkctimea  the  popes,  and 

j  even  the  nobles  ahuddered  at  the  fiendish  zeal  of 
the  inquisitor^  and  tried  to  mitigate  it,  but  in  vain. 
At  le^th  the  hour  of  final  horror  came.    In  1492 

.  A.D,,  ^rdinand  and  Isabella  issued  an  edict  for 
the  eipoUion,  witbin  four  moDtlie,  of  all  who  refused 
to    beconie    Chriatiana,   with   the   strict   inhibition 

.  to  take  neither  gold  nor  silver  out  of  the  opuntty. 
lie  J.  offered  an  enormous  amn  for  its  rsTocation, 
aod  for  a  momeot  the  aorereijpa  headtated;  bnt 
Torqoemada,  the  Dominican  inqniaitor-geoaal,  daied 
to  compare  his  royal  maater  and  miatoeM  to  Jndaa ; 
they  shrank  from  the  awful  aecnaMiMi;  and  the 
rain  of  the  moat  indnatrioua,  the  moat  tbriring,  the 
most  peaceable,  and  the  moat  learned  of  their  sub- 
jects—and consequently  of  Spain  hetaelf— became 
irremediable.  This  is  perbape  the  grandest  and 
most  melancholy  hour  in  thmr  modem  history. 
It  ia  conridered  by  thenuelvet  as  great  a  colomitj 
aa  the  dsatrnction  of  Jemsalem.  300,000  (some 
even  give  the  numbers  at  650,000  or  800,000) 
resolved  to  abandon  the  oountiy,  which  a  real- 
denca  of  seven  centories  had  made  almost  a  second 
Jndm  to  them.  The  incidentB  that  maiked  their 
ilepuinre  at«  heartrending.  Almost  every  land  waa 
shot  agaiuat  them.  Some,  hown-er,  ventured  into 
FnuKe;  otheta  into  Italy,  Tnrkev,  and  Marocoo, 
in  the  last  of  which  countries  they  aufiered  the 
most  frightful  privatiDUB.  Of  the  80,000  who 
obtained  an  entnuice  into  Portugal  on  payment 
of  e^t  gold  pennies  a  head,  but  only  for  eight 
months,  to  euable  them  to  obtain  means  of  departure 
to  other  countries,  many  lingered  after  the  expiry  of 
the  appointed  time,  and  the  poorer  were  sold  as 
slaves.  In  1^15  A.l)>,  Xing  £macu£l  commanded 
thun  to  quit  his  territoriea,  but 
inned  a  secret  order  that  all  Jew 
14  jrears  of  aga  should  be  torn  from  1 
ratuned  in  PoiiogaL  and  brought  up  aa  Ubnstuma. 
Agony  drove  Uie  Jewish  mouiera  into  madnsas; 
tlwy  deatioyed  their  ehildmt  with  their  own  hands, 
and  threw  tbsm  into  weUs  and  riven,  to  prevent 


tianity,  but  wluj,  for  the  moat  part,  secretly  adh 
to  their  old  faith  {Ontaim,  .linuHiTn— '  yieldinj 


violence,  forced  ones'),  wero  hardly  leea  dreadful, 
Uie  ITth  c  before  persecution 
[  suspected  converts  happoied 

a  met  with  much 
..  Purkey  than  any- 
where else.  During  the  15th  sod  16th  centuries, 
they  aro  to  be  fonnd^ — except  at  iotervals,  when 
persecution  applied  its  scourge — in  almost  every 
city  of  Italy  i  pursuing  varioua  kinds  of  traffic 
^i^ly  the  whole  trade  of  the  Levant,  for  instance^ 
was  in  their  hands),  but  chiefly  engaged  in  money- 
lending,  in  which  they  rivalled  the  great  Lombard 
bankera.  Abrabanel,  perhaps  the  most  eminent 
Jewish  scholar  and  divine  of  bis  day,  rose  to  be 
confidential  adviser  to  the  king  of  Naples.  In 
Turkey,  they  wera  held  in  higber  estimatioD  than 
the  conquered  Greeks ;  the  latter  wero  termed 
TeAir  (slaves),  bnt  the  Jews,  Moiuaphir  (riaitois) ; 
they  were  allowed  to  ro-open  their  schools,  to 
eatabliah  synagogual,  and  to  settle  in  all  the 
commermal  towua  of  Uie  Iievant. 

The  inventioo  of  printing,  the  revival  of  learning 
and  the  Beformation,  are  generally  asserted  to  have 
beneficial  to  Ibe  J.,  out  this  oan  be  regarded 
le  only  in  a  certain  sense.  When  the  J.  b^aa 
. .  _.e  the  presses  at  their  eaiUest  stags  for  t£^ 
own  literature,  sacred  and  otherwise,  the  Eknperor 
Moximiliaa  was  urged — chieSy  by  converts— to 
order  all  Hebrew  writings  to  be  committed  to  the 
flames  i  and  but  for  the  strenuous  exertions  of 
ReuchUn  (q.  v.),  ignorance,  treachery,  and  bigotry 
might  have  secured  a  despicable  triumph.  Lufber, 
in  the  earlier  part  of  his  career,  at  least,  look^ 
with  no  unfavourable  <^e  on  the  adoption  of  violent 
means  for  their  conversion ;  and,  on  the  other  bond, 
we  find  at  least  one  distinguished  Eoman  CathoUtL 
Pope  Sextus  V.,  animated  oy  a  far  more  wise  and 
kindly  spirit  towards  them  than  any  Protestant 
prinoe  of  his  time.   In  1588,  he  abolished  all  the  per- 

''~\a  statutes  of  his  predecessors,  allowed  them 

M  and  trade  in  every  city^  of  his  dominions, 
to  enjoy  the  free  exercise  of  tiiedr  religion,  and,  in 
respect  to  the  administration  of  justice  and  taxa- 
tion, placed  them  on  a  footing  with  the  rest  of  his 
subjects.  That  the  Beformatiou  itaelf  had  nothing 
to  do  with  subsequent  amelioratioos  in  the  condi- 
tion of  the  J.,  is  only  too  plain  from  the  fact,  that 
in  many  parts  of  Germany,  Protestant  as  well  aa 
Catholic,  their  lot  became  actually  harder  than 
before.  They  were  driven  out  of  Bavaria  (1S63 
A.D.},  out  of  Brandenburg  (1573  x.  s.),  and  similar 
treatment  befell  them  elsewhere.    They  also  excited 

IS  pawdar  tumults  (as   late  even  aa  1730 

the  Protestant  dty  of  Hamburg);  and,  in 
fact,  during  the  whole  of  the  ITtil  and  the  first  part 

'  Uie  18tn  c,  the  haidships  inflicted  on  tiiem  "by 


Among  the  writers  who  distinguished  themselves 
in  Germany  by  pleading  the  cause  of  the  3.,  we 
may  spedaUy  mention  Leasing  (q.  v.),  Mendelssohn 
'      ',),  and  Dohm. 

.iolland,  as  we  know,  was  one  of  the  first  coun- 
tries in  modem  times  to  rise  out  of  the  barbarism  of 
the  middle  ages.  Its  active,  energetic,  intelligent 
inhabitants  appreciated  the  business  qualifications 
'  "*  a  J.,  and  as  wrlv  aa  1603  A.  v.,  permitted  them 

ttle  and  trade,  though  they  did  not 

righU  of  cttdzenahip  tiu  1796  a.  d.    1 


r: 


gle 


J.  to  obtuo  a,  leg&l  lecognitiou  in  tut  ooniitrf  wm 
during  ths  Protectorate  of  Cromwell  in  I6CC  i.~ 
Ctomwdl  bimielf  was  fATOorablo  to  their  kdmivioi  , 
to  wera  the  Iswyera;  bat  the  nattoa  generallj, 
and  puticukrl^  Uie  emphatiokllf  religion*  pratioo 

'  " -' '-  hostile  to  moh  »  prooonditig; 

controrend^  IftOAuBg  of  the 
o  ooniider   the   quMtaon,  pre- 


of  it,  we  « 


e  «?'a 


dirine*  appointed   1 

Ch«rle«_,,— , „ ,.     ,  -- 

need  of  their  mrrioea,  permitted  them  quietly  to 
MtUe  in  the  idud.  In  17S3  i.  d.,  the^  utqnired 
the  light  to  poMev  land;  in  1703  ^.k,  they 
obtainra  the  right  of  natnnliiation.  Since  1830, 
civjo  corpontiDD*,  nnce  1833,  the  pn^eesion  of 
adTocatsB,  and  tince  1846,  the  office  ol  alderman 
and  of  lord-mayor,  hare  been  opened  to  tbem. 
Tlie  last  and  crowning  triumph  of  the  principle  of 
toleration  was  achjev^  in  1868  by  the  idmiMion  o( 
3.  into  parliament. 

Some  of  the  relic*  of  that  mighty  hoat  of  exile* 
that  left  Spain  and  Bortugal  found  their  way  into 
France,  where  th^  ^"S  lingBn^  >»  *  nuBcnUe 
condition.  In  1660  a.  s.,  they  wen  received  into 
Bayomie  and  Bordeanz  ;  tliey  were  also  to  be  fbnnd 
in  oonsidBrable  nnmben  in  ATignon,  Lominc^  and 
Alsace.  In  1784,  the  capitation-tax  was  alxdiihed. 
In  1790,  while  the  French  Rerolotion  waa  itill  in 
its  pivtine  rigonj,  and  animated  by  a  sincere 
homanitariaiiiam,  the  3.  presented  a  petition  to  the 
national  npresent^tiTes  claiminK  equal  rights  as 
eitizena.  Mirabean  was  among  (£ar  adTocatea,  and 
their  cause  could  not,  there^re,  be  nnsnoceasful. 
From  this  time,  their  technical  densnation  in  Fisnce 
has  been  ItradUa.  In  1S06,  tJie  Emperor  MapoleoD 
summoned  a  '  Sanhedrim '  of  J.  to  meet  at  Pari^  to 
whom  a  variety  of  qnnrtioiia  were  pot,  mainly  with 
a  view  to  test  Uieir  ntnew  for  bemg  French  oitiaeoa. 
Their  answer*  wera  satiafaetoi^,  and  they  were 
allowed  to  reorganise  their  retigion*  institntioni  in 
tiie  most  elaborue  manner.  Since  then,  no  material 
change  has  taken  place  in  the  laws  regardii^ 
them ;  and  they  are  since  then  fonnd  not  only  in 
the  hif^eat  omoes  of  the  eivil  administration — 
very  fraquenlly  in  the  minisby  (e.  s.,  Crtmieuz, 
Oondchanx,  Foold) — but  they  also  fill  some  of  the 
chief  places  in  the  army  ana  navy.  We  may  add 
here,  tiiat  their  nipasBins  biaTeiy  in  the  field 
has  been  Vita  inhjeirt  of  freqaant  remark,  more 
espedally  since  among  the  vicat  with  which  a  brutal 
prejadice  loved  to  brand  them,  in  tpita  of  all 
Uitorioal  erideoce,  waa  also  that  of  cowardice.— 
In  Denmark,  since  1814  a.  d.,  they  have  bean  aa,  a 
fooling  of  eqnaljty  aa  eitizena  with  native  Danea. 
— In  Sweden,  they  did  not  obtain  adminion  till 
1776  A.D.,  and  then  only  into  StocUiolm  and  three 
othei  towns.  Citiieiiahip  is  aiill  conferred  as  a 
favour. — Norway  forbade  them  t«  touch  its  soil 
tilt  1860  A.  D.— Admitted  into  Russia  Proper  by 
Peier  the  Orea^  they  wete  expelled — to  the  numbtur 
of  35,000— W  the  Empress  Elizabeth  in  IT43. 
Beadmitted  by  the  Smpress  Catharine  IL,  iiioy 
were  further  protected  by  the  Bmperor  Alexander 
L,  who  in  ISOfl  and  1809  iasaad  oecreea,  insuring 
thea  full  liberty  of  trade  and  oommeroe;  bnt  (3 
the  Ubertiea  wluch  he  oonfened  npoa  than,  ^asy 
were  deprived  by  Hm  late  emperor,  Nicholas.  Knee 
I83S,  a  acheme  of  gradual  emanopation  h«*  been 
nnder  contemplation.— Foland-howerer,  ha*  beoMoe 
their  principal  residenoe.  There  tiiey  an  more 
nomeroua  than  in  any  otlieT  part  of  the  worid- 
They  owed  Ihur  first  humane  recej^tiim  in  Uie 
14th  e;  to  the  love  which  Kins  Caiimir  the  Great 
bore  for  a  Jowiah  mJitrfsa     fat  idmbj  years,  the 


singularly  harsh  towards  the  J. ;  in  fact^  hi*  legia- 
labon,  it  has  been  aaid,  almost  titrown  na  back  into 
the  middle  ages.  All  "»""«'  of  imqoitoiia  a*d 
iweralaidopmtham;  ealyaccrtsln 


tiiese  were  prohibited  both  from  the  moit  _ 
ahla  and  tlM  naeat  looratiTe  emTdoTMcta. 
•hamefol  ctate  of  m«tter*  waa  eaded  Dy  the  E  _  _ 
edict  of  toleratioo  (1813  a.  v.),  \iy  which  J. 
placed  almort  in  on  eqoal  position  as  liliasnB  with 

whcJe,  had  been  to  enlarge  uieir  'libertie*' — outil 
the  Berolatioa  U  1848  finslly  gained  them  their 
full  emancipation,  altiion^  owug  to  the  Wllllill^l 
perioda  of  reartion,  it  has  not  a*  yet  bnaii  ouiretj 
carried  oat — In  the  soisller  Omtmo  stale*-  iKnH 
fall  ri^ts  have  likewise— gradnalty  and 


lan  National  Aaaembly  hald  is  Frankfort  in  1S4B 
nd  1849  contained  many  prcninent  Jewodi 


_  Q  act  cA  toleration, 
I  act  was  extraordinarily  liber^  in  its  pt«- 
ins  for  the  Jews.  Not  tUl  1860,  bowwer  (and 
I   then    nnder    certain    reatiictions),  did    thHy 


privilsges,  and  have  been  protected  by  the  nohili^. 
As  a  ooDsequmce,  in  the  late  Ennprian  msarreo' 
tion,  they  were  patriotic  to  a  maia — foain  bens  ta 
tolerate  thftn  again  in  1837  ld^  and  thn  oan  lolknr 
trade  or  agrinutnie  like  other  Spaniarda ;  b«t  fsw 
J.  have  as  yet  oared  to  venture  back  to  a  lud  that 
fills  them  with  tile  moat  moanfol  reooHeotions^ — 
Portugal,  whwe  they  eqjov  no  oivio  rig^rt^  W 
only  a  few  Oeiman  Jews. — dwiteoland  long  basted 
Uiem  harshly,  and  only  of  late  yeara  have  a  few 
cantons  taken  a  step  in  the  right  directioo^ 

In  other  conntriea,  their  eonditittL  most  be 
merely  referred  ta  In  Tmkey,  t^y  are  vny 
nnmerous,  and  have  thriven  in  apita  ol  the  sxao- 
tions  ot  paahaa,  the  insolence  of  JuiimiiaB,  aad  tha 
miaerieH  of  war.  Their  cranmnnitie*  in  Conatan* 
tinople,  Adrianople,  Baloniki,  Smyrna,  Alqipo,  ai^ 
DaDiasona,  are  ramsidvable ;  in  PusaliM^  thor 
ancient  himie,  tiiey  are  Said  to  be  i^iidly  matttaa^ 
bat  they  are  Btill,  in  qdte  of  the  many  eSiMta  im 
the  part  of  their  European  brotiieiB  to  siitcliniala 
their  condition,  very  poor.  Their  nunboa  in 
Arabia  are  not  very  targe,  yet  they  enjoy  sonia 
independence.      Those    in  Penia  have  sank  into 


ur  uuu  wxB«  vMjy  Bjv  not  nopeiflB-  xieavy, 
they  say,  'is  our  alaveiy;  anxiouBly  we  wait  iat 
redemption.'  They  exuC  in  Afgh.njutan^  f,^ 
cany  on  a  trade  between  Cabal  and  China;    ia 


floDiishinK  ool<my ;  in  Bokhara,  when  th^  peaaos 
equal  righta  with  tha  other  inhabitonta,  and  an 
skilled  in  the  mannfiwtnM  of  alka  and  mntah, 
in  Tartaty  and  China,  where,  howisver,  tht^  «■ 


They  are  alao  fonnd  all  along  the  Noidi  African 
'  ire,  indeed,  th^  have  had  aommnnitiM 
m  than  a  thooaand  yean,  whick 
~  in  oooaeqaanoa  <<  tha  ffmtt 


e  larg^ 


tha  peril*  of  MoLunmedxn  faiutioiinL  Id  EgTpt 
uid  Nubia,  they  u«  few  ;  in  AbymiiiiR,  more  nuuw- 
nnu ;  mud  Tt  in  wc«rtuned  thst  they  have  CTen 
Toade  their  way  into  the  heut  of  Afrioi ;  they  eziit 
in  Sedan,  and  are  alM  (onnd  further  aouth.  Ainerica, 
too,  has  invited  thcdr  spirit  of  enterinile.  In  the 
United  States,  ae  in  Great  Bribun,  tbey  onji^ 
abaolota  liberty.  Th^  have  bean  in  Brazil  onoe 
less,  and  in  Cayenne  ainoe  1639,  and  we  also  Mttlad 
in  some  parte  oi  the  West  Indies. 

The  entire  nomber  of  J.  in  the  world  a  reckoned 
Tarioualy  between  SJ  and  15  milliona.  A  recent 
eatimate  giTea  their  nnmber  at  about  6,000,000,  of 
whioh  upwaidi  of  3,000,000  are  aaaigned  to  Europe ; 
about  208,000  to  Asia ;  about  760,000  to  Africa,  and 
•bout  105,000  to  Amerioa.  There  are  in  Oermany, 
indafiTe  of  tite  whole  of  Auitna  and  Piuasia,  aboat 
I,M0,O0D,  of  whom  1,046,671  are  in  Aiutria,  and 
360,701  in  Pnueia.  Aoeordins  to  the  Bnsiian 
«MiMi*  ol  1867,  the  nnvber  of  3.  in  European 
BiiMiavM%61V7ft 

LANOCAei  aw  LrrKu.'nntK — Laiwut^  Amons 
the  Semitio  family  lA  langiiages,  the  Habnw  (called 
in  tliB  Old  TestMneot,  &e  spee«h  of  Canaan ;  in 
the  later  portioua  of  the  same  book,  the  speech  lA 
Jndaa ;  and  first  in  the  Chaldee  targiuna,  the 
Sasred  Language,  or  rather  the  lansuage  of  the 
Sanctuary  and  uings  connected  with  it — as  the  law 
[Miahua],  the  prajen,  ftc)  is  one  of  the  oldest, 
and  in  rwaid  to  sCr^igCh,  refinement,  and  elabo- 
rate oompletenesB  ol  gnuomatical  structure,  one  ot 
the  most  remarkable.  (Its  cMef  characteriitict 
will  be  fonnd  notioed  under  Sewtio  I^utovAGB.) 
Yet  it  is  neither  the  oldest  of  Semitic  dialeobi, 
nor,  u  was  long  believed,  the  iiiBt  of  all  hnnutu 
laDguages.  Onoe  identical  with  tile  Phcenician, 
it  was  adopted  by  Abraham  and  hia  family  in 
Paleetine.  The  peonliar  religious  and  moral  notions 
of  -the  Hebrews  eonld  not  but  impress  upon  it  by 
duress  a  diatinot  character,  and  thus  Hebrew  became 
a  diatinot  dialeot  Altbougb  the  Sacred  writings 
are  the  oldest  Semitio  works  whioh  we  poesesB, 
Uiers  is  yet,  except  »  few  arohaamB,  hardly  any 
traoe  of  tne  primitive  state  of  the  Hebrew  language 
preserved  in  them ;  they  belong  to  periods  when 
it  was  nearly  as  fully  formed  and  developed  as  in 
the  time  of  the  exile.  Hie  differences  in  style, 
maimer,  and  idiom  In  the  diffsrent  booki,  must 
rattier  be  traced  to  the  indhridnaHtdes  of  the  various 
writeta.  In  general,  we  distingnish  two  distinct 
periods — the  golden  age,  up  to  the  Babylonian 
exile,  when,  except  a  few  Egyptian  words,  no  foreign 
admixtore  mart  the  purity  ot  the  language ;  the 
second  from  the  eiile  downwuda,  wlwn  Persian 
and  Aramaic  elements  had  iBrgely  been  introduced. 
As  we  find  it  in  the  Bible,  the  Hebrew  is  a  poor 
lanniage  enough  ;  yet  there  is  a  sublime  gnuuienr, 
ana,  in  the  provinces  of  religion  and  agriculture, 
also  a  richness  inherent  in  it  which  surpasses  almost 
every  ancient  and  modem  language.  It  is  hardly 
to  t>e  prcaomed,  in  the  absence  of  distinot  tracts, 
that  'Were  should  have  been,  within  tha  small 
compUB  of  Palestine,  room  for  several  dialects. 
The  different  pronunciation  of  the  Shin  alluded  to 
in  Judges  xii.  must  have  been  only  a  solitan'  pecu- 
liarity of  the  Ephraimitaa,  as,  at  a  later  period,  the 
Oalilean^  and  also  the  ijifaabitants  ot  Jerusalem, 
were  known  for  their  faulty  pronundation,  as  shewn 
in  several  nssutes  of  the  New  Testament  and  the 
Talmud,  like  Hebrew  character  still  universally 
embayed  in  writing,  and  called  t^uare,  Asajtian 
or  BabyloidMi  cliaracter,  first  takes  tiie  place,  at 
an  tiiUNrtain  period  after  the  exile,  of  the  older 
Battooial  ^phuetio  duraeter,  which  was  oommon 


A  gratmtiatioaJ  treatment  of  Hebrew  first  com- 
meuced  after  the  language  ceased  to  be  spoken  by 
the  people.  The  vooaUiatioii  and  aooentnatioD  of 
the  text  originated  in  the  6tli  and  Tth  oeaturies 
after  the  time  of  Christ  (see  Uasoba).  The  J. 
made  the  flrat  attempt  at  a  eyateiQ  of  grammar 
about  the  dawn  of  the  lOlh  c,  after  the  example  of 
the  Aiabiana,  and  origijuiUy  even  in  the  Arabian 
language.  Babbi  Saadia  Oaoo  (died  942  A.D.), 
Jehuda  Chajug  {ana  1060  A.  9.),  Abraham-ben- 
Esra  Idrra  1150  A.'D.),  and  David  Kimehi  (circa 
1100.— 1200)  are  held  in  olaswo  repute  as  gram- 
marians. The  Hebrew  dictionary  of  the  latter  was 
long  considered  the  best  that  had  been  executed. 
The  founder  of  the  study  of  Hebrew  among  Chris- 
tians was  the  famous  Jtdiann  Reuchliu  (died  16S2 
A.  D.),  who,  however,  tike  the  gnuumarians  of  the 
next  age,  Bnxtorf  and  others,  strictly  adhered  to 
the  Jewish  traditioa  and  method.  A  new  en  b^an 
when  the  stodj  of  the  other  members  of  the  Semitic 
family  of  languaoM,  the  %ri«o,  ttie  Arabio,  and  the 
Etiuimk^  enlM^  the  Hebraist's  field  of  view ;  the 
hendo*  of  this  era  vera  t^  Qerman  scholars.  Alb. 
Schuttens  (died  17G0)  and  Nik.  W.  Schtijder  (died 
1793),  who  Bou^t  to  remedy  the  one-sided  defective 
method  into  wliioh  the  so-oalled  Bntch  school  fell 
by  its  too  exclusive  regard  for  Arabia.  Oeeenin^ 
especially,  aloi^  with  a  comprahensive  and  dus 
considerBtion  ofall  the  allied  languages,  devoted  his 
attention  to  tiie  critical  observation  and  exposition 
of  the  individual  grammatiaal  btote,  and  a  more  Just 
and  harmonious  explanation  ot  them.  Sinos  then, 
^^wald  (q.  ▼•),  who  treats  the  Hebrew  langoan  a* 
an  organism  after  the  hiatorioa-genetui  method  has 
carried  the  study  still  fnrthei,  uid  in  aome  meaaun 
snpetMded  Oesenios.  Ewald's  Qrantma^  itr  Hair. 
Spradie  (Leip.  1S44) ;  Oeaenins,  ifebducAs  (Tram- 
moMi  (Leip.  1S13),  the  16th  edition  by  RUdiger 
(Leip.  1851);  are  tJie  beet  known  grammars.  Hte 
most  comprehensive  Hebrew  diotionaiy  is  that  by 
Oesenius,  entitled  Thttaur^s  Lingua  Hdrraua 
(Leip,  1S29 — 1M2) ;  tha  b^i  of  the  smaUcr  lexicons 
are  Oesemua's  H^.  vnd  Ohald.  Btpidiiiifrterinieh 
aha-  daiAlle  TetUtmaU  (2  vols.  Leip.  1810—1812; 
4th  ed.  18S4) ;  Winer's  Ledecm  Mtamaie  ifsAralnm 
-  Oialdaiaim  (Leip.  1S28)  ;  and  Font's  ifcb-.  und 


the  ttjigion  of  the  Hdirswa  has  ezermsed  on  Chris- 
tian and  Mohammedtn  nationB,  ha*  given  a  nniverssl 
signifieanoe  to  thair  ancient  htetatuie.  In  antiquity 
and  oredibiUty,  in  the  tdigiousness  of  its  form  and 
the  vigour  of  its  p<>etry,  it  surpasses  the  iiteratnn 
of  any  other  pre-Chriatian  people,  and  thus  oonsti- 
tntes  boUi  the  most  remsrbible  monument  and  the 
moat  authentic  source  of  the  early  history  snd 
spiritual  development  of  the  human  race.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  only  a  oompantively  soaoty 
"lepTMent  day,  and 


portion . 

even  the  contents  of  what  ia  extant  have  »/  uu 
means  runained  unaltered  in  the  li^Me  of  ages.  It 
is  quite  certain  tiiat  the  Hebrews,  in  the  eariiest 
times,  only  engraved  or  cat  out  on  stone,  metal,  or 
wood  what  is  said  to  have  been  executed  in  lenUag: 
nor  is  there  any  trace  of  a  material  ad^ited  for  the 
record  of  lenEUiened  eompootions  before  the  period 
ot  David,  and  even  th«  the  writinK  of  books  was 
still  a  matter  of  tare  aocmrrsnoe.  Beudesk  ssvsral 
writings  ot  Ae  Hebrews,  hdd  to  be  of  ancient 
date,  ore  believed  to  betmy  a  later  ori^  tiiam  is 
assigned  to  them  by  their  eontoit^  their  mode  of 
repreaentation,  and  the  oharaotar  of  the  laaguage; 
so  that,  in  troth,  we  poeasM  notUaK  which,  in 
its  origmsl  ahape,  reaohaa  torUur  biiw  tham  the 


Cnt.zodhyGoOgle 


if  dad  aUo  of  the  contenta  of  the  Hebrsw 
writings,  u  a  later  elaboratioii.  That  critidEm  hni 
diocovered,  aa  it  believea,  here  and  there  tracei  of 
mach  later  hands  than  those  to  whom  tradition 
ascribes  Uie  suthorahip  of  the  particular  works, 
does  not  neceasarilj  always  throw  diacredit  on  the 
incidents  narrated,  nor  deetroy  the  value  of  that 
peculiar  spirit  b^  which  they  are  characteriaed. 

The  compoaition  of  the  extant  works  in  Hebrtvi 
LUeratiire  proper  would,  on  this  view,  extend  over 
a  period  of  nearly  900  years— via,,  from  the  times 
of  David  to  those  of  the  Maccabeoi.  Thia  period 
was  preceded  by  a  preparatory  aoe  ai  aagaa,  songs, 
fraententary  historical  notioes,  inscnptioiia,  laws, 
and  probably  alKi  priestly  registers.  The  nature  and 
contents  of  the  pu:ticular  writings  are  determined 
by  tiie  changing  fortanes  of  the  people,  who  were 
at  first  strong  and  flonrisbing ;  then  disrupted  and 
weakened;  then  held  in  subjection  by  Aatyrian, 
Egyptian,  Babylonian,  Persian,  Greek,  and  Syriaji 
rtUers)  and,  finally,  once  more  independent  under 
native  princes.  Nevertheless,  the  prevalent  idea — 
the  basis,  so  to  speak,  of  the  whole  Hebrew  litern- 
tnre,  looked  at  from  the  merely  human  point  of 
view — is  a  passionate  enthusiasm  for  independence, 
and  for  the  preservation  tA  a  nationality  fonnded  on 
their  law  and  hiatory ;  hence  ita  psAriotLsm  is  of  a 
profoundly  religions  character.  The  law  and  the 
doctrine  are  the  'word  of  Ood;'  the  Hebrews  are 
the  '  people  of  God,'  his  '  chosen  people  ;'  their 
fortunes  are,  in  quite  a  special  aense, '  providi 


Sgnagogite  (q.  v.),  a  body  the  existenoe  of  which 
haa,  at  indicated  above,  l>een  doubted  by  some  ewly 
critics,  but  which  is  now  established  beyond  any 
doubt  To  this  the  work  of  completinK  the  osnon 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  chiefly  ascribed.  Towards 
obiie  (190—170  n.  a),  several  writer*  appear  in 

7pri&  pe^ond,  as,  for  instance,  Simih  aiia  Ariato- 
-  Jns.  The  doctors  of  whom  the  Qreat  Synagngna 
chiefly  consisted  were  called  So/erm  (Serutes),  and 
the  Aranuio  finally  became  Hie  popular  dialect  of 
Palestine. 

The 


r  the  n 


n  for  it 


•tant  theme,  ui  a  certain  sense,  therefore,  as  we 
might  expect,  all  the  productions  of  the  Hebrew 
mnse  idiew  a  marked  similarity  to  each  other  ;  still 
they  oan  be  arranged,  according  to  form  and  con- 
tenta, under  the  five  heads — law,  prophecy,  history, 
lyric  poetiy,  and  speculation.  (For  a  apecial  account 
<n  theas,  see  the  artidea  on  the  separate  books  of 
llie  Old  Testament;  also  BiBLl,  Pxhtatxuch,  &C.1 
The  same  epoch  in  which  took  nl*™  thw  ti»ii. 
sition  from  Hebraism  to  Judusm- 
captivity— was  also  that  which 
menoement  of  JewiA  literature,  properly  so  called. 
Founded  on  the  Mrlier  and  more  creative  Hebrew, 
and  for  the  moat  part  written  in  the  same  language. 


,  thonoh  eveiything  is  strictly  subordinated 
to  the  great  ideas  of  the  ancient  faith.  Since  the 
ntnra  from  exile,  the  Jewish — also,  but  erroneously, 
called  the  EaUimcal — literaturs  ha^  without  the 
.  alightert  external  enoouragemmt,  actively  taken 
part  in  tbe  cnltivation  of  the  hnman  mind  (  and  in 
the  results  of  Uiia  aotlvi^,  which  are  still  far  from 
being  duly  appreciated,  there  Ue  conocaled  the 
richest  faeasnres  of  centnriea.    Jewish  literature  has 


The  fall  period  ex&nda  to  143  B.O.  After  the 
return  from  exile,  the  Jewish  people  naturally 
enough  became  animated  by  an  intense  nationality 
of  fraling ;  they  had  nearly  lost  name,  oonntry, 
life;'and  now  that  these  were  restored  again,  ibsj 
■trenuoQsly  resolved  never  more  to  place  tluin  in 
iei^aidy.  Onided  by  Baa,  the  intellect  of  tiia  nation 
M^tn  to  exhibit  aurpassing  reverence  for  the  Fen- 
tatoncit  and  the  Pn^ets.  Hxpcsition*  and  addi- 
tions to  Qw  earlier  hi«tory  {Mklratlam),  as  wcdl  as 
Greek  tnmtlatioDB,  wen  eieonted,  and  several  of 
the  HagioKnifiia — euch  as  pwticular  paalma,  His 
■o-cdlBcr  ^OTeriis  flf  Solor—  ^~'---'-  "-- 
Books  of  CSmmidac,  portiMU 


seconcf  period  extends  from  143  b.  c.  tc 
The  MidraA  (q.v.),  or  the  inqniiv 
eaning  of  the  sacred  writinga,  waa  dii 
lalaeha  (q.  v.)  and  Eagada:  the  fa 
Bred  the  improvement  of  the  la' 
0  practical  reenlta  ;  tbe  Utter,  tiie 


law,  with  ) 


the  religioua  and  hiatorical  inteipietatioaB,  At  first, 
both  were  the  oral  deliveiancca  of  tb*  Soferim,  but 
gradual^  written  memori^  made  their  ^ipaar- 
ance.  Ae  public  interpretation  of  the  Scripiura  is 
■choola  and  synsgoguea,  the  indt^iendeDce  irf  the 
sanhedrim,  like  stnfe  of  aecta,  and  the  influencea  of 
Alexandrian  culture,  fiirthered  tiaa  development. 
To  this  period  also  belong  varioua  Greek,  but  iMit, 
as  is  atiU  oroneonaly  supposed  by  some,  the  wriUm 
Targnms  or  Aramaic  VersionB  of  the  Bible  (s 


institnted  after  the  n 
the  whole  of  the  Ap 
Christian  writings,  « 


a  from  the  exile ;  foFbher 


the  prodoo 
Ihe  principles  of  Jodaiam, 
and  which  contain  many  traces  of  Judaislaa  cnltor^ 
fm-litig,  and  faith.  It  waa  also  characteriMd  by 
the  £awiDg  up  of  prayers,  scriptural  expoaitians, 
songs,  and  coUections  of  proverbs,  llie  po«t  (not 
tiie  pr^et]  Ezekiel,  the  authm'  of  the  orat  book 
of  the  Maccabees,  Jsaon,  Jcaephns,  Philo,  Jidkannea 
(see  above),  ore  name*  specially  wortl^  of  msatiasi ; 
■o  also  are  the  doctma  of  the  wal  law— Hillel  (q.  v.), 
SluHnai,  Jochanan-ben.Saccai,  Gamaliel,  KImwr 
ben-Hyrcan,  Joshna-ben-Chananja,  Ishmael,  Akih^ 
and  others  of  like  eminence.  Jtabbi  (Master),  Taimit 
Chadiam  (Disciple  of  Wisdom),  wen  titles  of  hmoar 
□ven  to  lliose  expert  in  a  knowledge  ct  tha  law. 
Besides  tbe  2daocabean  coins,  Greek  and  Latin 
inscriptions  belonging  to  thia  pmod  are  extant. 

The   third    penoa    reaches    from    135    to    475 
A.  I>.     Instnicbon  in  the  Halacha  and  Hagida  now 


e  219  A.  D., 


schools  in 
in  Babyl. 

the  matten  of  the  MiAaa  (q.  t.7  and  the  Tabiad 
(q.v.)— via.,  Bleazar-bem-Jaoob,  Jehnda,  Jose,  hfeir, 
Simeon-ben- Jochai,  Jehuda  the  Ho^,  Nathan,  Chija, 
Rab,  Samuel,  Jochanan,  Hunna,  Rabba,  Bava,  Pa}i«, 
Ashe,  and  Abina.  Bemdee  expositions,  addftiona  to 
Siraoh,  eUiical  treatises,  stories,  fables,  and  historv 
wen  also  composed ;  tbe  prayers  ware  enriched 
the  Targum  to  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Fraphett 
completed,  and  the  calendar  fixed  by  HilTe'  the 
second,  340  A.i>.  After  the  snppreasioD  of  the 
academies  m  Palestine,  those  of^  Persia— vii.,  at 
Sura,  Pumbeditba,  and  Nehardea — became  tbs 
centre  of  Jewiah  titenuy  activity.  On  ^bbatht 
and  festal  days,  the  people  heard,  in  the  schoola 
and  place*  tor  prayer,  msbuctive  and  edifyinx 
diacoursea.  Of  the  biblical  literature  ol  the  Grc£ 
J.,  we  have  only  fragments,  such  a*  thosa  of  the 
versions  of  Aqnila  and  Svmmachus.  With  Uiia 
period  terminates  tbe  sge  oi  direct  tiadition. 

The  /ouKA  period  (from  475  to  740  a-Dl).    By 
thia   time,  the  J.  had  long  abandoned  the  mm  of 


Doiiiis  the  6Qk  o.  tbs  Ba^Ionun  Tafannd  wu  oon- 
eluded  the  Paleatiniui  Talnmd  Lsring  been  redacted 
about  >  hundTed  year*  before.  Little  renuina  of  the 
labours  of  the  Jewiah  physiaiana  of  the  7tb  o^  or 
of  the  first  Qeonirn  or  prtaidenta  of  t^  Babylanian 
■dioolB,  who  first  appear  689  ^i>.  On  the  other 
haad,  irma  the  6th  to  the  8th  centoiiea,  the  Macon 
WM  developed  is  Paleetine  (at  Tiberiaa] ;  and, 
beaidee  a  coUection  of  Uie  earlier  Hl^gadaa  (a-g., 
BemAUA  rabta),  independent  oommentariea  -were 
likewise  executed,  aa  the  Peiiiia,  the  Firke  of 
Eliaer  (700  il.i>.),  Jto.    See  Hidkash  ;  Baooada, 

In  thejf/U  period  (from  740  to  1040  a-d.),  the 
Araba,  energetic,  brilliant,  and  liotorioiu  in  liteia- 
ture  as  in  frar,  had  appro^riatad  to  thetnaelvee 
the  ieainmg  of  Hindua,  Feraiani,  and  Qreetu,  and 
thm  excited  the  emulation  of  the  oriental  J.,  antODg 
whom  now  iprong  np  phyaioiBna,  *fltron~~~~' 
grammariana,  commentators,  and  chronieleis. 


, . bind,  mra  likewise 

poaed.  The  oldeat  Talmndio  compends  belmg  to 
the  age  of  Anan  {ana  700  a.i>.),  the  earliest  water 
of  the  Karaite  Jews.  Xhe  oldeit  prwer-book  was 
drawn  np  abont  860  a.  s.  ;  and  the  mst  Talmndio 
Dictionary  abont  MO  a.j>.  The  meet  iUustdons 
Oeonim  of  a  later  time  were  Saadia  (died  941 . 
equally  fiunons 


if  the  Masor*  and 
BVatem;  numeroos  JfidnuAim,  the 
j^uvums,  and  the  fixst  writlDge 
coemogony,  were  also  eieeatedSieie.  Vkhh  the 
9th  to  the  11th  0.,  Eabwan  and  Fei,  in  AUca, 
produced  several  celebrated  Jewish  doctors  and 
authors.  Learned  rabbins  at«  likewise  found  in 
Italy  after  the  8th  c. — e.g.,  Jolius  in  Pavia,  fto. 
Ban  and  Otranto  were  at  this  time  the  great 
•eats  of  Jewish  ii»«rniiig  in  Itsly..  After  the 
suppression  of  the  Babnonian  academies  (1O40), 
I  Spain  beoame  the  oentoaf  seat  of  Jewish  literatoie. 
To  this  period  belong  the  oldeet  Hebrew  codices, 
which  go  back  to  the  9th  centoiy.  Hebrew  rhyme 
is  a  product  of  the  8th,  and!  modern  Hebrew 
prosody  of  the  10th  century. 

The  madh  period  (from  1040  to  1204  A.  D.)  is 
the  moat  splendid  era  of  Jewish  medieval  literature. 
The  Spanish  J.  busied  themselves  abont  theology,. 
eiegebcs,  grammar,  poetiy,  the  science  of  law, 
astronomy,  mathematios,  piulosophy,  rhetoric,  and 
medicine.  They  wrote  aeirnoos,  aud  ethical  and 
hi^rical  works.  The  langvuwea  employed  were 
Arabio,  Pabbinical  Hebrew,  and  ancient  or  classical 
Hebrew.  We  can  only  mention  here  the  great 
doctor,  Ssmud  Halevi  (died  1056),  Jw. ;  and  lastly, 
the  renowned  Maiinonidei  (q.  t.},  whose  death  closes 
this  epoch.  The  literature  of  the  French  raUnns 
was  more  national  in  its  character,  and  kept 
more  strictly  within  the  limits  of  the  B»l«^>i» 
and  Hagffld^  In  ProTence,  which  combined  tlie 
literatT^uuacteristics  of  Fnnoe  and  Spain,  Uiere 
were  celebrated  Jewish  academies  at  Lnnel,  Ifar- 
bonne,  and  !Nhnee,  and  we  find  Talmudists,  such 
as  B^bja  Haleri,  Abraham- ben-David,  Ac  The 
fame  of  w.a  T^mudi^ts  of  Germany,  especially  those 
of  Mayeixe  and  Ratisbon,  was  very  great.  Among 
the  most  illoatrions  Jewish  writers  of  this  pecioi^ 
belonging  to  that  country,  are  Simeon,  the  compiler 
of  YSixt,  Joseph  Kara,  Petachja,  Ac  Only  a  few 
names  belong  to  Greece  and  Asia ;  still  the  Karaite 
J.  had  a  very  able  writer  in  Juda  Hadasn  (1148). 
254 


740  and  Uie  close  of 


The  anwnA  period  (from  1204  to  1492  A.D.) 
bears  manifeat  traces  of  the  influence  ezerdsed  by 
Maimonidee.  Literary  activity  shewed  itself  partly 
in  the  sphere  of  theologiso-ezegetia  philosophy, 
partly  in  the  elaboistion  of  the  national  Liw.  WiUi 
the  growth  of  a  religious  mysticism,  there  also 
sprang  np  a  war  of  opinions  between  Talmudists, 
PhiloeofbeiB,  and  Csbbalists.  The  most  celebrated 
J.  of  this  period  lived  in  Spain  ;  later,  in  Portugal, 
Provence,  and  Italy.  To  Spain  belongs  (in  the 
13tha.)thepoet  J^DdaCharui,fto.  InSielGtiio., 
a  decline  is  noticeable.  Books  writtea  in  Hebrew 
were  first  printed  in  Spain  at  liar  in  Aragon 
(14S5),  at  ZsmorB  (1487).  and  at  Lisbon  (1489)!— 
I>nring  this  epoch,  the  chief  ornaments  of  Jewish 
literature  in  Provence  were  Moses-ben-Abraham, 
David  ginn*!,  Jwuhun,  Fsrissol,  Isaac  Nathan, 
the  aathor  of  the  Hebrew  Conoordanoe. — In.  Italy, 
Jewish  scholars  employed  thsmaelvsa  with  tba 
translation  o(  Arabic  and  Latin  works.  Woika  of 
KSthatioal  oharaoter  were  written  by  Inunamul- 
i.8olomcni,  the  author  of  the  first  Hebrew  son- 
nets ;  MoBca  de  Bieti,  who  wrote  a  HebMW  Dinim 
Conmudia,  Ac — While  Franoe  conld  liunr  onfy  a 
few  notable  authors,  each  as  the  coUeetors  of  tha 
Tcoa&t,  Mosea  de  Coucy,  and  Jehiel-ben-JoMph, 
the  poet  and  szegete  Buachja,  Gemuuiy  prodnoed 
a  moltitnde  of  writers  on  the  htw,  such  as  Slealar 
Halevi,  Meyer   frcon  Bothenbnrg,  Asher,  laserlin, 


howevo',  prodnced  between 
this  period  are  lost. 


The    : 


;   of    the    I 


n  Ger> 


belong  to  this  period ;  bat  a  great  part  of 
medieval  Jewish  literature  lies  imprinted  in  Borne, 
Florence,  Paima,   Turin,  Paris,    Oxford,  Leyden, 

The  eighth  puiod  (14B2  to  176S  A.D.)  is  oot 
marked  by  much  creative  or  i^ritnal  force  among 
the  Jews.  In  Italy  and  the  East  (1492),  i-  "- 
many  and  Poland  (1S50),  in  Holland  (1B20), . 
scholars  worked  piinting-preeBee,  while  nm 
authors  wrote  in  Hebrew,  Latin,  Spanish,  Portu- 
gueee,  Italian,  and  Judsso-Qmman.  Some  of  the 
most  eminent  theologiana,  philosophers,  jorists,  his- 
torians, msthematiciaDB,  poets,  commentators,  lezi- 
cogrsphers,  gismmariuiB,  Ac,  of  this  period  were 
Isaac  Abravuiel,  t3ia  Uisrachi,  L  Arama,  J.  Chabib, 
Elia  Levita,  Obadio  Sefomo,  JoBejdi  Cohen,  Gedalja 
Jahia,  8aL  Usqne,  Asaria  da  Boni,  David  de  Pomi, 
David  Gans,  Isuo  Troki,  L  Lniia,  J.  Earo,  M. 
Alahech,  M.  Jafe,  J.  Heller,  J.  Aboab,  Uanana  b. 
Israel,  Dav.  Ctmforte,  Lee  de  Modena,  B.  Uaauliia, 
J.  EybeachUti,  D.  Oppcmheimer,  J.  £mden,  M.  0. 
Luzzatto,  to. 

The  ainth  period  extends  tt«m  17N>  &.».  to  the 
present  time.  Encouraged  by  the  spirit  of  the 
ISth  c,  Moaes  Uendslssohn  (q.  v.)  opened,  to  his 
co-religionists,  a  new  are,  which,  as  in  the  middle 
ages,  Srtt  manifested  itself  in  tiie  national  litera- 
ture. Its  character,  contents,  eipresnon,  and  even 
its  phiMeoli^,  were  changed.  Foetiy,  language, 
philology,  ontiaam,  edncatioii,  histtsy,  and  lit«>»- 
tore  have  been  Minestly  oulavated.  The  tacmi 
hoiAB  have  been  translated  by  tliem  into  the  Ian- 
gnages  of  modem  Europe,  and  foreign  worka  into 
Hebrew ;  and  many  of^  iiiis  onoe  pmcribed  and 
detested  race  have  taken  an  important  part  in  the 
pubhc  and  scientific  life  of  Europe,  Among  the 
many  illustrious  names  of  this  last  period  we  can 
select  only  a  few,  like  Ezechiel  Landau,  Elia  Wilna, 
J.  Berlin,  Mandelisohn,  UaJsMii,  Bendand,  Mende^ 
Beer,  Euoliel,  Benaev,  8,  Dnboo,  Creiienach,  Znut, 
Jost,  Gei^,  Bappoport,  Dnkea,  Zedner,  Flint, 
Saohs,  Stemschneider,  Max'     "  '     '       ~      '     ' 


r,  llunk,  Salvador, 


B^^& 


byGoogle 


Td  enumerate  Titian  of  thoM  who  ware  u>d  mr* 
illiutrioua  in  general  litenture,  in  law,  philoaopby, 
medicdna,  phildogjr,  nuitheuuitica,  belles  lettrea,  to., 
we  (Humot  evan  attempt,  nnoe  tbers  ii  not  one 
oountry  in  Europe  whion  doea  not  oount  J.  omcog 
tbe  foremoit  and  mort  brilliant  TeprtaantatiTee  m 
iti  Intelleotiul  progrow.  Of  Oermany — ooiwidcfed 
to  be  in  the  voognJud  of  European  leonting — Bnn- 
■BD  n^  that  tu  gTMLter  part  at  the  ^ofeaton 
at  ita  DnivenitiM  and  aCMonlaa  are  Jewi  or  of 
Jewuh  origin  (Neander,  Ooiu,  B«iMr7,  Weil,  B«iifB7, 
Btohl,  Dembarg^  Valentin,  Laarnt,  Hen,  fto.,  te.) 
— Moioinlf  a  moat  itartliBg  [m&  Anouer  «ctea- 
ordLutT  and  well-sntliatitioated  &Mit  ia,  tiiat  Uie 
Baropean  preaa,  no  Isaa  tlian  .Eoropean  finano<^ 
whicli  tneKU  the  freest  development  of  all  the 
reoonnet  ot  aoil  and  adenoe  for  the  ^gantlc 
eotarpriMt  of  our  day,  are  to  a  great  aztent  in 
tiiair  powtt ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  names  like 
Eeiniich  fieine,  &  BOrne,  B.  v.  Eue,  Barthold 
Anerbach,  Henrik  Heiz,  Julea  Jsnin ;  Felix  Men* 
delMOhn-Bartholdy,  HalfrT;,  Uererbeer,  Hoeohelsa, 
Josdiini,  Ernst,  Rnbinotein,  Wieniawski,  Qriii, 
foaham,  Qinglini,  Cnllag,  Costs ;  Bachsl,  DaTioon, 
Bott,  DeMoirt  Bendemonn,  Ao.;  besides  bosta  of 
otben  Ism  familiar  to  Ei^lioh  esra,  who  ihine  in 
all  bnui^iM  of  art:  mmdo,  aculptara,  painting,  tiie 
drams,  Ae.,  aheir  plunly  how  unjust  ii  Uie  re^snaoh 
Of  their  bebia  an  'abetnot'  people,  without  eenie  for 
tlM  bridit  nde  of  life  and  the  uta  that  embellieh 
iL  Bnsflf— they  ar^  by  the  nnonimoua  Terdiot 
of  tits  hiltoriaiia  and  philoeophan  of  our  times, 
reckoned  among  the  chid  promotere  of  the  develop- 
ment of  humonitgr  and  oinlijatioD.  What  ha«  been 
their  rtwaid  we  have  Been.  Terrible  hM  been 
the  niniahment  for  sins  sod  8liortaoining|i,  real  or 
ilnagmaiT,  over  which  both  ChrijrtianE  and  Moliam- 
ms&na  hsTe  thoogfat  good,  at  different  periodi, 
to  oonititnts  themaelrea  jadgis;  and  the  most 
hidsow  spot  in  the  history  of  the  last  2000  yean 
ia  the  systematio^  but  futile  eeideaTOur  to  sweep 
tha  'ahdsM  taoe'  £rom  off  the  faoe  ot  the  bstUl 
•If  tliere  ii  a  gradation  in  lofieringe,  Israel  has 
Maehed  the  highest  acme ;  if  the  lon^  duration  of 
■nffsringat  and  the  patience  with  wtuoh  they  are 
bone,  ennobles,  the  Jews  defy  the  hish-boro  of  all 
oounttiM ;  if  a  literature  is  called  rioh  which  coo- 
a  fair  elaswoal  dnmuM,  what  plao*  deserraa 


mnd  Wt^da  of  2unx  {Synagogalt  PoetU)  we  oon- 
^uds  onr  brief  aketoh :  proudly  pointing  to  tiie 
final  triumph  of  hnmanl^  which  oelon^  to  out 
own  day  ud  generation. 

JBWB,  in  point  of  law,  are  now,  it  naturol-bom 
tnhfecta,  on  asuiy  tlie  eome  footing  aa  EngliBh 
■nbiecte,  the  following  peculiarities  only  being 
noticeable.    By  the  8  and  9  Viet  o.  82,  they 


condition  of  ligning  a  declaration  (in  iJooe  of  the 
nmol  oatha]  not  to  BXerciee  tbeir  inSnence  lo  aa 
to  injnie  or  weaken  the  Protestant  Chnrch.  Bv 
the  out  34  and  3S  Vict  o.  4S,  they  ore  placed, 
aa  renrdE  their  echoola  and  places  of  wonhip,  of 
educHion  and  charities,  on  the  tame  footing  as 
Protestant  dieeenten.      Before   1S45,  doubts  nad 

n vailed  whether  the  matriams  .  , 

ted  in  Eng1u>d  among  the  i.,  acconlina;  to  their 
own  uaages,  were  valid,  ood  the  statute  10  and  11 
Vict  c.  68  put  an  end  to  auch  doubta,  by  declaring 
all  auch  marriages  Tolid,  provided  both  the  parties 
marritd  bad  been  peraona  profeeiing  the  Jewiah 
religton.  Bat  now.  oa  then,  though  it  is  compe- 
tmt  for  J.,  like  other  dinentera,  to  superadd  any 


trsr  of  ths  district  of  auah 
to  take  place,  the  only  exemption 
marriage  may  be  oalebraiBd  in  the  aynagogn^  and 
not,  as  in  the  ordinary  case,  in  the  aupetintendent 
ngi«b«r's  office,  or  s  roistered  building,  A  lic«nes 
ma^  also  be  procared  from  the  saperiutendsat 
registiar,  and  ths  aeotetaries  of  the  respsetin 
nraagognas  an  reoogniaed  a«  ths  para<na  to  keep 
tiiewistsrboc^  of  the  Jewish  marriages.  In  B(»t- 
l,tnse  Is  no  peooliar  Iwalotion  afiectins  Jewiih 
'  ft.  iMt^,  1^  the  otatalM  81  sod  SB  Vict 
rhioh  snbstitoled  one  oath  Un  the  oaths  of 


was  made,  to  rait  ths  GMe 
of  the  J.  in  all  caaes  where  the  deolaimtiou  aet  forth 
by9Qeo.IV.  o.l7T«quredtobstBk«i.  ThereanH 
ia,  that  not  merely  as  ngarda  numioipal  offioe^ 
hut  all  other  offices  where  ths  mn«  declontioD  ii 
te<iaiied,  a  Jewish  labjeot  ii  enliUed  to  be  adi^tted 
with  a  deolarotion  <«  without  toy  oath,  Kom- 
ow,  the  oonplete  smandpation  of  the  J.  may 
be  Mud  to  have  been  attained  by  tiie  atatuts  XI 
and  22  Vlot  a  49,  whidi  enables  tiOw  Bonae 
(rf  Pariismoiti  when  *  Jew  wonld  be  ratiUed,  bnl 
for  the  oath  of  aU^;iano&  to  ait  and  voto  ia  tke 
Hooaei  to  modify  that  osta  by  mnitting  ths  words, 
'  and  I  make  thii  declaration  opon  tlu  true  UHii 
of  a  Chiutian.'  When  these  words  sra  emitted,  s 
Jew  hot  no  longer  any  coUBdentioiiB  objection  to 
take  tile  oath,  and  so  ii  practically  admitted,  like 
other  Bubjects,  to  become  a  member  of  dther  Hobbs 
of  Psrliament  It  is,  however,  still  in  the  diser^rtiaB 
of  dther  HoDae  to  refuss  to  moke  tiie  re*cdati<m  to 
omit  those  wcn^ia,  so  that  J.  have  not  aa  abstJnta 
right  to  sdmianon,  thon^  pnctioally  it  ia  not  likely 
that  the  admudon  will  w  ntnre  be  refused,  at  least 
by  tlie  Hoose  of  Commons.  The  same  aet  spedoUy 
exolndea  J.  from  holding  or  eseroiring  the  office  at 
gaardiiM  aitd  jnstioes  <rf  the  United  Kingdoai,  or 
of  Begent  of  the  United  Kinfld<HB,  or  of  Lord  Kgh 
Chancellor,  Lord  Keeper  or  Loid  OommiSBODer  of 
Hu  Qteat  Seel  <rf  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  the 
office  of  Lord  Uaatenaut  or  depufy,  oc  other  dkief 
sOTemor  or  Doreroots  of  Ireland,  or  Her  Uajesfy's 
Hi^  Commasionir  to  tiie  Qeneral  Assembly  ot  Aa 
Chnnh  of  Sootland.  Whsneva  a  Jew  hdda  any 
office  in  the  nft  «E  Her  Majesfy^,  to  which  offlos  shsU 


bNtenoeienah:  _        . 

the  Arohbishi^  of  Canberbnry  fw  the  time  bsin^ 

JBWB-HABP  (Pr.  jni,  a  toyT),  a  very  simple 
moiical  instnunent,  made  of  metaL  When  pland 
on,  it  it  held  between  the  teeth,  and  the  sonnd  i* 
prodaoed  by  the  inhaling  and  sJeotiDg  of  tlis  oiT 
from  the  luog*,  while  at  the  aaiDs  time  an  daatie 
tongue  or  spring,  which  ia  fixed  in  the  middlo  of 
the  frame,  u  atit  into  vibratioa  by  being  twitchod 
by  the  finger.  It  is  a  pretty  old  inventitm,  and 
ia  mentioned  by  Piltctfiiu  in  his  Orffnimlr^iUa, 
in  1619,  under  tJie  name  of  Crembalnm.  ^le  best 
Jewi-horpe  are  made  in  KvK,  a  town  In  tiie  Italian 


the  Great,  called  Koch.  In  modem  times,  Konert 
Amatain,  and  othen,  were  famona  for  nsing  a  variety 
of  harps,  all  differently  tuned ;  and  their  perfonn- 
ances  were  so  wonderful,  that,  like  other  artists, 
they  trarelled  over  Eorope,  and  appeared  at  pnhUc 
ooncerts  with  great  luccesa: 

JEWS'  MALLOW.    See  CoBCEOxna.       .". 

JEWS'  THOBN.    See  Jdjubk  and  PAUDlnTS, 


lat  26*  W  N.,  and  lon^  7B*  U'  K  Tha  plaoa  a  a 
rectanxli  of  two  milea  cry  one,  being  mbdivided  bj 
pftnllS  ttreeta  in  botb  direction!  into  inull  reotan- 
giilar  blocks,  the  palace  and  gardens  oconpyinf;  tlia 
centre.  Thuv  ars  namennu  temples  and  moaqnei,  an 
anenal,  an  obaerT>toi7,  and  an  English  and  oriental 
scho<d,  with  a  medioiu  lohool. — "aa  ilal*  of  J.  is  in 
Bajpootana ;  are^  15,201  sq.  nLi  pop^  2,000,00a 

JHAIfSI,  a  fortified  town  in  Biindelcund,  stands 
in  lat  SIS'  29'  N.,  and  long.  TS*  SS*  E.  It  carries 
on  a  connderable  bade,  being  on  tiie  main  route 
between  the  Deccan  and  the  Ooab.  Ihinng  the 
revolt  of  1857,  the  native  ganiiou  mnnleTed  all 
the  Europeans,  men,  women,  and  childnn,  not 
leaving  one  to  tell  l^e  tale.  In  the  following 
April,  the  place  was  recovered,  with  enonnoos  lost 
on  the  pan  of  the  innusents,  bj  a  detachment  of 
the  Bomcwy  anoy  nnder  Sir  Hugt  Boee.  The  pro- 
ving of  J.,  one  <^  the  north-weat  prorinces,  has  an 
area  of  S109  sq.  mileB,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  934,747. 

JHEXUM,  the  ancient  Hydat|pe&  one  of  the 
riven  of  the  Punjab.  It  rises  in  Cashmere,  which 
fomu  its  npper  buin,  and  it  navigable  withm  that 
conntiy  for  abont  70  milat.  On  emerging  from  the 
Himalaya  through  the  Bvsmula  Pass,  it  again 
becomes  practicahle  for  small  oraft.  After  a  contse 
of  4M  miles,  it  joins  the  Chenab,  in  lat.  31°  W  N., 
loi^.  72°  B*  E.,  and  forms  witli  it  what  is  sometimes 
called  the  Trimab  or  Trimab.  The  banks  of  this 
river  were  the  scene  of  the  battle  between  Alex- 
ander the  tjieat  and  Fonia,  The  river  waters  the 
tewnt  of  Islamabad,  Shahabad,  Srioagur,  Jelalpur, 
and  Pind  Badun  Kha>|, 

JIB,  a  triangolar  sail  borne  in  front  ot  the  foremast 
in  all  vessels.  It  haa  tha  bowsprit  for  a  base  in 
Bchoonets  and  vessels  of  a  tnutUer  oIms,  and  the 
jib-bo«n  in  larger  vessels,  and  exerts 


,  hirfl-tottniut  BUjt&U,  let  on  fDrt-Upmut  lUj;  t.  Jib; 
s,  fljIngJLb;  <t  bomprlt;  &,  Jlb-boora^  0,  fljln;  Jlb-baom; 
7,  nurU&gila,  «  dolpUu^MrUur ;  t,t 


ctfiKrt,  when  the  wind  is  a-beam,  in  throwing  the 
ship's  head  to  leewsrd.  The  flying  jib  has  the 
flying  jib-boom  far  a  base.  When  a  fore-conne 
it  not  used,  an  additional  jib-ahsped  sail,  called  the 
foresail,  it  sproMl  on  the  fore-stay. 

JIB-BOOH,  an  extension  of  the  bowsprit  of  a 
ship  towardt  tbe  front,  ranoing  oat  beyond  it,  by  a 
cap  and  irons,  at  does  tJie  topmast  above  the  lower- 
msst.  It  gives  greater  spread  for  jib-tails,  and  a 
more  extended  base  for  Uie  top-gaUant-mast-itay. 
In  large  vessels,  a  flying  jib-boom  is  ran  ont  in  a 
similar  manner  beyond  the  jib-boom. 


ui  uu&a,  or  jtLVUAO,  a  trwung  town  of  tl 
Hedjaz,  Arabia,  is  sitoatod  on  an  eminence  rising 
from  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Rod  Bea,  sbont  60 
miles  west  of  Mecxa,  of  which  dty  it  is  the  port 
J.  it  an  nnhealthy  town  ;  it  Buffers  greatly  from 
want  of  water,  and  it  tarronnded  by  a  deaert. 
It  has,  however,  long  been  the  great  eommu'oial 
centre  of  Arabia.  It  imports  oorn,  rioe^  bnttw, 
and  Other  natural  productions  from  E^pt  and 
Abyssinia,  mannfad^irea  from  India,  a^  slaves 
from  the  Malajr  Archipelago.  Coffee  is  largely 
exported.  It  it  inhabited  by  a  fanatical  population, 
and  its  religions  enthuaiaom  is  never  allowed  to 
wane,  owing  to  tbe  nnmbers  of  pilgrima  to  Mecca 
who  are  constantly  ponring  throngh  ik  On  the  16th 
June  1656,  tha  inhabitants  rose  against  the  Chris- 
tians reddent  among  tiiem,  and  massacred  a  eonM- 
derable  namber  of  ihem.  In  Angnst  of  tbe  same 
year,  the  town  was  bombarded  by  the  British,  and 
satii^actioa  rendered.  The  population  Boctoate* 
between  10,000  and  20,000  and  upwards. 

JIO.    See  Qioo. 

JIGGER.    See  Cbiqok. 

JIOGER,  on  board  ship,  an  apparatus  consisting 
of  a  strong  tope  with  a  block  at  one  end,  and  a 
sheave  at  ^e  other,  nsed  in  maintaining  the  tension 
of — or,  technically,  in  '  holding  on '  to — the  cable  as 
it  it  thrown  off  from  tha  capifan  or  windlass,  round 
which  it  only  takes  two  w  three  turns. 

JIHT71T.     See  Ozrn. 

JI'NA.    See  Saxsis. 

JITOMI'B,  chief  town  of  the  government  of 
Volhynia,  in  European  Busaia,  is  situated  cu  t^e 
river  Teterev,  an  affluent  of  the  Dnieper,  in  lat 
50°  15'  v.,  long.  2S°  40*  E  ;  distance  from  St  Peten- 
borg,  602  miles  ;  pop.  in  1867,  37,64a  Ita  founda- 
tion is  traced  back  as  far  as  the  10th  c,  and  it 
was  at  one  time  an  important  stronghold  against 
Cossacks.      ■'-^-■'    ^'  —  - 


nearly  destroyed  by  the  Cosaack  chief  Khmelnitzky. 
In  1793,  it  was  annexed  to  the  Bussian  empire,  as 
chief  town  of  tile  government  of  Trihynia.  ns 
town  carries  on  a  trade  in  leather,  wax,  honey,  atul 
tallow,  haa  four  annual  fairs,  carries  on  iron  and 
gbuH  works,  and  extemnve  oloth  mannfaoturea. 

JOAK,  PoFK,  the  name  of  a  tappooed  female 
ocoqtant  of  the  papal  chair  in  the  0th  oentnry. 
Tbe  popnlar  story  represents  this  «'ngnl*i-  personage 
as  of  foiglish  parentage,  but  educated  at  Cologne, 
Borne,  and  ultimately  Athens,  in  all  which  plaoes 
in  the  assumed  character  of  a  man,  and  nnder 
th«  name  of  Joannei  Angliau,  'John  of  England,' 
she  is  allu|ed  to  have  attained  0«>t  distinction 
ss  a  sdholar.  The  narrative  adds,  thst  havina 
coma  in  tbe  end  to  Rome,  she  had  ability  and 
adroitness  enongh  to  cairv-  the  deception  so  far  as 
to  obtsiD  holy  ordeis,  and  to  rite  through  varioos 
zcadationi  to  tiie  papal  lOvereigntv  itself;  but 
Uiat  being  neverthelets  of  immoral  ufe,  the  fraud 
wat  at  length  discovered,  to  the  infinite  scandal  of 
tbe  church,  by  her  becoming  pr^nant,  and  being 
■eiicd  with  tbe  paint  of  childbirth  on  occation  of  a 
public  proceesion.  Tbe  story  had  obtained  currency, 
oertainl;^,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  13th  cauturr. 
It  was  inserted,  though  discredited,  by  Platina  in 
hie  Livtt  qf  tin  Popa,  but  the  statement  does  not 
appear  to  l^ve  been  much  discussed  until  the  16th 
c,  when  the  commentator  of  Plstina,  Panvinius, 
iuaerted  a  note  in  refutation  of  it,  Later  Roman 
Catholic  histeriana  of  couisa  have  published  replies 
to  the  objections  against  tbe  papal  succetsion  which 
thair  advenariet  drew  from  Uie  story  ot  the  female 
pope;  but  it  is  curious  that  tiie  most  completo  and 


L 


Cglizodty  Google 


the  hiEtorical  gnnrndletuntess  of  the  story.  He  wu 
foUowed  on  the  sune  aide  by  Leibnitz ;  and  although 
attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  by  a 
few  writen  to  "■^'''**'"  the  tale,  it  hae  been  all  but 
uniTenali^  diacarded,  its  latest  patron  being  Pro- 
teBBor  £jst  of  Leyden,  who,  but  S  few  yeara  aljice, 
devoted  an  elaborate  essay,  Verhojidding  oner  de 
Pavtia  Joanna,  to  tbe  subject.  A  few  words  will 
■ufGce  to  eiplun  the  state  of  the  historical  evidence. 
The  place  assigned  to  the  supposed  papess  ia  between 
the  historical  popee  Leo  TV.  and  Benedict  HI.,  the 
latter  of  whom  died  March  10,  85S.  It  is  aUeged 
that  the  Joan  of  the  itory  occupied  the  papal  chair 
for  two  years  and  five  months.  Sow,  according  to 
all  the  c^irimicler*,  with  the  doubtful  exceptiaa  of 
Marianas  Sootna,  L«a  IT.  did  not  die  till  July  10, 
666,  BO  that  the  interval  between  htl  death  and 
that  of  NicbolaB  L,  the  successor  of  Benedict  UL, 
would  be  entirely  filled  up  by  the  two  years  and 
five  months  of  the  papess,  and  no  room  would 
be  left  for  the  undoubted  poDtiScato  (of  two  and 
a  half  years)  of  Benedict  III.  Further,  Hincmor 
of  Rheims.  a  contemporarv,  in  his  26th  letter 
NichcJos  L,  states  that  Benedict  IIL  suoceeded 
Leo  IV.  immediately.  It  is  proved,  moreover,  by 
the  imqnestioiuible  evidence  of  a  diploma  still  pre- 
served, and  of  a  contemporary  coin  which  Garampi 
has  pabliihed,  tbxi  Benedict  IIL  was  actually 
reignmg  before  the  deaUi  of  the  Bmperor  Lothaire, 
which  occurred  towardi  the  close  of  S65.  The 
earliest  authorities  for  the  etoiy  of  Pope  J.,  not 
reckoning  a  more  tlian  doubtful  MS.  of  Munanna 
Scotus,  are  Martinns  FolonuB,  a  writer  oC  the 
latter  part  of  the  12th  c.,  and  a  writer  named 
Stephen  de  Boarbon,  who  wrote  about  1226. — See 
Qi^eler's  KinJteryaiAidttt,  th.  iL  b.  ii.  s.  6 ;  also 
Weusing,  Otier  de  Pautin  Joanna — in  reply  to  Kist — 
^'Giavenliase,  1S4S) ;  and  Bianchi  Giovmi's  Etame 
CrilKO  degli  atti  rstoiiri  alia  Papata  Qioixatna 
(Milan,  1845). 

JOAN  OY  ARO  (Fr.  Juhnb  Daho),  the  Maid 
Oblxajib,  wie  the  daoghter  of  respectable  peasants, 
and  was  born  in  1412,  in  the  village  of  Domremy, 
in  the  department  of  Vosgea,  France.  She  was 
taught,  lilu  other  young  women  of  her  station  in 
that  age,  to  sew  aud  to  spia,  but  not  to  read  and 
write.  She  was  distiDguished  from  other  girU  by 
her  greater  simplicity,  modesty,  industry,  and  piety. 
When  about  thirteen  yean  of  ue,  she  believed  that 
she  saw  a  fiaah  of  light,  and  heard  an  unearthly 
voice,  which  enjoined  her  to  be  modest,  and  to  oo 
diligent  in  her  religious  duties.  The  impression 
mode  upon  her  excitable  mind  by  the  national  dis- 
tresses of  the  time,  soon  gave  a  new  character  to  the 
revelations  which  she  supposed  heivelf  to  receive,  and 
when  fifteen  years  old,  she  imagined  that  unearthly 
voices  called  her  to  go  and  fight  for  the  Daaphin. 
Her  stoiy  was  at  first  rejected,  as  that  of  an  insane 
person ;  but  she  not  only  succeeded  in  mokine  her 
way  to  t^  Dauphin,  but  in  persuading  him  oi  her 
heavenly  misaion.  She  assumed  male  attira  and 
warlike  equipments,  and  with  a  sword  and  a  white 
banner,  she  put  herself  at  the  head  of  the  French 
traopt,  whom  her  example  and  the  notion  of  her 
heavenly  mission  inspired  with  new  entbosiasm. 
On  29tli  April  1429,  she  threw  herself,  with 
suppUes  of  provisions,  into  Orleans,  then  closely 
beaised  by  the  English,  and  from  the  4th  to  tlie 
8th  ol  May,  made  successful  sallies  npon  the  Eng- 
lish, which  resulted  in  their  being  compelled  ia 
raise  the  siege.  After  this  important  victo^,  the 
national  ardour  of  the  French  was  rekindled  to 
the  utmost,  and  Joan  became  the  dread  of  the 
previously   triumphant    English.      She    conducted 


him  as  king.  She  now  wished  to  return  home, 
deeming  her  toiaaion  accompliahed ;  but  Choiin 
importuied  her  to  remain  with  his  army,  to  which 
she  conaeoted.  Now,  however,  became  she  no 
longer  heard  any  unearthly  voice,  she  b^an  to  bare 
feartul  (oi«hodingi.  She  continned  to  aooompu^ 
the  Frenoh  anny,  and  was  present  in  many  oon- 
fiicts,  till,  on  24th  May  1430,  she  threw  her^ 
with  a  tew  troops,  into  Com^^ne,  which  tiw 
Buivundian  foTOM  Maieged;  and  bemg  driven  bade 
by  tnem  in  a  aallj,  wm  uken  uiscmer,  and  nld  \tj 
the  Burgtmdian  officer  to  the  tengTi«li  for  a  snin  of 
16,000  franco  Being  oonveved  to  Rousn,  Uw  he«d- 
qnarten  of  the  T^^'*!',  she  was  brondit  beftns 
we  spiritual  tcibunu  of  the  Bishop  of  Beaumis 
as  a  sorceress  and  heretic ;  and  after  a  long  trial, 
accompanied  with  many  shameful  circumstaiices,  she 
was  coikdemned  to  be  burned  to  death.  She  recanted 
her  alleged  errota  at  the  stoke,  and  ezprased 
penitence^  iu  the  hope  of  having  her  punishment 
commuted  into  prapetual  imprisonment.  But  this 
did  not  accord  with  the  views  of  those  in  whose 
power  she  now  was.  Words  which  fell  front  h^ 
when  subjected  togreatindignitia^  and  bericmnp-  i 
tion  of  mala  attire  when  all  articles  of  female  iliimi 
were  carefully  removed  from  her,  ware  made  ntMmds 
of  concluding  that  she  had  relwsed,  and  uie  woa  i 
again  bro^^ht  to  the  stake,  on  30th  May  I43I,  and  \ 
bumsd.  Her  family,  who  had  been  ennobled  imoa 
her  account,  obtained,  in  1440,  a  revisal  of  her  tnal ; 
and  in  14fi6,  she  was  formally  pronounced  to  havo  | 
been  innocent. 

Few  facts  in  histoiy  seein  better  autl 
than  the  death  of  'the  Maid'  at  Bourn  in 


had  been  executed  in  the  plaoe  of  Joan  ;  aod    I 
many  pretended   Maids  sppesred,  tAia,   however, 
were  punished  as  impoattna.    But  a  Father  Twiier,    I 
in  the  17th  c.,  found  among  the  arohives  of  kbti  « 
paper  purporting  to  be  written  at  Hie  tim^  and    i 
giving  an  account  of  the  arrival  at  Meb^  on  the  30tti 
May  1436,  of  the  Maid  JesLune,  who  was  at  once    { 
recognised  by  her  two  brothera,  and   was  sabae-    j 
quently  married  to  a  Sieur  de  Henuoiae.    Tignier 
afterwards  found  in  the  family  muniment-chest  of  a    | 
M.  dea  Atmoise,  in  Lomune,  a  otmtraot  of  n 


between  '  Bobert  des  Amunae,  Knight,  with  Jea 
D'Arcy,  snniamed  the  Maid  of  Orteana.'    Ja  main.-    i 
tion  t«  this,  there  was  found,  in  1740,  among  Oiia    ' 
archives  of  the  Maison  de  Ville  of  OdeaiiB,  undsr 
the  dates  1436,  1436,  a  record  of  certain  psymaitB    i 
to  a  messenger  bringing  letters   from  Jeanne  tiia    I 
Maid,  and  also  to  her  brother  John  do  Lils  or  I^a,    ! 
(De  Lys  was  the  name  by  which  tJie  family  of  Dure 
was  ennobled.)    A  subsequent   entry,   1st  Angnst 
1439,   records  a  gift  on  the  part  of  the  coonol    i 
of  the  city  for  services  rendered  by  her  at   the    ! 
siege.    M.  Delepierre,  who  has  discossed  the  snb-    i 
ject  in  his  DmtU  hidoriqiie  {privately  printed,  1855),    ! 
adduces  various  other  facta  tending  to  the  same 
conclusion. 
JOB  [Heb.  Jyob,  detiTod  by  0«senius  btaa  a^ab,    -, 
to  be  an  adveraary;'  heuoa  (passive)  'one  iriio  has 
□  adversary,'  or  'a  persecuted  one'],  the  tsadii^ 
ersoBoge  in   one  of  the  canonical  bixiks  of  the    | 
ild  Testament,  which  is  called  after  him.    Ha  is 
aaid  to  have  Lved  in  the  land  of  Ui  (Sept.  Avtitia, 
cf.  PtoL  V.   19.  2),  a  locally  somewlure  betwem    I 
Idnmea,  Palestine,  and  the  EupbntflS.     Whether 


Job 


discussed  with   b 


\  fiotitiona  p 


^«nMUIg^hL_ 

iperfluona  animation  by  crities.  I 
The  Tahnud  (Baba  Bathra,  zv.  1)  hdda  that '  Jjob  | 
neoer  teat,  and  luxtr  mu  cnoieit  bat  ia  an  allegoiy.' 


Book  of  Job  is  a  grMt  drtuuitio  poem,  built  on  & 
buii  of  historiol  tniditioD.  Job  u  a  real  penoa 
in  preciiely  the  lame  Kose  M  ths  Humet  of 
Shuipeare  ia  a  real  panon ;  L  e.,  tor  eaoh  then 
is  a  certain  geonine  groundwork  of  antiqiie  fact ; 
but  lome  of  the  indents,  together  with  tbe  aenfi- 
menti  and  ■peeohea  ncorded,  are  pnidy  Ima^native. 
Wlio  v«a  uie  author,  and  when  he  lired,  cannot 
be,  or  at  ai^  t«te  haa  not  been,  determined  with 
eiMtitode.  Scone  critica  make  him  anterior  to 
Mom*  ;  tiw  LXX.  identifiea  him  with  ■  Jcbab,  king 
of  Edom '  (PcttMT.  to  Job) ;  other*,  among  whom 
are  many  of  the  Talmodical  authoiitie*,  regard 
Moeee  hinuelf  ua  tbe  aotbor.    The  Mosaic  ^iod 


,  tc    A  B 


approximation  to  vbat  trould  >eem  to  be  the  trnth 
ia  the  view  held  hy  Oregoiy  Nazionzan,  Ijutber, 
DDderlein,  and  othen,  who  Msign  the  work — which 
shewi  a  certain  affinity  with  the  Frorerbe — to  the 
age  of  Solomon,  when  Hebrew  poetry  was  in  its 
fml  bloom,  and  a  broad  catholic  apirit  pervaded  the 
nation ;  aome  have  even  given  Solomon  himaelf  the 
credit  of  ita  compontdim.  The  refercoice  to  the 
paid  of  Ofbix  ae«nM  at  lewt  oondnaiTe  against  any 
bypothetia  that  would  place  ita  compootion  earlier ; 
aod  while  oertain  ptnagea  in  Eaekiel,  Jeremiah, 
leatah,  Amoe,  which  point  to  an  soquaintance  with 
it,  go  far  to  prove  ita  comparatively  early  eiiatence, 
B<liuui,  a  recent  French  ciitia,  conaiden  that  it 
belongs  to  the  first  half  of  the  Stb  c  b.  c ;  Ewald 
proDonnoea  for  a  later  period,  and  a«iigns  the  poem 
to  the  beginning  of  the  7th  centarr.  Thia  date  is 
also  advocated  by  Dr  Samael  Davidson  in  hia  Intro- 
(fuction  to  lAtOii  Talamait  (Load.  1662).  Others, 
again — anrnng  whom  Clericns,  Orotins,  Qeaenins, 
Umbreit,  Enobel,  De  Wette,  ftc— place  it  in  the 
period  of  the  eiile  ;  Hartmami,  Vatke,  Bder,  and 
othen,  in  the  5th  Christian  eenton. 

The  earlier  Gkrmaa  acholan,  Herder,  Eichhom, 
Ac,  looked  ^pon  the  author  ai  an  Edomite — not  a 
Hebrew  at  all;  but  thia  view  ia  now gennvlly,  if  not 
entirely,  abandoned.  The  poem  is  a  genuine  woduct 
of  the  Hebrew  muse,  not,  however,  standing  on 
narrow  nataoual  ground— the  very  scene  being  laid 
in  a  foreign  conntry — but  on  the  broad  groimd  of 
a  nniveml  humanity :— it  is  the  attempt  of  a 
Hebrew  thinker,  of  enlarged  mind,  to  vindicate  Hie 
Divine  government  of  the  world. 

ill  not  allow  us  to  enter  minutely  into 
L  of  the  deaigu  of  the  poem,  or  to  dia- 
ls theories  iraioh  have  oeeo  advanced. 
g  to  Dr  Davidatm,  it  wm  '  to  demonstrate 
Ktenoy  of  the  onrrant  doofarine  of  compen- 
BMiuu.  It  eond^ons  the  notion  that  there  is  a 
tteeessory  connection  between  un  and  anffering,  and 
without  explaining  the  eav»e  of  the  latter  m  the 
case  of  a  good  man,  displays  the  moat  sublime 
tnut  in  the  wisdom  of  the  Divine  Proridencii 
It  exhibits  a  noble  ipiritoalit^ ;  and  in  several 
plaoea,  the  mysterious  contradictians  of  life  seem 
to  awaken  in  the  soul  of  the  writer  thoughts  of 
another  life  beyond  the  grave,  io  which  Qod  will 
vindicate  ihe  righteoosoea  of  Hia  ways.  As  a 
woik  both  of  genius  and  art,  it  occupies  well'nigh 
the  first  rank  m  Hebrew  literature,  and  is  unsur- 
passed in  lubUmity  of  imagnative  thought  by 
any  poem  of  antiquity.  The  Language  is  elaborate 
and  artificial  in  the  bigheat  degree,  yet  gnndly 
simple  withal,  betokening  not  a  primitive  period 
in  Jewish  history,  but  one  highly  advanced-  The 
dramatic  oonstractioa  of  the  poem  indicates  the 
same  thing.  It  has  a  prologue  and  epilogue ;  the 
dialogues  are  arranged  mto  three  series,  or,  aa  they 


Oar  epaoew 
a  oonsidaratiin 


uognes  I 
ly  be  tei 


h  of  tl 


of  the  persons  introilQced  is  skilfully  observed ; 
their  words  have  a  rhythmic  flow ;  and  the  dia- 
logues are  even  stroj^cally  divided  (see  Ewald, 
Bat  Buck  Jjob  ^bertetxt  tind  erUdrt,  Zmitt  AvJUtge, 
1851).  The  integriW  of  the  poem  in  its  present 
form  has  been  strongly  questioned  by  many  critics ; 
the  inferiority  (in  a  literary  and  poetic  point  of 
""r)  of  the  paaswes  containing  the  spwchea  of 
lU  (ixxiL— xxiviL),  no  less  t&Ji  the  nature  of 


Compare  the  commentaries  of  Schulteos,  Ber^«bi, 
Eichhon,  BoaenmBUer,  Ewald  (with  tntnslation), 
Umbreit,  De  Wett^  Birael,  Stickel,  Sahlottmaiin, 
KCnan  (witii  tut  admit»ble  translation  into  French^ 
Lee,  Ac. 

JOB'S  TEAKS  {Coix  laAiyma),  a  corn-plant  of 
India.  It  is  a  grass,  sometimes  rising  to  the  hei(^t 
of  eight  feet,  with  the  stout  habit  of  maize,  to 
which  also  it  is  botanicslly  allied;  but  tha  roale 
and  female  flowsra  grow  cloee  together  in  niikeleta, 
which  are  produced  in  axillary  i^istete.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  tear-like  form  of  the  hard, 
shining,  blntsb-wliite  seeds,  which  ara  sometimes 
msde  mto  bracelets  and  necklaces,  and  are  also  an 
article  of  food.  This  plant  is  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  many  parts  of  India,  bnt  it  ia  one  of  the 
worst  of  the  cereals.  It  haa  become  almost 
naturalised  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  flour  made 
from  it  is  there  used,  but  it  is  cltiefiy  a  resource  of 
the  poor  in  times  of  scarcity. 

JODBLN,  a  peouliar  manner  of  ninging  with  tJie 
falsetto  voice  in  harmonic  progressiODS,  which  exists 
only  among  the  Tyrolese  and  the  Swiss. 

JCBI,  (Jehovah  is  God),  the  aon  of  Pethuel,  one 
(rf  the  twelve  Minor  ProjietB,  who  delivered  his 
predictions,  according  to  some,  in  the  days  of  Joaah ; 
others,  however,  place  hiin  variouslv,  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiab,  Manosseh,  Joaiah,  Uznah,  &c  Concern- 
ing the  drcumstances  of  his  life,  absolutely  nothing 
is  known.  The  occasion  of  his  prophecy  wis  an 
extraordinary  plagae  of  locusts,  accompamed  'by  an 
extreme  drought,  which  consumed  the  land.  After 
describing  these  judgments,  the  prophet  calls  upon 
his  oonn&vmen  t»  repent,  and  assures  them  ^t 
(3od  is  ready  to  forgive.  Extraordinary  warmth  and 
tenderness  of  feeling,  together  with  an  enthusiastic 
belief  in  the  glory  of  the  future  destiny  of  the 
people^  run  throngn  the  whole  of  the  book.  Some 
of  the  passages  have  been  understood  by  theologians 
as  predictive  of  the  bleannra  of  the  Messianic  age, 
and  one  ia  actnally  applied  by  the  apostle  Peter  to 
the  events  which  transpired  on  the  day  of  Pentecost 
(Acta,  iL  16—21).  The  style  of  J.,  always  vivid  and 
eloquent,  aometimes  snblime,  is  perhaps  the  very 
finest  of  any  of  the  writers  of  the  Old  Teatament. 
One  of  the  most  elaborate  works  on  J.  ia  Credner's 
JJer  PropKet  Jod.  Compare  also  Ewald,  Umbreit, 
Henderson,  &o. 

JCQQLB,  in  Masonry,  is  a  notch  or  curve  in  the 


^^ 


joints,  adopted  in  fitUng  stones  together,  so  as  to 
prevent  them  from  alipping.    Fig.  1  is  a  common 


byGoogle 


± 


Us.  3. 

lag  the  jomt  {■««  flg.  i 

JOHA'NITA,  one  o 


oe,  ai  m  tig.  2.  Joggia 
tim>  ned  when  Tet;  tight 
joint*  Me  lequiMd  to  rMiat 
water,  fto.  Bometamw  the 
joede  oonusti  of  ■  piei 


tlie  Oommo  lalands  {q.  v.). 


bom  at  Bethiiida,  and,  till  he 

I  oaUsd.  by  Jwoi  to  be  hi*  diioiple,  BaemB  to  have 

mred  his  father's  occnpation.    The  eranti  of  hi* 

lifeL  from  thii  time  to  the  MOCDoaion  of  Chiialt  are 
to  be  learned  from  tiie  goapeU  After  the  oat- 
poaring  of  tiie  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Ptoteeoet,  he 
upean  to  have  laboured  for  the  ■pread  of  the 
Qoapel  fint  in  Jeraaalem  and  Samana,  and  after- 
warda  to  bare  had  hia  residence  chiefly  in  Ephui 
Dnriog  the  reign  of  the  Ehoperor  Domitian,  he  vr 
driven  by  penecution  to  the  ule  of  Fatmtn,  but 
returned  to  Ephesui  nndei  Nerva,  and  died  there 
at  a  ^eat  ue.  The  dates  assigned  to  this  event 
noge  from  ^  to  120  i-n.,  and  in  any  oasa  he 
must  have  long  sorrived  his  brother  apostles.  It 
is  beliared  that  he  was  the  only  one  of  our  Lord's 
apostles  who  died  a  natural  death.  Tradition 
Booounts  for  Ais  by  reprcMoting  his  life  as  miiacu- 
lonily  preserred.  He  is  represented  in  Scrip- 
ture as  of  a  pecoliarir  aSeotumate  nature,  '  the 
diidple  whom  Jeans  loved ; '  and  tradition  makes 
his  last  word*  to  have  been, '  Little  ohildren,  love 
one  another.'  The  work*  attributed  to  him  are  the 
Qoapel,  the  three  Epistles  of  St  John,  and  the  book 
of  BerelatiMi.  The  &et  i*  genendly  believed  to 
have  been  written  by  the  apostle  at  Bpheras 
^>ont  78  A.l>.,  but  attempts  have  been  mode  by 
modem  writers  to  disproye  both  its  Jobaomne 
antboTship  and  its  early  origin.  The  Tubingen 
sohool,  headed  by  Baur,  place  its  coropositioD  in 
the  middle  ol  the  2d  c,  and  assert  that  it  obviously 
rose  oDt  of  the  oonflicts  of  opposing  teacbeis.  This 
view,  howevsr,  is  rejected  bv  the  n^ateet  oritica 
and  scholara  d  Germany,  ana  its  Jobannine  origin 
i*  now  admitted.  The  three  so-called  Epistles  of 
St  John  do  not  stand  on  exactly  the  same  fooling. 
It  is  highly  probable  that  the  First  proceeded  from 
the  same  wnter  who  composed  the  QospeL  lii  style, 
kngosge,  and  doctrine,  it  is  identical  with  it,  and 
bom  the  earliest  timea  it  was  quoted  as  a  work  of 
the  Apostle  John's ;  but  the  Second  and  Third  are 
dassed  by  Ensebius  among  the  AntUefomena  (Scrip- 
tnres  of  doubtful  Eennineness),  and  were  sospeoted 
by  the  moat  learned  and  critical  of  the  eariy  Fathers. 
Jkt  an  aoconnt  of  the  Book  of  Bevelation,  see 
BsvELuion,  Book  ot. 

JOHN,  the  name  of  a  long  line  of  popes,  the 
iMimber  Ot  whom  is  variously  stated  by  difierent 


miiaa  cd  two  of  the  pope*  in  the  aaiiss— John 
(872—882),  who  i*  *tyled  the  IX.  by 


,.  --  -9WJ),  who  is  alao  c»Ued  XVL  by  those  who 
place  before  him  another  John  who  died  within 
a  few  d^s  of  his  election.  Wilhout  entering 
into  tilis  question,  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  thi 


DSndson  c 
tka  pontifii 


le  of  popes  called  jiiha  is  John  'VYTTT. 

to   deserve    some   special 

I  the  son  of  Albeiico,  and 


AgKutus,  m  9S6,  bong  elected  pope  urauj^  tba 
lawless  intrigDe  or  violsDos  of  the  dominant  v**^, 
when  only  in  h^  IMh  year,  was  the  first  m  the 
oaoal  line  to  originate  the  now  familiar  praetioe  t^ 
tkis  name.  His  lif^  aooMdiog  to  aoooont* 
I  impcasibls  to  diaondit,  was  what  night 
from  such  anteoedsnti,  MaadaloQ*  aad 
ly;  and  sJthough  he  had  erowned  ,OUw 
emperor  snd  king  of  Italy  in  M2,  that  mourdi, 
in  B63,  in  a  ^nod  of  the  elergy,  overstoppin  '" 
the  ordinary  rules  of  oanonioal  OTOoedure  sjid 
preoedent,  caused  sentenoa  ot  dqwaitioa  Soi  l  . 
dalons  life  to  be  pronounoed  againat  John,  and  Leo 
VUL  to  be  elected  in  hia  stead.  J<dtn,  bo 
ra-entsred  Borne  iu  the  foUowingyear  wim  • 
partr,  and  drove  oat  Iiso;  bat  lus  caracr  w__  _  _ 
short  l^  a  disboaonrable  death.     He  was  kQIad, 


fulintrigne 

nnm.  Fanvinins  and  other  historians  find  the  origin 
of  the  fable  of  Pope  Joan. — JoEir  XXIL  ia  one  ol 
the  most  oelebrated  of  the  popes  of  Avignoi^  His 
tanlily  name  was  James  de  Cahon,  and  ho  was 
elected  ^ope  In  1316,  on  the  death  of  Clemoit  V. 
Attempnns  to  carry  out,  in  veiy  altered  ainmn- 
stanoes,  the  vast  and  ao[ain|eh!ensive  polipj  of 
Gre^TT  VIL  and  Innooent  III,  John  mterposed 
his  authority  in  the  contest  for  the  imperial  crown 
between  Ltniis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederiok  of  Anabria, 
by  not  only  ecpoosing  the  eanss  of  the  latter,  h«t 


Lting  his  livaL  The  public  raakion, 
however,  and  the  poEtieal  relations  ol  tk*  P^PM? 
founded  upon  it,  hail  already  began  to  ohangeL  Tha 
diet  of  Frankfurt  refused  to  obey,  and  a.limgMmteat 
ensned,  not  only  in  Germany,  bat  also  m  Italy, 
where  the  Onelph  or  papal  par^  was  rejai— itsd 
by  Robert,  king  of  Naplea.  Frederick  of  Sicily  bang 
the  chief  leader  of  the  Ghibellines.  The  latter  was 
placed  by  John  under  the  same  ban  irtiidi  bad 
already  been  proclaimed  against  Loms ;  bat  iu  1327, 
Louis  came  to  Italy  in  person,  and  haviu  been 
crowned  at  Milan  with  the  iron  crown,  advanoed 


tion,  he  proceeded  to  hold  an  assambly,  in  whiA 
he   caused  the  pope,  nnder  his  original  name  of 
James  de  Cahots,  to  be  thrice  summoned,  to  answer 
a  chaise  of  heresy  and  breach   ot   fealty ;    afCn 
which  ne  oaused  m"  to  be  deposed,  and  Peter  de 
Corvara,  a   monk,  to  be  elected  p<^>e,  under  the 
name  of  Nicholas  V.      Theae  meaanrea,  however, 
were  attended  witii  little  lendt    Lonia  rstviNd  to   : 
Germany,  and  the  Ooelpbio  ptedwninaaco  at  Bom* 
was  rcahoed,  the  p^ial  repreaentatira  resani^U* 
authority.  Bat  John  ZXIL  never  p«n(»allyvis*ted   | 
Borne,  having   died  at  AvigiUMi   in   13S^  wIiol 
although  witbtut  inonrring  the  numidon  ct  peoaanal  , 
aggrai^isement,  he  had  aomimuUed  in  toe  P^al   | 
treaaory  the  enormous  sum  <tl  I8,0(NU)00  flenna  «f 
gold.   This  pope  is  remarkable  in  tboMogloal  liistiaj 
the  author  of  that  portion  of  the  canon  law  oallad  > 

"'      "*   "'""   as  having   *"""   ""- 

i  will  not  be 


rection.    Ihis  opinion  he  formally  n 
his  death. 

JOHN,  sumamed  Ljjjklabp,  king  of  fJngUnd,  ^ 
and  the  youngest  of  the  five  sons  of  Heuy  IL  br  i 
hin  wife,  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  was  bom  at  Oxfinl  ' 
24th  December  1166,    His  father  having  obtained 


tmlted  with  hii  brothan  in  their  rebelliou  tguut 
thtir  fathw,  and  it  wti  tha  raddan  oonuniuiiiution 
ot  Uia  nam  of  his  having  joinad  hii  brother 
Riiduid'B  TebalUon  tbat  Oftnaad  the  death  of  Hemv. 
When  Bjch«rd  L  toooeeded  to  the  «Town,  bs 
confetred  upon  hii  yoong  brothsr  aarldoma  whieh 
amounted  bo  nearly  one-third  of  the  kingdom. 
Thia  did  not,  bowerer,  present  J.  endaaTDnring 
to  aeize  the  orown  dnring  Biahard's  captivity  in 
Aoitria,  J.  waf,  hawsver,  paidoned,  and  trMted 
wi-Qi  great  clamenoy,  and  u  laid  to  have  been 
nominated  his  anoocaior  hr  hia  hrothar  on  hit  death- 
bed. J.  haatened,  at  hit  Drother'a  death,  to  obtain 
the  anpport  of  the  oontinental  baiona,  and  then 
(tartM  for  England,  aod  wia  crowned  at  Weet- 
minatw  on  attth  May  1199.  Arthur,  Uie  eon  of  hia 
«lder  Wotiter  Oeofh«y,  waa  lineally  the  rightful  heir 
to  the  erown,  but  at  thia  time  the  law  of  inimogem- 
ton  wai  but  imperteotly  eatabliihed.  ^His  cUina 
of  Arthur  were  anpported  br  Anjon  and  th«  king 
of  ViMOiSB,  hut  J.  bought  off  the  latter  in&nence.  J. 
now  obtained  a  dijoroe  from  hia  firat  wife,  Hadwiia 


in  the  OMtlo  of  Ronan,  where  than 
to  belien  that  he  waa  privately  pat  to  death  (  bat 
the  t^gl"!'  monaroh  loat  Normandy,  Touraina, 
Mfcitf^  MitA  Anjon. 

J.  now  qoairdlad  with  the  pope,  and  the  king- 
dom waa  placed  ondar  an  intudiat;  while  J.,  in 
retam,  oonfiacated  tha  property  of  the  clergy  who 
obeyed  the  intardicl^  and  baniahad  the  buhopa. 
Otherwiaa,  too,  ha  di^ilayad  oonaideTable  activity. 
Ha  ooropelled  William,  king  of  Scotland,  who 
had  Joined  Ma  anemia*,  to  do  him  luimage  (1209), 

Eit  down  rebellion  in  Ireland  (1310),  and  tabdaed 
lawdlyo,  the  independaat  prince  of  Wales' (1213). 
The  pope  now,  in  1S13,  lolemnljt  deposed  J.,  and 
absolved  hia  mbjsots  from  their  aUegianoe,  and 
led  Plulippe  Aogoete  to  execute  hia 
J.,  denounced  by  the  ahnrafa,  and  hatod 

-_  jalty  and  tyittiu^  by  hia  labjeatt,  found 

hia  position  nntonable,  and  waa  oompdled  to  make 
al^eot  Babniaaion  to  Bome,  and  hold  hia  kingdom 
as  a  fl<C  of  Uie  psptaj.  Fhili^«  ^ooeaded  widi  his 
invaaioa  achame,  though  no  kngar  approred  by 
Eoma;  but  the  Aenohneet  waa  tota%  defeated  in 
the  hubooE  of  Damme,  300  of  their  veaeela  bung 
M^itand,  and  above  100  dcsboyed.  Babaaqnant 
events,  however,  ptored  mora  favoorabte  to  Fhrnoe, 
Bod  at  length  tbe  ^'!"g^'^*'  barona  aaw  the  oppor' 
tnni^  to  and  the  ^rumy  of  J. :  they  drew  up  a 
petitaoD,  iriiich  was  rejected  by  the  king,  and  this 
was  tiie  ngnal  for  war.  The  army  of  vie  barona 
aiaembted  at  Stamford,  and  marched  to  London ; 
th^  met  the  king  at  Runnymede,  and  on  the  ISth 
June  121S  waa  aigned  the  Great  Chuier  (Uuma 
Cbarta),  the  baaia  of  the  Bagliah  constitutioo.  The 
pope  aoon  after  annulled  the  charter,  and  the 
war  broke  o«t  again.  The  baion*  now  called  over 
the  dauphin  of  France  to  be  their  leader,  and 
Looia  landed  at  Sandwich  on  3Dlh  Hay  1216.  In 
attonpting  to  Koas  the  Wash,  John  lest  his  ngalis 
and  baasares ;  waa  takaa  iD,  and  died  at  Newark 
Castle,  on  IHk  October  1316,  in  the  4nh  year  ti 
Usage. 

JOHN,    BifTIR    JoaSPH    FaxUM     SDAStUUf, 

Archduke  of  Austria,  a  distjngnisbad  Antbrian 
I  bont  20th  January  17S2, 
■im  Bon  of  the  Emperto'  Leopold  IL 
._.  _..  tt  the  Iniaut*  Maria  Louiia,  daughter 
of  Charles  HL  of  Spain.  He  early  nva  proof 
•         "■     .•■■■'        •■■-     ^  Jbfie-  aiid  in 


prince  and  general,  v 


i  oouiidanUa  talent  for  military  a 


career  was  not  brilliant.  He  waa  defeated  at 
Hohenlindan  In  1800,  ood  at  Auiterliti  in  I80S. 
In  the  war  of  1809,  he  advanced  with  an  Aiulrian 
annv  into  Italy,  defeal«d  the  vioeroy  Euf^oe  at 
Sadie,  and  made  his  way  a*  far  as  the  Adige,  when 
the  revetM*  of  the  Austrian  foioes  at  lAiidihat, 


EokmUhl,  and  Batiibon  ocnapeUed  him  to  retire, 
flia  love  of  natural  sdenast  for  which  be  manifested 
an  early  pradilecfcion,  contiaued  undiminished  amidst 
tdl  the  vidsaitodee  ot  hia  life  t  ami  Anatiia  ia 
indebted  to  him  for  nuu^  valuable 


aftttrthe 

great  mj^crity  of ' 

2Mr,tobeTuar( „ _,  ^^ 

bU  of  Mettemioh  had  alao,  in  tbe  mttatuub. 


^hiSj' 


Im  Anperor 
of  a&in  I 
of  aconsi 


had  placed  ^iwi  ai  the 
intnttted  to  ^^*n  the 
taQonai  assembly  in  Tieuub  In 
Begmt,  the  archduke  aoted  on 
sbrictly  constitutional  prindidea;  but  the  progrsM  <rf 
events  being  nnfavonrable  to  the  Austidan  interest^ 
he  rasioMd  hia  office  on  HOtii  December  isao.  >nr4 
return^  to  GtVte,  where  he  lived,  at 
retirement  tni  hit  death.  May  10,  lSfi% 

His  marriege  was  one  ot  an  onoaually  romaotio 
kind.  Lato  on  a  January  evening  in  IfO?,  h«  had 
occasion  to  require  the  servicea  of  the  poatinaster 
of  Anstee,  a  mountain-village  in  the  vioinity  of 
(MMe.  Tbe  postniaater  was  fnmi  home;  but  his 
daughter,  Anna  Floohel,  volonteered  to  drive  b'"" 
over  the  hill  to  his  destination.  Ttie  convenation 
and  spirit  of  thia  maiden  aeam  to  have  charmed  the 
archduke,  and  within  three  weeka  he  marriad  her. 
The  titles  of  Counteei  of  Meran  and  Baronset  of 
Brandhof  ware  tobaequently  conferred  upon  thia 
lady.    See  lioMOiXino  Mabsuuju 

JOHN,  PuBTU  ('  Pricrt  John  'J,  the  aupposad 
Chriatian  king  and  priest  of  a  medieval  kingdom 
in  the  interior  of  Asia,  tits  locality  of  which  was 
vagna  and  undefined.  In  tbe  llth  and  12th  oan- 
tnnea,  the  Nestorian  »"  if' """•■"<   penetrated  into 

to  whom  the  afterwards  celebrated  Oenghia  Khan 

was  tributary,  This  name  the  Syrian  nussionariea 
translated  by  analogy  with  their  own  language 
converting  ung  into  '  Jachanan '  or  'John^  and 
rendering  KKaa  by Jprieet.'  In  tbeir  reports  to  the 
Christians  of  the  West,  accordingly,  theu-  ro^ 
convert  figured  as  at  once  a  prieat  Nid  tbe  sovereign 
oi  a  rioh  and  magnificent  kingdom.  Oengbis  Khan 
having  thrown  off  his  allegiance,  a  war  eosued, 
which  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death  of  Dd^ 
Khan  in  1202;  but  the  tales  of  hit  piety  and  magu- 
flcoDce  long  survived,  and  not  only  fumiahed  the 


iL  484),  but  supplied  the 

miationary  ez[wditiona  from  Weatem  Christendom,  to 
which  we  owe  almost  all  our  knowledge  of  medieval 
ogTa[diy.     The  rnMirts   r^ardtng  Ung 


Enrope  by  the  Armenian  embatqr 
eatea  a  most  profound  impreetion; 
,.    .. .  r .  !.! "-nt  drawn ap 


Khan,  earrii 

to  Biujene  1 

and  the  letters  addressed 

by  tiie  Nestoriu  mistionaries,  to  the  pops,  -   — 

kmgs  ot  France  and  Fortiig*],  and  to  the  Gmek 

emperor,  in^rsMed  all  witb  a  livdy  hope  of  th* 


Cglizodty  Google 


•re  printed  in  Awenituii'a  BBiliolA/ea  OrienttUit. 
Th«  skrliest  menlion  of  Freater  John  ii  in  the 
wotative  o(  the  Franciscan  Patler,  John  Carpini, 
who  iru  eent  by  Pops  Imiocetit  IV.  to  the  court  of 
BatA  KJuui  of  Xiptchmk,  the  graadson  of  Oenobia 
KIuw.  Father  Caipliii  nipposed  Hut  Prester  John'* 
kingdom  la^  still  nuther  to  the  eaat,  but  be  did 
not  proiecote  the  Bearch.  Thia  -waa  reined  for 
a  member  of  the  aame  order,  Father  Bubmqnia, 


Lonia,  uid  havrnK  reached  the  camp  of  BatQ  Kl 
ira*  by  him  wnt  forward  to  Eankonmi,  the  aea .  . . 
tiie  (uppoMd  Pteater  John.  He  failed,  however,  of 
hii  hope  of  flndisg  aach  a  personage,  the  Ehagan  of 
Karaluatim,  UangA,  being  still  an  anbeliever;  and 
hia  intercoorse  witii  the  Notoriaii  miadonariee, 
whom  be  found  eatabliahed  there,  satiafied  him  tlut 
inta  were  ^ieronalj  ezutgerated.  Hi« 
,  which  is  printed  in  Pnrcoaa's  CetlecUon, 
is  one  of  the  most  mteresting  among  thoae  of  the 
medieval  travellerai  Under  tne  tame  vagne  notion 
of  the  existence  of  a  Christiaii  prince  and  a  Chris- 
tian kingdom  in  the  East,  the  Portuguese  soogbt 
for  trace*  of  Preater  John  in  their  newly-ao^uirsd 
Indian  territoiy  in  the  IGth  century.  A  similar 
notion  prevailed  aa  to  the  Christian  kingdom  of 
Abjasinu,  which,  in  the  hope  of  findins  frester 
Jolm,  was  visited  so  late  as  the  reign  of  John  XT. 
of  PortD^  (1481—1496)  by  Pedro  Corilham  and 
Alfonzo  01  Payva,  the  fonner  of  whom  married  and 
settled  in  the  country.  See  Oieseler's  ftreAen- 
\vMe,   ni.   iiL   43;   Bitter's  STtOunde,  th.  ii 


rfj 


JOHK,  St,  the  commercial  capital  and  largest 
city  of  New  Brtmswick,  stands  on  the  north  or 
left  bank  of  tlie  eetnarf  of  the  river  of  its  own 
name,  in  lat  45*  14'  N.,  and  long.  66°  S  W.  Pop. 
(1871)  SSfiOS.  The  harbour,  whioh  is  protected 
hjr  batteries,  is  good,  and  accesuble  to  the  largeat 
Teasel*  at  all  seasons  of  the  ynr.  Ship-buildiDg 
and  the  timber-trade  are  the  chief  braBCbes  of  in- 
dnstry.  The  vslus  of  the  export*  in  1369—1870 
£708,220;  of  impcnts,  £1,081,260. 

JOHN,  9t,  the  most  considerable  river  of  New 
Brunswick,  in  Britiah  North  America,  risoi 
lake  of  the  same  name  in  the  state  of  M 
and  after  a  south-east  course  of  460  miles,  the 
last  225  of  which  are  within  Britiah  territory,  it 
falls  into  &e  Bay  of  Flmdy  by  an  eatoary  five 
milBB  in  widtih.  Near  the  sea,  it  is  navigable  for 
large  vessels;  while  for  craft  of  120  tons  it  is 
practicable  as  far  as  Fredericton,  which  is  80 
miles  from  its  month,  and  the  seat  of  the  colonial 
^ovenuoent.  The  stream  is  of  some  historical 
interest  in  connection  with  the  Iong-cont«sted 
adjuabnent  of  tlie  international  boundary.  Throng 
most  of  ita  upper  course,  it  separate*  Maine  from 

JOHN  III.  (John  Sobdbei),  king  of  Poland, 
1674—1696,  one  of  the  greatest  warriora  of  the 
17th  c,  was  bom  in  1621,  or,  aocordiug  to  others, 
in  1629,  and  educated  witji  the  utmost  care,  along 
wiUi  his  brother  Mark,  by  his  father  James  Sobieski, 
Castellan  of  Cracow,  a  man  of  virtuous  character 
and  warlike  spirit  Tlie  brothers  bavelled  in 
fiance,  EnsUnd,  Italy,  and  Germany.  [Dieir 
father's  death  recalled  them  home  in  1648.  The 
Poles  were  defeated  by  the  RuasianB  in  the  battle 
of  Filawiecz.  The  Sobieskis  took  up  arms  to 
restore  the  fortunes  of  their  countiy.  Mark  fell 
in  battle  on  the  banks  of  the  Bog:  John  distin- 
guished hinnalf  by  his  Tslour,  aud  became  the 
admintion  of  hit  countrymen  and  the  dread  of  | 


November  1673,  defatted  the  Turks 
battle  of  Chocrim,  in  which  they  lost  28,000 
after  which  he  was,  on  21*t  May  1674,  unanim 
elected  king  of  Poland,  and  was  crowned  in  Cracow 
along  with  his  wife,  Maria  Casimir  Louisa,  dau^iter 
of  t£e  Marquis  Lagrange  d'Arquien,  and  widow  of 
the  woiwode  John  Zamoiskl  When  the  Turk* 
besieged  Vienna  in  1683,  John  hastened  thither 
with  20,000  Poles,  and,  along  with  the  Oflrmon 
anxQiarie*  who  hod  also  como  up,  raised  ths  aiege 
by  ihe  victory  of  ]2th  September  of  that  year- 
In  this  battle,  he  tot^  tile  burner  of  Mohanuued, 
wh^ch  he  seat  to  the  po^  On  hia  enbanoe  into 
Vienna,  he  was  received  with  unbounded  enU)nm«*m 
by  the  inhabitants.  His  subsequent  nndertakingB 
against  the  Turks  were  not  equally  sncceaafuL  He 
died  of  apoplexy  oo  17th  June  1696.  John  Sobieaki 
waa  not  only  a  stateaman  and  warrior,  but  »  hirer 
of  science,  and  a  man  of  gentle  dispoaition  and 
sfreeable  maunen ;  but  his  constant  wan  prevented 
t^t  attention  to  the  internal  conditioo  of  Poland 
which  its  critical  situation  urgently  teqnitwl,  and 
this  oveni^t  on  his  part  helped  to  hasten  the 
downfall  oTFoland. 

JOHN  OF  AU8TEIA,  or  DON  JIJAK 
D* AUSTRIA,  waa  a  natural  son  of  ths  finpetw 
Chariea  V.,  and  wa*  bom  at  Bxeensburg  on  2Wt 
February  1640.  It  is  nncertunwho  his  mother  was. 
He  was  early  bron^t  to  Spain;  and  after  the  death 
of  his  fath^,  be  waa  acknowledged  by  his  half- 
brother,  PhiKp  IL  ;  honours  and  an  *»inw*l  aJJoi^- 
ance  were  bestowed  upon  him,  and  he  waa  educated 
along  with  the  Prince  of  Panna  and  the  Infant  Don 
Carlo*.  He  was  intended  for  the  church  ;  bat  his 
own  inclination  was  for  military  employment^  uid 
in  1670  he  received  the  oommand  of  an  army  sent 
against  the  rebellious  Moors  in  Granada,  whom  he 
completely  rooted  out  of  the  country — aigii«K«iiig 
"at  once  by  valour  and  by  oruelty.  In  1671, 
appointed  to  the  command  of  a  maritime 
expedition— in  which  the  forces  of  Spain,  the  pc^e, 
and  Venioe  were  united  against  the  Turks— aad 
defeated  the  Xuriu  in  a  great  battle  near  Lepanto 
(October  7)-  Piscord  breaking  out  among  the 
allies,  Don  Juan  separated  himMlf  from  the  >^ 
took  Tnnis,  and  conceived  the  design  of  forming  a 
""""igdom  for  himself  in  the  north  of  Africa.  Sat 
lup,  jealous  of  thia  design,  seat  him  to  Milan, 
obeerve  tho  Cknoeee ;  and  afterwards,  in  1676, 
viceroy  to  the  Netherlands.  In  this  eainicity, 
he  sought  to  win  the  favour  of  the  peoue  by 
mildness ;  but  bong  left  niunipported  by  Philip, 
he  was  hard  pressed  for  a  time,  till  Uta  arrival  of 
the  Prince  of  Parma  with  tmm  enabled  him  to 
restore  the  fcotnnes  of  Spain  by  the  victory  of 
Gemblons  over  William  tfie  Silent,  in  ISTl.  But 
Philip  was  now  apprehensive  that  Don  Juan  might 
make  >''"'»>'*  king  of  the  Netherlands ;  and  the 
untimely  death  ra  the  latter  in  hi*  intrenched 
camp  at  Namur,  on  1st  October  1678,  waa  not  with- 
out suspicion  of  poison.  See  Dnsmenil's  Hitloirt 
lU  Jvan  d'AutrieKt  (2d  ed.,  Paris,  1828). 

JOHN  O'  GBOArS  HOtrSB  (or,  more  ow^ 
reoUy,  it  would  seem,  Johsht  QRoa.T'B  Hocu), 
on  Dungansby  Head,  the  north-eaatem  ezttemity 
of  the  mainland  of  SooUand,  has  been  long  widely 
known  aa  marking  one  of  the  limits  of  that  country, 
~  ■-  Buma's  line : 

Prae  Haidenkirk  to  Johnny  Oroaf  >. 
It  stood  on  the  beach  at  the  month  of  the  Pentland 
Firtti,  and  was  probably  built  for  the  reception  li 
bvveilers  creasing  the  ferry  to  the  Orimeys.    n«di- 
tion  gives  a  mon  rouuntio  origin.    In  tlw  reign  of 


Maloolm,  GftTin,  and  John  Gnwt  or  Orot— aujifNiMd 
to  be  HolluiilmB,  Bettlicg  in  Gaithnen,  Mg.nired 
the  luidi  of  Wane  and  Dnnsuubv.  Wluoi  their 
deicenduita  had  lo  mnhdplied  Uiat  thejr  vera 
eight  familiea,  diipntea  aroee  as  to  precedency  at 
a  TmHt  le»tiTaI  -which  they  were  wont  to  kaep, 
John  Qr«at  aettled  the  controveny  by  hnilding 
an  «Kht«ded  honae,  with  a  door  and  «  ^rindow 
in  each  aide,  and  an  ei«ht-uded  tabl«  within,  to 
that  the  head  of  each  of  tne  eight  famUiea  of  Oroata 
might  entei'  by  hii  own  door,  aod  ut  at  his  own 
head  of  the  table.  Whatever  cradit  may  be  due  to 
thii  Wend,  there  Can  be  no  donbt  a>  to  the  exist- 
ence of  John  Orob  In  the  year  1496, '  John  Grot, 
lOQ  of  Hugh  Orot,'  had  a  grant  of  a  penny-land  in 
Dnnganebv  from  William,  Earl  of  Caittmen.  In 
1525,  '  Jotm  Grot  in  Dongaafay,'  aa  hia  name  is 
written,  chamberlain  and  bailie  of  John,  £arl  of 
Caitlmeas,  mive  seisin  to  the  Trinity  Frian  of 
Aberdeen,  of  a  yearly  p»|nieut  from  Uie  island  of 
Stroma,  in  the  Penllaiid  Firth.  He  died  soon  after- 
warda,  and  was  sacceeded  by  his  son  William,  or 
hif  grandson  John.  In  1540,  there  was  a  payment 
from  the  Scottish  treasury  of  £20  '  to  John  Orote, 
for  freight  of  his  ship  sent  by  the  queeD's  grace,  from 
si  AndrewB  to  Orkn^,  to  the  king's  grace  with 
wiitings,'  In  1S47,  loiai  Orot  had  a  pardon  from 
Qneen  Mary  for  belpioe  the  Earl  of  GaithneM  to 
storm  the  Earl  ManschBTB  coatle  of  AkirgUL  About 
1741,  Malcolm  Groat  sold  hia  lands  in  Dunnneby, 
with  the  fem-house,  to  William  Sinclair  i«  Pres- 
wick.  The  family  of  Groat  still  exists;  but  a 
small  green  knoll  is  all  that  now  remains  of  John 
o'  Groat's  House.  The  shell  Cypraa  SuTv^aa, 
which  abounds  in  the  neighbourhood,  has  received 
the  name  of  '  John  o'  Oroars  bucky.' 

JOHH  (ar)  OF  JEBUSALBM,  KmaBiB  or, 
otherwise  called  Kkiohtb  or  Rbod^  and  after- 
wards or  Malta,  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
military  and  religicus  ordets  of  the  middle  ages.  It 
oripnated  in  lOlS  in  on  hospital  dedicated  to  St 
Jomi  the  Baptist,  which  some  merchants  of  AmalS 
were  pennittod  by  the  calif  of  Egypt  to  build  for 
the  reception  of  the  pilgrims  from  Europe  who 
visited  die  Ho^  Sepulchre.  The  nuraes  were  at 
fint  known  as  Uie  Hospitaller  Brothers  of  St  Joha 
the  Baptist  of  Jerusalem.  The  Seljuk  Turks,  who 
snaoeeaed  the  Egyptian  and  Arabuui  Saracens  in 
Palestine,  plmidered  the  hospice,  and  on  the  oon- 
queat  of  Jerusalem  by  the  crusaderB  onder  Geofiroy 
de  Bouillon  in  1099.  the  first  superior,  Gfirard,  wag 
found  in  prison.  Beleased  from  duiance,  he  resumed 
his  duties  in  tbe  hospice,  gave  material  aid  to  the 
siok  and  wounded,  and  was  joined  by  several  of  the 
cmsadeis,  who  devoted  themHelves  to  the  service  of 
the  poor  pilgrims.  By  advice  of  Gerard,  the  brethren 
took  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience  before 
the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  Pope  Pascal  U.  gave 
his  sanction  to  Hia  instttution  in  1113.  Raymond 
du  Puy,  the  successor  of  G£rard  in  the  office  of 
sii[>Grior,  drew  up  a  body  of  statutes  for  the  onler, 
imich  was  eonfiimed  by  Pope  Calixtus  IL  To  the 
fdrmer  obligationa  wM  afterwarda  added  those  of 
fi^tiiw  a^mat  the  infidels  and  defending  the  Holy 
Sepnltmra.  Variona  hospices,  called  eommanderies, 
were  established  in  different  moiitime  towns  of 
Europe  as  reating.placea  for  pilgrims,  who  were 
there  provided  with  the  means  (u  setting  out  for 
Palestme.  The  order  having  become  military  as 
well  as  relieons,  w»  recruited  by  persons  of  high 
tank  and  iiAuence,  and  we»ltb  flowed  in  on  it  frran 
all  quartera.  On  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by 
Saladin  in  IIST,  the  Hospitallets  retired  to  Margat 
in  Phcenida,  whence  the  progress  of  infidel  arms 
diora  them  flnt,  in  ISSfi,  to  Acre,  and  afterwards,  in 


aasi^ied  them  a  residence.  By  the  atatntes  of 
Baymond,  the  brethren  consisted  of  thxat  chuBea, 
Kmghts,  Chaplains,  and  Serving  Brothem ;  these 
last  being  fighting  squires,  who  ftulowad  the  knights 
in  their  expeditions.  Hke  order  was  suhaequently 
divided  into  eight  langnages — Provence,  Auvergne, 
Vnjuie,  Italy,  Aragon,  England,  Germany,  and 
Castile.  Bach  nation  ponscased  several  Grand 
Priories,  onder  which  were  a  number  of  comman- 
deries.  The  chief  establishment  in  EngUnd  was 
the  Priory  at  Clerkenwell,  whose  head  had  a  seat 
in  the  Upper  House  of  Parliament^  and  was  styled 
First  Baron  of  England. 

In  1310,  the  kmghts,  under  their  grand-master, 
Fonlkes  de  Villaret,  in  conjunction  with  a  party  of 
crusaders  from  Italy,  captured  Bhodes  and  seven 
adjacent  islands  from  the  Greek  and  Saracen  pirates, 
by  whom  it  wss  then  occupied,  and  cairied  oa  from 
thence  a  successful  war  againat  the  Saracens.  In 
1523,  they  were  eonmelled  to  Borrender  Rhodes  to 
Saltan  Skyman,  ana  retired  first  to  Candia  and 
afterwards  to  Yiterbo.  In  15^  Charles  Y.  asngned 
them  the  island  of  Malta,  with  Trip<ji  and  Oozo, 
The  kmghts  continued  for  some  time  to  be  a  power- 
ful bulwark  asainat  the  Tnrka ;  but  after  the  Ketor- 
matiaa  a  moral  degeneracy  ovenpread  the  order,  and 
it  rapidly  declined  in  political  importance ;  and  in 
1798,  through  the  treachery  of  some  French  knights 
and  the  cowardice  of  the  grand-master,  D'Homp^ch, 
Malta  was  soirendered  to  the  French.  The  lands 
still  remaining  to  the  order  were  also  about  this 
time  confiscated  in  almost  all  the  Enropeon  states; 
but  though  extinct  >b  a  sovereign  body,  the  order 
has  oontinned  during  the  present  century  to  drag  on 
a  lingering  existence  in  Bome  ports  of  Italy,  as  well 
as  in  Russia  and  Spain.  Since  ISOl,  the  office  of 
grand-master  has  not  been  filled  up :  a  deputy 
grand-master  has  instead  been  appointed,  who  has 
his  residence  in  Spain.  The  order  at  first  wore  a 
long  black  habit,  vrith  a  pointed  hood,  adorned  with 
a  cross  of  white  silk  of  the  farm  colled  Maltese  on 
the  left  breast,  as  also  a  ^Iden  crnas  in  the  middle 
of  the  breast.  In  their  military  capocity,  they  wore 
red  surcoats  with  the  silver  onns  befmv  ond  behind. 
The  badge  worn  bj^  all  the  Knighta  is  a  Maltese 
cross,  enamelled  white,  and  edgea  with  gold  {  it  is 
BDBpended  by  a  bhudc  ribbon,  ond  the  embellish- 
ments attached  to  it  differ  in  the  diffei«nt  conntriea 
where  the  order  still  Axiats. 

JOHN  OF  LETDBN  (properly,  John  Bockkl- 
BOK  or  Bockold)  was  bom  at  Leyden  in  1610:  He 
was  the  son  of  a  bailiff  in  the  Hague,  and  of  a 
Westphalian  bondwoman.  He  wandered  about  for 
soma  time  as  a  journeyman  tailor,  and  then  settled 
in  Leyden,  but  was  fonder  of  amnsements  than  of 
bis  tnida.  He  possessed  some  poetic  genius,  and 
was  noted  for  his  abilities  as  an  actor.  Adopting 
the  opinions  of  the  Anabaptists  (q.  v.),  he  became 
one  of  their  wandering  prophets.  In  I£33,  he  come 
to  UUniter,  was  the  chief  supporter  of  Matthiesen 
or  Hotthyt  there,  and  when  Hatthieaen  loat  his 
life  in  1534,  became  hia  snooeasor.  _  He  set  aside 
the  anoieat  constitntion  of  the  eity,  set  up  in 
MUnster  'the  kingdom  of  Zion,'  appointed  jodgee, 
and  applied  in  on  extravagant  manner  the  prin- 
ciples of  Uie  Old  Testament  theocracy.  He  himself 
became  king  of  Zion.  It  is  imjioeBible  to  account 
for  his  eondact,  and  the  extraordinary  inQoeiice 
which  he  exercised,  without  the  supposition  (^ 
real  fanaticism ;  but  sensuality,  vanity,  and  blood- 
thirstinesi  were  intimatelv  combined  with  it  He 
introdoeed  polygamy,  and  disfdayed  a  great  love 
of  kingly  pomp.  The  city  was  tlu  soene  of  horrid 
exoesaee.  In  June  1635,  it  was  taken  by  the 
Bishop  of  MUnster.    John  and  his  chid  acoomplices 


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JOHN  OP  NEPOMUK— jomra. 


niffered  deAth  nilli  dicnmat&ncea  of  feuful  cmelt 
(jKDiuiy  26,  1636),  uid  hii  body  vu  siupoiii' 
in  a  cam  from  a  higfi  tower.  I' 
■are  hinlife  by  confeuioii  and  *nb[ 

JOHN  OF  HEPOMTJK  (more  moperly,  Pomck), 
a  popultu'  Bohemian  saint  of  tbe  Uatholic  Church, 
and  bonourad  as  a  maHrp'  of  the  inviaUbillty  of  the 
seal  of  confeasion.  He  was  bom  at  Pomuk,  a  village 
in  thu  diatriot  of  Klatan,  about  the  middle  of  tie 
14th  century.  Having  entered  into  ocdera,  he  rose 
tspidly  to  distinction,  Deing  created  a  canon  of  the 
caihedral  of  Prague,  and  ereutuaUv  vicar-general  of 
the  diocese.  The  queen,  Sophia,  the  second  wife  of 
Wenzel  oi  Wenceolani  IV.,  bavins  lelected  liim  for 
her  confeoor,  WeucealaoB,  hinu^  a  man  of  moat 
diMolute  life,  oonceivina  auapicdons  of  her  virtue, 
Tequired  of  John  to  tevefl  to  bim  what  ha  knew  of 
her  life  from  the  confeadons  which  she  had  made 
to  hit"  John  steadfastly  refused,  and  the  hing 
resolved  to  be  revenged  for  the  refusal  An  oppoT- 
tuoily  occmred  soon  afterwards,  whan  the  monks 
of  tha  Benedictiiie  abbey  of  KUdran  bavins  elected 
an  ftbbot,  in  oppoaition  to  the  deaign  of  the  king, 
wHo  wiibed  to  beatow  it  upon  one  of  his  own 
diseolute  Mvouritee,  John,  as  vioar-generil,  at  once 
confirmed  the  election,  Wenceslaiu,  having  first 
put  him  to  the  torture,  ht  which  he  bimself  person- 
ally presided,  had  him  tied  hand  and  foot,  and 
flung,  alreath  half  dead  from  the  rack,  into  the 
M^dau,  in  March  1393.  His  body,  according  to 
the  tradition,  being  discovered  by  a  miracoloua  Sght 
which  issued  from  it,  was  taken  up,  and  buried  with 
Uie  greatest  honour.  Hii  memoiy  was  cherished 
with  peculiar  afiection  in  his  native  comitiy,  and 
be  vu  eventually  canonised  as  a  saint  of  the 
Bomaii  Catholio  Church,  his  feast  being  fixed  for 
the  20th  of  MwT<'h.  By  same  historians,  two  dia- 
Idnet  penooages  of  the  same  name  are  enumerated  - 
one,  ULe  martyr  <A  Uie  confessional  seal ;  the  other, 
of  his  resistance  to  the  simoniacal  tyranny  of  Wen- 
ceslatu ;  bat  the  identity  of  the  two  is  well  sustained 
by  Falacky,  Oeadiichu  von  BlAmta,  liL  62. 

JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  the  forerutuier  of 
Christ,  was  the  son  of  the  ^xiest  Zachaiias  and 
Elizabeth,  tbe  cousin  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  our 
LonL  John  and  Christ  were  therefore  second- 
cousins.  The  wonderful  cireotostances  attending 
the  conception  and  birth  of  tile  former,  an  recorded 
in  liie  Ist  chapter  of  St  LukcTs  gospel  After  a 
life  devoted  to  preparine  bis  countrymen  for  the 
coming  of  the  Measiah,  he  was  thrown  into  prison, 
and  i^Wwards  eiecnted  by  Herod  Antipaa.  J.'s 
followers  existed  as  a  separate  body  till  long  after 
the  sj^ead  of  Christianity,  and  a  sect  still  exists 
in  the  East  professing  to  be  his  disciples. — J.  the 
B.  was,  from  ui  earW  date,  regarded  in  England 
as  Uia  patron  saint  of  the  common  peo^,  and  ou 
this  acoonnt,  apparently,  great  masomc  festivaLs 
are  held  on  St  John's  Day,  the  day  dedicated  to 
him,  whicb  is  tha  24th  of  June. 

JOHN  THE  PARBICIDK  commonly  called 
John  or  Sw.*bu,  son  of  Rudolf  IL,  and  grandson 
of  BndoU  L  of  Austria,  was  bom  in  1280.  On 
attaining  his  majority,  he  applied  to  lus  uncle, 
Albert  f.  of  Austria,  to  resign  to  him  the  whole  or 
•  j»rt  of  his  patrimony,  which  consisted  of  Kyburg 


district  of  Mi*'"*!  they  were  blessed  by  the  parish- 
priest,  and  prayer  and  praise  offered  until  tbtrf  had    ' 
burned  out ;  bat,  as  a  rule,  they  were  seraibr  in 


betaking  himself  to  Italy,  where  he  led  a  waudtring   I 
life,  and  died  in  ohaourity.  ' 


was    celebrated   on   midsummer   eve.     From  the 
account  given  of  it  by  Jakob  Qrimm  in  his  DeidtAe 
Mytiiologit  (fid.  L  pp.  SS3— 693),  it  would  sfipeu    I 
to  have  been  observed  with  similar  rites  in  every   i 
country  of  Europe.    Fires  were  kindled  chi^^  in 
the  streets  and  market-plaoea  of  the  towns,  as  at   I 


est,  and  prayer  a 

mol  out;  bat,  a 
their  character,  and  CMiducted  by  the  lai^ 
selves.  The  young  people  leaped  over  the  flams,  «- 
threw  flowera  and  garlands  into  them,  with  merry 
shoutings  ;  songs  and  dances  were  also  a  frequent 
accompaniment.  At  a  comparatively  late  period, 
the  very  highest  peraonages  took  part  in  tiu«e 
festivities.  In  England,  we  are  told  (tee  B. 
Chambem'B  Book  of  Day,  June  24),  the  people 
on  the  Eve  of  St  John's  '  were  accustomed  to  go 
into  the  woods  and  break  down  branches  <d  tiee^ 
which  they  brought  to  their  homes,  and  Ranted 
over  their  dooro,  amidst  great  damonsniiooa 
of  ]o^,  to  make  good  the  prc^ecy  reapectiiu  tbe 
Baptist,  that  niany  should  rejoice  in  his  oirldL 
This  custom  was  universal  in  England  till  the 
recent  change  in  manners.  Some  of  the  iopostj- 
tious  Dotians  connected  with  3t  John's  Eve  are  of 
a  bigbly  fanciful  nature.  The  Irish  believe  that 
the  souls  of  all  people  on  this  night  leave  their 
bodies,  and  wander  to  the  place,  by  land  or  asa, 
whero  death  shall  finally  aepaiate  theip  from  tike 
tenement  of  clay.  It  i*  not  improbable  that  this 
notion  was  origin^y  universal,  and  was  the  esose' 
of  the  widespread  custom  of  watching  or  sittins  up 
awake  on  St  John's  night,  for  we  may  well  beSevs 
that  there  would  be  a  general  wiah  to  prevent  the 
soul  from  going  upon  that  somewhat  dinnal  ramble. 
In  Endand,  and  perhaps  in  otiier  conntties  alao,  it 
was  believed  that,  if  any  one  sat  up  fasting  all  night 
in  the  church  porch,  ne  would  see  the  srarits  of 
those  who  were  to  die  in  the  parish  during  Qie 
prilling  twelve  months  come  and  knock  si  the 
church  door,  in  the  order  and  succession  in  which 
they  were  to  die.  We  can  eamly  perceive  a  posaihle 
connection  between  this  dreary  fancy  and  that  of 


the  soul's  midnight  ramble.'    The  kiodling  of  the 
fire,  the  leaping  over  or  through  the  flames,  and  tite 
flawer-^nrluids,  clearly  shew  that  these  rite*  are    - 
essentially  of  heathen  origin,  and   of  a  sacrificial    ' 
character.    They  are  obviously  connected  with  the    ' 
worabip  of  the  sun,  and  were  doubtless  practised 
long  before  the  Baptist  was  bom.    In  old  heathen 
times.  Midsummer  and  Yule  (q.  v.),  the  summer 
and  winter  solstices  were  the  two   greateat  and 
most  widespread  festivals  in  Europe.    The  church 
could  not  abolish  these ;  it  coold  only  chansB  their 
name,  and  try  to  find  something  in  tbe  iagbaiy  of 
Christianity  uiat  would  justify  Sm  alteration. 

JOHN'S,  8t,  a  city  of  the  West  Indies,  capita  of 
the  island  of  Antigua  (q.  v.),  and  the  reBdsoco  of 
the  govemor-in-chief  of  the  Leeward  Tslandt,  is 
situated  at  tiie  western  ude  of  that  island,  dosa  to 


byGoogle 


and  in  [ong  dry  BeuonE  the  islubitantB  mfier 
greatly  from  the  want  of  it.  Wella  have  been  innk 
m  Hie  town,  but  the  water  obtained  is  braoluah,  n 
that  Iain-water  collected  in  iron  and  otiiar  ci«t««iia 
[orme  the  onlj-  eupply  of  this  invaluable  element. 
The  m»-rimnm  heat  u  OP;  the  ininlTnTiTn,  62*.  The 
average  fall  of  rain  ii  said  to  be  46  ioohee. 

JOHITS,  St,  the  chief  town  of  NevfoondUuid, 
itaudi  on  the  eart  ooait  o!  the  island,  in  Ut  47° 
33*  N.,  and  long.  BT  a  W.  It  haa  on  ezceUent 
harbour,  which  u  well  fortified.  Pop.  (1369)  22,553. 
Being  the  neareat  port  in  America  to  Eorope  (dis- 
tanoe  1660  nules],  and  connected  with  continental 
America  by  telc^imjdli,  St  John's  ha«  recently 
Mqnired  importuce  m  the  oommercial  and  politioal 
world  in  oonnectioii  with  rteam-navuiatioa  tietween 
It  hia  aufEsrea  Mverely  from 


deetroyed. 

JOHIf'S,  St,  a  town  of  Canada,  in  the  prorinoe 
of  Quebec,  ii  ntoated  on  the  left  iMnk  of  the  riTer 
Bichelien,  c^ipoaite  the  town  of  Bt  Athanaie,  with 
which  it  U  oonneoted  by  »  bridge^  and  21  milea 
■ontb-eaat  bom  MontraaL  It  coutaint  glata-worki, 
pottertei,  foondiiee,  law-milla,  ka.,  and  carriea  on  a 
oonnderable  trade  in  lamber,  firewood,  horaea,  and 
grun.    Fop.  (1871)  3022. 

JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  or  the  OoUege  of  St  John 
Ol»  Baptii^  Oxford,  incceeded  an  elder  iiketitii- 
tion,  foonded  l^  Archbishop  Chichele  in  1166, 
for  monks  (d  toe  Claterciau  order.  Sir  Thomas 
White  mocored  a  licence  from  King  Philip  and 
Qaeen  Marr,  and  in  1655  founded  a  college, 
dedicated  'to  the  hcnonr  of  God,  the  Virgm 
Manr,  and  St  John  the  Baptist,'  on  the  lite  of 
Arohbiahop  Chichele'i  College.  The  loondation 
consivte  of  a  preddent,  SO.fellowa  and  echolaie. 
and  a  choir.  Six  of  the  fellcwBhips  are  fonnden' 
kin;  two  from  Coventry,  two  from  Bristol,  two 
from  Reading,  and  one  from  Timbridge  Schools; 
all  the  rett  are  from  Merchant  Taylor's  School  In 
1854,  tooT  fellowihipe  were  added  by  the  will  of 
Dudley  Fersday,  &quire.  These  are  open,  with  a 
preference,  however,  firat,  to  founder's  kin,  and 
•eoond,  to  natives  of  Staffordshire.  This  <«l]ege 
preaenta  to  30  beneflceo.  In  1S73,  tJiere  were  about 
430  names  on  the  book*,  lite  arrBngement*  of 
this  college  wore  not  dtered  by  the  commissioners 
under  17  and  18  Viot  61.  The  commiasionen  of 
1862,  indeed,  proposed  eztensivB  chaogee,  which  the 
commisiionerB  under  the  act  were  disposed  to  car^ 
ont  but  the  college  succeeded  in  baffling  their 
enaeaToon.  Similar  change*,  however,  to  thoae 
recommsnded  by  the  commiaiioners  —  involving, 
among  other  points,  the  throwing  open  of  18  fellow- 
ahipa— having  been  subsequently  introdaced  by  the 
authority  of  the  Privy  Council, 

JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  Sr,  Cambridge,  was 
founded  in  IGU  by  Lady  Margaret,  Countess  of 
Bicbmond,  and  mother  of  Henry  VH  ;  but  her 
death  happening  before  the  design  was  completed, 
her  eiecnboia,  one  of  whom  was  Fiaher,  Biahcp  of 
Rochester,  carried  her  intentions  into  effect.  The 
dte  of  the  college  bod  beeu  long  before  devoted 
to  pious  usee,  but  three  timea  was  the  ditpoeition 
of  the  property  altered — 1st,  when  Neal,  Bishop  of 
IHy,  founded  here  a  hospital  for  Canons  BeguLu-  in 
1134 ;  2dlv,  when  Hugh  do  Balaham  made  it  into 
a  priory,  dedicated  to  St  John  the  Evangelist ; 
3dly,  when  Lady  Uargaref  a  eiecniore  converted  it 
into  a  college.  The  foundation  is  for  a  master,  who 
is  elected  by  the  Society,  flfty<8ii:  fellows,  sixty 
scholars,  and  nine  proper  sizars.  There  are  also 
exhibitions  of   ooiuiderable    vslue,  and 


tiGon  for  students  who  have  not  yet  oommeoced 
residence  in  the  univend^.  Amongst  name*  ot 
intereet  mn  be  mentioned  William  Orindal,  tutor 
Qneen  Elixabeth ;  Boger  Ascham ;  Cedl,  Lord 


Burleigh;  Biohard  Bentlnjwh 
'ftinity  College)  j  Kirke  Whit*. 
Hartyn,   kc     For   full   partieulws,   see    Oooper'a 


bite,  the  poet; 


Jllaaoriala  <jf  Cambridge. 

JOHNSON,  Sunm,  son  of  Michael  Johnson, 
waa  born  at  IdiMeld,  on  the  18th  September  1709. 
He  received  his  early  education  in  his  native  town, 
from  a  man  named  Hunter ;  of  whom  he  has  recorded 
that '  he  beat  me  very  well ' — adding,  '  without  that 
I  should  have  dons  nothing.'  In  1728,  be  went  to 
FMnbroke  College,  Oxford,  haTing  been  eng^ed  for 
the  two  i^erions  years  of  his  lue  in  leaning  his 
of  bookaaT       ™     "'   -  ' 


father's  b 


f  bookseller.    Tba  Short  Aeemutt 


probably  the  moat  unhappy  period  of  his  nnhapjw 
life.  Overpowered  by  debU,  diffioultice,  and  rell- 
giouB   doubts,  he  became   a  prey  to  the  morbid 


died  insolvent.  la  the  same  year  he  went  to 
Bosworth  as  uaher  of  a  schooL  Finding  the 
drudgery  of  thia  sitoation  unbearable,  he  soon  gave 
it  up,  gaining  a  mragra  livelihood  by  working  for 
bookaelleni  in  Bimiinghain.  In  1736,  he  married 
Mrs  Porter,  a  widow :  she  brought  him  £800.  He 
then  set  uoiniFa  school,  which  naving  no  suooen, 
be  repaired  (1787)  to  London  in  the  company  of  his 
oelebrated  pnpil,  David  Garrick.  Here  ha  formed  a 
connection  with  Cave,  the  editor  of  the  QtnSemcaia 
Magaiine,  to  which  periodical  he  became  a  oontri- 
bator.  In  the  following  year  ha  published  Limdtm, 
a  poem  in  imitation  of  the  Third  Satire  of  Juvenal, 
which  was  very  favourably  received.  Pope,  in  parti- 
cular, being  worm  in  its  praise.  But  for  many 
years  he  was  miaerably  remunerated  for  his  work, 
and  had  great  difficulty  in  keeping  the  wolf  of 
hunger  from  his  door.  Little  is  Known  respecting 
J.'s  life  from  this  period  till  he  was  turned  M  fifty. 
We  may  fonn,  however,  somo  guBM  of  the  dmosius 
of  its  unhappineas,  when  we  oonsidst  the  ehonctw 
and  constitution  of  the  man,  and  what  was  the 
position  of  the  majority  of  men  of  letters  at  that 
time — for  Lterature,  '  a  dark  night  between  two 
Buony  days ' — when  the  day  of  patrician  patronage 
was  at  its  dcee,  and  that  of  pulilio  patronage  hod 
not  yet  dawned.  After  1740,  he  began  to  'report* 
(if  we  may  be  allowed  to  miiuae  this  word)' the 
parliamentary  debates  for  Cave's  Mosaztne.  These 
'  debates '  were  drawn  up  by  J.  himacB,  after  he  hod 
asoarjained  the  order  in  which  the  different  speaken 
rose,  and  the  drift  ot  their  arguments.  One  can 
readily  believe  that  statesmen  were  surprised  at 
the  splendour  and  pomp  ot  their  own  aloquenoo 
when  they  saw  it  in  prmt.  In  1744,  J.  published 
his  intereeting  Lift  of  ^xhari  Bavogt ;  in  1749, 
bis  best  poem.  The  VanUy  of  ffuman  WUie*,  an 
imitation  of  the  Tenth  Satire  of  Juvenal;  and  in 
1750  commenced  The  Bambler,  a  periodical  irtuoh 
ha  conducted  for  two  yean,  and  the  contenta 
of  which  were  almost  wholly  bia  own  composition. 
His  Ditiiimarii,  a  noble  piece  of  work,  entitling  its 
author  to  being  considered  the  fonnder  of  ^'^ff"*' 
lexicography,  appeared  in  1755,  after  ^ght  years 
of  solid  laliour ;  The  Idier,  anotiier  periodical,  was 
began  by  J.  in  1758,  and  carried  on  for  two  years 
also ;  and  in  17G9  occurred  one  ot  the  most  touoh- 

,   ,  expenses 

written,  ha  tells  ua,    _  ._     .     _..^. 

At  last  he  emerged  from  obMority.     In  1702,  k 


Cnt.zodhyGoOgle 


JOHNSTON-JOINT  AND  SEVERAL. 


peniioaof  £300ayeKTwu  oonf erred  on  him  by  Lord 
Bate ;  and  in  tlie  folloning  ysar  ooomred  u  events 
appuently  of  liUIe  moment,  but  which  haa  bad  » 
-  luting  inflneiice  upon  his  fame  :  tiiii  was  hia  intro- 
dmjtion  to  James  Bo«weII,  whose  £t/i  <j/"  Dr  John- 
ton  is  probably  more  imperishable  than  any  of  the 
dootor'a  own  writLDgB.  In  1704,  the  famous  Liteiarj 
Clnb  was  instituted,  and  the  folIowiDg  year  began 
his  intimacy  with  the  Thialea.  In  the  same  year 
appeared  bis  edition  of  Shakapeare.  In  1TT3,  he 
visited  the  Highlands  with  Boswall.  In  1781, 
appeared  his  Lwa  of  On  PoeU,  his  last  literary 
■work  of  any  importance.  He  died  on  J3Ui  December 
1784.  He  was  buried  iu  Westminrter  Abbey,  close 
by  the  grave  of  Oarrick. 

Strei^^tlk,  or  at  least  force  of  mind,  a  certain  sage 
■olemnity  in  the  treatment  of  moral  themes,  a  sliarp 
eye  for  the  obserration  of  character  as  it  manifests 
itaelf  in  society,  and  a  great  power  of  caustic  wit, 
are  the  chief  qoaJities  noticeable  in  Jolmson.  He 
had  little  aptitude  for  abstract  thinking,  and  no 
great  vigour  of  imagination— hence  he  was  neither  a 


hence  we  find  scattered  Uirough  hia . 
a  multitude  of  valualde  remarks  on  dookh  aoa  men 
and  manners.  His  written  style  is  very  lonorouB, 
inflated,  and  antithetic ;  the  luigusga  is  frequently 
grander  tiian  the  thought,  but  his  couveraationu 
style,  as  reported  by  Boswell,  ia  terse,  robust,  and 
fdidtouB  in  the  highest  degree. 
JOHNSTON,  AuKAMDBB  Kbitb,  LL.D.,  P.B. 


all  his  produc. 


yut£t 


elegsnoe  of  deswn  tt 

tians,  and  whic^  in  spite  of  their  purel<r  . 
aim,  gives  them  a  right  to  rank  as  specunens  of  fine 
art,  wM  probably  acquired  or  developed  during  hia 
apprenticeahip  as  an  engraver.  His  first  important 
work,  the  NaUontd  AUcu  (foL),  was  published  in 
1843.  Its  merits  received  immediate  recogni^n, 
and  J.  was  appointed  Royal  Qeographer  for  Scot- 
land. Five  years  later,  appeared  his  fu-funed 
Phytical  A&ae  of  Natvral  Pheaymma,  the  publi- 
aatiOB  of  which  was  the  signal  for  a  shower  of 
honooiB  from  the  geo^ruhioal  societies  of  Europe— 
that  of  Paris,  in  particiuar,  prononncing  the  work 
'  one  of  the  most  magni&sent  monuments  that  has 
yet  been  nised  to  the  soiaitific  genius  of  our  age.' 
A  second  edition,  greatly  improved,  was  issued  in 
1856>  In  1860,  appeared  a  very  uaeEul  DKliimary  of 
Otographii,  better  Known  as  '  Johnston's  Gaietteer ' 
(3d  ed.  1859;  4th  ed.  1867).  HU  Bogal  AOat  of 
Gtograpkg  (Edin.  Blackwood  and  Sons,  1861),  is 
probably  the  moat  beautiful  and  minutely  accurate 
atlas  ever  executed.  J.  also  published,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  other  savants.  Hind,  Murcbison,  and 
Nicol,  htlasea  of  Astronomy  and  Geology ;  boaides 
a  gr^t  Qumbei'  of  very  valuable  educational  atlasec, 
physical,  general,  and  classical,  which  have  obtained 
a  wide  circulation.     He  died  9th  July  1871. 

JO'HNSTONE,  a  manufacturing  town  of  So 
land,  in  the  county  of  Renfrew,  was  founded 
1781,  and  is  sitnated  on  the  Bhwk  Cart,  about  three 
miles  west  of  Paisley,  It  contains  several  cotton 
tactoriti,  a  flax-mill,  brais  and  iron  fonndriee,  and 
machine-shopa.  It  has  a  apadons  square  in  its 
centra,  and  a  good  matket-plaoe.  The  pop,  in  1871 
was  6882. 

JOHNSTONE,  jAura  T.  W.,  an  eminent 
cbEmist,  was  bom  at  Paisley  in  179S,  and  'dwd  at 
Durham  in  1853L  He  was  of  humble  parenUge, 
and  was  for  the  most  part  self-educated.  In  l^S, 
he  removed  to  Dniliam,  where  he  opened  a  acho<j, 
which  he  continued  till  1830,  when,  having  married 


a  lady  of  conaidereble  fortone,  he  reaolved  to  cany 
out  uie  [Jan  which  he  had  long  deaired,  of  devotiog 
himself  to  the  stody  of  chemistiy.  He  aecordiiigl}' 
repured  to  Stockholm,  and  became  the  papQ  i^ 
Berzelins,  the  most  celebrated  chemist  of  tba  time ; 
and  his  reputation  rose  so  rapidly,  that  in  1833,  while 
still  pursuing  hia  studies  abroad,  ha  ^ras  invited  to 
take  the  readeiahip  in  chemistry  and  minenJogy  in 
the  newly-establiahed  univeraity  of  Dnrluun.  For 
some  time  after  his  return  from  the  continent,  ha 
resided  in  Edinburgh,  and  held  the  post  of  chemist 
to  the  Agriculturu  Society ;  but  shortly  after  its 
dissolution,  he  took  up  his  permanent  rendenca  at 
Durham.  It  is  as  an  agricultural  chemist  that  be 
is  chiefly  known.  His  GataAitm  qf  AgriaJtartd 
Chemialry  and  Qeoiogy  lias  gone  throiieh  more  than 
flfty  .editions,  and  has  been  translated  into  almost 
every  European  langnage ;  and  his  Lectttra  om 
A^rxcviiurai  Chtmittry  and  Qeoiogy  are  held  in  high 
eateem.  The  last  of  hia  works  was  his  ChemUlrti  of 
Common  Lift,  which  originally  appeared  in  Buttk- 
iDoorf (  MagaaiM,  and  hsa  since  gone  tlirou^  two 
editions.  In  the  anmmar  of  18M,  while  travelling 
on  the  continent,  apparently  in  his  nsnal  health,  he 
was  seised  with  spitting  of  blood,  which  terminated 
in  a  rapid  decline. 

JOIONY  (anc  Joviniaeuni),  an  old  walled  town 
of  France,  in  the  department  of  Yonne,  about  90 
miles  south-east  of  Paris,  noted  for  its  red  wine* 
and  extensive  trade  in  wool    Pop.  (1872)  6400l 

JOINEBT,  the  art  of  joining  or  framing  together 
the  wooden  finishings  of  bundings,  sudi  aa  the 
doon,  windows,  shutters,  stairs,  j»^  See  C^SPENntt. 

JOINT  AND  SEVERAL,  a  legal  [JirMe  in 
England  and  Irelami,  meaning  tliat  a  conbact  or 
obhgation  is  made  by,  or  in  favour  of,  eadi  of 
several  parties,  independently  as  well  as  jointly 
with  the  others.  The  general  rule  of  law  is,  that 
a  contract  of  several  persons  is  joint,  and  not 
several — that  is  to  say,  if  it  is  sought  to  be  enforced 
Bgainat  them,  they  muat  all  be  sued  together,  and 
an  action  cannot  be  brought  against  one.  Thus,  for 
example,  if  A,  B,  and  C'  jointly  accept  a  bill,  or 
make  a  promissory- note,  witliont  aaying,  'we  joiiitly 
amj  KneraUy  promise,  fto.,'  the  whole  <S  'Uiem  mu^ 
be  sued  on  such  biU.  If,  however,  any  one  pay  the 
whole  debt,  be  can  sue  his  co-contractors  for  their 
respective  coatributioa  or  proportion— namely,  one- 
third  from  each.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  tlie  partdee 
had,  by  express  words,  jointly  atui  teverally  made 
tlie  promissory-note,  or  bound  themaelvea,  then  the 
creditor  could  sue  any  one  of  them  he  Tjeaaas,  with- 
out taking  any  notice  of  the  rest.  Whichever  of 
them,  however,  first  paid  the  debt,  would  be  equaUy 
entitled  to  ane  his  co-debtors  to  contribute  their 
fair  proportions.  So,  if  a  contract  is  made  in  favonr 
of  two  or  more  persons,  the  general  rule  is,  that  all 
of  them  must  join  in  any  action  brought  to  enforce 
the  contract.  But  in  some  cases,  when  a,  contcwzt 
is  capable  of  being  separated  into  distinct  intereatl^ 
it  is  not  necessary  that  all  of  the  creditors  ahonld 
aae.  Much  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  contract, 
the  situation  and  relations  of  the  partiea,  and  wbo 
paid  the  price  or  consideration.  In  Smtlaud,  the 
phrase  conjunctly  and  severally  is  more  frequently 
used  than  jointly  and  soverally,  though  the  mean- 
ing is  the  same.  There  are,  however,  some  differ- 
ences between  the  laws  of  England  and  Scotland  on 
the  subject.  In  Scotland,  the  genera]  rule  is  the 
reverse  of  what  it  ia  in  Encland.  When  a  contract 
is  joint,  each  is  concerned  and  liable  only  for  hia 
shu^i  but  when  it  is  expr^sty  stated  to  be  » 
conjunct  contract,  each  ia  liable  for  the  whole. 
Moreover,  where  one  of  several  debtora  is  discharoed 
without  an  expreas  leoerratioii  of  the  remedy  agamst 


byGoogle 


arly  expresBed 


the  rat,  thia  opentea  in  JSogltuid  aa  a  discharce 
the  irhols ;  irhereaa  in  Scotland  it  operates  only 
a  diaoharge  of  that  one. 

JOINT-FIR.    See  Su-Ghafk. 

JOINT  OWNER  is,  in  Engliih  Law,  a  peTson 
who  is  one  of  sevenl  ownera  of  property.  T 
property  may  be  either  peiional  or  t^I,  goods  ._ 
land.  One  of  the  characteristica  of  this  ownenhip 
ia,  that  if  one  of  the  parties  diei,  hii  interest  accrues 
to  the  othen,  and  does  not  go  to  the  deceased 
co-owner's  heirs  or  representatives.  Thm,  if  A  and 
B  are  joint  owners  of  a  horse,  and  A  dtea,  tlie  hone 
then  belongs  entirely  to  B.  So  it  ia  with  real 
proper^,  siuh  as  hoosas,  lands,  and  estates.  This 
IS  called,  the  doctrine  of  sarviTOrship.  Sometimes 
in  wills  and  deeds  it  is  not  clearly 
whether  the  property  wa 

The  chief  difference  between  these  two  descriptions 
of  owners  is,  that  if  one  tenant  in  common  dies, 
his  share  does  not  go  to  the  other  tenants  in  com- 
mon, but  belongs  to  his  representatives  or  heirs. 
Hence,  in  doubtful  cases,  a  court  of  equity  gener- 
ally inclines  to  hold  that  a  tenancy  in  common  was 
meant  rather  than  a  jtunt  tenancy,  fat  the  former 
is  the  more  fair  of  the  two  kinds  of  ownerdiip.  In 
all  cases,  however,  it  is  in  the  power  of  a  joint 
owner  to  couTert  his  joint  tenancy  into  a  tenancy 
in  common,  by  simply  executing  a  deed  of  partition 
or  alienation,  if  the  property  consist  of  land;  or 
telling  his  share,  if  it  consiEt  of  personalty.  And 
there  is  an  exceptioD  as  to  the  snrTivoiBhip  in  the 
oase  of  a  firm  ot  partners,  for  in  that  case,  when 
one  partner  dies,  his  share  does  not  accrqe  to  his 
co-partners,  bnt  belongs  to  his  own  personal  repre- 
sentatives. This  is  said  to  be  an  eiception  to  the 
general  rule  of  joint  ownership,  created  for  the 
benefit  of  trade,  so  that,  in  the  case  of  a  fimi,  the 
ownership  is  an  ownership  in  common,  and  not  joint 
ownership.  Id  Scotland,  the  general  rale  is  different 
from  what  prevails  in  England,  and  joint  property 
is  there  always  equivalent  to  what  is  called  in 
England  prop^ty  held  ia  common,  and  not  joint 
in  the  airave  sense.  It  reqairea  express  words  in 
Scotland  to  make  the  property  be  held  so  as  to  be 
equivalent  to  what  is  joint  property  in  England. 

JOINT-STOOK  OOilPASY,  an  association  of 
individnals  who  unite  to  canv  out  a  particular 
objectof  a  private  nature  by  each  taking  aodpayins 
for  shares  m  the  common  stock.  Tba  object  of 
the  sssociation  may  be  to  manufactore  some  species 
of  article,  to  conduct  some  branch  of  trade  or  com- 
merce, tiie  business  of  banking  or  iosanuice,  or  in 
general  to  do  whatever  work  of  a  private  nature 
any  individual  can  do;  bnt  when  the  object  is  to 
execute  a  public  undertaking,  such  as  a  railway, 
a  canal,  harbour,  or  other  work  of  importance,  the 
company  is  not  called  a  joint-stock  company,  but 
a  public  company,  and  a  special  act  of  pariiament 
is  required  in  order  to  ettabliah  it  and  regulate  ifii 
proceedings.  In  many  respects,  the  proceedings  of 
railway,  canal,  and  public  companies  resemble  tooae 
of  whataracalled  joint-stock  companies.  Inordioorv 
circnmstannes,  the  capital  or  rtocic  of  a  joint-stock 
company  is  heyond  wnat  any  tinfde  individual,  how- 
evw  wealtliy,  would  be  able  or  inuined  to  adventure ; 
it  is  mainly  on  this  account  that. the  joining  of 
parties  tooMlter  to  undertake  risks  is  expedient  and 
nnavoidoUo ;  though  there  may  be  instonces,  as  in 
the  case  of  Co-operation  (q.  v.),  where  a  union  of 
small  soms  by  a  large  number  (rf  persons  is  for  peoa- 
lior  rensoDS  raoommeDdable.  Joint-stock  compsniM 
are  of  comparatively  modem  origin,  and  they  can 
existwitliaduuice  of  sneccMon^in  a  oommnnity 
1  business  notions  knd  babita,  along 


degree  of  matool  comSdence  which  will  give  stabihty 
to  the  concern.  Accordingly,  from  a  conourrence 
of  favourable  circumstances.  Great  Britain  has  taken 
thd  lead  in'  this  kind  6i  undertakings,  which, 
however,  have  also  been  csiried  to  maturity  on  a 
oomprehensive  plan  in  the  Ketherlaads  and  tinited 
States.  In  France,  this  method  of  commercial 
association  is  of  mote  recent  growth,  and  appears 
still  to  require  the  fostering  eaia  of  the  state. 

The  usual  process  of  conunencing  a  joint-stock 
company  is  to  issue  a  prospectus,  detailing  the 
object  of  the  undertaking,  inviting  the  snbsctiption 
of  shares,  and  specifying  the  prot«ble  profits.  As 
the  proposed  company  necessarily  requires  a  pud 
secretary,  who  is  m  ^ect  to  be  its  constructer  and 
fatore  aUacM,  it  too  frequently  happens  that  in 
periods  of  ease  in  the  money  market,  scheminx 
solicitors  and  others  devise  joxijects  of  this  kini^ 
and  induce  inexperienced  capitalists  to  take  shares ; 
the  result  often  being  a  collapse  of  the  company, 
to  the  loss  of  all  ooncemed,  the  projector  alone 
excepted.  On  this  account,  scrupulous  care  is 
necessary  in  ""^'"g  such  investments,  to  see  that 
the  proposed  companies  are  of  genuine  worth,  and  to 
^t  administered  by  persons  of  uiorongh  integrity. 

Bvery  joint-stock  oompany  sets  out  on  certain 
rules  of  management,  which  receive  the  approval 
of  the  shareholders,  who  name  a  chaitman  ood 
board  of  directors,  and  these,  on  being  appointed, 
choose  subordinate  officials.  Whatever  De  ijie 
rules,  and  also  the  implied  responsibilities,  the 
practice  is  to  allow  considerable  latitude  to  the 
chairman  and  otliel'  directors  in  conducting  the 
affairs  of  the  company,  for  they  alone  ore  in  a 
position  to  form  a  correct  judgment  on  points  deeply 
concerning  the  character  and  welfare  of  the  asso- 
ciatioD.  As,  with  the  best  intentions,  they  may  fall 
into  error,  and  thereby  incur  heavy  losses  of  capital, 
it  is  reasonable  to  uold  them  blameless,  unless 
chargeable  with  fraud  in  their  representatioi 


experience  no  suspi 
— ■--'actonr  divide) 

oes  wbioh  sometiiues  Buffers  a  severe  retribution. 


^  whatever  dexterity,   they  fall 

leoBiirably  behind  as  regards  the  energjr,  breadth 
of  calcnlation,  visilonce,  and  promptitude  with  which 
a  businees  may  be  conducted  by  a  single  individual, 
by  two  or  three  active  partners,  ready  on  the 
instant  to  take  advantage  of  every  important  turn 
the  market     Unless,  therefore,  m  the  exceptional 
drcumstances   referred   to,  and    also   in   girantic 
concerns  which  no  single  individual  or  ordinary 
ipartnery  would  undertake,  joint-stock  companies 
'e  eoonomically  inexpedient. 
The  legislature  has  on  different  occonons  inter- 
posed to  regulate  the  principles  of  joint-stock  com- 
panies, and  protect  the  puiHic  against  the  injuries 
which    they   may   recklessly  iimict.      The   safart 
undertakings  sre   those   of  a  pubhc  nature,   and 
which  are  therefore  incorporated  by  special  act  of 
parliament,  for  besides  that  their  rules  have  been 
scrutinised  by  committees  of  the    Commons  and 
Lords   in  tenns  of   certain  standing   orders,  the 
liability  of  shareholders  is  Uniitfd  enressly  to  the 
amount  of  their  respective  stocks.     Ilailway  com- 
panies are  of  this  category.     Where  there  is  no 
snch  limitation  by  statute,  any  single  shareholder 
a  responsibility  equal  to  the  whole  debta  of 

jcem,  uid  he  can  seek  relief  only  aoinst  his 

brother  ihateholdera  conjointly  or  severallj^    The 


B.nt.zodhyGoOgle 


JDINT-ffCOOK  COMPAKT. 


__^   ._     .._    ._.  poMible  Brarting  it,  h»ve 

indneed  the  legiilatnn  to  emoowv  ths  orguiuatiaa 

k  method  of  limited  reepoiwibility ; 

M)t  oopying  ■  plan  whioh  hod  worked 
in  the  United  States.  To  participate 
in  the  beneflt  of  ^is  Umitatioo,  companiea  need  to 
be  pnblicly  Mgiatered  Koording  to  certain  atatutory 
□bh^atioiii,  hy  trtiich  meaai   all  have  an  oppot- 

nn  affadang  joint-atock  companiea 
lUbilit 


vithoat  and  with  limited 

Nnmennia  rtatatea  have  been  paaaed  during  &a 
lait  20  yaan  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  to 
n^liulate  the  constitution  and  prooeedingl  of  }ouit- 
Btock  companiea,  and  there  w«re  separate  itatntea 
for  each  kingdom,  and  alio  for  diSbrent  kindi  of 
companiea  in  each  kingdom.  The  principle  of  limited 
liabuity  «>■  fiiit  introdnced  in  1B56.  All  thcM 
M^ttiste  (tatntea,  which  led  to  mncb  confniioi^  hare 
been  now  repealed,  and  TeplaMd  by  one  conaolidated 
■tatnte,  called  the  Companiea'  AeL  180S,  26  and  26 
Vict  0.  89,  which,  amendsd  by  M  and  31  Vict.  o. 
131,  oonititates  tiM  code  of  Joint^took  oompaniea 
now  apidicaUa  to  the  United  Einodom.  This 
geoenf  act  cont^ua  proviaioBs  for  enaUine  existing 
oompaniea  prerionaly  r^pitered  to  register  them- 
■elvei  under  the  new  act.  The  same  formalities  are 
made  applicable,  with  alight  Tariationa,  to  all  Joint' 
itockoompM>iea,whether  limited  or  unlimited.  The 
paaA  distinetios  between  limited  and  unlimited 
companiea  ia,  that  whereas  formeriy,  if  a  company 
contracted  debta,  no  maUer  how  Im^  every  mem- 
ber was  liabla,  !t  hia  ovnManbers  prored  to  be  nnable 
to  pay  thuT  proportjona,  to  pay  the  whole  of  these 
debts,  even  to  the  last  Bhilliiig  of  his  fortime— a 
reault  which  proved  rainoQi  to  tbericherraembera! 
now,  OD  the  other  hand,  if  &e  company  is  limited, 
thondi  it  contract  debta  howarer  lam,  yet  each 
member  can  in  do  erent  be  called  on  to  pay  more 
than  he  expreaaly  gnarsoteed ;  Uraa  he  knows  at 
the  onteet  the  wor«t  that  can  befall  him.  Hence 
it  follows  that  if  a  limited  company  contract  excea- 
tive  debta  beyond  what  the  memben  are  boond  to 
p«y,  U  ia  tim  creditors  alone  who  will  chiefly  anfler ; 
Dttt  t£ey  have  aooh  ample  meona  of  aatis^ring  them- 
aelvea  beforehand  about  the  position  and  «^«bilitie8 
of  Uke  oompany,  by  mason  of  the  pnUicity  and 
aocMi  to  booka  now  prorided,  that  tney  can  only 
blame  themaelret  if  tley  crechdonaly  giro  too  large 

It  may  be  also  noticed,  before  stating  the  detaOs 
man  particularly,  that  no  partneiahip  of  bankets 
which  consistB  of  more  than  ten  persona  shall  be 
fotmed  in  future  unless  it  is  registered  and  conducts 
its  bujtineea  under  the  Companies'  Act,  ISOS  ;  and 
other  partaenhipa  consisting  of  mora  than  20  per- 
-     '    like  manner  compelled  to  register  as  a 


Hm  subject  will  be  most  conveniently  noticed 
und»  oertun  heads. 

1.  ContUluiion  latd  Jncorpomtion  of  Companies  and 
AuodaSmi*. — Any  seven  or  more  penons  associated 
for  any  lawful  pntpose  may  anbacriba  a  memor^ 
■nilnm  of  association,  and  may  define  their  liability 
aa  folkwa.  Th^  may  iWit  vsfsa  liatnlity  either  b> 
Uw  amount,  if  any,  unpud  ou  their  ahsrea,  or  to  auch 
amount  aa  th^  may  respectiTel;  undertake  to  con- 
tribute  to  the  aaaeto  of  the  company,  in  the  event  of 
its  being  wound  up.  If  the  liability  is  limited  by 
ahareajtben  the  word  'limited'  must  be  added  to 
the  name  of  the  companjr;  and  the  amount  of  capital, 
object,  place  of  buBinesa,  and  declaration  of  the  limit, 
must  be  defined  in  the  memorandum  of  aaaociation. 
If  the  liaUlity  is  limited  by  guarantee,  the  word 


■limited'  most  also  be  added,  and  the  amount  of 
gnarantee  defined,  so  aa  to  czteud  to  all  liabilitjas 
incurred  while  the  party  ia  a  member,  and  within 
one  year  after.     If  the  oompan;  is  formed  on  the    i 
principle  of  no  limit  being  pUoed  on  the  liability  of    ; 
its  members,  the  decUratioa  of  any  limit  ia  omitted, 
and  it  is  called  an  unlimited  company.   The  memor-    | 
andnm  of  Msociation  ia  to  be  stamped  and  signed 
by  each  snbaeriber  in  presence  of  one  Witness,  «id 
when  roistered,  it  binda  the  oompanT  aixl  manbeta.    ' 
A  company  in  general  cannot  alt^  thia  memoraodum    i 
of  asBooiatdon.  unless  where  it  is  a  company  Umi*.^    I 
bv  ahwrea,  and  wishes  to  increase  its  capital  or  ahkrea. 
A  limited  oompany  may,  however,  have  directors 
and  managers,  and   managing   director  with  im- 
Hmited    liability.      Besides    Uie    memorandum    <A 
association,  there  most  be  utiolea  of  assodatioo, 
also  signed  by  tlie   Bubacribers,  stating  tiis  mlea 
of  the  company ;    or  if  the  company  ia   limH*^    ' 
by   shares,  and   has  no    such   articles,  then    the 
rules  stated  in  schedule  A  to  the  act  occupy  Uieir 
dace.    The  ftrticles  of  assodation  must  be  fainted.    | 
The  memorandum  and  articles  moat  be  delivaed  to 
the  registrar  of  jdut-stock  oon^ade^  who  shtJI 
— '-"—  "^-  same,  and  grant  "  -—"■—■-   -•  ' 


the  memorandum  and  artaeles  of  aasodataosv 
otherwise,  the  company  forfeits  a  penalty  of  £1  in  ' 
each  case.  Companiea  are  prohibited  from  adopting 
the  same  name  as  another  cmnpasy,  and  in  soine 
cases  thev  cannot,  without  leave  of  the  Bofid  ct 
Trade,  hold  more  than  two  acres  of  land. 

2.  DirirOufion  nf  CapOal  and  lAaiilUf  o/Maiiberm. 
— The  interest  or  ahaje  of  each  member  ia  part  t£ 
his  personal,  and  not  real  estate.     A  monber  is 
entitled  to  have  his  name  entered  on  the  tmstsr  <A    \ 
memben,  irtiioh  contains  the  name  and  a^MM  e( 
each,  his  date  of  entrr,  his  diarea,  Jko.    An  anmial   , 
list  is  to  be  made  out  of  all  member^  wiHk  Hie  BHne^ 
addresses,  and  occupationa  of  each,  a*  well  as  ths    ! 
amount  of  oaintal,  shues,  calls,  &&,  possessed  and    ' 
paid  by  each,  and  this  list  is  to  be  eeiw  to  the  regis- 
trar of  Joint-stock  companies  fix  inapectioD.    Eniy 
member  is  e&tiUed  to  inspect  at  toe  offioe  trf  tits 

_. i|j^  urada,  and  taj   \ 

n  paymant  il 
la,  or  aucn  memoer  or  psiaan  may  "■"'"'■I  %  oapj  ; 
on  payment  of  6d  for  era;  100  w«adA  If  theiMms 
of  a  puMn  is  without  oanaa  entered  or  omittad  in 
the  TMiater,  he  can  aet  the  matter  li^dit  by  amiG- 
cationn)  the  court.  Whenaeunpanyts  woimdnh 
every  member  past  and  i«es«Bt  moat  oositribsite 
tewuds  tiie  SMts  enoorii  to  par  the  debts  of  llw   < 


to  conbibuto  to  any  debt  omtraoted  after  he  ceased   | 
to  be  member ;  3.  No  post  member  shall  be  tiaUe  to    ■ 
contribute,  nnleas  the  existing  memben  ate  nnaUe 
to  pay  the  debta ;  4.  In  case  of  a  limited  oompany,    i 
no  member  is  boimd  to  pay  more  than  the  amonid 
unpaid  on  shares,  or  the  amount  guarantssd  by  Lr— 
to  be  pa"  -       ■    ■■ 


paid,  actioiding  to  the  _     .    . 

cianon.  In  insurance  oompaniee,  it  the  pcdiey 
contract  makes  the  funds  alooe  liidde,  eadi  OMbi 
will  ranajn  good.  If,  at  Ihs  windiug  «i^  any  divi- 
dend is  due  to  a  member,  tida  is  to  m  dsstasd  pert 
payment  of  his  contribution.  The  result,  then/ote, 
IS,  that  in  all  unlimited  companies,  while  eras  rich 
member  may  be  liable  to  hia  last  abilling  to  pay  the 
whole  debts  of  the  company,  in  the  eveot  ol  his 
co-membera  not  being  able  to  bear  thur  ahaies  tt 
these  debts ;  in  limitM  companies,  sack  memb«-  can 
never  be  liable  to  pay  more  thiui  the  nuutimsm 
share  or  guarantee,  whatever  be  the  amount  of  the 


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3.  Manofmitut  owl  AdnMMmUon  o/Compaaia. 
— Eftdt  ocHiipMif  niiut  h>To  an  offios  where  iti 
bnaneaa  u  carried  on,  and  give  notiM  thEreof  to  the 
ngutiar.  If  die  oranpaiiy  is  limited,  it  mmt  h&ve 
ita  name  painted  np  in  a  oonipicaoiu  placa  ontaida 
iti  offloe,  and  iti  nains  mnat,  under  a  ptnaltf,  b« 
printed  or  engntved  on  all  Iti  notieet,  adrertiae- 
inaita,billi  of  exchange,  ohegue8,rao«ptB,Jta  Ereiy 
"    '■    '  ■  alaoh  ■  .       . 


limited  oompajiy  m 


oompaaj  not  lutTlDg  a  oqdtal  divided  into  ahara^ 
mnat  k«ep  at  ita  ot£i6  a  r^ater  irf  ita  direotMs  and 


niaaagen.  Ho  oompany  ia  to  oairy  on  bnaineBa 
whan  tha  nnmber  <a  memben  ia  leM  than  aeren, 
otherwiae  each  inch  member,  if  cognizant  of  tiie  fact, 
■hall  be  liable  for  the  'whole  debts  of  the  oom]'  ~  ~ 
A  Beneral  meeting  of  the 


e  oompany 
Mbelaanei 


meetins  a 
panadby 


aotl«aithuithTe»-finiMlit  of  the  memben, 
ana  a  copy  thereat  moat  b«  aoit  to  tha  rngiabar, 
and  given  to  each  member.  The  Boaid  oTTiade 
may  ^tpoint  <»e  or  more  in^eottos  to  examine  and 
report  on  tha  affkira  of  the  oompany  on  the  bllowing 
aptdioatlon:  1,  inoaaeof  abaaungoompanyhaTins 
a  capital  divided  into  iharta,  on  Sie  appUoation  in 
memben  holding  one-third  or  mom  of  tbe  iharea ; 
2,  in  the  ca«e  of  any  other  compNiy  with  iham,  on 
the  application  of  mcmberB  holdug  ono-fifth  ot  more 
of  the  ahans ;  3,  in  the  case  of  any  oompany  not 
having  a  capital  divided  into  ahane,  on  ttie  appli- 
cation of  one-flfUi  or  more  of  the  memben.  The 
reaiona  of  the  application  mnat,  however,  be  rap- 
ported  by  aatilfactory  evidenoa.  Tha  eipenaea  of 
■och  ezaminatJoD  ahall  fall  on  the  numbers  reqninns 
it,  nnleaa  the  Board  of  Trade  order  tham  to  be  pata 
ovt  ot  the  oompai^  fmida;  The  company  ilaeU 
may  abo  br  qMcial  rtoolntion  appoint  inapecton  to 
lapOTt  on  the  oomp^'a  affiura. 

4  ITliKttipiTxy'OiinpojuBIL— Aeompaaymaybe 
wonikd  np  whenever  it  paaeea  a  speoial  remntion  to 
that  efleot;  alao,  whenever  it  doea 


itt  membera  are  rednoed  to  len  than  ■aTim:  ww, 
whooever  it  is  nnable  to  pay  ita  dabta ;  and  laatlv, 
whenever  the  oonrt  thinks  U  ia  Just  and  equitable 
that  it  ihoiild  b«  would  np.  A  OMnpany  ia  in  the 
~'"~- deemed  to  ba  nnaUe  to  pay  ita  debte 


paymant  of  anch  debt,  and  the  oompany  for  three 
weeks  have  ns^eoted  to  pay,  or  aeonr^  or  componnd 
for  it  Other  teata  of  being  unable  to  pay  its  debts 
are,  when  the  oompany  allows  exeootion  to  isans  for 
a  debt,  tm.  Application  may  be  made  to  wind  np 
the  company  1^  petitian  presented  by  any  creditor 
or  contribntory  of  the  company.  And  whenever  an 
order  is  made  by  the  conrt  for  winding  np,  all 
actions  and  soits  are  to  be  stayed,  and  the  remedy 
o(  winding  np  then  becomes  the  eicloaive  remedy. 
In  the  prooMS  of  windiiw  np,  the  conrt  is  to  have 
regard  to  Qw  wkhea  ol  the  creditora  or  contri- 
bMoiies;  In  order  to  04mdnct  tlia  proeeedinsa  in 
winding  np,  and  to  assist  the  conrt,  official  Qqai- 
datots  may  be  appointed  by  anch  court,  and  the 
liquidators  are  thereupon  inverted  with  full  powers 
to  bring  and  defend  actions,  sell  property,  and  do 
all  things  necessary  for  winding  up  the  conipauy'i 


ponona  wbo  ai«  bound  to  oonbibnte  .to~  pay  the 
debta  1^  the  oompany,  also  makes  calls  on  neb  con- 
tribntoriei^  and  may  summon  sospeoted  persons  who 
have  property  of  the  oompany.  B«aidsa  a  compul- 
smy  winoing  np  ot  a  oompanv,  Omre  ia  also  a  power 
cd  voluntary  winding  up,  wnmevsr  a  special  teao- 
Intion  haa  been  paased  to  tiist  effect,  or  when  the 
oompany  haa  found  its  Uabititisa  too  great  to  allow 
it  to  go  on.  Liqnidatoi*  am  then  qipointed  wi^ 
the  ssme  powen  ss  in  the  othtc  case.    Thme  is  also 


miMpiuied  u 

breach  of  traat,  the  ocmr^  notwithstandii^  he  is 
ariminally  responsible,  may  compel  him  to  reny 
moneys  ao  miaaptdied  The  oonrt  may  also  oi^ 
direcboiB  or  officcn  of  the  company  to  be  proseonted, 
and  the  oosta  to  be  uiid  ont  of  the  aaseta. 

tk  AyttlMtKHt.— Xh«  sppoiutinent  of  renstraia  of 
Jmnt-ftock  wanpanies  la  made  by  the  Soard  of 
TVade^  and  thraa  moat  b«  at  lesn  one  offic*  tot 
regiatiaticm  in  each  <d  the  three  kingdoms.  Every 
|Mmon  is  entitled  to  inipeot  tha  docnmente  kept  by 
the  registrar  on  pi^ii^  a  fee  not  exoMding  one 
shilling,  and  he  may  require  a  copy  or  extraot  of 
documents  at  a  fee  not  exceeding  aixpenoe  lot  each 

HsMOver,  aa  regarda  other  leme^es,  it  is  now  a 
criminal  offence  for  directors  of  oompsnies  to  declaim 
and  publish  fraudulent  acoovnts ;  utd  not  only  era 
dlreotora  peisonslly  liable  to  third  parties  buying 
aharea  on  the  futh  of  such  biM  reporta,  and  aufiaring 
loM,  but  even  the  offloials  vriio  knowingly  contribute 
to  theee  false  teporta,  are  also  penoiully  liable  in 
damages^ 

JOINT  TENAKOT,  in  English  Iaw,  the  owner- 
ship of  land  or  goods  along  witli  one  or  man  other 
peiBons.    See  Joint  Owmxk. 

JOINT  TRADE,  or  ADViOTTUEH  means  * 
partnership  limited  aa  to  a  particular  undertaking, 
and  not,  as  in  the  usual  case,  for  a  aeriea  of  yean  or 
a  definite  period  of  time.  Hence  the  parties  so 
joining  have  not  the  aame  lidiilitiea  aa  ordinaiw 
partneia  of  a  firm.  Tha*,apartnenhipof  thiakind 
mav  be  linuted  to  the  working  of  a  patent.  In  all 
Eoph  caaea,  tha  rights  and  liMilitiea  of  the  partita 
are  much  leas  exteoksive  than  those  ot  ordinsiy  part> 
nenhipa ;  bnt  evarthing  depends  on  the  parbmlara 
of  the  oontiact  maoa  benrean  them. 

JOIirrBBSS,  in  IkiglUi  Law,  means  a  lady  who 
has  a  Jointure  (q.  T.)  aeonred  to  her. 

JOLHTB,  in  Anatomy.  A  joint  or  articnlation 
may  be  defined  to  be  the  union  at  any  two  segments 
of  ttie  skeleton  of  an  animal  body,  through  the  inter- 
vention of  a  structure  or  atmoturea  of  k  different 
nature.  The  textures  which  enter  into  the  fonnatioa 
of  the  more  complex  joints  are  bona,  cartilage,  filn«- 
cartilago,  ligaments,  and  ^novial  membrane.  Bona 
forma  the  Aindameatal  part  of  all  ]ointa;  linnenb 
in  varioua  modifications,  is  employed  as  the  bond  d 
union  between  the  bony  sf^ments;  while  the  three 
remaining  toztnrea  diiefly^  oocur  in  those  joints  ia 
vrtuch  t£ere  is  free  motion.  The  joints  vary  in 
the  degree  of  motion  from  aJjnast  perfeet  immobility 
to  the  greatxet  amount  and  extent  of  motion  that 
are  compatible  with  the  naintenanoe  of  the  bony 
senaenta  in  their  proper  relation  with  each  other. 

Jointa  have  been  divided  by  anatomists  into  twe 
great  clnaaes,  to  which  the  terms  SpiaiiJtrogit  and 


t.Google 


DiariATOna  ore  applied.  In  lyiuuihroBu,  tiie  p«rta 
&ra  contiaaooB — 'V^t  it  to  aajt  there  ia  no  ajnoTiil 
Boc  iuterreiuiiK  betveea  the  bonea ;  and  the  jointa 
betongmg  to  Uiis  c!ua  ore  bo  very  Umitad  in  their 
motion  u  to  be  considered  by  some  u  immovable ; 
while  in  diarthrOBia,  the  articolar  surface  of  each  m 
the  bonea  ia  covered  with  cartilage,  and  between 
these  cartilaginauB  platea  ia  a  aynovial  aao ;  and 
mobility  ia  the  dl>tin^;aishing  featore  of  thia  claaa  of 
Jointa.  In  briefly  describing  the  leading  varietiea 
of  ijieee  two  cla«s«a  of  jointa,  we  shall,  as  far  aa 
possible,  avoid  the  barbarous  trams  which  have  been 
miroduced  into  thia  department  of  anatomy. 

In  ^narthroma,  the  aiticnlation  is  said  to  be  by 
netere  when  the  banes  seem  to  g^ow  somewhat 
into  one  another,  and  to  become  mterlocked  and 
dovetailed  together,  each  bone  having  a  jagged  or 
serrated  margin,  or  when  there  is  a  degree  of 
bevelling  of  one  bone,  so  that  it  is  overlapped  by 
the  othra.    Both  the«e  kinds  of  aatnre  are  at  oace 

a  in  the  human  akoll,  the  serrated  sntore  being 
well  seen  in  the  omoa  of  the  two  parietal  bones, 
bevelled  suture  being  shewn  in  the  overU])pinK 
of  the  temporal  bone  above  the  aide  of  the  parietal 
and  a  combination  of  the  two  being  exhibited  by 
the  coronal  auture  between  the  frontal  bans  and  the 

erior  edges  of  the  parietal  bone).  In  all  theb. 
there  is  a  thin  ligamentoua  memhrane  intetpoaed 
between  the  bones,  which  diaappean  aa  the  growth 
of  the  cranium  becomea  completed. 

When  a  alight  amount  ot  motion  of  one  bone 
upon  Another  is  required  to  be  combined  with  great 
atrength,  the  contiguoua  sorfaces  of  the  boaes  are 
united  hj  a  thick  and  atrong  layer  of  fibrOH^artilage, 
with  wbii^  a  little  elaatio  baaue  is  intemiiod. 
Thia  ia  an  intermediate  variety  between  the  two 

isea  of  joints,  but  approximates  moat  nearly  to 
synarthrosis.  As  examples  of  thia  kind  of  joint, 
may  be  mentioned  the  articulation  between  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebra  and  that  between  the  two 
pubio  b<me8  at  what  is  termed  the  symphysis.    See 

In  dittfthroeis,  the  d^ree  and  nature  of  Uie  motion 
are  veiy  various.  There  may  be  mereW  a  litUe 
"  ling  motion  between  the  ends  of  the  bones,  as, 
example,  in  the  artdculations  between  the  various 
les  of  the  carpus  and  tarsus.  See  Haiid  and 
Foot.  Id  these  cases,  the  surfaces  Iu«  plane,  or  one 
s  sLghtiy  concave,  and  the  other  slight^  convex ; 
md  we  motion  is  limited  in  extent  ana  direction 
by  tliB  ligamente  of  the  joint,  or  by  some  projecting 
point  of  one  of  the  bonea.  In  some  cases,  mstead 
'  a  slight  concavity  and  convexity,  one  bone  pre- 
ts  a  cup-like  depression,  while  Uie  termination 
of  the  other  assumes  a  hemispherical,  or  more  or 
less  globular  shape.  Hence  the  name  of  baS  and 
'cet  that  is  applied  to  such  joints.  The  best 
mple  of  this  variety  is  the  Hip-joint  (q.  v.], 
[  the  next  best  is  the  shoulder.  In  these  joints, 
the  ball  is  kept  in  apposition  with  the  socket  by 
means  ef  what  is  tenned  a  capmlar  ligament,  which 
may  be  described  as  a  barrel-ahapod  expansion  of 
ligamentoua  atnicture,  attached  1^  its  extremities 
around  the  margin  of  the  articular  auriaces  com- 
poaing  the  joint,  and  forming  a  complete  investment 
ol  it,T)ot  not  so  tight  as  materially  to  reetrict  its 
movements.  This  species  of  joint  is  capable  of 
motion  of  all  kinds,  aa  any  one  may  readily  teat  for 
bimaelf ,  especially  in  the  shoolder-joint 

Another  important  variety  of  uliculation  is  the 
binge-joint,  in  which  the  contiguous  surfaces  are 
marked  with  elevations  and  depressions,  which 
exactly  fit  into  each  other,  so  as  to  restrict  motion 
to  one  ditectioiL  The  elbow  and  ankle  joints,  and 
the  jointa  of  the  fiiwerB  and  toea,  are  the  best 
Biamplea  of  this  variety.    The  kneC'joint  is  a  leas 


perfect  example,  because  in  certain  pontiona  it  ia 
capable  of  a  slight  rotation.  Theae  hinge-j(HntB  ai« 
always  provided  with  strong  lateral  ligament*.  The 
shells  of  bivalve  molluscs  are  unit^  by  a  vei^r 
strong  and  perfect  hinge.joint* 

The  last  kind  of  joint  requiring  notice  ia  thst 
which  admits  only  of  rotatory  motioa.  A  pivot  and 
a  ring  are  the  essential  parts  of  this  joint,  the  line 
being  genen^y  formed  partly  of  bone  and  pazilj  M 
ligament.  The  beat  example  of  this  articalatiMt  ' 
ia  that  between  the  atlaa  (the  first  vertebr^  and 
the  odontoid  or  tooth-like  process  of  the  azia  (the 
second  vertebra).    See  HufD. 

Dueaia  qf  Vie  Jomti. — Fnmarly,  all  the  aevtaer 
forma  of  dinnanm  ot  the  joints  were  vagnelj  desig- 
nated under  the  one  general  term  idUle  ttcdting;  bat 
during  the  last  half  centniy,  t-h^nfeit  to  the  labonra 
of  modem  sargeoni,  amoiirart  whom  the 


In  diaessea  of  the  jointa,  we  may  have „ 

more  of  the  followiiw  textures  affected:  (1),  the 
synovial  membrane;  (2),  tile  cartilage;  and  (3),  the 
bones  themadvflB. 

The  aynovial  membrane  may  nndmgo  either  acnte 
or  chronic  inflammation,  giving  rise  to  the  aoricnu 
affections  known  as  acute  ai^  chronic  Synovitis 
(see  SxHOViAL  Membkikk  ucd  Fluio). 

Loose  subetances  of  a  fibrous  structure,  and  mually 
resembling  a  «nall  bean  in  size  and  shape,  some- 
times occur  in  joints,  especially  in  the  hnnn  joint 
They  commence  as  little  pendulous  growthi  upon 
the  synovial  membrane,  which  after  a  time  beconn 
detached.  When  they  get  between  the  ends  irf  the 
bones,  which  they  are  apt  to  do  during  ezettise, 
they  came  a  sudden  and  often  a  most  excnuaatinf 
pain,  which  is  often  followed  W  inflammation,  and 
arrest  all  motion  of  the  Joint.     Theae  qnu^toms  j 

the  loose  cartilage  (aa 
removed  to  a  poaitio 
annoyance.     When  the  displacement  o 
nddoea  not  C( 


body  is  only  occasional,  and  does  not  caose  intemadj 
severe  pain,  the  treatment  should  be  limited  to  the 
application  of  an  elastic  bandage  or  a  tightly  fittiiw   I 
Imee-cap,   which  should  be  constantly  worn,  wit£   ' 
the  view  oC  restraining  Uie  loose  body  to  a  position   . 
in  which  it  ia  inofienaive.    If,  however,  this  pallia- 
tive treatment  fails,  the  offending  body  unst  be 
removed  by  sub-cutaneous  incision,  which  avoida 
the  danger  of  a  direct  wound  into  the  joint. 
The  cartilage  may  be  affected  in  various  ways.   < 


ind,  are  of  a  very  seriooa 
re  that  admits  of  popular 


trophy  of  cartilage;  ,_„  . 
other  modified  fonns  of  d 
of  which,  eapeciolly  the  sec 
character,  but  not  of  a  nati 


tures  of  the  joints  are  (1)  ulcer  and  L  . 

diseases  cftoi,  but  not  always,  be^  with  the  dis- 
organisation of  cartilage,  wed  then  eitend  to  the 
bones.  Sometimee,  however,  they  commence  in  the 
hones.  The  consideration  of  Uie  symptoms  and 
general  treatmeut  of  these  diseases  would  be  out  of 
place  in  these  pases,  but  a  refemnee  to  one  very 
miportant  mode  o{  treating  articnlar  oariee  wiD  be 
found  in  the  article  Rnscnott  or  Jounz.  Several 
of  the  preceding  diseases,  even  when  the  reeult  of 
our  treatment  may  be  reguded  as  aatislactory,  lesve 

a  certain  amount  of  sti^ess  of  the  joint  (somet~' 

extending  to  perfect  immobility),  to  which  the  i 
AntylotU  (q.  v.)  ia  applied. 


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JODTTDBB-JONES. 


JOI'NTTTBE,  in  Engliah  Iaw,  meani  an  estate 
Bome  interesti  for  lifa  or  a  longer  period  in  an  estate 
Bottled  upon  a  irife,  in  the  event  of  her  sorriTiDg  her 
husband.  The  jointure  wai  at  tint  adopted,  aa  a 
substitute  fop  Dower  (<l;_jOi  ""^  dower  is  barred  if  a 
jointure  ii  provided.  The  requisites  of  a  jointure 
are  :  1.  That  it  must  commenca  and  toko  effect 
inunediately  on  the  husband's  death ;  2.  It  must 
be  for  the  wife's  life,  or  for  some  greater  estate ;  3. 
It  muat  be  giTen  to  the  wife  heraell,  and  not  merely 
to  tmstees  for  her ;  4.  It  must  be  expressed  to  b« 
DUule  in  utiafaction  of  her  whole  dower ;  6.  It  must 
be    made  before  marriage.     Tbe  mode  of  giving  a 

t'  linture  is  usually  by  way  of  a  rent-charse  on  the 
uflband's  re«l  estate,  the  effect  of  nhich  is  to  allow 


If  a  jointure  be  created  out  of  an  estate  before  mar- 
riage, the  husband  cannot  sell  the  estate  afterwards, 
BO  as  to  defeat  the  jointure.  A  jointure  is  not  lost 
by  the  treason  or  felony  of  the  husband,  nor  by  the 
cfopemeDt  and  adultery  of  tbe  wife. 

In  Scotland,  the  word  jointnie  is  also  frequently 
used  in  a  ajinilar  senae  to  denote  a  conventional 
provision  to  a  widow,  consiatiDg  cither  of  an  ancitity 
to  ber  or  of  a  liferHct  assimiation  of  rents,  or  of  a 
liferent  of  kods,  colled  a  lociJity.  In  whatever 
■way  the  iointnre  is  constituted,  it  also  eiclndes  the 
widow's  terce,  unless  it  is  otherwise  expressed. 

JOINVILLB,  Jeah,  Siecr  or  Sihe  de,  odd  of 
tho  earliest  French  historians,  whose  works  possesa 
mticli  interest  or  value,  was  bom  about  1224,  of  an 
old  family,  in  Champagne,  and  held  high  offices 
under  Thibaot  IV.,  kins  of  Navarre.  In  124S, 
he  joined  Louis  IX  of  France  with  nine  kni^ts 
aud  700  armed  men  in  his  crusade ;  shared  Uiat 
mootvcb'a  captivity ;  and  retnming  to  France  in 
1254,  was  fr^uenuy  at  his  court,  but  declined  to 
accompany  him  in  his  second  crusade.  After  the 
death  of  Louis  DC,  the  Sieuc  de  J.  wrote  his 
JTittoin  dt  St  Louis,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
works  in  the  whole  literature  of  the  midtUe  ages, 
combining  an  excellence  of  st^le  then  vei^  rare 
with  a  most  interesting  exhibition  of  individual 
character  in  the  minute  record  of  events.  He  died 
about  the  vear  131S.  The  Hitloirt  <U  Sc  Limit  was 
first  pnblidied  at  Foitiere  in  1546;  the  latest  edition 
U  that  of  F.  Michel  (Faiia,  1S5S). 

JOI3TS,  horizontal  timbers  (of  lighter  scantlings 
than  the  beams)   used  to  support  floots.     See 

JCVLIBA.    SeeNiaas. 

JOLLY-BOAT  (Datch,  jolk,  $,  y»wl),  »  smaL 
boat  kspt  on  bottrd  ship  for  the  jmrpose  of  oom- 
nnnioatuig  witli  the  shore.     It  is  a  broad,  safe 


JoUy-Boab 

boat,  and  ii  spedallT  devoted  to  the  tub  of  tlie 
steward  and  to  the  conveyance  of  his  purchases 
from  shora. 

JOHIITI,  HmRi,  Baboh,  bom  6th  March  1779 
at  Pajreme^  in  the  canton  da  Vand,   began   his 


P^„,  ml 


military  career  in  a  Swiss  regiment  in  the  French 
service,  and  afterwards,  chiefiy  through  the  friend- 
ship of  Nay,  was  raised  to  high  tnilitaiy  raak  by 
the  Emperor  Napoleon.  lo  1804,  he  b^an  the 
publication  of  his  Traiii  da  Orandei  OperaUoiu 
MUitaira.  He  dislangnished  hims^C  in  active 
service  during  the  ratreat  ftom  KuHsia,  bat  offended 
at  the  treatment  which  he  received  from  Napoleon, 
be  pa»ed  over  to  the  allies  after  the  armistice  of 
Plaeswitz,  and  entered  tliB  service  of  Russia.    In 


Besidee  the  work  already  mentioned,  his  HMare 
Critique  ft  MilUaire  d«  Campaqriei  de  la  SSBoltOkm 
{5  vols,  Paris,  1806),  his  Vk  Politijve  et  mUiaire 
de  Napoleon  (4  vols.  Far.  1827),  and  his  TabUaa 
A  naXyliqiu  da  Prmcipalet  ConMnaimnt  de  la  Oaerre 
(Fetersb.  1830)  are  of  great  value  to  the  military 
student. 


.    ....   . -_Zebulnii,aadnotfarfromPht£nicia. 

appear?  to  have  flourished  about  the  second  half 
the  8th  c  B.  c,  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II., 
id  was  probably,  therefore,  toe  earliest  of  those 
prophete  whose  writings  are  extant.  It  has  been 
nrged  by  BosenmtUler  and  other  critics,  that  the 
miracle  recorded  in  the  book  known  under  his 
name  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  on  historical  fact, 
bnt  only  as  an  allegory,  founded  on  the  Fhcenician 
~iyth  of  Hercules  rescuing  Hesiona  from  the  sea- 
lonster  by  leaping  himself  into  ite  jaws,  and  for 
three  days  and  three  nighte  continuing  to  tear  ite 
entraila.  The  deaign  of  Uie  author  in  mcorporating 
this  mj|th  with  the  actiud  voyage  of  J.,  and  the 

-._    .«  y^g   heathen  Ninevites,  was,   it  is 

^ ,   __   bring  out  more  vividly  tbe  truth, 

that  God  will  not  permit  his  merciful  intentions . 
*»  be  frustrated  by  the  disobedience  oven  of  a 
)rophet.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  thought 
)y  orthodox  theobgians  generally,  that  tbe  Ian- 
[uage  of  Christ  (Matt  lii.  39—41 ;  xvi  4;  Lnie 
a.  29),  and  tbe  manner  in  which  it  is  mentioned 
n  Josephus  and  the  Apoctypho,  preclude  the 
possibility  of  onr  sapposmg  Uiis  minkde  to  be 
other  tlum  strictly  historicaL  J.  has  been  supposed 
by  early  authorities  to  have  been  the  son  of  the 
widow  of  Sarephet  (1  Kings  ivii  24),  also  to  have 
been  the  pupil  of  Eliaha  J.'s  tomb  is  shewn  at 
Nebi-Ynnus  (Prophet  Jonah),  near  Mosul.  Lenoden, 
Jonaa  IHuttratat  (Traj.  1692) ;  Friedrichsen,  Kriti- 
teher  ndxrWidi  der  AmirMtn  torn  Budi  Jona» 
(Altona,  1817);  BooenmUUer,  Proleg.  in  Jonam; 
also  N<ita  an  Oie  Propheekt  of  Jonah  and  Homo, 
by  the  Hev.  W.  Drake  (CambndgB,  1853). 
JONES,  IMIOO,  a  wall-known  English  architect, 
as  bom  in  London  in  1572.'  Of  his  early  history, 
little  is  known  till  the  time  when  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  attracted  by  his  great  aptitude  at  drew- 
ing,  sent  him  abroad  for  four  years  to  stndy  the 
maater-piaoea  of  orohitectare  in  France,  Qetmany, 
'  "taly.  While  in  Venice,  he  paid  parliealar 
attention  to  the  works  of  Falladio,  whoM  style  he 
introdoced  into  England,  whence  we  aametimea  hear 
J.  dwignated  as  the  English  '  PoIUdio.'  In  160S, 
'  -  -'SB  employed  by  Junes  J.  in  amnging  the 
ry,  ko.,  for  the  masqael  of  Ben  Jonaon,  which 

at  that  time  the  chief  amusement  of  the  coort 

Jouson  afterwards  satirised  his  teUow-tabourer  in 
BartMomea  Fair.  In  1612,  J.  levisited  Italy,  still 
further  to  improve  his  style,  and  on  his  retiffn  to 
was   appointed   surveyor-general  of   the 


.,  LiOO 


^le 


JONES.-JONSOV. 


the  flnt  of  the  ■«&  Ha  died  in  1663.  Tlie  ttate 
of  iictuteotvire  is  Eogluid  during  J.'s  time  waa  an 
ezcellsnt  foil  to  hii  geniui,  m  the  praise  bestowed 
upon  hii  irorka  Bhem.  but  stdll  in  any  an  he  would 
have  ranked  high  aa  an  arahitact.  Hia  maater- 
meee  is  oonsidered  to  be  the  BanqnetiDg  Home  at 
WMtehalL  Other  work*  of  hla  an  the  ohnrah  of 
St  Paul,  in  Coveat  Oarden,  Aahbuinham  Home,  and 
Snrgeoni'  ^11,  which,  however,  are  tvj  medioore. 
JONES,  John  Pavl,  bom  at  Aibigliuid,  in  the 


stewartry  of  Kirkcodbright,  Scotland,  6ul  July 
the  BOD  of  a  gudener  named  John  Paul 
a  uulor,  waa  for  a  ahort 


1747, 1 


the  aiaTe-trade,  and  afterwaida  lettled  in  Virginia, 
Biamning  the  name  of  Joaea.  He  aidentljembraced 
the  oauae  <^  the  American  coloniee.  When  the 
Congreaa,  in  1770,  retolved  to  fit  out  a  naval  force, 
he  offered  his  Berrices ;  and  visiting  the  Britieh 
coast  in  a  brig  of  IS  gnus,  performed  some  remark- 
ably bold  enloita,  and  took  advantage  of  hia 
familiarity  wita  the  aoenea  o(  hia  boyhood  to  — "-- 


a  aj^ointed 
Roall  eqnadron  of  neneh 
Ammean  flag;  wiQi  which  he  again 


diaplayine 
•in  vuited 


the 

prizes.  The  kino  of  'Vranoe  made  him  a  chavalier 
of  the  order  of  MllitaiT  Merit.  After  the  war  waa 
ended,  J.  attempted,  along  with  John  Ledyard,  to 
eBtshUsfa  a  fur-trade  between  the  north-weat  ooiast 
of  Amenoa  and  China,  bnt  failed.  In  1787,  he 
accepted  an  (ippolnbneat  in  the  Rnaaian  lervica, 
and  the  oommand  oi  a  fleet  at  the  month  of  the 
Ihueper,  with  which  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Tnrkiah  war,  but  aoon  left  the  Rnaaian  service. 
He  died  at  Paris,  ISth  July  1792.  His  funeral 
WM  attended  hy  a  depatation  o(  the  XitgisUtiTe 
AswmUy. 

JONEB,  Sir  Willux,  waa  bom  in  Londcn,  2Sth 
September  1746,  and  was  sent  to  HarrDW  in  1763, 
where  he  aoon  eoUned  all  hia  fellows,  partionlarly 
in  dassioal  knowleoget  In  17Si^  he  was  entered  at 
TJnivernly  Cdleg»,  Oxford,  where  he  waa  enabled 
to  gratify  that  dcnre  for  a  knowled^  of  the  oriental 


Unguagea  which  had  ihewii  itaelT  datinB  the  Ust 

"—<  yean  of  Ida  reddenoe  at  Harrow.    Ei  1"""  "■  - 

Oxford,  to  become  tutor  to  the  eldest 


1  1766  hQ 


Denmark,  a  L\/i  qf  2fadir  Skaii,  translated  into 
French  from  the  Persian ;  in  the  following  year,  a 
Fenian  Ontmmar,  repubUshcd  some  years  ago,  with 
eon«ations  and  addllioiiB,  by  the  late  I^feuor 
Lee ;  aod  in.  1774,  his  OommaOaritt  on  AtiaUe 
Po^ry,  repnbliaiied  by  E^hhom  at  Leipoio,  in 
1776.  In  176(^  he  completed  a  translation  of  seven 
AnUo  poems,  known  aa  the  MoaMkai,  which 
obtain  thfsr  eoUectiTe  name  from  being  *  aaqtanded' 
in  the  teonJe  at  Meooa;  wrote  an  eaaay  On  tAs 
Zfyal  Mo&  <^  BtapreMtng  -fHoU,  and  another, 
entitled  E*»a^  on  lie  Lam  o/  BauiMntt,  and  two 
or  three  odeat  In  March  lT«i  J>  obtained  a  tndge- 
ehip  in  the  Supreme  Oonrt  of  JncUoatum  in  Bengal, 
and  landed  at  Oalcntta  in  September.  He  at  once  aet 
about  the  aoqnisition  and  promnlgatioa  of  the  know- 
ledge of  oriental  langusfes,  literature,  and  coatoms. 
He  eatablished  the  Koyal  Asiatio  Socieity,  'for  invca- 
tdgating  tiie  history,  antli^nitita,  arts,  raences,  and 
Uterature  of  Ajd4i  of  which  he  was  the  first  preai- 
dent.  To  the  vcJncaea  of  the  AtiaUe  ButardLM,  Sir 
'miliam  contributed  largely-  BeaideatiMse,  he  wrote 
and  published  a  story  in  rene,  called  7%e  JBnAanttd 
Frvit,  or  tA«  HinAt  Wife;  and  a  toanalatioa  of  an 
ancient  Indian  dmpa,  called  Saamtala,  or  Ae  Patai 
Bhig.     A   traodatitm  hy  him  of  the  Ordinanoaa 


of  Menu  (q.  v.)  appealed  in  V19i.  He  waa  bomly 
employed  on  a  £aeet  of  the  Hindu  and  Moham- 
medan lawB,  when  he  was  attacked  with  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  liver,  whioh  terminated  fatally  on  tbft 
27th  April  17M^  J.  was  one  of  the  first  WitittB 
and  oriental  acholara  that  this  country  has  pTOdnMd. 
The  East  India  Company  erected  a  monttmant  to 
hia  memory  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  a  atrtos  in 
Bengal  A  complete  editirai  of  his  works,  in  6  vria. 
4to,  was  published  ^  Lady  Jonea  in  I7W;  and 
another  speared,  in  13  vols.  Svo,  in  1807i  with  a 
life  of  the  author  by  Lotd  Teignmoatb. 
JONSS'SU,  a  genus  of  ti«e«  of  the  natanl  ordo 


attached  to  a  ring  whicb 
tube  of  the  corolla,  a  acunitar-ihaped  "pod.  Hm 
leaves  are  abruptly  pinnate.  The  Aaooa  of  San- 
scrit poetry  {J.  Atoea)  is  one  of  tlie  laraliMl  tnea 
of  the  East  Its  oranm  and  orimson  flowna  grow 
in  fjraceful  rseemet.    Indian  poetry  abonnds  in  it* 

JO^KOPING,  a  town  of  Sweden,  and  ima  a< 
the  moat  beautiful  and  finely  utuated  in  the 
country,  is  capital  of  the  hen  of  the  same  uun^ 
and  stands  at  the  southern  eitraioity  of  Lake 
Wetter,  and  is  backed  on  the  south  and  west  by 
pine-dad  hills.  Jt  is  a  maritime  and  trading  town, 
and  contains  an  arsenal  and  a  bictory  for  arma. 
Pop  (1872)  11,751. 

JOTfQUIL   (Pr.  jonquiOe,  from  lat.  hauMM,  a 
ruah],  a  name  given  to  certain  spedea  of  Ifaniana 
(q.  V.)  with  msh-Uke  leaves,    lie  Cokmost  3.  {N. 
Jonqu^a),  a  native  of  the  south  of  Earope,  ii  one    ' 
of  the  most  common  bulbous-rooted  plants  in  oar 
flower-borders.      It  has  from  two  to   six   yellow 
flowers  at  the  smnmit  of  its  scape  (leaflen  stem). 
The  SwMT-BONTKD  J.  {N.  odarut),  also  a  native  of    i 
the  south  of  Europe,  is  another  species  very  gener-    | 
ally  cultivated.    Perfumed  waters  are  made  £nao  J. 

JONBON,  Bur,  or  Bihjuom,  an  English  diam- 
stist,  was   bom,  aooording   to   the  most  rdinble    I 
acoounta,  at  Westminster,  thonidi   one   antLcEi^    I 
says  Warwickshire,  b   1674.     Tb.t   Soottiah    poet    ' 
Drummond  of  Hawthomden,  statu  that  J.  told  him 
hie  grandfather  waa  a  Scotchman  of  AT>y>a.pi^j^^^_  -who 
settled  in  Carlisle,  and  hia  father  a  deigynMii,  who 
died  before  Ben  was  bom.    The  latter  recdvod  hia 
education  at  Westminster  school,  where  he  had  for 
hia  preceptor  the  illustrious  Camden.     Our  know- 
ledge of  his  career  from  this  point  nntjl  the  period    | 
when  he  became    famous   as    an  autbur  is   tu'jt 
obeonre.    It  ia  aaid  that  hia  mother  took  #  aeoMa    | 
husband,  a  bricklayer   (but  this  ia  donbtfaU,  aad 
that  Ben  was  forced  verr  nnwiilindy  to  aaswt  his 
stqtfather.     The  story  of  hia  r««i£mc«  (for  %  few    i 
mcoiths)  at  St  John's  College,  Cambridge  may  be  an 
authentic  tradition,  but  it  really  leats  on  no  better 
evidence  than  the  present  of  some  books  now  in 
the  library  of  that  ooUeeo  with  his  name  insczibed 
on  them.    If  he  went  wither  at  all,  he  wm  aoon    I 
forced  to  return  home  for  wont  of  means;  but  his 
antipathy  to  the  trade  of  a  bricklaver  was  bo  gtvat, 
that  be  finally  ran  off,  and  served  aa  a  soldier  in 
the  Low  Countriea  for  some  time.    After  coning     ' 
back  to  England,  he  tried  the  profession  of  an  actor, 
but  did  not  auooeed,  whereupon  he  started  as   a 
writer  for  the  stage.    Ev«n  in  this  cuadt?  he  did 
Dot  n^dlv  acquire  aiepntatiMi.    Tbe  &st  piece  tiiat 
ra-oenrednimanamewMfeeryJfnaia  Jtogwsssw 
(1098).    The  best  of  hia  mbeeqnent  wpdaetieM  «n 
Volpont,  or  the  Fox  (1606),  The  SUttaWomatt  P6O0), 
and  3^..1Ie&eBiw((1610).    IJieae  an  Mnedies  inll 
of   rich,  dry,  aarehtUy-alahoratad   'huBiaiB-.'      Ho 


byGoogle 


the  oonit*  OT  JftQiM  ftnd  Quvles,  an  oocadoiullj 
Tery  grM«fiiL  For  many  jtetm  J.  wm  in  noeipl  a 
%  penilon  from  Umm  maiuirahi,  but  hii  tmadtm  ftnd 
piofuK  lutbita  involTod  him  conrtantly  in  difflool- 
ties,  and  he  died  in  Ttoverty  6th  Angiut  10S7> 

vritiDgs  are  not  much  rehiiiBd  now,  and  neret  . 

ereii  in  hii  own  day.  There  ii  an  air  of  pAdantiy 
about  hie  happitat  efbrti  that  apoila  Huu  aAct 
Yeti  ott  th«  ouier  hand,  h«  poHtMM  a  mde  foroa, 
and  a  hnmoor  which,  if  h(*ry  aod  mtaniaa,  it 
aiflo  ffennine  and  ponMtit,  OccaiiOQaliy,  too^  hs 
lyriOB  ihew  a  lightneM  and  ddieaoy  aboMt  inex> 


held  at  the  Hermaid  TaTem.  He 
drinker,  and  hia  potationa  da  not  leem  to  har* 
iii^mT«d  either  his  temper  or  hit  conatitntian.  The 
be*t  edition  of  hie  woriu  is  that  by  Qiffinrd,  aacom- 
panied  by  a  biooafdiical  mcmoii  (Lond.  0  Tola. 
16161 ;  the  lataat  U  that  by  Conninsham,  publiahed 
by  Eotten  (Lond.  1S70). 

J07PA,  tb*  name  given  in  the  Qraek  of  tbi 
Now  TMtaneat  to  a  town  called  in  Hebnw  Tq/e 
-lodam,  T<ffa  or  Jafa,  L  a.,  beauty.    "  '-  -'^-* 


L,  aboat  8S  mile*  north' 


f  byna,  aboat 

and,  aocording  to  Stanley,  aldll 
J.   i«  a  [daM  of  mat  anti- 
Here,  aooo-ding  to  the  olaiaioJ  myth,  it 


waa  that  Andromeda 
and  ezpoaed  to  the 


chained  to  the  rook, 
'It;  a  atoiy  that  hai 

in  an  obaonra  way 

intwconrle   between  Oreeoe  and  Syria. 
the  port  of  Jem- 


been  euppcMd' 
the  aarly  intd 
In  aaand  history,  it  >ppw* 

lalsm  in  the  time  of  David  ■  , 

place  to  whioli  the  oedara  (rf  Lebanon  wem  floated 
from  Tm  for  the  bnildiiW  of  the  temple.  It 
wBi  at  J.  that  the  A.voM»  F«t«r  taw  the  -viafai 
which  correctad  hia  Jawiah  prejndiMa  eoaoaiiing 
the  OflDtilec  and  the  ipirit  of  Ohriatianity.  In 
the  reigu  of  Ocmatantine  the  Great,  J.  waa  made  a 
bishop's  ne,  but  it  attuned  iti  higheat  proaparity 
in  the  timea  of  th«  CnM»d«%  whm  it  baeama  the 
prindpal  tandino-phwa  of  Iba  WHiion  of  Chriatan- 
dom.  Inl799,Itwat  atonned  l^  the  Fnndk  nSder 
Booaparte,  and  ham  waa  pwpetoatad  Ua  dkamefol 
iimaiiiiii  (rf  TmUih  priaonara.  In  1832, Mohammed 
Alt  made  himself  master  of  it ;  but  Uie  Inrka,  with 
the  asMAtanca  of  the  British  and  Anstiiaiu,  took  it 
from  him  again  in  IML  The  modem  Jafia  is  within 
the  pashaUo  of  QaaiL  Its  wretohed  hsjbour  ia  nearly 
sanded  up,  and  H  has  rery  little  trade.  Top,  about 
6000. 

JOBDABN8,  Jakob,  a  oelebrated  Dntoh  painter, 
was  bom  at  Antwai^  in  I6H  and  died  in  IS78. 
Hii  works  are  exoeadinj^y  nuaemwa,  and  are  to  ba 
found  in  moat  EiiHwean  oollaotiona.  Tian  an 
marked  hy  graat  truthfuIueM  and  vigomr  «f  pm-- 
traiture,  and  are  riAly  but  rather  iJiaringlyooloittBd. 
Th^  chief  defeota  are  a  want  of  taste  and  elegaooe 
in  daai^  4'"""g  hia  beat  known  worka  an  the 
'  Mem'-mafcinft'  tha '  Batyr  and  Han  blowing  Cold 
and  Hot,'  'Pan  and  Byrinx,'  and  'Satnm  davoming 
his  Cbildivn.' 

JfyRDAS,  the  principal  river  of  PiJeatiae^  the 
bed  of  which  forms  a  great  valley,  atrstoluiig  from 
north  to  south  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  eooutry. 
The  J.,  detivlitg  its  head-waten  partly  from  tia 
eaatem  branehea  of  the  Lebanon  Honntdna,  and 
partly  fn»n  Meant  Hennon,  fltnra  aonUi,  md  aftv 


into  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(q.v.).  1^  bed  of  the  river  varies  much  in 
breadth,  and  its  banks  are  in  »ome  places  flat; 
in  others,  steep.  Where  it  enter*  the  Dead  Sea, 
it  is  ISO  yardt  broad,  and  3  feat  deep;  but  a 
little  way  further  op,  it  is  only  80  yanls  brmd, 
and  7  feat  deep,  f^m  tha  Li^e  of  Tiberias 
to  the  Dead  Sea,  the  J.  is  croaaed  by  no  bridge, 
although  in  two  or  three  places  there  are  ruins  of 
bridn.  Above  the  Itike  of  Tiberias  is  a  bridge 
called  Jacob'*  Bridge,  over  which  the  road  fMm 
Damaacoa  to  the  sea-cosit  paasea.  In  a  nnmber  of 
[lUcet,  the  J.  is  fordable;  in  some,  even  when  tike 
river  ia  in  flood.  The  course  of  the  J.  wia  explored 
by  Lieutenant  Molyoeni,  an  English  offloer,  in 
Aognst  1847,  during  the  dry  season ;  and  by 
Lieutenant  Lynch,  with  on  expedition  sent  ont  by 
the  United  States'  government  in  April  1S48,  when 
the  river  was  in  flood 

JOBGBNSEIf,  JoBOBH,  a  Danish  adventurer, 
who,  in  the  beginning  of  toe  present  century,  made 
a  deaoent  on  the  iiuand  of  Iceland,  and  reigned 
there  as  protector  for  abont  six  weeks,  was  the 
son  of  a  watchmaker  in  Copenhagen,  and  was  bom 
in  that  ciiy  in  1779.  On  the  21it  June  1809, 
having  previously  visited  the  island  in  a  ship  in 
which  he  held  the  position  of  intetpreter,  J.  Brnved 
at  Beikiavik  in  the  Hargaret  and  Amt,  an  aimed 
merchantman  from  London,  oanring  10 
lunded  th    ' 


A  few  days  after,  he  nurounded  the  house  of  the 
KOvanii«,  took  him  prisoner,  and  informed  the 
town's-people  iliat  he  dionld  hold  Iceland  b  poaaas- 
elon  for  iSigland,  'until  soeh  tim*  as  tha  llingWth 
fleet  ahovld  rdim  him,'  Ha  thai  ianied  several 
modMoatdona,  amunindng  'that  nlationa  with  Great 
Britain  ahonld  be  sat  on  a  finn  footing,  and  Iceland 
ba  plaoed  under  bw  protection.'  HesGw  organised  a 
*  government  oiBoe,' Mmflaeating  all  Danith  proper^, 
nth  whatever  elae  he  oonld  lav  hands  on,  fo  Sk  atoM 
etetC,  and  mbjeotmg  the  inhabttanta  to  »SL  tlia 
miswiea  of  an  nusompalons  deapo^sm.  Ob  tha  fttti 
Angast,  how«ver,  hia  brief  rei^  waa  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  arrival  (rf  a  Briosh  man-of-war,  the 
commander  of  which,  hearing  of  the  plmtioal  invamon 
of  J.,  immediatdy  aeiiad  upon  and  impnaonad  him, 
rMtorlug  at  the  aame  tine  the  pravion*  eoedition  ot 
aSsira.  J.  wsa  carried  to  England,  but  he  doea  not 
seem  to  have  been  visited  by  the  punishment  he  ao 
fnlly  merited.  He  afterwards  lived  in  London  for 
some  years,  waa  oonvioted  of  robbery  in  1821^  and 
transported  to  Botany  Bay  in  1SS5. 

JOBNA'NDBS,  or  JOKDANES,  a  UstoriMi  of 
the  6th  c,  was  by  birth  a  Goth,  or  both  of  Alan  and 
Qotbio  deaoenb  He  waa  first  a  notary,  but  after- 
wards adi^ted  the  Christian  religion,  and  was  made 
Bishop  irf  Crottm,  in  Italy,  He  wrote  two  historical 
works  in  the  Latin  language :  the  Snt,  i)e  A^Rtmini 
~-  Teniponun  Btieeatiom,  ia  a  short  comHndium 
the  moat  important  eventa  in  history  from  the 
creation  down  bo  S62  A-d.  ;  but  the  work  is  only 
TBluable  itata  the  accoonta  in  it  of  several  barbaroos 
noitheni  nations.  His  other  work,  De  OfUavm 
Ongiite  tt  Sdmt  OcsSa  (CoQcerniog  Uie  Origin  and 
Deeds  of  the  Goths),  is  a  work  which  has  obtained 
great  renown,  chiefly  from  its  belns  our  only  souros 
of  information  about  the  Qoths  and  other  barbarian 
tribes,  except  when  they  ore  casually  mentioned  by 
some  Greek  or  Latin  historian.  The  work  is,  how- 
evei,  full  of  inaccnraciea,  both  of  time,  plane,  and 
~  ir*on.  There  are  many  editions  of  both  works. 
JOKTJ'LLO,  a  vobaoio  monntab : 


tyCoogle 


JOSEPH  L— J0SEPHU8. 


at  the  citv  of  Mexico,  wwe  thrown  np,  in  Sep- 
tember 1769,  to  tha  height  of  1376  feet  from  t, 
plain,  which  itself  wu  2S90  feet  above  the  level  of 
lie  »e» ;  Ut  16°  Iff  H.,  long.  101°  2"  W.  This  new 
creation  originally  consiiited  of  a  leriea  of  coiiea  of 
variouE  Bze«.  M^y  of  the  irabordinate  eminencea 
have  since  diaappeared  altogether)  aome  have 
changed  i^eir  form ;  and  few  now  emit  vaponr- 
The  temperature  of  the  surface  haa  gradually 
declined,  and  much  of  the  locality  has  been  covered 
with  fewest  trees. 

JOSEPH  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  eldeat  son 
of  Leopohl  L,  wu  bom  at  Vienna  a6th  July  1678, 
was  oivwned  king  of  Hnngaiy  Id  1689,  and  king  of 
Rome  in  1690,  became  emperor  in  170B>  &nd  diod  in 
1711.  The  influence  of  the  Prince  of  Salm,  who 
had  the  chanie  of  bis  education,  and  his  sabeequent 
connection  with  Friace  Eugene,  led  him  to  embrace 
opinions  much  more  liberal  than  those  which  have 
generally  pievuled  in  his  family,  and  he  granted 
privileges  to  the  Protestant*  of  Hun^iary  and  Bohe- 
mia iniich  had  been  refosed  by  his  predeceason. 
He  also  concluded  a  treaty  in  1707  with  Charles 
Xn.  of  Sweden,  by  which  he  granted  religious 
liberty  to  the  Protestants  of  Silesia,  and  restored  to 
them  120  chnrchea  which  had  been  taken  from  them 
by  the  Jesait&  He  was  fond  of  courtly  ceremonial, 
but  mild  and  afhble.  and  sought  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  peasantry  in  hit  dominions  by 
relieving  them  from  some  of  the  oppressioTis  to 
whif^  they  were  sabiect.  Ha  eagerly  snd  snocesa- 
fally  proeecuted,  in  aUiance  with  Britain,  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  against  Fiance. 

JOSEPH  IL,  Ei 
Francis  L  and  Uaria 
March  J741,  at  a  tin 
were  in  their  lowest  state  of  depression.  He  early 
gave  proof  of  eicelleat  abilities.  After  the  peace 
of  Eubertsbuig,  he  was  elected  king  of  Rome,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  father  (18th  August  1765], 
emperor  of  Gemuuiy.  Maria  Theresa  also  asso- 
ciated him  irith  heraelf  in  the  government  of  the 
Austrian  states ;  but  for  some  time  his  actual  share 
in  it  amoniited  to  little  more  than  the  chief  command 
of  tike  army.  On  her  death  in  1780,  he  inherited  all 
her  dignities  and  power.  He  was  ambildous  of 
increaae  d  territory,  and  although  he  fsjled  in  his 
object  of  adding  Bavaria  to  the  Austrian  doi^inions, 
which  he  thought  to  consolidate  by  obtaining  it  in 
eidiange  for  the  Low  Countries,  yet  he  was  saccees- 
fal  in  acquiring  Qalici^  Lodomeria,  and  the  county 
of  Zips,  at  the  first  partition  of  PoLmd,  in  1772 ;  and 
be  appropriated,  in  1760,  ^eti  part  of  the  bishoprics 
of  Fassau  and  Salzburg.  He  was  a  ecoIdus  reformer, 
having  imbibed,  like  Frederick  the  Great,  the 
principles  of  the  philosophy  which  prevailed  in  that 
age,  but  ho  attempted  his  reforms  too  rashly,  and 
too  much  by  Uie  exercise  of  mere  authority,  and  was 
compelled  to  restore  many  thinzs  again  to  their  former 
coniution ;  the  hostility  of  the  nobles  and  clergy, 
whose  power  and  privileges  he  sought  to  reduce, 
producina'  rebellions  in  various  "parta  of  his  domi- 
nions. Tlie  clergy  in  particular  reguded  him  with 
deteatation.  Ha  nad  early  shewn  a  dislike  to  them, 
which  caused  no  little  vexation  to  his  mother ;  and 
ss  soon  as  be  foond  himself  in  full  possession  <^  the 
government  of  Aostria,  he  proceeded  to  declare  him- 
self independent  of  tlis  pope,  and  to  prohibit  the 
pnldication  of  any  new  papal  bulls  in  His  dominions 
without  his  Plaeel  regmm.  The  continued  publica- 
tion of  the  bulls  UnigeniiKt  (q.  v.)  and  In  amd 
Domini  [q.  v.)  was  also  prohibited.  Besides  this,  he 
Euppresaed  no  fewer  than  700  convents,  reduced  the 
namber  of  the  regtdar  cler^  from  eS/WO  to  27,000, 
prohibited  p«p«l  dispeniabona  aa  to  marriage,  and 


to  the  Ptntestanfa  and  Not- 
dominions.  Pope  PhiB  VL 
thought  to  check  this  course  by  a  personal  interview 
with  the  emperor,  and  for  that  purpose  made  a  visit 
to  Vienna  m  1782 ;  and  although  he  was  qaite 
nnsoccesafnl  in  his  object,  he  carried  away  with  him 
the  conviction,  that  the  people  were  utteriy  iinpt«- 
pared  for  the  nSotitm  which  their  aoreieign  aoo^t 
to  accomplish,  a  oonviction  the  conectneaa  of  irinch 
the  event  abundantly  proved.  J.  engaged  in  * 
war  with  Turkey  in  17S8,  in  which  he  was  nnnie- 
cessful ;  and  the  vexation  caused  by  tUs,  and  by 
the  revolts  in  his  own  domioiona,  and  the  neceenty 
under  which  ha  felt  ^imflf  of  revising  many  m 


his  people,  hastened  his  death,  which 

took  place  on  2001  February  179a  He  foonded 
many  valuable  inatitntioiia,  and  liid  much  to  pio- 
mote  the  progress  of  arts,  manufaetDres,  aod 
■_  ^urtria. 


JOSEPHINE,   Makib   'BMat,  Eknpren   of   the 
Freucb,  was  bom,  23d  June  1763,  in  the  idand  of 

Mattiniqae,  where  her  father.  Tacher  de  la  Puetie^ 
was  captain  of  the  port  at  St  Pierre.  She  hoa  on^ 
an  indifferent  colomal  education  ;  bnt  her  qiuditicB 
of  mind  and  hewt,  even  more  than  her  besmty,  wm 
universal  regard.  When  about  IS  years  of  age,  dw 
came  to  France,  and  soon  after  married  the  Tiaooimt 
Alexandre  Beanhamais ;  of  which  maiiiaga  were 
bom  Eugene,  viceroy  of  Ita^,  and  HcxtuiBe,  qneoi 
of  Holland,  and  mother  ef  tJtte  Eknperor  N^tolem 
III.  J.'b  husband  having  been  executed  during  the 
Reign  of  Terror,  she  henelf  just  escaped  throodi 
the  events  ot  9th  Thennidor  (27th  July  1794).  She 
was  married,  9th  March  1796,  to  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, accompanied  him  in  some  of  hia  campMinia, 
and  eierdted  a  gt^at  influence  in  lestniiiing 
him  from  measoree  tof  violence  and  severity.  At 
Malmaison,  and  afterwards  at  the  Lmembooig  and 
the  Tuilaiea,  she  attracted  round  her  the  meat 
brifliant  aocie^  of  France,  and  contributed  not  a 
little  to  the  increase  of  her  husband's  power.  She 
regarded  his  exaltation  to  the  throne,  however,  'with 
a  preeentamant  of  avil ;  and  from  the  day  of  ber 
becoming  empress,  seemed  to  dread  that  political 
-■-:- '-^±  lead  ^'™  *"  -'-^1-  4.1.^  j:«.»i..tf««  ^t  _ 


motives  n 


io  seek  the  diaaalobon  of  ■ 


marriage  was  dissolved  by  law  on  16Ui  December 
1809.  J.  retained  the  titia  of  em|»«ea,  cornsponded 
witli  Bonaparte,  and  if  the  alhed  sovereigna  had 
permitted,  would  have  rejoined  him  after  Ids  laiL 
She  lived  near  Evreux,  and  died,  after  »  short 
illness,  on  29th  May  1814,  Compare  Hvtoin  de 
VImparatnce  JottphtM  (2  vols.  Pans,  1S59),  by  M. 
J.  Aubenas. 


historian,  was  born  at  Jerusalem,  37  a.  n.  He 
was  of  both  royal  and  sacerdotal  lineage,  beins 
descended,  on  the  mother's  side,  frina  the  line  ^ 
Asioonean  princes,  while  hia  fathom,  hbttlus^ 
officiated  as  a  priest  in  the  first  of  the  tweu^y- 
foor  courses.  The  careful  educatioa  he  leCBiwl 
developed  bis  brilliant  faculties  at  an  onttaaally 
early  period,  and  his  aoqnirementa  both  in  HAraw 
and  Oreek  literatnra — the  two  principal  branches  of 
bis  studies— eoon  drew  pnUic  attention  apm  him. 
Having  successively  attended  the  lectures  at  the 
parunouut  religious  schools  of  his  time — *  seota,'  as 
he  inaccorately  terms  them— he  withdrew  into  tha 
deeert,  to  a  man  whmn  he  oalla  Banes,  and  iriio  is 
eonjectured  to  have  bem  rather  a  follower  of  John 
the  Baptist  or  an  Esseue.    Three  yean  later,  ha 


Cglizodty  Google 


JOSHUA.— JOSIAH. 


ratnnied.  to  Jenuwleni,  and  henoaforth  bdonged  to 
the  body  of  the  ■  Phariteea,'  which,  in  teat,  ooi^inaed 
the  bnik  of  the  people.  So  great  wu  the  n^md  for 
his  ahitltiea,  that  at  the  age  of  only  tweaty-DZ  yean 
he  was  chosen  delegate  to  Nero.  When  the  Jews 
nue  in  their  last  and  fatal  inituTectioii  against 
the  Bomaoa,  J.  was  appointed  governor  of  Galilee. 
Here  he  displayed  the  greatest  Tsloiu:  and  (nudeDce ; 
bat  the  advance  of  the  Roman  general  vespaaian 
(67  A.  D.)  made  resistance  hopeless.  The  ci^  of 
Jotapata,  into  which  J.  had  thrown  binuelf,  wu 
ta^en  after  a  deeperato  resistance  of  47  days. 
Along  with  some  otkeni,  he  concealed  himself  in 
a  oavem,  but  hia  hiding-jilaoe  was  diicovared,  and 
being  brought  before  veapaaian,  he  woold  hAve 
been  sent  to  Nero,  had  he  not — acoording  to  bia 
own  account,  for  J.  is  hia  own  and  his  sole 
biographer-^prophesied  tliat  bis  Captor  would  yet 
become  emperor  ot  Rome.  NeverUieless,  ho  was 
kept  in  a  sort  of  easy  imprisonment  for  about  three 
years.  J.  was  present  in  the  Soman  army  at  the 
siege  of  JemBBlem  by  Titos;  and  after  the  fall  of  the 
oily  (70  A.  D.),  was  instrnmentsl  in  saving  tie  lives 
of  some  of  bis  relatives.  After  this,  be  appears  to 
have  resided  at  Home,  and  to  have  devoted  himself 
to  literary  studies.  The  e^iact  period  of  his  death 
is  not  ascertained.  All  we  know  is,  that  he  sur- 
vived Agrippa  IL,  who  died  97  a.  s.  He  was  thrice 
ried,  and  bad 


children  by  His  second  and  third 


n  7  books,  written  both 
Hebrew  renion  is  no  longer  extant} ;  JewiA  Anti- 
quitiei,  in  20  books,  containing  the  history  of  his 
conntrymen  from  the  earliest  tmiea  down  to  the  end 
of  the  rogn  of  Nero  ^Ibe  fictitiaaB  Hebrew  •Tosippon, 
which  for  a  long  tune  was  identified  with  J.'a 
AjiiiquUia,  dates  from  tbe  10th  c.  iLD.) ;  a  treatise 
on  the  Arttwpiity  of  Oie  Jact,  against  Apion,  in 
2  vols.,  valuable  chiefly  for  ita  extracts  fiom  old 
historical  writera ;  and  an  AuUMograpky  (37—90 
A.D.),  in  one  book,  which  may  be  considered  sup. 
plementary  to  the  Antiquitia.  Tbe  other  works 
attributed  to  him  are  not  believed  to  be  gennina. 

The  peculiar  character  of  J.  is  not  difficult  to 
describe.  He  was,  in  the  main,  honest  and  vera- 
cious ;  he  had  a  sincere  liking  for  his  countmneu, 
and  rather  more  pride  and  enthusiasm  in  the  tM. 


a  withstand  the  e: 


and,  as  fix  as  b 


hoi)elt „ 

moos  power  of  the  iiomans,  aad  an  aversion  to 
martyidom,  caused  him  to  side  with  the  enemy : — 
perhaps  in  the  faint  bope  of  being  thus  of  some 
use  to  the  national  cause.  The  inflnenoe  of  Qreek 
id  learning  is  visible  in  all  his  writings, 
E  bibliod  niitoiy  is  concerned,  infused 
into  It  a  tone  of  '  rationalism.  He  speaks  of  Moses 
as  a  human,  rather  than  a  divinely  inspired  law- 
nver  ;  he  doubts  the  miracle  in  the  crossing  of  tbe 
Red  Sea ;  the  swallowing  of  Jonah  by  tlie  whale  ; 
and,  geDerally  speaking,  whatever  is  calculated  to 
teach  that  there  was  a  kwcIbI  miraculous  Provi- 
dence at  work  on  behalf  of  the  choaen  people.  His 
style  is  eatrr  and  elegant,  and  J.  has  often  been 
caJled  the  Greek  Livy.  The  tdiUo  prvnapt  of  Hie 
Greek  text  appeared  at  Basel  (Fn^n)  in  1614 
Sinoe  then,  the  most  important  editiona  (with  notes) 
are  those  of  Hudson  (Oxford,  1720),  Havercamp 
(Amst  nsS),  OberthUr  (Leip.  17S2_176fi),  Bichter 
(Leip.  1825_I827},  and.Diadorf  (Paris,  184S).  J. 
has  been  frequently  translated ;  the  two  best  known 
veraionB  in  English  are  by  L'EMrniige  (Lond.  1702) 
and  Whiaton  (Loud.  1737). 

JO'SHUA  (Hab.  TdioAua,  'Jehovah  helps'), 
the  name  of  thje  oelebrated  Hebrew  warrior  under 
whose  leadership  tlut  land  of  Canaan  was  cou- 
quraed.     He  was  the  wm  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of 


Ephraim,  and  was  bom  in  Egypt.  Before  tbe 
Israelites  had  reached  Sinai,  he  was  choeea  by 
Moses  to  command  the  troops  that  fought  against 


with  the  whole  civil  and  military  government 
of  tbe  Israelites.  .  The  vigorous  and,  on  ihe  whole, 
successful  manner  in  which  he  pursued  Htua  con- 
quest of  Canaan,  uid  distributed  the  land  amoi^ 
the  tribes,  is  minutely  described  in  the  book  which 
bears  hia  name.  He  died  at  the  axie  of  110,  and 
waa  buried  at  Timnath-Serah,  in  Ephraim. — The 
so-called  Book  of  Joshua,  in  its  [oesent  form,  oou- 
tjining  an  accouut  of  the  conquest  and  division 
of  the  '  Land  of  Promise,'  was  neither  written  by 
him  nor  by  any  of  hia  oontemporaries ;  bat  the 
compiler  has  certainly  made  copious  use,  espe- 
cial^ in  the  earlier  chapters,  of  documents  drawn 
up  during  the  period  of  the  conquest.  Such 
passages  as  that  relative  to  the  harlot  Kahab — 
'  and  she  dwelleth  in  Israel  unto  this  day '  (vL  25) 
— demonsbrate  their  own  antiquity;  but   "~    '""" 


the  narrative  of  the 
capture  of  Hebron  {ot  which  there  are  several), 
which  did  not  take  place  till  after  the  death  of 
J. ;  the  frequency  of  the  expression,  '  unto  this 
day,'  in  connections  that  forbid  us  to  suppose  the 
int^ral  a  brief  one ;  the  allusion  to  Judah  and 
Israel  as  distinct  (iL  21) ;  the  lateness  of  many  of 
the  grammatical  fonns,  kf:.,  dearly  indicate  the 
nadual  growth  of  the  book  under  successive  editon, 
Uie  last  of  whom  is  placed  by  Masios,  Spinoza, 
Hasse,  kc,  after  the  exile,  and  by  Ewald  m  the 
time  of  Manaaseh ;  while  Keil  snd  others  place  the 
book  in  the  time  of  SauL  A  Samaritan  Book 
of  Joshua  (Chronicon  Scanarilaman),  containing  s 
chronological  narrative  of  events  from  the  death 
of  Mosea  down  to  the  time  of  the  Soman  emperor 
Hadrian,  compiled  from  Arabic  and  Hebrew  sources, 
aboot  1300  i-s.,  is  ectant  in  Arabic,  and  was  flrst 
edited  at  Leaden  in  1848,  by  Juynboll,  along  with 
a  I^rtdn  version.  It  differs  very  considerably  from 
the  canonical  Book  of  Joshua. 

JOSrAH(Heb.  yos/iiiioAu, 'Jehovah  will  help"), 
one  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  was  the  son  of  Amon  and 
Jedidab,  and  succeeded  his  father  (641  B.  C.)  at  the 
age  of  eight  yeais.  He  was  apparently  brought  up 
under  the  care  of  the  priesthood,  early  mamfested 
a  pious  disposition,  and  became  a  determined  reh- 
gious  reformer,  purging  Judsh  and  Jernsalem  &om 
idolatry.  In  like  manner,  it  seems,  he  marched 
through  the  land  of  Israel.  This  statement  has 
naturaUy  excited  much  surprise.  For  more  than  a 
hundred  years,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  had  been  a 
part  of  the  Assyrian  em^ore ;  its  people  were,  for  the 
most  part,  carried  into  exile,  and  their  place  sup- 
plied by  heathen  colouista.  It  was  in  the  reign  of 
J.  that  Hilkiah  the  high-priest  found  the  ■  Book  of 
the  Torah'— by  which  some  understand  Deuter- 
onomy, others  Exodus,  and  others,  again,  the  whole 
Pentateuch — while  the  workmen  were  repairing  the 
temple.  J.  does  not  appear  to  have  heard  St  its 
'   '  .....     ^0(^  of  it  strike 

ite  tite  profoundest 
imemoiwon  of  tbe 
.,  .  king  eeletoated  the  feaat  of  the 
'Ptmana  with  a  splendiMir  never  before  equalled. 
After  this,  be  contdnued  bis  work  of  extirpating 
every  trace  of  idolatey.  Wizards,  conjurors,  'all 
the  abominations'  that  could  be  '  spied  in  the  land,' 
were  '  put  away. '  In  Iheae  efforts,  tbe  monarch 
seems  to  have  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  reign. 
He  met  his  death  at  Megiddo,  in  the  valley  of 
li^draelon,  when  attemptiur  to  check  the  advance 


him  as  amnething  novel,  and 
emotaona  in  hia  tovast.    In 


attemptiiw  t 

I  agunst  the  Aasyrians.    (Compare 
i.  waa  the  last  of  the  good  kings 
7« 

,       Cnt.zodhyGOOgle  ■ 


JOBIKA-JOtrU!. 


of  JD<1ah.      In  hia  dajrs  prophcaied  Jeremtah  and 

Zephanioh. 

JOSIKA,  MntLM  (NiCHOLAH),  BiBON,  a  very 
remarkable  Hungarian  noveliat,  was  boni  of  a  dis- 
tinguished  family,  28th  Scpb.  1796,  at  Tordo,  in  Tran- 
aylvania.  In  hia  youth,  he  aerved  for  »omB_  time  in 
the  Auitrinn  .army,  but  reaigned  hia  commiasion  in 
181S,  married  a  wealthy  Hungarian  heiieas,  and  for 
many  years  devoted  himaelf  U>  agricnlture  and  fltudj- 
Hia  fint  works  appeared  in  18^  under  the  title  of 
Irdny  and  VlUlalot,  and  were  eiceedin^y  popular. 
From  that  period  till  the  revolution  m  1648,  he 
wrote  about  60  volumea  of  novels,  all  ol  which 
were  publiabed  at  FeatL  The  molt  important  are 
At  violti  BdWjyJThe  Last  B&tfiry,  3  vela.  18*0), 
Znnm  a  EBUO  (The  Poet  ZrinYi,  4  vola.  1843), 
A  C*tluk  iiagyaroTaSgbim  (The  Bohemiani  in 
Hungary,  4  voU.  1645),  and  J6rika  Ittvin  (Stephen 
Joaika — one  of  the  author's  ancestori — 6  vola.  1847)- 
TnTolved  in  the  Hungarian  revolation,  he  waa 
obliged  to  abandon  hia  native  country,  and  after- 
waida  redded  at  Brustela,  where  he  continaod  hia 
literary  labours.  In  1864,  he  removed  to  Broaden, 
where  ha  died  in  1865.  Among  his  nroductiona 
written  in  exile,  are  Egy  Magyar  Csuilda  forror- 
dalina  Alait  (A  Himgarian  Family  during  the  Revo- 
lution) i  The  MaiUy  Fumily ;  and  Bd^r  (Esther). 
J.  is  a  thoroughly  natural  noveliat,  and  drew  hi» 
materials  almoat  wholly  from  the  histoiy  of  his  own 
land,  of  which  he  poasesied  a  profound  knowledge. 
He  has  been  called  the  Walter  Scott  of  Hungary. 

JOST,  TaiAg  Mabkcb,  an  emineut  Jewish  scholar 
of  Germany,  bom  at  Bemburg  in  1793,  died  1862. 
Hia  prindpal  worka  are  Oe^idiU  der  Irmditen 
(History  of  the  InraaUtes,  9  vols.  Bcri  1820—1829, 
to  which  woa  added  a  tenth  during  ia4$-'IS49, 
entitled  Neacrt  Getcliichle  der  Itraeliien  von  1816— 
1845)1  AUgemAit  OaMJiie  da  JUd.  VoUca  {Uni- 
veraal  History  ot  the  Jewiah  People,  2  vol*.  BerL 
1831—1832);  a  T^»n»Ution  (into  German)  of  the 
Misbna  with  text  and  commentary  (6  vols.  BerL 
1832—1834} ;  OoKJi.  du  JudmOMmt,  ^o.  (3  vols. 
Leipsic,  1857 — 1859).  He  alao  edited  a  jonmol 
entitled  I*raiiUi»rltt  Antudta  (Fkf.  1839—1841). 
BeMdea  being  a  aavant,  he  waa  a  patriot,  and 
warmly  interested  himself  in  behalf  ot  the  aodal 
and  political  liberties  of  hia  countrymen. 

JOUSPCfRE,  or  JODHPOEE,  a  dfy  iu  Baj- 
pootano,  Hindustan,  capital  of  a  protected  state  of 
ihe  aatne  name.  Lat  26°  19'  N. )  long.  TS*  S'  B. 
The  population,  not  accurately  aacerbuned,  appears 
to  amount  to  about  80,000.  Baaidea  aeveral  maani- 
ficeat  tanks,  the  place  ia  remarkable  for  its  elabor- 
ately conatructed  and  deep  wella.— The  statt  of 
JoDDPOBB,  or  Maswab,  is  the  most  eEteosiTe  and 
populous  of  all  the  prinoipalities  of  Kajpootona. 
Area,  35,673  sq.  m. ;  popL  1,783,600 ;  army,  11,000  ; 
revenue  of  the  rajoh,  £180,000.  J.  is  chi^y  within 
the  bai^  of  the  Luni ;  and  iU  central  parts,  being 
level  Kod.  well  wat^^  are  highly  productive, 
yielding  wheats  opium,  tobacco,  and  cotton. 

JOUFFROY,  TnfoDoia  Bnios,  a  French  philo- 
sopher, waa  bom,  7th  July  1796,  at  Pootata,  a  viUag* 
of  the  Jura,  eorlv  devoted  hinueU  to  (he  atody  of 
philosophy,  and  became  a  t«acher  of  it,  and  in  1832 
a  professor  in  the  College  de  France.  Hia  bad  health 
compelled  him  to  resigii  hit  profemnvhip  in  1637, 
and  he  died  1st  Uar3i  1842.  His  work*  coosiat 
vUefly  of  stndiea  of  ths  Soottisb  pUIoaophv,  and 
he  published  translations  of  the  worka  of  Raid 
and  some  of  those  of  Dugald  Stewart  with  notes 
and  introduetioaB.  Of  his  original  works,  the  moat 
TayailaleiMMaanguPhiioK>jMqua{\aS&).  He  was 
also  known  aa  a  politieal  writer,  aad  in  18!M  took 
pMt  in  wtaMtUing  th«  naw^aper  L*  Qlob*,     E» 


woa  for  aom«  time  a  member  of  the  C!hambar  of 
DepidJea,  and  waa  a  follower  ot  Chiizob 

JODGS,  JUOGS,  or  JOGGS,  the  noma  given  b 
Scotland  to  a  form  of  pillory  which  was  noad.  alao 
'     Holland,  and  probauy  in  other  oountries.     The 


„.  ..„ pubhc place, aach I .-.    , 

a  market  tion  or  weighing  post,  a  prison  door,  a 
church  door,  a  churchyard  gate,  a  chorchyaid  tre^ 
a  tree  beneath  whose  branches  ooucta  ware  held, 
and  the  like.  The  ring  or  collar  opened  by  a  binp 
or  joint,  so  as  to  enclose  the  oulpnt'a  necl:,  when  it 
was  secured  by  a  loop  or  staple,  and  a  padlock. 
The  jouga  were  employed  as  a  punishment  aa  irell 
for  ecclesiastical  as  for  civil  offences.  They  may 
be  traced  as  far  bock  as  the  IGth  c,  and  alUum^ 
they  have  not  been  in  use  for  the  last  huadral 
yeaii,  they  may  (till  be  found  hanging  at  a  few 
country  chnrcbea.      The  accompanying   wood-cat 


pjotoreaqua  1  .     .„      _, 

about  a  mils  of  Edinburgh.  Tha  joojga  obvionalv 
take  Quai  nsma  from  a  widely-spnoa  nxrtj  whim 
appear*  in  tha  Sansor.  yi(f,  tha  Qt.  oiqim,  tha  I^t. 
juf/um,  the  ItaL  ffiogo,  the  Fr.  joug,  tha  Gar.  Jodt, 
tha  Ao^-Sax.  toee,  and  the  Eng.  yeie.  Tha  Bsaxu  ' 
(q.  T.)  were  ocaaaionally  hung  on  tha  aame  pillar 
with  the  jovgi. 

JOULE,  Jawb  p.,  one  of  the  most  dlatiugnuhed 
living  experimental  philosophers,  was  bora  in  18IS, 
at  S^ford,  near  Manchester.    In  his  youth,  he  lud 
the  good  fortune  to  have  for  instructor  in  adonce 
the  celebrated  Dalton ;   and  he  eariy  shewed,  br 
coQstractnng  for  himself   electrical   machines  and 
other  philosophical  insbumenta,  the  bent   of  his     . 
genius.    His  earlieet  notable  experiments  were  made 
with  refereoce  to  electro-magnetic  engines ;   frt>m 
which  he   passed  to   quantitative   detenninationa    : 
regordins  beat,  and  the  trausformatioa  of  vaciooa 
forms  01  energy  (see  FoBCi).     He  ia  Jostly  ontitled 
to  be  consida^  as  Che  experimental  lonndCT  of    ' 
tbe  modem  thsory  of   ocoservatian  of   ansn — 
tha  grandest  gananlitatiou  vvar  made  in  phnioal    i 
sdanoa.    A  akatch  of  tUa  priBcipls  ia  giwi  m  tta 
•rtiola  FoMH  above  lefansd  tok 


t.Google 


JOT)  M  PU  R— JtlBILElt 


JOUlTPTJll,  ft  torn  In  the  North-mat  FroTinoM 
of  India,  is  sitiuted  on  botlt  bkoka  of  the  Oumti, 
which  is  hare  croued  by  an  uioieiit  biidse, 


— . _-_  jy  a  fort  itall  oldar  thftn  itself,  »  woik 

of  the  Utter  hall  of  the  Uth  century.  The  (top. 
ii  (1872)  2B,G3L  J.  ii  the  w^tkl  of  »  diitriot  of 
the  None  name,  witJi  tn  net,  (3  166S  iquare  mile*, 
uid  (IS73)  1,020,860  inhoUtftnts.  Sugar  u  Ivgely 
pcodooed. 

JOUBDAN,  Jmk  BAirrmri,  Cotcra,  ft  French 
wiimhftl,  bom  28th  April  17G2,  at  LimogES,  where 
hii  fBther  vfte  ft  turgeoD.  He  eaily  entered  the 
ftnny,  embncad  frith  great  seal  the  came  of  the 
Barolntioo,  and  aoon  rose  te  the  rank  of  a  general 
of  diTiiion.  In  September  1793,  ha  obtained  the 
command  of  the  Army  of  the  North,  and  on  IGth 
October  gained  an  important  victory  at  Wattisniea. 
In  17M  and  179S,  he  commanded  the  Army  <U  the 
Meuie  and  Sambre,  and  proeeonted  the  war  with 
great  rifpir  and  sncceaa.  In  ITW,  he  pnahed  hij 
way  far  into  Qennany,  but  waa  driven  back  by  the 
Archdoke  Charlee  i  tud  thii  diKMm&tmre  led  to 
hii  renguatJOD  of  hii  command.  In  .17dd,  the 
Pireatmry  intnuted  him  with  the  command  of  the 
Army  ot  the  Danube;  but  he  was  defeated  by 
the  Archduke  Charlee  at  Stockach.  Althou^  he 
oppoeed  the  eoup-£ftai  of  ISth  firumure,  the  first 
Cooaol  employed  him,  in  1800,  in  the  re-organiia- 
tlon  and  adminiitration  of  Piedmont ;  and  on  the 
establishment  of  the  Empire  in  ISOl,  he  was  made 
a  marahal,  and  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Btate. 
Be  accompanied  Sins  Joieph  to  Naples,  and  after- 
wards to  Spain,  and  m  his  service  he  was  actively 
employed  as  a  general.  He  offered  his  services  in 
Napoleon  after  Qs  return  from  Elba.  Louis  XTHL 
made  him  a  count  in  ISIG.  Id  1S19,  he  was  made 
ft  peer  of  France ;  but  his  repubUcan  principles  led 
him  to  enter  heu^y  into  the  revolution  of  1S30. 
He  lived  and  died  poor.  His  death  took  place  on 
23d  Kovamber  1833. 

JOUSTS,  ezsrcisea  ot  arms  and  honemaiwhjp, 

Krformed  in  the  middle  age*  by  knights  and  noble*. 
the  joust,  the  eombatuitB  annoed  one  another 
singly,  each  against  his  ftntaaonisi,  and  not  in  a 
troop,  as  in  t&  Tournament  (q.  v.).  The  namber 
of  ooursaa  to  be  rnn  and  strokes  to  be  given  wm 
iMwrally  three,  but  sometmua  a  larger  ntuaber. 
The  weapon  moat  in  use  in  the  joust  was  the  lanoe, 
but  sometimeB  the  battle-axe  and  sword  were 
employed.  To  direct  tiie  lance  anywhere,  bat  at  the 
bodyof  the  antsjgoniit,  was  reckoned  foul-play.  Inthe 
joust  of  neaoaiW^MifsdtpIiufWK^afoot  euooimter 
pceoeded  tlM  moonted  oombal  In  the  16th  «,  the 
BsagM  of  joiwtiBg  bad  eama  to  differ  in  difierent 
oountiiaa  to  tDfih  an  eztnt,  that  an  elaborate  treatise 
WBB  wiittHi  in  explanation  of  the  various  modes, 
distingoi^iiag  tha  oharaoteriatia  differencsBi 

JUAN,  Doir.    Ses  Don  Juax 

JU'Air  PEBSAIIDEZ,  called  also  Has-a- 
TiBBKA,  ft  rooky  tsUnd  in  the  Padfla  Oceftn,  about 
400  milea  oS  ValiMraieo,  on  the  coast  of  Chili,  to 
which  it  belongs.  I*t  33*  40"  S.,  long  about  70°  W. 
It  is  18  miles  long,  6  miles  broad,  and  is  for  the 
most  part  oovered  with  hi^  rocky  peaka,  the  highest 
of  which,  Yungu,  is  about  4000  feet  above  sea- 
lereL  There  are  also  eomerons  and  fertile  valley 
which  yidd  oats,  tumipi,  apple*,  ■trftwbernaa, 
meloni,  Mftohei,  figs,  gnpM,  -'-■--■  -' 
other  varietiea  of  tunbw.  Nun 
waiklar  on  Ui*  difb.  Acocs^dina  t« 
aooooots^  the  island  was  oeded  in  1868  to  a  society 
of  Germans,  who  intandsd  to  colonise  it.  Here 
Ahrairisr  SdklA,  *  bwwaneer,  whoM  nfttire  ^ace 


Nnmben  of  wildrj 


iStMt 


WM  the  flsfcing-town  of  Largo,  in  Fifeahiret  Soot- 
land,  resided  m  solitude  for  four  yean  (1704 — 
1708).  His  romantic  •toiy  is  supposed  to  hara 
sunseted  the  idea  of  tlie  Aobrason  Omtoe  of 
De^ 

SVBJEA.,  a  genus  of  pelms  of  the  sane  tribe 
wiQi  the  cocoa-nut.  J.  apedalb^  is  a  palm  of  30 
or  40  feet  hi^,  with  a  wide-spreading  erown  of 
^nnate  leavee ;  a  native  of  Chili,  where  it  fa  called 
Coquito,  The  Chilians  cut  off  the  crown,  and  collect 
.1  _  —  _ii_i.  a — ..  •___._  f__  ggyjuji  iQOQths,  a 
being  cut  off  every 
morning.  A  good  tree  will  yield  ninety  nllons  lu 
Bap,  which  bemg  boiled  down  to  a  syrup  of  the  eon- 
sistence  of  treacle,  receives  the  name  of  mid  d» 
paJma  (palm-honey),  and  is  an  important  article  of 
the  domestio  economy  d  the  country.  Th*  /ufrtsa 
le.  in  fact,  the  Jaggery  (q.v.)  palm  of  Chili 

JU'BILBE, TEE  Yu£  or  (Heb.  roAeJ),a  peculiar 
institution  among  the  Hebrews  (LeviticuB  zxv.^  by 
which,  every  fiftieth  (not  forty-ninth)  year,  tJie  land 
that  in  the  interval  had  passed  out  of  the  peases. 
sion  of  those  to  whom  it  oriranally  belonged  was 
restored  to  them,  and  all  who  had  Men  retmced  to 
poverty,  and  obliged  to  hire  themselves  out  as  ser- 
vants, were  released  from  their  bondage ;  no  leas 
ware  (Joa.  Ant.  iii.  12.  3)  all  debts  remitted  The 
jubilee  forma,  aa  it  were,  an  exalted  Sabbatical  Year 
(q.  v.),  and  liie  land  was  completely  to  be  left  to 
itself  in  the  former  as  in  the  latter.  The  design  of 
this  institution  was  chiefly  the  restoration  of  the 
equilibrium  in  the,  *»«n|ii«^  and  tribes.  It  was  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  an  oligarchy  of  " 
and  the  total  impoverishment  of  some 
wall  as  to  ioereaaa  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  tlie 
growth  of  the  popolatioo.  It  was  proclaimed  at  the 
end  of  tile  hsrveat-time,  like  the  sabbatical  year, 
on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month— the  day  of 
atonement — by  the  yobel  [a  kind  oC  lioiu),  h^ce 
also  its  name.  There  is  no  trace  in  the  whole  his- 
tory of  the  Hebrews  down  to  the  Babylooiao  exile 
that  the  jubilee  hod  ever  been  observed :  after  the 
return,  however,  it  appears  to  have  been  rigorously 
kept,  like  the  sabbatical  year,  for  some  time  at  least; 
but,  from  its  general  impraoticabili^,  it  must  soon 
have  faUen  into  disuse.  When  the  sabbatical  year 
was  de  fado  repealed  by  Hillel's  Pmbot  (ft  leeol 
document  entitllna  the  eradttor  to  claim  hi*  deM 
during  this  period),  mention  is  no  longer  made  of 
the  yobeL  The  speculatdoos  of  modern  ciitica  on 
the  j>oitU)My  of  tlu  yobel,  and  on  the  dftte  of  its 
inaugntation,  cannot  prevail  against  the  undeni- 
able fact  that  it  has  been  kept,  and  also  that 
it  is  much  more  in  harmony  with  the  primitive 
theocratic  character  of  the  Mosaic  institutions — 
accordinii  to  which  all  the  land  was  held  as  a  kind 
of  loon  mun  Jehovah,  who  alone  had  an  absolute 


JUBILEE,  or  JITBILBB  YBAB, 
of  the  Boman  Catholic  Church,  the  name  of  whioh 
is  borrowed  from  that  of  the  Jewish  jubilee.  The 
Catholic  jubilee  is  of  two  kinds — 'ordinary'  and 
'  eitraordinary.'  The  ordinary  jubilee  is  that  which 
Is  celebrated  at  stated  interraU,  the  length  of  which 
has  varied  at  different  times.  Its  origin  is  traced  lo 
Pope  Boniface  YUL,  who  issued,  for  the  yeu- 1300, 
a  buU  granting  a  plenary  indolence  to  all  pil^^rim- 
TisitwB  ai  BraM  atirin|  that  year,  on  oondition  of 

thidr  penitently  rnssiiiji  their  sins,  and  visiting 

the  ohuroh  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paol,  fifteen  times  U 
rtrangwB,  and  thirty  time*  if  reaidenta  of  the  dty. 
The  invitaticn  was  aooepted  with  marvelloua  enthn- 

etasm.    Iimnmerable  t; ''  ~"' — ' —  ' 

part  ot   the  rohuroh  £ 


tyCoogle 


JDD^A— JUBGE-ADTOOATEWENEBAL. 


Vitloni,  a  oonteiciparary  chnmcUr,  lUte*  thkt  tiie 
constant  number  ot  pUKTun*  ia  Kome,  not  rackooing 

tlioae  who  wore  on  the  road  goinf"   "~  "' "~~ 

during  Uie  entire   yew,  never  fell  _  .  _      

Ah  instituted  bj  BouiEace,  the  jubilee  wu  to  havs 
been  held  eTei;  hundredth  ye*r.  Clement  VL,  in 
obedience  to  an  eameat  request  from  the  people 
of  Borne,  abridged  the  time  tg  fif^  yean. 
jubilte  aocoidinfflly  took  place  in  If  — '  — 
mora  numerouify  attended  than  t 
the  avenge  number  of  pilgrinu,  until  the  heata  of 
nunmer  Bospended  their  frequency,  being,  according 
to  Matthew  Villani,  no  fewer  than  1.000,000 !  The 
term  of  interval  was  (till  furtlier  abridged  by  Urban 
VX,  and  aefiiii  by  Panl  H.,  who,  in  1470,  ordered 
that  thenc^orword  each  twenty-Sfth  year  should  be 
held  oa  jubilee — an  omuigement  which  hia  continued 
ever  since  to  regulate  Wie  ordinary  jubilee.  Paul 
n.  extended  rtillinDce,  in  another  way,  the  spiritual 
advantwes  of  the  jabilee,  by  diBpcnsing  with  the 
peroonupilgriiDage  to  Rome,  and  granting  the  indnl^ 
genoe  to  aU  who  should  visit  any  church  in  their 
own  country  designated  for  the  purpose,  and  should, 
if  their  raeoni  permitted,  oontrihute  a  sum  towards 
the  eipensee  of  the  Holy  Waw.  The  sabstitution 
by  Leo  X,  of  the  fund  tor  bnildinH  St  Peter's  Church 
for  that  ot  the  Holy  War,  and  the  aboaive  and 
■candaloua  proceedings  of  many  of  tiiose  appointed  to 
preach  the  Indulgence  (q.  v.),  were  among  the  proxi- 
mate causes  of  Uie  Befamiation.  In  later  jubilee 
jretn,  the  pilgrimages  to  Bome  graduaUy  dimin- 
whed  in  frequency,  the  indn^ence  beiUK  for  the 
most  urt,  obtained  t^  the  perfomanoe  of  the  pn- 
•oribed  works  at  home  ;  but  the  observance  iteeU 
has  been  nmotnoUy  maintained  at  each  Tecurring 
period,  with  the  single  exception  of  the  year  180^ 
m  which,  owing  to  t£e  vacancy  of  the  holy  see,  and 
the  troubles  of  the  times,  it  was  not  held. 

The  extiaordlnary  jubilee  is  otdered  by  the  pope 
out  oC  the  regular  period,  either  on  his  accessioa,  or 
on  some  occasion  of  public  calamity,  or  in  some 
critical  condition  of  the  fortones  of  the  church  ;  one 
of  the  condition!  for  obtaining  the  indulgence  in 
such  cases  being  the  recitation  of  certain  stated 
pnyen  for  the  puticnlar  necessity  in  which  the 
jubilee  origiliateit 

JUD.arA.     See  PALBntra. 

JUDAH  (Eeb.  Ydntda,  'the  Bepraised  Ooe') 
was  the  fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  and  founder 
of  the  greatest  and  most  numerous  of  the  twelve 
tribes.  In  the  maroh  through  the  wilderness,  it  had 
the  ^post  of  honour — the  von — assigned  to  it ;  and 
tradition  narrates  that  its  standard  was  a  lion's- 
whelp,  with  the  words  :  '  Arise,  O  Lord,  and  let 
thine  enemies  be  scattered  ! '  After  the  conquest 
of  Canaan,  its  territories  stretched  from  the  Dead 
Sea  on  the  east  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  west 
(though  the  Philistines  long  held  possession  of  the 
fertile  district  west  of  the  mountains  of  Jndah), 
and  from  Jerusalem  (excluding  that  city)  on  the 
north  to  the  laud  of  the  Ams£kitea  on  the  south. 
The  capital  of  the  tribe  was  Hebron. 

JUDAI'ZERS.     See  Ebionitib. 

JUDAS'S  TREE  {Cerat),  t,  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Lrguminota,  snb.ordar  Ctnalpimta. 
The  common  J.  T.  (O.  SUiquaslrum)  is  a  n^ve  of 


before  the  leaves.     There 
hanged   himself 


the  south  of  Europe,  and  of  the 
E  Asia.  It  has  almost  orb 
The  flowen,  which  are  rcae-colonre<I,  appear 


almost  orbicular,  very  obtuse 


American  J.  T.  (C  Odnadentu)  is  very  similar,  but 
hsa  acuminata  leaves.  Hie  flower-buds  of  both 
species  are  fireqaent^  pidded  in  vinegar.   Hie  wood 


of  both  species  is  very  beautiful,  veined  with  bU^ 
and  tsJces  on  excellent  polish.  | 

JUDE,  Epistlk  ot,  one  of  the  tmalleat  and  leaat    j 
importaut  books  in  the  canon  of  the  Kew  Teste-    I 
ment,  was  placed  unong  the  AnlHegomaia  (Dovbtful 
Writings)    by  the   primitive   church,  while  •oms    I 
even  considered  it  spurious.    It  was  not  made  use  of    I 
by  the  Asiatic  churches  until  the4th  a,  and  does  not 
appear   to   have   been   known  in  the  West  nntfl    , 
towards  the  end  of  the  2d.    Even  those  who  qnote 
it  do  so  with  hesitalion,  such  as  Clemens  Alexon- 
drinns,  Origen,  and  Jerome.    At  th^  ReformalioD, 
similsr   snsracions  revived,   and  were   entertained    j 
first  by  Luther  and  Calvin,  and  ofterwatd*  by  th»    > 
Magdeburg  Coitnriaton  and  Grotins.    In  mcdeni 


and  deciding  causes  in  the  hij^est  a 
law.  In  Great  Britain — though  it  is  otherwise  in 
America — ^it  is  not  usual  to  designate  the  hi^ieat 
class  of  judgea  by  the  epithet  of  judge,  and  Ibitiak 
lawyen  never  do  so.  Thus,  instep  of  saying  Judge 
Blockstone,  Judge  Pollock,  Judge  Eldoo,  the  maper 
descriptdoQ  is — Mr  Justice  Bla<£stane,  Chief  Baron 
Pollock,  Lord  Chancellor  Eldon,  Ac,  according  to 


Id 


a  jadge  is 
a  their  appointment, 
dition  to  tiie  prefix 


Lord ;  and  the  judges  thete,  o: 
often  BSBume  new  btles  in  adi 
'Lord.'  In  England,  the  judges  of  tiie  saperior 
courts  are  only  colled  lords  while  they  sit  in  court, 
and  are  so  addressed  by  counsel,  but  not  elsewhere 
The  practice  has  long  been  for  the  crown  to  cnnfer 
the  honour  of  knishtbood  on  all  the  judges  of  the 
superior  courts  ot  law  and  equity  in  En^and,  but 
not  in  Ireland  or  Sootland  All  the  supUIOT  judgea 
ore  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  since  12  and  13 
Will  IIL  c  2,  have  held  their  offices  during  good 
behaviour ;  since  1  Geo.  III.  c  23,  they  have  also 
continued  to  hold  their  appointments  notwithstand- 
ing the  demise  of  the  crown.  They  can  oidy  be 
removed  from  their  office  on  the  address  of  boUi 
Houses  of  Parliament.  They  are  all,  except  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls,  diaqnaliSed  from  sitting  in  the 
Honae  of  Commona.  Jodges  have  no  pnvilna 
over  other  persons  in  respect  of  their  obenng  the 
law,  except  that  the  connton-law  judgea  iu'Eo^bod 
have  the  privily  of  suing  and  being  sped  in  their 
own  court,  though  not   ra   judging  in  their  own 

The  term  judge  has  also  been  appropriated  aa  the     | 


Ordinary,  in  English  Uw,  u  the  deacnptiTe  title  al 
one  judge  only — viz.,  the  judge  of  the  Divorce  and 
ProlnAe  Court.  In  ScoUand,  the  phlMe  is  oftea 
applied  to  aU  judgea,  superior  and  in^rior,  wlien- 
ever   they  have   a   fixed  and    determinate   jnris- 


have  an  occasional  and  temporary  judicial  authority 
delegated  to  them. 

JUDGE- ADYOCATE-GRNERAL,  the  supreme 
judse,  under  the  Mutiny  Act  and  Articles  of  War, 
of  the  prooeedings  of  oourta-martial.  This  officer  is 
also  the  adviser,  m  legal  matten,  of  the  Commoudei- 
in-Chief  and  Secretwy  of  State  for  War.  Before 
oonSrmation,  the  sentences  of  all  cauits-martial, 
with  the  evidence  adduced,  ate  submitted  to  him  ; 


i-chief  any  illegali^  cf  nooedi 


ci  nooedi 


r  oUur  c 


Cnt.zodhyL-iOOgle 


JUDOBB~J0I>aUBRT. 


mud  of  tiie  minuttry — duoeiDg,  of  contM,  with  Uie 
Utter.    Ai  it  i«  e«««ntiil  3ai  tlia  jnd^advooate- 

Ceral  ihould  h>v«  an  intimate  ■eqiuuntuM  with 
militaiy  Uw,  M  «ell  as  wiui  the  geaenl 
law  of  the  Uod,  he  i*  prorided  with  an  aaaiitant 
or  depntr,  wlioee  office  ii  penoaneot,  and  who  ie 
■elected  frbm  anu>Dg  banuteri  of  emineiioa. 

The  Dtpulg'/tidgt'Advoealt  a  an  offioer  htdding 
a  temporary  commiwdon  ai  pnblic  praueaator  in 
eveiy  Gonrt-iDaTtiaL  He  irniM  be  an  <mc^  of  intel- 
ligence, 01  it  ia  part  of  hia  duty  to  azamine  and 
enm-esamine  witneMee,  to  vam  the  memberx  oi 
the  court  of  tin  illegali^  in  their  proceeding!,  and 
mneratly  to  fnIGL  in  the  limited  ana  of  the  court, 
fite  fonctiona  whidi  belong  to  the  jodge-advooate- 
general  in  ngard  to  the  whole  army. 

JUDGES,  Book  or  (HeK  Shofiim.),  a  oanooical 
book  of  the  Old  Teatament,  recording  the  achiere- 
mentfl  of  those  heroea  who,  at  diSerant  perioda  in 
the  earlj  hiatory  of  the  Hebrews,  before  the  con- 
solidation of  the  goremment  under  a  monarchy, 
from  Joahna  to  Samnel,  arose  to  deliver  their 
countrymen  from  the  oppreaaions  of  neighbonring 
nations,  but  only  three  (U  whom,  Debarah,  !Eli,  and 
Samuel,  were  Jadget  in  our  eenae  of  tlie  word.  The 
contents  of  the  book  have  ^ven  rise  to  mucL 
criticinn.  It  csunot  be  aaid  to  be  a  hMory, 
properly  speaking.  The  erenta  recorded  in  it  da 
--'  '^'  -        •■     ■'        ■■"-■    ■•■  ■    "  ■    there 


taaditknu  from  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  repiUilio 
— probably  redacted  in  the  CfHnmencement  of  the 
reign  of  David — from  ancient  poems  and  papular 

■agas.  It  .exhibits  (whether  with  a  roy^istic 
tendency,  as  has  been  lupposed  by  some,  or  in 
order  to  point  the  moral  that  however  deeply  mnk 
a  pe<^le— -einphaticallv  the  people— might  be  in 
■lavery  or  idolatry,  or  both,  God  would  alwayg  send 
them  s  deliverer  from  either  at  the  right  time)  the 
lawlesa  and  ungodly  atate  of  Israel  during  the 
(n'eater  ^art  of  tUa  period,  and  the  evil  consequenca 
their  intimate  connection  with  the  idolatrous  nations 
around  them  bron^  upon  tbem.  The  book  satur- 
alljr  falls  into  two  portions— the  &at,  up  to  chapter 

'judges;'  the  second,  from  chapter  ivii.,  the  two 
accounts  of  the  idol  of  Micah,  and  of  the  crime  of 
Benjamin.  The  snece  of  time  over  which  the  book 
extends  baa  of  old  been  hotly  contested :  that  it 
comprises  no  lees  than  300  yean  {cf.  xL  26)  is,  how- 
ever, almost  the  only  point  on  which  we  can  feel 
certain,  aince  there  is  no  doubt  that  many  of  Qie 
events  recorded  in  the  book  did  not  follow  upon 
one  another,  but  fell  in  tbe  aame  period ;  a  cinnun- 
■tance  which  chronologeis  genenuly  have  failed  to 
take  into  account  The  bo<i  itself  differs  conaldBr- 
ably  from  the  other  historical  booka  of  the  Bible  by 
ite  aimplicity  and  originality.  That  moet  of  the 
heroic  adventures  related  contain — sometimes,  ^- 
haps,  under  a  highly  poetical  guise — true  historical 
facts,  has  been  doubted  by  but  a  very  small  number 
of  critics.  Ancient  traditions  moke  Samoel  the 
author,  or  iKther  redactor  of  the  book,  and  there  ia 
certainly  little  to  be  said  against,  and  much  for,  this 
Bupposition.  Compare  Ewald,  Wette,  Rosenmllller, 
Studer,  Keil,  &c     See  Jiwa. 

JUDGB'B  CHAMBEBS  means  the  place  where 
a  singla  common-law  judge  sits  near  Cluuicery  Idne, 
Lon£in,  in  an  inftmnal  manner,  to  bear  attoraoys 
make  ap^ications  of  an  unimportant  nature  arising 
out  of  aotioiki  pending  in  court.  If  the  judge  refuse, 
or  decide  ktmi^t,  there  ia  an  appeal  to  Uie  court 
of  which  he  i*  •  judge.    In  gfoimi,  a  judge  aits  at 


round  to  diapoM  of  these 
ilications,  which  are  chiefly  matters  of  form,  bat 
urgency. 

JlIDOHENTis,inEngliah  Law,  the  term  usually 
applied  to  the  final  determination  of  a  common- 
law  court  in  an  action,  and  when  the  litigation 
ia  at  an  end.    In  the  courts  of  equity,  the  more 
OBiuil  corresponding  term  is  a  decree  or  order,  and 
in  criminal  and  Aamirally  courts,  a  sentence.    All 
judgments  of  the  superior  courta  are,  as  a  general 
rule,  capable  of  being  appealed  against  (see  Afpeai.). 
When  a  judgment  is  nob  i^peoled  agaiinst  vrithin  a 
certain  time  allowed  for  the  purpose,  then  it  is  final, 
and  binding  on  the  parties.     If  the  judgment  is 
~ziEtered,  it  will  have  the  effect  of  preventing  the 
dmnent  debtor'from  sdling  or  alienating  hia  landa, 
it  m  general  has  no  such  effect  on  hia  goods  and 
attela  or  personal  estate,  except  money  inveated 
government  stock.   In  order  to  make  a  judgment 
ectual  in  an  action  of  debt,  if  the  debtor  refoaes 
to  pay,  a  farther  prooeaa  is  necessary  on  the  part  of 
the  creditor,  called  Execution  (q.  v.).    In  Scotbuid, 
judgment  is  usually  called  a  Decree  (q.v,),  and 
judgment  by  default  ia  called  a  decree  in  abaence. 

JUDGMENT.  Tbi»  familiar  word  of  every-day 
discourse  has  a  technical  meaning  in  Logic,  to  which 
corresponds  its  acceptation  aa  the  name  of  a  faculty 
oi  the  mind.  A  '  judgment,'  in  logic,  ia  on  affirma- 
"la  of  some  kind  or  other,  as  'anow  is  white,'  'roan 
mortal'  The  contrast  to  it  is  a  mere  notion,  aa 
white,  mountain,  mortality.  In  a  judgment,  two 
always  enter,  but  this  is  not  the 
whole ;  there  must  be  some  declaration  coupling 
(wo  together,  a  function  performed  in  aQ 
by  a  verb.  A  complete  meaning,  aa  expresMd 
in  a  grammatical  sentence,  is  a  judgment.  Other 
deeignationi  for  the  same  thing  are — propoiitioD, 
■aaertion,  predication. 

The    intellectual   faculty  called  Judgment   has 
reference  to  l^e  li^;ical  force  of  the  word,  and  means 
"—  power  of  tormiDB  iudgmenta,  and  by  implication, 
further  power  of  determining  them  to  be  true  or 
e.     This  last  function  is  perhaps  what  is  moet 
,     mineutly  implied  in  the  facultr,  at  commonly 
undeiatood. 
The  intellectoal  power  uf  judging,  when  probed 
its   deepest   foundations   in  the   mind,   resolves 
itself  into  one  of  two  things—the  discrimination  of 
difierence,  or  the  perception  of  agreement  in  the 
midst  of  difference  (see  Ihtbllbot).    A  judge  in  a 
conit  of  taw  finds  that  a  case  comes  under,  or  does 
under,  a  certain  statute ;  which  finding 
□onatitutes  his  decision.    A  scientific  man  decides  a 
theory  ta  be  true  l^  a  certain  extent  of  coincidence 
with  observed  fact.    An  artLst  approves  or  disap- 
proves a  work  of  art  by  its  agreeing  or  disagreeing 
with  his  standard,  or  those  previous  prodnctiona    , 
that  have  settled  bii  conception  of  excellence  ia  that 

JUDGMENT  (in  llieola^).    The  dootrine  of  a 
dranent  after  death  has  uwaya  been  associated 
it£  the  belief  in  man's  immortality,  and  is  main- 
tuned  as  a  doctrine  of  natural  religion  on  the  greand 
of  that  responsibility  of  which  conscience  always 
less  distinctly  teetilies,  and  of  the  evident 
of  a  due  proportion  of  rewards  and  punish- 
0  human  actions  in  this  life.    This  doctrine, 
howevw,  aa  a  doctrine   of  the   Christian  r^igion, 
"of  which  there  is 


apart  from  revelation.    Thus,  we  are  told  of  a  dau 
or  time  qf  jvdgmtnt,  when,  in  great  solemnity,  and 

■ nee  of  an  assembled  umveree,  the  judgment 

D  pronounced ;   also,   that  the  Lord  Jesus 

_  »_ ■ — , --'-i.    Aa  a  dootrine 

nal  judgment  ii 
J« 


JUDICIAL  couurrrm  or  thb  PKiVT.ootnfciL-jnoaLEfi& 

bIbo  bnnt^t  into  eloEe  oosneatiou  vith  that  of  Uw 
Bmuiectioii  (4.  T.)  of  the  dead. 

JUDI'CIAL  COMMITTEE  OF  THE  PEITY- 
COUITCIL,  thoBB  meniben  of  the  priTr-oooaoil 
who  lit  u  ft  court  of  jurtloe  in  the  hMriog  of 
Appeals,  &c.    See  Pritt-Coiimoil. 

JtTDICUL  DBCLABATION,  in  Scotdi  Law, 
meanB  a  dedaiatioa  made  by  one  of  the  partiea 
}  a  luit,  and  who  baa  been  speciaUj'  ocdeml 
"  '  ■   '  '     '  d  a  particular  point. 


a  oat^     in.  Gn^and, 


and-  bvlattd,  the  oomapotidiiis  offioen  are  oalled 
nceiven  or  tnwteea,  Mooiding  to  ciraunatauiceai 

JTTDIOIAI.  KATIFIOATION,  in  Scotch  Law, 
means  tha  declaration  made  bj  a  married  woman 
in  Ihe  abaance  of  her  hniband,  before  a  justice  of 
the  peace,  to  the  effect  that  a  diapontion  or  deed  of 
alienation  of  her  heritable  property  has  been  made 
without  ooerokm  or  fear  on  the  part  of  her  hiuband, 
and  ToIoDtarilj  on  her  part.  A  notary  and  two 
witawaw  muat  alao  be  present,  and  the  tonoet 
indoraes  on  tite  deed  a  menotaodnni  of  the  ntifl- 
cation.  Hie  obieot  is  to  lemore  objeotioiu  which 
might  otherwise  be  mad*  to  the  Talidity  of  the  deed. 
In  ^"g'*"'^,  a  oomsponding  proeea*  ia  oallad  an 
acknoinedgtnent  ol  a  deed  hy  a  married  woman. 

JUDICIAL  REMIT,  in  Bootdi  Law,  is  a  refei^ 
ence  by  a  court  or  jndge  of  a  oaase,  or  part  of  a 
cause,  to  the  decision  of  an  arbiter  or  nominee,  anch 
as  on  engineer  or  acommbuit.  Tlie  matter  referred 
is  genenUy  some  tecfaoioal  matter  in  which  the 
referee  i*  specially  skilled.  In  England,  the  oorres- 
ponditiK  phrase  ia  a  reference  to  an  arbitrator  or 
expert  to  report, 

JUDICIAL  SEFARATION,  in  English  Iaw,  is 
the  leparatioD  of  two  married  persons  by  order  of 
the  Court  of  I^vorce.  Mairied  parsons  may,  if 
they  please,  mntoally  agree  to  live  separate,  and 
they  may  enter  into  a  Sxd  of  separation  for  that 
purpose,  which  t«  some  extent  is  recognised  as 
valid  bf  ocnrts  <4  equity.  This  is  called  volontary 
isparabon.  Bat,  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  two  married 
persona  living  iqiart  are  still  msrried,  and  retain 
the  statu*  of  nuinied  persona,  and  must  sue  and  be 
sued  in  all  respects  tne  same  aa  if  they  were  still 
cohabiting.  AJid  a  deed  of  separaMou  is  always 
revocable  by  the  }>arti«a,  though  to  some  extent 
binding  on  each,  if  the  other  do  not  consent  to 
renew  the  oohabitatioD.  But  when  the  parties 
have  not  mutually  consented  to  se^parate,  one  of 
them  can  compel  a  Judicial  tepaiatiou  for  certain 
grounds  of  misconduct.     Ihus,  either  por^  may 

apply  on  the  ground  of  adultery,  — — 

desertion  without  cause  for  ' 

The  Idnd  of  cruelty  which  .  , 

of  judicial  separation  ia  difficult  of  definition. 


3T  two  years  and  upiinuds. 
h  haa  been  held  a  ground 


of  a  jodioial 


award  of  a  certain  income  to  the  wife  after  aepar- 
ation,  and  tha  court  may  make  orden  as  to  the 
custody  and  maintenance  of  children.  But,  irre- 
spective of  this,  the  wile  becomes,  to  all  inteote 
and  purposes  ««  r«[ards  her  future  property,  in  the 
same  position  as  if  she  were  munamed.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  husband  ~        ' 


„  his  wife,  except  ao  far  as  he  wmj  hkv« 

been  ordered  to  pay  her  alimony,  and  he  is  oak 
liable  for  her  future  debts.  These  last  craisequasiiMa 
have  been  declared  in  England  sanoa  lSfi7,  wh^ 
the  lav  was  materiall;  improved  on  the  snbjeo^ 
and  a  new  Divorce  Court  established. 

In  Sootlond,  the  law  ha*  also  been  rseenUw 
changed,  and  now  neoriy  ooinndee  with  the  BigliJi 
law  m  many  repeat*,  thi*  ioniivTNBaBt  being 
made  by  tho  Conjugal  Right*'  Act,  M  *ad  S6  Ttet. 
o.  86.  By  that  act,  whewrrer  a  deorea  of  sqiwa- 
tion  a  fMHia  et  (Aoro  Is  obtained  at  the  initaime 
of  the  wife,  all  property  which  she  may  seqoil^ 
or  whioh  may  dsvolve  upon  her,  ia  held  anbr^r 
separate  from  and  independent  ol  her  husband  ;  bm 
can  bequeath  it  by  will  a*  if  he  was  dead.  She  tma 
also  enter  into  oo&tiada,  and  sue  and  be  sued  in  bw 
own  name,  and  the  husband  is  no  loagBr  liahlo  fcNT 
her  debts,  except  ""  ' *"  '"  •■— --• 


Scotland,  they  are  nearly  the  same,  being  described 
by  Ur  Bell  in  his  JVineipIes  thus :  whe^ver  li&  is 


turned  annoyanoe,  weariiu  out  and  exhausting  the 
party,  or  there  are  adulterous  practices.  It  will, 
however,  be  found  that  the  grounds  of  divorce  ara 
more  ample  in  Scotland  than  in  England,  See 
Mabbiaok. 

JUDITH,  the  heroine  of  an  apocryphal  ukd 
fiotitioos  book  (probably  of  the  2d  c,  B.O. ;  Movent 
Bwald,  Ac)  called  by  her  name,  is  repreaantad  aa 
a  beautiful  Jewess  at  Bethulia,  who  perils  her  life 


Nebuchadnezzar,  in  order  ti 


e  tow»,    I 


!  Aasyiian  comoMUider. 
capes  with  the  head  ot    . 
v,  wwnuneii  ore  inspired 


TDii  she  schieves,  and 
Holof  ernes  to  BethuHa.  Ber^  1 
with  a  sudden  eutbnsissiii, 
enemy,  and  completely  defeat  them.  The  tale  ia 
not  mentioned  by  Jom^us  ;  and  has,  from  an  eariy 
period,  been  held  to  be  an  all^ory ;  but  it  seems 
mors  probable  that  it  is  a  legend  founded  on  somo 
real  fact.  It  bos  fnquently  fumiahed  poets  and 
painters  with  subjects. 

JUGGERITAUT.    See  JAQOESNAUT. 

JUGGLERS  (Fr.j'on^Inirs),  a  term  now  almcat 
synonymous  with  conjuror,  and  spiled  to  peratma 
who  perfonn  tricks  of  legerdemain,  originally  dsau- 
nated  the  professional  muaLcians  who  attended  the 
troubadoun  and  trouvtres  of  Provence  mi  the 
north  of  France,  either  ninging  their  poems,  or,  it 
they  sung  them  themselves,  accompanying  than 
with  an  uutmmect,  which  was  reckoned  beneath 
the  dignity  of  the  poet  himself.  The  word  is  derived 
from  ute  medieval  Latin  joculalor ;  in  Ptovencal, 
joglar,  joglador ,   ■      "  ■"       ■•    ■      ••  -      — 

in  modern  Fran 

began  to  be  also  l£ept  .  „  .  . ._ 
pnnoes,  whence  they  received  the 
M  nunstrsb  (Lot  mMutv,  a  servant].  The  profee-  I 
sion  was  at  this  time  an  honourable  one,  and  good 
endowments  were  devoted  to  Uie  maintenance  irf 
minetrds ;  and  when  the  art  of  the  mizubcil  cesaed 
to  be  exclusively  employed  for  the  entertainment  of 
courtg,  those  of  this  profession  formed  a  separata 
guild  in  some  towns,  as  in  Paris.  Bnt  it  gradually 
h>st  rMpectability.      Bope-danoers,    and    all  whi 


r,  jojiutor  ,■  in  old  Fr^jcly'onjittre  or  jonffior  ; 
}dern  Franch,  jongiear.  !nieae  junsiciaD*  aoon 
1  to  be  also  kept  in  the  service  of  kings  and 


jurors    or   wonder-woAer*   {praettMaton^,    tteir 
throwais  of  knives  {tmlUatorm],  and  Ihair  flajv» 

UoiizcdtgGoOgIc 


JUGLAira-JTrUAN  oboss. 


vith  balk  and  lin^  (pSariii.     But  tiie  gtwtert 
proflcianti  in  erer^iiiuF  of  thia  kind  an  tatd  hav« 
for  muvj  agM  baen  the  Hindna  and  OhincM. 
JUOLANS  AMD  JUQLANDACE^.     See 

JTJGTT'BTHA,  king  ol  Nonudio,  aon  of  Maatan- 
abal,  who  was  a  natunl  Bon  of  Masiniau,  waa  care- 
fully educated  along  with  Adherbal  and  Eiempaal, 
the  Bona  of  hia  uncle  Uicipsa,  who  succeeded 
Maainiasa  on  the  throne.  After  Midpia't  death,  J. 
aoon  caoaed  Hiempaal  to  be  murdered  (118  b.  a), 
and  Adherbal  fled  to  Borne.  J.  aocceeded  in  briblog 
great  part  of  the  B^man  aenate,  and  obtained  a 
decision  in  his  favour,  freeing  him  from  the  cborgs 
of  the  mnrder  of  Bjempaal,  and  auigniiig  him  « 
larger  ahve  of  the  kingdom  than  wai  sirea  to 
Ai&erbal<117B.c.).  But  J.  toon  invaded  A&ierbttl'a 
dominiona ;  and  notwithatauding  iqjiuictiona  by  tiie 
Romana  to  the  contnoy,  b«MC«edhim  in  the  town 
of  Cirta{II2  B.C.),  and  oaoMd  him  and  the  Homani 
who  were  captured  with  him  to  be  put  to  death 
with  honible  tortara.   Harenpon,  war  waa  declared 


Boman  power.  At  last  the  couaul,  Q.  Cnciliaa 
Uetellu^  proving  inaoceanble  to  bribe*,  defMtad 
bim  in  109  and  106  B.a,  ao  that  be  waa  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  the  MaaritMiiaa  king,  Bocchua. 
Mariua,  who  ■nccecded  Metellai  in  the  command, 
carried  on  the  war  against  J.  and  Boochns,  till  at 
last  Boccbos  delivered  up  J.  to  the  JUinuuu,  who 
exhibited  bim  at  Borne  m  the  triumph  of  Mariua 
(104  B.  0.),  and  then  threw  him  into  prison  to  die  of 
banger.  J.  hu  obtained  greater  prominence  in 
history  than  he  deaervea,  on  acoonnt  of  Sallnat'a 
having  written  the  biitoiy  of  the  Boman  campaigna 


CoiOKUt  J.  (Z.  __„__, ,_. 

Syria,  kc,  ia  a  low  tree,  which  prodncea  a  fiuit 

*-'--  -  an  olive  in  shape  and  size,  red,  or  aomo- 

>w  friien  ripe.    The  froit  ia  dried  aa  a 

at,   and   forms   an   articU    of    comtneRsQ. 

Syrup  <ifJviubtt  ia  used  in  coughs,  teveta,  4c  ;  but 
the  J.  paitSy  or  P^  de  J.,  of  the  shops  of  Britain  is 
made  of  gum-arabic  and  sugar,  without  ^m  of  the 
dried  jel^  of  this  fruit— The  J.  of  India  {Z.  Jujiita) 
is  a  similar  small  tree,  with  round  or  oblong  fruit^ 
sometimes  of  the  size  of  a  hen's  egK — A  Chinese 
species  of  J.  (Z.  tutidd\,  l)aa  a  very  pleasant  yellow 
fruit  about  an  inch  long ;  and  other  speciea  not 
much  inferior  are  found  m  Africa,  South  America, 
and  other  warm  countries.— The  Lonm  (Z.  Lotus),  a 
shrub  two  OP  three  feet  high,  a  native  of  Persia,  the 
north  of  Africa,  &o,,  produces  in  great  abundance  a 
fruit  about  as  huge  ss  a  sloe,  and  with  a  large  stone, 
but  having  a  sweet  farinaceous  pulp,  wStoh  the 
natives  of  some  ports  of  Africa  make  into  cakes 
resemblina  gingerbread.  A  kind  of  wine  is  some- 
times nuuu  m>m  it. — Z.  Spina  ChrvH,  another  native 
of  tile  countries  near  the  Mediterranean,  is  some- 
times said  to  be  the  ploat  from  the  branches  of 
which  our  Saviour's  crawa  oE  thorns  was  made,  and 
is  therefore  called  Ckrist'b  Thobk  and  Jzwtf 
Thobv,  names  wbich,  for  the  some  reason,  ore  also 
given  to  Paliurut  acuieoAu.  The  fruit  is  about  th« 
size  of  a  aloe,  oblong,  and  pleaSBntl;  acidulous. 
JU'LIAN,  BUmamed  the  ApotSale,  on  acoonnt  of 


his  renunciation  of  Christianity,  Boman  emperor  361 
— 363  A.  II.,  was  bom  at  Constantinaple  17th  Novem- 
ber 3S1,  and  wm  the  son  of  Julius  Constontius,  the 


His  proper  tu 
[e  and  hia  brol 


spared  when  Constontins  XL,  son  of  CoostantiD^ 
massacred  the  rest  of  the  imperial  family.  They 
wen,  however,  removed  to  a  owtle  in  Cappadodn, 
where  they  were  subjected  to  b  sntem  of^  rigoroua 


othar  result  than  a  strong  datertation 


1  produced  no 
of  the  i«Qgloit 
fondof  lifera- 
■peeolation,  and  he  initinotiTtlf  tamed 
away  from  tlu  rnde  ascetioisoi,  ^oony  piety,  and 
barbarona  janglings  of  ScmootmoM  and  ffoniolou- 
tiant,  to  the  <£e«indnes«,  n&ieaienl^  and  mm  iotd- 
lectualmeditativenetB  of  tite  old  Oieek  pIuloao[dien; 
Some  of  his  tesnhws  appear  to  have  beni  (seovtly) 
psgans,  for  the  ludden  <3iaAge  in  tiie  ttate  religion 
Dton^t  about  by  OonrtaaSue  had  tMoestitetSa 
greM  deal  of  hypoorinr,  wpadaUy  amoiuMlicJan 
and  gotremmant  offloius.  At  th«  aga  of  M,  3.  wm 
at  hMrt  a  disbeUmo'  in  the  divine  o^jn  <a  Chria- 
tianih'.    On  the  death  irf  hit  brother  CmUu,  he  was 

'  ■     "     ■    — ■     ,  but  wH  nbM> 

lehsmeof  Gxesk 


by  OonstHitlaa  to  Milan,  b 
fluently  allowed  to  goto  Athena^  the! 
learning  where  hs  gave  himself  up  to  [Ailoao^ikal 


jeoIouB  uid  suMidaic 
title  <4  Casar,  and  sent  him  to  Oaul  to  proteot 
it  from  the  inoorsions  of  the  Oermans^  J.  defeated 
the  Alemanoi  at  Btrashurg  (3S7  A.S.),  and  com- 
pelled the  Franks  to  make  peaoe.  Hia  internal 
administration  in  Qanl  was  mild  agd  judicionB. 
His  popularity,  in  oonseqnenoe,  became  very  greats 
and  when  Oonatantius  ordered  him  to  sat  out  for 
the  East,  J.'s  soldier*  rose  In  insorreotion,  and 
proclaimed  tlielr  favourite  emperor,  who  moat 
reluctantly  aooedsd  to  their  dtmands.  The  death  of 
Coustantin*  at  Mi^woarene,  in  Cilieia,  Sd  November, 
861  A. p.,  removed  th«  only  obitaole  «at  of  hia  way; 
and  on  the  11th  of  DoMmber  he  made  a  triiunphal 
entrance  into  ConatantinopUh  He  now  mbtidy 
avowed  himself  a  pwn,  bnt  smpriMd  both  Chrit- 
-  J  Ua  edict  of  tidraatimL    Y«t  he 


d  pagans  by  falBMiot  of 

i  absolntaly  Impartial,  fi 
a  tiiB  profemed  i 
mpelled  ths  Christians  to  contiibnto 


d  followers  of  the  old 


A.P.,  he  made  great  preparation*  at  Antioch,  in  the 
hope  of  bringing  tiie  war  with  the  Peraiaus  to  a 
soooMsful  termination  t  and  in  the  following  yeoi 
advanced  to  Cteatid.on  ud  acroat  the  Tigris,  but 
want  of  provision*  and  tnacbeiy  neowsitoted  hi* 
retreat.  He  waa  followed  and  attseked  ^  the 
enemy,  who  were  nnaatadly  n^nlsed,  but  in  on* 
of  the  engagementi  he  wa*  mintally  wounded  by 
an  arrow,  and  died  3et^  Jnna  363.— J.  waa  both  a 
great  monarch  and  a  great  man.  Hi*  rale,  eon- 
pared  witlk  that  of  many  of  ths  so-o*lled  Chnitdon 
emperota,  waa  just,  libend,  and  humane ;  and  thon^ 
only  32  ;^earB  of  age  whan  he  perished,  he  had  com- 
posed a  great  niunber  of  orations,  letto*.  satires, 
and  even  poaio*  (coiloctsd  and  published  by  Span- 
heim  in  1^6).  AmMig  his  lost  works  are  his 
Jt^utatim  of  ik»  Okritlian  Bdipion,  and  Menunrs  cf 


hi*  Ocrman  Ciunpaigna,  and  his  Diuy,  !nie  oauae 
of  J.'s  apposition  to  ^iri*ti*Bity  hM  been  already 
indicated^  We  may  *ay  farther,  in  slncidation  of 
"  ■  ■  ■  ■  ,i^j_  (ji^t  j_  appear*  to  have  been 
philosophv  tlian  religion,  and  that 
appnhended  a*  truth  what  oom- 
thi*  intsUeot,  than  what  *poka  to 


iportant  point,  that  J.  appear* 
minre  aMoched  to  philosophv  tlian     '' 
h«  man  readily  appnhended  a* 
mwded  itself  to  thi*  intaUeot,  than  what  *pok< 
tha  heart 

JTJLIAN  OALBHDAB.    See  CkuorpAK. 

JULIAS'  CROBfl,  or  CROSB  OF  SI  JULIAIT, 
a  OKM*  croalat  ^aoed  laltiM-waTS. 


bifjilizi^dbyGoO'^ll. 


JULIAN  EPOCH— JULD8. 


JTJIiIAN  EPOOH.    See  Chboholoot. 

JULIAN  TEAR.    See  YKiK. 

JULIEN,  Sr^jfisi-As-AiaHiii,  dia  fint  Chinew 
■oholar  of  hii  age  in  Europe,  vaa  bom  ftt  OrleaoB,  in 
Fraoce,  21it  September  1709,  and  in  1823  bec&me 
•  pnpil  of  Abel  lUmiuat,  who  hod  recently  been 
appointed  to  deliver  a  courae  of  lectures  on  Chinese. 
In  ten  thoa  a  year,  he  had  made  himaelf  master  of 
the  principal  dif&ooltiei  of  the  lan^oage,  and  iiotn- 
allf  executed  (in  I^tin)  a  traoalatioD  of  the  p«at 
CmneBs  philosopher,  Menciua,  which  was  published 


7of  P 


ptononBced  fanltleMt  From  that  time,  hii  labours 
were  chiefly  directed  to  the  lansnages  and  htera- 
tare  of  the  far  East,  .^leient  and  modem  Chinese, 
Mantchu,  Sanaoril,  the  Mongolian  ton^pies,  wore 
familiar  to  him ;  although,  at  the  same  time,  he 
ia  said  to  have  known  almost  all  the  European  lan- 
goages.  His  tranalatioos  (into  French)  emOraoe  the 
moat  important  works  in  all  dejtartmenta  of  Chinese 
Iitentni«.  He  has  given  specimens  of  the  Chinese 
drama  in  his  Hoei-lan-hi  (The  Circle  of  Chalk; 
1S32)  and  his  Tchao-chi-kovad  (The  Chinese 
OlTilian,  IS34) ;  of  Chinese  romanceB,  b?  bis  WhiU 
and  BlM,  or  Hu  Two  Snake  Fairia  (1834),  and 
several  other  pieces  in  SaimigondU  and  the  Con- 
Mtniioank.  J.  was  also  the  first  who  succeeded  in 
tmnslating  Chinese  poetry  well — -the  constant  use 
oE  allegory,  and  allusion  to  tads  not  known  to 
Eoropeons,  renderine  it  nearly  unintelligible.  But 
mora  valuable  stdll  than  those  purely  hterary  pro- 
ductions, are  his  tnnslationa  of  the  great  works 
that  enable    ns   to    nndentand  the  religion   and 

Shiloaophy  of  the  Chinese,  such  as  the  Bool  of 
'eaard*  and  Punitlimtnli  (1835),  in  which  are  con- 
tained the  doctrines  of  Too-ase,  Uie  Boot  of  the  Way 
and  o/r>reue(1341)byLao-taeu,  written  in  the  Bth 
c  B.O.,  and  forming  the  oldeet  and  moat  iUustrious 
monnmeat  of  Chioesa  philosophy ;  and  above  all,  the 
history  of  the  L\fe  and  Travki  of  Hiouat-Ttcaig 
(1352),  awork  of  immense  importance  for  the  earlier 
history  and  geography  of  India,  and  the  knowlalge 
of  Buddhiem.  Bat  not  content  with  these  brilliant 
labour^  J.  sought  to  instruct  as  oonceming  the 
indtutry  and  ^ts  of  the  Chinese,  in  a  variety  of 
treatises,  of  which  we  mi^  mention  his  Bummary 
^  tAc  Pnae^pal  Chinete  Trealitet  upon  lAe  CulUire 
of  MoBttrry  Trea  and  Sili-uionna  (1837),  and  his 
Tnatite  on  (A«  AM  of  Mannfaduring  Porcelain 
(1866).  In  1869,  he  published  tiie  first  part  of  the 
Syniaix  <if  the  Chinete  Language,  On  the  death  of 
mmnsat,  he  became  his  successor  at  the  College 
de  France,  and  in  1S55  president  of  the  oollege.  He 
was  obo  conservator  of  the  Bibliothique  Imp^riale, 
and  was  specially  charged  with  the  ovenight  of  the 
Chinese  department.    He  died  in  February  1873. 

JU'LIUS,  the  name  of  three  popes,  of  whom  the 
second  and  tJiird  deserve  to  be  noticed. — J.   IL, 


election  to  the  pontificate,  in  1503,  was  to  resome 
poBseaaion  of  the  ducW  of  the  Bomama,  which  had 
been  bestowed  upon  Ciesar  Borgia.  J.  was  himself 
beyond  all  suspicion  of  nepotism  or  sdfish  designs 
of  ag^nndisement ;  but  his  public  career  duriiw  nis 
ponufieate  was  almost  entirely  devoted  to  political 


miUtary  entor; 


implefa  re-eatab- 


lishmeat  of  the  nipal  sovereigtity  in  ita  ancient  terri- 
tory— Bologna,  Ferrora,  kc,  and  for  the  extinction 
of  foreign  domlnHtion  and  foreign  influence  in  Italy. 
In  pursuing  his  desiena,  for  uie  puipose  of  com- 
pelhng  from  the  republic  of  Venice  the  restitution 


of  tiie  papal  tnovinces  on  the  Adriatic,  J.  not  aaij 
entered  into  the  leuue  of  Cambr»  with  tite  emperor 
Maximilian  and  Louis  XIL  of  France,  but  bad 
spiritual  arms,  by  placing  the  rapnbHc 


anderthe  ban  of  the  churdi;  and 
of  Venice,  apprehending  the  ambitions  designs  of 
Lonis,  he  wiuidrew  frmn  the'  lM«ue,  and  entered    i 
into  an   opposite  «H '>""»,  the  *  mtly  Leagne,'   to 
which  Spam,  England,  and  Switzerlaiid  were  partiea.    ■ 
Henoe  arose  his  bitter  quarrel  with  Lonia  XIL,    ' 
in   which  the  latter  attranpted,  but  ineffectoaDy,    { 
to  enlist  the  sympathies  of  the  church  againat  th^ 
pope.     The  Council  of   Piao,  which  was  convened    ' 
nnder  Louis's  influence,  was  an  utter  fHilute ;  and 
the  opposing  ooimcil,  fifth  of  the  Lateian,  aasembled    ' 
by  J.,  but  not  bronght  to  a  close  duiius  his  lifetime,    , 
completely  fmitrated  the  designs  of  Louis.     It  is 
alleged  that,  in  his  hatred  of  France,  J.  was  deraroos 
of  drawing  even  the  Turks  into  the  league  ;  bat  this 
allegation  is  negatived  by  his  entire  career,  me  of 
the  main  features  of  which  was  a  design  for  a  bolr    ' 
war,  in  which  he  himself  should  take  the  command. 
As  on  eccIeeiasticBl  ruler,  J.  has  little  to  reoommend    | 
him  in  the  eyes  of  churchmen.    As  a  political  aore- 
reign,  be  is  described  by  Ranke  as  '  a  noble  aonl,    | 
full  of  lofty  plans  for  the  glory  and  weal  of  Italy ; ' 
and  Professor  Leo  considers  >iim|  with  all  his  defeda,    , 
as  one  of  the  noblest  characters  of  that  ^e  in  Italy. 
He  was  a  liberal  and  judicious  patron  of  art,  and  a 
fiiend  of  the  rising  literature  of  the  time.    He  died 
February  22,  ISia— J.  IIL,  a  native  of  Monto  San 
Savino,  near  Arezzo,  was  known  before  hia  elevation 
to  the  pontificate  as  Cardinal  del  Monte.    He  was    ' 
one  of  the  fonr  legates  of  the  pope  under  w^om  the    . 
Council  of  Trent  was  opened  ;  and  after  his  election     I 
to  the  papacy  in  1550,  he  himself  reopened  (in  1551) 
that  council,  which  hod  been  suspended  for  upwarda 
of  two  years.    He  is  oonnected  with  English  uiatray 
as  having  sent  Cardinal  Pole  to  organise  with  Mai^ 
the  rennion  of  the  kingdom  with  Rome ;  but  bis 
general  government  of  the  ohorch  is  marked  by  no 
ver^  atrdung  events,  and  his  private  character  is 
snlhed  by  the  taint  of  nepotism.    He  died  March 
23,1665. 

JU'LLUNDER,  a  atj  of  the  Panjab,  sluda  ia 
the  Boab  of  the  same  name  between  the  Sntlej 
and  the  Beas,  in  lat.  31°  21'  N.,  and  long.  75*  31'  E. 
Having  once  been  the  capital  of  the  Loli-Afghans, 
it  is  surrounded  by  a  vast  number  of  large  and 
magnificent  mausoleums.  The  soil  of  the  nei^- 
bourhood  is  remarkably  prodoctive ;  and  the  iJao^ 
fallen,  as  it  is,  from  its  lotmsr  gieotneas,  still  con- 
tains (1868)  45,607  inhabitoata. 

JULUS,  or  lULUS.  a  genus  of  Myriapoda{q.  v.), 
of  the  order  OMlognaHia.    The  whole  of  this  ordtx 


Join*  Xerresuii. 

was  included  in  the  T-innin^i)  genus  J.,  and  it  is 
still  the  family  Julida  of  many  naturalists.  The 
genus  J.,  OS  now  restricted,  contains  many  speciea, 
some  of  which  are  Britisii.  They  are  aometimta 
called  SvAKB  MujjpKDs  and  Oallt-wobhs.  They 
resemble  centipedes  in   fana;  but  tltcdr  feet  ai* 


t.GoogIc 


JULY— JTJHGtE-TOWL, 


hning  120  pair — and  an  so 

weak  thkt  the  animal  aeema  to  glide  along  on  ita 
belly,  tlie  feet  moring  like  a  Tn,Yj  fringe  on  eaoli 
aide.  The  bod^  ia  nearly  cjlindrical,  nin  flatteoed. 
On  any  alann,  the  animal  lolli  itself  np  in  a  ooiL 
The  Jtdi  hare  no  poiaon-fanga,  like  oentipedee. 
They  ioLsbit  moiat  arid  datk  placea,  and  feed  (uiiefly 
on  decaying  v^^ble  sabatanoea,  aometiinea  aUo 
on  decaying  tmimal  sabatancea. 

JULV,  the  aerenth  month  ot  the  year  in  ont 
calendar,  lifth  in  the  Eoman  calendar,  where  it  waa 
called  QnintiliE  (the  fifth).  OrimDally,  it  contained 
36  days,  bat  was  reduced  by  Bomnlua  to  31,  by 


Juluti),  on  account  of  hia  birth  having  happened  od 
the  12th  of  this  month.  It  waa  ctHrdJlfaed-Tiionalh, 
or  mead-nionth,  and  litha-aeflem,  or  after-mild- 
oionth,  by  tbe  Anglo-Sazona, 

JTTHBUSE'R,  a  town  of  Britieb  India,  pnai- 
deiiciy  of  Bombay^  ia  aituated  in  the  diatrict  of 
Broach,  and  22  milea  nortli-weat  of  the  town  of 
that  QHiMi.  Pop.  lO/KK^  who  are  prindpallv 
erapbyed  in  the  cotton,  gtain,  and  coane  cloth 

J0MI'LLAH,  a  handaome  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
modem  prorinoe  of  Munna,  ia  dtnated  in  a  delight- 
ful valley  36  mflea  north  of  the  city  of  that  name. 
Pop.  74(K),  who  manufactnie  fireaima,  earthenwaie, 

JTJItlNA,  the  principal  feed^  of  the  Gangea,  : 
peilape  the  only  Indian  river  of  tiie  fint  diu 
which  haa  ita  courae  wholly  in  Hinduitin — th. 
Indna,  Sutlej,  Ganges,  and  Brahmaputra  all  riaing 
in  Tibet.  Its  louroe,  at  a  height  of  10,849  feet 
above  the  Sea,  is  in  lat.  31°  V.,  and  long.  TS°  3? 
K,  at  the  Bouth-weot  base  of  the  Jnmnotri  Peftke; 
and,  after  flowing  680  milee  chiefly  in  a  sonth-easl 
direction,  it  jdna  the  Gatigca  at  AUobaliBd.  After 
its  fint  100  milea,  during  which  it  receives  many 
afiuenta,  of  which  the  Touse  in  the  largest,  it  enters 
the  plain  of  Hindustan  in  lat,  30°  20' N.,  and  long. 
77"  3*  R,  having  still  an  altitude  of  1278  feet 
above  the  sea.  Below  thin  point,  it  is  joined  bv 
many  coQsiderablB  streame ;  the  Chnmbul,  the  Sind, 
tbe  Bctwa,  and  the  Cane  on  the  ri^t;  and  the 
HindoQ,  the  Seengoor,  and  the  Rind  on  tiie  left. 
All  the  way  downwards,  the  J.  is  generally  sballow, 
and,  eiceptiug  as  to  deeoending  rafts,  unfit  for 
navigatiDn.  By  artiflcial  means,  however,  its  waters 
have  been  rendered  doubly  avulable  both  for  com. 
merce  and  for  agriculture.  From  either  bank,  a 
canal  baa  been  dnnm  at  <aice  for  the  nae  of  inland 


rt  distance  below  the  point  of  its 

_„  from  the  mountaina;  while  the  one  on  the 

left  Bide,  commenoed  in  1824,  takes  ita  departnra  a 
little  further  down,  near  the  village  .of  I^zabad. 
Both  of  them  rejoin  the  parent  Itoeun  at  Delhi 
Hiftoiically  and  politically,  the  J.  cccupiea  a  more 
prominent  posititni  than  the  Gangea  itaelf  above 
theiF  junofaon.  The  former  waa  neoeaaarily  the 
first  bi  cross  the  path  of  every  invader  from  the 
north-weat ;  and  hence  on  it  were  bnitt  both  Agra 
and  Delhi,  the  two  capitals  of  the  Musnilnuui 
conquerors  of  India. 

JUMNO'TBI,  hot  springs  near  the  source  of 
the  Jmnaa,  in  tat.  30°  S9  BT,  and  long.  7r  36'  E-, 
10,846  feet  above  the  eea.  Their  tempenttnre  is  I04°7 
P.,  nearly  that  of  boiling  water  at  th^  elevation. 
They  are  overhung  1^  Uiree  oonnected  moontaina 
known  as  the  Jomnotai  Peaks,  whose  altitndea 
r^eotivdy  u*  Sl^SC,  20,916,  and  20,132  feet 


JV'SORM,  or  JUNCA'CEjE,  a  natnntl  order  of 
endogenous  plants,  herbaceous,  generally  perennial, 
with  eree[nng  root-stook;  narrow,  oHeu  fiatulot 
leaves;  r^nlar  flowen;  the  perianth  6-pMtite;  the 
staauma  an;  the  fruit  «  3-valved  capaole.  This 
order  is  neariy  i^lied  to  LiliacoE,  notwiUistanding 
very  great  diflerence  of  aspect  for  ni^hee  (Jiaiau) 
ore  the  best  known  examples  of  it  The  ipecias, 
about  200  in  number,  are  mostly  natives  of  cold 
and  temperate  clinxatee. 

JUNE,  the  sixth  month  of  the  year  in  our 
calendar,  but  the  fourth  among  the  Bomans.  It 
consisted  originally  of  26  days,  to  which  four  were 
added  by  Itonulua,  one  token  away  by  Numa,  and 
the  month  agaitk  lengthened  to  30  dayn  by  Jtdius 
Craaar,  since  whoee  time  no  variation  has  taken 
place.  The  An^o-Saxona  called  this  month  tear- 
ntonoZA,  or  dry-month,  and  Tradtumer-nKmaiA. 

JUITO,  JoHANX  HknnucH,  genarally  called  Juno 
SmxiNO,  an  author,  the  events  of  whose  life  and 
whose  gifts  of  imagination  render  bim  worthy  <^ 
notice,  lUthouRh  at  one  time  hia  merito  were  greatly 
over-eetiDiatea.  He  waa  bom  of  poor  paiente  at 
Imgrund,  in  Naaeau,  12th  December  1740,  and  after 
bymg  various  oocupation^  became  a  student  ik 
medione  at  Stnsbnig,  whrae  he  lived  in  intimacy 
with  Goethe,  who  conceived  a  great  liking  for  him, 
on  aooouut  of  hia  simple,  pure,  afiectionate  nature, 
■ettled  as  a  medical  piactationer  at  Elberfeld,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  an  operator  for  cataract 
He  is  said  to  have  improved  the  eyeeuiht  of  more 
than  2000  peiiona.  J.  subaequentiy  held  professor- 
■hips  at  Marburg  and  Heidelbers.  He  died  at 
CaiWuhe,  2d  Afml  1817.  Hii  first  publication 
was  an  autobiography,  H.  Stiliinif*  Jugaid, 
JUngUBg^ahre,  WaitMrtdu^  Le/ajaAre,  BHuMKhet 
Ltbtn  uikf  AlUr  (3  vols,  Beriiu,  1777—1778),  which 
attiacted  much  attention,  and  was  followed  by 
other  pubhcations  from  time  to  time,  contiuuiuK 
the  history  of  the  authoc'a  career.  In  reli^ou,  X 
reprcaents  a  class  by  no  meana  uncommon  m  Ger- 
many— viz.,  the  pittuHe  raHoaatuU,  men  who  put 
httle  stress  upm  the  (written)  word  of  God,  but 
aro  full  of  venrastiMt  (often  dsgeneratine,  however, 
into  a  mere  sentimentu  enthnsiasmj  for  the  spiritual 
truths  of  Christianity.  J.'s  collected  works  were 
published  (1838)  at  Stut^art  in  14  vols. 

JUMGEBHA'ITNIA,  a  T.inn».n  geaau  of  cryp- 
togamons  plants,  containing  a  great  number  of 
species,  whicb-some  modem  Dotamata  have  divided 
into  many  genera,  and  some  have  even  formed  into 
an  order,  JyTigmjumjiHulMe,  although  it  ia  more 
generally  regarded  as  oonstitnting  a  sob-order  of 
HepatiaB  {q.  v.).  The  distinctive  charactera  of  the 
sub-order  aie  that  the  >pore-caaa  open  by  four 
valves,  and  that  the  «poru  are  mixed  with  tlaier*. 
The  spedes  much  resemble  mosses  in  appearaaoe. 
Many  are  natives  of  Britain,  some  of  them  very 
common  in  moist  places.  The  tropical  apedee  are 
very  numerous,  and  some  of  them  are  to  oe  found 
ren  on  the  young  shoots  and  leaves  of  plants. 
JU'NGFRAU  (the  UJudeo),  one  of  the  hiKhoat 
lountains  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  rises  on  the  boundiuy' 
line  between  the  canton*  of  Bem  and  Valois,  and 
attains  a  height  of  13,720  feel  It  received  its 
name  either  from  the  uiuallied  purity  and  dazzling 
brightness  of  the  snow  hj  which  it  is  covered,  or 
from  the  bet  that  until  recent^  no  traveller  had 
reached  its  highest  point  Ui  ISSS,  its  mmmit 
attained  by  sue  peasants  from  OiWelwald; 
..  in  J841,  by  M.  Agassi*  and  Principal  Forbca, 
accompanied  by  oQiel*. 

JUlfGLE-FOWL,    the    name    given    by    the 
AnatnUan  oolonista  to  a  bird  (jtfaapattti*  tumuIiM), 
'   '  the  BiaAJPODi,  totally 


iritich  hM  also  been  called  V 


t.LiOogle 


JUNlPEEr-JUNIUS. 


differeot  from  the  jungle-fowl  of  India.  See  Powi. 
It  belong*  to  tlie  funiljr  MegapodidtB.     All  the 

ipeciea  are  large  birds,  with  ahort  wingi  and  tail, 
and  of  slow,  he&TT  flight  Thejr  are  remarkable 
for  the  thickneiia  of  tiiSi  1«ga  (tarn),  and  their  long 
and  thick  toea ;  and  for  their  habit  Ot  heaping  up 
monnds  of  earth,  decayed  leaves,  Ac,  in  whioh  the; 
lay  their  «g»,  which  are  hatched  by  the  heat  pro- 
duced by  lermentation.  The  Australian  J.  makes 
heaps  sometimes  fifteen  feet  high,  and  sixty  feet  in 
circumference  at  the  base,  under  the  shade  of  thick 
trees  or  shrubs,  where  the  heat  of  the  son  may  not 
evaporate  the  moisture.  In  these  heaps,  it  makes 
holes  of  several  feet  in  depth,  in  which  to  deposit 
its  eggs.  How  the  young  birds  emerge,  is  not  yet 
known,  nor  if  they  are  aaaisted  by  the  parant.birds. 
The  mounds  of  the  3.  were  at  flnt  supposed  to  be 
sepulchral  tumuli.  The  J.  is  mostly  ot  a  brownish 
ooloar.  Its  size  is  rather  leu  than  that  of  the 
oommon  domestlo  CowL  The  propensity  to  heap 
np  earth  is  very  early  manifested  by  young  birds. 

JTTIflPER  (/wnipcTlu),  a  oenns  of  trees  and 
■hrabs  of  the  natural  order  ConjfiriB,  sub-order 
Ouprtttbtea,  havins  nnisexual  flowers,  the  male 
and  female  generaSv  on  separate  plaoti,  and  the 
frait  a  fledij  gaUme  (pepnlarly  a  berry),  oontain- 


(popnlarly  a 
.      The  speoi 


are  opposite,  or  in  whorls  of  three 
imbrioUed  in  four  row*.  They  are  nativee  chiefly 
of  temperate  and  oold  regions,  and  are  found  in 
Gnrope,  Aria,  Africa,  and  America.~The  Coumok 


J.    {J. 


Europe  and  V6«  north 
ot   Asia,   and  in   the 
northern  parts  of  North 
America.       Only     in 
'   favonrable         circnm- 
'  Btancee  does  it  become 
a  tree  of  IS,  20,  or  at 
most  30  feet  in  h^t, 
and   in   general  it  i* 
only  a  shiiib  from  2  to 
e  feet  high.    The  fmit 
^  takea    two    yean    to 
ripen ;  it  ii  round,  of 
a  bluish-blaok  colour, 
with  a  whitish  bloom; 
it  i*  of  the  size  of  a 
■Dudl  onrrant,  and  is 
prodnoed      in-      great 
abundance.    TheliUle 
nnts  or  stonea  of  the 
fruit  have  on  the  shall 
three    glands,    which 
ahonnd.  eepetually  be- 
fore   ripening,    in    an 
eanntiid  al—OU  of  J. 
— preaent  also  in  the 
.  wood,   partjculsrly   in 
^  the  young  wood.     The 
wood  is  yellowish  red, 
brownish  in  the  heart, 
hard,  and  fra^ant    When  of  suffidant  size,  it  is 
much  valued  by  tumon.    It  is  also  used  for 


Common  Junipe 


ddn  arllh  nula  flsn 
artmiiiihlMwltbfn 
■  1  s,  BBrlpi  AvH. 


dfor 


ing.  The  dry  twin,  roots,  and  berries  a 
fumigation.  Hie  buries  have  a  t/aaaa  and  peculiar 
flavonr.  The^  are  mnoh  used  for  tiavoarmjrKin. 
which  dtrives  it*  name  from  them  (see  Gn).  lley 
also  «nter  into  sevetal  medicinal  preparations,  being 
stimnlant,  sudorific,  and  dinntic.— The  bark  of  X 
may  be  niade  into  ropee,  and  in  some  parts  of  the 
Highlands  of  3<M>tland,  Uie  roots  are  woven  into  the 
coarse  basketo  which  are  used  tor  potatoes,  peatt, 
&C. — Oil  of  J.  is  lighter  than  water ;  specific  gravity. 


obtained  by  distiPbg  the  unripe  fmit,  or  the  twigs, 
with  water.  The  me£ainal  pr^erties  of  J- depend  on 
it ;  six  drops  are  a  dcae- — Spamish  J.  (/-  coyeecfnM) 
^WB  in  arid  ntuations  in  the  oountriea  antnnd 
uie  Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  fruit  is  abont  the  liae  i 
of  a  hazel-nnt ;  and  from  ita  frnit  and  wood  is  pro- 
cured an  namntiil  oil  of  disagi  eoable  odonr,  cilled 
HviU  dc  Cade  (q.  v.),  which  if  used  in  Teterinaiy 
practice,  particularly  as  a  cure  for  scab  in  sheep. 
— ViEoisiAB  J.  (/.  t^irffiniana),  the  Rbd  Cbdar  of 
North  America,  is  an  evergreen  tree,  often  30 — SO 
feet  high,  of  conical  form,  with  horizontal  branches 
and  very  small  leaves ;  a  native  of  North  America, 
from  Iml»  Champlain  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It 
grows  in  sandy  or  rocky  places.  It  is  often  pbuited 
iQ  pleosore-grotinds  in  Europe,  and  succeeds  well  in 
Bntain.  The  berries  ore  small  and  bright  blue. 
The  heart-wood  is  of  a  beantiful  red  colour,  and  is 
valued  by  turned,  coopers,  kc.  It  is  imported  into 
England  for  making  pencils.  There  are  often  found 
on  the  branchee  fungous  excrescences  called  Cedar 
Applet,  which  have  oeen  recommended  as  a  vermi- 
fu^ — The  Bebuiidas  Cedar  (/.  Semtudiaaa)  ia 
a  native  of  the  Bermndas,  a  1<rfty  tree,  witii  very 
fntgrant  reddish-brown  wood,  which  is  used  f<r 
fumit^ire,  pencil-makii^,  Ac,  and  also  for  lining 
cabinets,  its  flavour  praventing  the  attacks  of  moths 
and  other  insecta.— The  Himalaya  Mountains  pro- 
duce several  speoiee  of  J.,  tr«a  of  conaideralile 
size,  beautiful  appeonLDce,  and  valuable  wood.  The 
only   species   of   J.  which    is   a    native   of   Britain 

more  mountainous  parts.— The  Swedish  J.  of  our 
shrubberies  is  lAerely  a  variety  of  the  common 
juniper. 

JU'NIUS,  Lsmma  or,  a  famous  eeriea  ot  poli- 
tical letters  signed  '  Janins,'  whioh  appeand  m  a 
London  newspaptt,  Tie  Public  Advertuer,  during 
the  last  year  of  the  administration  ol  the  Dnke  I 
of  Orafton  and  the  first  two  yeus  of  that  of  Lord 
North.  They  were  U  in  number ;  besides  which,  an  ' 
to  be  reckoned  as  proceeding  from  the  aaroe  pen 
16  signed  Philo-Jumus,  62  business-lettera  (mostly 
yeij  short)  addressed  to  his  publisher,  Woodfall, 
and  10  to  Wilkes  (privately) ;  and  in  addition,  113 
letten  under  various  signatures.  The  first  of  tba 
letten  of  J.,  published  January  21,  1769.  treats  of 
the  '  State  cf  the  Natdon,'  and  may  be  said  to  strika 
the  k^-nota  of  all  the  subsequent  corrcsp  ' 
In  it,  Uie  author  single*  ont  several  leading : 

ot  this  ministry,  andboldly  denounces  their 

ency ;  and  the  last  of  the  letters,  dated  Jannaiy  21,     , 
1772,  closea  Bomawhat  suddenly  the  long  indictment    i 
against  ministers    in  the   some    spirit  m  which  it 
had  beenn.    No  sooner  did  the  flnt  Junius  imt*r,     , 
than  the  oourt-party  took  the  alarm.    An  inviaiUb    i 
and  dreaded  censor  was  evidently  moving^  among    I 
them — one  who,  though  as  yet  the  days  ot  pariio-     i 
mentary  reports  were  still  far  off,  seemed  cognisant 
of  all  the  prDoeedings  of  both  Houses,  who  not  only     1 
knew  intimately  the  public  career  of  ministers,  bt^ 
was  fulh  informed  regarding  the  follies  and  the 
crimes  of  their  private  character.     Sir  W.  Draper, 
who  entered  into  oontrovetsy  with  this  unknown     ' 
adversary,  was  in  the  end  overmastered,  and  redooed 
to  meie  humble  oomplaint  and  confession.      Tba 
Duke  ot  Bedford,  Lord  UanaSeld,  and  chief  of  all, 
the  Duke  of  Grafton,  writhed  beneath  his  lash—    ' 
the  last  of  these  being  more  indebted  for  inunor-     I 
tality  to  the  splendid  sarcasm  of  Junius  than  to 
any  measure  which  it  was  his  fortune  to  introdnce.    1 
It  cannot,  however,  be  denied  that  the  hatreds  of 
Junius,  though  sprinsing  for  the  most  port  from 
his  detestation  of  injustice,  and  his  coiwempi  tat 
incapacity,  were  increased  and  imbittered  by  party 


t.Google 


JONK— JUNO  AND  TTWRA, 


•[nrit  &nd  penon&l  dtdliks.  The  style  ol  the«e 
letten,  UioqkIi  perh^a  occBdonallT  Bomevhat  stiff 
•ndfonniJ,iBof  theTeiyhighert  CUM.  Ooouioaslly 
riiine  to  the  loftieat  eloqneDoe,  it  a  almn  remuk- 
olcMeneM  of  vgnmanl;,  felicily  of  ilinitnition 


hu  been  buly  fruning  theoriei  of  the  auUtonhip. 
Burke,  Lord  Shelbom,  Colonel  Bairi,  Lord  George 
S»ckyille,  Wilkes,  Home  Tooke,  Thomm  Lord 
Lyttelton,  wnong  othera,  wme  »uppo»ed  in  turn 
to  be  Jamni ;  bnt  the  generftl  opinioQ  now  ie,  that 
Sir  Pliilip  fVanci*  (^.  v.)  wu  the  author  of  thsM 
lotten.  The  Fntcciscaa  theory  i>  aupported  by 
a  weight  of  eridence,  which,  although  entitely 
drcumituitia],  ia  fufficient,  Macanl&y  thinks,  'to 
sapport  a  verdict  in  a  civil,  nay,  m  a  erinioal 
prooeediDK'  The  handwriting  of  Jonins  is  the 
handwriting  of  Francis  alishtly  disgnised.  Joninl, 
a>  ii  evident  bom  his  lettera,  Imew  the  forms 
of  the  Seeratary  of  State's  office, 


at^nded  the  Home  of  Oommona  in  1770, 
took  note*  of  speeches,  espedKlly  of  those  of  tha 
Earl  of  GhithMQ  ;  denonnced  the  promotion  of  Mr 
Chamier  in  the  War  Office  as  nnjuit  to  Mr  Frantii, 
And  was  bound  by  some  strong  tie  to  the  first  Lord 
Bollaad.  All  these  circurostancm  in  the  posltios 
and  actions  of  Junius,  the  anknown  author  of  the 
letters,  correspond  eiactly  with  the  hi»to«y  o( 
Francis,  and  do  not  agree  in  more  than  two  points 
with  the  history  of  any  other  public  man  iH  that 
period.  'If  this  ai^nment,'  says  Macaulay,  *  does 
not  setlle  the  qnestion,  there  is  an  end  of  allreMOB- 
ins  on  dnmmstantiBl  evidence.'  See  Jxmiia,  bg 
nw/oil,  published  by  Bohn  (2  vols.  London,  ISBO), 
nnd  MacMilaj^i  Smog*  (Warren  Hastings]. 
JVNK,  »  Chiiute  vmel,  often  of  laig 


inoapable  d  mneli  seMuanship  or  speed,  have  proved 
themMlvet  Maworthy  od  voyage*  extending  even 
to  Amerioa  and  Biaopa.  The  junk  of  Japan  is 
oonaidanbly  superior  to  that  in  dm  in  China. 

Junk,  in  the  Britisli  navy,  ia  a  fautiliar  term  for 
the  salt  meat  supplied  to  v^sela  for  Ions  voyages — 
the  name  being  probably  derived  from  the  fact  tliat 
it  becomes  u  lurd  and  tough  as  old  rope,  piece* 
of  which  are  offioiallf  styled  jvnk. 

JUlTKBBTLO'ir,  or  SALA'NG,  an  island  in  ths 
Bay  of  Bengal,  Les  in  Ut.  T  M*  N.,  and  lona.  98*  18' 
£.,  near  the  west  ooMt  of  the  peninsula  of  Malaeoa, 
It  belong  to  Siain,  and  trade*  chiefly  with  the 
British  settlementa  of  Malaooa,  Penaog,  and  Singa- 
pore.   It  yield*  tin,  edible  binls'-neat*,  and  Japan 

JU1T0  AKD  HB'KA,  tbe  Roman  and  Greek  names 
of  the  queen  of  heaven,  and  wife  of  the  supreme 
divinity.  The  two  conceptions  have  nntortnoately 
been  oonfounded,  and  hence  their  essential  dieaimt- 
larity  bos  been  lost  sight  of~B  disaimilarity,  it  may 
be  remarked,  u  eff*^  »  that  which  existed  between 
the  Boman  and  Greek  character.  We  shall  endea- 
voor  to  distinguish  between  the  two  oooceptiona. 

Ekm  (meaning  'miitress'),  Uie  Greek  eoAAtM, 
was  the  daughter  of  Kronoe  and  Bhe&.  She  wa* 
the  sister  of  Zeus,  and  afterwards  became  his  wife. 
Her  jealousy  is  proverbial,  and  wa*  unfortunately 
too  well  foundeo,  for  Zeus  waa  the  reverse  of  a 
faithful  husband.  In  the  Homeiio  poems,  she 
the  whole,  a*  an  ohatdnatc^  qnarrelaoina 


appear.. _._  . .  _  _         ,  , 

shrew,  whuae  temper  i*  a  source  of  freaa    

between  benelf  and  her  lord,  whom,  however,  she 
greatly  fean.  She  is  lepreaented  as  often  spitefully 
favouring  persoo*  who  were  the  objects  of  the  dis- 
pleasure of  Zeus,  and  has  to  be  punished  for  her 
disagreeable  way*.  Zens  scolds  and  even  beata 
her;  and  on  one  occasion,  we  read  of  hi*  having  tied 
her  hands,  and  hung  her  up  in  the  cloud*.  But 
she  is,  nevertheless,  a  female  of  maje«tic  beauty, 
the  grandest  of  the  Olvnipian  damea.  As  the 
only  wedded  goddess  in  the  Greek  mythology,  she 
naturally  presided  over  marriage  ^d  at  the  birth 
of  children.  She  rode  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  two 
horses ;  and  in  her  f  smoiu  temple  at  Mount  Enbrria, 
her  statue,  made  of  gold  and  ivory,  bore  a  crown, 
symbolic  of  her  queenly  dignity.  Her  fnvonrito 
residences  were  Argos,  Sparu,  and  Mycenss ;  but 
she  had  sanctuaries  in  many  parte  of  Cfreeee.  The 
Greek  artists  loved  to  represcot  her  a*  a  nujettio 
woman  of  middle  age,  poMMsing  a  matanial  dignity 
of  mien,  with  beautiful  forehead,  large  ayes,  and 
venerable  enretdon.  Homer  repeatedly  caUa  har 
he  venerable  ox-eyed  Hera.' 
Jnto  (the  name  is  from  ihe  same  root  as 
Jupiter),  the  Roman  goddssa,  wss  tha  quean  of 
heaven,  and,  under  the  name  of  Mtgkta,  was  wor- 
ahipped  in  Italy  at  an  aarly  period.  She  bon  th* 
same  relation  to  women  tiut  Jnpdtsr  did  to  men. 
Uke  the  Greek  Hera,  she  took  a  qiaaial  tatneat  in 
'  ga,  whence  har  nam«  of  Jttga  at  JuffoSi  (the 
.  jakat);  but  she  was  alaa  *  kind  of  (anala 
Provideuee,  Notacting  the  aex  from  tha  undla  to 
Her  epithets,  Vir^maH*  (the  godda** 
and  Matrona  (' of  Motb«a '>,  mdicate 

.  ..  vmy  ngnificani  feature  of  the  Boman 

character,  that  J.  was  also  behevsl  to  be  tha 
Koardian  of  the  national  Snances,  watdmui  over 
her  peo[Je  like  a  thrifty  mother  and  housewSe.  A 
temple,  oontaining  the  mint,  was  erected  to  her 
o>  the  CapitoUna  as  J.  Manila  (the  money-coiner). 
She  waa  beaides  the  goddess  of  chastity,  and  proati- 
tntea  were  fotUdden  to  touch  her  altars.  She  had 
multitade  of  other  surnames,  which  we  cannot 
Her  great  fastival  wsa 


t.GoOi^lt 


JtWOT— JUKA. 


called  the  Matronaiia,  and  wu  celeWftted 
let  ot  March.  Her  moath  (Jane)  vu  con. 
the  oioBt  propitioiu  for  fruitful  marriagee . 
ereo  yet,  after  eighteen  oentoiia  of  Chriatiaiiity, 
thJB  old  Boman  faitb  liogen  aupeiBtitiiniilr  in  tiie 
popular  mind. 

JUNOT,  Ahdoche,  Duke  of  Abrantee,  and 
Marahal  of  I'rejice,  wai  bom  October  23,  1771,  at 
Suaaj-le-Orand,  in  CAte-d'Or,  entered  the  mry  oa  a 
Tolimteer  in  1792,  and  distingoiibed  himself  in  the 
early  van  of  the  BepubUc  In  1798,  he  followed 
Napoleaa  to  Egypt,  was  there  created  general  of 
brigade,  and  particularly  diatinguished  himself  at 
Nazareth,  wh^  at  the  head  of  300  cavalry,  he 
put  to  flight  10,000  Tarka,  after  a  confiict  of  four- 
tecu  houn'  duiatiiMi.  In  1807,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of'  tba  army  of  Portugal.  His 
army,  after  nndeiKCuig  dreadful  privstionB,  reached 
LislxuL,  and  J.,  with  uie  greatest  expedition,  made 
himself  master  of  all  the  strong  places  in  the 
kingdom,  and  reorganiaed  his  army.  For  his 
bidUUnt  conduct  at  this  time  ho  was  created  Duke 
of  Abiantea,  and  appointed  aoveroor  of  Portugal ; 
but  being  defeated  by  Welhngtoa  at  YinueiTa,  he 
concluded  a  convention  at  Cintra,  retomed  to 
France,  and  snheequently  served  in  Germany,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Buasia.  In  1812,  he  was  i£sg»ced 
by  Napoleon  for  a  sappoeed  want  ot  ena»y,  and 
sent  to  govern  Ulyria.  This,  along  witn  other 
causes,  pvdaced  mental  derangement.  He  was 
taken  to  his  father's  boiose  at  Moatbard,  near 
DijoD,  and  two  honrt  after  hia  arrival,  praeipi- 
tated  himseU  from  a  window  (2Sd  Jnly  1813), 
and  fractured  his  thigfa.bone.  Amputation  waa 
performed,  but  J.  franticly  tore  off  the  bandages, 
and  died  arane  days  afterwards.— His  wife,  Laubb 
Pebbon,  the  ccle&ated  Dnchea  of  Abrantes,  has 

Sined  a  rcpotation  in  the  Literary  world  by  her 
Imoira  on  Smaxairt  Juttorigua  lur  NapoUon,  la 
SiBolvlion,  U  Direetoirt,  la  Conetdal,  lEmpirt  tt  kc 
Sttlauralion  (Paris,   1831—1835),  and  by  several 

JTJIITA,  Le.,  an  aisimntinn.  the  name  givan  in 
Spain  to  a  body  of  penons  combined  for  any 
political  or  civil  object.  The  term  was  formerly 
applied  more  exclnsively  to  assemblies  of  represen- 
tative* of  tlie  people  meeting  without  authority  of 
the  aoverogn,  but  has  been  extended  to  those  of 
the  most  strictly  Ugil  character. 

JUPATf  PALM  {Baptda  ladigera),  a  palm 
which  grows  on  rich  allavial  tide-flooded  lands  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  The  stem  is  seldom 
more  than  aix  or  ei^t  feet  high ;  bat  the  leaves 
are  often  50  or  SO  feet  longi  rise  vertically  from  the 
summit  of  tiie  stain,  and  bend  out  on  every  aide  in 
mtcefol  cnrvea,  forming  a  magnifloent  plume.  The 
waves  are  perhapa  the  largest  in  the  vegetaible 
kingdcon ;  they  are  innnate,  the  leaflets  about  fdor 
feet  long.  The  lea^talks,  which  are  often  twelve 
or  fifteen  fe«t  Img  below  iha  first  leaflets,  and  four 
or  five  ini^iei  in  diameter,  perfeotl^  straight  and 
^lindrieal,  are  dmoct  like  birda'  qndls  in  atren^ 
Mtd  li^bieaa,  when  dried,  of  a  soft  snbstanoe,  witii 
a  thin,  hard,  ^oasy  outer  covering.  They  are  naed 
for  various  purpoaes,  aa  lor  laths,  winitow-blinds, 
Ac  The  interior  part  is  soft  enough  to  be  nsed 
instead  of  cork. 

JU'PITEB,orJ4JPPrrER,inRomanM;rtholoOT, 
was  the  greatest  of  the  gods.  The  name  is  a  modi- 
fieation  of  Dionit  paia;  or  Diapiter  {ZHomt,  or  IHe» 
—  dtrum,  heaven),  i.e.,  the  Father  of  Heaven  or 
the  Heavenly  Father.  Aa  auch,  J.  had  all  power 
over  the  phenomena  of  the  skies ;  hence  his  nnmer- 
ens  epithets,  such  as  PUiviui  (the  Bain-giver), 
Tenant  (the  llnuderer),  FtUtninator  (the  Li^tning- 


spread  oat  clearly  before  his  all-aeeins    ' 
eye ;  the  deetinies  of  men  were  in  his  handa,  and 
events  were  but  the  expression  of  his  onmipoient    ' 
will    But  he  was  not  careless  of  mankind.      He    [ 
revealed  himself  in  a  variety  of  way*  to  them,  and 
taught  men  to  interpret  these  mystic  and  ayntboljo    . 
levllatians.     Wonderful  appearance*  in  the  aky,  or 
unwonted  circnmttauces  bappenin^  on  the  earth,    ! 
were  the  media  of  his  communicatioiis ;  henoa  hia 
Bumame  of  PmdigiaiU  (the  Sender  of  Prodigies).    I 
A*  the  national  Kod  of  the  Boman  people,  he  went 
with  them  into   cattle  (like  the  Jehovah   of  the    I 
Hebrews),  fought  for  tJiem,  procured  them  Victory, 
and,  generally  speaking,  was  their  protector  at  boma    , 
and  abroad.    This  conception  of  J.  is  shewn   in    ' 
such  names  as  Impemior  (the  Kuler),   Victor  (the 
Oonqueior),  Slator  (the  Stayer  or  Stander-by}.    The    - 
strong  aenae  of   morality  which  marked  Uie  old 
Romans  aUofonnd  ita  exptesaion  in  their  view  of  tba 
character  of  the  best  and  greatest  (opttnuisnaamui*)    : 
of  their  gods.     3.  wa*  the  guardian  of  law,  jnattoe, 
and  virtne  ;  oaths  and  all  solann  enguementa  wet« 
made  as  to  him  ('  in  the  sight  of  QraS^  as  we  aay).    ' 
He  hod  temples  erected  to  him  at  Rome  under  all 
his  different  namea  ;  bnt  the  principal  one  waa  that    ' 
on  the  Capitol,  whence  he  bad  tiie  title  of  Capiici-    \ 
■mil,  and  where,   with  beautiful  significance,   the 
rtatnea  of  Fiiu  (Faithfulness)  and  Viettrna  (Vic- 
tory) were  placed  beside  his  own.    When  consuls    ' 
or  other  nuwistiates  entered  on  the  dntiea  of  tbeir    ' 
office,  or  when  the  army  was    about  to  open  a 
campaign,  or  a  general  returned  victorious   froni 
war,  sacciflces  were  solemnly  offered  to  J.,  aad  hia 
favonr  invoked.    When  the  Romans  b^an  to  kmtw    ' 
the  religion  and  literature  of  Greece,  tSrf  fetdisUy 
sought  to  identify  their  own  noble,  majestic,  ai^    . 
gravely  apright  J,  with  the   Blippeiy,  lus^il,  ftod    ' 
imm<Hm  Zai9  of  the  Greeks.   Hence  have  cmgiAated 
much  confusion  and  miscouc^ion.     See  Zbdb. 

JUPITER.     SeePLANKM;  SoLiK  Svanw. 

JUPITER  SBRA'PIS,  Temflb  at.  The  rains 
of  this  tem[de  at  Puasooti,  near  Naples  affonl  a 
remarkable  instance  of  the  changes  vAich  have 
taken  and  are  taking  place  on  the  relative  poaiticm 
of  the  land  and  water  on  the  earth.  Only  thr«e  OL 
the  original  forty-six  pillars  exist.  They  rise  oat 
of  the  water,  the  pavement  of  tho  temple  beins  at 
present  submecged  ;  bnt  they  bear  evidence  uiat 
they  have  been  at  one  time  submerged  to  half  their 
heitfht,  which  Is  42  feet.  The  base  of  the  pillars  as 
high  as  twelve  feet  is  quite  smooth ;  for  the  next 
nine  feet  they  are  penetrated  by  a  boring  abell, 
which  it  still  active  m  the  neighbouring  racks.  Ilie 
water  most  have  covered  (hjs  portion  w.  the  pillara, 
and  while  the  molluscs  were  busy,  the  lower  twelve 
feet  must  have  been  protected  from  t^eir  ravages  1^ 
being  buried  in  mud.  Ths  changes  of  level  bare 
been  so  gradual  that  the  pillan  have  not  been 
moved  fnmi  their  original  position. 

JDTON,  or  JU8T-AU-C0RPS,  a  surcnat.  The 
name  jupon  is  chiefly  applied  to  Uia  shrat  tigbt 
form  of  that  militaiy  garment  in  use  in  the  14th 
century. 

JU'RA,  a  range  of  mountains,  of  a  peculiar  lime- 
stone  formatioD,  known  as  the  Jura  Limeabme, 
extending  from  the  angle  formed  by  the  Rhone 
and  the  Ain,  in  a  north-easterly  directum  (with  a 
gradually  declining  elevation),  for  more  than  4S0 
iniles,  to   the  upper   part  of   the  course  of   the 


lyGoogle 


JURA— JURY  TRIAL. 


Credoz,  DAle  (whioh  commanctB  a  iplendid  view 
of  Mont  BJanc),  and  Mont  d'Or,  bU  of  which  are 
betireen  GOOD  and  6000  feet  in  heisht.  The  Swiai 
Jura  comsUta  oi  a  number  of  panulel  ohains  with 
long  deep  valleyB  between,  and  over  it  roads  have 
been  cBjricd  with  great  diQiciiltj ;  but  the  German 
Jura  ia  more  broken  up  by  Cron  vklleyB.  In  both 
partB  of  the  range  are  nnmeroua  caves,  which 
abound  in  magnificent  stalactites,  and  in  the  bone* 
of  extinct  unimjln  ;  whilst  in  the  Swiss  Jura,  then 
are  aeveral  instances  of  rivers  of  coomderable  size 
sialdiig  into  the  nonnd,  and  reappearing  after  Bome 
distaniw,  as  the  Orbe,  the  DouIm,  and  the  Crease. 


JURA,  a  frontier   department  in ._ 

France,  is  boonded  on  the  S.  by  the  department 
of  Ain,  and  on  the  £.  by  Switierland.  Area,  1943 
square  miles,  of  which  upwards  of  one- third  is  under 
cultivation,  and  abont  ooe-fourth  in  wood.  Pop. 
(1872)287,634  01  ita  surface,  two-thirds  are  covered 
by  the  Jura  Mountains ;  the  remainder  ia  a  low 
puin  about  seven  miles  wide,  skirting  the  weetem 
border.  Chief  rivera— the  Ain,  the  Doubs,  and 
the  Lone.  The  soil  on  the  moontaina  ia  thin 
and  stony,  but  yields  ablmdant  grass,  upon  which 
great  numbers  of  boraea  and  cattle  are  fed  from 
June  to  October  ;  on  the  ^lain,  the  soil  is  rich,  and 
grain-crops  are  ^irodoced  in  great  abondnnce  and 
variety.  The  wines  of  Arbois,  of  Poligny,  of  Etoile, 
and  of  Salins,  have  lome  reputation ;  9,000,000 
gallons  of  wine  are  produced  annually.  The  mineral 
wealth  of  the  department  is  oonsidenble ;  the 
working  of  iron  is  one  of  the  chief  branches  of 
manufacturing  industry.  Cheese  ia  extenaively 
made,  and  there  ia  a  good  trade  in  tunber.  The 
department  ia  divided  into  the  four  arrondissements, 
Lcma-le-Saulnier,  Poligny,  Sainte-Clande,  and  DAle. 
Capital,  Lons-le-Sanlnier. 

JURA,  one  of  the  Inn«r  Hebrides,  lying  off  the 
coast  of  the  mainland  of  Argyle,  and  having  the 
island  of  lalay  on  the  sonth-weat  It  i«  27  miles 
long,  and  about  five  miles  in  avenge  tveadth. 
A  ridge  of  bleak  and  rugged  moontaina  toavenes 
the  iwile  length  of  the  island,  and  rises  in  the 
Papt  of  Jura,  m  the  south,  to  an  elevation  of  2560 
feel  Tli«  wMt  coast  is  deeply  indented  by  Loch 
Tarbert,  whidh  nearly  divide*  the  ialaud  m  twa 
^e  western  shores  are  Mvags  and  mnied ;  the 
eastern  are  pleasiiig  in  appeanunoe,  preaantoig  green 
slopes  and  a  oelt  otplain.  At  the  northera  extremity 
of  J.,  and  between  it  and  Soarba,  in  the  whirlpool  of 
Comevrekin  {q.  v.).  Abont  600  acrea  are  under 
cultivBtioii.     Oats,  barley,  potatoea,   and  flax  are 

froduced  i  and  black  cattle  are  reared  for  export. 
■op.  (1871)  761. 

JURA'SSIO  GROUP,  the  name  given  by  conti- 
nental geologiits  to  the  Oolitie  setter  because  the 
chain  i£  the  Jura  Mounlaina,  on  the  north-west  of 
Switzerland,   is   cotnpoaed    Of   theta   rock*.      See 

JUBISDI'CTIOK,  in  Law,  meana  the  anOority 

which  a  eovrt  or  jodoa  has  to  entertain  a  particular 

IB  and  decide  it.    The  general  rule  is,  that  if 

irt,  whiBh  has  no  jaria£ation  to  decide  a  part 


, decide  it.  tlie  indmnent  is  a 

unUi^.    Many  .. 

question  of  jansdiction,  which  aie  too  intricate  to 
be  here  stated.  When  the  objectian  ia  taken  to  the 
joriadiction  in  England,  it  is  generally  called  a  plea 
to  the  jurisdiction.  In  Scotland,  it  ia  included  among 
what  are  called  preliminary  pleaa. 


JITBISPRU'DEITOE  is  the  science  of  law,  which 
jurofeases  to  discuss  the  principles  on  which  legal 
rights  should  be  protected  and  enforced ;  or  it  may 
be  called  the  philosophy  of  law.  This  subject  has 
been  leaa  cultivated  in  England  than  in  contiDeatal 
countries,  or  even  in  Sco^ind ;  for,  in  England,  the 
habita  of  the  peo^  and  alao  of  their  lawyers  are 
too  practical  to  a^nit  of  apending  time  in  l^^^^fi^ing 
elementary  prindpUa  wl^oh  are  more  or  lesa  vague 
and  speculatiya.  In  its  literal  sense,  the  term  means 
merely  knovriedge  of  the  law,  and  aeems  to  have 
been  so  used  in  the  Roman  law,  from  which  it  has 
been  borrowed.  The  word  ia  often  used  in  a  popular 
sense  in  thia  country  aa  synonymous  with  law,  and 
it  ia  alao  so  used  m  Pruiae;  but  it  ia  also  and 
more  conectly  uaed  in  oontiadistinction  to  law, 
as  implying  the  system  or  sappoaed  methodioal 
scheme  embracit^  the  principlea  on  which  posi- 
tive law  ia  founiud.  A  distinction  ia  Sometime* 
made  between  general  jurisprudence,  which  investi- 
gates the  principlea  common  to  various  aystems  of 
positive  law,  divesting  these  of  their  locM,  partial, 
and  other  accidental  peculiaritiea ;  and  particular 
juiiapnidence,  which  confine*  itself  to  the  particniar 
laws  of  England,  or  France,  or  Scotland,  aa  an  inde- 
pendent aystem  taken  by  itselL  Jurisprudence  thus 
embraces  a  wide  range,  as  treating  of  all  thoae 
duties  which  are  enforced  between  man  and  man ; 
and  yet  it  may  be  safely  said,  that  lawyers,  thon^ 

dealing  with  the  results  of  the  "" —  ' ' 

their  lives,  aeldom  g' 

'  geoetal  p  ' 
ided.    The 


e  every  day  of 

I  to  the  latent 


give  any  attention  to  _ .  _.. 

,  ....iples  on  which  these  results 

fonnded.  The  only  writers  'wbo  have  devolcd  lieir 
attention  to  this  apecolative  aide  of  the  taw  in  thi* 
conntty  are  Bentbam,  whose  various  woriu  aboond 
with  these  diacnsaioiu,  and  Hr  Austin,  whose  Pn>- 
vines  of  Juritprudtnet  Determintd  is  an  aoat*  and 
maaterly  wo:^  on  first  principlea,  to  whom  may  be 
dded  John  Stuut  MiH  and  Mr  E.  S.  Maine. 
JURY  TRIAL  (Fe.Jurt,  •worn),  is  a  mode 
of  Ixial  in  the  TTnited  Kingdom,  by  which  a  few 
citizens,  selected  for  the  pnrpoae,  are  conitttnted 
the  judges  of  the  truth  of  the  facta 
between  partiea,  and  compelled  to  diach 
duty  on  the  sanctity  of  their  oath,  but 
ordination  to  a  higher  judge,  who  has  distinct 
fonctiona  of  controL  Various  theories  have  been 
adopted  as  to  the  origin  and  development  of  this 
characteristic  feature  of  the  admiuiatntion  of 
justice  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Jury  trial  does 
'rtence  to  any  positive  atstutt^  but 
.  inaenaibly,  and  has  become  inex- 
tricably interwoven  with  the  people^s  habita.  It 
wu  generally  aapposed,  until  recantly,  that  onr 
Anglo-Saxon  aooeatois  had  the  credit  of  having  . 
nnraed  the  germ  of  this  ngorwu  plant  <tf  libeaty; 
and  a  cartoon  in  the  new  House*  la  FadiamMit  nts 
embodied  this  popular  beliet  Baoent  re«c*rche* 
have,  however,  sheWu  that  jnry  trial,  aa  now  known 
and  practised,  did  not  eodst  in  those  times,  thonf^  it 
haa  been  the  natural  derelonment  and  •eqneuc«  of 
other  rudimentary  forma  of  tnal  then  ^ferailing. 
Indeed,  tha  germ  of  jnty  trial  ia  found  in  human 
nature  itself  and  m  some  phase  or  other,  i* 
detected  in  almost  eveiy  form  of  civilisation,  the 
ice  of  it  being  a  reference  of  dispnted  fai^  to 

impartial  jn£^ent  of  a  few  men  of  averws 

understanding  ana  of  nearly  the  same  station  in  lue 
the  litigBnts.  In  ancient  Rome,  a  criminal  trial 
..  _a  conducted  before  a  presiding  judge  and  a  body 
of  judiea,  taken  from  a  parbculal  elaas,  whose 
du^  it  was  to  determine  the  fact  of  the  guilt  <« 
innocence  of  the  accused  ;  but  they  could  azerdae 
the  prerogative  of  merov,  which  does  not  belong 
to  the  modem  jury.  The  result  of  the  forma  of 
trial  nsoal  with  tiie  Anglo-Saxons  ha*  been  snmnwd 


^ 


loogle 


JTJRT  TBUL. 


he  italM  theie  conolunonB.  CaartM  were  pnaided 
over  b;  »  reeve,  irho  had  no  voice  in  the  deciiion, 
■nd  the  nnmber  of  penooi  who  ut  wu  tuoallv 
twelve.  "She  aaaertioai  of  parties  were  admitted 
u  oonoloiive,  when  luppoited  by  the  Oktlu  of  a 
oertain  number  of  oompurgmton.  Tl)~  '^"'' 
of  the  neighbonrhood  was  appealed  .. 
purpoaa  of  decddtng  nattaim  m  genenJ 
Sworn  witaKMM  wen  ^)pointed  m  each  diitriet, 
whose  dutj  it  was  to  atteat  all  ba^aina  and  tiaiis- 
aetioni,  in  order  thai  they  m^ht  be 
evidence  in  caae  of  diipute.  fireiy 
that  aU  dMlinn  between  man  and  man  ihould  be 
aa  open  and  poblio  ai  poadble.  It  wai  bj  a  gradoal 
process  of  improvement  that  the  precipe  functions 
of  the  jury  were  defined,  and  it  wonld  be  beyond 
onr  limits  to  diaoosa  the  details  of  this  profpreis.  It 
will  loffloe  to  d«acribe  the  institntioo  of  jury  trial 
Bi  it  now  exists,  and  has  for  oentorise  existed  with 
little  altention. 

In  dimitial  caaea  in.  Ihgland  and  Ireland,  t^ere 
are  two  or  three  kinds  of  inriei  in  requisition.  Id 
all  casea  o(  sndden  death,  homioide,  or  mnrder,  the 
coroner  ot  ^  district  summons  a  jury  of  twelve 
men,  who  inqoire  into  the  oiicnnutances  of  the 
death,  and  if  it  appear  that  such  death  was  cauaed 
by  the  criminal  misconduct  of  any  person,  the  jury 
may  find  that  sach  person  was  guilty  of  murder. 
This  inquisition,  or  finding,  is  sufficient,  without 
any  other  proceas,  to  put  the  alleged  criminal  on 
his  trial  by  tiie  petty  jury  i  bnt  one  may  proceed 
also  against  the  prisoner  in  the  ordinary  manner. 
In  most  criminal  cases,  the  grand  jury  is  the 
medium  of  accusation.  They  p^orm  the  duty  ot 
public  aoonsen ;  they  do  not  try  a  priaoner,  Dat 
the  indictmenta  are  in  the  first  instance  submitted 
to  their  conaiderotion,  for  the  putposs  of  *Ming 
whether  there  is  enouKh  of  doubt  and  saspidcn 
to  maka  it  necessary  to  put  the  aocnsed  <m  his 
trial  Aooordin^y,  in  every  county  and  boiOQj^  ol 
Eughud  where  aeanons  of  the  peao«  or  asaisM  are 
hela  for  criminal  trials,  a  jury  ol  not  leaa  than 
12,  nor  more  than  23  men,  are  anmmoned  to  see 
that  thwe  is  some  fonadation  for  each  indietment. 
The  jadse  first  charges  Uiem—that  is,  givea  then 

EcnU  direotions  as  to  particular  Crimea,  and  tihiy 
r  witneasea  for  the  jiroaecntioB  on^  and  ez  porK 
finding  a  tma  bill,  iv  if[noriag  the  bill,  aooordu^  m 
they  dink  tho*  is  or  N  not  a  osae  wortiiy  of  trial 
^Kinst  tb*  prisoBcr.  See  Oeuid  Juxy.  The  diief 
daly,  howsver,  as  to  A*  tryiag  of  prisoneia  is  dis- 
(Auged  hj  the  pdit  jnty,  wbieh  ooniista  U  twelve 
men,  who  are  sworn  to  try  the  cause  between  the 
ciown,  as  proseoator,  and  the  prisoner.  Prerioos 
to  this  trial,  the  prisooer  is  not,  as  a  matter  of 
oonrae,  entitled,  except  in  oasea  of  tnason,  to  a 
copy  of  the  indictment,  though  in  many  cases  he 
can  indirectly  obtain  a  copy,  or  at  least  is  geosrally 
made  aoqnainted  with  the  particular*  of  the  charge 
against  him.  Nor  ia  the  pnsoner  entitled,  except  m 
cases  of  treaaon,  to  have  a  bat  tl  the  witsenes  who 
an  to  be  brought  against  him.  The  first  thing  ia 
to  attaigB  tha  priaoner  at  the  bar,  and  ask  him  if  fas 
fdeada  guilty  or  aot  guilty.  If  he  do  not  plead 
guiltr,  he  ia  then  pw  on  his  trial  He  is  not 
enbtlMtadensnd  from  the  ooort  to  have  a  oonnsel 
to  dtfesd  him,  thoogh  practically  there  ia  Uttla 


larsv  nombar  ia  sutmoned,  and  the  priaoaer  ia 
entitled  to  ehaDuige  those  of  the  jory  wbo,  he  haa 
gpoA  cause  to  believe,  wilt  be  hostile  to  him.  He  can 
3isllenge  a  gertain  numbw  of  these  withoat  giving 
any  reason;  but  when  he  exoeedj  snch  nmnber, 
he  most  state  some  valid  *" 


not,  however,  entitled  befordiand,  excei^  in  eaasa 
of  treaaon,  to  have  a  list  of  jorcas  supplied  to  him.     I 
At  the  trial,  the  proseonting  oaonsel  be^na  and 
makes  a  speech  to  the  jury,  commoiting  on  the 
case.    He  then  calls  his  wnneaae^  and  it  m^  be 
obeerved  that  it  is  a  public  duty  for  witaHsaea  to    i 
attmd,  attd  they  can  be  compelled,  anbjeet  to  fine 
and   impriaoiunnt^   to  attend  and  be    exiniiied.    | 
Eaoh  vitneM  ia  fint  examined  by  tbe  imwrn  iitiiij; 
oonoiel,  then  nrnan  nnminml  bv  ue  unaotMX  m  his    ' 
counael,  and  then  te-eiamiDed  by  the  i  mi  sin  Hint    , 
connseL    A  witneas  testiSes  on  his  oath,  and  if  he    | 
speaka   falsely,  may   be   prosecuted    for   peijuiy.    | 
After  the  prosecutoPs  case  is  closed,  the  piiscHier  cr    I 
his  connsel  addreoses  the  jury,  and  if  he  luw  any 
witnesses,  calls  them,  and  th^  an  eTJuninsd,  cnw- 
eiamined,  and  re-examined  in  like  manner.    If  Uia    ' 
prisoner  calls  witneases,  the  jmeonting  connael  has    I 


where  the  prisoner  ( 

can  frequently  insist  on  replying,  and  thna  having 
the  last  word.  The  judge  then  sunia  up  the  evidence 
by  going  over  it  in  detail,  eiplainina;  any  points 
of  law  that  may  arise;  but  he  car^nlly  iiuotna 
the  jury  that  it  is  for  them  eiclnsively  to  say 
whether,  upon  the  evidence  as  laid  before  them, 
they  think  the  prisoner  was  piilty  or  not  gnil^. 
The  jury  most  be  unanimous  la  their  finding.  If 
they  nave  a  difficulty  in  uremng,  they  are  locked 
up  a  reaaonabla  time,  which  means  generally  about 
SIX  hours — though  no  definite  limit  is  fixed— without 
food,  till  they  agree.  I^  after  this  ressonable  time 
has  elapaed,  they  are  unable  to  agrees  they  are 
discharged  without  a  verdict.  The  oonsequeocs  is 
that  a  new  jury  are  nunmoned,  when  um  aame 


he  iwj 


whose   duty  it   is,  if   any  apidicatioa 
sapported  by  evidence  is  made  to  tiie 


is,  that  no  new  trial  can  be  had  in  criminal  caaea, 
even  though  aame  error  may  have  bem  made  by 
the  judge  or  jury.  The  only  mode  of  obtaining 
redreaa  la  bj  petitioiiing  the  orown  to  pudoa  tba 
priaoner,  or  commute  the  sentenoe^  as  tbe  ease  may 
tie ;  and  the  Home  Becietaij  advise*  the  crown  aa 

In  civil  csM*,  the  tatabbahed  pnwtaoe  in  ^-^-"^ 
and  Ireland  is  for  nM«t  qne*tioiu  <d  dispated  fact 
which  an  material  to  the  e**e  to  be  r^mvd  to  tba 
decision  of  a  jury.  It  is  the  only  regnlw  mo^  of 
solving  the  dispute  which  the  law  pnridea.  Tbe 
neceeaity  of  a  jury  trial  is  aRived.  at  aft^  the 
parties  have,  by  their  mutual  plead^igs,  oome  to 
an  issue~L  a,  one  party  distinctly  asaerts  sonie 
fact  which  the  other  as  distinctly  denies,  the  tact 
being  material  to  the  oanae.  A  jury  ia  thea  aam- 
moned,  and  the  roJe  is,  that  all  caose*  ot  ftctiao 
are  ta^  in  the  county  in  which  the  dispnte  an>*a. 
The  jury  cuiwsts  ot  twelve  psncsiB.  Jwisa  aie 
either  oommoo  juries  or  specud  juiea :  Ae  loimar 
conHHilBorily,  bnt  an  not  paid  for  their  1am  tt 
le ;  the  latter  alao  acA  coupnlaorilj,  b«t  they  wa 
!cted  OB  tiie  ground  of  thor  suppoaed  Nporier 
tntelligenc^  and  they  are  pud  a  snaU^snm  fir 
their  servioea.  In  mMt  ( 
begins,  and 


that  point.  But  nettber 
ID  paidon  the  priaoner ;  it 

do  BO,  and  [Hsctically  tbe 
"  '-  tiie  Home  Secietan, 


L,  Google 


JUBTMA8T— JTT8  BEUCTA 


Oie  pluntiFt  connMl  tmni  np  hia  eue,  ud 

a  Becond  speech  ;   but  if  the  defeodant'i  coniuel 
colls  ^tDCSBca,  then  he  flrtt  mkkea  a  speech  to  the 

Ey,  neit  callB  hia  witnc—M,  uid  '"~" " 
case  in  a  tecond  ipeeoh  to  the  jn  , , 
the  ptaintifre  couniel  repliea  ;  lo  tiut  it  dependa 
on  miether  tho  defenduire  oooiimI  ckUs  witDessee, 
whether  of  not  he  ha»  the  laM  word  with  the  jury. 
The  judge  then  Buma  up  the  eyidenco,  and  the  jury 
muat  be  unftoimoaa  in  thsir  Terdiot.  If  they  do  Dot 
agree  after  being  shut  up  a  reasonable  time,  they 
are  diaohorged,  as  in  crinuiial  cases,  and  a  neir  jury 
may  be  aummoned.  If  there  iras  any  mistake  oi 
the  judge,  or  any  mistake  and  migcondnet  of  the 
jury,  the  losing  party  may,  in  nuny  caaee,  obtftin 
le»re  to  have  a  new  trial,  whioh  ia  conduoted  '~  "~  ~ 
same  way  before  other  jamra. 

In  boUi  criminal  and  dril  caaes,  the  fanctions  of 
the  judge  and  the  joiy  are  distinct.  The  jodge  has 
DO  right  to  decide  the  fact,  nor  the  jar;  to  decide 
the  law  ;  bat  in  some  cases,  the  JDiy  cannot  be 
prevented  from  practically  deciding  boUL  Thai,  in 
the  case  of  libel,  it  waa  at  one  time  attempted  by 
judgee  to  confine  juries  to  the  decision  of  an  unim- 
portant fact ;  and  tJie  practice  of  Lord  Hanafield  in 
so  restricting  the  functions  of  juries  was  attacked 
by  Junius  and  others,  till  finally  Mr  Fox's  Act  was 
passed,  which  restored  Oxe  powers  of  juries  in  those 
cases,  and  made  them  practically  jndges  of  the  law 
also.  In  other  cases,  however,  the  separation  of  the 
functions  of  judge  and  jniy  requireB  very  nice  dis- 
crimination, and  none  bat  experienced  lawyers  and 
t'adges  can  readily  recognise  these  technicalitiea. 
n  practice,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  juries  can 
witn  diffleohy  be  oanbcdlad  in  their  decdaiona  on  all 
quMtiona  afiiotiiu;  personal  and  political  wrongs; 
and  It  b  espedal^  to  their  ocmtrol  over  the  iasnes 
of  the  lattsr  dasa  of  cum,  often  mo«t  judidously 
eierdsed,  tiiat  tiie  great  authority  and  permanent 
iodnenee  of  jories  are  to  be  traced.  One  great 
advantage  of  Jory  trial,  over  and  above  Uie  essential 
faimea  of  the  princi^e  on  which  it  is  founded,  ia 
the  experienoe  rad  knowledge,  as  well  as  the  love  of 
fair-play,  which  are  tbemby  aeqnii«d  by  the  peofde 
who  tMce  part  in  tt.  On  the  other  hand,  it  i» 
often  eom[tt«ined  tiiat  in  a  mai  majority  of  oases, 
whether  oansed  by  qnalifloafioni  of  Jnrors  being  too 
low,  and  the  "y™*"*'  obtuseness  of  onaduoated 
minds,  or  the  capricious  and  wayward  humours 
which  sway  them,  the  reealt  is  little  else  than  a 
lottery,  and  even  indirect  bribery  ia  frequently 
snspected  to  operate  in  some  of  the  cases,  espe- 
cially those  which  unscmpulooa  attorneys  conduct 
RMbably  the  chief  reason  wliy  Jory  trial  lias  so  long 
stood,  and  stUl  stands,  so  high  in  public  favour  is, 
that  notwithstanding  all  its  glaring  and  familiar 
defects,  no  other  machinery  has  ever  been  devised 
which  is  not  open  to  similar  or  greater  strictures- 

In  criminal  trials  in  ScoUani^  prisonen  have  the 
advantaoa  of  being  by  law  entitled,  before  the  day 
of  tri^^  have  a  copy  of  the  indictment,  also  a  list 
of  the  witnesses  to  be  broufiht  forward  against 
them,  and  likewise  a  list  of  the  jurors,  of  whom 
forty-five  are  aummoned.  As  r^unls  the  order  of 
prooadora  at  a  criminal  trial,  a  different  praotice 
prevails  <  the  evidence  is  first  given  on  botA  sides, 
and  then  the  proeeoutor's  counsel  addressee  the 
jury,  after  whom  tho  prisoner's  counsel  "" 
the  Jniy  ;  so  that  in  all  coaes  the  prisone 
last  word,  and  he  always  knows  tne  wbc 
DToseontor's  ease  before  he  requires  to  opei 
lie  jndge  ti»n  sums  np  tie  case,  as  m 
Frran  the  forty-five  jorots,  fifteen  are  drawn  by  lot ; 
these  oonstitute  <^e  Jmr,  and  tho  verdict  of  a 
ntajority  soflues.  There  is  also  %  verdiot  of  '  Not 
proven    allowed  to  be  given,  and  which  is  oftsn 


preferred  by  the  Jniy  in  cose*  whero  there  is  littls 
moral  donbt,  thousn  the  legal  evidence  is  insuS* 
cient  In  Englai^  inch  a  verdict  is  equivalent  to, 
and  treated  as,  a  vudict  of  '  Not  guilty ;'  sihI  it'll 
so  for  final  in  Scotland,  that  the  prisonar  oannot  a 
second  time  be  put  on  his  triaL  The  expediency 
of  such  a  verdict  has  been  objected  to,  as  fixing  a 
stigma  on  the  accnsed  person ;  but  the  answer  Caa 
be^  made,  that  it  is  most  in  conformity  with  the 
true  result  of  the  inquiry-  In  Scotland,  new  trials 
are  qot  allowed  in  criminal  cases  ;  and  in  case  of 
pardons,  the  Home  Secretary  acta  in  the  same  way 
as  he  does  in  England. 

As  regards  trial  by  jury  in  etvil  cases  in  Scotland, 
the  prsctice  was  introduced  by  a  statute  in  181S, 
which  imported  moat  of  the  forms  then  existing  in 
the  English  practice.  As  in  England,  the  jiuy  in 
civil  coses  oonsista  of  twelve  persona.  Unaaimity 
ia  not  now  eesentiaL  By  a  reoent  statute.  22  and 
23  Yict.  c  7,  if,  after  beiuE  kept  three  honn  in 
deliberatioa,  nine  or  more  m  the  jnry  agree  on  a 
verdict,  such  verdict  is  to  be  taken  as  that  of  the 
jury ;  and  if,  after  being  enclosed  nine  hour*,  the 
jor;^,  or  nine  of  them,  cannot  agree,  the  Judge  is 
entitled  to  discharge  them,  and  generally  does  sa 
Moreover,  the  judge  may  allow  the  jury  refreshment 
after  the;r  are  locked  np  to  dsh'berate.  TheM  latter 
modifications  on  the  rigid  role  have  not  been  yet 
adopted  in  England. 

A  jni7  (fe  medietaie  Ungtut  is  a  jnrr  half  com- 
posed of  foreigners,  and  it  is  a  privilc^  whioh 
may  be  demanded  by  foreiniars,  when  indicted  in 
England  for  felony  or  misdemoaooor,  if  so  many 
'nreignm*  are  found  in  the  place. 

JURTMAST,  a  temporary  spar  used  to  replace 

mast  which  hai  been  lost  from  any  eanse,  and 
I  to  enable  the  vessel  to  reach  some  port  for  mora 
permanent  repair. 

JUS  DKLIBEKA'ITDI.    See  AjwuB  BuoxB- 

JITS  DETOLTT'TTTH,  a  phi«se  nsed  in  Boolofa 
ecdesiastieal  law,  to  denote  the  right  which  dsvotves 
on  the  presbytery  to  present  or  appoint  a  iiiini«tw 
to  a  vacant  bsDe&e,  if  the  patron  do  not  wUhin  dx 
— onths  present  a  properly  qualified  pmson. 

JUS  GB1TTIUH,  a  phrase  now  t 
mean  a  branch  of  International  Law  (q. 

JUS  HARl'TI,  a  phrase  nsed  in  BomsD  law.and 

lopted  in  the  Seotoh  law  to  denote  the  l^al  right 
aooming  to  a  husband  qua  husband  over  his  wife's 
property.    See  HuHnavD  axd  Wtrs. 

JUS  RBLrOT-S,  in  Scotch  Law.  is  the  right  of 
a  widow  to  a  share  in  the  movable  or  personal 
property  of  her  deceased  huihand.  This  is  a  vested 
or  abaolute  right,  and  eannot  be  defeated  by  the 
husband's  will;  and  beuos  the  movable  est^  of 
the  married  parties  is  often  called  in  Scotch  law  the 

Cds  in  communion,  becansa,  on  the  death  of  the 
band,  there  is  a  division  of  such  goods  between 
the  widow,  the  chUdren,  and  next  of  kin  of  the 
deceas^  If  the  husband  has  left  ohildren,  then 
x>ds  in  eonnnnnion  are  divided  into  tiiree 
parti,  one  of  whioh  behrngs  to  the  widow. 
the  other  hand,  thers  are  no  sarrivins  ohil- 
IT  grandchildren,  thai  the  j<oods  are  divided 
into  two  eonal  shores,  one  of  which  belongs  to  the 
widow.  When  the  hosband  dies  insolvan^  the  wife 
olaim  her  jus  reKeM  in  [«eferatoe  to  the 
ciediton.  Though  ths  widow  has  this  ri^  to  her 
JUS  relicCts  at  common  law,  yet,  if  she  enterad  into 
an  antennptial  contract  of  marriage,  by  which  ibe 
accepted  an  equivalent  provision,  her  right  may 
"  '  the  oontraot  eiprwMj  stated 
ibatitntlon  tor  tha  otbor.    Li 


i,Coogfe 


JUS  REPRBSEKTATIOiro-JUSTICB. 


Englftnd,  there  u  no  n 


.  abtoluta  right  of  &  vidow 
id's  goods,  iinlen  he  died 
in  which  case,  but  in  which  only,  ahe  ( 

ahue  of  the  pewoatl  art«te  by  vii 

of  the  sUtnte  of  diitribntioiu-  8«e  Goona 
CoKHDKioir,  Hdhbakd  uid  Wan,  Sdccvhion. 

JVa  RSPRESENTATIO'NIS,>phnue  adopted 
hy  the  Scotch  from  the  Bcnun  law,  to  denote  that 
in  heritable  succeraioii,  and  also  to  a  limited  extent 

children  of  a  deoeaaed  pemn  have  predeceased 
children  of  aut^  predeceaHiiiK  children  repr 
their  parent,  and  take  bis  or  her  share.    'Thi 

A  die,  ud  one  of  his  children,  B,  had  predeci. 

A,  loaving  children  C,  D,  B,  F,  then  C,  D,  E,  F 
collectivel7  take  the  share  i^  A'«  property  which 
would  have  come  to  B  if  B  had  survived  A 

JITSHPO'BE,  a  wotected  state  on  the  south- 
west  side  of  Bengal  Proper,  is  entirely  surroiuided 
bj  British  temtory.  It  contsins  617  sqnare  miles 
and  66,026  iolkabitante.  Its  chief  place  is  a  town  of 
the  Nuoe  name.  The  conntay,  a  table-land,  is  much 
orernm  with  jnngle,  tiie  cleared  croand  prodacing 
srun,  chiefly  rice,  and  (h1,  and  ,ue  uncleared  por- 
uoot  abonading  in  wild  silk. 

JUSSIEU,  De,  the  name  of  a  family  which,  for 
more  than  a  century  and  a  half,  has  nombered 
unong  its  members  som6  of  the  first  botaniata  of 
the  age. — Antoote  m  J.,  who  was  bom  at  Lyon  in 
1686,  and  died  at  Paris  in  1768,  was  Profewor  at 
the  Jardin  du  Eoi,  and  the  author  of  various  works 
OD  botany )  amongst  othen,  an  A-ppaidix  to  Toar- 
ttffort  (LyoD,  1719).  He  made  several  voyages  and 
jonmeyi  to  fordgn  ooontries  for  ths  purpose  of  ool- 
leoting  plants,  on  which  oocaaionslie  was  aooompamed 
by  hia  yonnger  brother  Bernard,  who  oo-opei«ted 
with  him  in  all  Us  ioveatagatiiHu,  and  acted  as  his 
samstant. — Bernasd  m  J.,  who  was  bom  at  Lyon 
in  1699,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1777,  contented  him- 
self through  life  in  sssiitins  his  brother  and  nephew, 
without  seeking  renown  by  the  publication  of  his 
own  important  observations.  Having  been  named 
■uperintandent  of  the  nrdens  at  the  Fetit-Trianon 
in  17S9,  he  arranged  t£e  plants  in  accordance  with 
a  natural  system  substantially  the  aame  as  that 
which  his  nephew  and  pupil,  Ijuirent  de  J.,  subse- 
quently elaborated  in  a  more  perfect  manner.  As 
Bemsid  refiued  to  toike  pnbUely  known  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  his  node  cd  arrangement  was  based, 
the  glory  of  his  labour*  devolved  upon  Laurent,  who 
alone  possessed  the  key  to  this  botanical  enigma. 
— L&tntSNT  Di  J.,  who  was  bom  at  Lyon  in  1748, 
and  died  at  Paris  in  1836,  was  wortii^  the  rich 
heritage  left  to  him  by  his  teamed  and  dudntereated 
relatives.  At  the  age  of  17,  he  Iiegan  his  botanical 
studies  under  bis  nncle  Bonard,  and,  four  ^«an 
later,  was  nominated  demonstrator  and  assistant 
to  Lemonnier,  the  FrofeasoT  of  Botany  in  the  Jardin 
do  RoL  He  at  once  began  to  reform  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  gardens  and  collections  of  plants  nnder 

nnck's  ideas  in  regudto  Uie  natural  method.  For 
thir^veanheoontinaedtodevebpliiB  novel  views; 
and  when  his  Omera  Pltmiarum,  which  he  b^an 
in  1778,  was  flnalb'  oomdeted  in  1789,  the  natural 
system  was  finally  eatablidied  as  the  ti-ue  1>«ais  of 
botany  (tee  Boutrr).  In  1793,  J.  became  Prcfeesor 
of  Bota^in  the  newly  organised  Jardin  desnantas, 
where  he  continued  to  tMch  till  1826,  when  Uind- 
ncoa  compelled  hijn  to  rengn  his  i^uur  to  his  son 
Adrian.  Dniing  his  tenure  of  office,  he  founded 
the  libruy  of  the  Museum,  which  is  one  of  the 
best  in  Elurope.  His  papers  in  the  Armala  du 
Jftueran  (fram  1801—1820},  and  his  artioles  in  the 
J>kiioiniaire  da  Bdatoa  ifatartBt*,  rank  omon^ 


the  most  valnable  contributions  to  the  literktorc 
of  botany,  and  embody  all  the  resnlts  of  his  own 
investigations.— Adhieh  db  J.,  his  son,  was  bom 
at  Pans,  December  S3,  1797,  and  died  in  the  sama 
city,  June  29,  1853.  From  his  earliert  years,  ba 
had  shewn  biuueU  a  worthy  representative  of  the 
r«iutation  of  his  family.  As  a  youth,  he  carried 
off  the  first  prize  in  the  CotKoart,  or  annnal  txaa- 
petition  among  all  tile  collegiate  schools  of  Paris  i 
and  on  taking  the  degree  of  M.D.  in  1824,  he  pre- 
sented aa  his  tiieais  a  memoir  on  the  family  of  the 
Ewphorbiacea,  which  attracted  the  attenticm  (^  all 
botanista.  ^s  subaequent  papers  on  the  Suiaeea, 
Meiiacea,  and  Malpigkiacea,  folly  reaUnd  the 
expectations  that  had  been  eDtertaioed  of  him. 
His  memoir  on  the  embryo  of  the  Momnatflaioiu 
is  a  work  of  great  merit,  and  was  to  have  been 
followed  by  a  series  of  papen  on  similar  aubjacta, 
when  ill  health  compelTed  him  to  relinqniah  thia 
project  He  was  also  prevented,  by  the  same  caoae, 
from  extending  his  Court  Bltmailaire  de  Botaaigat 
(1848}  into  a  complete  and  general  tmtiae.  la 
1831,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Acadamy, 
and,  shortly  before  hil  death,  he  was  nominated 
to  the  presidency  of  that  body.  J.  oontribntart 
many  viJuable  papers  to  the  Annala  du  ifittaem, 
the  Compta  Jtendia,  and  the  Dktiottaaire  Cnismd 
cPHitlom  Naturae;  bnt  the  services  which  ha 
rendered  to  science  were  not  due  only  to  hia 
writing  for  his  influence  as  a  lecturer  waa  of 
even  £gher  importance,  and  haa  been  manifested 
by  the  number  of  al>le  botaniits  of  all  natioiis 
who  have  owed  their  training  to  him. 

JUSTE   HIIirEU,  a  French 
the  j'Mf  mean,  or,  iccordiog  to  the  .  .^  _  __ 

sion,  the  gMt»  mean.  After  the  rvrohrtwD  of 
1830,  this  tenn  acquired  a  political  ajguiflontinn, 
and  came  into  very  freqnant  use,  becMSe  of  the 
declaration  of  the  orrans  of  Louis  Philippe,  Uiat 
the  jtute  miffeu  was  the  only  principle  of  gomn' 
ment  which  could  secure  the  welfare  of  France^ 


■m,  signi^ong 


JUSTICE,  0 


f  the  cardinal  v 


I  of  the    ' 


t'  utice  is  considered  to  be  clw-  and  definite ; 
ut  theoretically,  there  have  been  great  disputes 
aa  to  it*  ultim^  analysis  and  the  sonroe  i^  its 
bindiiur  qoality.  It  has  been  muntained  v-eiy 
genereli;,  that  both  the  perception  <^  what  is  just 
and  unjust,  and  the  powerful  sentiment  in  faToor 
of  the  one.  and  in  oppotdtioa  to  the  other,  aia 
instincts  of  our  nature,  or  make  a  part  of  that 
ComprehenaiTe  instinct  termed  Conscience,  or  tba 
Monl  Sense,  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  held 
that  utility,  in  other  words,  the  general  intcreats 
'  mankind  at  large,  i*  what  deteiminea  justice. 


justice  ii  ,  

attend  the  hypothesis  of  innate  notion*  genenlly, 
so  powerfully  set  forth  by  Locke  in  his  Smog  oa    ! 
Oie   Undenlanding  (see  Ethic^.      Bnt  neitba-  a 
the  other  view  free   from    soiona   difEtcnltiea,  <rf    I 
which  the  greatest  is  the  univensUy  lelt  oontntat    ! 
between  the  Jost  and  the  Expedient,  or  tha  aimply 
nsefuL    We  are  frequently  called  upon  to  saninee    I 
expediency  to  jnstioe,  which  would  seem  to  in^^    . 
an  obligatian  hi^er  than  the  intereats  of  mankind.    | 
Fiat  juMiHa,  ruat  adttm — '  Let  juatice  be  dme, 
altho^di  the  univeiae  should  coll^iae.'     Wheaen    I 
arises  this  paramount  obligation  T 

inquire  into  the  nature  of  justioe  by  < 


iiizcdtgGoogIc 


DUn  of  hit  peTMOol  liberty,  hia  jwopertv,  cir  uiy 
other  thing  bslongiiig  to  him  by  Uw  ;  jotbce,  there- 
fore, nqmrM  vm  to  latptct  each  one'i  e^ual  righti. 
Sometimes,  howorer,  we  call  the  law  itself  nnjiut, 
in  iduoh  Mtae  we  sympathiaa  even  with  diaobedience 
to  it.  It  il  then  enpiwaed  that  thara  ia  Hone  higher 
law  that  ihonld  hare  prafarance — aa,  for  example, 
the  moral  law.  Thna,  it  ia  ctuuMiTed  by  moat  men 
at  the  [Hvaent  day  to  be  nnjuat  to  hold  oar  fellow. 
creatima  in  alavery.  Again,  it  ia  couaidered  unjuat 
tobnaJcfaiAiri&tajoBe;  in  other  worda,promiaeg 
and  engagementa  mnit  be  fulfilled  in  order  to  do 
jnstioe.  ItiionjiuttoaltewpMtiali^inoaaeawhere 
hU  «re  equally  wtitled  to  fa*  onit.    ImpartiaJUj/  in 

Sablio  tnbnuala  ia  of  the  veiy  oasnee  of  joatioe. 
leail^  the  aame  idea  ia  axpreaaed  by  the  notion  of 
rquatity.  In  all  theoe  cases,  there  ai«  aome  definite 
individiula — one  or  more — that  ai«  cooaiderad  to  be 
poaaesaed  of  a  right,  and  to  be  WTonged  if  that  right 
IS  not  folfilled.    Herein  lies  the  di&rence  between 

C'  ice  and  Benevolence  or  genenin^,  thia  last 
g  the  mere  oveiflowiug  of  our  diaintereeted  fellow- 
feeling,  which  no  one  can  oUim  oa  a  right,  and  for 
whoae  Delect  we  ue  not  ptmiahed. 

Ilieae  psrticnlBTa,  which  are  amonii  the  moet 
marked  ii  '  '  '' 

not  toggM  ,  , 
and  abMnt  in  the  opposite^  ezeepting  uie  exiatance 
of  a  ao-ealled  right  on  the  part  of  aomebody,  and 
alao  the  sentiment  which  demanda  the  pnuishioent 
of  those  that  violate  those  rif^ita.  We  are  no  nearer 
the  BolntiDli  of  the  original  question,  which  ia,  Why 
should  these  ri^ita  be  either  determined  or  ei^oraed 
on  any  other  gronnd  than  expediency,  or  the  well- 
being  of  mankmd  T  It  ia  admitted  on  sU  honda  that 
the  juat  and  the  expedient  coucm*  !□  tibe  long-run, 
bnt  yet  people  dcmor  to  Tn«lriiig  expedieacy  the  test 
of  jnatic&  Probably,  there  ia  something  peculiar  in 
the  application  of  the  tenn  '  expediency,  which  is 
the  cause  of  the  apparent  psxadox  whereby  the  two 
qualities  are  made  uie  tame,  and  yet  not  the  aame. 

Thia  is  really  the  cote.  Of  the  todal  r^nlationa 
that  affect  the  wellbeing  of  mankind,  there  are  two 
widely  different  claaaes.  In  the  first  place,  there 
are  the  interests  of  Sbcitbit7,  or  those  requisites 
without  which  human  aooiety  could  not  be  main- 
tained. Kespect  for  liberty,  hfe,  and  proper^,  uid 
the  performance  of  engagementa,  are  eaaentul  to 
the  vety  existence  of  human  beinga  in  aociety :  if 
theae  cumot  be  enforced,  if  offendera  in  these  pointa 
were  to  escape  with  impnnity,  disorganisation  and 
niin  would  be  the  inevitable  consequenoes.  The 
strength  of  the  sentiment  that  iqjnabce  calls  forth 
ia  therefore  not  a  matter  of  aurpriae;  eeitleiKt 
ia  at  stake,  and  whatever  be  the  force  of  our 
impulse  of  self-preservation,  and  our  deaire  of  the 
preservatjcm  of  our  fellow- beings,  the  same  will  be 
the  meaanre  of  oar  repugnance  to  the  aeta  that 
endanger  both  the  one  and  the  other.  Compare 
theaa  mterats  with  another  class  of  things,  also  for 
the  good  of  aociety,  as,  for  example,  the  promotion 
of  trade,  manufactures,  or  acienoe,  sU  which  are 
very  advantageoua  to  """Vi"^,  but  not  absolutely 
essential  to  our  existence  They  at  moat  exprees 
the  difference  between  two  gradea  of  happmeai, 
not  the  difference  between  exiatence  and  annihi- 
lation. The  contrast  between  the  juat  and  the 
expedient  may  now  be  apparent ;  both  relate  to  the 
welfue  oif  mankind ;  but  the  one  ia  conoemed  with 
ficsifh  the  other  with  leell-bemg,  to  uae  a  favourite 
disbnolion   of  Oliver  Cromwell'a.     The  one  ia  ao 


r  attachment  to  the  two  interests.    The  suj 


identic*]  one.    We  can  live  without  generosity,  or 

with  some  very  amall  share  of  it ;  a  thoroudily 
selfish  community,  if  not  also  very  ahort-aigbted  aa 
well,  might  exist  j  but  a  community  where  iuatice 
was  nowliere  observed,  could  not  exist.  Still,  the 
grounds  of  justice  are  and  can  be  no  other  than 
general  utihty.  'If,'  aays  Mr  John  Stuart  Mill, 
'  that  expression  does  not  seem  to  convey  a  snffioient 
feeling  of  the  strength  of  the  obligation,  doc  to 
account  for  the  peculiar  energy  of  the  sentiment, 
it  is  because  of  the  extraordinarily  important  and 
impressive  kind  of  utility  which  ia  concerned.  The 
interest  involved  is  that  of  security,  io  every  one's 
feelings,  the  moat  vital  of  all  interesta.    All  other 


by  another ;  and  many  cf  them  can,  if 
necessary,  be  cheerfully  foregone,  or  replaced  by 
something  else ;  but  security  no  hnnun  being  con 
possibly  do  wl^ont ;  on  it  we  depend  for  IM  oar 
immunity  from  evil,  and  for  the  whole  value  of 
all,  every  good  beyond  the  paaaing  momeot,  since 
nothing  but  the  gratiHcation  of  me  instant  oauld 
be  of  any  worth  to  us,  if  we  oould  be  deprived 
of  everyUiing  the  next  inatant  by  whoever  waa 
momentarily  stronger  than  ouraelvea.  Now,  thia 
moat  indiapensable  of  all  neceasaries,  after  physical 
nutriment,  cannot  be  had  unleaa  the  macluneiy  tor 
providing  it  is  kept  unintermittedly  in  active  play. 
Our  notaon,  therefore,  of  the  claim  we  have  on  our 
fellow-creatures  to  join  in  making  safe  for  ua  the 
very  groundwork  of  our  existence,  gathers  feelings 
aroui^  it  so  much  more  intense  thuk  those  con- 
cerned in  any  of  the  more  common  cases  of  ntility, 
that  the  difference  in  degree  becomes  a  teal  differ- 
ence in  kind.  The  claim  assumes  that  character 
o£  absoluteness,  that  apparent  infinity,  and  incom- 
mensurability with  all  other  considerations,  which 
constitute  the  distinction  between  right  and  wrong, 
and  that  of  ordinary  expediency  and  iaexpedienoy. 
The  feelings  concerned  are  so  powerfal,  and  we 
—  nt  BO  positively  on  finding  a  responsive  feeling 
otLbeFB  (all  bemg  alike  interested),  that  oughl 
and  lAould  grow  into  mujf,  and  recognised  ini^- 
pensobility  becomes  B  moral  necessity,  analogous  to 
physical,  and  often  not  inferior  to  it  in  binding 
fotoe.' — On  UliiilaTianuTii. 
If  there  were  Such  a  thing  as  intuitive,  eternal, 
id  immutable  justice,  independent  of  tU  the 
incems  of  this  world,  and  jiaramoimt  over  the 
highest  interests  of  mankind,  it  ought  to  be  some- 
thing clear  and  unambiguous,  the  same  in  all  age* 
and  nations,  being  revealed  to  the  human  mind 
without  any  reference  to  men's  outward  circnm- 
stances.  But,  not  to  repeat  the  argmnents  that 
refute  this  notion  oa  reapectn  morality  in  general 
(see  Brsics),  it  may  easily  be  seen  that  as  to 
justice  in  puticular  there  is  a  very  great  disogree- 

. .    itiata  of  social  security — namely,  the  respect 

for  Ic^ol  rights,  the  keeping  faith,  and  the  Liks. 

These   thinga  men  in  all  ages  have  recogniaed  at 

~   part  of  justice ;  but  in  tSm  things  leas  eaaential 

I  the  common  aofety  of  mankind,  where  notions 

of  just  and  uojust  ore  still  admitted  and  pleaded, 

there  ia  anything  but  unanimity  of  opinion ;  nay, 

what  is  considered  juat  in  one  country  and  time, 

coEisidered  unjoat  in  other  countries  or  other 

lea.     Primogeniture  is  one  example ;  slavery  is 

See    CoLLiai    o* 


JUSTICE,  Lord  Chzbt,  the  title  given  in 
England  to  the  c^ef  judge  of  the  Courts  of  Queen's 
Bench  and  Common  Fleaa.  The  chief  of  the  former 
court  ia  called  the  Lord  Chief-jostioe  of  Eiudand, 


-.Guui^le 


JUSTICE  OF  THE  PEiLOE. 


wliile  ths  other  1b  merely  the  Lord  Oud-jiutiM  of 
the  Court  of  CommoD  Pleu. 

JC8TI0B  OF  THE  PHAGE,  in  Engluid,  ii 
»  petton  appointed  by  commiuion  of  the  crown, 
or  b:f  act  ot  ptfUaioent  or  charter,  to  exerciie 
oeiUin  jndicUl  authority  in  a  county  or  borotiKb. 
The  pei«oii  who  praotioaUy  appouiti  to  the  office 
i«  the  lord  chancellor,  who  in  hte  diKretion  nuy 
include   in   the  oommiuioa   oertoia   penoiu  who 


entitled  to  the  rersnion  thereof, 
if  it  be  of  the  rent  of  £300  a  year.  All  peraone 
having  the  above  qualification  may  be  appointed 
jnrticea  of  the  peace;  but  pnuituing  sttomeyi 
or  eoUcitors  are  not  eligible  for  coontiee  in  nhich 
they  practice.  The  office  of  jnetice  of  the  peace 
ji  entirely  gratuitous,  for  they  receive  neither  aalary 
nor  feet,  and  hence  the  juitieea  are  cAen  called 
the  'great  unpaid.'  But  in  modem  practice  it 
ha*  been  found  neoeaury  to  deviate  from  thia  rule, 


and  to  ap[ioint  in  all  the  citiei  and  many  lar^e 
town!  cenain  paid  jnttioee  c*lled  ttipeudiary  magu- 
tratea  at  a  fixed  mlary,  who  diachsrge  the  duties 
of  juatioea,  which  are  oeoeawrilyonerooi  and  import- 
ant In  the  city  of  London  and  certain  other 
placei,  the  mayor  and  certain  corporators  are  con- 
ititnted  br  charter  jutticea  of  the  peace  I^  virtue 
of  their  office. 

The  inadtutioti  of  Juttioea  of  the  peace  i<  very 
andeuL  Fieviona  to  1327,  there  were  conaervaton 
of  the  peace  in  everj'  county  chooen  by  the  free- 
holder* out  of  the  pnnoipal  men  of  the  county  to 
perfonn  nmilar  dutiea,  but  by  a  ttatute  of  Edward 
III.,  a  change  took  place  in  the  practice,  and  ever 
aiiNe,  the  eleotion  of  Juatdcea  haa  been  taken  &om 
the  peoide,and  exerciaed  by  the  crown.  At  first, 
however,  they  were  atill  ctlled  merely  oonaervators 
or  keeper*  of  the  peace,  and  were  not  dignified 
with  their  present  tdQe.  Gradually,  the  office  grew 
more  and  more  important,  in  conaequence  of  many 
atatute*  adding  to  their  datiea  and  jurisdiction, 
until,  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
the  fonu  of  commiaaion  was  reviaed,  and  was 
settled  nearly  in  the  form  which  is  now  used.  The 
oonuniMion  is  in  the  name  of  the  aovereign, 
addressed  to  certain  persona  1^  name,  and  directing 

them  'to  keep  our  peace  in  our  county  of ,  and 

to  keep  all  orainances  and  atatntea  for  the  good  oC 
the  peace,  and  for  the  good- rale  and  goverctoeot  of 
the  people,  and  to  chMtiae  and  pvntah  til  persons 
that  oSend  againat  the  said  ordinances.'  The  com- 
miaaion then  asaigna  them  to  inquire  '  by  the  oath 
of  jood  and  lawful  men  of  all  manner  of  teloniea, 
poisiminga,  enchantmenta,  aorceriea,  arts,  magic, 
treapaaae*,  foreetallings,  regratings,  engrossings,  and 
extortioaa  whataoever,  and  of  all  crimes  and 
offencea,  ie.'  Formerly,  it  waa  utnal  to  select  the 
mott  eminent  to  be  of  the  fuorun,  »  name  derived 
from  the  first  word  of  the  clause  quorum  aliquem 
wdnim  A,  B,  C,  D,  ko.  vitun  an  vaiumat,  and  one 
of  these  must  ^WBva  be  preaent ;  bnt  now  nearly 

longer  an  objection  to  a  warrant  ijiat  one  of  tbe 
eonvicting  justice*  is  not  of  the. quorum.  When 
new  juaticea  are  appointed,  the  commission  ia  sent 
by  the  clerk  of  the  peace  to  the  crown-office,  where 
the  uunea  are  inserted.  On  appointment,  the 
justice  mu«t  take  an  oath  that  he  poaaessea  Uie 
neceaaaiy  eatate  as  a  qnalifioation ;  and  if  he  act 
without  taking  such  oath,  he  incura  a  penalty  of 


appomtment  of  a  juatice  of  tbe  peace  has  always 
stood  high  ^in  popul^  eatimation,  and  in  eagerly 
Bonght  ^ter  by  men  of  ctation,  cspedally  in  tha 


brought  by  one  political  party 
the  appointment*  are  given  as  ivwarda  l<a  politicaJ 
aervice ;  bnt  owin(^  to  the  frequent  alternatim  of 
power  among  parties,  the  undue  pnpMideisnoB  of 
one  set  of  p^tioisns  ii  speedily  neu&aliaed  by  t^ 
acta  of  their  aoooaaaora. 

Tlte  functions  of  jualioaa  i^  tha  peaoa  are  cocoeed- 
ingly  multifariona  in  the  preaent  day,  for  Uien  we 
few  departeients  of  the  law  in  whioh  the  aid  of 
Justioea   ia   not  raquired  for   porpoaw   etUur   tt 

r  of  jndioial  dewaion.    For  "    '    ' 


eentuiy  aapacially,  thwe  haa  been  a  oonttaiial  addi> 
tioD  to  tiieir  duties  created  t^  •noeeaaive  acta  at 
pailiament,  and  thia  ii  esnaed  by  certain  reanadiei 
which  either  did  not  exist  beftwe  btdng  created,  <r   | 
by  their,  being  tranafetred  fnnn  other  oonrta  ftsd   '. 

1*iiriedictiona  to  the  aummaiypower*  of  juttioM.    Of   I 
ite,  about  twenty  atatutea  every  year  involve  matt     I 
rial  altentions,  chiefiy  by  way  of  additimi  U>  tUa   . 
branch  of  Juriadiction.  To  enumerate  all  the  b     ' 
law  whioh  in  part  have  been  confided  to  the  di 
of  jnstieea,  would  require  too  much  apaoa : 
may  snfBce  brietlyto  udicate  the  general  d 
of  their  dutiea.    Theee  ate  either  adminkbatiTB  ix 
judicdal.      Thus,  in  earning  ont  the  proviBOD*  of   I 
the  poor-law,  if  the  pwriah  omoua  require  to  reaoare 
a  pauper  from  orte  pariah  to  another,  inatead  of 
intnurting  this  power  to   these   offioo^  they  aia 
required  to  ^  before  jnatioea  of  the  peace,  ao  aa  to 
shew  the  oreaauFtancea  under  which  tha  Teana*«I    I 
takes  plaoe,  and  to  satisfy  the  jostioes  that   the   I 
statutea  on  the  subject  have  bean  compUed  with. 
But   the    great    and   diatinguiahiiu;  functioiu    erf   ] 
justices  are  concerned  in  tbe  jndicsal  dedaioB  td    I 
what  ate  called  o&enoes   punishable  by  msaaa    t±   . 
sommaiy  couvietions  or  order*.      Tha   thMtj  en 
which  all  this  jurisdictioQ  w  founded  ia,  that  while    i 
>v«r  crunes  mnat  be  left  to  the  ordiaaiy 
,  of  ao  indictment,  and  the  ali^ter  wtob^  to   ] 
that  ^  an  aoticm  at  law,  there  ate  many  interme- 
diate ofienoes  idiiah  are  not  worthy  of  tha  aolaan-    I 
oity  of  an  indiotment,  nor  yet  fit  to  he  laft  to  1^    I 
slow,  expensive,  and  irften  ehisoiy  result  cd  a  ctTil 
action.-  Henoe  thia  intermediate  cUsa  of  caaaa  aria*^   | 
which  justices  can  punish  by  fine  and  impnaonnasftt    I 
swiftly  and  dedaively.    Thna,  it  certain  classea  «I 
servanta  employed  in  agriculture  or  msebanical  arts 
suddenly  break  their  engagement   they  may   be 
fined  or  imprisoned  by  justices,  for  if  there  wsav 
speedy   remedy  like  this,   the  mi^-tijirf  oAm 
sed  to  the  muter  might  go   iinniiliiiwiil      In 
like   manner,   jnaticea  poniah    poaching   oAmoo^ 
her  aninst  fish  or  game,  peraoiuu  flrrrmlta. 
incy  offenoee,  *a 

lother  important  claB  of  duties  eonnats  in  tk« 
preparatory  proceedings  oi  all  oriminal  trials,   as    ' 
issuing  the  warrants  to  srrest,  and  examining  wit- 

to  see  if  there  is  a  primA  Jadt  ground 

sufficient  to  warrant  the  committal  <t 
such  persons  to  be  tried  before  juries.  Thsm  an  alao 
various  offences  of  the  olaaa  oE  miadameanoius  whicb 
juaticea  are-entitled  to  try  with  the  aid  ri  a  Jny  ai 
"" vter-aessions,  bnt  none  of  the  mnrri  iiw  inn*  nffmw— 
inteusted  to  their  jurisdiction.  The  oonrta  com- 
poaed  of  justices  are  graeral  or  qnartai  aeaaio^ 
where  indictable  o&noaa  may  be  tried  by  jniiaa;  and 
petty  sesaioo*  and  special  •eatione,  where  a  gnat 
variety  i^  judicial  and  adnuoiatratiee  bnuMH  ■ 
performed.  All  these  duties  are  not  only  parfdiBad 
gratuitously,  but  the  jnatioea  are  ludda  for  t't*-''~ 
often  of  a  ve^  innocent  deacription,  and  have  la 
dama^  lor   the   injuries   thereby  oanaad  to 


■tT^iOogle 


JUSTICE-CLERK— JU8TIPICAT10N. 


nrtlin  n^alU«d  bj  ute  in  1009,  1617, 
by  imintetiont  during  the  Piotaotont«  ii 
embodied  in  the  Mt  1S61,  vhi«lt  i*  the  p 


jutioM  WH  tiwt  of  15S7,  o.  82.     The  offioe 

""    1617,   1633; 

in   UBS, 

.  _ _.  principal 

itatDta  n^Atiog  the  dutie*  of  jnitioe*.  Two 
juatice*  are  held  to  loTta  %  qaomin.  The  iniiedio- 
tioa  of  justioes  i«  confioed  io  pnetice  to  uie  penal 
■tatutw  in  raierence  to  rerenne,  highmTi,  fiahinn, 
game,  and  poblio-houaea,  and  in  many  ol  Uieag  ue 
BheriA  have  cnmnlatiTe  jniiadiotirai.  llieiT  ordi- 
naiy  criminal  JDriadiotion  ia  confined  to  bmachne 
of  the  peaoa,  petty  tiisfta,  and  trifling  aaaanlta. 
They  appoint  a  procnrator-fiaoal  or  pablia  prote- 
cnttn*  for  their  aim  com^  The  oivil  juriadiction  ia 
chiefiy  confined  to  the  small-debt  ooiirt.  In  nuny 
coontiea,  the  aheri^'  amall'dabt  cmut  U  tiie  only 
tribonal  r««orted  to.  No  portionlar  qnalification  aa 
regard*  rsnk  or  property  ia  eaeentiaL  Tbo  appoint- 
ment i*  lea  popnlar,  and  the  range  of  aathority 
and  inriediatioa,  aa  Init  ehewit,  ia  much  interior 
to  what  it  ia  in  England.  Thi«  ia  chiefly  due  to 
a  different  anaogentent  of  jodioial  boaineas,  and  to 
the  atttiqoity  of  ttw  ptaotioe  ol  local  aheriff  ooorts 
in  Scotland,  which  are  prasdad  over  by  trained 
tawyera,  who  m  paid  t^-  ■  fixed  aalaiy,  HieBe 
nffieen  abaorb  mnch  of  the  mnltifarion*  liuiadiotion 
ezerdaed  by  jnatioca  of  the  peac«  in  Bogund. 

JUSTICE- CLERK,  Lord,  a  hi^  jndicial  officer 
in  Scotland,  being  the  lecimd  hWheet  jndge  in 
point  of  tank,andu  theabeenoeof  thcLoTdJuatice- 
ganeral,  the  prealding  judge  of  Uie  Cout  of  Jnati- 
dajy.  Hia  ueoal  daty  ii  to  ut  aa  chief  of  one  of 
the  diviaiona  of  the  Inner  Honae  called  the  Second 
DivieioQ  of  the  Coort  of  Seaaion  (q.  v.).  IDie  office 
in  ita  origin  waa,  as  ita  nama  importe,  of  a  more 
bumble  character. 

JUSTICE-QENEBAL,  Lobd,  the  higheat  judge 
in  Scotland,  aleo  oaUed  the  Lord  Freaident  o[  the 
Court  of  Seeaion.  Formerly,  the  office  of  Joatice- 
aenend  waa  a  aineeure,  and  not  a  judicial  office,  but 
the  title  ia  now,  aince  1831,  aaaociated  with  that  of 
the  Lord  Fraeident. 

JUSTICES,  LoHDS.  From  the  timea  t>t  the 
Norman  and  Plantagenet  kinn,  it  baa  been  the 
oocaaiocal  practice  in  En^and  lor  the  aovereifn  to 
appoint  one  or  mora  pareona  called  Iiorda  Juatioea, 
to  act  aa  hia  aabatitotea  in  the  aaprema  government 
dniing  hia  abaence  from  the  kingdom.  Sabaeqnent 
to  the  SerolDtion,  theae  appointmenta  hare  been 
made  by  lettsrs-prtont  nnder  the  m^t  aeal,  and  the 
anthoii^  of  parhameDt  Iim  aomatune*  bean  reqnirad 
in  conflrmatum  of  thor  powara.  On  Bt«  oocaaiona, 
anch  tmNrintaent  wm  made  ^  William  IIL  when 

going  abroad,  thongh  whil«  Ilia  qr "-    "■ 

delegated  faia  aathorityto  her  di 


aion  on  the  Hoaae  of  Hauorer,  proTided  'Thjrt  no 
peraon  who  ohall  hereafter  come  to  the  crown  ahaU 
go  out  of  the  dotniniona  of  &iEland,  Sootland,  or 
Ireland,  without  conaent  of  parliament  ;*  bat  thia 
clanse  waa  repealed  hj  I  Geo.  I.  a.  2,  and  the  firat 
aorendgn  of  uie  Honae  of  Hanover,  dnring  fire  of 
hia  abeenoaa  in  QennaoT,  made  an  appointment  of 
lordi  jortieea.  Oeor^  IV.,  on  Ua  riait  to  Hanover, 
deleted  kit  anthortty  t«  IB  gnardlani,  of  wkran 
the  Ihike  ol  Yo^  heuvprenmptive,  wae  oka.  On 
BOB*  ot  the  abMUMi  of  her  preaaat  Maferty  from 
her  kiagdoa  bat  tb«r«  bees  any  delegafaon  of  the 
rtmU  aulborityi  and  on  one  of  tlieae  ooeaaioDa,  Lord 
CbancelloT  Lyndhnrfl  atated  In  the  Honea  of  Lorda 
that  the  law  offioera  rMotrdad  it  Dnneoaaan  m  point 
of  law  to  appoint  lorda  joatioM,  in  wkion  oponion 


he  oraunured.  In  oaaa  (d  the  lOweign'e  minority, 
a  Teener  haa  genanlly  been  reaortad  to>  Tm 
powen  of  lorda  JDstioea  hare  been  nanall;  limited 
m  the  matter  of  pardoning  and  reprieving  crinunala, 
anmmima  or  jmmg^tioa  ot  parliunent^  'Oa  diapnaal 
of  pnblio  moneya  in  the  traaaaiy,  and  of  ohurah 
preferment  in  tiis  gift  of  the  orown.  The  lorda 
joatioea  appointed  under  Uu  oommittioni  oif  ITIV 
and  1739  oould  oontinae  the  eiitting  partiunsnt  by 
abort  prmogationa.  till  otherwiae  directed  nnder  the 
royal  aign-mannal— the  other  acta  here  apectSed 
DoDld  ntn  be  ezerdaed  without  the  apecial  aignifiea- 
tion  of  the  royal  ^leaanre,  exoapt  whMi  neoeeawy 

for  the  public  aemoe.    The  pow—  '-  ' 

haa  only  once  been  dalegated,  by  I 


•  Lin  1644; 


d  to  naign  by  the  Hcdbb 
be«n  appmnted  to 


whoae  favour  the 
the  Reatoration,  oomp 
of  Lords- 
Lords  joitieee  have 


viceroy ;  m  modem  tmiee,  thia  hae  only  been  done 
dnring  oocaaional  afaaenoee  ol  the  loid-lientanant, 
or  in  the  interval  between  the  demise  of  one  lord- 
lientonant  and  the  appointmtnt  of  hia 


I,  properly  speaking,  not  k 
e  natnra  of  a  servant  ot  the 


of  the  Foroee. 

JUBTIOSa'  OLBRK,  an  officer,  geueraUr  a 
solicitor,  appointed  by  juatioea  of  thepeaoe  in  Eng- 
land to  aaaist  them  in  their  daties.  Owing  to  the 
justices  tbemaelves  not  being  trained  lawrere,  and 
yet  being  called  upon  to  administer  many  bnuicliea 
of  the  taw,  and  oonatme  acta  of  parliament,  all  of 
which  require  much  skilL  the  joatioea'  clerk  i*  k 
peraon  of  mach  local  influence,  and  in  praetical 
effect  gnldea  and  controls  the  justices 
form  m  advice.  He  is, 
pablio  officer,  bat  in  the 

jnaticea.  Bv  various  ststotee,  he  is  entitled  to 
receive  fees  m  connection  with  the  botiness  tiaiit- 
acted  by  the  juatdcea. 

JUSTI'CIART  COURT,  the  bigbeet  cnminal 
court  in  Sootland.  Its  judges  are  five  of  the  judge* 
of  the  Court  of  Seesian — viz.,  the  Lords  PreaideDt, 
Joatice-olerk,  and  three  others  appointed  by  patent. 
The  quorum  of  the  high  court  consiatf  ot  thr«e 
indgea.  It  site  nxoally  in  Edinburgh,  bnt  also 
holds  drcnit-ooarts  twice  a  year  in  some  ol  the 
largest  towns,  and  thrioe  in  Glasgow,  the  kingdom 
being  divided  for  that  purpose  into  three  divisions 
or  oircoits.  The  joriadictioo  embraces  all  crimes 
whatover ;  and  it  is  an  appellato  court  oa  rerauda 
inferior  eriminol  tribimala.  Ita  decisiona  are  final, 
there  being  no  appeal  to  the  Htnue  of  Lorda, 

JU'STIFIABLE  HOMICIDE  ia  the  killing  of 
a  homon  creature  without  mcurring  legal  giult, 
aa  where  a  man  ia  duly  sentenced  to  be  hanged; 
where  one,  in  aelf-defeuoe,  neoeaaarily  kills  another 
to  preaerVB  hia  own  life,  Ac. 

JUBTIEICATION,  one  of  the  most  oommon 
terma  of  tachniol  theology.  In  Protestant  theology, 
it  eipreasea  an  act  of  divine  favour  whereby  a 
■inner  is  absolved  from  the  penalty  of  his  sins,  and 
accepted  as  righteous,  not  on  aooount  of  anything 
in  hutmlf,  but  on  aooount  of  the  righteonsneea  <n 
*"  '  '  '  puted  to  him.  Aocordios  to  thia  view  it 
ij  fbrenBc  act— the  ftot  ^  a  jndge  n 


of  the  word  the  apoatle  ia  nnderatood  by 
ProteatanU  to  apeak  (Rom-  iiL  36)  of  Qod  m  'Uw 
jutifler  of  him  which  balievetb  in  Jesai.' 


ty  Google 


JUSTIN— JTJtfriN  us. 


In  tin  docthiud  lyrtou  of  tha  BoDUm  Catholio 
ChnToh,  jnstifiofttioD  U  conndered  not  pnrely  u  a 
forauio  net,  or  aot  of  acquittal,  bat,  further,  aa  an 
infnfkio  of  penonal  rigatooDSnen,  and  ai  hence 
•qniTalBDt  to  what  ProfaataDta  ipedaUy  call  tancti- 
Jtcatloii.  lie  diitiaotdon  between  the  two  tiuna 
ia  in  Pnteataut  doctrine  a  caidinal  distinction — the 
one  being  viewed  aa  an  aet,  the  other  aa  a  uori; 
the  one  prooeeding  from  the  divine  clemency  or 
giace  once  for  all,  the  other,  from  tiie  pnwraaaive 
aoency  of  the  divine  Spirit  A  correnundrng  dia- 
tanatioD  is  likewiM  found  in  the  Catholic  ijrstem 
betweeD  tlto  iKt  of  jtul^aalion  and  the  ttatt  or 
dMdMankqfhiJntuaiitulvx. 

Thia  doctrine  of  justiflcatioii  is  Uid  down  mo«t 
plainly  in  the  Epiitlea  of  St  Paul,  and  it  hat 
umaied  to  lome  aa  if  there  were  a  diacrepaai^  in 
t£ii  napect  between  these  vnitiogB  and  the  Epistle 
of  St  James.  Whereas  the  one  saya;  'For  if 
Abraham  were  joitified  Inr  wodks,  he  hath  whereof 
to  glory ;  but  not  before  Ood.  For  what  eaith  the 
Scnptore  T  Abraham  believed  Ood,  and  it  was 
counted  onto  him  for  righteouaneas.'  The  other  Bays : 
*  Was  not  Abraham  our  father  justified  by  works  T 
Ye  see  then  that  by  works  a  man  is  justified,  and 
not  1^  faith  only.'  Fariiapa  tlie  most  effectual 
way  A  reconciling  theae  Itatementa  is  to  suppose 
that  the  Apostle  Paul  is  describing  the  inward 
reality  of  jostificatiiH),  which  has  no  dependence 
upon  worki,  but  only  npon  faith,  while  St  Jamea  is 
speaking  of  its  outward  manifestation— of  ita  reality 
aa  evinced  in  the  Christian  character  and  conduct, 
which  neceaaarily  expresses  itself  in  good  works, 
withont  nhich,  in  eAu  aensa,  there  can  be  no  justi- 
fication. Justiflcation,  in  short,  is  independcDt  of 
works  in  it*  origin  wd  primary  condition.  Ita 
origitL  k  the  grace  of  God — its  only  jfrimaty  condi- 
tion, ooceptonce  of  thia  gnee,  or  /oilA.  But  it  is 
dependent  upon  works  as  its  essential  manifesta- 
tion. Faith  is  not  passive,  but  aeftiw ,'  and  a  faith 
which  ia  not  active,  which  is  not  a  spring  of  earnest 
Cbristian  activity,  is  not  a  troe  &ut£  Such  a 
faith  eaoDot  josti^  a  man. 

JD'STIN,  a  Roman  historiaii  who  fiourished,  in 
an  probability,  in  the  3d  or  4th  c.  altliongh  some 
assign  him  an  earlier  date.  His  History — which  is 
of  great  '(alue,  from  its  being  our  only  authority 
on  many  important  points— u  merely  a  selection 
of  pasMges  &om  the  Onivertai  Hittory  of  Trogus 
Pompdos,  a  work  now  tost 

JUBTINIA'ICTJH  (JU8TINIAS)  I.,  Fi»iTros 
ARicms,  nei^iaw,  by  the  mother's  side,  of  the 
Enip«rorJiMtin,waBl>om483AJ>.,  in  the  village  of 
Tanredtun,  whicdii  afterwards  gmw  into  the  splendid 
tiitf  of  Jostinisixs,  and  on  we  site  of  which  the 
modem  Eastendja  stands.  Altliotu;h  of  obscure 
parenfawe,  he  shared  the  success  of  his  maternal 
uncle,  Justin,  being  invited  at  an  esrly  age  to 
Constantinople,  where  be  received  a  careful  educa- 
tion, and  if  tbe  reporte  of  his  courtly  biographers 
OOQ  be  accepted,  attained  to  considerable  eminence 
in  philosophy,  theology,  and  law,  as  well  as  in  the 
more  elegant  ponuits  of  poetcy,  music,  and  orchi- 
tectun.  When  his  uncle  was  elevated  to  tiis 
purple  in  618,  ha  appointed  J.  conunoader-in-cMef 
of  the  army  of  Ana.  The  tastes  of  J.,  however, 
inclining  him  rather  to  civic  ponoits,  be  declined 
this  appointment,  and  remained  attached  to  the 
court  (rf  Constantinople.  In  C21,  he  was  named 
consnl,  and  during  the  remaining  years  of  the  reign 
of  his  uncle,  he  continoed  to  eieroae  great  iof  oence. 
In  6S7,  the  Emperor  Justin,  by  the  advice  of  the 
senate,  proclaimed  him  his  partner  in  the  empire. 
Justin  survived  tha  step  bat  a  few  months,  and  J. 
was  Drowned  as  sole  emperor,  along  with  hia  wife, , 


the  famous  Theodora,  whom,  de^ite  rf  her  «i«r 
than  dubious  onteoedaits  as  so  aetata,  he  \ai 
nised  U)  the  position  of  his  wife.  J.,  <■  Us  itra- 
siOD,  was  in  his  45th  year.  Hia  leign,  wlii^  atendi 
over  38  years,  is  the  meet  brilliant  in  the  Uitis;  of 
the  late  empire.     Although   himinlf  withsit  tlie 


the  fortune  01 


le  skin  to  select  the  sUest  gtacnk 


Under  the  diraotion  of  hia  generals, 
of  the  celebrated  Narses  (q.v.)  aiMi  Belissiini  (q.v.), 
his  reign  may  be  said  to  have  restored  the  Bosa 
Empire,  at  least  in  outward  appeaiaoce,  to  ita 
ancient  limifai,  and  to  have  reonited  the  Eut  ind 
West  under  a  sin^  rule.  Id  his  first  wu—Clut 
with  Penia — he  ctmdnded  a  boaty  by  which  Iba 
crisis  that  had  so  long  threatened  wis  *t  lent 
worded  off ;  but  the  rejoicings  which  cdrinttd 
its  termiwrijon  had  almost  proved  fatal,  bf  1 
domestic  revolntion,  to  the  anthori^  of  J,  tusadl 
A  cooflict  of  the  so-called  Blue  and  Greta  fectku 
in  the  circus  in  532  was  but  an  outbnnt  lA  fcJitiril 
discontent,  which  went  so  for  as  to  dect  1  nnJ 
emperor,  Hypatios.  J,  himself  was  stnxi  vitt 
dismay,  and  had  made  preparations  for  flight ;  bol 
tjie  vigour  and  detenninati«i  of  Theodon  BRMed 
the  revolt  Narses,  with  a  rdentless  hand,  refsmed 
the  tumnlts,  d(VnO  victims  having,  it  ie  nid, 
foUeo  in  a  single  day.  By  Ute  anns  of  Bdiwiei, 
the  Vandal  kingdom  of  Africa  was  ra-aimeied  to 
tbe  empire ;  and  the  some  general,  oonjoiiiUj  witl 
Norses,  restored  the  imperial  authority  as  vd  a 
Borne  as  in  Northern  Italy  and  a  large  porttu 
of  Spain.  One  of  tbe  moat  extrBordiniry,  Uuu^ 
in  the  end  ineffective,  works  of  tlte  teign  ot  J. 
was  the  vast  line  of  fortifications  which  be  eoii- 
structed,  or  renewed  and  strenKtheced,  il<mg  &* 
eastern  and  aonth-eastem  frontiv  of  hii  tnpin 
These  works  of  defence,  and  ilie  ooartnction  of 
many  public  buildings  both  in  his  c^iitel  ud  a 
other  citiee  of  tbe  empire,  involved  so  enccnati 
expenditure,  and  'Uie  fiscal  administntiOB  of  J..  i> 
consequence,  pressed  lieavilv  on  the  public  lesoneti; 
but  it  is  admitted  to  have  been  ably  and  npiif^T 
conducted.  It  is,  however,  aa  a  legisllter  Sui  I- 
hss  gained  renown.  Immediately  on  his  acwi""!  1 
be  set  himself  to  collect  all  previont  yt^iain  i 
enactmeDts  which  were  stiU  in  f<H-oe ;  and  ni  mlir 
to  do  this  thoroughly,  he  first  OHniskd  »  a^ 
which  commised  all  the  constitutions  of  hii  pndc' 
oessora  (627—529).  Soe  Cot>E.  The  aatborititiTi 
commentaries  of  the  jurists  were  next  hiimaniW. 
and  published  under  the  title  Bigata  Paadtcm  IKS 
—633).  See  Pumana.  The  code  was  lepiUidKil 
in  634,  with  the  addltitm  ctf  J.'s  own  conititafiM. 
His  third  great  legal  ondeitaking  was  tbecnapMt- 
tion  of  a  systematio  treatise  on  the  Ian,  Ua  itt 
guidance  of  students  and  lawma.  Iliisvu  ^^ 
lished  a  short  time  before  tbe  i^i^esl,  nndcr  tte  title 
of  Inttitalioaa,  i  e.,  '  Institutes.'  AU  theae  wDfb 
were  accomplished  under  the  careful  saperiste"^ 
enoe  and  direction  of  Tribonian,  and  wen  vlitM 
originally  in  Latin.  The  later  treatises  lAicli  i- 
caused  to  be  written  were  in  Greek,  and  itn 
entitled  Nov^la,  L  e.,  *  New  Works.' 

Tbe  oharacter  of  J.  as  a  ruler  conCntsIa  fBVOiuil))T 
with  that  of  moet  of  the  emperon,  whethff  of  tk 
earlier  or  the  later  empire.  His  penonil  vlitan 
were  of  a  class  and  in  a  degree  seldom  nniled  is  '''  . 
of  such  station ;  and  his  nublic  odmiuisbatioD,  vits 
the  single  exception  of  t 

which  he  was  an 


iM-\ 


meddler,  exhibits  great  ability,  and  jnst  and  np¥^ 
intentions.    He  died  at  the  age  of  83.  and  in  D) 
38th  year  <A  his  reign,  NovemlMr  14,  661. 
JUSTI'NUB,    nuoamed   the    Hamii.  >^ 


,d  by  Google 


JUSTINUa  L— JUTE. 


treqneutl;  tlie  Fbilosofheii,  b  Father,  and,  after 
TertuUion,  the  moat  dirtm^niahed  apologat  of  the 
ChristiBn  Chorch,  was  a  native  of  Flavia  Neapolu,  a 
iRociuui  cit7  erected  on  the  site  of  the  ancieat  Sechem, 
iu  Samaria.  The  date  of  hii  birth  is  Torioualy 
assigned  to  the  years  S9,  113,  114,  and  118  a.d.  His 
father  PriBcua  was  a  heatlieii,  and  J.  woa  edncated 
in  the  relioiaii  of  his  lather.  Ea  became  an  aident 
Btndant  <n  the  philoeopiiy  of  his  age.  beg^miinK 
■with  the  achool  of  the  Stoics,  but  finally  adhering 
to  that  of  the  PlatOnists.  With  the  Uat,  m  be 
IiimaeU  relate*,  he  naa  in  the  commeiicemeiit  highly 
Batiafied ;  bat,  a»  b6  wae  one  day  wanderiiig  uong 
the  aea-thore,  he  eDconutered  a  man  of  niild  and 
venerable  aspect,  who  created  in  J.'s  mind  a  desire  for 
liigher  knowledge  than  Plato  had  reached,  refening 
bini  to  the  stndy  of  the  Jewish  prc^diets,  and 
tbroDgh  them  to  the  great  ChriitiBn  teacher  whom 
they  loretcld.  The  Ksolt  was  his  conversion  to 
Christianity,  at  some  date  between  119  and  140 
A.l>.  After  hi*  conversion,  he  retained  the  garb  of 
a  philosopher,  but,  as  a  Christian  philosopher,  ho 
strove  by  his  writinni  and  his  InstructionB  to  brin^ 
others  to  the  truth  which  he  had  himself  discovereiL 
He  is  sud  to  have  been  beheaded  about  the  year 
165,  in  the  reign  of  Uaiciia  Aurellna,  because  he 
refused  to  offer  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  g~  '  "" 
death  is  attributed  by  the  ancients  to  U 
and  malignant  arts  of  the  Cynic  phUrwoplier  Cresceas. 
The  worts  of  J.,  although  not  yen;  volmninooa,  are 
highly  interestijig  and  important  The  books  ascribed 
to  him  with  certainty  are  two  ApoUtgiet  far  An 
Chrittian»,  the  first  addressed  'to  Antomnoa  Ptoa,' 
the  second  '  to  the  senate ; '  ■  DialogKe  vrilh  TrypKon 
t}ii  Jem,  which  professes  to  be  the  record  of  on  actual 
discussion  held  at  Ephesus.  The  Address  to  tht 
Qrttks  is  not  so  certainly  a  genuine  work  of  J.,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  his  HiAorlation  to  lAe 
Gretts,  his  Letter  to  DiogTiebu,  and  his  work  On  lite 
M/mardm  of  Qod,  an  aigament  againat  the  poly- 
theism <^  pasaniam.  The  other  works  ascribeil  to 
him  are  certamly  spniions.  The  first  edition  of  his 
works  is  that  of  Bobert  Stephens  (Paris,  1661).  The 
Benedictine  edition  ot  J.  la  that  of  Maran  (Paris, 
1742),  and  a  reoent  edition  has  appeared  in  Germany 
by  ProfnsoF  Otto,  2  vols.  8vo  (Jena,  1842—1844). 

JUSTINUS  1,  or  JUSTIN  THE  ELDER, 
Emperor  of  the  East,  was  bom  in  460  A.l>.,  of  barbarian 
]>arents,  and  entered  as  a  private  into  the  emperor's 
body-gnard,  of  which  he  rose  to  be  commander.  He 
held  uiis  last  post  till  the  death  oE  Anastaaiua  L, 
whomhe  succeeded  on  the  thcoue,  CIS  A.9.  Feel- 
ing that,  from  his  total  wont  of  learning,  he  was 
unfitted  to  direct  the  internal  civil  admmistiation. 


with  the  pope, 

._  hostilities  between 

Idtin  churches.    In  623,  he  resigned 

to  Theodoric,  king  of  Italy,  the  right — which  till 
thii  time  the  eastern  emperors  had  slways  exerdaed 
— of  appointing  '  consuls '  in  Home ;  and  the  same 
year  he  became  involved  in  a  war  with  the  king 
of  Persia.  Some  time  before  his  death  in  Ans. 
077,  ba  ossodated  his  tiephew  Justinian  with 
hioiielE  in  the  government. 

JDBTINUS  IL.  or  JUSTIN  THE  YOUNGER, 
Emperor  of  the  EmI^  succeeded  his  uncle  Justinian  L, 
in  569  i.i>.,  and  espoused  Sophia,  the  niece  of  the 
Empress  Theodora,  a  beautiful  and  able,  but 
rerenaefnl  woman.  His  rule  was  weak  and  dea- 
pieablL  Through  the  influence  of  the  emnreas,  i 
flsiMS  (q.v.)  was  '?'T""'Tf<^  from  the  ezarcciy  of  I 
Ravenna,  though  at  the  time  J.  was  folly  - 

'jOUgDMrdS  a. -1!- 


thattha  LougoM 


re  meditatitig  an  invasion  of  | 


Italy.  The  joy  of  these  savages,  on  bearing  i^  the 
disgrace  of  the  one  man  whom  they  dreaded,  was 
excessive  ;  and  in  £68  they  burst  like  an  BTolancha 
upon  Italy,  whioh  from  this  time  was  for  e' 

to  the  Greek  Empire.    In  the  midst  of  a  Hiii,. „ 

war  with  Khosrli,  king  of  Persia,  J.  died,  26th 
September  C78,  after  appointing  Tiberius,  one  of  hia 
generals,  as  his  successor.  J.  had  been  Insane  from 
o74,  from  which  time  till  his  death  the  supreme 
authority  was  in  the  hands  of  the  empress, 

JUTK.  The  jute  of  commerce  is  a  filve  pro- 
duced from  two  species  of  TUiacta,  the  Cortkonta 
oUtoritts  and  Cordumu  mptuforit,  two  pluita,  ahks 
in  qoalitiea,  thou^  sli^Uy  different  in  appearuic^ 
andT  sown  indiscniniiiately ;  the  first  having  round 
seed-pods  and  reddish  stalk,  the  latter  long  seed- 
poda  and  bright  green  stalk.  From  the  fibre  which 
IB  the  cbeaptat  Imown  are  prodnoeil  gunnies,  gunny- 
cloth  and  cordage,  and  from  the  finer  qualities 
carpets,  shirting,  coat-linings,  Ac,  ore  made.  It  is 
exteuaiTely  nsM  for  mixing  with  silk,  cotton,  and 
woollen  foDries,  and  also  in  paper-making,  while  the 
leaves  are  eaten  in  many  places  as  food. 

Although  indigenous  to  the  tropics,  Bengal  being 
the  largest  jute-growing  country,  the  plant  grows 
io  most  climates  and  on  all  kinds  of  aoil,  rich 
allavial  lands,  and  lands  Bubject  to  salt-water  tidal 
iuflueuoes  particalarly  favonring  its  production.  It 
is  an  exhausting  crop  for  the  soil.  The  plant,  if 
weeded  onoe,  requires  no  more  attention  till  cutting 
time.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  12  feet,  having  a 
single  stalk  without  branches  or  leaves  till  near  the 
top,  and  will  fiouriah  thongh  flooded  with  two  feet 
of  water  for  a  month  at  a  time.  In  Bengal,  the  plant 
is  cut  while  in  flower,  about  three  months  after  aow- 
iug.  Cnt  close  to  the  gronnd,  stripped  of  leaves  and 
branches,  it  is  tied  in  bundles  and  steeped  from  10  to 
20  days  in  water,  to  loosen  the  fibre  by  rotting  the 
outer  bark.  After  steeping,  the  plant  is  beaten  till 
the  fibre  only  remains,  wMch  is  cleaned,  dried,  and 
made  into  '  drnms '  of  70  or  3D  lbs.  If  for  export- 
ation, it  is  preraed  into  twles  of  300  lbs.  and  upwards. 
Fine  juto  has  ft  beautiful  eIoss;  golden  appearance, 
and  is  soft  and  silky  to  the  toudi.  Great  import- 
ance attaches  to  length  and  strength  of  fibre. 

The  first  mention  of  the  word  jute  is  in  1796,  in 
the  manuscript  commercial  index  of  the  court  of 
directors  of  the  East  India  Company.  It  ia  the 
Bengali  name  used  by  the  natives  of  Cnttack  and 
Balasore,  where  the  first  European  manufactories 
were  established  in  the  noddle  of  last  century.  In 
1829,  the  total  export  from  Calcutta  was  twenty  tons, 
value  £60.  In  1833  it  had  increased  sixteenfold, 
and  about  1864—1866  the  increased  demand  caused 
jute  cnltivation  to  extend  to  other  districts,  the 
exportation  in  1872—1873  reaching  the  enormous 
•mount  of  300,000  tons,  valne  £3.600,000. 

England,  Bombay,  and  America  originally  divided 
the  exports  of  jute,  and  up  to  the  time  of  the  civil 
war,  NortLh  America  took  the  largest  share  of  the 
gunnies  (see  Gunirv  Bags).  Jute  and  gunniei  are 
now  exported  from  Bengal  largely  to  ^mwc^  Aus- 
tralia, and  other  parts  of  the  wmd.  Juts  grown  in 
England  is  not  ramunemtiv&  It  has  been  aaoceas< 
fnl^  grown  in  small  quantities  in  Amwica,  however. 
Gunnies  are  elassed  aa  Nob.  1, 2,  and  3.  No.  1, 
close  woven,  is  used  for  sugar,  fine  grains 

jseed  or  rape-seed,  and  aimiiar  products ; 

No.  2,  also  close  woven,  bat  thinner,  for  rice  and 
the  larger  grains  ;  No.  3,  thick,  coarse,  and  open,  is 
-'-".jally  suited  for  the  outer  ooverinz  of  double 
The  manufacture  of  gunny  with  primitive 
looms  is  %  common  form  of  convict  labour  in  BengaL 
Near  the  Himalayas,  in  North-eastern  BeDgol,  the 
natives  wesi  a  fine  cloth  of  their  own  manu&cture, 
made  of  jute,  or  jute  and  cotton. 


feic 


jOtEEBOGK— JUVENILE  OBTENBBBS. 


lucrcued  deinaad  hu  Utely  indnoad  jute  jiro- 
dnotaon  in  Bnnnali,  lUlf,  Qneendaod,  and  America, 
fto.;  and  a  European  company  is  being  itarted 
(1S74)  to  oultiTata  jnts  in  Bntiib  Bnrmah 
Male.  The  mannfactara,  agun,  )■  laigel^  < 
in  Great  Britain,  aod  ii  th«  ohief  ini 
Dtmdee  wid  BeUaet.  In  Ben^L  jvte  -valued  at 
about  a  million  atflrling  ii  atmnaUy  manufactured, 
matHj  for  loc»l  connuDptdon,  the  bulk  being  tamed 
out  l^  the  E^gliih  inill%  <u  which  there  are  lix, 
working  about  1600  kionu,  mostljr  near  Calcutta, 
the  OauripoTe  and  Bamagore  miOt  being  the  prin- 
dpaL  Aaditional  mills  on  a  large  aeila  are  bdng 
•neted,  to  that  it  remain*  to  be  seen  whether 
Uie  advantagM  <rf  looality  and  cheap  labour  in  India, 
over  anterpriae,  cheap  machinery,  and  eataUiihed 
trade  at  Dundee  and  Belfait,  wiU  oauM  the  preaent 
lupremaof  of  ths  latter  places  to  wane. 

A  coarM  paper  haa  been  made  for  centuries  back 
in  Bengal  out  of  jute,  b^  beating  the  fibre  into  a 
pulp  with  line,  drying  ■'  —  •'^~*-  ■;"""  wi*h  "™i 


New  J 


and  flax  IFormtunt  tenax)  ia  a  rival 
m>re.  Bhea  or  CliiDa  erass  (ITWvM  tameiuimta), 
which  growi  wild  in  ra^  luxurianoe  in  the  tropica, 
ia  ao  fine  and  strong  a*  to  rival  lilk,  but  there  is 
great  difficnl^  in  seriaratinK  the  fibre  bum  the  wood 
and  bark.  The  Indian  govemmeiit  oSer  £C000  for 
a  che^)  inyention  tar  this  purpose;  and  till  thf 
disaoTned,  Bengal  jute  ia  likely  to  maintain 
Eajatratxj  among  the  ehe^i  fibres  of  the  world. 

JTJ'TEBBOGK,  a  arfaJl  manufactaring  town  of 
Frassia,  in  the  province  ol  Brandenburg,  ia  situated 
on  the  Nuthe,  27  miles  south  of  Potsdam.  Here 
considerable  wool  and  flax  markets  are  held,  and 
wine  ia  produced  to  some  extent.  WooUen-aloth 
manntactores,  spinning,  weaving,  and  dyeing  are 
also  carried  on.  Pop.  (1671)  6673.  In  the  vicinity 
is  the  field  of  Dennewitz,  where  the  Prussians 
defeated  ths  French  under  Hey  and  Ondinot, 
September  6,  ISia 

JUTLAND  (Dan.  /yUoMf),  the  onl^  conmderable 
peninsula  of  Europe  that  points  directly  north, 
forms  a  portion  oE^  the  kingdom  of  Denmark,  and 
used  to  oompriaa  the  province  o£  North  Jutland  and 
the  duchy  of  Slesvig  (q.v.),  which  was  called  by 
the  Donea  South  Juufcd.  The  proyiace  of  North 
Jutlaud  has  an  area  of  9618  square  miles,  and  a 
population  (1870)  of  788,119.  See  Dxhiurk.  J.  is 
aatd  to  have  been  inhabited  in  the  earliest  times 
by  tiie  Cimbri  (q.y.),  and  from  this  circumstance 
it  has  reoeived  the  name  of  the  Cimbrisn  Peninsula, 
or  Charsonesus.  In  historical  tdmea,  we  find  it 
inhabited  by  the  Jutes,  who  took  part  in  the  expe- 
dition cd  tu  Saxons  to  England.  As  alhes  of  the 
Saxons,  they  waged  war  with  Charlemagne,  and 
nnder  the  name  of  Normans  (Northmen),  frequently 
desolated  the  coa*t  of  Qeimany  and  France. 

JUTBNA'LIS,  DHTDfim  JuinuE,  the  Roman 
•atiiist,  was  bom  at  the  Yolscian  town  of  Aquinum. 
Hm  year  of  his  birth  is  unknown ;  bat  it  may  be 
taken  for  granted  that  ha  was  a  youth  in  the  reign 
of  Nero ;  that  he  was  wane  to  man's  estate,  and 
WW  wiitang  in  that  of  Domitian  (61 — 96  a.  d.)  ;  and 
that  he  survived  into  the  time*  of  Hadrian  (117 — 
138a.I>.)^  He  swwni  to  have  enjiged  a  competence. 
He  piaotiMdat  Booie  as  auadvooate ;  and  toere  are 
•Mue  rsMMW  for  auppoaiiuF  that  bs  visited  Egypt 
Among  his  £ri«ndi  were  Martial  and  Statdoa,  Mid 
peritap*  Qnintiliaii.  But  Bottung  ia  known  of  his 
penooal  taiatory  ^wept  a  f«w  IsMing  facts — among 
Ibem,  that  he  redted  some  of  his  satn**  in  pabba 
with  mvak  applaoMi  and  even  these  faeU  an 
not  known  to  na  In  any  detail     His  intstsat  tot 


posterity  depends  altogether  on  his  writinp — on 
sixteen  satires,  still  survivina;  which  oocopy  tlie 


very  first  rank  in  satirical  lita»tnre,  and  are  at 
priceless  value  as  pictures  of  the  Boman  life  of  tlw 
Empire.  J.  and  Horace  respectively  lepieaont  the  two 
schools  into  which  satire  nas  always  been  divided ; 


and  from  one  or  other  of  them  every  Haimral  satirist 
of  modem  Europe  derives  his  descent    As  Horaoe    1 
is  the  satirist  of  Ridicule,  so  J.  ia  the  satiiiat  ol 
Indignation.    J.  ia  not  a  man  of  the  world  so  mnch    i 
as  a  reformer,  and  he  plays  in  B«man  Uteiatan  a    ' 
part  OOTrespoidijag  to  that  of  the  poidietanBdnthB    i 
Jewish  dispe&satitaL  He  uaea  sabre  not  as  *  bnaeh 
of  comedy,  which  it  was  to  Horace,  but  aa  an  es^iDe    , 
for  attacking  ths  brutalities  of  tyranny,  the  ootmp- 
tion*  of  life  and  taate,  the  cnnes,  the  foUies,  and    I 
the  (reniiea  of  a  degenerate  state  of  society- 


has  great  humour  of  a  scornful,  austae,  but  sinAO-    : 
larly  pungent  kind,  and  many  noble  llsihst  m  • 
high  martl  poetry.    Wa  would  especially  point  <nit 
that  the  old  Jtoman  genini— aa  distinot  tram  ths    { 
more  coamopolitan  kind  of  talent  fonned  by  Greek    ' 
culture — is  distinotly  discernible  in  JavenaL    He  is 
as  national  as  the  >'i"flH'>'  Hogarth,  who  perh^s 
aives  a  better  image  m  his  ki^  and  ohanicter  of 

that  vre  could  name.    J.  baa  bean  better  translated    i 
in  oni   iitcMtnm  than  almost   any  otJisr  of  the 
aadenbt.   DiTdea'i  venions  of  five  of  bis  satires  are 
ammigst  the  best  things  Dtydeo  ever  did.     Dr    . 
Johnnn  imitated  two  St  the  moat  famous  in  his    | 
London  and  Vatii^  of  Hvmaa  WilKu;  and  the 
version  of  the  whole  of  them  by  Oifford  il  foil  d    t 
power  and  character.      The  beet  known  nodem    ' 

-,:.,---..-..-.-.,.._..... .       I 

itioe  c£    , 
A  adult    I 

offenden,  and  sabjeoling  them  to  different  pumsh- 

ment  and  leformaton  treatment,  has  gained  groond    i 

of  late  yean.    Ia  ths  eye  of  the  law,  penooa  an 


r  diree    I 


mittiDgoi 

age  of  seven,  and  ara  puniahable  like  otlur  panosw. 
Sit  in  Eki^and  and  Ireland,  in  esses  ti  laresny,    | 
whrniever  a  parson  under  the  sga  of  10  is  bi 
before  justices,  and  is  conyioteif  he  or  she  n 
committed  to  the  house  of   i 

calendar  months  or  less,  or,  in  the  disoretion  of  As    ' 
justioes,  shall  be  fined  £3  or  leas ;  or  if  a  male  nnda 
14  years,  shall  be  onoe  privately  irtiipped  (with  a    | 
bird)  rod,  not  more  than  12  strokes),  either  iniitnsril    { 
of  or  in  addition  to  such  imprisonment     ^le  jnTe-    i 

.  ,     , .        e  prefer  it.    And  in  all  caaea  c3 
^oyeniles  under  16  being  convicted  of  oSinees,  the    ' 
justice  or  ma^tnte  may.  in  addition  to  ths  sen-    ' 
tence  then  passed,  provided  such  sentence  isnot  less 
than  14  days'  impnsonment,  direct  the  offender,  at    , 
its  exinratiou,  to  be  sent  to  a  reformatory  sahoid  fu" » 
period  of  not  less  than  two  yesxs,  and  not  more  Aan 
five.    But  the  parent  or  guanUsn  may  have  tin 
child  sent  to  another  reformatoty  school  than  the 
one  named  by  the  magiBtnte,  on  payins  the  addi-    l 
tional  expense,  if  any,    Ths  expsuss  of  ute  G<m«w-    ' 
ance  of  the  offender  to  the  school  is  paid  by  the    , 
county  or  borondi,  but  his  contini    * 


thoe  mnit  be  pud  for  by  the  psrent  or  stap-psrcnt,  ! 
if  of  soffieieni  abili^,  such  sum,  howew,  net  I 
to  ereeed  Bs.  per  week.    Children  who  have  not  yet 


a&te,  bnt  are  in  avagrant  and  nerfected 
states  vm  also  be  sent  to  an  Indwtrial  BcAeoI 
tq.v.).  Li  Sootlaad,  there  are  also  statutes  wjlh 
r^ard  to  reformatory  schools  and  jnveoila  oSsadi 
aimilai  to  what  eziit  in  Eof^and. 


tyGOtigll? 


K 


kXEE  eleveath  letter  of  the  Eng 
V  alplubet.  The  Sliemitio  langnagei 
\  two  diaracteT*  with  the  ume  or  very 
y  uQulai  cmuoiutDtal  po»eT--tIie  one 
£  cftlled  in  Hebrew  Kaph  {hollov  of 
\  the  band),  the  other  Ko^  (the  hind 
'heftd).  Both  were  at  fint  tnui^ 
planted  into  the  Greek  [k  (Sappa) 
=  E,  ?  (old  Oieek  Kopva)  3  CQ,  and  thanca 
f  into  Lalu;  bat  iu  Oreek,  Ko^pa,  r  .. 
was  taAy  dropped,  and  in  Latin  Kappa, 
or  j^  wa«  inppUnted  b;  e  (tee  ALPBi^Br,  and 
letter  C),  except  in  the  cmae  of  a  few  words,  aa 
Ktdeiuke  and  aibki.  In  the  langasgea  derived 
from  Latin,  Moordinglf,  t  ii  used  only  in  writing 
foreign  words.  Although  nnknown  to  the  Angb- 
Saxon  alphabet,  it  hai  in  modem  English  to  a 
considerable  extent  taken  the  place  of  e  in  words 
of  Saion  origiD.    See  C.    Ths  character  Koppa, 

jj,  has  been  retuned  in  modem  alphabeta,  as  it  w 

la  Latin,  only  in  the  combination  711.  This  ia 
clearly  a  relic  of  the  primitive  nature  of  written 
character!,  when  they  constituted  syllabaries  rather 
tham  alphabets,  each  character  expressing  a  conion- 
antal  attionlation  followed  by  a  particular  vowel 
■oiuid  i  «o  that  there  was  one  character  for  ba,  and 
another  tat  bo;  one  for  la,  and  anoOier  for  ia  or  iu, 
as  in  hiwosly^ia.  £' ^,  or  chard)  is  the  ihaip  mote 
of  the  gattnnJ  series,  i,  g,  A,  gh.  See  LcnxBS. 
The  interchanges  tSitre  indicated  under  C. 

KAABA  (Arab. 'aquaishoiiBe'),  the  name  of  an 
oUong  stone  building  within  the  sreat  moaqae 
of  Meooa  (q.  v.).  According  to  the  tegend,  A^im 
flrat  worshipped  on  this  spot,  after  hia  axpnlnon 
from  Paradise,  in  a  tent  sent  down  from  heaven 
for  this  purpose.  Seth  sobstitnted  for  the  t«nt 
a  stmctnie  of  clay  and  stone,  which  was,  how. 
ever,  destnwed  by  the  Deloge,  but  afterwards 
rebuilt  by  Abraham  and  Ishn^eL  Certain  it  ia 
that  the  building  existed  from  time  immemorial, 
and  served  the  Arabe  before  Mohammed  aa  a  place 
of  idolatrous  worship,  probably  to  Zohal  (Saturn), 
It  is,  as  it  now  stands— rebuilt  in  1627—35  to  40 
feet  high,  18  pacea  long,  14  broad.  Its  door,  coated 
with  Buver,  is  opened  only  three  time*  in  tiie  year 
— once  for  men,  once  for  women,  and  onoe  for 
the  purpose  of  cleaning  the  interior.  Next  to  this 
door,  in  the  norUi-east  comer  of  Uie  edifice,  is  set 
the  famone  lara-Itke  Black  Stone  which,  tince  the 
•eeond  yeai  of  the  Hedjrab  (q.v.),  has  served  aa 
Eibleh,  L  e.,  as  an  indicator  of  the  direction 
towatdi  which  all  Hoelenu  mnst  tnm  in  their 
prayet*.  This  ttone,  which  is  said  to  have  dropped 
bom  paradise  together  with  Adam^  ie  held  in 
extreme  veneration,  and  aae  of  its  prtndpal  name* 
ii  'The  Bisht  Hand  of  Ood  on  Earth.'  It  was 
oftginally  <1  white  oolonr,  bat  the  sins  of  man- 
ki^  have  caused  it  to  slied  so  many  Rileat  tear*, 
that  it  haa  baotnne  (externally)  quite  uack.  Others 
explain  thia  chancs  of  colour  by  the  nnnombered 
Vianm  and  tonchea  oestowed  upon  it  by  the  pilgrims, 
pwt  cf  «4wM  oenmoniea  (see  ELuj)  owuisti  in 


compassing  the  K.  seven  tdmea,  each  time  ^therUssitkg 
this  stone,  or  tonching  it  with  the  hand,  and  kissing 
the  Utter.  A  smaller  stone,  to  which,  however,  lest 
veneration  is  thewn,  is  set  in  the  sontb-east  comer 
of  the  Kaaba.  The  ontaide  of  the  E.  is  annuallv 
covered  anew  with  the  licheat  black  silks,  on  which 
an  embroidered  sentences  from  the  Koran  in  gold ; 
a  pious  contribntion  flnt  on  the  part  of  the  califs, 
later  of  the  sultans  of  Egypt,  now  of  the  Turkish 
emperots.  The  E.  ha*  a  double  roat,  supported 
by  pillars  of  aloe-wood,  and  it  is  said  that  no  bird 
ever  rests  upon  it.  The  whole  edifice  ia  surrounded 
by  an  enclosure  of  columns,  outside  which  there 
are  found  three  oratories,  or  placee  of  devotion,  for 
different  sects ;  also  the  edifice  containing  the  well 
Zem-Zem,  the  cnpcja  of  Abbas,  and  the  Treasury, 
All  these  are  further  encloaed  by  a  sjdendid 
colonnade,  surmounted  by  cupolas,  steeple*,  spires^ 
crescents,  all  gilded  and  adorned  with  hunpe,  which 
abed  a  brilliant  lustre  at  night  These  surround- 
ings, between  which  and  the  C  run  seven  paved 
cauaew^t,  were  first  devised  by  Omar,  f(EC  the 
better  preeerration  of  the  K.  itselL 

KAAMA,  or  CAABU  {Antihpi  Oaataa),  a 
speciea  of  antelope,  a  natiTe  of  the  sonth  of  AMoa, 
nearly  allied  to  the  Bubaitu  (q.  t.)  of  the  north  of 
Africa.  It  is  the  Harie-btat  of  the  Butch  oolonista 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  it  is  the  most 
common  of  all  the  lai;ge  antdopee.  Its  boms  ara 
rather  short  and  thick,  curved  like  the  aides  of  a 
lyre.  It  inhabits  plains,  and  congt^pta  in  larga 
herds.  Ite  fleah  is  very  good,  mors  resembling  betf 
than  that  of  almost  any  other'  antelope.  It  is  very 
capable  of  domestication. 

KA'BA-NAQY,  a  small  town  of  Hunrary,  aitn- 
ated  in  a  plain  20  miles  south-weet  of  Debrecan. 
Pop.  (1869)  5745. 

KABTLES,  another  name  for  the  Berfaeia  (q.  t.). 

KA'FFA,  or  FEODOSSIA,  a  fortified  town  and 
seaport  of  Sonth  Rnsaia,  in  the  gov.  of  Taorida,  is 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  E  coast  of  tha  Crimea, 
TO  miles  east  of  SimferopoL  The  harbour,  a  portion 
of  the  bay  of  E,,  an  inlet  of  the  Black  Sen,  is  deep 
and  safe.  It  contains  a  citadel,  a  barracks,  and  a 
museiuu  of  antiquities  chiefly  collected  In  the 
vicinity ;  and  although  it  has  greatly  declined,  it  is 
still  the  seat  of  couaidBrsble  trade.  The  principal 
exports  are  wheat,  hides,  sackcloth,  and  Roats'  hair. 
About  250  vessels,  of  an  average  of  4^194  tons, 
enter  and  clear  the  port  annually.   Pop.  (1367)  9882. 

E.,  the  ancient  Theodotia  or  Vtodoiia,  was  in  the 
1,3th  0.,  when  it  was  under  the  GniioeM  dominion, 
the  centre  of  trade.  In  1465,  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Turks,  under  whom  it  had  100,000  inhabit- 
ants. In  1783,  it  -was  taken  by  the  Busnaoe,  to 
wlWDi  it  was  ceded  by  tlie  treaty  of  Jaa^  in  17^ 

EA'FFTB,  or  KATIB,  the  name  of  a  gieit 
family  of  the  human  race  inhabiting  the  eoatk 
part  of  the  continent  of  Africa,  classed  by  Dr 
Latham  in  diviKon  B  of  tike  wietr  AUantid^tiMic 


itizodh,  000*^  Ic 


physical  confomution  beios  modified  negro,  and 
wmt^  also  mcludei  the  Betjiuoji  (q.r),  Orunpoi, 
DtmartM,  and  other  Bunilar  tribea  living  in  the 
region  louth  of  IS'  south  latitude,  and  extending 
to  the  bonndariea  of  the  Cape  Colony.  Bj  the 
tenn  K.,  however,  the  tribea  inhabiting  the  ooaat- 
conntrr  on  the  east  aide  of  South-east  Africa  ore 
generally  undentood,  and  recent  events  have  further 
narrowed  the  denDnation  in  a  popular  aense  as  more 
particularly  appljnng  to  the  tribes  living  in  the 
oountnr  between  the  Cape  Colony  and  Natal,  those 
east  of  the  latter  colony,  as  far  north  as  Delagoa, 
being  now  better  known  aa  Zulua  or  Zulu  Kaffirs. 
General  diatribution  of  the  K.  races;  1.  Tribea 
(Amatabele,  Amazulu,  &c.,  north  of  Katal ;  Amam- 
pimdo,  Amsxosa,*  &c,  in  EafEraria  Proper)  apeaking 
the  ZoId  lanniage  and  its  dialects,  inhabiting  the 
Mat-ooast  region ;  '2.  Tribes  (Makololo,  north,  and 
Bakuku,  n<nih-weat  of  I^e  Ngami ;  Bakalihari, 
lie)  apeaking  the  Sichuima  language  and  its  dia- 
lects, inhabiting  the  central  region,  and  known  under 
the  ganeral  name  of  Betjnana  ;  3.  Tribea  (Ovampos 
and  Damaiaa]  s^ieaking  the  Ovampo  or  Otjihei«ro 
and  its  dialecta,  inhabitmg  west-coast  region. 

SiMory,  Jx. — The  wwd  K.  is  denved  from 
the  Aiabic  Kiqfir,  'an  unbeliever,'  which  waa 
applied  by  the  Mohammedan  inhabitants  of  the 
eut  coast  to  the  native  tribea  living  south  of  them, 
and  adopted  by  the  Portuguese,  ^ter  their  aettle- 


Melinda  and  MozarnHqua,  to  designate  the 
inhabitants  of  the  vast  region  lyine  '     ' 
and  extending  to  the  count^  of  the  Hi 


I  to  the  aoi 


the  Cape  Colony. 

The  oldest  genealogical  records  of  the  K.  chiefs  go 
back  to  1617.  In  1688,  the  old  Dutch  oolonud 
records  first  mention  the  Kaffirs  as  having  at 
that  early  period  driven  the  Hottentot  aborigines 
•a  far  south  sa  the  Great  Fish  River ;  and  in  1764, 
the  latter  wu  declared  the  boandary  of  the 
Ci^  Colony  to  the  east.  In  1798,  commenced  our 
•enea  of  K.  vrara,  and  between  that  and  1811 
they  were  repeatedlv  attacked  and  driven  acroaa 
the  Fiah  River.  In  1819,  under  the  leadership  of  a 
faljM  prophet  called  Makanna,  thev  ventured  to 
attack  Ontham'a  Town,  but  were  repulsed  with  creat 
■Uoj^ter.  A  period  of  broken  peace  and  ill-kept 
tnatMa  then  ancceeded,  during  which  time  a  con- 
aiderable  Ennipean  and  Hottentot  population  had 
been  settled  along  the  frontier  (1S20).  In  1828,  thev 
were  driven  out  of  the  Kot  River  Valley,  which 
«aa  filled  with  Hottentot  aettlera ;  then  came  the 
great  war  of  1S31~1S3S,  vhich  cost  upwaida  of 
a  million  aterling,  and  ended  in  the  Kamrs  being 
driven  to  the  east  of  the  Great  Eei,  and  the 
territory  between  it  and  the  Great  Fish  Biver  waa 
taken  poaseaaion  of  by  Sir  B.  Durban,  but  imme- 
diately restored  by  the  then  Colonial  Secretary, 
Lord  Glenelg.  In  1846,  war,  which  had  been  Ions; 
inevitable,  again  broke  out,  and  the  Oaika  and 
lalamUe  Kamra,  members  of  the  great  Amaxosa 
tribe,  invaded  the  colony,  and  overran  the  whole  of 
tlie  frontier  districts  as  far  west  aa  Uitenhage, 
And  north  to  the  St'jrnibergen,  inflicting  great 
low  even  on  the  imperial  troopa  on  many  oocasions. 
Again,  nnder  Sir  H.  Smith,  they  were  in  1848 
dnven  back,  and  the  conntiy  they  inhabited  once 
more  annexed  to  the  British  crown,  under  tiie  title 
of  British  Kaffiaria.  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
ihfluence  of  the  chiefs  remained  unbroken,  and  they 
used  it  for  evil  by  again  invading  the  colony  in  ISGl, 
and  this  time  not  only  the  Qaika  tribes,  but  the 
whole  of  the  Amaxoaa  and  Amamtembu,  beaidea  a 
nmnennis  body  of  rebel  Hottentots,  all  well  aimed, 
•nd  provided  with  ammunition.     Again,  after   a 

■  Tha  prvfiz  Ama  si«liiflel  tribe  or  family. 


struggle  of  many  months,  tiie  enemy  was  finally 
reposed ;  and  Sir  E.  Smith  being  relieved  by  8ir 
HT  Pottuiger,  and  he  by  Sir  (feorge  Orey,  the 
latter,  by  his  wise  and  astat«  policy,  sneceaded  in 
breaking  up  the  power  of  the  chiefs,  diapmang  tko 
tribes  amouKst  the  European  aettleis,  and  ntteily 
destroying  their  strenirth,  in  which  he  was  not  a 
little  sssiated  by  a  terrUile  famine  which  obont  that 
period  fell  on  the  unfortunate  people,  they  having 
neglected  to  plant  their  fields,  and  having  killed 
nearly  all  their  cattle,  at  the  command  of  a  false 
prophet  called  TJmlangeni,  whose  inflnenoe  the 
deluded  chie&  used  to  urge  thmr  peo[de  to  this  last 
war.  Since  1802,  the  principal  actura  in  these  great 
frontier  contests,  the  well-known  chiB&  Maooano. 
Pato,  Seyolo,  &c,  are  tniserahle  exiles  and  priaanen 
on  a  sandy  islet  in  Table  Bay,  and  another  K.  war 
appean  to  be  a  very  remote  oantingency.  A  well- 
armed  European  population  now  oconjnes  British 
Kof&aria,  and  the  natives  look  for  juatice  to  local 
magistrates  instead  of  to  their  former  chiefs. 
Beyond  the  Eei  River,  the  chiefs  still  rule,  but  their 
power  is  very  much  broken,  as  our  frantaer  polioe 
control  matters  with  a  pretty  high  hand  on  both 
sides  of  the  border. 

The  K.  races  are  a  tall,  well-made,  and  generally 
handsome  people,  of  a  dork  brown  or  bnmie  ooloor, 
and  hair  in  ahort  woolly  tufts.  As  we  proceed  to 
the  north,  they  gradually  become  Duii«  asnmilated 
to  tha  negro  type,  until  at  last  the  two  nees  seem 
to  blend  together.  They  are  brave,  and  in  times  of  . 
peace,  kindand  hospitable  to  strangers,  affectionate  | 
hoabandB  and  fatbers ;  and  their  minds  have  a 
peculiarly  acute  and  logical  turn,  which  in  many  of 
our  'palavers' withthem  often  gave  them  the  best  of 
the  argument  They  are  an  honest  people,  exoept. 
perhaps,  in  the  article  cattle.  AllJiough  their  idea 
of  Qod  appear*  very  indistinct,  and  Qicir  feelings 
of  veneration  but  amall,  yet  (hey  are  very  anper- 
stitiouB,  and  dread  the  influence  of  wizvds  and 
■orcerers.  Their  huts,  which  arebiultbythe  woDten, 
are  of  a  bee-hive  shape,  composed  of  watUea  stretched 
with  grass,  and  a  collectioo  of  them  is  called  a 
'  kraal,  a  word  of  Portugnese  origin  signifying  an 
enclosure.  The  general  rule  of  the  chi^  is  patri- 
archal, they  being  assisted,  however,  by  a  Tinmhar 
of  'pakati,'  or  coimcilloci,  whose  advioe  is  generally 
followed  by  the  chief.  Polygamy  ia  aUowed,  »JiA 
wives  are  generally  purchased  for  cattle.  The  chief 
has  absolute  power  over  the  property  of  hia  wliale 
tribe,  although  he  aeldom  exercisea  it.  If  any  indi- 
vidnal  accumulates  great  wealth,  an  aecnaation  ol 
witchcraft  is  sure  to  make  *<''"  diagoige  it  Tfa^ 
practise,  in  common  with  all  other  Afncao  natjona, 
circumcision  and  many  peculiar  Htes  of  pnrificatiai, 
many  of  them  analogous  to  those  prescribed  in  the 
Mosaic  law ;  but  these  rites  ^ipeat,  both  in  Africa 
and  Asia,  to  have  been  generally  practised  at  an 
earlier  period  even  than  the  Jews  adopted  thent. 
The  K.  criminal  code  is  very  simple ;  a  fine,  great 
or  snudl,  of  cattle  pays  for  almost  any  offeno^  and 
the  lex  IcdioBU  is  strictly  forbidden  even  in  case 
of  murder.  Iblany  of  their  ceremonies  »tiH  dances 
are  of  a  very  gross  and  obscene  nature,  althon^ 
the  K.  women,  especially  after  marriage,  are  vwy 
chaste  and  modest  m  their  deportment,  and  pi  fi  ut 
in  this  respect  a  striking  controat  to  the  Hottentot 
— T.  The  Kaffira  are  strictW  a  pastoral  people 
the  men  tend  their  herda  exolnaivaly,  ersn 
milking  then^  leaving  to  the  yronmi  tbe 
labour  of  cnltivatmg  their  gardens,  building  their 
huta,  gathering  fu^  Ac.  They  (renei^y  weu- 
a  blaiiket ;  the  former  robe  of  aoltened  ox-hide 
ia  now  very  seldom  seen.  Li  time  of  war,  the  K. 
appear*  in  the  field  naked  and  painted  with  a 
fiery  i«d  clay.    The  native  armt  are  inifrnii  aul 


and   the   i 


jbjGoogle 


KAFFIR  CORN— KAPFEAEIA. 


cIuIm,  bnt  the  nae  of  finamu  ia  nov  pMvalent 
amoi^BlltheSontli-Africui  tribea;»iidm  UialBta 
■war,  the  K.  wrion,  in  ikinmBhiiiE,  excited  the 
admirstion  of  (he  light  oompuiiea  ol  eome  o' 
most  diatingui«bed  raiments.    The  K.  langiu 

ooQEidered  aa  ■  dial^  of  the  Sichnaoa,  whi 

the  original  stock  of  the  different  tribei  of  the  E. 
race.  It  ia  fine,  lonorooa,  and  eipresdve,  with  a 
moEt  ingeuiooB  and  complicated  (TfBtem  of  gnunmar. 
Oa  the  Cape  fnmtier,  many  Hottentot  uid  Dntcb 
words  have  beao  iotroduced;  and  in  the  Zolu 
dialect,  the  Wreleyan  mimionaries  and  Bishop 
Colenso  of  Natal  have  published  many  excellent 
works  tending  to  elucidate  the  philology  of  South- 
African  langoagea. 

The  AmaCengu,  or  Fingoea,  are  the  remains  of 
varioDS  Zulu  tribes,  refugees  from  the  wan  of 
Chaka,  reduced  to  slavery  by  the  Amaxosa  Ksffira, 
and  rescued  by  Sir  B.  Dtu-bso  in  183A,  and  settled 
by  him  along  the  frontier  of  the  Cape  Colony,  l^ey 
■re  a  saving,  careful  people,  and  many  of  them  are 
converted  to  Christianity.  They  have  always  been 
oar  firm  allin  asunst  their  hereditary  enemies  the 
Kaffirs,  althongn  of  the  same  race  and  langu^e* 
The  Fingoea  are  oftm,  from  their  money-makmg 
propensities,  called  the  Jews  of  the  K.  race.    Tli« 


OS,  although  often  quarreling  a: 


mgst  thei 


they  are  gradnaUy  declining  in  numbers,  and  are 
not  near  so  fine  a  race  as  the  frontier  Kaffiis. 

The  umnber  of  the  K.  raoea  has  been  estimated 
at  three  millions,  scattered 
million  tqtiare  miles.  Of  these,  there  may  be  about 
.300,000  m  KaSraris  Premier,  1SO,000  m  British 
Kafiaria  and  Cape  Colony,  and  1SO,OW  in  NataL 

KAFFIBCOBN.    SeeDuaiiL 

EAFTBA'RIA,  Feofkk  or  IvDEt-xvnnn'.  The 
general  deeignation  of  Eaffi'aria  was  formerly 
applied  to  the  whole  of  the  coast  region  of  South 
Auica  east  of  the  Qreat  Fiah  River,  and  extending 
as  far  noitii  as  Sofala,  but  it  ia  now  limited  to  a 
comparatively  smalt  region  enclooed  by  the  high  and 
almost  impaaaable  mountain-chain  called  Kuambi, 
or  Quathlamba,  running  parallel  to  the  coast  (see 
Cafe  or  Qoon  Hopi  and  Atkioa)  at  a  distance 
of  about  120  miles  from  it  between  the  east  frontier 
of  the  Caps  Colony  and  Natal,  and  comprising  an 
area  of  about  26.000  square  miles,  lying  between 
the  Oieat  Eei  and  Umzimcaln  liveis. 

K.  is  drained  by  the  Great  Kei,  the  Ummmvoobo 
or  St  John's  River,  and  ita  tan-like  branchea,  the 
Tsetse  and  Tena.  whioh  rise  in  the  Qoathlamba,  the 
Umzimoala,  Umtata,  Umbaahe^  and  several  otiier 
streams,  with  short  oonrsee,  which  rise  in  a  high 
eaoarpment  or  ridge,  forming  a  sort  of  bnttreM  to 
an  undulating  gntty  bnt  woodleo*  plateau,  which 
extends  ^ong  the  foot  of  the  mountams  at  a  height 
of  about  2N)0  feet  above  the  sea.  The  riven, 
eapedally  near  the  coast,  ran  through  deep-wooded 
kloofs,  sunk  below  the  level  of  the  sorroonding 
country,  and  none  of  them  are  navigable.  The 
coaat  generally  is  rocky  and  dangeroua,  and  should 
not  be  ajmroached  oloeer  than  tl^ee  milea ;  anchor- 

•a  may  be  found  in  one  or  two  ahallow  bays  east 

Qia  3t  John's  River. 

K.  is  inhabited  by  the  remains  of  the  Amaxosa 
and  Amamtembu  tnbea  of  Kaffirs  (who,  ainoe  the 
annexation  of  British  Eaffnuia,  have  retired  across 
the  Eei  River),  the  onoe  powrafnl  tribes  of  Hie 
Amagaleka,  Amampondos,  and  Amabaxa,  beaidee '-'— 


^ths 


t  is  probable 

re^a   will   be 


roughly  estimated  at  300,000;    __. 

in   a  ver^  few  years   the   whole   i_,^ „_ 

absorbed  into  tiie  neighbouring  colonies  of  British 
EafEnuia  and  Natal,  as  the  population  is  rapidly 
decpeaaiug,  and  the  chiefs  fast  losing  their  pro  ' ' 

and  influence.   The  paramount  chief  is  Rili,  or  Ci , 

of  the  Amagaleka  fribe,  who  has  his  principal  kraal 
about  20  miles  east  of  the  Great  Eei  River. 

The  soil  of  E.  is  fertUe.  The  natives  tkmo  suffi- 
cient crops  of  Indian  and  Kaffir  com,  pumpkins, 
Ac.,  for  their  own  use.   Cotton  has  been  snccesafully 

Cwn  in  many  localities  along  the  ooast  Cattle, 
sea,  and  goats  thrive  well,  aud  a  considerable 
trade  with  the  adjacent  colonies  is  carried  on  in 
hides,  horns,  goat-skins,  tallow,  and  wagon-wood. 
The  Wealeyan  Society  have  established  many  well 
organised  stations,  forming  convenient  halting-placea 
along  the  lines  of  toad  which  traverse  Ka&aria 
between  the  Cape  Colony  and  Nat^  and  where 
travellers  will  be  mre  to  meet  a  kind  roception. 

KAFFRARIA,  BamsH,  a  oountryof  South 
Africa,  between  the  Great  Kei,  the  White  Kei, 
the  Eeiskamma,  and  Indian  Ocean  (wrested  from 
the  Kaffirs  by  the  Capo  colonists  in  the  war  of 
1846 — 1847),  was  for  a  time  on  independent  colony, 

*■"*  • a  part  of  Cape  Colony.    It  has  an  area  of 

"—  — -■  —  bounded  on  the  north  by  a 

~  monntains  called  iha 

, _. „  B  oontinnation  of  the 

Great  Winterberg  aud  Katberg  ranges  iu  the  Cape 
Colony.  It  is  well  watered  by  the  Eeiskamma, 
Chomie,  Bo^o,  Gonubi,  and  other  minor  streams 
or  torrents,  generally  running  in  deep  and  rugged 
beds,  and  by  the  Great  Kei,  a  considerable  stream, 
dividing  it  from  Independent  Eaffiari^  None  of 
these  nvers  are  navigable. 

The  physical  tmect  of  British  E.  is  similar  to 
that  of  Lower  Albany,  or  the  eait-coast  region  of 
the  Cape  Ccdony.  Many  fertile,  well-watered  valleys 
~  ~  ~  found  amon^  the  spurs  of  the  Amatola  Monn- 
s.  Behind  these  monntaius  are  high  paaej 
platsMix,  extending  to  the  Kei  River,  and  well 
adapted  both  for  grasng  and  agriculture. 

In  1BS8,  Btitiah  E,  was  divided  into  fanus  of  from 
1000,  to  3000  acres,  which  were  granted  free  on 
of  settlement  and  defence-  The  pop.  iit 
J3  of  British  and  German  descent  (ex- 
clusive of  the  military),  and  7&018  of  the  native 
races,  Amazosa  and  Amafengu  Eaffira. 

The  principal  town  ia  TTing  William's  Town,  the 
bead-quarters  of  the  military  and  seat  of  govern- 
ment, and  containing  a  population  of  about  2000 
souls.  The  port  of  British  E.  ia  East  Londini, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Buffalo  Biver,  where  there 
'anchorage.    Thmearei 


4600  aquare  miles,  and  is  bounde 
high  and  piotureaqne  range  of  n 
Aniatola  (4000  to  COOO  Feet),  a 


silita^pocta 
the  Une  of 


niaaion-stationa,  Epiaoopal,  Wealeyaii, 
Presbyterian,  and  German ;  and  the  natives  are  in 
numeroua  cases   reclaimed   from  heathenism,  and 


declared  an  independent  colony,  under  a  lientenant- 
the  governor  of  the  Cape  being  staled 
_.;._: II derived  from 


sbout  sufficient  to  psy  the  expenses  <d  the 
limited  ezecutive- 

The  larger  /era  natUTxt  have  nearly  disappeared, 
although  *  few  years  back  the  bighjdaina  nortii 
of  the  AmotoU,  called  the  Bontebok  Flat,  were  the 
favourite  hanting-Rrounds  of  South  African  spi»to- 
A  eonsideraQe  number  of  the  German  Le^oo, 
here  after  the  Crimean  war,  have  reoeiTad 
grants  of  land,  and  make  excellent  isttkn.    Two 


t.GoogIc 


KAFIEBTAN— KAlJDAaA. 


^^."^'  '"^  '""'  "^  ^^  Gflmuui  nenpkpen  *re 
pDbluhed  in  Kins  William'i  Town. 

In  laSB,  Briti£  Kafbazia  ceaaed  to  be  an  inde- 
pendent colonj,  and  was  annexed  to  Cape  Colon^f. 

KATIRISTAIT  (i  e.,  cotmbr  of  Uie  Safin  or 
infidels),  a  counter  of  Ceatnl  Ama,  on  tiie  aonth 
declivit^  of  the  Hinda  Knab,  fomuoR  part  of  the 
uoTthem  bamn  of  the  Cabul,  in  35'— 36°  K.  lat,  and 


Bpor*  o[  the  Hindu  Kuah.  The  inhabitants,  whose 
Domber  la  nnknowo,  differ,  u  the  name  of  the 
oonntiy  implies,  in  creed  and  origin  from  the  great 
body  of  the  neighboarinff  tribes;  in  features  and 
compIaziOD,  thej  daim  kindred  with  Europeana 
ThaiT  laufoase,  too,  ia  said  to  be  wholly  independent 
of  the  other  dialects  oE  Central  Asia.  Thia  (tate  of 
iaolation  is  mainly  owing  to  the  natural  strensth 
of  the  region,  which,  though  repeatedly  inTaiud, 
ha*  never  yet  been  subdu«L  'Die  soil  is  fertalB 
enough  to  noder  external  intercourse  oomparatiTely 
nnneceeaaiy,  yielding,  at  it  doee,  fruits,  woeat,  and 
millet,  and  feeding  laijjp  herd*  of  cattle^  sheep,  and 
goats.  Metals  and  tunber  likewise  abound,  the 
peoplo  wcn'king  in  the  same  with  cousdcmble  skill. 

KATTAlf ,  an  article  of  Turkish  dress,  rssonbling 
a  dicasing-gown,  which  is  in  uae  alao  anumgit  other 
oriental  nations. 

KAXN,  an  old  tenn  in  Sootoh  Law,  used  to  denote 
rent  paid  in  kind,  m  in  the  sht^  at  ponlby 
..niinJ.,  to  a  landlord.    Hie  wora  is  said  to    .. 
deriTed  fnnn  eanttm,  a  lAtuused  form  of  the  Qaelio 
caami,  '  the  head.' 

KAIRWATT,  a  decayed  town  of  Horthem  AMcsi, 
in  the  state  of  Tunis,  is  situated  SO  miles  aonth  of 
the  town  of  that  name,  in  a  trealeas,  marshy  [dain. 
It  is  surTounded  by  a  brick  wall,  surmounted  by 
four  towen.  It  contains  about  SO  eocleaastical 
Btmctores,  of  which  the  Okbah  Mosque,  one  of  the 
most  saored  of  Uam,  is  compassed  Dv  a  quadran- 
gular wall,  and  contam*  nnmeious  aadent  pillara  of 
marU^  panit&  and  poiphyiT.  The  trade  is  ohieflT 
in  furs;  saddCtry  and  sandala  are  maoBfaetored. 


(1871)  17,867. 

KAKODTIiE.    See  Cacodtlk. 

KALAMAZOO',  a  city  of  Michigan,  United 
States,  is  situated  in  the  south-west  portion  of  the 
state,  on  the  wMt  bank  of  the  river  of  tiie  stoe 
name,  65  mileB  from  ita  month,  and  143  niilea  weat 
of  Detrdti  on  the  Uichinn  Central  Railway.  It 
has  a  etate  Innatio  sa^um,  a  college  for  both 
sexea,  t«i  ehnrch«*,  two  newspapen,  and  seroal 
manntaetonM.    Pop^  in  1870, 91B1. 

KAIiBli,  or  OALBE,  a  town  ol  Pnurian  Saztan-, 
in  tite  gorermnent  ol  Magdeburg,  is  ntnated  18 
miles  aonth  of  the  town  oi  that  name,  on  tiie  left 
bank  of  the  Saale.  Spinning  and  weaving,  with 
manufactures  of  paper,  tobacco,  and  sugar,  sre  here 
carried  cm.    Fop,  (1871)  7932. 

KAUa,  or  BOHECOLE  (Oer.  XchR,  a  cultivated 
variety  of  Bnumea  oUracea,  difiering  cram  Cabbaok 
in  tke  open  bsada  of  leaves,  which  are  need  for 
onliDary  pnrpossa  a*  gnait,  and  also  as  food  for 
cattle.  "Atm  are  many  snb-vsiieties,  of  which  some 
are  of  a  green,  and  others  of  a  reddish-brown  or 
purplish  colour;  some  have  the  leaves  comparatively 
^ain,  and  oUi«i  have  them  very  much  waved  ae 
coried,  some  also  friiued  or  ladniated.  Most  of  the 
kinds  are  biennial,  like  the  cabbage,  but  some  may 


be  reckoned,  perennial,  as  the  MHan  Sola  (CS(oii  dt 
jftlim),  and  are  frequently  props^ted  br  enttiiigB. 
The  kind  called  Oermtat  Oreat*  u  one  of  tlie  moat 
delicate,  and  is  very  much  cultivated  in  Blntain, 
dbidly  as  a  winter  vegetable.  The  more  the  Wtm 
are  curled  the  moi«  is  it  esteemed.  The  mode  of  its 
cultivation  iiearly  agrees  with  that  of  cabb^^ 

KALB,  Ski.    See  Sk^  ELau. 

KAIiEI'DOSCOPE  (fnun  Gr.  hOo*.  beaotifnl. 
ado*,  image,  and  afcopeo,  I  see),  an  optical  insbn- 
ment  invented  by  Sir  David  Brewtter  in  1817.  It 
consists  of  a  tube,  through  whose  whole  length  pass 


togetht 


reflecting  planes,  which  are  hinged 

'  along  one  edge,  and  make  with  each  vSiet 
)  whi£  is  an  iSqnot  part  of  180*,  whilat  the 


one  end  is  fitted  np  with  an  eyej^ass,  aod  Ui*  oUiar 
ia  oloeed  1^  two  gtaaees,  at  a  amall  distaoca  frcni 
each  other,  between  which  are  placed  little  frag- 
ments of  ^asa  or  other  VBrionaly  coloured  ol^ecla. 
The  eye  looking  into  the  tnbe  now  peroeiria  theae 
objeots  multiplied  as  many  timea  as  the  ao^  which 
the  reflecting  [danea  make  with  each  other  ia  ««•• 
tained  in  the  whtde  cdrcnmCeranoe  of  a  mrcle^  aad 
alwa^  symmetrically  dispoeed;  and  tha  ali^tiM 
shaking  .of  the  inetrnmant  prodnoea  new  Sgue^ 
There  are  Tarions  modifioatjons  lA  the  halwdoaoof^ 
by  some  of  which  ita ^wer  is  much  increased;  ud 
it  is  not  only  a  pleasmg  toy,  but  of  great  naa  ta 
pattem-drawen  and  obhen,  to  whom  it  wag^Sim 
endless  varistioi  of  figurea. 
EALEKDAR.  See  O^uzhdab. 
KALENDS.    SeeCALZUDfl.  , 

KALBWALA.     See  Fnnnm  Ltitutukk. 
KALOTJBTP,  at  KOLQUET,  an  idand  of  Bimm, 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  240  miles  in  drcnmfetenoe, 
belongs  to  the  government  of  Archangel,  aad  is 
sitnated  115  milea  east  of  the  sortheiB  axtiemify 
I  peninsula  (rf  Kanin.    It  is  the  reaort  of  iimn- 
ile  flocks  of  wild-fowl,  eepedally  eider-doda, 
geeae,  and  swans,  which  are  caught  in  gieat  nnmboa 
By  the  fowlraa  who  viait  the  islwid  every  summer. 
KALIDASA,  the  greatest  dramatist,  and  one  of    ' 
e  mo«t  celemted  poets  of  India.    He  is  knowa    i 
to  the  literarr  pnblio  of  Enrope  «Bpecially  throng 
his  drama  ffdkimkdn,  whioh,  nrst  introduced  to  & 
notice  of  the  west«>B  worid  br  Sir  WiQiam  Jeaea 

il789],  created  so    great  a  aatsation    throo^ocrt 
Europe,  that  the  early  snaoe«  obtained  hj  Sansait    I 
studies  in  England  ai^  Germany  may  be  oooaidtred 
due   to  this    master-piece   of    SanaiBit    htei^nre. 
Another  drama  of  the  same  poet,  and  next  in  reaowa    I 
to  ffOhaOaia,  m  the  rUntmoreos'l,  or  tha  Hero  and 
the  If  ymph.    Beaidet  thcae  WOTke,  Hlnda  taaditiaB 
aaeribM  to  his  anthorthip  a  tiiird  drama  and  aarml    ' 
poems,  which  no  European  <ntia  will  believe  oonU    ' 
ever  have  fprang  from  a  mind  like  that  of  ^*'iiMia 
ProfeasM  Lasesn,  in  the  /ndiscAe    ltliiifl»«siiiairs.    i 
passes  the  foQowing  judgment  <m  this  poet ;  *  Kill- 
dlsa  may  be  caemSenA  aa  the  brightest  ctw  !■  Am    . 
firmament  of  Hindn  artificial  poeoy.    He  dweiien 
""is  Toaise  on  acoount  of  the  masterf  with  which  ha 

ields  the  language,  and  on  aooonnt  at  tha  conanM-    i 
mate  tact  with  which  he  imparts  t«  it  a  men  BBida    , 
more  artificial  form,  according  to  the  lequre-    I 
nts  of  the  subject  trt«ted  by  hui,  without  fallii^ 
0  the  aitifieial  diction  of  later  poe^  or  ow-    | 
stepping  the  limit*  of  goodtMte;  ^aoovantcf  tha    | 
vanetf  of  his  ereatiime.  Us  ingenious  miwiiiUisis.    I 
and  his  happy  ehoioe  M  enbjeola ;  and  noi  Imb  cb 
.     be  mamier  in  iriiich  be  atiaina 
his  poetical  ends,  the  beauty  of  his  narrativt^  tim    \ 
deliotcy  of  his  sentiment,  snd  the  fertili^  ef  his    ' 
gination.'     But    although  we  are   frti^W  1 
works  to  appredata  t 


ItizodhyCiOO'^IC 


gAT.TTTART  DKERT— KAIiMIA. 


we  know  little  of  bia  ^enonal  hiitoir.     That  he 

lived  at  DJjayini  or  Onjem,  »nd  that  he  wu  '  o ' 

the  nioe  genu  ol  the  oonrt  of  Viknmii^tn,'  i 
that  ta  related  in  i^iid  to  him.  But  a»  tttara  have 
been  acTeral  inhramtdityM  at  TTjjafinl,  hi«  date  ix 
aa  nnoertain  aa  that  of  any  personage  o{  the  aaoient 
history  of  India^  Dr  BhBo  Dljt,  in  a  learned  and 
ingsmons  euay  *  On  the  Sanacrit  Poet,  KJJi<UM» ' 
(JounuU  of  lAe  Bombay  BntiKh  of  tht  Bogai  At. 
Boc.,  October  1S60),  hae  endeavoured  to  indentifjr 
Viknunftditya,  the  contemporuy  of  K.,  with  Haraha 
Vibnunlditya,  and  that  the  K^at  poet  wonld  there- 
fore have  lived  in  the  toidue  i^  the  6th  o.  of  the 
Chriatian  bml 

KALIHA'BI  DB8ERT.  The  Kalihari  ia  a  vaat 
central  and  nearlj  uninhabited  tract  of  countzj 
lying  between  Oreet  Nomaqnalond  and  the  Betjon- 
ana  country,  in  South  Africa,  extending  fnua  the 
northern  baiika  of  the  Oatiep  or  Orange  Biver  '  - 
the  latitude  of  21°  aonth,  or  the  verge  of  the  Ncami 
region,  a  distance  of  nearly  600  milee,  with  on 
average  breadth  of  about  3G0  miles,  and  presenting 


lea*,  sandy,  but      . . 

on  whioh  rain  aeldom  falls,  ioteraeoted  by  dry 
oounea,  with  a  aubstiatnn  «f  »  tnfaceoua  lime- 
stone, and  to  all  appeamnoe  foraterly  the  bed  of  an 
immense  lake.  Livtngrtone  oonsideis  it  remarkable 
for  little  water  and  oontidemble  vegetation,  and 
Uiereforeve^difibrait  from  the  karroos  of  ihe  Cape 
Colony,  which  have  neither  water  nor  vegetation 
except  after  heavy  iain%  and  from  the  bare  and 
sandy  deaarta  of  North  Africa  and  Arabia.  No 
mountains  or  elevatLoua  of  any  oonsidecable  height 
are  found  in  the  K^ihari,  the  general  level  of  which 
may  be  oonaidered  as  3000  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
few  springs  or  'sacking- places'  which  here  and 
theie  are  found  are  generally  carefoll^  concealed 
by  tiie  Bakillhari,  a  miserable  wandenng  race  of 
lietjoDana  Bnshnen,  who  roam  thronob  Uie  deeert 
in  qnost  of  game,  of  the  skins  of  which  they  make 
the  fnr-nibet  cftlled '  carosses.'  Hu  Kalihari  has 
bean  oroaaed  hv  0.  J.  Andersson  and  others,  near 
its  outskirts;  but  of  its  eoitoal  parts  very  little 
is  known.  After  liewy  laina,  immense  herds  of 
eleiJunts,  riunooensea,  sod  (gaffes  are  tonnd  in 
its  dense  thickets,  and  feed  on  the  snocnlent  wild 
melons  oaUed '  Kengwe,'  which  then  abound  there. 
In  the  north  part,  are  immense  forests  of  thom- 
treea. 

KAliISZ,  a  town  of  Poland,  mi  the  Prconat  in  the 
govenunent  of  the  same  name,  136  mileB  weat-sonth- 
west  of  the  city  tA  Warsaw.  It  is  one  of  the 
ddest  Polish  towns,  and  was  f  onaeily  the  oaptal  of 
a  palatinate.  PopnUtion  (1867)  13,60%  who  carry 
Ob  an  eztenaiTe  trader  The  adjaining  county  is 
the  best  cultivsted  in  the  kingdom.  Two  famona 
batUes  were  fouf^t  herv— the  first  between  the 
Poles  and  Hussians  and  the  Swedes  in  1706 ;  the 
other  between  the  Bussians  and  Saxons  in  ISli 
KALimOA,  in  Hindn  ehrondogy,  the  fonrUi 
'  last  of  the  p«siods  oontsined  in  aMsUtvoM  or 
'eat  Tnga  (q.T.).   It  may  be  eompand  to  the  Iron 


igerf 


<daMical  nr 


aeoordingto 


and  b^ins  SlOl  years  bef<ne  the  Christian 
The  relation  of  the  four  Yusas  beiug  marked  by  a 
snoceesive  j^sicsl  sod  monu  decrement  of  ct«ated 
beings,  the  E^yoga  ie  the  worst  of  all.  '  In  the 
Er'ita  (or  first)  age,'  Mann  lays,  'the  {genins  of) 
Trnth  and  Bight  (u  the  form  of  a  bull]  ttonds  firm 
on  his  four  feet,  nor  does  any  advantaj^  accrue  to 
men  from  iniqmty.  But  in  the  foUowing  ages,  by 
reason  of  unjust  gains,  he  is  deprived  snccewiTely 


Ihe  Padma-Pntln'a.  In  the  last  chapter  of  the 
Er'i^yogaaftrs  of  this  Puitna,  the  following  acoonnt 
is  given  of  it :  *  In  the  Kaliynga,  (the  genius  (^ 
.Bight  will  have  bnt  one  foot ;  every  one  mti  delight 
in  cviL  The  fonr  castes  will  be  devoted  to  wicked- 
ueas,  and  demived  of  the  nourishment  which  is  fit 
for  them.  The  Brahmana  will  neglect  the  Tedsl, 
hanker  after  Dtosents,  be  luatfol  sjid  crneL  Tbey 
will  despise  the  scriptarea,  gamble,  steal,  and  desire 
interoomse  with  widows.  ....  Tor  tile  sske  of  a 


The  SUdraa  will  endeavour  to  lead  the  l3e  of 
the  Brahmana ;  snd  out  of  friendship,  people  will 
bear  false  witness  ....  the^  will  injure  the  wives 
of  others,  and  their  speech  will  be  that  of  falsehood. 
Greedy  <^  the  wealth  of  others,  tliey  will  entertain 
a  guest  aoooiding  to  the  behest  of  Ihe  scriptures, 
bi^  afterwards  kill  him  out  of  covetousnesa ;  they 
are  indeed  worthy  of  helL  The  twice-bom  (Le., 
tlie  first  three  castes)  will  live  upon  debts,  sell  the 
produce  of  oowt,  and  even  their  daughters.  In  this 
Vnga,  men  will  be  under  the  sway  of  women,  and 
will  be  exoBssiTely  fickle.  ....    In  the 


The  cowBWill  feed  on  ordure,  and  give 

little  mUk,  and  the  milt  will  yield  no  butter; 
there  ia  no  doubt  of  that.  ....  Trees,  even,  will 
wither  in  twelve  ^ears,  and  the  age  lA  mankind 
will  not  ezoeed  sixteen  f ear« ;  people,  moreover, 
will  become  nay-haired  m  thur  youth ;  women 
will  bear  children  in  their  fifth  or  uxth  year,  and 
men  will  become  troubled  with  a  great  number  of 
ohildren.  In  the  Ealiyuga,  the  foreigneiB  will 
become  kings,  bent  upon  evil ;  and  those  living  in 
foreign  oonntiiea  wiU  be  all  of  one  caste,  and  out 
of  Imt  take  to  tbonselves   many  wives.     *-   '■^  - 


Viahn^n;  and  ii 


lO  one  will  even 


KAIdlAB,  a  town  and  se«poit  on  the  south-east 
coast  of  Sweden,  tniital  of  a  Ign  of  the  same  name, 
is  situated  on  the  Kahuiir  Sound,  opposite  the  island 
of  Gland,  and  about  200  mitee  ■outh-aonth-nest  of 
Stockholm.  It  has  a  good  harbour,  a  boodaome 
cathedral,  and  a  large  and  beautifal  cutle,  in  which, 
on  the  I2tb  July  1^,  the  treaty  called  the '  Union 
'hioh  settled  the  suooeasion  to  the 
^oma  upon  Queea.  Margsret  of 
leirs  for  ever,  was  airreed  to  by 
the  deputies  of  the  three  kingdoms.  The  union, 
nevertheless,  lasted  only  till  the  death  of  Margaret 
(see  DxNiujaK,  Hnro&r  or).  The  oommeice  </  the 
town  ia  considerable,  and  manufactures  of  t.'oga 
and  tobacco  are  carried  on.    Pop.  9200l 

KAXMIA,  a  genus  of  ptanti  of  the  Batnral  order 
Brian,  ecnsiirting  of  evsgreen  shnhs,  mastly  abont 
two  or  three  feet  hirh,  natives  of  North  America, 
with  red,  pink,  or  whiu  floweis,  generally  ia  oorymbs. 
The  flowers  are  very  delicate  and  beautiful  and 
the  corolla  is  in  the  ahape  of  a  wide  and  shallow 
belL  Some  cd  the  species  are  freqaent  ornaments 
of  sardena  in  Britam.  They  delist  in  a  peat- 
soiL  B.  lalijblia,  the  MomrTAUT  LaoKXL,  or  Cauco 
Bttbh  of  N<ffth  America,  ocenpiea  large  tracta  on  the 
Alleghany  Mountsins.  It  grows  to  the  hm^t  of  ten 
feet,  and  the  wood  ia  very  nard.  It  ia  narootia  and 
dangerouB ;  the  leavea  are  poisonona  to  many  fh"'f"«Tfi 
and  the  honey  of  the  Bower- '  — 


,Coogl' 


KALMUCKS— KAMA. 


pnmerties.    A.  decociioa  of  the  Uktm  hu  been  and 
wiui  advantage  in  eutaneoaa  diaeaMt. 

KA'LMUOKB,  or,  as  they  call  themHelvef,  the 
Derben-Ueint  (the  Fonr  B«lativea),  and  alio  d 
Dated  by  the  name  of  Eleutea  and  Khal 
(Apo>tat«>j,  are  the  moA  nnmerons  and  celebrated 
of  the  MoQEol  nations.  They  are  divided  into  four 
tribea,  the  &rt  of  which,  Oia  Khotita  (Warr 
Dumber  nearly  60,000  funihea,  and  inhabit  the 
country  around  the  Eoko-nnr,  vhich  they  cooiider 
the  native  country  of  the  nee.  One  portion  of 
this  tribe  migrated  to  the  bonka  of  the  Irtisch, 
and  became  enhsMuently  incorpoMted  with  the 
lecond  tiibe,  the  Dzftngan ;  soother  portion  mi- 
nted to  the  banks  of  the  Vol^  in  the  ITth  c,  »nd 
u  found  at  the  present  daj^  m  the  Kovemment  of 
Aitrakhan.  The  second  tribe  are  the  Dx&ngan, 
who  give  the  name  to  a  large  territory  (DEungaria) 
in  the  treat  of  Chinese  Tartoiy ;  at  the  present 
day  they  number  about  20,000  families.  The  third 
tribe  are  the  DerbtU  or  Tdurrot,  who  deeerted  Didn- 
garia,  and  finally,  to  the  number  of  15,000  bniilies, 
removed  a  few  yean  ago  to  the  [daina  of  the  Hi  and 
the  Don,  where  they  are  being  rapidly  incoiponted 
with  the  Don  Coaaacks.  The  fourth  peat  tribe  of 
the  K.  Bie  the  Torgott,  who,  about  IWO,  separated 
from  the  Bitingars,  and  settled  in  the  plaiiu  of  thi 
Volga,  whence  they  were  called  the  K.  qfOie  Volga  _ 
but  finding  the  KusaJan  lule  too  severe,  the  majority 
returned  to  Diflngaria. 

No  Mongol  or  Turkish  race  presents  such  charac- 
teristic traita  a>  the  K. ;  indeed,  they  answer  exactly 
to  the  d«scriptian  given  of  them  by  Jomandes  13 
centurtea  uro,  when,  under  the  name  of  Huns,  they 
devaatated  SoutheraSurope.  The  Kalmuck  is  ihorti 
in  atatnre,  with  broad  shoulders,  and  a  larse  bead  ; 
haa  small  black  eyes,  always  appearing  to  De  half- 
ahut,  aud  tUnting  dowowardi  towa^  the  nose, 
which  is  flat,  with  wide  nostrils  ;  the  hair  is  black, 
cause,  and  Etnught,  and  the  complexion  deeply 
■WBithv.  The  Kalmuck  is  ixnid-dsirA  to  be  the 
original  type  of  the  Mongol  and  Manchfi  races,  and 
his  uglineas  is  the  index  oif  the  purity  of  his  descent. 
Ihey  are  a  nomad,  predatory,  and  warlike  raoe,  and 
pass  tiw  greater  part  of  their  lives  in  the  saddle. 
Their  nsni^  food  is  bariay-flour  «"»*''>^  with  water, 
and  their  drink  ia  the  'koumiss'  (made  &om  fer- 
mented mare^s  milk).  In  1829,  Rnnia  established  a 
Kalmuck  institute  for  the  training  of  interpreters 
and  government  ofGdala  for  the  K.  of  Russia,  and 
she  baa  since  been  ""Ung  great  efforts  to  introduce 
civilisatioD  among  them.  Many  still  retain  their 
native  Buddhism. 

EALtyOSA,  a  town  of  Hunnry,  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube,  about  70  mHeB  south  of  Peath. 
It  ooutains  a  fortified  bishop's  palace,  with  a  library 
of  30,000  volumes.  K.  t«  a  stewn-packet  station  on 
the  Danube,  and  contains  a  pop.  of  (1S6&)  16,30^ 

SLAIiONG,  a  name  originally  Javanese,  and 
belonging  to  one  or  more  species  of  frugivoroos  Bat 
(q.  V.)  iidiabiting  Java,  bnt  uow  frequently  applied 
to  all  the  bnoivorona  ba'ta,  the  family  Pleroptda,  or 
at  lea«t  to  i^  the  species  of  the  genus  Ptenmit. 
The  PteropHa  are  all  large  bat^  and  some  of  them 
are  the  largest  o(  aU  the  CkaroplfTa.  They  are 
called  RouMttU  by  Flench  natuialistB,  and  often, 
populariy,  Fltiko  Fox  by  Bnropeans  in  the  East. 
TluT  are  found  in  the  East  Indies,  Japan,  Austr^ia, 
Afnca,  and  South  America.  ^lere  are  many  spemes. 
Their  food  conaiits  chiefly  of  soft  fruits,  aa  banuias, 
figs,  fte.  ^Hie  Javaseae  K.  (PUroptu  Javaniau) 
measures  about  64  feet  in  expanse  of  wing.  The 
head  and  body  are  more  than  a  foot  long.  It  is 
gregarious,  and  during  the  day,  great  numbers  may 
be  seen  hanging  1^  thair  hinder  daws,  motioiilcM 


otiier 


and  silent,  on  the  branches  of  trees  which  they  h»T« 
selected  for  their  abode.    The  body  is  covered  with 
fur  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,    lliis  and  the  oUi^   ' 
tiue  Pleropi  have  no  tail,  and  a  smaller  number  of   , 
vertebrs — 24  in  all — thai)   any  other    "»«"""»<'-■     { 
Some  of  the  Pleropida  have  a  very  short  taiL    Tha   . 
flesh  of  some  of  them  is  eaten,  and  one,  iuhabitinK   I 
the  Molnocas  and  Isles  of  Sundo,  haa  been  called 
the  Eatable  Kalong  (P.  aju^).   It  is  said  to  be  whii 
and  delicate.    Some  of  the  speciee  are  migratory. 

KALPA,  iu  Hindu  Chronology,  a  day  and  nisht 
of  Brahm&,  which,  according  to  some,  is  a  perioa  of 
4,320,000,000  solar- sidereal  years,  or  vean  of  mortals, 
measoriiig  the  durattpu  of  the  world,  and  aa  manj 
the  interral  of  its  annihilation.  The  Bhaviahya 
FuriLD'a  admits  of  an  infinity  of  kalpas ; 
Furilnas  euumerate  thirty.  A  great  1^P>  compriaea 
not  a  day,  but  a  life  of  BiahmA. — In  Vedic  litermtnr^ 
kalpa  is  a  Vedingo.    See  Ku-pa-SCtra. 

KALPA-SUTBA  it,  in  Yedio  Lit<nttit«,  the 
name  of  those  Sanscrit  worics  which  tre^  at  the 
ceremonial  referring  to  the  m^ormance  of  a  Vedie 
sacrifice.  See  YsDA. — la  Jaina  Literature,  it  ia 
the  name  of  the  most  sacred  religions  work  of  the 
Jaiuaa.  See  Jautas.  It  ia  chiefly  occupied  witlt  the 
legendary  history  of  Mahavlra,  the  l«*t  of  thair  24 
deided  saints,  or  Tbihankaras,  but  OMitains  aimo  an 
account  of  other  four  saints  oE  the  tame  class.  The 
name  of  the  author  was  Bhadn  BUm,  and  the  -wni 
was  composed,  as  Stevenson  assumes,  in  the  year  411 
of  the  Christian  era ;  but  the  conjecture  of  another 
writer  places  it  632  ^ter  Christ    It  is  held  in  ao 


reading  of  those  woika  esteemed  pecnliariy  sacmd,  ' 
no  leas  than  five  are  allotted  to  the  Kalpa-SAtra.'  I 
Stevenson,  Tie  Kalpa-SAtra  and  Jfava  Tatm  (Load.  I 
18*8). 

KALTT'GA,  a  govemjnent  of  Busaia,  lies  imme-    I 
diately  south-east  of  that  of  Smolensk.   Area,  11,780 
sq.  Dv;  pop.  (1867)  984,25C.     The   surface  is  flat  i    I 
the  soil,  EUtny,  sandy,  and  only  moderately  (ertOe.    ' 
More  than  half  of  the  province  is  under  forest.     It 
is  watered  1^  numerous  rivers,  the  chief  of  idiich    l 
is  the  Oka.   The  principal  occupation  of  the  inbabit- 
anta  is  the  cultivation  of  hemp.     Sailcloth,  whii^   i 
ia  not  only  sent  to  the  ports  of  Russia  and  Eurape,    | 
but  also  largely  exported  to  Amerioa,  ia  the  chief 
article  of  manufacture.     Coloured  cloths  for  tfaa    . 
China  b«de  are  also  made.    The  government  of  K. 

divided  into  eleven  districts. 


Oka,ii 


KALTJQA^  chief  town  of  the  govemuiBnt  of  the  I 
me  name,  ia  situated  on  the  tight  bank  of  the 
Ut  M'lSl'  N.,  long.  36°  Sf  £.  Frtnn  the 
the  ISth  c,  its  stroni^ld  was  a  ^reat 
protection  against  the  invasions  of  the  Ijthuauians, 
the  Tartars  of  the  Great  Horde,  and  eqtecially 
asainst  the  Crimean  Tartars.  Situated  in  the  centn 
ta  the  anfue  and  on  a  navigable  river,  it  Carrie* 
on  an  extensive  com-trade,  the  corn  bdng  aent 
down  the  Oka  to  Nijni-Noygorod,  and  thence  mp 
the  Volga,  the  Yoln  canals,  and  the  Neva,  to  St 
Peterabui^  and  the  Baltic  ports.  The  value  of  thi* 
branch  of  trade  is  22,000,000  rubles  (£3,300,000). 
There  are  several  leather  and  other  factoriea  in  the  • 
town.  Fop.  (1867)  36,080.  K.  has  for  many  yean 
been  a  place  of  banishment  for  political  offenden  ;  { 
and  used  to  be  the  rendence  of  Sehamyl,  the  Cir^ 

KA'M  A,  a  navigable  rivet  of  Eoropeau  Rossik,  tha    ; 
principal  affluent  of  the  VolgSs  rise*  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Viatka,  Mid  sfter  a  aonth-weet  codiae  of 
1100  miles,  joins  the  Volga  in  the  government  <f 
Kason,  60  miles  above  the  town  of  that  luuns.    Its    I 


t.GoogIc 


KAMA— KANAGAWA. 


ohief  tribatariea  are  tlie  Viatkj^  the  T«hoimovai&, 
And  the  BielauL  This  liTer  ia  navigable  40  miles 
bdow  ita  aource,  and  the  naTigatimt  coinmencea  in 
the  begimung  of  May.  The  annual  value  of  the 
goods  conveyed  on  the  E.  ia  eatdmated  at  £8,000,000. 
The  liver  aboonda  in  fi«Ti,  especially  aalmoiL 

KAMA,  or  SAMADEVA,  the  Hindu  ^od  of 
Love,  andone  of  tha  most  pleaung  creatioaa  of 
Uiuda  fiotion.  In  Sanacrit  poetiy,  especially  that 
of  a  later  period,  he  ia  the  favourite  theme  of  deacrip- 
tiooa  and  alluaiona  ;  and  mythology  exalts  hia  power 
so  mach  that  it  allovrs  evon  the  god  Brahmft  to 
succumb  to  it.  According  to  some  Fui&naa,  he  was 
originally  a  son  of  Bnihmt ;  according  to  otheni.  a 
aoQ  of  Dharma  (the  genius  of  Virtue),  by  ffraddJid 
(the  geniua  of  Faith),  henelf  a  daughter  of  JDaitha, 
who  waa  ooe  of  the  mind-bam  aona  of  BrBhai&. 
The  god  8'iva  beinR  on  one  oocaaion  Ereably  incensed 
at  K.,  reduced  him  to  ashei ;  but  ultimately, 
moved  by  the  affliction  of  Bati  (VoluptnonaneM), 
the  wife  of  K.,  he  promised  her  that  her  husband 
should  be  reborn  as  a  son  of  Kr'Mna.  The  god 
Kr'iahno,  accorduigly,  having  married  Rukmint,  she 
bore  him  Pradjfamna,  who  was  the  god  of  Love. 
But  when  the  infant  waa  six  days  old,  tt  vaa  stolen 
from  the  lying-in  chamber  by  the  terrible  demon 
S'ambiun  ;  for  the  latter  forekiiGW  that  Fradyumna, 
if  he  lived,  would  be  hia  destroyer.  The  boy  was 
thrown  into  the  ocean,  and  swallowed  by  a  larae 
fiah.  •  Yet  he  did  not  die ;  far  that  G^  was  caught 
by  fishermen,  and  delivered  to  ifdydvad,  the  mis- 
tress of  S'ambara's  household ;  and  when  it  was  cut 
open,  the  child  was  taken  from  it  Whilst  MILyftvatI 
wondered  who  this  conld  be,  the  divine  sage,  NUrodo, 
satisQed  her  curiosity,  and  counselled  her  to  rear 
tenderly  this  ofispring  of  Kr'ishna.  She  acted  as  he 
advised  her ;  and  when  Pradyumna  grew  up,  aod 
learned  his  own  history,  he  slew  the  demon  S'ambara. 
Mftyftvatl,  however,  was  later  apprised  by  Kr'iahna 
that  she  was  not  the  wife  of  S^mbara,  as  she  had 
fancied  herself  to  be,  but  that  of  Fradyumna — in 
fact,  another  form  of  Rati,  who  was  the  wife  of  K. 
in  his  prior  existence. — K.  is  described  or  repre- 
sented as  holding  in  his  hands  a  bow  made  of  sugar- 
cane, and  strung  with  bees,  besides  five  arrows, 
each  tipped  with  the  blossom  of  a  flower  which  is 
supposed  to  conquer  one  of  the  senses.  His  standard 
is,  agreeabW  to  the  legend  above  mentioned,  a 
fabulous  fiiii,  called  Makara ;  and  he  rides  on  a 
pwTDt  or  sparrow — the  symbol  of  voluptuousness. 
Hia  epithets  are  numerous,  but  easily  accounted  for 
from  the  circumstances  named,  and  &om  the  effects 
of  love  on  Hie  mind  and  senses.  Thus,  he  is  called 
MakaTtuOBBtg'a,  'the  one  who  has  Makara  in  his 
banner;'  Afnda,  'the  maddener,'  Ac  Hia  wife,  as 
before  stated,  is  JlaU;  she  is  also  called  K^maJeald, 
'a  portion  of  Kftma,'  or  Prili,  'affection.'  His 
daughter  is  TrMd,  '  thirst  or  desire  i'  and  his  son  is 
Aniruddha, '  the  unrestrained.' 

KAMI'NBTZ-PODOXSK,  or  PODOMK,  a 
town  of  West  Riisaia,  cajntal  of  the  govenmtent  of 
Podolia,  is  piotnreeqnely  sitnated  near  the  Austrian 
frontier,  on  a  steep  rock  above  the  river  SmotritEs, 
an  affluent  of  the  Dniester.  Its  foundation  dates 
from  tha  earliest  times.  Pop.  (1S6T]  22,490.  The 
most  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  Qothic  Cathedral 
and  the  Dominican  Chnroh.  The  fortifications, 
which  were  razed  in  1812,  have  been  renewed.  K. 
was,  before  the  partition  of  Poland,  the  strongest 
bulwark  of  that  country  against  the  Turks. 

KA'MPEN,  one  of  the  prettiest  towns  of  the 
Netherlands,  in  the  province  of  Oreryssel,  is 
situated  near  the  moath  of  the  Yasel,  in  the  Zuyder 
Zee.  Here  a  bridge  790  feet  long,  and  upwanis 
of  20  feet  broad,  ez&nds  across  the  river.  Though 
257 


formerly  of  greater  importance,  it  still  carries  on  a 
considerable  general  trade.    Pop.  U^IOO. 

EAMPTU'LICON,  the  name  given  to  a  kind 
of  floor-cloth,  which  is  asjd  to  be  made  of  india- 
rubber  and  cork ;  much  of  it,  however,  con- 
sists of  oxidised  linseed  oil  and  cork.  The  cork 
is  reduced  to  a  Btat«  resembling  very  fine  saw- 
dost,  and  kneaded  np  with  the  r^  caoutchouc,  or 
with  the  artificial  kind  made  of  oxidised  linseed  oil, 
the  whole  being  kept  very  soft  by  heat.  The  mass 
is  then  made  into  sheeta  by  passing  through  cyliU' 
der  rollers  heated  with  steam.  The  aheets,  when 
cold,  are  ready  for  use,  when  no  ornamental  surface 
is  required ;  but  very  excellent  designs  may  be 
pointed  upon  it,  the  some  as  upon  orainary  floor- 
cloth. Kamptnlicon,  notwithstanding  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  mode,  is  more  expensive  than 
the  floor-cloth  made  by  painting  hempen  or  linen 
fabrics ;  it  has,  however,  qu^ihea  which  render  it 
very  valuable  for  special  purposes ;  its  elasticity 
to  the  tread  not  Only  makes  it  agreeable  to  walk 
on,  but  it  is  noiseless,  and  ia  consequently  well 
adapted  for  hospital  passages  and  other  positdons 
'"  which  quiet  is  desirable ;  it  is  alao  impervioua 
damp,  and  thereby  well  suited  to  damp  stone 
flooTH.    See  LiHOLSCTM,  in  Svrr.,  Yd.  X. 

KAMTCHATKA,  PeKDianLi  or,  forms  the 
south-east  extremity  of  Siberia,  from  which  it 
stretches  southward,  extending  in  lat.  between  SI* 
id  60°  N-,  and  in  long,  between  ISS"  40'  and  164* 
r  K  It  is  725  miles  long,  and  averages  190  miles 
.  breadth.  A  r\iian  of  volcanic  mountuns  traverses 
le  centre  of  the  neninaiila,  and  gives  rise  to  the 
rivers,  of  which  the  Eomtchatka  is  150  miles  in 
length.  There  are  about  14  volcanoes  in  Hie  penin- 
sula, the  most  remarkable  of  which— the  volcano  of 
Plutehevsky— is  16,000  feet  high.  This  mountain 
now  only  emits  smoke  and  embers ;  but  in  former 
times,  eruptions  used  to  take  place  every  seven  or 
eight  years.  The  soil,  in  general,  is  stony ;  but 
there  are  many  tracts  of  mountain-slope  which  ore 
arable.  Agriculture,  however,  is  much  hindered  by 
untimely  frosta,  periodical  rains,  and  sometimes  by 
multitudes  ol  mice  and  rats,  lie  bread  required 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  fortresses  of  Petropaulovsk 
and  Tagil  is  supplied  from  Okhotsk.  The  principal 
occupations  of  the  inhabitants  are  fiahmg  and 
hunting-  The  most  valuable  domestio  animal  is  a 
peculiar  kind  of  dog  which  never  barks.  K.  was 
annexed  to  Russia  at  the  end  of  the  17th  c,  after  the 
expedition  of  the  Cossack  chief  AthtsoL  Pop.  10,000, 
made  up  of  Kamtchadalea,  Kourdetri,  Omototzi, 
and  Ru^ians.  The  Kamtchadales — Qie  preponder- 
race  of  the  inhabitants — live  mostly  in  the 

I.   They  are  small  in  stature,  with  a  large  head, 

broad  face,  black  hair,  small  eyes,  brood  shoulden, 
and  hanging  l)ps  and  stomoUL  Formerly,  they 
lived  in  ten£  made  of  branches  ;  they  now  dwell  in 
huts.  They  have  nominally  embracrai  Christisiiity. 
but  retain  much  of  their  savage  nature  and  super- 
stitions. Nijni-Kamtchatsk,  the  cbieE  town  of  the 
government,  is  situated  on  the  river  Kamtchatka. 
The  fort  of  Petropaulovsk,  with  a  fine  harbonr 
covered  with  ice  only  during  a  brief  period  of  the 
year,  is  most  picturesquely  situated,  and  enjoys  a 
healthful  climate. 

KAMYSHIN,  a  town  of  Enssio,  in  .the  govern- 
ment of  Saratov,  120  miles  below  the  town  of  that 
name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga,  lat.  50°  6'  N., 
long.  46°  25'  K  It  possesses  (1867)  13,644  inhabit- 
ant, who  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  com. 

KANAGA'WA,  a  town  of  Japan,   and  the 

shipping  port   of  Yedo.     It  was  opened  (toeetier 

1th  dkkododi  and  Nagasaki)  to  British  snbjectB 

ithelstJnly  1869  by  tbe  treaty  of  August  1861 


vLiOOgI 


KANARIS-EA^OABOO. 


It  ia  sitiuted  on .„ 

the  weatern  tide  of  the  grat  h^y  ol  ieao,  ud 
ftbont  16  milei  from  that  city.  Hare  id  located 
the  i^ctal  lectioii  of  the  ■mall  foreign  communitj 
vIucIit  through  the  muifsuvrafl  of  the  Japuteoe, 
hu  hoen  eatoblished— not  at  K.,  bnt  at  Yokohama— 
on  the  oppoute  point  of  the  bay,  and  in  a  more 
inilated  aituation.  E.  has  a  lu^r  foreign  trade 
than  any  other  port  of  iTapan.  In  1ST3,  the  imports 
aiaonntedto«19,53fi,7E8;  theen>ort>i,to|lS,09S,SlS. 
The  chief  import!  are  cotton  and  wocdlen  goods ;  the 
chief  exporb^  rilk  and  tea.  Trade  is  carrie<d  on, 
tjhiefly  by  American,  Britiab,  and  Dutch  Tesiela. 

KANASIS,  KoKBiAiran,  a  native  of  the  isle 
of  IpaalB,  diftinguiahed  fcr  his  exploits  ia  the 
Grecian  war  of  independence,  and  puiicnlarly  for 
the  destruction  of  Torldah  Towols  l^  fireuipa. 
He  wai  maater  «t  »  amaH  merchant-TMoel  before 
the  oonunenoament  of  the  war.  In  1822,  he  blew  up 
Um  Tnrki^  adninl'a  sMp  in  the  Strait  of  Ghio^ 
and  thoa  avenged  the  crneltiea  which  the  Tnrka 
bad  perpetrated  on  the  Greek*  in  that  island.  In 
NoTember  of  the  same  TOar,  he  bomed  the  Turkish 
admiral's  ship  in  the  harbour  of  Tenedos.  Hia 
native  isle  of  Iwara  baring  bean  tsvaged,  he  took 
revenge,  on  17tn  Angnst  1824,  by  bnniing  a  large 
Turkub  frigate   and   some  trluBport-ihipi  whidi 


had  endued.  In  1825,  he  formed  the  btJd  deaign 
of  bnming  the  E^ptian  fleet  in  the  harbour  of 
Alouidria,  where  it  1^  ready  to  carry  troops  to 
the  Feloponneaiu,  and  it  appears  that  on^  ao 
imfaToar&ble  wind  springing  up  prevented  bis 
•uocess.  Ee  was  aratomted  to  important  commands 
1^  the  Greek  president.  Capo  D'lWiaa,  and  in  IMS 
and  1S49  was  war  minister  of  Greece,  and  president 
of  the  cabinet  In  ISC2,  he  took  part  in  the  revolu- 
tion which  overthrew  King  Otbo,  and  baa  wnce 
been  more  Hhan  once  in  office  under  the  present  king. 

KANAWHA,  Grut.    Sea  Giai.T  Euiiwha. 

KANDAVn,  one  of  the  Fiji  Islaodt  {q.  v.). 

KAITB,  Bib  Eobxbt,  M.D.,  a  oalsbrated  chemist, 
wai  bom  in  Dublin  in  1810.  He  waa  educated  for 
the  medioal  profession,  and  in  1S32  waa  received  aa 
a  member  at  the  Roysl  Irish  Aoademy,  and  in  the 
same  year  projected  the  Dvblin  JoarwU  iff  ittdieni 
Baence,  which  at  first  treated  only  of  idimnical  and 
pharmical  anbjecta.  In  1840,  he  received  ijie  gold 
medal  of  the  B«yal  Societr  of  London  for  hia 
reaearche*  into  the  odouring  matter  of  liobens. 
From  ISM  tiU  1847,  E.  waa  Piofeaaor  of  Katnral 
Philoaophy  to  the  Boyal  Dublin  Society,  and  in  the 
lost-mentioned  year  reodved  the  Onnnin^iam  Gold 
Medal  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  for  hia  dis- 
coveries in  chemistry.  In  1846,  he  originated  the 
Museum  of  Indnsby  in  Ireland,  was  appointed  its 
fint  dii«ctiv,  and  the  same  year  laoeirM  fron  tiie 
Lord-lieutenant  the  honour  ol  kni^thood.  He  held 
for  a  number  of  yeaifl  tiie  office  at  prendmt  of  the 
Quean'a  CoUego,  Cork,  whicb  he  resigned  in  1864. 
His  importaot  work*  vn—BUime»t»  of  Cfitmittru 
(1841—184%  1849).  a  work  of  widely  aeknowledged 


KANE,  BuEHi.  Eeht,  M.D.,  a  cdeln^ted  Aretia 
explorer,  was  bom  in  Iliiladdphia,  TJnited  States, 
Febraaiy  S,  1S20,  entered  Tirginia  Univarnty  in 
1836,  anerwarda  studied  madieins,  and  entered 
the  navy  aa  a  snigeon,  in  whii^  capacity  he  visited 
China,  India,  the  East  Indies,  and,  under  leave 
of  abeenoe,  Arabia,  Egypt,  Gi«ece,  and  Western 
Entope.    Soon  after  retomuig  huue,  he  was  ordered 


to  the  weat  ooaat  of  Africa  ii 


military  ata^  and  serred  in  Mexica  In  May 
18G0,  be  commenced  his  career  of  Arctic  diaoovery 
as  BuiKoon,  naturalist,  and  historian  to  the  first 
Grinndl  expedition.      In  the  spring  of    1853,  ha 


Johi  Fmnliiin  (2  vola.  Philiidelphii..  1856). 
his  return,  in  tbe  aatumn  of  ISSS,  honoois  -war 
showered  on  the  fortunate  sdventurer ;  he  reoeived 
gold  med^  from  the  Queen  of  Great  Britain,  tbe 
Boyal  Geographical  Society  of  London,  the  AiD«i- 
can  Congreaa,  and  the  New  YoA  Legialatore ;  but 
his  hral^  iriiieh  had  been  precarioua  siiica  1844, 
was  rspidly  faHing,  and  after  a  visit  to  Lcaidon, 
where  Be  greiw  mpio^  worse,  he  sailed  to  BATaanah, 
where  he  died  on  I^ruaij  16,  I8S7.  Hia  lifa  has 
been  written  by  W.  Elder,  M.D.  (Svo,  Philaddphia, 
18B7). 
EAM'OABOO'  {MaempKi),  a  genua  of  marmpiil 

ffladnlpeds,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  almost 
Auetraltan,  althou^  a  few  are  found  in  New 
Guinea  and  neighbouring  islands.  The  genus,  which 
gome  natunlists  subdivide,  is  the  type  of  a  family 
MacropidiK,  including  also  the  Kangaroo-rata  or 
Potorooa  [q.  v.),  which  have  canine  teeth  in  thf 
npper  jaw,  whilst  the  kangarooa  luve  no  canine 
teeth,  and  in  their  dentitioQ  genenlly,  and  in  their 
digeative  system,  make  a  newer  approach  than  any 
ol£er  maraupial  qujidmpeds  to  tbe  ruminants ;  the 
potorooB,  on  the  other  bMid,  appn«diing  the  rodent 
type.  Eangarooa  are  said  aametuuM  to  miiiinat& 
The  stomach  of  kangarooe  Ja  large,  and  is  funned 
of  two  elongated  saca.  They  are  entirely  herbi- 
vorous. The  Maempida  are  sU  chaxaeteriaed  by 
great  length  of  the  hind-legs,  whilst  the  foie-k^ 
are  small;  but  the  radius  allows  a  complete  rotatioit 
of  the  fore-arm;  and  they  make  nsa  of  the  fore-feet 
as  organs  of  prehension,  sad  for  msaypuipoaos^  with 
great  adroitneu.  Tbe  fore-feet  have  five  toes;  each 
armed  wiUl  a  atrong  curved  nail  "  '  '  '  ' 
have  four  toea — one 
very  Urge  solid  n^ 

throogh  an  extraordinary  elongat  .   . 

tarsal  bouea.  The  tail  is  very  long,  thick,  sbong. 
and  tapering,  and  is  of  great  use  ia  iMdancing  \ 
the  animal  in  its  leaps,  and  also  for  sustaining  the  l 
body  in  its  ordinary  erect  sitting  posture,  in  which 
it  uaeB  tbe  hind-legs  snd  the  root  of  the  tail  as  ■  ! 
tripod.  In  this  posture,  also,  it  usnally  walks  by 
tbe  hind-1^  alone.  Hie  head  ia  in  fonn  somewhat  i 
like  that  of  a  deer ;  the  ears  moderately  large,  and  j 
oval ;  the  eyes  large,  and  the  aspect  mild.  I 

The  Qkut  K.  ( Jf.  mganiau]  u  generally  about 
7^  feet  in  length  from  me  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
the  tail  beiiu  rather  more  than  three  feet  in  i"»rt>»^   \ 
and  fully  a  Mot  in  dnmnfeienM  at  the  batrt     The 
height  cc  the  animal  iaratiur  more  than  fifty  indiw, 
in  the  erect  sitting  posture  already  mentioiied,  but  j 
it  sometimes  raises  itadf  oa  its  toes  to  look  aioand   ' 
it,  and  its  hai^t  ia  thengteater  thu  that  of  a  maa.    I 
TheWooLLT  K.(»'Rn>  K.{Jt.  latlgtr)  nOa-  ooeed* 
it  in  aiie.    The  Great  K  was  fint  disoovsad  in 
Cook's  first  voyage,  22d  June  1770^  and  nntO  that   I 
time  it  may  alroiMt  be  asid  that  kannron  mn 
unknown  to  Eatopeana,  altlioa^  aNmr  Ottisea 
species  (V.  Bnmil)  had  been  desatOMd  hj  Ls  Bnn    < 
in  1711.    It  is  of  a  grayish-brown  colour,  the  fur 
moderately  long,  and  moderately  acA.    It  ia  fonnd 
in  many  parts  of  Australia  and  in  Tan  Dicanen's 
Land.    It  sometimeB  attains  the  weight  of  160  lbs., 
or  upwards,    Ita  flash  is  highly  catesmed,  aad  it  ia 


very  large  cenlzal  toe,  with  a 

lie  hind-feet  are  vety  long, 

inary  elongatiou  of  the  meta- 


tyCoogle 


J 


KANOAHOO  GRASS-KAIJT. 


modi  aongbt  tUnr  bj  the  colmiutB,  bo  that  it  ia 
rare  in  T^oni  irhere  it  wbi  once  ahnndMlt.    It  ii 
not  properlv  gtenrioiv.      Ths  lunguooB  ue  all 
tioiid  ^"imJ4,  muiiig  their  e^axpe  from  theiir  ~" 
men  by  eitrsordiouy  leap*.    Tdb  (^«ftt  E.  i 


Great  Kangaroo  {Maat^ut  ffiffanlna). 


''■'■   M«  I      . ,  .. 

kaDgarooa  inhabit  open  plains, 
are  more  ganerally  found  in  (oreats,  Bomo  are  frequent 
OB  the  BDony  etunmita  of  the  highest  Australian 
aianntaina.  They  are  of  veiT  variouB  size ;  some 
are  not  much  larger  than  a  rabbit,  ^ey  are  caail; 
tamed ;  aome  apeciea  have  been  brought  to  Britain, 
and  have  bred  m  zoological  collectiona,  but  have  not 
yet  been  properly  natnraliBed. 

The  exceedingly  immatore  state  in  which  yoong 
kangkrooa  are  bom,  and  the  manner  in  which  Uiey 
are  nonrished,  fall  to  be  noticed  in  the  article  H^ut. 
BVPIATA.  Ere  they  finally  desert  the  pouch  of  the 
mother,  the  yonng  may  be  seen  poking  tlteir  heads 
out  of  it,  and  nibbling  the  herbage  among  which 
she  moves. 

KASOABOO  GRASS  {AnlMdiria  auilralu], 
the  most  esteemed  fodder^grau  of  Australia.  It 
grows  to  a  height  much  above  that  of  ihe  fodder- 
grasses,  of  Britiuu,  affords  abundant  herbage,  and  ia 
much  relished  by  cattle.  The  genus  ia  allied  to 
Andropogon,  and  has  clusters  of  flowers  with  an 
involucre.  The  awns  are  very  long  and  twisted, 
both  in  the  K.  G.  and  in  a  nearly  allied  species, 
A.  cUiaia,  which  is  one  of  the  moat  esteemed 
fodder-grasses  of  India. 

KAHO',  a  great  manufaoturii^  and  mercantile 
town  and  capi^  of  a  province  of  the  Bame  name, 
in  the  empire  of  Sokoto,  Central  Africa,  stands  in 
lat  12°  7  N.,  and  long.  8/"  SSf  E.  The  prorince 
is  estimated  to  contain  SOO.OOO  inhabitants,  and 
from  ita  beauty  and  wealth,  haa  been  called  the 
'  Garden  of  Central  Africa.'  Hie  wall  whioh  sor- 
ronnds  the  town  of  K.  is  15  miles  in  dreait,  and 
between  it  and  the  town,  which  is  circular  in  shape, 
and  it  about  three  cules  in  diameter,  a  space  inter- 
venes large  enough  to  aup^y  the  inhabitants  with 
com  in  case  ot  siege.  The  nouses  are  built  of  clay, 
covered  lor  the  moat  part  with  conical  thatched 
roofs.  The  industry  oonaiata  chiefly  in  the  weaving 
and  djreing  of  cotton  ototha,  which  are  exported  &om 
K,  to  the  value  of  £30,000  annuaUy,  to  Timbfiktu 
on  tiie  weat,  over  the  empire  of  Bomu  on  the  east. 


ss^a' 


and  to  Tripdi  on  the  north.  Dr  Borth  etlimates 
the  nombm  of  slave*  exported  from  E.  at  fiOOO 
annually.  The  population  is  about  30fi00,  but 
during  the  bnaiest  sawou  of  the  year,  from  Janiiary 
to  Ai^  it  rises  to  about  60,000. 

KAS8A,  in  Hindu  Uythology,  a  king  of  the  race 
of  Bhoja — considered  also  as  a  demon,  KtUnami 
in  human  shape — notorious  for  his  enmity  towards 
the  god  Krishna  (see  TnEVF),  by  whom  he  WM 
ultimately  slain. 

KA'IfSAB,  a  river  which,  with  its  tributaries, 
draina  the  northern  portion  of  the  state  of  Kansas, 
United  States  of  America,  flowing  eastwatd  into 
the  Missouri,  into  which  it  falls,  on  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  state.  Ita  northern  branch,  Bepub- 
lican  fork,  risea  in  tlie  Kooky  Mountains. 

KA'NSAS,  one  of  the  United  State*  ot  Ameriea, 

"ig  between  lat  3T  and  40°  N.,  and  long.  94° 
and  102°  W.  Bounded  on  the  N.  I^Nebraaka, 
.  by  Mieaouri,  8.  by  Indian  Territory,  W.  by 
Colorado,  it  is  208  mile*  broad,  and  408  miles  long, 
•ad  contains  81,318  square  miles.  The  capital  b 
Topeka,  and  the  principal  towns  are  Atohism, 
Lawrence,  and  Leavenworth.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Hisaouri,  Kansas,  Osage,  Neaaho,  the  Arkansas, 
and  their  branohe*.  Nearly  2,000,000  acres  aro 
mineral  lands,  bat  three-fourths  of  the  entire  area  ia 
well  suited  for  •grienltuTe^  There  are  no  mountaio* 
i  Qm  land  riHe  in  bliiK  and  rolling 
irta  aie  being  made  to  reclaim  the 
arid  pbuu,  onoB  called  the '  beat  American  DeBOTt,' 

'  "  protniae  of  ancceea.     The  soil  is 

..  ^ lOins  all  the  oereals,  with  cotton, 

hemp,  tobacco,  and  fmita.  ^Elie  prairies  oontoin 
abundance  of  game,  consiating  of  1^  buffalo,  deer, 
Mitelope,  wild  turkey,  wild  goose,  prairie  hen.  The 
river«  are  full  of  fish,  and  flieir  banks  are  sparsely 
timbered.  Iron,  coal,  hgnite,  marble,  kaolin,  and 
salt  are  among  the  'minerala.  In  1672  there  were 
1771  lines  of  railway  completed,  and  about  2000 
more  projected.  In  1870  there  were  1989  educa- 
tional establiabmentB,  including  a  university  and 
21  colleges,  6  academies,  1  normal  aohool,  1  grammar 
achool,  Ac.,  with  a  total  attendance  of  69,882.  K. 
*  d  aa  a  territory  in  1864,  and  became 
violent  contests  between  northern  and 
Bouthem  settleia,  on  the  i^uestion  of  slavery. 
After  much  violence,  a  constitutiou  was  adopted, 
excluding  slavery,  and  K,  was  admitted  into  the 
Union,  January  1!9,  1861.    Pop.  in  1870,  304,399. 

KAH-SU',  the  most  north-western  province  of 
China,  ia  bounded  on  the  £.  by  Shen-ae,  on  the  S. 
by  Tibet  and  8e-Chnen.  Area  estimated  at  from. 
60,000  to  100,000  square  miles ;  the  pop.  is  mi93, 13S. 
Its  surface  ia  mountainous ;  cUef  river  the  Hoong-ho. 
Lau-chow  is  the  capital,  and  there  are  tix  other 
citiee  of  the  first  rank. 

KAKT,  luuinTXL,  one  of  the  are*te*t  and  moat 
influential  metaphyaiciana  of  all  time,  was  the  son 
of  a  saddler,  of  Scotch  deaeent,  and  waa  bom  at 
KUnigaberg,  22d  April  1724.    He  vras  educated  at 

"■ — - — -'-  it  his  native  town,  and  after  (^peoding 

a  private  tutor,  took  hia  de^««  K 
KUni^berg,  ia  176fi,  and  began  to  deliver  pelec- 
tions  on  logic,  metapbyaica,  natural  philosoi^y,  and 
mathematics.  In  1762,  he  waa  offered,  bat  declined 
the  chair  of  poetry,  and  in  1770,  he  waa  appointed 
rofessor  of  logio  and  metaphysice.  He  died  12th 
'ebruary  1S04.  K-'s  private  life  waa  uneventful, 
,  et  curious  and  almost  ludicrous  in  its  mechanical 
regularity.  As  Socratea  could  hardly  be  induced 
to  go  beyond  the  walla  of  Athens,  so  £.  clung  with 
oy^er-like  tenacity  to  the  city  of  hia  birth,  never 
leaving  it  during  the  thirty  yeara  of  hia  profewonhip^ 


.  C.ooijN 


H«  Tesuined  a  bachelor  all  hia  life.  K.  wu 
A  nun  of  mumpeacliftblo  veracity  and  hononr, 
aoitera  even  in  his  prindplai  of  morality,  though 
kindly  and  courteous  in  manner,  a  bold  and  f  earlen 
advocate  of  poLtical  liberty,  ftnd  a  firm  believer  ia 
hniD&n  progrew.  The  inveBtieatiomi  by  which  he 
achieved  the  reputation  of  a  refonaer  in  philoaophy, 
refer  not  ao  much  to  partdcniar  sections  or  prob- 
lema  of  that  sdenoe,  as  to  iti  principles  and  lunits. 
The  central  point  of  his  syBtem  is  found  in  the 
proposition,  that  before  anyUiiiig  can  be  determined 
concerning  the  objecU  of  cognition,  the  faevUy  of 
cognition  itself,  and  the  acmrca  of  ksouwdgt  Ij^ing 
therein,  must  be  subjected  to  a  critical  examination. 
Locke's  psycholof^,  indeed,  at  an  earlier  period  in 
EuropeaQ  speculation,  bad  shewn  a  similar  tendeni^ ; 
but  before  K.,  no  thinker  had  definitely  n^sped  the 
conception  of  a  critical  philosophy,  and  K.  nimself 
was  led  to  it  not  so  mach  by  Locke,  as  by  Hume's 
ainite  soepticism  in  regard  to  the  objective  vahdity 
of  oni*  ideas,  especially  of  the  very  important  idea 
oE  canaalitj.  The  Kantian  criticism  had  a  twofidd 
aim :  lat,  to  sepatate  the  necessary  and  universal 
in  cognitjou  from  the  merely  em^orical  (i.  e.,  from 
the  knowledge  we  derive  through  the  senses} ;  2d, 
to  determine  the  limits  of  cognition. 

In  regard  to  the  former  tn  these,  it  is  of  import- 
ance to  observe,  that  E.  did  not  subject  the  old 
paychological  doctrine  of  '  faculties  '  to  any  analysis, 
but  attributed  to  each  of  thesa~~viz.,  to  the  faculties 
of  Sense,  Undentanding,  Judgment,  and  lUason — 
certun  innate  A  priori  forms,  conceptions,  and 
[unctions,  which,  as  constituting  the  necessary  oon- 
ditioDS  of  any  experience  whatever,  posseeaed,  on 
account  of  their  subjective  necessity,  a  universal 
■nbjectire  validity.  Thus,  in  the  Dense,  as  the 
faculty  receptive  of  eitemsl  impressions,  there 
most  lie,  according  to  K.,  the  forms  of  Spaoe  and 
Time ;  in  the  Understanding,  as  the  faculty  by 
which  the  muiifold  in  appearance  is  combined 
inception,  the  Categories . 
lea,  the  Idea 

ibsumtive.  but  also 
reflective,  the  conception  of  Design  or  Confoi 
to  the  pirpoae  in  view  ;  finally,  in  the  Will  o 
Practical   Season,   the   Categorical  Imperati^ 
the  Moral  Law. 


sal  forms  existent  A  priori  m  tlie  hnman  mind, 

I  afford  knowledge  only  onder  the  condition  that 

the  objects  whioh  they  cognize  are  presented  by 
experience ;  while  for  the  determioing  of  what  lies 
beyond  the  limits  of  Experience,  they  are  merely 
empty  forms,  by  which  somcUiing  ind^d  is  iJtoughl, 
bat  nothing  knoim~  Even  within  the  limits  of 
Ei^ierience  itself,  we  are  cognizant,  accordingto  JL, 
thnnigh  the  forms  of  the  Sense  and  of  the  Under- 
standins,  not  of  thmgs  as  they  are  in  themselves, 
but  onFr  as  they  appear ;  hence  the  opposition 
between  lunimena  and  phanomena.  But  when  we 
try  to  transcend  those  limits,  and  to  ascertain  the 
intelligible  basis  of  the  phenomenal  world  by  the 
forms  of  the  Sense  and  the  Categories,  the  Reatoti 
becomes  entangled  in  an  unavoidable  Dialectic,  for 
which  there  is  no  objective,  but  only  a  critical  soln- 
tiou.  The  objects  of  this  Dialectio,  the  oanying 
out  of  which  constitutes  an  eosentitd  and  leading 
part  of  the  Critique  of  Ok  Pure  Btaton,  are  the 
Soul,  the  World,  and  God;  and  in  relation  to  the 
□osmok^cal  conceptions  in  particular  (viz.,  of  the 
Beginning  sod  End  oE  the  World,  of  the  Unity  or 
Non-Qnil7  of  the  ultimate  particles  of  Things,  of 
Causahtj  through  Freedom  or  through  the  necenity 


of  Nature),  the  Eeaaon  is  involved  in  a  Bcries  ef  ' 
self-oontradictions  (in  the  Kantian  technology,  aisli-  I 
noinia).    The  result,  according  to  K^  of  the  ontieal 

Experienoe  in  the  r^ions  of  rationu  or  speculative   I 
Psychology,  Cosmology,  and  Tlie<dogf,  ia  the  neccs- 
sityfor  abandoning  l£e  hopeof  attaimngsnt^    The   | 
idea  (native  to  the  Beason)  of  the  Unconditiaoed   l 
is  allowed  to  possess  a  r^ulative,  not  a  cimatitulive   | 
value  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  a  principle  neoeasary  for 
the  extension  of  our  inquiries  beyond  th«  fixed   | 
limits  of  experience,  without,  however,  yielding  us   i 
an  extended  knowledge.    So  far  the  philosophy  of   | 
K.  is  purely  negative  and  deetructjve.     Hsmihan,    ' 
Manse^  and  others  have — in  regard  to  Uie  limits   l 
of  the  knowable — merely  reiterated  the  arguments   ' 
of  Uie  great  Oennan,  while  in  regard  to  tho  p<^ta 
in  which  they  do  differ  from  him,  as,  for  example, 
the  nature  of  our  knowledge,  it  is  a  matter  of  T)sy 
gieat  donbt  if  they  are  as  logical  and  oonsiatent  u 
their  predecessor. 

But  the  austere  and  stoical  morality  of  K.  was 
something  too  po»ilivt  to  allow  him  to  rest  satisfied 
with  merely  Ji^ative  reaolta ;  hence  he  sought  in 
the  reality  of  his  Ethics  a  cocopensation  for  the 
nihilism  of  his  Metaphysics.     He  maintaiued  the   I 
unconditional  validiU'  of  the  Moral  Law.  and  of  the 
consequences  which  l»itimately  flow  from  it.     This 
validity,  however,  it  should  be  observed,  is  miaply   j 
jrUHTol,  and  in  no  way  demonstrates  the  met^hyucal 
reality  of  the  ideas,  which,  nevertheless,  by  a  power 
o£  its  own,  it  compels  us  to  accept.    The  Reason,  as 
operating  in  the  sphere  of  Ethics,  is  called  by  E.  tW 
Practical  Reason,  or  the  Practico-lcgjslative  Reason.    1 
The   ideas  whidi   the  Practico-l^islative  Reason 
postulates  are,  1st,  the  idea  of  Fradom;   2d,  of   : 
Immort^ty,   as   the   necessary  condititm   for   an    1 
ever-increasing  approximation  to  the  fulness  of  the   | 
Moral  Law ;  and  3d,  of  the  Ikdng  of  Ood,  as  the 
necessary  condition  of   such   a  regulation,  of   the   i 
universe  as  shall  sbew  the  order  of  nature  to  be  the   I 
expreeaion  of  a  moral  design.   Rejecting  all  the  onto- 
logical,  cosmological,  and  phyaico-thedo^cal  proo&   \ 
01  the  existence  of  Ood  as  mere  futilitiea,  K.  based   ' 
his  belief  in  Ood  on  the  inward  necesaties  of  a  [Rac- 
tical  morality.      Religitm — L  e.,  the  lecognition  of    , 
our  duties  as  divine  commands— has,  in  the  system   I 
of  E.,  the  closest  dependence  on  Mcrolity ;  in  fact, 
becomes  identical  with  it.    This  purely  ethical  con- 
ception of  religion  led  him  to  a  critidam  of  the 
positive  dogmas  of  Uieolcwy  from  an  etiiical  stajid-   ' 
point,  in  which  are  oontained  most  of  the  demrats 
of   theological    rationalism.      The   amdicatitai    ol 
the   Practical    Reason,  as   understood   by  K.,  to 
i^thetLcs  and  Jurisprudence    is   equally  bnitful 
of  important   resutt&— K's   first  work,   Qedaalxn 
DOB  d«r  woAroi   SehStaaiff  der  lebaiiUgtn    Srajle 
(Thoughts  on  the  True  Estimation  of  the  Active 
Powers),  was  published  in  17*7.    The  priudpal  <d 
its  Eucceasots  were.  Die  fahdie  Spit^uligtat  da' 
vier  tgUogitti*Aeii  Figvrea  (The  False  Bsir4plittiDg 
of  the  Four  SyUqptic  Fignrea,    1762),  fisoAaat 
tUMgat  lihtr  dot  O^filfil  da  SchOnm  uiuj  Eriiaboteti 
(ObaervatiODB     on     the    Beantiful    and   SuUime.   I 
1764) ;  £h  Jfuntfi  Sauibai*  tt  InldUgibHU  Forma 
et  Prineipiii  (On  the  Form  and  Prindplea  of  the 
Sensible  and  Intellidble  World,  1770) ;  this  u  tiM 
prelude  to  his  Kritit  dor  reiwn  Venttayft  (Critique   { 
of  the  Pure  Reason,  1781) ;  Omn^egimg  dtr  Utta-   ' 
BftMit  dtr   SiOen    (Basis  of   th«   Heta^ysica  of  | 
Ethics,     17Sa),    Xrilik    dtr    pratiaiia     Vamfl  I 
(Oriiaque   of   the   Fracticil  B«iaon,   17SS),  JTritd 
da-     UrtKcilttnai    (Critique     of    the    Judgnwnt,   I 
1790),    and    S^giou    tHtttrhatb   der    Qraot^  ia- 
Uossen     Yemanfl    (Beligion    within    the    limits 
d.  tJLxm  Reason,   1703).     for  an  aocooDt  «<  tha 


"tTun^^ 


EAOZJK— KARBOO. 


inflaenee  of  K.  in  the  dsralopineDt  of  speciilaldoE 
Oernumy,  see  GBUtuf  Philosophy. 

KA'OLIN  u  the  name  pven  by  the  Chineic  _. 
the  fine  white  ckj  which  ^y  nse  in  miUng  their 
]>orceItuiL  It  it  famiihed  by  Qie  decompositioii 
of  »  gTBoitic  rock,  the  oonititiients  of  which  are 
quartz,  mica,  and  felspar,  the  latter  having  gradoallf 
monldered,  by  the  jomt  action  of  air  aod  water,  into 
this  Bnbatonce.  A  very  limilar  clay,  to  which  the 
Chiaeee  nams  has  been  giTen,  oocun  near  8t  Amttel 
in  Cornwall,  and  near  Limogea  in  France^  In  thew 
caaes,  it  ia  produced  by  the  deoompoaition  of 
PegmaUte,  a  granite  in  which  there  ie  acarcelv  any 
mica,  and  ver^  little  gnaitz.  All  cUys  are  ailicatM 
or  hydrated  silicate*  of  alumina ;  and  these  ckyt, 
which  are  mnch  TVloed  by  the  parcelain-makeiE,  may 
be  represented  by  the  foimiila  Al(0„3SiO,  +  2H0. 

KAf  ItiA,  the  renowned  founder  of  the  Sknkhya 


tSu 


his  learned  and 
excellent  preface  to  hiii  edition  of  the  text-book  of 
the  Slnlihya,  the  Sdnihya-Pravaeharta,  Hays :  'By 
the   prevalent    Bof&age   of   tnytholo^,  Kapila  is 

Xted  to  have  been  a  aon  of  Brahmi;  but  he  is 
rwise  described  ■•  an  incaznation  of  Vialmu. 
He  in  also  recounted  to  hAva  been  bom  as  the  aon 
of  Devahflti;  and  again  ia  identified  with  one  of 
the  Agnia  or  fixes.  Lastly,  it  ia  affirmed  that 
there  have  been  two  KapilaB — the  fiiat,  an  embodi- 
ment of  Vishnu ;  the  otlier,  the  igneoos  principle 
in  human  disguise.  It  muat  be  acknowledged,  in 
short,  that  we  snow  nothing  satisfactonr  concerning 
Kapila ;  the  meagre  notices  of  him  that  are  pro- 
ducible being  hopelessly  involved  in  uncertainty, 
and  ineztiicably  embarraased  by  fable.  Yet  it  may 
be  credited,  witli  bnt  little  hesitation,  that  he  waa 
aomethins  more  substaDtial  than  a  myth ;  and  there 
seems  to  De  tolerably  good  ground  for  receiving,  as 
an  historical  fact,  his  allwu  connection  with  the 
SfLnkhya.' — Bibliotiuca  Indiea,  SAriihyapr.,  p.  14,  atq. 

KARAITES.    See  Jbwibb  SsciB. 

KARAMA'N,  KAEAMA'NIA,  or  OAKA- 
MANIA,  an  inland  eyalet  of  Asia  Minor,  is  bonnded 
on  the  W.  by  Anatolia,  on  the  £.  by  Komiti,  on 
the  3.  b^  the  Tauma  Mountains.  Cattle-breeding 
is  the  chief  employmei^  of  the  inhabttanti,  who  are 
for  the  most  part  nomadio  Xoika.  The  town  of 
Earaman  or  Larauda,  asid  to  be  the  chief  trading 
town  of  this  district,  contains  a  population  Tarioosly 
estimated  at  from  10,000  to  SO,0(N). 

KAKAHSIIf,    NlCHOLU    MlOE&ILOWTIHB,     the 

Cteet  of  Russian  historians,  waa  bom  on  1st 
tmber  17B6,  at  Boeoroeldza,  in  tha  government 
of  Simbirak.  His  fa^er  was  an  officer  of  Tartar 
descent,  and  placed  hJTti  in  tlie  army,  bnt  he  aoon 
retired  from  it,  and  devoted  hiTn«''lf  to  literary 
pnrsnitB,  and  after  a  tour  in  Oermany,  Switaerland, 
and  France,  took  part  in  eatabliahing  the  Moaane 
Jountal,  and  published  volumes  of  tales,  poetzy, 
ftc  Bnt  tbe  work  which  first  gained  him  a  hi^ 
reputation  was  his  LtUert  of  a  RuMian  TravMtr 
(6  vola.  Moscow,  1797—1801).  awork  which  eiaroiaod 
an  extraordinary  influence  in  the  improvement  of 
literary  taste  in  Eussia.  After  some  other  literary 
attempta  of  no  great  importance,  he  directed  liia 
attenbon  to  the  history  of  bia  conntiy.  In  1803, 
he  waa  appointed  imperial  hiatoriographer,  with 
a  pension  of  2000  rubles;  and  from  this  time 
he  laboured  nnintermptedly  at  lua  Siatory  of 
Suttia  (12  vols.  Potenb.  1S16— 1S2S).  for  the  pre- 
paration of  which  he  had  acoea  to  all  the  cationa] 
archives;  For  this  work,  the  Emperor  Alexander, 
who  had  read  part  of  it  in  manuscript,  made  him 
»  present  of  60|00(l  mblea.  It  bos  bun  tranalatad 
into  oth«  Ungiuget.    It  cornea  down  only  to  1611. 


It  is  in  hi^  repute  is  Snsaia,  diaplaya  mnoh 
research  and  judgment,  and  is.  In  fact,  by  far  the 
most  valuable  work  in  Russian  historical  literature. 
K.  died  on  May  13. 1826. 

KAHA'SU-BAZAR,  a  manufactnring  town  in 
the  Crimea,  25  miles  east^-norHi-eaat  of  Simfer- 
opoL  It  is  Buirounded  by  gardena,  and  containa 
0  chnrches  and  22  moaquea  with  miooreta.  Pop. 
(1867)  14,397,  who  carry  on  considerable  trade,  and 
monnfiwrture  morocco  lather  and  other  articles. 

KARATCHETP,  a  town  in  the  north-weat  of  the 
government  of  Orel,  European  Ruada,  on  the 
SoiBJaa,  on  affluent  o[  the  Dezno,  dates  from  the 
12th  c,  and  contains  (1867)  10,023  inhabitanta,  who 
Dairy  on  a  large  trade  in  cord^e^ 

KABDZSA'O-UJ-SZALLA'S,  a  market^town  of 
Hungary,  cmital  of  the  district  of  Great  Cnmania, 
"  situated  about  90  milea  east-south-east  of  Fest^ 
J  is  the  centre  of  a  district  of  exubraant  fertility, 
and  is  the  m^;  for  the  grain,  fruity  wine,  and  cattUe 
raised  in  that  district    Pop.  (1869)  14,486. 

KAKE'LIA,  an  ancient  province  of  Sweden,  near 

the  Qulf  of  Finland,  annexed  to  the  Russian  empire 

Peter  the  Great,  and  now  forming  portions  of 

government  of  Finland,  8t  Petersbur;^  Olonetz, 

and  Archaii^     The  original  inhabitants  were  of 

flnniah  origin. 

KAHH'NGIA  (Pennit^uta  dittuAum),  a  gross 
cloeely  allied  to  the  Millets,  and  producing  a  grain 
of  the  some  kind.  It  is  a  native  of  Central  AKca, 
and  is  extremely  plentiful  on  the  sonthem  borders 
of  the  Sahara,  supplying  in  Hnne  places  the  prindpid 
port  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitant. 

KABIKAX,  a  remnant  of  the  once  ariensiva 
poaaessionB  of  France  in  India,  lies  on  tha  Coro- 
mandel  Coast,  on  the  estuary  of  one  of  the  bronchea 
of  the  Kaveri,  within  the  limita  of  the  British 
district  of  Tanjore.  It  oontaioa  only  63  square 
miles,  with  (1869]  92,516  inhabitanta,  of  whom  the 
great  majority  are  natives.  K.  was  ceded  to  the 
French  by  the  Rajah  of  Tanjore  in  1759.  Bivin^ 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  En^iah,  it 

at  the  general  pacification  of  1814,  on 

condition  that  it  shoold  neither  contun  any  fortifi- 
cation, nor  possess  any  gairison,'  unless  for  purposes 
of  police.  This  tract  la  of  little  commeniial  import- 
anoe,  for  it  is  only  during  the  season  of  high  water 
that  the  estuary  is  navigable  even  for  coastmg  cr^ 
"".  is  160  miles  to  the  south  of  Madras. 

KARNA'O.    See  Taasn. 

KARR,  JBAif  Alpkokbi,    See  Sdpp.,  VoL  X 

KARROO'  is  the  original  Hottentot  term,  now 
merolly  adopted  into  the  language  of  physical 
tozraphy,  for  ihe  immense  barren  troots  <^  table- 
_  .nds,  about  2000  feet  above  the  se«-level,  which 
occupy  such  a  loi^  portion  ed  the  surface  of  the 
Cape  Colony  and  the  region  north  of  it.  The 
karroos  of  South  Africa  are  generally  composed 
of  shallow  beds  of  the  richest  clay-soil,  rating 
OQ  a  subetratnm  of  slaty  rock,  and  only  want  the 
fertilising  power  of  water  to  render  theca  m  inn- 
ductive  as  any  other  part  of  Uie  anrfaoe.  After 
heavy  rains,  Ininriant  vegetation  qoickly  springs 
which  OS  quickly  penshea ;  aiM  tiie  diSsrcDt 
_  .rs  shewn  on  mapa  as  crossing  the  karrooa,  are 
generally  little  more  than  dry  wstec-oonises,  with 
atrinsB  of  standing  pools  in  t^eir  beds.  In  liie 
most  Danen  portiona  the  soil  is  mnch  impregnated 
with  alkaline  matter. 

The  principal  karroos  of  the  Cape  Colony 


t.Googlr 


>  inliatated  by  the  Boen  in  the 
1  water  and  gTMt  u«  abondaiit. 

Within  the  last  tmr  yean,  by  the  introdnetMn  of 
merino  aheep,  and  the  conatmotioii  of  danu,  land 
in  the  karroo  is  becoming  more  TahiaUe 
farmi  that,  a  f  ei 
ralnaleaa,  now  it 

KABS,  the  capital  of  a  paahalik  in  the  Tmkiah 
eyelet  of  Ikzanmt  or  Armenia,  110  milei  north' 
eiaat  from  Enertim,  near  the  Kiuaian  border.  It 
ia  iitoated  on  •  table-land  of  upwards  of  6000  feet 
in  deration ;  the  climate  U  therefore  rather  ■erera. 
Pop.  12,000,  mostly  Anneniaim,  who  carry  on  an 
active  tranait  trade.    In  1S2S,  it  was  token  from 


and  its  defanoe  ty  the  Turks,  with  the  aid, 
under  the  conduct,  of  General  W^illiami,  form  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  paasa^ca  in  the  hiatoiy  of  the 
Crimean  war.  The  mege  began  on  the  ISth  of 
June  185S,  and  the  place  held  oat  till  the  beginning 
of  Beoembsr. 

L   of 


was  (m  me  namu  oi  uiil  nver,  in  a 
enaa,  tbat  the  oChpring  of  S'iva  aroae ;  and  a 
happened  that  he  wao  teen  br  six  nymplu,  the 
Ki'tttiidt  (or  Fleiadee),  the  child  Mmmed  six  facea, 
to  receive  nurtore  from  each.  Grown  up,  he  ful- 
filled hit  jnimion  In  killing  THraka,  the  demon-king, 
wboae  power,  acquired  by  penances  and  Busteritiei, 
threatraed  the  very  ezubsnoe  of  the  god&  He 
•eoompliahed,  besidea,  other  heroic  deeds  in  his 
battles  with  the  gianla,  and  became  the  oommander' 
in-chief  ot  the  divine  anoiea.  Eavingbean  broqght 
np  br  the  EyittiUa,  be  ia  called  KirUiieya,  or 
Shin'mAlura,  the  son  of  aix  mothen  {  and  frran  the 
droumstancea  adverted  to,  he  bean  alao  the  names 
of  Odngeya,  the  son  of  Qangft ;  ffaralAA,  reared  in 
S'aranaM;  Sian'inu3Aa,Qie  god  with  the  aiz&oea; 
ko.  One  of  his  common  appellationB  is  Kum&rtt, 
youthful,  since  he  is  generally  represented  as  a  fine 
yonth ;  and  as  he  ia  nding  on  a  peacock,  he  noeives 
BometImM  an  epithet  like  ffiUhMana,  or '  the  god 
whoae  vehicle  i>  the  peaoook.' 

KA'SCHATJ,  a  town  of  Hungaiy,  ia  situated  in 
the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Hermul,  surrounded  by 
Tine-clad  mountains,  130  miles  north-east  of  Festh. 
It  contains  IS  churches,  of  which  that  of  St 
Elizabeth  {built  1342—1382)  ia  said  to  be  by  far 
the  finest  Gothic  edifice  in  Hungary.  Stoneware, 
leather,  cloth,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  paper,  are  manu- 
factured. Pop.,  inoluaive  of  suburbs  (1869)  21,742. 
Two  battles  were  fought  near  K.  during  the  Hun. 
gorian  reroliition,  both  of  which  the  Austruna  gained. 

KASHAIT,  one  of  the  most  nourishing  towns  of 
inawel'  '  '  "  "  -■  ' 
district,  9090  feet  above 
north  of  Tapahau.  The  vie 
fmit^  and  tbe  town  for  it 
of  ailk-stufls,  gold  brocade,  oarpets,  and  copp«tv 
wares.  It  is  a  large  town,  and  aboonda,  like  all 
P«nian   town^    in   mosques,   baaaan,  bathi,  && 

KASHGA'B.    See  CASaOAS. 

KASKA'SKIA,  a  river  of  Dlmoia,  Unitad  Statea 
ot  America,  which  tiiee  in  the  eactem  part  of  the 
itate,  and  numing  south-west^  falls  into  the  Mia- 
nsaipiii  at  ICruilmtU     It  is  navigable  to  Tandatia, 


KABSIHOT,  a  town  in  the  north-wst  of  tb« 
government  of  Riazan,  Enn^eaiL  Roana,  on  tbe 
Mt  bank  of  tlw  Oka,  dates  from  tha  I2tli  oentnzT- 
Pop.  (1867)  12,027.  The  chief  braochea  of  indostiy 
are  tanning  ropa-makinfe  and  ohemieal*.  In  tha 
vicinity  am  ae^ral  toniutonea  and  other  i 
ing  refios  of  tbe  time  of  the  Mongolian  rale. 

KASTAMUITI,  a  town  of  Torkey  in  Asia,  in  tha 
north  of  Anatolia,  ia  capital  ot  an  OTalst  of  Uu 
same  name.  The  glory  of  this  <nty  has  to  s  gnmt 
extent  departed.  It  oontains  thir^  mosqnea,  and 
about  as  many  public  baUis ;  but  ita  indnstrial  pro- 
doota  comprise  only  cotton  goods  to  a  small  mtiiiil. 
and  some  oopper-waraa.    Popt  1%!UKX 

KAT  BIVEB,  a  branch  of  the  Great  Ksh 
River,  in  the  Caps  Colony,  risinc  in  the  Didima- 
berg,  in  the  valleys  of  which,  in  1S2S,  were  settlal, 
twi£r  the  care  of  the  London  Misaios  Sodaty,  a 
large  body  of  Hottentots  and  ^****'-^*  who  oocq' 
pied  tha  eonat^  formerly  inhabited  t^  tbe  Kafir 
chief  Maoamo  and  his  peode.     "~'  --  '•  -    - 


about  M  ^T*  than  from  theb 
threw  thamsalvM  into  tte  aims  of  the  Kafir  ebida, 
and  szpdlins  the  miisioBariee,  invaded  tha  Colony. 
This  led  to  the  breaklna  np  ol  the  aettlsBMBt  aa  a 
mieaion  station  and  exdnnve  native  rcaerva;  and 
it  now  forms  tbe  divisiOD  of  StookeosttMrn,  tatd  is 
inhabited  by  a  rather  dense,  mixed  popolatioa  of 
Hottentots,  Pinsoes,  and  Eoropeana.  It  ia  ona  of 
the  beat  watered,  wooded,  and  fertile  distrida  in 
the  Cape  Colony,  and  inolndee  an  ana  of  aboot  400 
square  miles. 

KATEB,  HcttBT,  a  mechanist  of  conndetnbla 
eminence,  was  bom  at  Bristol  in  1777,  and  died  in 
London  in  1830.  At  his  father's  denre,  he  bmn 
the  atody  of  the  law,  but  in  1794  relinquished  nis 
legiU  stofliee,  and  obtained  a  commission  in  the  12th 
Regiment  of  Foot,  then  stationed  in  India.  Dicing 
the  following  year,  ha  was  actively  engaged,  imder 
Colonel  Lambton,  in  t^  bigonometao  aurvey  of 
India ;  and  on  his  retam  in  1806,  beoama  a  atnaent 
senior  deparbnent  at  Bandhmst,  and  waa 
shortly  afterwards  prtmioted  to  a  company  ia  tha 
62d  Regiment 

His  oonfaibutiona  to  seienoe  an  dkiefly  to  b«  foond 
m  the  PhOotafhioal  TrmtadloM,  to  iriuoh,  between 
the  years   tSlS  and  ISSS,  he  eonbibated   fiftees 
paper*.    Hie  moat  inuKirtaitt  of  Hum  memotn  ara 
thoee  relating  to  his  detominatlon  of  the  I^^th  of 
the  aeoonda'  pcoidulnm  at  the  latitude  of  LenA» : 
and  those  which  describe  his  '  floating  eoUimator,'   i 
an  instrument  for  udiug  tlie  determination  (rf  the   I 
horiiontal  or  aenith  points.      Por  tbe  Invurtfan  of   ' 
thia  instrament,  he  raoeiTsd  the  gold  medal  <rf  tl>«   i 
Royal  Aabconomical  Society.    In  addition  to  tbeaa   | 
momoirs,  he  was,  oonjoiatlv  with  Dr  Lardner,  tb« 
antJior  of  '  ATreatiae  on  Meohanica' in  the  Co&M   i 
Gj/ciepadia.    Most  of  the  learned  societiea  in  (^ret   | 
^tam  and  on  the  continent  enrolled  him  among 
their  membeia.     His  memoiia  on  the  verifieetion    ' 
and  oompariaoo  of  the  standarda  ol  w«(^ti  sund   1 
messorea  of  Grsat  Britain  and  Irdand,  induced   j 
tlie  enqjeror  of  Bnsaia  to  emph^  bin  to  oooatniet 
standards  for  tba  waigfats  Kid  meammt  of  that 
country;    and  for  theae  labour*  he  teedved  the   : 
oidar   of  St  Ann^  and  a  diamond  atinff-box.    He   ' 
died  from  an  affection  of  the  long*  in  tba  fif^-third 
year  of  his  age. 

KATRINE,  Uxm,  cme  of  the  matt  oelsbiated 
of  Soottiah  lakes,  i«  sitoatsd  near  the  K«lk-nst 
bordw  ot  PertlisUr&  It  ia  eight  milw  in  kuth, 
and  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  meaa  liiiairfli ; 
gtMteat  depth,  7S  fathoua ;  height  abe>va  ^  am, 


,Coo'^le 


KXIBESA—KAWSTIZ. 


Its  Blupe  i«  wrpentiue,  and  dia- 
ply  of  Bhore  and  Mckgroond.    Ben 


about  370  ( 

playB  great 

Venae  and  Ben  An  are  on  ita  banki.    It  contaiol 

several  isleti,  one   ot  vhich,  EUen'i  Isle,  is  the 

centre   ot   the   addon   of   the  Lady  of  the  Laie. 

Several  also  of  Wordsfworth's  I^ics  were  written 

on  Bnhjecta  Eoggeited  in  thit  lociitty. 

The  waten  of  Loch  K.  ue  imnaikably  pore, 
having  only  one  degree  of  hudneaa,  and  in  all, 
two  grains  of  «olid  nuttter  to  the  gallon.  The 
-wateMnppfy  of  the  oih'  <A  Ghagow  (a.  t.)  ia 
drawn  from  thii  lake  ai^  Ihoae  conneotaa  wiUi  it 
(Vennaohar  audAtshray).  Ilis  water  ij  conducted 
tint  byatannelS97B  feet  long  Uuon^  anaonntain, 
and  then  by  aqaedncti,  pipes,  and  tonneli,  to  the 
nservoir  near  tha  oi^ — a  dirtance  of  upwards  of 
25  miles. 

Ki.TSEH'A,  a  laige,  hnt  now  de«date  town  of 
Central  Aiiia,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same 
name,  subject  to  tiie  Sultan  <A  Stkoto,  i«  iitoated 
in  a  beaatifal  and  salubrious  district  in  lat.  12^  54' 
N.,  and  long.  T  SS  'E.,  ninety  miles  north-we«t  of 
KanS.  It  IS  nuromided  by  a  wall  about  fourteen 
miles  in  dronit,  and  contained  at  one  time  at  least 
100,000  inhabitanta.  In  1807,  the  oonqnerins  FUbe 
assailed  il^  and  a  war  was  oommenoed,  which  lasted 
for  npwaids  of  seran  yean.  The  eaptore  of  K.  was 
achieved  only  throngh  its  detraction.  It  has  now 
a  population  of  from  7000  to  8000,  and  BUno  (q,  v.) 
haa  taken  its  place  as  the  cenbe  of  conuuerce  for 
the  country. 

KATTIMUITDOO',  op  CFUTTIMIINDOO,  a 
substance  aomewhat  reaemblina  gutta-perohai  It  is 
tlie  milky  jnice  of  the  East  Indian  plant,  Muphorbia 
nfrq/blia,  and  is  either  obtained  as  a  natural  gum, 
whidi  hsji  owed  through  the  bark,  or  b^  making 
incisions,  and  collecting  the  jnioe  which  flows.  It 
is  much  used  in  India  as  a  cement  for  knife-handlefl, 
and  for  siqular  purposes,  but  is  not  exported  to 
other  countries. 

KATTTWA[R,  a  term  oiipoally  sTOlied  to  one 
of  the  ten  districts  of  Uie  penmsula  of  Guzerat,  has 
gradnallj  been  mode  to  extend,  as  a  collective  name, 
to  the  whole  of  them.  In  this  larger  aense,  it  sttetchee 
in  N.  lat.  from  20°  4^  to  23°  10',  and  in  E.  long,  from 
69°  ff  to  72*  14',  containing  21,000  square  mfles, 
and  1,47S,C8S  inhabitanta.  This  province  of  India, 
toudiing  <Hi  put  of  ita  sastetn  frontier  the  district 
of  Ahmedabad,  is  everywhere  else  bounded  by  water 
— the  Runn  and  Oou  of  Cutoh,  the  Arabian  Sea, 
and  tha  Gulf  of  Cambay.  Politically  the  oountry 
ia  divided  among  more  than  300  aaeti,  some  of 
them  paying  tribute  to  the  Guioowat  of  Onzerat, 
and  the  reat  to  the  British  f^vemment  bvt  all  of 
^em  iMnngnndo-  tiie  protecbon  of  Ibe  latter  since 
the  year  r820.  Between  them,  these  petty  princes 
hare  a  revenue  of  £86{^270  sterling,  and  a  force  of 
about  4000  cavalry  and  BOOO  infantry.    The  climate 


r,  and  cotton. 


a  the 


KAIYATANA,  a  name  of  mat  celebrity  \  . 
jiterary  history  of  India.  It  tielonga,  in  all  prob- 
abilUy,  to  several  penonagee  renowned  for  their 
coatwintianfl  to  Oia  grammatical  and  ritual  litera' 
tvie  of  the  Brahmanic^  Hindns ;  but  it  is  met  with 
also  amount  Uie  names  of  the  chief  disciples  of  the 
Buddha,  ^^[yamniii — The  moat  celebrated  person- 
age of  *tii*  name,  however,  is  K.,  the  critic  of  the 
great  grammarian  Pftn'ini ;  and  he  is  most  likely 
flie  1  "       '      ■      ■     "■"    


(London,  1861),liaB(bewn  that  he  cannot  have  been 
a  contemporary  of  PAn'ini,  as  was  generally  tmuned ; 
and  in  ajiaper  recently  read  by  him  b«tor«  the  BOTal 
Asiatic  &Kiiety  (February  1863),  he  ha*  proved  that 
this  £.  lived  at  the  same  time  a*  the  great  grain- 
morion  Potonjali,  whose  date  he  had  pievioatly 
fixed  between  140  and  ISO  before  the  Ohnstian  er^ 
See  Patanjau. 

KATTDID  {PIufniA^ffl  etmeamm),  a  species  of 
Qrastbopper  (q.  v.)  3  a  pale-green  colour,  a  native 
of  North  America,  Teiy  plentifnl  in  some  part*  of 
the  United  States,  where  ita  peculiar  note  is  alwaya 
to  be  heard  dnrinK  tiie  •unmer,  from  the  evening 
twilight  till  the  middle  of  tha  night.  Ti^  note  is 
almost  like  a  ahriU  Bitiaalation  of  Oie  three  syl- 
lables kst-y-did,  following  each  ot^er  in  quick  luc- 
ceaiion,  after  which  there  is  apanse  of  two  or  three 
minntee.  The  organ  of  eonnd  is  a  transparent  elastic 
membrane  in  a  strong  oval  frame,  in  each  of  the 
wing-coveiB ;  these  membranes,  by  the  overlapping 
of  the  wing-coveia,  can  be  made  to  mb  against  one 
another,  and  the  sound  ia  produced  by  the  friction. 

KA'TZBACH,  a  BioaU  river  in  the  Prossian  pro- 
vince ot  Sileaia,  falling  into  tha  Oder  at  Parchwitz. 
It  has  become  famous  in  history  from  the  battle 
fought  on  its  banks  on  2Gth  August  1813,  between 
the  French  troopB  under  Uarshid  Macdonold.  and 
the  Frussions  under  Blncher,  in  which  the  lotter 
were  completdy  viotorions.  Tha  French  lost  in  the 
battle  of  the  K.  5000  killed,  and  18,000  wounded 
and  prisoners,  with  103  cannouB,  two  eagla^  and 
"'lO  ammnnition-wagont. 

KAXTLBAOH,  Wilhxui  voh,  a  celebrated 
Oerman  painter,  was  bom  at  Arolsen,  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Waldeck,  15th  October  1S05,  and  in  bis 
seventeenth  year  entered  the  Academy  of  Arta  at 
DUsseldoit,  where  he  soon  became  one  ot  Cornelius's 
best  pupils.  He  seemed  thorough^  penetrated  by 
the  severely  ideal  ond  aUegorioal  spirit  of  that  great 
master,  yet  even  from  the  first  he  diqilaTcd  no  lack 
of  individool  Eenins.  Among  bis  Sitt  importsnt 
prodnctions  (1^8—1829),  were  nxsymbohoal  figures, 
the  beat  known  of  which  ia  'Apollo  among  the 
Mnsea.'  To  tha  same  period  belonga  a  work  of  a 
wholly  diffisent  and  evrai  oppoaite  character, '  The 
Madlumse,'  conceived  and  executed  in  the  most 
vieoTonsly  realistic  sorit.  It  added  immensely  to 
K?s  reputation,  and  KingLudwig  ot  Bavaria  now 
employed  him  to  decorate l>nke  Maximilian's  palace 
in  Munich.  For  this  be  executed,  iU'  the  sbictly 
antique  style,  sixteen  tresooe*  illoattatingthe  fable 
of  Psyche  and  Cupid-  His  designs  from  Klopstock, 
OoeUie,  and  Wieland,  for  the  same  monarch,  are 
also  worthy  o£  mention.  In  1837,  K.  com[deted 
his  *  Battle  of  the  Huns,'  a  picture  representiiu 
the  grand  legend  of  the  continued  struggle  in  mif 
air  of  the  souls  of  the  Huns  and  Bomans  who 
had  fallen  before  the  walls  of  £ome^  which  was 
vwaided  as  tiie  culmination  of  tiia  new  German 
m£ooL  Navwtbeless,  the  reahtm  of  whic^  we  have 
spolum  (tall  foand  urmasion  in  varioua  works. 
His  patiMit  atndr  ot  Hogarth  ia  quite  visible  in 
his  iltustiatioa  ot  Soulier,  of  Goethe's  FauM,  and 
BtbidK  Fudu.  In  1846,  E.  oom^eted  what  is 
probably  his  ehaf-d'cenvte,  tlie  'Destruction  of 
Jerosslem  by  Titos.'  It  is  a  marvallons  mixtun  of 
histciy  and  lyinbolinL  In  1819,  E.  anocaeded 
{ Com^us  aa  director  of  the  Bavarun  Anademy  of 
Art  In  1859,  he  finiahed  hia  'Battle  of  Salomis.' 
I%e  gritaille  cartoon  (in  oil)  of  Pet«  Artriet  ia  one 
of  his  lateat  and  mort  ehanoteiiatic  works :  among 
hia  other  paintingB  sm  '  The  Towai  <A  Bobel,'  and  a 
aeries  of  OeMoea  at  Munii^  LatUriy  ha  punted 
roanypwtraitfc    Be  died  April  7, 1874. 

KAUHUS^  WsMuuira  Axtbokt,  Jfaanm  yo*. 


vCoo>jle 


KiTJBl-K2iNG-8L 


^  t  &nd  hoQountble 

family,  soon  receiT'ed  importoiit 
ments  from  the  Emperor  Chailea  VL  He  coc^ued 
to  £11  important  ntnatioiu  under  Matia  Thereia. 
1  great  fame  as  a  ^pldmatiit,  in  1748,  at 

^em  of  Aix-lo-Chapelle.   He  was  afterwards 

Anatrian  ambaasador  at  me  French 
1753,  waa  appointed  court  and  state  chancellor,  and 
in  1756  chuicellor  also  for  the  Netherlands  and 
Italy,  and  contiaued  for  almost  forty  years  to  have 
the  principal  direction  of  Austrian  politics.  The 
project  of  the  partition  of  Poland  originated  with 
him.    He  had  so  much  to  di       " '    ' 


called  the  Enropean  coscb'-drirer.  He  was  Tcry 
vain  and  confident  of  his  own  abilities,  so  thAt 
his  highest  praiw  for  anything  which  he  thonght 
well  done  was  to  sa;  wiUi  an  oath  :  '  I  could  not 
hare  done  it  better  myself.'  He  was  doitow  in  his 
political  views,  regarding  ezclnsivelj  tbe  sapposed 
iat«restB  of  Austria,  but  sincere  and  uprigbt  accord- 
ing to  his  notion  of  his  duty.  He  took  a  very  active 
p^  in  the  ecclesiastical  reforms  of  Jo««ih  II.,  so 
tiiat  at  Rome  he  was  styled  (A«  h^itlieal  jninuler. 
He  was  a  liberal  patron  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
He  retired  from  pnbUc  life  on  account  of  old  age, 
when  Francis  II.  ascended  tba  tlirone,  and  died  27th 
Jnse  1794. 

KAU'RI,  or  KOWME,  or  K.  PINE  {Jkinmara 
otMralit),  a  species  of  Dammar  (q.  v.),  a  native  of 
New  Zealand.  It  is  a  tree  of  great  size  and  beauW, 
and  is  said  sometim^  to  attnin  a  height  of  140 
feet  or  more,  with  whorls  of  branches,  the  lower 
of  which  die  off  as  it  becomes  old.  The  timber 
is  white,  close-gr&ined,  durable,  flexible,  and  very 
valuable  for  masts,  yards,  and  plonks.  It  is  mnch 
used  for  masts  for  tlie  British  navy,  no  other  being 
considered  equal  to  them.  The  nii  Islands,  New 
Hebrides,  and  Anstislia  produce  oUier  species,  the 
timber  of  all  of  which  is  sold  under  the  name  of 
K.  fine,  although  there  are  differences  of  quality. 
All  of  them  are  trees  of  dark  dense  foliage.  All 
of  them  also  produce  a  resin  called  K.  Kxsih, 
or  K.  Qdh,  and  sometimes  Australian  Copal  and 
Australian  Dammar,  of  which  large  quantities  are 
imported  into  Britain  and  North  America,  chiefly 
from  New  Zealand.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  pieces 
as  large  as  a  child's  head,  of  a  dull  amber  colonr, 
where  forests  of  these  trees  have  fonnerly  puwn, 
and  is  obtained  by  digging.  It  is  also  collected 
from  the  trees  from  whioa  it  has  newly  exuded,  and 
s  then  of  a  whitiah  colour.  It  is  used  for  making 
varnishes,  ic 
KAVA.    SeeAvA. 

KAZA'N,  a  town  of  Sussia,  captal  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  ancient  Capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
same  name,  is  situated  on  the  river  Kajanka.  four 
miles  from  the  north  bonk  of  the  Volga,  and  200 
miles  east-south-east  of  Nijni-Novgorod.  It  was 
founded  in  12C7  by  a  Tartar  tribe,  and  after  vanons 
vicLlsitades,  was  made  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent kiagdom,  by  the  Khan  of  the  Golden 
Horde,  which  flourished  in  the  ISth  centory.  In 
IS02,  ihn  BuBsians,  under  Iwan  the  Terrible,  carried 
the  town  after  a  bloody  tdege,  and  pnt  an  end  to 
th«  exiatenoe  of  the  kingdom.  Pc^  (1867)  78,602. 
K.  contains  70  chniches  and  9  moiqiieB ;  a  nniveraity, 
thecdogical  academy,  aod  other  ednoational  estab- 
lishments. Tba  maiinfBCtnrei  ai«  leather,  soap, 
cloth,  and  rilk. 

KAZAN  (in  Tartar,  a  goldm-lotbmtd  ketUt), 
•  govtnuneait  of  Biusia,  between  Ajbakhaii  on  the 


east,  and  the  govenmient  of  Nimi-NoYn>rod  on  tha 

west.  Area,  23,650  square  nules,  }t£s  of  wMch 
is  cnltivated,  tth  in  paaturea,  sjid  ^th  aovet«d 
with  forest*  Pop.  (1867)  1,670,337 —moatly  Clms- 
tiaoa,  with  a  number  of  Moslems,  and  some  idtd- 
■ters.  The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  fertile ;  com  ia 
exported ;  the  climate  ia  rather  severe,  bat  healthy. 
Cattle-breedinff,  keeping  of  bees,  and  fishing  ue 
the  chief  employments  of  the  people.  There  ia 
an  extensive  trade  in  timber,  pitch,  and  wooden 


30  miles  east-south-east  of  Radom.    It  was  founded   | 
in  1350,  and  formerly  carried  on  a  floorishiog  trade 
in  grain,  in  which  a  number  of  Knglish  commeiaal 
houses  established  here  were  engaged.    K.  contained  I 
in  1867  only  2606  inhabitants,  of  whom  a  gn«t 

KEAN,  Sdkvxd,  was  bom  in  London  about 
1787-  Hii£atli«r  waa  a  stage-carpenter;  his  mother, 
■a  actMM.  From  his  infancy,  Qa  glare  of  the  foot- 
day.  While  but  a  child,  he  made  his  appearance  on 
the  boards,  and  on  one  occasion  gave  a  recitatjen 
before  Oeor^  IIL  at  Windsor  Castle.  In  1803,  he 
joined  a  strolling  company  in  Scotland,  and  fw 
eleven  years  be  performed  in  oonntry  the^raa.  He 
came  to  London  in  1814^  in  which  year  he  aiqiesred 
as  Shylock  in  Dniiy  Lane,  his  immenae  p«^nl>rity 
filling  the  coffers  of  the  rn^^n  aging  committee,  and 
enriiSiine  himself.  All  LoniSm  flocked  to  hear 
him  ;  ai^  Hailitt,  Hunt,  and  Lamb,  who  woe  (di- 
stantly in  the  pit,  declared  that  hia  feting  was  like 
'  teaching  Shakspeaie  by  a  flaidi  of  ligfatnii^'  He 
twice  visited  Amenca,  made  meteoric  visitB  to  the 
provinces,  and  ever  in  the  heyday  of  his  powcn 
'  the  pit  rose  at  him,'  to  use  nis  own  ezpreanon. 
Unhappily,  his  habits  were  dissolute,  and  almost 
constant  mtozicatian  impaired  his  memory  and  his 
physical  vigour.  In  183^  while  his  son  Charles  waa 
-ilaying  I^o  to  his  Othello,  the  great  actor  broke 
lown,  and  was  led  off  the  stage.  He  never  again 
appejied  in  public.  Hia  death  took  place  at  Rich- 
mond on  the  I5th  May  1833-  His  great  characters 
were  Othello,  Shylock,  Richaid  Uf,  and  Sir  Giles 
Overreach.  He  was  amongst  actors  what  Byron  is 
amongst  poets,  and  Napoleon  amongst  genciala. 

KRAM,  Cbabi.^  Johv,  second  son  of  Edmund, 
waa  bom  in  1811,  aud  educated  at  Eton.  When 
his  father  fell  into  ill-health,  he  adapted  the  stage 
as  a  profeaiion.  He  was  popular  in  the  provinces 
and  m  America  before  he  achieved  reputation  in 
London.  He  married,  in  1S42,  Uiss  EUen  Tree, 
and  till  bis  death  in  1868  they  acted  together. 
He  becsne  the  lessee  of  the  Princess's  l^Mstre  ia 
IS50,  and  was  the  director  of  the  royal  theatricala- 
His  management  at  the  Princess's  'Theatre  waa 
distinguished  chiefly  by  the  splendid  manner  in 
which  certain  plays  were  produced.  The  otmoat 
pains  was  expended  on  scenery  and  dres^  and  as 
much  care  was  taken  to  avoid  anachroiusms  aa  to 
good  actinc.  Sardanapahu,  produced  in 
iTBS  perha^  the  mutt  striking  of  Uiese 
itions,'  aa  thejr  are  called.  K.  attempted 
the  parts  in  which  his  father  shone,  but  did  not 
succeed  in  beine  more  than  a  comparative  to  the 
snperlative  which  the  alder  generation  of  playgoers 
remembered.  In  s  lower  line  of  character,  and 
in  such  pieces  as  the  Corekaa  Srothtrt,  The  W\ff't 
Secret,  and  Loiat  XI. ,  he  waa  more  at  home  than 
in  the  world  of  Shakspeare. 

K&ANO-SI,  an  inland  province  of  Cbiiu,  lies 
immediately  north-west  ol  the  maritime  proTince  of 
Fo-kien.    See  Cmimi  Fkfoa 


hyCoogle 


J 


KBANO-SIT — TTWITH 


EBANO-SU',  an  important  maritime  province 
of  Chiiia,  the  wealthiest  and  moat  denaely  peopled 
distncl  ot  the  empire.    See  Chinee  ^Eatrnts. 

KliATS,  John,  an  English  poet,  wu  bom 
LondoQ  in  1796.  He  wm  educated  at  Enfield, 
and  was  afterwords  apprenticed  tt>  a  surgeon. 
Certain  of  bis  aanneta  were  publiahed  in  the 
Examiner,  then  edited  by  Mr  Iieij^  Hunt,  and 
received  his  cordial  admiration.  He  published 
in  1817  his  firat  volume  of  poems ;  and  in  tht 
following  year  Sndymioa  appeued,  dedicated  to  the 
memory  of  Thomas  Cbatterton.  This  poem  was 
severely  tumdled  in  the  Quarl^ly  Seeieui  and  in 
Bladnoaod,  He  published  a  third  rolume  of  poems, 
containing  Lamia,  Itaidia,  Eve  of  St  Agna,  the 
fragment  of  Hyperion,  and  ^iB  odes  to  the  S'igklin- 
gate  and  the  Orteian  Urn.  Hia  health  was  at  this 
time  delicate ;  and  shortly  after  the  publication  of 
his  book  he  vreat  to  Italy,  and  died  at  Rome,  on 
the  24th  February  1821,  bis  last  momenta  soothed 
by  the  tender  oare  of  Mr  Severn  t^e  artisL  The 
English  pilgrim  can  see  hie  grave  and  Shelley's  in 
afrectdaoate  neiehboilrbood.  An  admirable  memoir 
of  K.,  with  copious  telectioDS  from  his  letters,  was 
published  by  Monckton  Milnes  (Lord  Houghton). 

K.'a  early  poems  are  disfigured  bj  ctmoeits 
and  aflectatioDB,  but  his  latest  place  him  amongst 
the  masters  of  his  art.  The  Eve  o/St  Agaa  is  as 
melodious  as  any  portiun  of  the  Faery  Queen; 
Hyperion  has  something  of  the  organ-tone  of  Milton. 
Hia  influcaoe  is  strikingly  apparent  in  the  subse- 
quent efforts  of  the  T-lngliiih  muse— Browning  has 
his  colour  without  his  melody,  Tennyson  hsa  his 
colour  and  his  melody  both. 

KEBLE,  JoHH.  See  Stipp.,  ToL  X. 
KECSKEHG'T,  a  town  of  Hungary,  64  miles 
soath.cast  of  Pesth,  is  a  station  on  the  railway 
betireen  that  city  and  Temesvor.  It  is  said  to :  be 
tbe  greatest  market-town  in  the  country,  and  with 
its  extensive  subnibs,  its  streets,  straggling  and 
low  buildings,  may  be  considered  ss  a  type  of  the 
Magyar  town.  Agrioultore  and  vine-growing  are 
carried  on  ;  but  the  inhabitants  are  chieR^  employed 
in  rearing  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and  swine.  Five 
markets  are  held  here  annually  ;  the  oattle-market  is 
the  most  important  in  Hungary.  Pop.  (1869)  41,195. 

KEDOE,  or  KEDGE-AMCHOE,  a  small  anchor 
used  in  large  ships  to  keep  the  how  of  the  vessel 
clear  of  the  bower,  or  principal  anchor.  Another 
use  of  the  kedge  is  to  move  the  ship  from  mooring 
to  mooring  in  a  harbour ;  for  this  purpose,  it  is 
conveyed  to  a  distance  in  a  boat,  then  dropped, 
and  tiie  ress^  hauled  up  towards  it  by  a  cable 
attached. 

KE'DJEBI,  a  seaport  of  Bengal,  stands  on  the 
west  aide  of  the  moat  westerly  channel  of  the 
Hoogly,  once  the  principal  approach  to  Calcutta 
from  Uie  sea.  Between  it  and  the  mettopolis  there 
is  a  telegraphic  line  of  about  40  miles  in  length, 
being  the  fint  work  of  the  kind  in  India. 

KEEL  is  the  backbone,  as  it  were,  of  a  ship, 
running  longitudinally  along  the  middle  of  the 
bottom.  It  couaiists  of  massive  timberB  clinched 
((^{Cther  lengthwise.  From  it  spring,  on  eithec  side, 
the  ribs  on  which  the  ship's  sides  are  laid,  and 
from  it,  at  the  bow  and  stem  respectively,  the  stem 
and  Uie  stem-poab  Ai  the  decks  bear  by  trans- 
verse beams  upon  the  ribs,  it  follows  that  the  whole 
weight  of  the  ship  knd  its  contents  exercise  an 
oblique  lateral  [ovsvare  on  each  side  of  the  keeL 
it  is  usoal^  protected  by  sboog  iron  binding,  so 
that  the  keel  may  be  as  little  injured  as  possible, 
in  the  event  of  tiie  ship  taking  the  ground.  In 
iron  veoela  of  modou  construction,  the  keel  is 
freqoetttly  di^ensed  with,  ooneaponding  strength 


being  obtained  by  internal  tie-beams,  ftc ;  but  the 
absence  of  the  keel  takes  swsy  one  preventive  to 
rolling  from  aide  to  side.  To  be  '  on  on  even  keel,' 
is  to  have  the  keel  parallel  to  the  surface  of  tiie 
water,  i.  e.,  the  bow  and  stem  equally  dee^iL 

KEELAGE,  a  toll  or  custom  payable  by  ships  for 
resting  in  a  port  or  harbour. 

KEELHAULING,  a  punishment  iu  use,  or 
formerly  in  use,  for  ssjlors  m  the  Dutch  navy.  The 
culprit  was  suspended  from  one  yard-arm.  and 
attached  to  him  was  a  rope  passing  beneath  the 
keel  to  the  yard-arm  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
ship.  The  pnninhment  consist^  in  dropping  the 
prisoner  suddenly  into  tbe  water,  and  hauling  him 
beneath  the  keel  up  to  the  yard-arm  on  the  other 

EEBIjSON,  in  a  ship,  passes  inside  the  vessel 
(B  in  fig.),  from  stem  to  stem,  as  _ 
the  keel  (A)   does  outside.     The 
floor-timberB  are  passed  below  it, 
each  being  bolted  Uirougb  the  keel, 
and    alternate    onoa    through    tbo 
keelson.     Like  the  keel,  the  keel- 
son is  composed  of  several  massive  ^ 
timbers  scarfed  longitudioally  together. 

KBEPj  in  medieval  fortdficatioa,  was  the  central 
and  principal  tower  or  building  of  a  castle,  and  that 
to  wluch  the  garrison  retired,  as  a  last  ittoit,  when 
the  outer  ramparts  had  fallen.     See  C&STLE.     A  fine 

rimen  of  tlie  ancient  keep  is  still  extant  amid 
ruins  of  Hochester  Castle. 

KEEFEK  OF  THE  GREAT  SEAL,  a  judicial 
officer,  whose  duties  are  now  generally  merged  in 
those  of  the  lord  chancellor. 

KEEPING  THE  PEACE.  When  a  person  has 
been  assaulted,  or  is  apprehensive  of  an  assault,  he 
m^y  apply  to  justices  to  order  the  assaalting  or 
threatening  party  with  suretieB  to  keep  the  peace. 
This  is  done  by  the  jnstioe  ordering  uie  party  to 
enter  into  recognisances  under  articlai  of  the  Peace 
(q.  v.),  called  m  Scotland  a  bond  in  piu*mm«  of 
letters  of  Lawburrowa  (q.  v.). 

KEI   RIVER,  Great.     This  important  stream 

divides  British  Eafiraria  -on  tbe   south-weet  from 

Kaf&aria  Proper,  and  with  its  blanches,  the  Black 

"■  White  Eei,  the  Indwe  and  l^omo,  all  rising  in 

■       -     ■         Tow 


or  White  Kei,  the  Indwe  and  l^omo,  all  riaine 
the   Stormbergen,   drains    a   basin  of  about  TO 


hopelessly  barred. 

SErGHLKY,  a  market  and  manufacturing  town 
in  the  West.  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  on  the 
river  Aire,  nine  miles  north-west  of  Bradford.  It 
bos  a  free  grammar-school,  with  an  endowment  of 
£240  per  annum.  A  mechanics'  institution,  opened 
in  1870,  contains  a  club  of  IDOO  members,  and 
schools  and  classes  with  600  students.  Many  new 
churches,  factories,  and  other  buildings  hare  been 
erected.  The  manufactures  of  worsted,  machines, 
and  paper  are  important.    Pop.  (1S71)  19,776. 

KEIBKA'MMA.  This  river  forms  the  bonndary 
between  the  Cape  Colony  and  that  of  British 
KaEEraria.  It  is  a  purely  Hottentot  name,  aupify- 
ing  '  cle^r  water.'  It  rises  in  the  Amatola,  anil  with 
its  branches,  the  Chnmie  and  Oaga,  waters  a  very 
fertile  tract  of  country,  formerly  the  head-quartcrs 
of  the  Amoiosa  Kafirs,  now  ^nsely  settled  with 
industrious  Grerman  and  English  settlers. 

KEITH,  Thi  Fault  or.  Tbe  origin  of  this,  as 
of  most  other  Scottish  historical  houses,  is  unascer- 
tained. It  first  appears  in  record  durins  the  latter 
half  of  the  I2th  c,  and  undoubtedly  took  its  name 
from  the  lands  of  Keith  in  East  Lothian,  to  which 
tlis  office  of  the  kind's  mariaohal  was  attached. 
m 


LinhAxUvGoOgld 


KILA.T K  K\  Afi. 


£^c« 


Th»  iaimlj  enten  tlie  pige  of  history  in  the  begin- 
nin^  at  the  14th  eentmj.  In  1300,  Sir  Bobert  of 
Kaith,  hereditaiT  muiKhal  of  Beotluid,  is  fonnd 
hish  in  tlie  oanfiiMiiM  of  King  Edvttid.  L  of  Gn^Und, 
holding  under  him  the  oflwe  of  joint  jtutiaiar  of 
Scotland  from  the  Fu^h  to  the  Mcnuth,  and  ntti 
in  the  English  conndl  at  Weataniniter  u  one 
the  representatiTea  of  Scotland.  He  kept  hii 
allegiance  to  England  for  some  jears  after  Brooe 
was  crowned  king  of  the  Scots,  bnt  joined  that 
ice  before  Bannockbum,  vhere  ha  commanded 
caTtJty,  and  by  a  well-timed  charge  npon  the 
Tingiinji  BTchen,  contributed  not  a  httle  to  the 
fortune  of  the  dav.  Hia  aervicai  were  rewarded  by 
a  large  grant  of  land  in  Aberdeenthire ;  and  the 
poaBeaaioni  of  the  family  were  still  further  increased, 
before  the  close  of  the  century,  by  a  maniage  with 
OQe  of  the  co-heiresBea  of  Sir  Alexander  Fraser, 
chamberlain  of  Scotlaod,  Bmoe's  brother-in-law. 
Throngh  this  alliance,  the  Keiths  acquired  great 
estates  in  Kincardineshire,  and  haTing  addM.  to 
them  the  remarkable  aea-girt  rock  of  Bimnottar, 
they  built  or  restored  a  castle  upon  it,  which  was 
henceforth  their  cjiief  seat. 

Earlt  JforucAoi— About  1458,  the  family  was 
ennobled  in  the  person  of  Sir  William  Keitl^  who 
was  created  Earl  Mariscbal  and  Lord  Keith.  TTU 
House  Teached  its  highest  pitch  of  power  in  the 
person  of  his  great-great-grandson,  the  fourth  earl, 
nicknamed,  Et^i  the  leclnRion  in  which  he  bred  at 
Dunnottar,  'William  lAo  kept  the  Tower.'  By 
maniags  with  his  kinswoman,  the  co-heiresa  irf 
Inveragie,  be  neaily  doubled  the  family  domuns, 
which  now  inchided  lands  m  seven  sbirea,  Hadding- 
ton, Linlithgow,  Kincardine,  Aberdeen,  Banff,  Elgin, 
and  Caithneaa.  He  was  reputed  the  wealthiest 
peer  in  SooUand,  having  a  rental  of  270,000  marks 
a  year,  and  being  able,  it  was  boaated,  to  travel 
from  the  Tweed  to  the  Peutland  Filth,  eating 
every  meal  and  sleeping  every  night  on  his  own 
lands.  These  vast  poseeaaions  [lused  to  his  grand- 
son, George,  the  finh  earl,  whi),  in  IS93,  founded 
the  Marischal  College  and  University  of  Aberdeen, 
Its  walls  were  insoibed  with  the  words:  'TsAY 

SAXt    UID   :  qUEAT  BAT  TBA7  :  UT   THUEX  SAT;' 

in  allusion,  it  would  seem,  to  the  popular  reproach 
which  the  earl  had  brought  upon  himself  by  adding 
the  lands  of  the  ancient  abbev  of  Deer  (q.  r.)  to  bis 
already  overKrown  eatates.  The  stoiy  ran,  that  hia 
wife  earnest  entreated  him  to  forego  the  spoil 
'  But  fourteen  score  chalders  of  meal  and  bear  was  a 
sore  temptation,'  says  Patrick  Oordon  of  Clnny,  and 
the  earl  was  deaf  to  her  eotreatiea.  Hereupon,  it 
is  said,  she  dreamed  a  dream,  which  was  thought  to 
portend  the  downfall  of  the  Hauae  of  Keith,  She 
aaw  the  monka  of  Deer  set  themBalvee  to  work  to 
hew  down  the  crae  of  Dunnottar  with  their  pen- 
knives, and  while  she  was  laughing  them  to  scorn, 
'beholdl  tbe  witde  eras,  with  all  its  strong  and 
stately  tmildingi,  wm  miQemiined  and  fallen  in  tbe 
sea.'  This  waa  written  before  166a  Within  little 
more  tiian  half  a  centoiy,  Dnnnottar  was  in  ruins, 
and  ita  lord  a  landless  exile.  At  the  age  of  22, 
George,  the  tenUi  and  last  Earl  Marischal,  took  part 
with  lus  younger  brother  James  in  the  rising  of 
171G.  He  waa  attainted,  and  bia  estates  (yielding 
£1676  a  year)  were  forfeited  }  bnt  he  himaelf  escaped 
abroad,  where  he  rose  to  distinction  in  tiie  Pnuaian 
aerrice.  Hia  oommunicatioD  to  the  British  govern* 
ment  of  a  political  secret  which  he  learned  when 
Frua^Lan  ambassador  at  Madrid,  procured  his  pardon 
in  1759.  A  year  or  two  afterwards,  he  revisited 
ScotJand,  and  bought  back  part  of  tfae  family  estate*, 
but  rofused  the  proffered  restoration  of  the  famSy 
titl^  He  speedily  returned  to  Pmsna,  and  died 
there  in  1778  at  the  age  of  88.    Bis  brother,  -who 


field-marshal,  fell  at  a>chkiTch  in  I75S.  , 

Lord*  KtiA. — Neither  having  any  iume,  the  direct 
male  line  of  the  Hooaa  oame  to  an  end.  His  nster, 
I«dT  Mary,  by  her  marriage,  in  1711,  with  John, 
•iiu  Earl  of  Wigton,  had  a  daughter,  Lady  Clemea- 
tisa,  who  married  Charie^  ten£  Lord  Klphinston^ 
hv  whom,  beaidsa  other  children,  she  had  Sir  Oet^ge 
Keith  Elphinibme,  who,  in  1797,  was  created  Lead 
Keith  of  Stonehaven  W«ri«pli«.1  in  the  Irish  peerage^ 
and  in  1S03,  Lord  Keith  of  Banheath  in  the  peerage 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  Bis  daughter,  the  BatoneM 
Keith,  ia  the  wife  of  the  Count  de  Flahantt. 

SarU  of  Kinion. — Sir  John  Keith,  third  soa  of 
the  sixth  Earl  Maiiachal,  was,  for  his  aervioea  in 
saving  the  Scottish  Begalia  during  the  Commoii- 
wealuL,  raised  to  the  peerage  by  tM  titles  of  Earl 
of  Kintore,  and  Lord  Kmth  of  Inverary  Mid  Eeith- 
halL  On  the  death  ol  hia  grandaoo,  the  fomth 
earl,  in  1761,  the  estates  devtdved  on  the  last  Eari 
Marischal;  and  on  his  death  in  1778,  the  eatota 
and  title*  psased  to  Alexander,  sixth  Lord  Faloram' 
of  Halkertoun,  the  grandson  of  the  eldest  dao^tei 
of  the  second  earL  Her  descendant  ia  vow  the 
ninth  Earl  of  Kintore  and  eleventh  Lord  Falonai 
of  Halkertoon. 

KBLAT,  the  ct^tal  of  Bdooehistan,  standi  at  >n 
elevation  of  more  than  7000  feet,  in  lat.  28*  BS*  N., 
and  long.  66*  37  £.  TOa  district  round  about  ife 
fruitful,  and  thickly  peopled.  K.  contains  about 
12.000  inhabitants.  Seated  on  the  anrnmit  of  a 
hill,  K.  is  a  plaoe  of  military  importanDe.  In.  tha 
Afghan  wars,  it  was  twice  taken  aj  the  British. 

KELLEKHANN,  FsAVsoiB  OBBimoPH^  Dak* 
of  Valmy,  bom  2Sth  May  1736,  at  Wolfidmch- 
weiler,  in  Alsace,  entered  the  French  army,  uid 
had  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  marfichal-de-canp 
the  Berolution  broke  ont.  He  warmly 
espoused  ita  cause,  and  contribnted  much  to  ita 
progress  in  Alsace.  In  1792,  he  received  tbe  com- 
mand of  the  Army  of  the  Centre  on  the  Moselle^ 
repelled  the  Buke  of  Brunswick,  and  delivered 
France  bythe  famous  cannonade  of  Valmy.  Tet,  on 
'lection  of  treason  againet  tbe  tripubJio,  be  waa 
iprisoncd  for  ten  months,  and  only  liboated  cm 
the  fall  of  Bobespierre.  He  afterwards  rendend 
important  servicea  in  Italy,  and  on  the  enctioD 
of  the  Empire  he  was  mode  a  mftmhal  and  a  duke. 
'  "  campaigns  6f  1809  and  1812,  ha  cxmunanded 
terves  on  the  Rhine.  At  the  Keetoratifm,  be 
attached  himself  to  the  Bourbons.  He  was  moderate 
and  constitutional  in  his  views.  He  died  13th 
September  1820. 

KELLS  (originally,  fenZw),  an  ancient  oorporate 
town  of  tbe  county  of  Meath,  Leinstcr,  Irelwd,  is 
situated  on  the  Blackwater,  13  miles  north-noilli- 


west  of  Trim,  and  has  been  associated,  froni  a  very 
early  period,  with  the  moat  important  arenta  of  Iiiui 
history,  socied  and  profane.    J%e  town  originated  ia 


itcry,  which  waa  founded  in  the  middle  of 
the  6th  0.  t:^  8t  Colnmba ;  in  which  monastery  the 
Columban  community  of  lona  found  a  refuge  when 
that  island  was  devastated  by  the  Norsemen,  be- 
802  and  816.  K.  is  renowned  for  an  ancient 
cript  oopy  of  the  gospds,  called  tbe  Book  of 
Kells.  It  is  beautiful^  eieeoted  with  oolaared 
ornamentation,  and  is  believed  to  be  tlie  wnsk 
of  the  6th  or  7th  century.  It  ta  now  preaarred  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin.  K.  was  a  bishO[f  s  see^  and 
before  the  act  of  union,  it  returned  two  memben  to 
tbe  Irish  pariiament.  Its  oldest  oharter  is  ^  II 
and  IS  Richard  IL  Tbit  waa  modified  by  aeTtnl 
sncoeeding  charter*,  nndtr  wluoh  ths  mnmeipal 
bo<^  was  maintained  nntO  the  Irish  Mimical 
Befa»m  Ao^iAidi  otastsd  *  bo^  tA  town  mm> 


Cj  00*^  I C 


KELP— EEICBLE. 


mudonen.  New  roadt  li»ve  been  fonaed,  and  new 
Boboola,  worUumse,  ko.,  bnilt.    Pop.  (1871)  2953. 

KELP  (Ft.  varee)  is  ^e  erude  alkaline  matter 
[ffodnced  by  the  comboition  of  sea-weeds,  of  wUcIl 
the  most  -rained  for  this  pmpooe  an^  Fnaa  vetka- 
Jo#u*,  F.  nodomt,  JF.  terratui,  Laminaria  diffilaia, 
L.  bu&ota,  HimtmtKalia  lorea,  and  Chorda  JUvm. 
Theie  are  dried  in  the  mm,  and  then  burned  in 
ehallow  ezoavationi)  ftt  a  low  heat.  About  20  or 
24  tona  of  sea-weed  yield  one  ton  of  kelp,  which, 
u  met  with  in  commerce,  cooaiBtB  of  h^fd,  dark- 
gray  or  bluioh  maBsee,  which  hare  an  acrid,  caustic 
taete,  and  are  composed  of  chloride  of  sodiuia,  of 
carlKniBte  oi  ooda  (formed  by  the  decompooition 
of  the  organio  lolbi  of  soda),  solphates  of  soda  and 
potsah,  chloride  of  potaasium,  iodide  of  potaasimn 
or  sodium,  inatdable  eolta,  and  colotuing  matter.  It 
naed  to  be  the  great  source  of  soda  (the  cmde 
carbonate) ;  but  aa  this  ult  can  now  be  obtained 
at  a  lower  prioe  and  a  batter  quality  from  the 
deoonpoaition  of  sea-salt,  it  is  prepared  in  far  lots 
quantity  than  totmerly.  A  ton  (3  good  kdp  wUl 
field  about  ei«bt  pounds  of  iodine  (which  is 
solely  obtained  from  tbia  soorce),  laroe  quantities  of 
chloride  of  potaannm,  and  additiotialfy, '  by  deetmc- 
tire  distillation,  a  laive  quantity  (fzma  foor  to  ten 
gallons)  of  Tolatile  o^  from  four  to  fifteen  gallons 
of  paiafflne  oil,  three  or  four  gallons  of  naphtha, 
and  from  one  and  a  half  to  four  hnndred-weiRht  of 
sulphate  of  ammcnia.' — Ansted's  O/umiui  iStavU, 
p.  SIS.  Except  the  iodine  and  chloride  of  potaMum, 
none  of  theae  snhstancea  an  obtained  under  the 
present  treatment. 

In  Bnttuy,  Uie  total  annual  production  of  kelp 
is  aa  mnoh  as  24,000  tons,  while  in  all  the  BiitiBh 
Islands  the  total  manufacture  is  only  10,000  tons. 
ProfesKiF  Ansted,  in  the  work  already  quoted,  shews 
that  tjte  nuum&ctnre  of  kelp  might  be  made  a 
source  of  great  wwdth  to  the  Channel  Isles.  The 
Guernsey  sea-weed  is  stated  by  Profaasor  Graham 
to  be  the  richest  known  source  of  iodine,  and  the 
'    Increasing  demtmd  for  that  substance  for  photo- 


61S,  of  the  Channel  Iilandt,  it  a] 

mi^t  yiel '  "  " 

wi^th  aboi 


ield  annnally  about  10,000  tona  of  kelp 
thus  be  exactly  doubled. 


The  British  supply  won! 


Before  the  remission  of  the  duty  on  salt  and  on 
Spanish  barilla,  the  kelp  manufacture  was  carried 
on  to  a  Tery  large  extent,  and  the  value  of  many 
estates  in  the  Scottish  Highlands  and  Hebrides 
greatly  increased  in  consequence  of  it.  The  rent  of 
some  forms  in  the  Orkneys  rose  from  £40  to  £300 
a  yeiiT.  Many  thoiuand  tona  were  made  annually 
on  the  sborei  of  Great  Britain,  which  sold  for  £7  to 
£10  per  ton,  uid  emdoymeot  was  given  to  a  great 
number  of  people.  The  reaolar  onltivatioD  of  the 
sea-weed  was  even  propoera,  and  to  some  extent 
carried  into  effect,  by  placing  large  stones  within 
tide-mark  upon  sandy  ahores,  which  were  soon 
covered  with  it. 

Ksu,  in  point  of  law,  if  found  beyond  high-water 
mark,  belongs  to  the  owner  of  the  adjacent  land. 
The  right  to  kelp  is  often  let  by  the  owner  separ- 
ately from  fie  lands  in  the  Highlands  of  ■'--"—  ' 

KE'UK),  a  town  in  Scotland,  finely  pi 
tbe  north  bank  of  the  Tweed,  oppoidte 
point  where  that  itream  receives  the  wi 
the  Teviot.  The  name  was  anciently  written 
Kakhu  or  Caldiou,  and  is  supposed  to  hare  had  its 
orizin  in  a  precipitous  bonk  abonnding  in  gvpsum, 
stiS  called  the  CAoiUeujA.,  The  town  derived 
its  importance,  if  not  its  exiftenoe,  from  a  riohlj 
endowed  abbey  td 


^  ^uted 


at  Selkirk  in  the  year  1113,  by  King  David  L, 
when  Prince  of  Cumbria,  awi  transp^nted,  after 
his  acoesaiou  to  the  Scottish  throne  in  1124,  'to 
the  cliurcli  of  the  blessed  Yircin  Mary,  on  the 
bank  of  the  Tweed  bceide  Itozburgh,  in  the  place 
called  Cslkou.'  The  abbey  was  ruined  by  the 
English  under  the  Earl  of  Hertford  in  1545,  and  all 
that  now  remaios  of  it  is  part  of  the  Abbey  Church. 
It  is  in  the  later  Norman  or  Romanesque  style,  and 
bad  a  nave  of  two  bays,  north  and  south  transepts 
each  of  two  bays,  a  central  tower  still  SI  feet  h^h, 
and  a  choir  of  unascertained  length.  QThe  more 
modem  parts  of  the  town  are  well  builL  A  hand- 
some brulga,  designed  by  Iteonia,  coonects  Kelso 
with  its  saborb  of  Maxwellhengh,  and  conunands  a 
noble  view.  On  the  north-west  of  the  town,  in  the 
midst  of  a  beautiful  park,  is  Floors  Castle,  the  seat 
of  the  Duke  of  Itozbursh :  it  was  built  in  1718, 
from  the  desi^  of  Sir  John  Vanbmgh,  and  was 
enlarged  and  improved  by  the  present  duke  from 
tlie  designs  of  the  late  Mr  Flayfoir  of  Edinburgh. 


opposite  bank  of  the  Tweed  : 
Roiburgh  Castle,  once  the  strongest  fortress  on  the 
eastern  oorder.    The  town  of  Roxburgh,  which  rose 


under  the  shelter  of  its  walls  ' 
chief  towns  in  Scotland,  has  so  completely  disap- 
peared, that  scarcely  a  vestige  of  it  remains.  K. 
was  made  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1634.  It  has  no 
manufacturea,  and  little  bade,  although  three  news- 
papers are  published  in  it  Its  populatim  in  1S71 
WU4G64. 

KEMBLE,  John  Fhiuf,  wm  of  Roger  Eemble, 
an  actor,  woe  bom  at  Prescot,  in  Lancashire,  on  the 
1st  February  1757,  He  received  his  education  at  a 
school  in  Worcester,  afterwards  at  a  Roman  Catholio 
seminary  in  Staffordshire,  and  finally  at  the  English 
College  of  Dooai,  in  France.  On  his  return  to 
England,  he  adopted  the  stage  as  his  profession, 
muing  his  first  appearance  at  Wolverhampton  on 
January  8,  1776.  On  the  30th  September  1783, 
he  made  hie  first  appearance  at  T>rury  Lane  in 
Hamlet— always  a  favourite  character  of  his— and 
in  1790,  he  succeeded  to  the  management  of  that 
theatre.  In  1803,  he  purchased  a  sWo  iu  Covent 
Garden  Theatre,  of  which  he  also  beoome  manager. 
On  the  destruction  of  the  building  by  firB,  K.  raiaod 
a  new  theatre,  which  was  opened  in  1809,  the 
muiagement  of  which  he  retained  till  the  close  of 
his  Uleatrioal  career.  In  June  1817,  he  took  leave 
of  his  patrons  in  London ;  and  a  few  dws  thereafter 
a  public  diiujer  was  given  to  bim,  under  the  presi- 
dency of  X«rd  Holland.  Thomas  Campbell  made 
his  retirement  from  the  stage  the  subject  of  a 
[jpirited  set  of  verses.  Ha  finally  took  up  his  resi- 
d!ence  in  Switzerland,  where  he  died,  on  the  26th 
February  1823,  aged  siity-sii  years. 

E.  was  a  great  actor,  and  he  loved  to  personate 
the  loftier  characters  of  the  drama — kings,  prelates, 
heroes.  ffin  figure  was  commanding,  his  voice 
sonorous  and  well  modulated.  He  was  especially 
RUOceseful  in  Brutus  and  Coriolanus ;  and  the 
ancient  playgoers,  who  remembered  his  intonation 
and  his  Roman  look,  used  to  find  the  more  modem 
stage  oemporatively  unworthy  of  regard. 

KBMBLB,  CHAiiLn,  brother  trf  the  for^ping, 
was  bom  at  Brecknock,  m  South  Wales,  on  the  2501 
November  1775.  He  reoeived  his  education,  like 
his  brother,  at  Donai,  and  like  him  also,  be,  on  his 
return  to  England,  devoted  himself  to  the  stage. 
In  April  17M,  he  made  his  first  appearance  at 
Drury  Lane  in  the  idkaiacter  of  Haloolm.  In  Jnly 
1606,  he  married  Hiss  De  Camp,  a  lady  who  hod 
distinguished  herself  in  the  waUc  of  high-oomBdy. 
E.,  on  bcdng  af^Kiinted  Examiner  of  nays,  rdin- 
qniabed  the  stage  on  the  10th  Afia  1840.    He 


Li:iiiAxnvGoO*^lc 


imnLntT.T! — KENDAL. 


died  on  the  12th  November  1S51,  h&Ting  ilmoBt 
completed  hu  T9tli  feu. 

KEMBLE,  John  Mjtchzl,  oUefly  dktmguiBhed 
for  his  retearclieB  iQ  Acglo-S&XDn  literatnre  and  the 
Kialy  lustoTT  of  Blnglaiia,  was  the  eon  of  Charles 
Eemble,  and  wu  boni  in  London,  1807-  He  studied 
at  Trmity  CoUege,  CainliridKB,  whora  he  took  the 
degree  of  RA.  in  1830,  and  afterwardB  that  of  MLA. 
Whih  an  undergraduate,  he  tpent  some  time  at 
Gtittingen,  under  Jacob  Qrinim,  vhich  perhaps 
determmed  the  bent  of  his  mind  towards  Anglo- 
Saxon  studies.  The  fint  fniifa  of  these  studies  was 
an  edition  (1833)  of  the  poem  of  Beowulf  (q.v.),to  a 
second  edition  of  which  he  added  a  translation,  with 
a  glossary  and  notes.    Not  to  mention  several  minor 

Sublications,  he  edited  for  the  English  Historical ' 
ociet;  a  valuable  collection  of  charten  of  the ' 
Anglo-Saxon  period,  entitled  Codtx  DiplonuUictu  jEvi ' 
.S^i>niei,2vols.  (1839—1840).  But  hii  moat  import- ' 
ant  work,  which  contains  the  chief  results  of  all  his 
researches,  is  TUt  Saxont  in  England,  2  vols.  (1849). 
This  work  is  unfinished-  The  author  had  been 
making  preparations  for  two  more  volomes,  when 
he  di^  suddenly,  March  26,  1357.  E.  was  for 
a  good  many  years  editor  of  the  BritiA  and  Foreign 
Jtemaij;  he  aJsoheld  Uie  office  rf  Censor  of  Plays, 
under  the  Lord  Chamberlain. 

KEMPIS,  XbOuas  I,  SO  called  from  his  native 
place,  Kempen,  a  village  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne, 
was  bom  probabl;  in  1379.  His  family  name  was 
Hiimerken  (Latimsed,  3{a2Utiat,  'Little-hammer']. 
He  was  educated  at  Daventar,  and  in  1400  entered 
the  Augnstinian  convent  of  Agnetenberc,  uear  Zwoll. 
in  the  dioceae  of  Utrecht,  of  which  his  brother  John 
was  prior,  and  in  which  he  took  the  vows  in  1406- 
Ho  entered  into  priest's  ordera  in  1413,  and  was 
chosen  sub-prior  m  1429,  to  which  office  he  was 
re-elected  in  1448-  His  whole  life  appears  to  have 
been  spent  in  the  seelnsion  of  this  convent,  where 
he  lived  to  an  aitreme  old  age.     His  death  took 

Cce  in  1471,  at  which  time  he  certainly  had  attained 
90th  year,  and  most  probably  his  92d.  The 
character  of  K.,  for  sanctity  and  ascetic  learning, 
stood  very  high  among  his  contemporaries,  but  his 
historical  reputation  reste  almost  entirely  on  his  writ- 
ings, which  consiEt  of  sermons,  asceticol  treatises, 
uious  biographies,  letters,  and  hymns.  Of  these, 
however,  the  only  one  which  det«vee  special  notice 
is  the  celebrated  ascetiool  treatise  On  tit  Foltomiag 
lor  Imilaiion)  qf  ChriO,  the  anthorahip  of  which  is 
popular^  ascribed  to  him.  This  celebrated  book 
has  had,  next  to  the  sacred  Scripture  itself,  the 
largest  number  of  readers  of  which  sacred  hterature, 
ancient  or  modem,  can  furnish  an  example^  In  its 
pages,  according  to  Dean  MiIman(Xafin(%rulianU^, 
vL  482),  'is  gathered  and  concentred  all  that  is 
elevating,  passionate,  profoundly  pious  in  all  the 
older  mystics.  No  book,  after  Uie  Holy  Scripture, 
has  been  so  often  reprinted ;  none  translated  into 


in  which  it  is  attributed  to  the  abbot,  John  Gecaca, 
or  Oesen,  whom  he  regardad  as  deaiiy  a  diatiiict 
person  froib  the  ChanceUor  Geison.  From  the  time 
of  this  discovery,  three  competitors  have  diwied 
the  voices  of  the  learned— not  alone  individiula, 
but  public  bodies,  universities,  religions  orders,  the 
Congregation  of  tJie  Lidex,  the  parhament  of  Paris, 
and  even  the  French  Academy  ;  and  the  aasertora  of 
these  respective  claims  have  carried  into  the  con- 
troversy no  trifling  amount  of  polemical  acrimony. 
The  most  recent  and  best  account  of  the  detaila  of 
the  discussion,  as  well  as  its  history,  will  be  foimd 
in  Maloa's  ItechenAee  Mttoriquea  et  critiqaa  svr  U 
vtritaiie  Autatr  du  Livre  <&  rinutaHon  de  Jittu 
CKriat  (Louvain,  1849).  We  shall  only  state  tllat 
M.  Ualou  gives  his  verdict  in  favour  of  the  claim 
of  Thomas  X  E.,  an  opinion  in  which  the  learned 
have  now  generally  acquiesced.  The  fint  edition 
of  the  /nutation  was  printed  at  Augsburg,  in  1486, 
and  before  the  end  of  that  century,  it  waa  re^inlol 
upwards  of  SO  times  in  Germany.  The  moot  rcmark- 
able  modem  edition  is  a  Heptaglot,  printed  at  Snla- 
bach  (1837),  containing,  besideB  the  original,  later 
versions  in  Italian,  Spanish,  French,  Gennan,  &i$- 
iish,  and  Greek.  The  theology  of  the  Irmta&M  is 
almost  purely  ascetical,  and  (excepting  the  4th  book, 
which  rewds  the  Eucharist,  and  is  baaed  on  Uu 
doctrine  of  the  real  presence)  the  work  has  been  naed 
indiscriminately  by  Christians  of  all  denominatioaK. 

er  DJra-, 


Sixty  distinct  versions  are  enumerated  in  French 
alone,  and  a  single  collection,  formed  at  Cologne 
within  the  present  century,  ooroprised,  although 
confessedly  incomplete,  no  fewer  man  SDO  distinct 
editions.  It  is  strange  that  the  anthorahip  of  a 
book  so  popular,  and  of  a  date  comparatively  so 
recent,  should  still  be  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
most  curious  controversies  in  hterary  history.  The 
book,  np  to  the  beginning  of  the  17th  c.,  had  been 
ascribed  either  to  l^omos  ft  E.  or  to  the  celebrated 
John  Gerson  (q-  V-),  chanceUor  of  the  nnivenity  of 
Paris,  except  in  one  MS.,  which,  bv  a  palpable  ana- 
chronism, attributes  it  to  St  Bemud ;  butin  the  year 
1604,  the  Spanish  Jesuit,  MauriqucB,  found  a  MS. 


.  mtury.    Partly  by  the  favour  of  the  emperors, 

partly  through  the  natural  sequence  of  the  events 
of  the  period,  the  abbots  of  the  monasteiy  were 
the  suzerains   of  the  town  and  its  eavirons,  and    i 
eventually  the  abbot  of  K.  became  a  prince-abbot    | 
of  the  empire  (1348).    In  the  secularisation  of  the    ' 
ecclesiastical  principalities  in  1803— ISOl,  it  shared    I 
the  common  fate ;   the  abbey,  as  well  as  the  city    | 
and  territory— comprising  at  that  time  7  market- 
towns,  85  villages,   and   above   40,000  inhabitanta    i 
—being  assigned  to  Bavaria.      The  present    city 
contained  (1871)  10,932  inhabitants,  snd  is  divided 
into  the  abbatial  town  (Stifts-Stadt)  and  the  city    I 

E roper,  which  lies  in  the  plain  at  the  foot  of  tbe    ' 
ill  on  which  the  abbey  stands.    It  is  a  place  of    I 
idderable  trade,  and  carries  on  mannfacturea  c^ 
cotton,  linen,  and  pi^>er.  i 

KENDAL,  or  KI'RKBY  KENDAL, ai 


the  Kent,  22  miles  south-south-west  of  Appleby. 
Here,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IIL,  a  settlement  of 
Flemings,  under  a  certain  John  Kemp,  was  toxatrdi, 
and  afterwards  the  town  became  well  known  for  its    | 
manufactures  of  woollen  cloths,  colled,  from   tiie    | 
name  of  the  town,  Keadalt.    The  letter  sA  proteo-    ' 
tion,  dated  1331,  and  granted  by  King  Edward  IIL, 
'  on  behalf  of  John  Eempe  of  Flanders,  cloth  weavo;   j 
concerning  the  exercise  of  his  craft,'  may  bo  foond 
in  RymePs  Ftxdera,  voL  iL  p.   283.      The  name,   i 
'Eendala,'  is  still  applied  to  the  cloths  ^oodoced 
here,  which,  with  carpets,  worsted  stockings,  cottons, 
linaey-woolsevB,  doeskins,  tweeds,  and  coat-lininga, 
are  the  staple  manufactures  of  the  town.     In  Hat   ' 
immediate  Yiclnity  ore  also  several  mills,  dye,  marble, 
and  paper  works.    The  Weekly  market  is  the  chief 
one  for  com  and  provisionB  in  the  county.   K.  returns   ' 
one  member  to  Idle  imperial  parliament    Pon.  [196U   , 
12,02»i  (1871)13,«S 


,dbyCOU^[t^ 


KENILWOEIH— KEHra  HOLE. 


KirirnjWtmTH,  »  market-town  of  England,  in  I  a  puticokt  portion  of  the  Uada  to  whioh  hei  Ufa- 
the  county  of  Warwick,  Bituated  .4)  nules  north  of    rent  nuiy  attach. 
the  town  of  that  name,  and  the  faehionable  town  of       KH'WRTWOTriw  mifmrKa  ,«.»    i  n.        w 

onnpoa.kn!.  «al..  „d  oomb-nakm.  to  «m.   dd.  ol  Pra.™»rk.  (ran  •hS  h?^      ■  ' 


on  npoa  a  laixe  scale,  and  comb-making  to  tome 
eitent,  ^  Pop.  (1871)  3336.  The  town,  however,  ' 
chiefly  intereating  from  historical  association.  T 
castle  of  Kenilworth,  nnited  to  the  orown  domains  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  was  conferred  by  Elizabeth 
ujxin  Itobctt  Dudley,  Earl  of  Leicester,  who  here,  in 
1875,  entertained  his  sovereign  for  17  dayi,  at  a  daily 
cost  of  £1000.  The  present  noble  owner  ia  the 
Right  HoQODiable  the  Sari  of  Clarendon.  ExtensiTe 
Tcmaina  of  the  castle  still  exist,  which  are  well 
preserved,  and  much  visited  by  Vba  aristocraCT  and 
by  toorists  from  all  parti  of  the  oonntry.  There 
are  also  niins  of  the  ancient  monastery. 

KENTfEBE'C,  a  river  in  Maine,  United  States, 
which  lises  in  Mooaehesd  Lake,  in  the  west  of  the 
state,  and  runs  in  a  southerly  direction  into  the 
.Atlantic  Oceao,  after  receiving  the  Androscoggin, 
IS  miles  from  its  mouth.  On  its  banks  are  the 
important  towns  of  Bath,  Qardiner,  Eallowell,  and 
the  state  capital,  Augusta.  It  is  navigable  by  ships 
to  Bath.  12  milaa ;  by  Bteam-boats  to  HaUoweU.  lo 
miles.  In  its  coni«e  of  150  miles,  this  river  falls 
1000  feel^  affording  abundant  water-power.  At 
Augusta  are  foils,  increased  by  a  dam,  56*  feet  long, 
supplying  water  to  large  factories,  saw-mills,  &c. 

KENNICOTT,  Bexjamut,  an  eminent  bibUcal 
scholar  of  the  last  century,  was  bom  at  Totness,  in 
Devonshire,  April  i,  17IS,  and  educated  at  O^ord, 
where  he  highly  distinguished  hitnselL  He  took 
his  degree  orM.A  in  1750,  having  been  previoi 
electeda  Fellow  of  Eieter  College ;  in  1767,  he 
appointed  Eadcliffa  librarian ;  and  in  1770,  Canon  of 
CluTBt  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  died,  September 
18,  17S3.  The  whole  interest  and  importance  of 
K.'a  life  are  compiised  in  his  great  undertaking  for 
the  improvement  of  the  Hebrew  text  In  IT53,  he 
published  a  work  entitled  Tie  Stale  of  Om  Printed 
llfbrea  TeH  of  the  Old  TatamaU  Crmtidertd.  This 
contained,  among  other  things,  observations  on  70 
Hebrew  MSS.,  with  an  extract  of  mistakea  and 
various  readings,  and  strongly  enforced  the  necessity 
for  a  moch  more  extensive  collation,  in  order  to 
ascertain  or  approximate  towards  a  correct  Hebrew 
text.  He  nndertook  to  execute  the  work  in  the 
cottrM  of  10  years,  and  laboured,  until  his  health 
broke  down,  from  10  to  14  hours  a  day.  In  spite  of 
considerable  opposition  from  Bishops  Warburton, 
Home,  and  other  divines,  K.  succeeded  in  enh'sting 
the  sympathies  and  ubtsiining  the  sunport  of  the 
clergy  generally.  Upwards  of  600  Hebrew  MSS., 
and  IS  MSS.  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  were 
collated,  with  the  assistance  of  other  Bnglish  and 
continental  schoUre.  The  flist  volume  of  his  edition 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible  appwred  in  1 776.  and  the  second 
In  17S0,  accompanied  by  a  very  useful  and  instruc- 
tive dissertation.  The  t«xt  chosen  was  that  of  Van 
der  Hooght,  and  the  various  readings  were  printed 
■  the  bottom  of  the  page.     The  Va  ' 


.-rem  which  it  ia  partly  separat™ 

by  the  Beroentme.  It  is  traversed  by  walks,  and 
ornamented  with  rews  and  clamps  of  noble  tzem. 
Near  the  western  border  of  the  park  stands 
Kensington  Palace,  an  edifice  of  brii^  originally 
the  seat  of  Heneage  Finch,  Earl  of  Nottingham  and 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  and  afterwards  bonoht 
by  King  William  UL  William  IIL,  Queen  Mmy, 
Queen  Anne,  and  Ueorge  II.  all  died  in  this  palace, 
and  here  her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  was  bom. 
The  gardens  at  first  conaiated  of  the  grounds  attached 


6  acres  m  extent,  but 
and  now  are  two  and 


ofK.' 

KBNNING  TO  THE  TBROE,  a  phrase  in 
Scotch  Law  to  denote  the  oroceas  by  which  a 
widow,  whose  hnsband  has  died  infeft  in  lands, 
acquires  a  separate  interest  in  a  definite  part  thereof. 
Sjhe  is  by  law  entitled  to  the  rente  of  one-third  of 
'      "    "     '  1,  called  her  Terce  (q.  v.) ;  and 

'e  sheriff  of 

1  set  out 


the  palace,  and  wer«  only  2fi  acrei 
vo  been  frequently  en' 
a  half  miles  in  circuit. 

KENT,  an  important  maritime  county  of  Eng- 
land, occupies  a  pOTtion  of  the  south-east  angle  of 
'  r,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the 
,  .  the  Thames,  and  on  the  E.  and  S.E. 
by  the  Strait  of  Dover.  Area,  1,004,934  statute 
acres;  pop.  (1871)  848,294.  Besides  the  river 
which  forms  the  norUiem  boundary  of  the  county, 
the  chief  streams  are  the  Medway,  which  flows 
north-east  into  the  estuarv  of  the  Thames;  the 
Stour,  and  the  Darent  The  surface  is  undulat- 
ing, being  traversed  from  west  to  east  by  the 
North  Downs  (see  article  Bowsa).  With  a 
climate  which  is  in  genera]  mild  ana  genial,  and 
a  fertile  toil  of  mixed  chalk,  gravel,  and  clay, 
K.  ia,  is  an  agricnltand  sense,  a  highly  pn>dnctive 
county.  Besides  the  usual  crops,  great  quantitiee 
of  s^ds  are  raised  for  the  Loiuun  markets,  ■■ 
canary  and  radish  seeds,  spinach,  creases,  and  white 
mustard.  There  are  also  nnmerons  market-gardena 
and  orchards.  Hope  (q.  v.)  are  one  of  the  chief 
products  of  the  oounty.  Above  forty  thousand 
acres,  forming  in  all  a  hop.Geld  more  than  four 
times  as  extensive  as  that  ot  any  other  hop-growing 
county  of  England,  are  here  devoted  to  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  plant.  Great  numbers  of  aheep  are 
fattened  on  tile  excellent  pasturage  found  on  the 
tracts  of  alluvial  soil  that  skirt  the  InuikB  of  the 
Thames  and  Medway,  and  especially  on  the  Bom- 
ney  Marsh,  which  comprises  4^000  acres.  The 
county  retoms  six  members  to  jiarliament. 

K.  IS  unusually  rich  in  histoncal  association.  For 
its  early  history,  see  article  Hkftarchy.  It  has 
been  the  scene  of  frequent  sieges,  battles,  and 
revolutioDS  ;  and  the  county  is  a£o  bound  up  with 
the  social  histoiy  of  the  country  through  the  three 
well-known  insurrections  which  broke  out  here 
under  Wat  Tyler,  Jack  Cade,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt  Of  its  numereus  and  intereeting  eocle- 
aiastical  edifices,  it  will  sufGce  to  apecOy  here 
the  cathedjals  of  Canterboiv  and  Rochester.  It 
contains  the  important  dock-yards  and  anenala 
ot  Woolwich,  Chatham,  and  ^eemen ;  and  tiie 
famous  watering-places  of  Margate,  Banugate,  and 
Tunbridge  Welb. 
KE'NTIGEBN,  St.    See  Mtwflo,  St. 


the  above  process  is  carried  on  before  the  she 
the  conntr,  the  object  being  to  define  and  a 


KENTISH  FIRE,  a  term  employed  to  denote 
the  vehement  and  protracted  cheers  with  which 
the  rabble  greeted  the  No-popery  orators  at  the 
public  meetings  held  in  Kent  to  prevent  the  passing 
of  the  Boman  Catholic  Belief  Bill  (1828—18^). 

KBNTI8E  RAO,  a  dark-colonred,  hard,  caloa- 
reona  sandstone,  which  dcouib  at  Hytbe,  and  other 
it,  in  the  Lower  Oreenssad 
attains  a  thickness  d  60 


KENTOCKY— KEBGUBLiarS  LAND. 


feet  Icmg,  wiUi  «  brawith  TBiyiilg  from  2  to  70  faet, 
and  »  height  from  3  to  18  feet  The  boiio»  of  the 
cave-bear,  nynna,  &o.,  h»Te  been  fonnd  in  the  mud 
of  the  <save  below  the  italagmitto  corerin^  Bee 
Eeht'b  Cavkbh  in  Supp,  VoL  X 

KBKTU'OKY,  one  ot  the  United  Siatee  of 
America,  in  hit  36*  30'— 39*  ff  N.,  md  long;  82°  Z 
—89"  W  W,,  ii  bounded  on  the  N.  ^  Ohio. 
Indiana,  and  IllinoiB,  £.  by  Wort  Virginia  and 
Virginia,  8,  by  Tenneuee,  and  W.  by  MiMcuri. 
Ate^  37,680  «quare  miles,  or  34,1IS,200  acres.  It 
lias  IlOoounties.  The  capital  is  Frankfort,  and  the 
chief  towns,  Loaisville,  Covington,  Newport,  I*x- 
ington,  Danville,  Mayaville,  and  f  adncah.  The 
country  is  rolling,  hilly  in  some  portdona,  and  in  the 
sonth-eait  mountainous,  lome  of  the  eleratioaa  lilillg 
to  3000  feet  Its  chief  rirers  are  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  on  its  borders,  ftnd  the  Tenneasae, 
Cnmberhuid,  Kentucky,  Licking,  and  Qreen.  The 
•oil  is  mostly  fertile,  and  contains  some  of  the  fineat 
agricultural  iwian*  in  Am'F'rw,  produdiu  wheat, 
maize,  cotfam,  hemp,  tobMOO,  andall  the  tniita  of 
the  wanner  temperate  r^imia.  Heidi  of  cattle  find 
rich  pactnra,  and  millinna  of  awine  fatten  in  the 
wood*.  Ilien  are  ooal-bedi,Hme  rich  in  oil,  extend, 
ing  nearly  MroM  the  aUto.  Of  tho  many  cavem^ 
the  Mammoth  Cave  (i^.  v.)  is  the  ntort  celebrated. 
There  ara  alto  .deponts  of  lead,  iron,  beaatifnl 
marblea,  andaalt.  In  1878,  time  woe  1169  miles 
of  tailwsyB  e^iened  for  ti^c.  In  1S70  the  value  of 
assessed  property  was  400,544,204  doUan,  and  that 
of  thefum  productions  waa  67,477,374.  In  the  same 
year  E.  possessed  2  universities  and  42  oollegea,  be- 
eidea  numerous  public  and  other  schools,  with  246,139 
pupils.  An  asnonltnral  oolLwe,  with  200  i' 
denta,  was  established  in  1868  $t  AaUaod.  _  . 
was  {ormeriy  a  portion  oC  the  westatn  tetritoty  of 
Virginia,  and  once  the  home  of  warlike  Indians, 
bom  the  sanguinary  oonteata  with  whom  it  derived 
its  name — *Qie  dark  and  bloody  ground.' 
settled  by  Daniel  Boooe  {a.  v.)  in  1769,  organised  as 
a  tenitory  in  1790,  admitted  as  a  state  in  1792. 
Upon  the  breakinz  out  of  the  Rebellion  in  1861, 
efforts  were  made  oy  Governor  Magoffin  to  nuke 
the  state  secede,  or  at  leart  to  place  her  in  an  atti- 
tude of  neutrality.  Better  counsels,  however,  pre- 
vailed, and  the  loyalty  of  the  state  was  maintained, 
though  many  of  her  citizeus  joined  the  rebds.  Pop.  in 
1870,  1,321,011. 

KBNTTJCET,  a  river  ot  Kentucky,  iriiidi  rises 
in  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  on  the  south-east 
frontier  of  the  state,  and  after  a  winding  north- 
west course  of  260  miles,  enters  the  Ohio,  aboat 
50  miles  below  CindnnatL  The  river  runs  throng 
most  of  its  course  between  perpendicular  limeatone 
rocks,  through  which  it  appears  to  have  worn  its 
bed,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  romantio  beauty  of 
its  sceneiy.  It  is  navigable  by  steam-boata  to 
Frankfort,  60  milea,  and  by  means  of  17  dams 
and  lodes,  to  tile  Folks.  Its  banks  abound  with 
anthracite,  iron,  and  marble. 

KB'OKTJK,  a  dly  of  Iowa,  is  the  south-east 
oorner  of  the  state,  on  the  Mississippi  River,  205 
milefl  above  St  Louis.    It  is  the  site  of  the  State 


Medical   College,   and  has  several  aoademiea 

Sublio  Hchool^  10  churches,  4  banks,  and  an  hospitaL 
1.  has  a  large  commerce,  being  at  the  bead  of  the 
low-water  navigation  of  the  Missiaaippi,  and  the 
terminus  of  two  railways.     Pop.  (1870)  12,766. 

KEPLER,  or  KEPPLER,  JoHiira,  one  of  tiie 
greatest  astronomers  of  all  ages,  was  born  at 
Magstatt,  a  small  village  in  WOrtembprg,  tea  miles 
from  Stnttgart,  27th  I)ecember  1571.  While  a 
mere  child  be  was  left  to  his  own  resonroea,  and 
his  early  education  in  conseqnenoe  would  have  been 


entirely  n^ected  had  he  not  been  adnutted  iato 
the  convent  of  Manlbiun.  K.  afterwaidt  atodied  mb 
the  nniveisity  of  Tubingen,  and  devoted  neariy  tbe 
whole  of  his  ^rnn  to  uatheuatlci  and  asteMuiniT. 
la  IS03,  he  was  u)pointed  Profeaaor  <rf  **-**"fpatW 
at  Ortite.  At  this  time  E.'s  views  of  aataononra-, 
Prodrcmaa,  were  tomawhat  myaticaf ; 
the    aoA,   itajni,    and   plaoela    wcve 

Vf  tjie  Trinity,  *nd  that  Oo3  disfanbnted 

too  nlanete  in  spaoe  in  aocordonoe  with  the  legolar 
polyhedrona,  fto.  Yet  tbia  aaarfhing  after  harmosiy 
led  him  to  the  diaooveiy  of  the  three  renuAal^ 
truths  oaUed  K^^t  ha-.  BL,  about  ISQO,  ami- 
muiced  a  OMMspoDdenoa  with  ^^cho  Brah^  and 
in  IMO  wut  to  Vnmt  to  aid  him  m  faia  rwearelM*. 
l^cho  obtainad  for  him  a  aovenun«nt  appointment ; 
but  the  aalary  was  not  paul,  and  K.  lived  for  deroi 
years  there  m  great  poverty.  He  then  obtained 
a  mathematioal  aj^Niintment  at  Unz,  and,  fifteen 
years  afterwards,  waa  removed  te  the  nninnity  at 
Boatock ;  but  pover^  from  the  same  cause  atill  nir- 
sned  him,  and  he  med  shortly  after  at  Rj»ti«K.»_ 
IQth  November  1630.  K.'a  connectitm  with  l^cbo 
Brahfi  bad  a  salutary  effect  upon  his  ficsy  emtlm- 
siasm,  but,  happily  for  science,  the  timid  rnnitatii 
ot  the  old  BitHinomer  were  only  partially  followed. 
K.  eatabliahed  the  law  ot  the  diminntion  ot  li^t 
in  proportion  to  the  invene  sqnare  ot  the  distance 
and  was  acquainted  with  tlie  fact  '  that  the  attiso- 
tive  force  <u  the  sun  decreases  aa  hit  light ; '  it  is 
strange  that  this  latter  fact  did  not  loul  him  to 
anticipate  the  discovery  of  Newton.  In  1609,  he 
published  his  Aarononiia  noco,  a  ccmmientaiy  oo 
the  motionB  of  Uarv,  in  wbicb,  taking  for  his  haae 
of  operations  the  obararvations  of  Tycho,  he  deter- 
mined the  eicentricity  and  ^>helion  of  thia  planed 
on  the  suppoaitioD  ot  a  circular  orbit,  and  found  the 
reeulte  qnite  inreooncilable  with  obeervation.  Tliia 
led  him  to  his  first  law,  tial  tie  ftaneU  mow  at 
eUiptei  wiUt  Ou  mm  in  one  qf  Ike  fod.  He  aecond 
law,  that  Ae  JSodnia-teeftH*  (q.  v.)  nue^t 


'\n  tqual  Ihrm,  he  at  1 
as  tor  a  long  time  pi 


■egw  over  enaJ 
iddogmatkaBy, 


of  it  {the  in&uteaimal  calcnlos  not  having  at  that 
time  been  invented) ;  but  at  lart  he  hit  npon  tiie 

expedient  ot  dividing  the  ellipse  into  — 

1 —  .1 11  '—dii^ea,  whose  are 

lird  law  (the  first , 

harmonise  in  some  way  the 
period  and  mean  diatanoe  of  the  planets,  »"■< 
after  twenty-two  yeats  of  visoroua  applicatirai,  ha 
disoovered  that  lAt  •fuare  ^  Iht  perwdie  finu  it 
proportional  lo  &e  cube  nflke  mean  aitUaxx.  Thmt 
discoveries,  great  aa  they  undoubtedly  are,  an 
rendered  atiu  more  ao  whw  we  take  into  aecaMUit 
the  little  real  knowledoa  of  the  ikeavoily  bodin 
existing  at  that  time,  and  the  acan^i^«n*  in  **■« 
hands  of  aationomeiB  for  ""'''"g  discoveiiet.  K. 
also  affirmed  the  easentaa)  inotia  ot  matte;  tiM 
first  of  Oilileo's  lawa  of  nuition ;  the  dependence 
of  the  oorvoturs  ot  the  path  of  planets  oa  tbe 
attraction  of  the  ami  (K.  unfOTtouatety  thoDght  it 
was  moffnelie  atbaotion)  and  the  proportioniJi^  <rf  I 
the  mntnal  atbaotaon  of  bodies  bi  tnsir  rsapective    | 


liu)  ^ 

Gklileo  to  he  tatdlitea  of  Jnpiter :  gave  a  oomidete 
theray  of  solar  eoUpaea ;  and  calculrted  the  «yf* 
epoch  of  the  trausite  of  Merouiy  and  of  Yen>M 
across  the  tun's  disc.  He  also  made  nomeroaa 
discoveriea  in  optica,  general  physics,  and  geomeby. 
KE'&QUELEN'S  LAND,  or  ISLAND  OF 
DESOLATION,  is  lituated  in  the  Soothem  n 
Antarctic  Ooean,  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  its 
southern  extremity.  Cape  George,  being  49*  Si'  a, 
and  70*  12*  E.  It  it  about  100  miles  long. 
and  about  fiO  miles  btnad.     It  eonaiata  chidj  of 


hyCoOl^lL 


KKEGHTELBirH  LAUD  OABE^OE — KJSURT, 


moM-ooTBred  Tookt  of  prinuuy  famutioiL  It  ii 
Mid,  hoirerer,  to  prodnoe  ooil  fit  for  Bteun-ohipB. 
The  ulud  w*a  duooveied  in  1772  bv  the  Freiieh 
DBvigator,  Ivtm  JoMph  de  Kargaalen  I^emarea 

KBRGTTELEN-S  ZiAJlTD  OABBAGE  {PringUa 
an^Korbuliea),  the  only  known  Bpedes  of  a  reiy 
corioiu  gurna  of  pkuta  of  the  narond  order  Orua- 
'~l,  BiS  further  interasting  u  bdng  fonnd  onlv 
Uutt  moat  lonely  of  iilandi,  Kergnelen's  lAnd, 
1  M  being  extremely  nsefdl  to  the  crem  of 
Trhslen  and  other  veaaele  which  have  occaaian  to 
touch  there.  It  hu  a  long,  atont,  perennial,  root- 
■tock ;  a  boli«d  head  of  leaTes  very  sunilar  to  those 
of  the  comtnon  rarden  cabbage.  Captain  Cook 
fiist  diMXiTered  tma  idant,  and  diiect«d  stteDtum 
to  it.  It  ia  ezeeedinKly  abaudMit  in  all  parti  of 
Kergnelen'a  Iiaad,  whioh  joodnoea  oolr  wrantem 
other  flowering  puuta.  The  KMi«todU  hkTa  the 
flaTonr  t£  horu-ndiah.  Hm  doiM  iriiite  heart  of 
the  clnater  ri  learea  tattM  like  moataid  and  ore^ 
bnt  ia  ooaraer.  Hw  lAole  fdiage  aboonda  in  a  TViy 
poDgent  pale-yellow  nannntial  m,  whieh  is  oooflnsd 
in  TeMeU  that  ran  panllel  to  th«  veini  of  the  leaf. 
The  E.  Ik  C  ia  naed  by  voyagen,  btnled  eiOier  b^ 
itMlf,  or  with  beef,  pon,  ftc.,  ud  its  antiaoorfanbo 
qnalitiea  make  it  very  important  to  them. 

KBBM1.1T  (ancient  Carmaaia),  one  of  the  eaatem 
provincea  of  Peraia,  lying  aouth  from  Shoraaaiui,  and 
having  an  area  of  alioat  fifl.OOO  aquare  miles.  The 
north  and  north-eait  are  occupied  by  a  friditfol 
■alt  waate  called  the  Dagrt  o/Kerman,  which  forma 
a  part  of  the  great  central  desert  of  Iran.  On  thia 
extenaive  tract,  not  a  blade  of  graal  ia  to  be  aean. 
The  Bonthem  portion,  althon^  moontainons,  ia 
equally  arid  and  barren  with  the  north,  ezoept  the 
amall  tract  of  Nflrmanahir,  towards  the  east,  which 
is  fertile  and  well  watered.  Boaes  are  cultivated 
for  the  mannfacture  of  'attsx  of  rosea.'  Silk  and 
varioos  gums  are  exported.  Cattle,  aheap,  goata, 
and  oamds  are  reared,  and  Um  hair  of  theuit  two 
has  long  been  oekbrsted  for  its  length  and  flnenow. 
The  ii£abitant>,  who  nninbei  abont  600,000,  are 
chiefly  Feraiaiia  proper  j  the  rest  are  GnebrM  or 
Farseea,  Beldchis,  and  other  wandering  tribes. 

KjEBMAlT,  the  chief  town,  is  dtaated  near  the 
middle  of  the  provinoe,  in  the  ceabal  mountain 
range,  and  contains  a  population  estdmated  at 
30,000.  The  maDufaotores  are  chieAy  shawls, 
carpets,  and  matohlocka.  The  trade,  thoogh  still 
oonaiderable,  is  very  small  compared  with  what  It 
waa  during  the  last  ceutory,  when  E.  was  the  great 
emnmum lor  the  trade  b^  the  FeraiaQ  Oulf  and  the 
Indian  Ooean.  In  1794^  it  wsa  taken  and  ^Usged 
by  Aga  Mohammed,  and  30,000  of  the  inhobitanU 
made  slaves.  Bat  the  chief  oaose  of  the  decline  of 
its  trade  waa  the  fall  of  Gon^iroon  (q.  t.)i  its  port, 
before  the  rising  prosperity  of  Bnahire. 

KEBMANSHA'H,  a  flourishing  modera  town  of 
Persia,  in  the  province  of  Ardelan,  near  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  Eerkhah,  It  ia  the  centra  of  con- 
verging routes  from  Bagdad,  Tehran,  and  Ispahan- 
Its  Dommerce  is  considerable,  uid  there  are  mana- 
[acturea  of  carpets  and  weapons.    Pop.  30,000. 

KKTIHB8,  oometimea  also  known  in  oommeroe  as 
i9caHdG'nu)>,adyestiiffwhuih  consists  of  the  bodies 
of  the  funales  <A  a  species  of  Coeau  (q.  v.)  (C.  Uidt). 
It  hss  beea  snn>lant«d  over  the  neater  part  of 
Europe  by  Coclunesl  ia.  v.),  but  is  at^  uaed  in  some 
parts  of  ute  south  of  Europe,  and  more  extensively 
m  India  and  Persia.  The  E.  insect  ia  abundant 
in  these  lefpona,  attaching  itself  to  the  leaves  of  a 
Btoall  apecies  of  o^  the  E.  Oak  {Quercut  eoedfera). 


the  E.  Oak  grows  in  great  profua 


slopes  of  the  Sterxa  Minena.  Many  of  the  inhabit- 
ant of  Uuroia  live  by  oolleolang  ELenues.  Thia 
ia  chiefly  the  enqdoyment  of  women,  who  tor^ie 
the  inaeota  from  the  tiees  with  their  nsils,  which 
they  Buffer  to  grow  long  on  purpose.  The  K.  insect 
attacks  the  young  thoota  of  the  ahrab,  the  femsle 
affixing  itaelf  and  remaining  immovable,  till,  after 
attaiiuag  its  full  size,  abont  that  of  a  pea,  it  deposits 
its  eggs,  and  dies.  E.  ia  gathered  before  the  eg^ 
are  hatched.  It  is  thrown  into  vin^^,  and  after- 
words dried  in  the  ann  or  in  an  oven.  It  haa 
been  employed  from  time  immemorial  to  dya  cloth 
of  a  blood'red  colour.  It  waa  called  Tbola  by 
the  Phduiciatis,  Coeeo*  by  the  Creeka,  E.  by  the 
Anbiaus.  From  K-  oomee  the  Preikch  traaioid.  It 
ia  supposed  to  have  been  the  tubstanoe  employed 
in  dydng  tlie  cortaiaiB  of  Uie  Jewish  tahwnaole 
(Biod.xxvi]. 

KEBUBS  miTEBAIi,  so  oalled  Iran  its  Msem- 
blaoce  in  odour  to  the  insedt  Eennes,  ia  an 
antinonial  preparation  which  was  disooreMd  by 
Glauber  (q.  v.).  ^le  mettiod  of  prepamig  it  rabee- 
qumtly  became  known  to  H.  oe  la  Ligsris,  from 
wheat  the  king  of  IHnoe  purohased  the  presedption 
in  the  esrly  part  of  the  18th  oentnrj.  It  waa  at 
rtod<rfUDdeac>ibedaaCl»iA>uai)NP«u«ier,  or 
de»  Oharb^et,  in  eonseqaenoe  of  a  Carthniiau 

inns  efieoted  acme  remarkable  caiee  by  it. 

Chemiati  dmtr  slif^y  sa  to  its  oompositMB,  but  it 
is  genenlly  ngsrded  aa  a  tmsnlphnrat  of  snldmony. 
K.  H.  is  toaroely  ever  eooj^doyed  in  this  ootintty, 
but  it  ii  much  used  in  Franca  and  Italy.  Its 
<tffeoti  are  much  the  same  as  these  of  the  golden 
■uli^uiret  (nlphide)  of  antimony,  tuid  of  the  o^- 
anlphniet  of  anliniM^  of  the  London  phaEDoaoopma, 
it  being  a  andorjfio  in  anull  doMS  (half  a  grain,  tat 
instance),  and  an  emetio  and  pugative  in  laige 

KBRN,  a  name  a^ed  fMmeriy  to  Irith  and 
Qaelio  infutrf  soldieis. 

EERNER,  Amdr.  Jusmnm,  a  German  poci,  one 
of  the  l»«^i"g  members  of  the  BO-oalled  *Dwabian 
Bidiool,'  waa  bora  at  LndwigaburK  in  Wttrtembo^ 
18th  September  1788.  He  stidied  madiaine  at 
Tabingen,  and  finally  settled  as  a  physioiaa  at 
Weiusberg.  Hero  he  died,  2lEt  February  1S63. 
The  most  conspicuous  <jualitdea  of  E.'a  poetry  are  a 

chief  works  are — BtuachaUat  von  dan  StAatten 
tpider  Lm  (Eeidslb.  1811);  £[>man<McAe  Dichtun- 
gen  (Eailsr.  1817)  ;  and  !>»■  Ittde  BlOlautranM 
(Stutte.  uimI  TUk  1803).  As  a  phyncian,  he  dia- 
playeaqnite  a  morbid  interest  in  the  phenomena  of 
»"'■"«<  —- j^^J— ■  and.  wrote  saveral  Dooks  on  the 
subject^  one  ed  -trilioh,  iXa  Bthain  von  Preoard 
(2  vola.  Statl^.  1838;  4A  edit.  1846),  excited  a 
great  interest  in  Amaioa,  and  is  believed  to  have 
originated  the  reoeot  sfdritnalism. 

KB'BRY,  a  maritune  ooun^  in  the  south-weit 
of  Ireland,  in  Hit  provinoe  of  Munstw,  is  booudied 
on  the  N.  by  the  mmlh  of  the  ft^mfift^^  and  on 
the  W.  by  &e  Atkalw  Oeeaa.  Area,  1,186,917 
statute  acres,  of  which  414,614  am  anJJe,  726,77S 
ore  uncultiv^nd,  and  32,761  are  under  water.  lu 
1873,  the  total  acrssge  under  cropa  was  152,046, 
the  half  of  which  was  in  meadows  and  pnature, 
the  rest  chiefly  in  oata  and  potatoes.  The  county 
is  60  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south,  and  G8 
miles  broad.  Iti  coast-line  is  about  320  milee  in 
length,  fringed  with  islands,  of  which  the  chief  are 
V^cntia,  the  Blasqueto,  and  the  Skelligs,  and  ia 
deeply  indented  by  Kenmore,  Dingle,  imd  Trolee 
Bays.      Between   these  boyi  are   two  peninsulas, 

-'-'   '---   ■■ ■■--    -'    "■- '—• ■    aygtem, 

in^  of 


y,COOgl( 


KERSEY— KEUPER. 


Wnleriord,  IniTenes  the  whole  of  the  Bouthof  Ireland, 
The  principal  pnup  ij  that  ot  Maegillicuildy'B 
Reekc,  the  chief  summit  of  which,  Carraa  Tiial. 
3414  feet,  is  the  highest  in  Ireland.  The  largest 
rivera  are  the  Laune,  the  Maine,  and  the  Caaheo. 
The  county  containfl  numerooa  lakee,  some  of  them, 
rapecially  thoee  known  oa  the  Lakes  of  Killamey 
(q-  v.),  of  eiquiaite  beauty.  The  climate  is  mild, 
but  moist,  especially  oa  the  coast.  The  soil  rests 
on  slate  and  sandstone,  with  limestone ;  consists  of 
a  rich  loam  in  the  centnJ  districts,  and  is  pro- 
ductive in  grain-crops  and  in  pasture^  The  nianu- 
factares  are  inconsiderable ;  oats  and  butter  are  the 
chief  exports.  The  fisheries  on  the  coast  are 
eitonsire  and  profitable  ;  they  employ  nearly  3000 
men  and  boys.  K.  returns  two  members  to  the 
House  of  Commons.    Pop.  in  1871,  196,014. 

KE'RSEY,  or  KERSEYMERE,  a  variety  of 
woollen  cluth,  diOering  from  ordinary  broad  doth 
by  being  woven  as  a  imW.  See  Twili,  It  is  easily 
diHtinouished  from  the  common  cloth  by  the  diagonu 
ribbed  appearance  of  its  under  side,  where  the  nap 
not  being  raised,  admits  of  its  structure  being  seen. 

KEKTCH,  previous  to  1655,  the  most  important 
port  of  the  Crimea,  with  the  largest  trade  in  the 
export  of  com,  is  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  peninsula,  on  the  strait  of  KafFa  or  Yenikale. 
The  town  has  a  distinctively  eastern  air;  and  the 
appearance  of  the  houses  is  greatly  enhanced  by 
the  pillars  and  balconies  with  which  the^  are 
furnished.  The  streets,  like  those  of  Constantmople, 
ore  haunted  by  troops  of  homeless  dogs.  K.,  the 
ancient  Pantieapaum  or  Boipana,  was  the  capital 
□f  ancient  Tanrica.  Previous  to  1476,  it  belonged  to 
the  Genoese ;  snbsequently,  it  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  Turks;  and  boally,  in  1774,  it  was  acquired 
by  the  Russians.  On  the  25th  May  1S55,  it  was 
taken  by  the  allies  during  the  Ciimeaa  War,  on 
which    occaaiaa   the  Catanjmbs,  a  very  valuable 


Pop.  (1867)  19,616. 

KE^TRBL,  or  WINDHOVER  {Fala,  finnun- 
cuiaa],  a  small  species  of  falcon,  and  one  of  the  most 
common  of  the  British   Fcdconidce.     It  is  rather 


larger  Uian  the  merlin,  it*  whole  length  being  from 
thirteen  to  fifteen  inches.  It  may  be  at  once 
1  by  its  pecnliar  habit  of  hovering  or 
''    'f  in  the  same  place  in  the  air  by  a 


rapid  motion  of  its  wings,  always  with  its  head  to 
the  wind,  evidently  lookmg  for  pra^  on  the  surface 
of  tlie  ground.    Its  prey  conaista  m  great  part  of 
mice ;  and  although  of  course  includttl  by  game- 
keepen   in    the   large    category   of    '  vemun,     and    I 
destroyed   on  every  opportunity,   it  deaerves   the    ' 
most  careful  protection  by  fannen,  as  a  check  to    1 
the  eKcessive  mnltipUcation  of  mice.    It  more  rajely 
captures   small  biids,  and  does  not  disdain  cock-    | 
chafers   and  Other   insect*.       It   is   a   very  widely     ' 
distributed  bird.     The  male  and  female  differ  cm-    i 
aiderably  in  colour  ;  sah-eiay  prevailing  more  in  tiM    j 
former,  and  rusty  brown  m  the  latter.  I 

KE'SWICK,  a  market-tovm  of  England,  in  tba  ' 
county  of  Cumberland,  is  situated  in  a  channing  i 
district  on  the  Oreta,  at  the  northern  extremity  { 
of  Derwentwater,  22  miles  Bouth,south.w«st  M 
Carlisle.  Manufactures  of  coarse  woollen  clotli  | 
and  blankets  are  carried  on  here.  In  the  vicinity,  , 
at  Borrowdale,  black-lead  mines  are  worked ;  and  I 
E.  is  well  known  for  the  black-lead  pencils  bere 
manufactured.    Pop.  (1S71)  2777.  , 

KESZTHB'LY,  a  market-town  of  Hnngaiy,  in 
the  county  of  Szalad,  is  mtuat«d  on  the  western    { 
shore  of  Lake  Balaton,  96  miles  south  of  Preeburg. 
The  breeding  of  horaea  is  carried  on,  and  there  is  a    I 
good  trade  in  com.     Pop.  (1869)  4988. 

KETCH,  a  broad,  strongly  built  veasel  of  two 
tnaets — viz.,  the  main  and  mifzen.  It  is  now  almoat 
obsolete,  but  formerly  waa  the  favourite  form  for 
state  yachts,  and  still  more  recently,  waa  the  pre-  I 
vaiiing  mortar-boat.  In  this  latter  capacity  it  waa 
called  a  bomb-ketch. 

KE'TCHO,  or  KESHO.    See  Cacbao.  j 

KETCHUP,  or  CATSUP,  a  name  common  to    | 
several  esteemed  kinds  of  sauce,  much  used  with    ' 
meat,  fish,  toasted  cheese,  &c. — Mushroou  Kktchhf    | 
is  made  from  the  common  mmihroom  {Agarictu  arm- 
pes^ru),  by  breaking  it  into  small  pieces,  and  mixing 
it  with  Bslt— which  so  acts  upon  it  as  to  reduce  the    I 
whole  mass  to   an  almost  l^uid  state — straiiiiug     I 
and    boiling    down    to    about    half  the    quantity,    i 
Spices  of  different  kinds  are  added,  for  which  there 
ore  many  receipts,  and  sometimea  wine.    Mushroom 
ketchup  must  ne  ke^t  in  tightly-corked  bottles. —    j 
WiUJnrr  Ettchuf  is  made  from  unripe  walnuta,    | 
before  the  ahell  has  hardened.     They  are  beaten  to    ' 
apulp,andthe]'uiceseparatedbystnuning.   Saltand 
vinegar  are  added,  also  spices  variously,  and  after 
couBidereble  boiling  down,  the  ketchup  is  bottled,    I 
and  may  be  kept  lor  years. — ToM*n)  Kxtchttp  is 
made  in  a  similar  manner  from  tomatoes,  but  is 
Dot  strained.    These  are  the  three  most  esteemed 

KE'TTEKING,  a  market-town  ot  England,  in 
the  county  of  Northampton,  is  situated  13  miles 
N.N.E.of  the  town  of  that  name.  The  parish  church 
is  large  and  handsome,  with  a  tower,  dating  from  about 
1450.  It  has  a  town  hall  and  com  exchange.  The 
Free  School  has  an  endowment  of  £16S  a  year.  Boot 
and  shoe  making  is  the  staple  ;  silk-weaving,  pluah, 
and  wool-combing  also  earned  on.   Pop.  (1S71)  7184. 

KE'TTLEDRtTH,  a  dram  formed  by  stretching  ' 
vellum  over  the  circular  edge  of  a  hemisphsricd 
vessel  of  brass  or  copper.  !I%is  instrument,  which 
gives  forth  a  sharp,  ringing  sound,  is  <ued  by 
regiments  of  cavalry  and  horae-artillery  in  lieu  oiF 
the  ordinary  cylindrical  drum,  which  would,  from  ; 
its  shape,  be  inconvenient  on  horseback. 

KETT'PEK,  the  upper  division  of  the  Triaasie 
Period,  consisiing  in  the  typical  Qerman  seriea  of   i 
a  thickness  of  more  than  1000  feet  of  (1)  various 
coloured    sandstones;     (2]    marls,   with    gypsum    I 
and  dolomite;   and   [3)   a  seciea  of  carbonaceoos 


t.Google 


■Ute-clay,  with  gray  uniLrtonn  and  imall  iiTegul>r 
beds  of  impure  earthy  coaL  In  Britain,  it  conuBta 
of  (1)  on  eitennve  lariea  of  red  maris,  with  lar^ 
depoaita  of  rock-w]t  and  ^pmm;  and  (2)  white 
Bcd  brown  sandttonei  with  Deda  of  red  marl  The 
whole  Teaches  ft  maximum  thickneaa  of  1300  feet 
The  heaper  occapiei  a  lai^  portion  of  the  valleyB 
of  the  Ou>e  and  the  Trnit,  and  is  aztenairely 
developed  in  Worcester,  StaSbrd,  and  Cheshire, 
where  beds  of  salt,  often  as  mach  as  80  or  100  feet 
in  t^iiphn"!!!*,  oocht.  The  keupar  does  not  abound 
in  fonils.  The  contained  onanisms  differ  from 
those  of  the  Penman  and  oldErr  periods ;  they  hare 
the  eenenJ  appearBace  of  the  foaails  of  the  Lias 
and  OoUte.  The  pUote  constat  of  fema,  eqaisetam- 
lookiiig  plants,  cycads,  and  conifers.  The  chancier 
of  the  rocks,  and  the  quantity  of  oxide  of  iron, 
which  seems  to  have  bemi  injnrioni  to  life,  accoiuit 
for  Iha  paucity  of  fbauls.  Tha  strata  are  chiefly  of 
interest  to  the  pahemtolt^ist,  becanM  of  the 
nnmeroua  footprint  they  oontain  [see  Iohholoot), 
and  the  rcmams  of  the  reptUes  which  produced 
them,  as  well  as  becaoie  in  them  are  also  found  the 
only  obserred  fragmsnta — the  teeth — of  the  oldest 
n""""»'  yet  known.    3ee  Miokolestel 

KBW,  a  email  village  in  Snrtey,  on  the  ri^t  bank 
of  the  Thames,  and  six  miles  west  of  Hyle  Park 
Comer.  On  the  cppodte  ride  of  the  river  is  Brent- 
ford, with  which  K.  is  oonnectod  by  a  bridge.  The 
most  interesting  object  at  K.  is  the  BoyaTBotanio 
QardeoB,  contoiaing  a,  large  and  oboioe  collection  of 
plants,  native  and  exotic,  which  have  been  arranged 
with  great  skiUuid  care  by  Sir  W.J.  Hooker.  The 
hothouses  and  conservatories  are  very  numerous. 
There  are  also  a  ptUm-lunut,  362  feet  by  100, 
and  60  feet  U^;  a  lanpatiU-lttttae,  of  the  same 
height,  occu^ing  three-foortfat  of  an  acre;  and  a 
TimxttTn.  The  gardens  extaid  over  about  7S  acres, 
and  the  pleasure-gronnda  connected  with  them  to 
240  acres.  The  Kitanio  Gardens  were  commenced 
by  the  mother  of  Ooorge  QI.,  but  owe  much  of  their 
celebrity  to  the  able  management  of  the  present 
keeper.  Since  1340  they  have  been  open  to  the 
puuic  in  the  afternoon^  Sundays  not  excepted. 
There  is  also  an  observatory,  which,  however,  is 
used  chiefly  a»  a  meteorelo^t^  station. 

KET,  ■  common  heraldic  bearing  in  the  in»igni)t 
of  sees  and  religions  houses,  particiuarlT  such  a*  are 
nnder  Hm  patraiage  of  8t  Feter.  Two  keys  in 
aaltdra  are  frequent )  and  keys  are  sometimes  inler- 
laeed  or  linked  together  at  the  bmia—L  e.,  rings. 
Keys  iadorted  are  placed  ride  by  side,  the  wanis 
away  fran  each  otner.  In  tecolar  heraldiy,  keya 
sranetimes  denote  office  in  the  state. 

ItwV,  a  musical  term  synonymous  with  tcale, 
from  tola,  a  stair.  The  diatonic  scale,  as  produced 
by  nature,  is  a  certain  snocesrion  of  tones  and  semi- 
tones, ascending  from  any  sound  taken  as  a  basis  to 
the  octave  of  that  sound,  the  semitones  of  which 
will  be  fonnd  to  he  between  the  3d  and  4tli,  and 
between  the  Tth  and  8th  d^rees,  ascending  from 
the  basis.  In  rendering  this  succession  of  sounds 
available  for  mnsical  purposes,  by  our  artificial 
method  ol  notation,  the  sounds  have,  so  to  speak, 
been  fixed  at  a  certain  recognised  pitch.  Any  of  the 
sounds  of  the  natural  scale  may  be  taken  as  a  note 
to  form  tlM  basis  of  a  new  mila,  observing  alwavs 
the  due  sncoession  td  the  tones  and  semitoites.  Tbe 
note  terming  the  basia  is  danominated  the  Key-note 
of  the  teale;  ■nd  anch  scale  ia  said  to  be  in  the  key 
of  that  note.    As  in  our  notation,  each  whole  tone 

2  be  artificially  divided 


B  between  •  key-note  and  il 


as  each  of  these  semitones  may  be  taken  as  a  new 
key-note,  there  are  therefore  twelve  key*  majoi,  and 
the  same  number  minor,  all  differing  in  piteh.  In 
written  notation,  the  scale  of  the  n<£a  named  C  has 
been  assumed  as  the  natural  key ;  Oie  notes  forming 
that  scale  being  held  to  fall  natonlly  into  the  requi- 
site succession  of  tones  and  eemitcoieis.  It  follom 
that  if  any  other  note  be  taken  as  a  key-note,  on& 
or  more,  or  all,  of  the  notes  of  the  «o-oalled  natonil 
scale  most  be  altered,  by  being  either  sharpened  oi 
flattened,  to  bring  the  scale  ol  the  new  key  into  tho 
due  succesrion  of  tones  and  semitones.  Such  altenk- 
tion  is  indicated  by  tlie  marks  of  sharps.  Or  flatL 
placed  at  the  beginiuag  oE  the  staff,  and  is  termed 
the  SignalvTe  of  the  k^.  In  the  minor  mode,  tlte 
key  of  A  minor  stands  exactly  in  the  same  relation 
to  the  other  minor  keys  as  the  key  of  C  does  to  the 
other  major  keys,  A  being  tbe  key-note  on  which 
the  natunJ  minor  scale  is  found.  All  other  keys 
have  sharps  or  flats,  in  greater  or  less  number,  as 
they  are  distant  from  the  natural  key  of  C  major 
;  reckoning  by  perfect  fiftiis,  ascending 


viz.,  F  sharp ;  the  key  of  D,  which  ia 
two  fifths  above  C,  hia  two  sharps— viz.,  F  sharp 
and  C  sharp ;  and  so  on  to  the  Key  of  F  sharp, 
adding  a  sliarp  for  every  '•'•^^m-ng  fifQi.  The 
keys  with  flats  are  found  exactly  in  the  reverse 
order — viz.,  by  desoending  fifths— thus,  tbe  key  of 
F,  a  perfect  flfbh  below  C,  has  one  flat^viz.,B  flat; 
the  key  of  B  flat  has  two  flats— viz.,  B  flat  and 
E  flat ;  and  so  on  to  the  bey  of  O  flat  with  mx  flats, 
which  in  practice  is  regarded  as  the  same  aa  the  key 
of  F  sharp  with  six  sharps.  The  number  of  flats  or 
sharps  is  in  some  cases,  for  a  harmonical  purpoae, 
extended  still  farther ;  snch  as  the  key  of  C  diaip 
with  seven  shaips,  which  i*  the  same  as  D  flat  with 


anoeoessaiy  increasing  of  either  shaips 
term  key  is  irften  loosely  used  in  the 


Tow 

flats  only 
music    The 


and  we  frequently  hear  of  the  mail 
Much  confusion  has  arisen  from  thii 


from  this. 


KEY  WEST,  a  city  of  Florida,  United  SUtes  of 
America,  aitoated  on  the  iaiajtd  of  Key  West  (Sp^ 
Cayo  Sue»o,  Bone  Key),  the  most  westerly  of  the 
Pine  T«lani1«^  of  the  group  of  Florida  Keys,  60  milea 
south-west  of  Cape  Sable.  It  is  a  coral  island,  6 
miles  lon^  2  wide,  and  nowhere  laan  than  15 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  has  gardens  of 
tropical  fruits,  and- an  artificial  salt  la£a  of  3S0 
acres.  There  are  eitenaive  fortifications,  a  good 
harbour,  two  light-houses  and  a  light-ship,  several 
churches,  a  marine  hospital  and  barracks.    The  city 


wreckers,  divers,  and  invalids.  The  exports  .... 
salt,  turtle,  and  sponges ;  but  the  frequent  wrecks 
among  these  islands  ^ord  the  moat  profitable  busi- 
ness, which  employs  fifty  veasel*,  monoed  chiefly 
by  Concbs,  or  natives  of  the  BahJona  Islands,  and 
their  descendants.  The  climate  is  delightful,  the 
temperature  being  from  SO*  to  90^  F.,  with  per- 
petual breezes,  but  there  are  also  violent  hurricanea. 
Pop.  about  3000. 

KEYS,  PowKR  OF  TEB  {PoUtUlt  Cloouim),  in 
Boman  CathoLc  Theology,  preperly  signifles  the 
soprenie  authority  in  the  church,  which  Catholics 
believe  to  be  vested  in  the  pope,  as  successor  of  St 
Peter-  The  phrase  is  derived  from  the  metaphor 
addressed  by  our  Lord  to  Feter  in  Hatt  xvL  19,  and 
which  CathoUo  interpreters,  relying  on  the  analo- 
gooi  use  of  thaphraasia  Isaiah  xxii  22,  Apoc  iiL7t 


hyCoOgIc 


I  penuice, 


BtmDd  as  impIviDg  the  mprame  power  in  ihe  (Aurch. 
The  power  ol  the  keya  m  divided  by  C 
two  branches — that  of  order,  which,  tiionfih  posMued 
by  aU  biahope  and  pHeate,  is  beUeved  to  belong 
Bpecially  and  primarily  to  ths  pope ;  and  of  joritdic- 
tion,  which  chiefly  r^uiU  the  supreniB  government 
of  the  church,  and  embrace*  the  power  of  enac' ' 
lawa  and  diapeasing  in  thein,  and  of  directing 
governing  not  only  the  Christian  flock,  but  alai 
paatora  in  t^eir  aeveral  ipherea.   The  jurisdiction  of 
the  keys  is  exercised  in  a  more  limited  field,  and  in  a 
nbordinate  way  by  patriaroha,  primatea,  archbishopi, 
tnahops,  and  other  dignitariea  ;  but  that,  according 
to  the  Roman  theory,  it  has  its  source,  as  well  as 
ita  chief  seat,  in  the  pope,  is  imphed  in  the  dia- 
tinctive  use  of  the  emblem  at  the  keys  as  a  symbol  of 
papal  joriadiction.    The  metaphor  of  the  keys  was 
frequendy  appealed  to  in  the  debates  of  the  late 
Vatican    Council    on    the   papal  ptivileffes^ 
phrase  is  also  applied  to  the  sacrament  of  pe 
to  deiiniate   the  power  of  remitting 
■in,   and  with  the  same  distinction  of  order  i 
Jniudiction,   of  which  the   former  is  imparted 
every  priest  by  his  ordioation,  while  the  latter  is 
only  commonicated  by  an  express  act  of  ths  bishop 
or  other  superior. 

FtoteBtants  in  general  regard  the  power  of  the 
key*  a*  equally  intrusted  to  liie  whole  ministry  □{ 
the  church  of  Chnat,  and  ■■  including  doetrine  and 
diidpline.  Tliey  adnut  the  argument  from  the  use 
oE  tne  key  in  Sciiptnre  as  a  symbol  of  anthoiity ; 
but  r^use  to  acknowledge  any  limitation  of  that 
authority  inoonsiatent  wi£  their  views  of  Christian 
doctiine  and  of  the  relation  of  the  miniatry  to  the 
whole  church  of  Christ,  and  ot  Peter  to  the  reat  of 
tiie  apostles. 

KEYS,  QiTEEN'a.  Id  Scotch  Law,  when  a  messenger 
or  bailiff  execates  a  captioiL  or  warrant  under  an 
extract  decree,  a  writ  in  the  fonner  case,  or  in  the 
latter,  that  part  of  the  wsirant  which  authorises 
him  to  break  open  the  outer  door  of  the  house  of 
the  debtor,  is  called  the  queen's  keys,  or  letters  of 
open  doors.  English  courts  have  no  power  to  give 
a  bailiff  the  right  to  break  open  an  outer  door  in 
executing  writs  of  execation  for  debt.    See  HonaK, 

lUPBIaOMHENT. 

KHAI.KA'S.    See  MovooLU. 

KHAN,  a  title  of  Mongolijui  or  Tartar  sovereigns 
and  lords.  A  kianala  is  a  principahty.  Khagan 
means  '  khan  of  khans,'  hut  has  seldom  been  applied. 
The  word  khan  is  probably  of  the  same  ongm  as 
King  (q.  v.), 

KHA'NIA.    See  Canu. 

KHARA'SM.     See  Khiva. 

KHAROEH.     See  Gx^Ksabokh. 

KHABKCV,  a  government  of  Little  BnsBis, 
immediately  east  of  the  government  of  Poltava. 
Area,  20,737  square  miiee ;  pop.  (1867}  1,681,486, 
The  sorfoce  is  Oat;  with  chalk  hills  folIowiDg  the 
courses  of  the  streams.  The  soil  is  a  rich  and  fer- 
tile loam,  watered  chiefly  by  affluents  of  the  Don. 
In  the  QorCh-west,  the  priocipal  occupations  are 
agriculture  and  distilling  com-biandy ;  b  the  aouth- 
euA,  the  breeding  ot  cattle  and  sheep.  The  breed- 
ing of  hones  is  also  carried  on.    Cora,  tobacco,  wax. 


trade  in  sheep  aod  cattle  ;  but  as  there  is  almost 

the  resources  of  K.  may  be  said  to  be  still  in  great 
port  ondeveloped. 

KHARKOV,  capital  of  the  govermnoit  of  the 
same  name  in  Enropean  Bossts  on  the  banki  of 


three  streams,  affluenta  of  the  Donelx,  in  latL  OSF 
N.,  long.  36'  14'  K,  S16  miles  south-wiuth-eaat  irf 
Petersburg.  It  hod  in  1867  »  pop-  of  59,968,  and 
ranks  as  one  oE  the  chief  towns  of  the  Dkraine.  Its 
position  between  Moscow,  Odena,  Kief,  Taganro|b 
and  the  Caucasus  has  made  it  an  important  market 
for  the  exchange  of  the  products  o(  the  north 
and  aoath.  The  chief  mercantile  tnuuactionii  are 
effeoted  during  the  time  of  the  fairs,  of  whiidi 
there  ai«  four,  the  principal  being  the  Troitak  fair. 
The  transactions  daring  the  fairs  amoiuit  to  about 
£10,000,000.  The  staple  article  of  commeroe  >a 
wool  The  town  contains  seventy  factories  of  rarions 
kinds,  and  mannfacturcd  goodi  are  npplied 
Burroonding  govemmenti.  An  ~ 
of  wool  (vJne,  £l,IfiaOOO}  U  w 
The  university  of  K.,  founded  in  ISOS,  and  the  other 
edncatianal  instatuliona,  oonstitate  this  town  the 
intellectual  a*  well  as  the  oommeroial  centre  of  the 

KHARTOTTH,  an  important  town  of  Africa,  tbe 
chief  centre  ot  trade  in  Upper  Nnhio,  stands  in  a 
stenle  district,  in  hit.  15*  ZS  N.,  long.  32*  Str  &,  at 
the  inaction  of  the  Bine  and  Whits  Nile.  Pieviooa 
to  1947.  it  was  the  residence  of  the  govemor-genfo^ 
of  Egyptian  Sttdon ;  it  is  now  the  seat  of  the  local 
governor  of  the  province  of  its  own  name.  Ha 
principal  stores  of  the  government  are  kept  here, 
and  there  is  a  government  arsenal  for  the  bnildiag 
and  repair  of  boats.  The  houses  are  bnilt  principally 
of  sun-dried  bricks.  K.  ia  the  centra  of  many 
converging  caravan  routce,  and  carnes  on  consider^ 
able  oommerce.  The  imports  oonsist  chiefly  cJ 
Manchester  manufactured  goods ;  the  exports  are 
ivory,  siim-aral>i<^  ostrich-teaihets,  beea-wai,  and 
hides.  Pop.  40,000.— Sea  Egypt,  tltt  Sudtm,  aad 
Cmtrai  .Afiiea,  by  J.  Petherick. 

KHATMANDU',  the  seat  of  government  in 
y^al,  ia  lat.  2r  42*  N.,  and  long.  85*  IS^  £. 
With  narrow  and  dirty  streets,  and  generally  mean 
houses,  it  contaiiu  about  60,000  inhabitanto.  The 
architectural  pretensions  of  the  town^for  even  the 
residence  of  the  rajah  is  a  very  ordinary  edifloe — 
are  confined  to  ita  temples,  some  of  tiiem  of  bii<^ 
and  the  others  of  wood. 

KHAY'A,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natoral  order 
CedreUvxa,  The  KAnoD-KsAn  of  Sen^al  (JC 
Senrgideaat),  one  of  the  most  abundant  fonsi- 
trees  in  that  part  of  Africa,  attains  a  bei^t  of 
eighty  or  one  hundred  feet,  and  is  much  valued 
for  its  timber,  which  is  sometimes  called  CaHtedra, 
and  is  reddish  coloured,  very  hard,  durable,  and 
of  beautiful  grain.  The  ba»  is  aattin 
febrifuge,  and  contains  a  peculiar  alkaloid. 

KHBRSCyK,  a  government  of  Soathem  Riwsa, 
on  ths  borders  of  £e  Black  Sea,  first  appearing  in 
history  during  Hie  4th  e.  B.  c,  when  it  formed  a 
portion  of  the  kinadom  of  the  BosponiB.  Fnn) 
the  nth  c,  the  right  of  possession  was  claimed  by 
the  Poles,  the  Cossacks,  and  varioos  Tartar  tribra, 
the  lost  being  olCtmately  snooeasfoL  In  the  17th 
c,  Russians  commenced  to  settle  in  the  province ; 
and  during  the  next  century,  their  example  was 
followed  oj  a  number  of  Servian*.  The  prorince, 
with  an  area  of  28,666  squats  miles,  is  imiforat^ 
fertile  in  the  north  and  noith-west;  in  thoaonth  it  tt 


utes,  which  towards  OdesMbeoomeincniatsdw..  . 
Hotwithstandinff  Uut  thme  laiga  river*— tits 
iper,  Bug,  sod  Dtoestsr^-ftm  thimish  the  soadi 
le  province,  the  want  of  water  i*  olten  aevwely 


Dnieper, 
of  the  province, 

felt,   especially   ta   Jnly,  when   tlie 
almost  completely  burned  np  by  the 
-'- — .te  is  very  changeable,  fa«ing  very  hot  in 
and  pieraingly  cold  '"   ~'  '"       *^    ' 


,,Googlc 


iBTtma  b;  locnttt  are  not 
UtioQ  in  1867  WM  1.497,ff  . 
RmaiaTUi  (n&tiTea  of  the  Uluaine),  Ualdavians, 
Bulgarians,  Greelu,  Germans,  »nd  Jaws,  who  are 
chiefly  employed  in  agriculture.  The  Oermaui 
cnltivate  tobacco,  and  rear  ailk-wonna.  Much  of 
the  arable  land,  however,  is  loat  from  want  both  of 
capital  and  labour.  Cattle  aod  giieep  breeding  are 
also  carried  on,  on  a  large  scale. 

KHERSON.or  CHEKSON,  capital  of  the  goveni- 
meat  of  that  nune,  in  European  RosBia,  Ues  on  the 
Tight  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  near  to  where  it  widenn 
-cut  into  the  estnar?  ol  the  Liman,  acd  SOS  miles 
wmth-hy-west  from  Hoscoir.  It  was  buOt  bj  Catha- 
rine II.  in  1778,  aa  a  port  for  the  construction  of 
-■hips  of  war;  batiinaTeryfewyears,  was  supplanted 
by  Odessa  and  Nikoluef,  both  as  a  dock-yard  and  a 
commercial  outlet.  Only  ships  of  light  draught 
are  now  built  at  E.,  and  only  snch  ships  can  navi- 
gate the  estuary.  K.  is  the  centre  of  the  coasting 
and  staple  trade  in  timber  and  other  goods,  floated 
down  the  Dnieper  and  its  tributaries,  and  in 
Ctimeaji  salt.  Ropa-making,  t«Uow-iae1tine,  and 
wool-waihing,  are  the  chief  branches  of  trade,  and 
the  products  are  iargelj;  eiported.  Pop.  (1867) 
45,926.  K.  haa  a  gymnasium,  naval  school,  school 
ifor  training  pilots,  and  an  observatoiy. 

EHI'TA  (anc.  CTIorannta),  KHAUSEZAI, 
KHABASM,  or  URGTINaE,akhanate  of  Turkestan 
in  Ceutral  Asia,  lies  between  lat.  37°  45' — 44*  30* 
N.,  aod  long.  SO*  IS' — 63°  E,  and  contains  about 
195,000  square  miles  (not  including  that  part  of  the 
Eiolkam  De«ert  over  which  the  khan  arrogates 
sovereigatj).  It  i>  bounded  on  tbe  N.  by  the  Bnssian 
territory  and  Sea  of  Aral,  E.  by  the  khanates  of 
Ehokan  and  Bokhara,  S.  by  Persia,  and  W,  by  the 
Casjnan  Sea.  The  chief  oasis,  in  which  the  capital, 
Ehiva,  is  situated,  stretches  from  the  mouth  oC  the 
Oxus  or  Amu-Daria  for  200  miles  along  its  banks, 
and  is  watered  by  artificial  canals  supplied  from  that 
river,  to  which  it  entirely  owes  ibi  fertility.  Its 
— '— t  is  variously  estimated  at  from  20DD  to  4000 

?nare  miles.  According  to  a  recent  eatimate  {see 
imM,  April  28,  1873),  the  popuktion  consisU  of 
260,000  seUled,  and  240,000  nomad  inhabitant*. 
There  are  from  10,000  to  40,000  Pewian  freedraen 
or  slaves  who  have  been  eaptnred  in  SJiorassan 
by  the  Turkomans. 

E.,  in  ancient  times,  wu  nominally  subject 
the  Seleucidffi  ;  subsequently  it  fonned  a  part  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Bactria,  Parthia,  Persia,  ana  Uie  Call- 
fate,  and  became  an  independent  monarchy  in  1092 
under  a  Seljnk  dynasty.  The  Khivans,  or,  as  they 
~~  ire  then  called,  the  Khaurezmians,  after  conquer- 
j  the  whole  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  were 
-obliged  to  succumb  to  the  Moguls,  under  Oenghis 
Khan,  in  1221.  In  1370,  it  came  into  the  hands  of 
TimUr.  Timflr'a  descendants  were  snbdned  in  1511 
'  7  Shshy  Beg  {called  Sheibani  Khan  by  western 
rriten],  chief  of  the  Uzbeks,  a  Turkish  tribe,  and 
is  successors  have  mled  over  Khiva  to  onr  times. 
Ever  since  the  Kusdans  entered  Central  Asia,  they 
have  compltuned  that  the  Khivaos  fostered  rebellion 
among  their  Kirghis  subject,  and  plundered  their 
caravans.  In  1717  Peter  the  Great  endeavoured 
to  conquer  K.,  but  was  defeated,  and  in  1839  the 
attempt  was  renewed  by  the  Czar  Nicholas,  but 
with  no  better  snccees.  War  may  be  said  to  have 
recommenced  when  new  Bnssian  forts  in  1869  and 
1871  were  founded  on  the  shorea  of  the  Caspian. 
^*  was  not,  however,  till  1873  that  a  ffreat  effort 
IS  made  finally  to  crush  Khiva.  To  £miiiish  the 
difficulties  of  crossing  the  deserts,  the  Rnssian  force 
was  divided  into  five  columns,  each  aboat  3000 
ctrongi  to  approach  E.  by  different  renter     AHei 


enduring  with  admirable  fortitnde  great  privations 
and  fatigue,  the  Russians  entered  K.  on  tbe  10th 
of  June.    A  trea^  has  since  been  concluded  with 


the  khan,  by  which  he  engages  to  pay  a  war 
indemnity  of  2;000,000  rouUes  in  seven  yeu^,  and 
to  cede  to  Bokhara  the  Ehivan  possessions  on  the 
ri^t  bank  of  the  Ozus.  See  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson's 
Aooonnt  of  Khiva,  read  to  the  GJeomphioal  Soraeiy 
of  London,  March  24, 1673,  and  thx^Tima,  29th  July 
1873.  — Kbita.  the  capital  of  the  khanate,  in  sitnated 
in  the  great  oasis.  It  conHists  almost  entirely  of 
earth-huts,  not  eieepting  the  residence  of  the  hian, 
the  only  stone- buildings  ,being  three  mosquea,  ft 
Bchooi,  and  a  caravansary.     Pop.  about  20,000. 

KHOJEtlD  a  town  of  Buasian  Turkestan,  on 
the  Sir-Daria,  the  ancient  Jaxaites,  about  90  miles 
norili-west  of  Ehokan,  has  a  laborious  and  intelligent 
population.  It  is  the  seat  of  some  cotton  manuac- 
tures,  and  of  a  considerable  transport  trade  between 
the  Bnssian  dominions  and  Southem  Tnrkestao. 
Pop.  estimated  at  45,000. 

KHOKA'N  (originally  JToiiind),  previous  to  1867, 
a  khanate  of  Turkestan  extending  east  of  64°  long, 
over  the  whole  oE  the  upper  baoin  of  the  Jaiartes  or 
Sir-Dario.  The  great«^  part  of  this  territory  haa 
since  been  added  to  Bnssian  Turkestan  {see  TAsa- 
Kssa),  and  the  khanate  &f  E,  is  now  practically  a 
Ruaaian  dependency,  and  confined  to  the  populous 

Cof  the  valley  of  the  Jaiartes,  east  of  Khojend, 
district  was  famous  throughout  the  Sast  during 
the  middle  ages  for  its  fertility  and  beauty,  under 
the  name  of  Ferghana.  Since  it  came  under  the 
of  Russia,  Profeesor  Fedschenko  of  Kazan 
plored  and  described  the  country  (see  '  Reise 
m  fiokan,  1871.'  Petermajm's  JfiMAeOunjen,  1872, 
No.  6.  The  inhabitants  are  Sarts — that  is  to  B^, 
of  Peniian  or  Indo-Oermonio  origin,  witdi  a  Turk- 
ish admixture.  The  population  of  the  khanate 
has  been  estimated  at  3  mmions.  On  24th  May  186% 
a  treaty  of  commerce  was  entered  into  between 
Russia  and  K. ;  and  since  then,  European  manufac- 
tures have  been  introduced,  and  commerce  has 
rapidly  increased.  Manufactures  of  silks  and  coarse 
cottons  are  the  chief  induetrial  products.  The  chief 
town  iB  Kiokan,  with  about  100,000  inhabitanto. 

KHOLMOGO'RT,  a  town  in  the  government  of 
Archangel,  European  Rusaia,  was  a  place  of  great 
note  when  the  White-Sea  trade  was  in  its  glory,  but 
since  the  seat  of  government  has  been  removed  to 
Archangel,  K.  bos  steadily  decliued,  and  in  1871  con- 
tained ouly  1577  inhabitants.  Potor  the  Great,  on 
his  return  from  his  travela,  brought  to  K.  several 
iimena  of  the  Dutch  breed  of  cattle,  by  means 
.bich  the  natives  have  Bo  improved  their  own, 
that  the  E.  breed  is  now  consid^^  to  be  the  best 


KHONSArR,  a  town  of  Penia,  in  the  province 

of  Irak-Ajemi,  80  miles  north-weat  of  Ispahan,  and 

on  the  route  from  that  cit^  to  Hamadan.    Orchards 

abound  here,  and  the  raismg  of  fruit,  with  weaving, 

are  the  chief  employments  tn  the  people.   Fop.  about 

12,00a 

KHOBASSA'N   (anc.  Parlhia,  MargUma,   and 

ria),  the  largest  province  of  Persia,  lies  between 

t.  31°— 38°  30'  K,  and  long.  S3°~62°  30"  E.,  and 

contains  about  210,000  sqnore  miles,  of  which  nearly 

le-third  is  a  vast  salt  watto;   of  the  remainder, 

large  portion  consists  of  plains  of  shifting  sand ; 

and  the  rest  is   fertile.    'The  fertile  districts  are 

the  north,  where  the  high  range  of  the  Slbnrz 

esses  the  provinct^  throwing  out  spurs,  forming 

mountoiaous  district,  abounding  with  fertile  and 

well-watered   vaUeya.      Artificial   fertilisation   by 

means  of  canals  was  here  carried  on  to  a  great  extent 

in  ancient  time^  bat  the  incessant  (^sturbancea 

DintizodhyCiOOylt 


EHORSABAI)— EIAHTA. 


whicih  liave  muettled  the  dittrict  for  Ute   lut 


hemp,  tobacco,  aromatio  and  medicinal  plants,  fruits, 
wine,  aalt,  gold,  ailreF,  and  preciona  atones,  alao 
c:BTTH|l4,  hones,  and  asaea.  In  the  more  thickly- 
peopled  districts,  mannfactnres  of  silk,  woollen, 
utd  camels'  and  goata*  hair  fabrics,  also  of  muaketa 
Nid  nrord-blades,  are  carried  od  to  a  coosiderable 
eiteDt  The  chief  towns  of  the  province  are  Meshed, 
the  capital,  NishapCtr,  Yezd,  and  Astrabad.  The 
inhabitants  are  Mohammedans  of  the  Shioh  sect. 

K.,  in  ancient  times,  also  included  the  desert  of 
Khiva  or  Khumn,  and  Uie  district  now  known  as 
the  kingdom  of  E^t ;  but  the  lirst  was  aeptu^ted 
ham  it  oy  the  Seljuka  at  the  commencement  of 
the  11th  c  and  the  Utter  about  1510,  since  which 
period  it  hu  been  on  several  ocossioiu  seiied  and 
held  for  a  short  time  fay  the  Persians. 

K.  has  been  several  times  sepaisted  from  the 
PeniBn  empire,  but  was  finally  re-united  to  it  at 
the  commencement  of  the  16th  c  by  Ismail  Sofi,  the 
first  Snfiavean  shah  of  Persia.    See  Pbbsia. 

KHORSABA'D.    SeeVcnvxH. 

KHOSB^,  or  KffOaRU  L,  sumamed  NflratBTiM 
(Uie  noble  soul),  and  known  in  Byzantine  history  as 
CholToes  L,  the  greatest  monarch  of  the  Saosanian 
drnasty,  was  the  son  of  Kobad,  king  of  Persia. 
K.  mounted  the  throne  on  his  father's  death  in 
531  A.  D.,  gave  shelter  to  great  numbers  of  those 
whom  Justmian,  the  Byzantme  emperor,  peraacuted 
for  ^eir  religious  opmions,  in  540  commenced  a 
war  of  20  years'  dnration  with  the  Boman  emperor ; 
but  though  the  Persians  reaped  an  abundant  harveHt 
ol  glory,  the  other  results  were  unimportant.  On 
the  accession  of  Justin  H.,  the  Persian  ambas- 
sadors having  been  ignominioualy  abused,  and  the 
Qreeks  having  taken  possession  of  Armenia,  E., 

Justly  Lndignsnt,  again  declared  war  in  STO,  took 
)ara,  the  eastern  bulwark  of  the  empire,  but  was 
terribly  defeated  at  MeLitene  (577)  Ey  Justinian, 
grand-nephew  of  the  emperor  of  that  name ;  this 
defeat  wae,  however,  counterbalanced  by  the  vic- 
tcaions  Greek  being  in  hia  turn  totally  routed  in 
Aimenia.  K.  did  not  live  to  see  the  end  of  the 
contest,  as  he  died  in  OT9.  Hia  government,  though 
veiy  despotic,  and  occasionally  oppresdve,  was  yot 
marked  by  a  firmness  and  energy  rarely  seen  among 
the  orientals.  Agriculture,  commerce,  and  science 
were  greatly  encoorsged,  mvagod  provinces  were 
repeomed  from  his  conquests,  and  wasted  cities 
rebuilt.  His  memory  was  long  cherished  bjr  the 
Persians,  snd  many  a  story  of  uie  stem  justice  of 
K.  is  still  cnrrent  among  them.  Persia,  during  his 
reign,  stretched  from  the  Bed  Sea  to  the  Indus, 
andfrom  the  Arabian  Sea  far  into  Central  Asia. 
— (For  a  full  account  of  this  prince,  see  Sir 
John  Malcolm's  Hialortf  of  Pfrtia.) — KhosbO  IL, 
nwidBon  of  the  precedmg,  sumamed  Pnrvtz  (the 
Generens),  was  raised  to  the  throue  in  690,  but 
bdng  immediately  deposed  by  another  claimant, 
was,  by  the  assistance  of  the  Emperor  Maurice, 
reinstated,  and  in  gratitude  surrendered  Dara, 
Nisibis,  and  a  great  put  of  Armenia,  to  the  Romans. 
In  spite,  too,  of  numerous  and  just  grounds  of 
qnat^el,  he  preserved  peace  with  that  nation  till 
Uie  morder  of  his  bendactor  by  Phocas.  K.  then 
invaded  Mesopotamia  in  604,  took  Dm,  and  during 
17  years  inflicted  upon  the  Byzantine  Empire  a 
aeriea  of  disasters,  the  like  of  which  thoy  had  never 
before  eiperieni^  Syria  was  conqnered  in  611 ; 
Palestine,  in  614;  E^ypt  and  Asia  Minor,  in  616 ; 
and  the  last  bulwark  of  the  capital,  Chalcedon,  fell 
toon  after.  At  this  crisis,  the  fortune  <d  war 
changed  tides.    3ee  HDUCLroai    K.,  driren  in  tarn 


to  the  very  gate*  of  Cteaiphon,  was  deposed  and 
murdered  by  his  eldest  son,  Shirimeh,  or  Siroea,  3Sth 
February  628.  It  was  to  this  prince  tiiat  Mohanuned 
■ent  a  letter  demanding  a  racognitiiai  of  his  miasioiL, 

KHUZISTA'N  (aao.  Sruiana),  a  provinca  of 
Persia,  in  ut.  30'— 33°  7  N..  and  long.  AT  4ff— 51* 
E.,  having  Fais  and  the  Peraian  GnlJ  on  the  S.,  is 
divided  into  two  almost  equal  portions — the  oac, 
the  north-east,  very  hilly,  the  other,  the  sonth-vcs^ 
so  level  as  to  be  umost  a  stagnant  sea  dniing  Uis 
rainy  season,  changing  to  an  arid  waste  in  sDnuner. 
K.  contains  eitenaive  pastoral  districts,  on  which 
vast  herds  of  cattle  aie  reared,  snd  oatoiaJly 
abounds  in  alluvia]  soil  fitted  for  such  crops  as 
rice,  maize,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  indigo,  &c  The  silk- 
worm is  also  reared  in  some  districts.  The  t^aei 
towns  are  Shflster,  Dizful,  and  Mohanunenih. 

KKY^ER  PASS,  the  most  practicable  of 
tiie  openings,  four  in  number,  through  the  Khyber 
Mountains,  is  the  only  one  by  which  cannon  can  ' 
conveyed  between  the  plain  of  Peshawar,  on  i 
light  bank  of  the  Upper  Indus,  and  One  plain  of 
J^alabad,  in  iNbrthem  Afghanistan.  It  is  30  milt 
in  length,  being  here  and  there  merely  a  nam)' 
ravine  between  almost  perpendicular  rocks  of  i 
least  600  feet  in  height.  It  may  be  said  to  hav 
been  the  key  of  the  adjacent  regions  in  eithe 
direction  from  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great 
"le  Afghan  wars  of  1839—18*2,  during  which  it 
twice  forced  by  a  British  army,  in  Bpit«  of  aa 
obstinate  defence  by  the  natives.  The  gorgB  ia 
understood  to  be  extremely  unhealthy. 

KHYERPITR,  a  town  of  Sinde,  stands  abont  15 
miles  to  the  east  of  the  Indus,  in  lat.  27'  30*  N., 
and  long.  68°  46'  E.  The  town  owea  its  importance, 
such  as  It  is,  to  its  having  been  selected  as  the  resi- 
dence of  the  northern  Ameen  of  the  country.  Th* 
place,  however,  is  little  better  than  a  coll«:tiOD  of 
filthy  mud-hovels,  and  it  is  estimated  to  have  onlj 
15,000  inhabitant& 

KIABOU'CCA,  KIABOOCA,  KTABITCA.  or 
AMBOYNA  WOOD,  a  beautifully  motUed  wood, 
which  is  found  in  our  timber-yards  in  small  pieces 
very  evidently  the  wens  or  excrescenoeB  formed  on 
the  stem  of  tlie  producing  tree,  i^tcrofpirnnini  Indi- 
cum  (natural  order  Bj/aneriacea).  Ihe  colour  of  this 
wood  is  yellowish  red,  of  different  «h»i<*«  and 
covered  with  a  most  el^ant  mottled  fimre  in  darker 

artadeo,  especially  snuff-boxes,  its  scarcity  and  the 
small  size  of  the  pieces  forbidding  its  employment 
in  the  manufacture  of  larger  articles. 

KIA'HTA,  or  EIACHTA,  a  town  in  Siberia 
190  miles  south  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  dose  to  the 
Chinese  frontier,  being  only  separated  by  a  inece  of 
nentiral-groand  280  yards  broad  from  ue  Chineaa 
town  of  Halmatchin.  The  population  ia  186?  was 
^86.  Through  this  town  owan  the  oornmennal 
intercourse  between  Busda  and  China,  wlueh  had 
been  arnuged  by  the  treaties  of  1689  and  1727. 
Since  the  middle  of  last  century,  a  lively  and  profit- 
able bartw-trade  has  been  carried  on  both  m  K. 
and  in  Malmatchin  ;  bnt  it  was  not  till  the  end  of 
the  century  that  the  Bnssians  were  able  to  produce 
on  their  mde  any  articles  besidca  furs,  but  since 
then,  cloth  and  cotton  goods,  first  of  English  or 
EVench,  and  later  of  Bussian  manufacture,  nave  in 
»rt  been  substituted.  Formeiiy,  the  export  to 
China  of  coins  and  the  precious  metals  was  for- 
bidden at  IL,  but  this  restriction  is  now  in  part 
removed.  The  exports  from  China  oonsiat  olueSy 
of  tea,  of  which  about  100,000  cwts.  finds  it*  way 
into  Bouia  I7  this  road.  This  tea  is  yvrj  dear, 
on  acooant  of  the  enormous  distanoe  it  has  to  b* 


tyi^ioogle 


KIDDEBMINSTKE— KIDNETa 


bion^t  to  E.  (more  than  3000  miles],  and  the 
Itimun  import  datj,  which  amonnti  to  from  40  to 

70  kopeks.  It  is  geneiall^  imported  by  the  Rnauana 
at  Is.  O^d.  per  lb.  But  it  most  not  be  overlookad 
that  the  K.  tea  ii  the  fint  crop,  immeuaely  auperior 
to  all  that  reachea  Europe  by  any  other  route. 

KIDDERMINSTER,  a  weU-known  maDnfttctor- 
iog  towB  and  municipal  and  parliamentary  borougli 
of  England,  in  the  connty  of  Worcester,  is  situated 
on  the  Btonr,  four  miles  above  its  juaction  with  the 
Severn.  The  parish  cburch  is  a  handsome  edifice, 
partly  in  the  decorated  and  partly  in  the  perpen- 
dicular style.  E.  is  chie&y  noteworthy  on  account 
of  the  caipet  manufactoree  which  are  here  cairied 
on.  The  borooKb  returns  a  member  to  the  Hoose 
of  Commons.    Pop.  (1871)  20,814. 

KIUNAPPIHa  «  not  a  leg»l  term,  but  U  £re- 

of  Bteiuing  or  torciblv  carrying  off  a  child  or  adults 
The  oQence  of  forcibly  carryms  off  a  grown  per- 
■on,  in  genenl,  now  amounts  o^y  to  an  assault  or 
false  imprisonment,  tboudi  formerly  punishable  witb 
death.  Cbild'Stealing.  where  the  cnild  is  under  14 
yean  of  usfi,  if  done  with  intent  to  st«al  any  article 
— ID  or  about  the  person  of  the  fliilii,  or  to  deprive 
parent  Or  goardian  of  tiie  possession  of  the  cbild. 


t^p< 


. .    .  _   „  .     . .  .  _  with  two  years'  imprisonmant. 
Also  Abhuotion. 

KIDNET-BEAN  {Phaieolm),  a  genua  of  tJants 
of  the  natural  order  Ltguvunone,  ■ai>-order  PapUi- 
onaeea,  having  nine  stamens  united  b^  the  filameata, 
and  one  s^tarate  stamen,  a  downy  stigma,  a  2-Upped 
calyx,  and  the  ked  of  tlie  corolla  with  the  stamens 
and  style  apiraUy  twisted.  Tbe  species  are  mostly 
umnal  berbaoeoa*  plants,  natives  of  the  warm  parte 
both  of  Uie  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres.  The 
Common  K.  {P.  vtdgarit)  is  the  Haricot  of  the 
French.  In  Britain,  it  is  sometimes  called  Frmdi 
Bean.  In  the  south  of  Europe,  and  as  far  north  as 
Germany,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  and 
many  other  countries,  the  K.  is  a  field-crop,  and 
the  ripe  seeds  are  an  important  article  of  food. 
Within  the  tropics,  it  is  sown  at  all  seasons ;  but  in 
eonntriea  subject  to  frost,  only  ia  spring,  after  the 
danger  of  frost  is  over.  The  seeds  are  need  for  food 
in  a  boiled  state.  In  Britain,  they  are  not  regularly 
ripened,  except  in  the  most  favourable  situations  in 
the  south.  Tim  plant  is  therefore  cultivated  chiefly 
for  the  sake  of  tne  unripe  pods,  which,  when  boiled 
with  tiie  young  seeds  in  them,  form  a  well-known 
and  very  dedic^  dish.— The  3cajilbi  Bdkhxr  (f. 
ma^fiorv)  has  often  been  regarded  as  merely  a 
larger  variety  of  the  K.,  with  long  twining  stem.  It 
is  £)ubUul,  however,  if  they  are  original^  from  the 
same  native  oouotiy ;  an  American  origin  being 
assigned  to  the  Bnnner,  which  is  also  a  perennial — 
although  in  the  climate  of  Britain  usually  destroyed 
by  the  winter's  frost,  and  therefore  treated  as  an 
annual-— and  has  tuberous  roots.  The  roots,  in  com- 
mon with  those  of  some  other  species  of  Phaaeoiat, 
^re  narootie  and  dangerous ;  serious  consequences 
have  ensued  from  the  accidental  eating  of  them. 
The  pUnt  is  cultivated  far  the  same  uses  as  the  K, 
and  affords,  even  in  Scotland,  a  very  abnndant  crop 
of  green  pods  in  the  latter  part  of  BUtuinn,  although 
the  seed  is  not  sown  till  about  the  Ist  of  May.  It 
is  a  very  ornamental  ^ant,  particularly  the  oommon 
variety  with  scarlet  flowera.  It  readily  covers  any 
trellis  or  paling,  and  regoire*  stakes  of  6 — 10  feet 
in  height. — Cloaelr  allied  to  the  K.,  if  indeed  more 
than  varieties,  and  cuLtivatad  for  the  same  naeo,  are 
(he  Haricot  de  SoiMom  {P.  oomprttnu),  the  Harieot 
Frineaae  (P.  lumidtu),  &C.    In  some  parts  irf  India, 


one  of  the  most  eeteemed  kinds  of  pulse  is  the  Mooo, 
Uoona,  or  Uuhoo  {P.  Itungo) ;  in  others,  the  Kua 
Uooo,  or  Bu.CE  Okam  (P.  Max). 

KIDNEY-TETCH  {AmkyUia),  a  genus  of  pLrnts 
of  the  natural  order  Legaminaaa,  sub-order  PapiUo- 
natxa,  containing  a  number  of  species,  some  shrubby, 
and  some  herba^ous,  natives  chiefly  of  the  warmer 
temperate  parts  of  the  Eastern  EemiBpheT&  They 
have  the  petals  nearly  equal  in  length,  and  an 
oval  1 — 3-Beeded  pod,  enclosed  in  the  permanent 
inflated  and  generally  downy  calyx.  The  only 
British  species  is  the  Common  E.  {A,  vulntraria), 
also  called  Lady'i  Fingrrt,  a  herbaceous  perennial, 
with  pinnated  unequal  leaves,  and  crowded  heads  of 
yellow  (or  sometimes  scarlet)  flowers.  It  grows  on 
very  dry  soils,  and  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  cattle^ 
but  does  not  yield  much  produce. 

KIDNETS,  The,  are  two  glands  haTJus  for  Uieir 
office  the  secretion  of  the  urine.  That  tbis  office  or 
function  is  of  extreme  importance,  is  sufficiently 
shewn  by  the  facts  that  if,  in  consequence  of  diiPsw^ 
it  is  altogether  suspended  in  the  human  subject, 
even  for  a  day  or  two,  death  not  unfreqaently  occurs, 
and  that  urmary  gbuids  corresponding  in  function 
to  our  kidneys  are  found,  not  only  in  all  verte- 
brate animals,  but  in  almost  all  molluscs,  in  the 
orachnidans,  in  insects,  and  in  myriapods. 

The  human  kidneys  are  sitoatea  in  the  region 
of  the  loins,  on  each  side  of  the  s^ne,  and  are 
imbedded  in  a  layer  ot  fatty  Insane.  Their  form  is 
too  well  known  to  require  any  description.  The 
average  length  of  each  kidney  is  a  little  more  than 
four  mches,  and  its  uaual  weight  is  ftom  four  to 


Vertical  Section  of  the  Kidney. 

1,  lapn-nnil  npanli;  U.  ooillul  tubgluM  oF  kUnsv: 

iMduUirr  »tibn»n«  of  kidnej;   itt,  \>-  -• -' 

/,  Uifl  Drctcr,  prooenllng  Eo  Lhe  blidder. 


psfrisi 


six  ounces.  The  substance  of  the  kidneys  is  dans^ 
extremely  fragile,  and  of  a  deep  red  colour.  On 
making  a  vertical  section  of  tlie  kidney,  it  ia 
seen  to  consist  of  two  different  substances,  which 
are  named,  from  their  position,  the  extunal  or 
cortical,  and  the  internal  or  medullary  substance. 

The  eoriical  fabtlance  forms  by  for  the  greator 
part  of  the  gland,  ood  sends  numerous  prolongationa 
mwards  between  the  pyramids  of  the  medaUaij 
substance.  It  is  soft,  graaulor,  and  contains  nume- 
rous minute  red  globular  bodies  difiiised  through- 
out iti  wtuah  are  called,  from  thoii  diaooverer,  toe 


tyCOO^ld 


Malpigbian  bodies,  and  which  will  be  preaentl^r 
noticed  more  fully.  Itt  lubstiance  is  made  up  of  the 
vrin^eroal  iabtt  (which  are  described  in  the  notice 
of  We  medullary  portion),  capillariei,  I^rmphatics, 
and  nerves,  held  together  by  an  intermediate  paren- 
chjTtDatouB  «ubetance. 

The  medjiilaq/  mbttana  consiita  of  pale-reddiah, 
conical  masses,  called  the  pyramids  of  MalpighL 
They  are  usually  about  twelve  in  number,  but  vary 
from  eight  to  eighteen,  and  their  apicee  (the  papUla) 
point  towards  the  hollow  space  (termed  the  tiavi 
or  jielvb)  which  occupies  the  int^or  of  the  gland. 
The  medullary  structure  is  firmer  than  the  cortical, 
and  '"T*-**^  of  being  raanular,  presents  a  striated 
appearance,  from  m  oeing  composed  of  minute 
diverging  tubes  (the  uriniferoua  tabes,  or  tubes  of 
Bellini),  which  ran  in  straight  lines  through  thii 
portion  of  the  kidneys,  after  naving  run  iu  a  hi^^y 
convoluted  conrse  through  the  cortical  portion. 


rhich,  throufta  the  medium  of  the  ureter,  is 
tinaouB  with  that  of  the  bladder,  and  which  extends 
into  the  tiiaue  of  the  kidneys,  to  line  the  uriniferous 
tubea.  The  mucous  membrane  forms  a  cup-like 
cnvity  around  the  termination  of  each  pyramid,  and 
the  cavity,  termed  the  caiyx,  receives  the  urine  from 


the  ureter  into  the  bladder. 

Kach  kidney  ia  supplied  with  blood  by  a  renal 
utery,  a  large  trunk  which  comes  off  at  right  angles 


rUu  of  the  Rensl  CircaUttoi 
to  Iha  UilplftbliD  lutl.  H,  fr- 


n  Hui  and  the  Hunmslia: 


to  the  aorta.  Hie  blood,  after  tlie  separation  of  the 
various  matters  which  constitute  the  Urine  (q.v.), 
is  returned  into  the  venous  system  by  the  renal  or 
emulgent  vein,  which  opens  into  the  inferior  vena 

The  nerves  are  derived  from  the  renal  plexus, 
which  is  formed  by  filaments  of  the  solar  plexus  and 
the  lesser  splanchnic  nerve.  They  belong  entirely 
to  the  ganeiioniG  or  sympathetic  system. 

The  Mahiighian  boies  are  found  in  all  vertebrate 
animals.  In  m»mmal«  which  are  the  only  animals 
in  which  there  is  a  division  into  a  cortical  and  a 
medullaiy  portion,  these  bodies  are  only  found  in  the 
fonner.  In  an  injected  specimen,  they  appear  to  the 
naked  eye  as  mere  coloured  spota.  They  are  Eor  the 
most  part  of  a  spherical,  oval,  or  fiaak-like  form. 
Their  diameter  in  man  may  nuge  from  «^tli  to 
ij^th  of  an  inch,  the  mean  being  Tgith.  A  small 
artery,  termed  the  o^ersnf  vaad,  may  be  tmced  into 
each  Mai  pighian  bo<fy,  while  a  minute  venous  radiole, 
the  ^ertnl  vessel,  emerges  from  it  doaa  to  the  point 


at  which  the  artery  had  entered.  The  Ual[Hghiaii 
body  itself  conaiata  of  a  roonded  bonch  or  tun  et 
capillaries,  derived  from  the  afferent,  and  tanniaat- 
ing  in  the  efferent  vasel,  and  enclosed  in  a  clew 
and  transparent  capsnle,  lijied  at  its  lower  part  with 
epithelium,  continuous  with  that  of  the  uriniferoiw 
tube  which  springs  from  each  capsule. 

The  coDVolutad  portion  of  the  tube  which  pro- 
ceeds from,  and  is  continuous  with,  the  Uatptgnian 
capsule,  LB  composed  of  a  delicate  basement  mem- 
brane, in  immediate  relation  externally  with  an 
abundant  capillary  net- work,  and  lined  in  its  interior 
by  the  spheroidal  or  glandular  variety  of  epitheliom. 
The  diameter  of  its  central  canal  ia  about  n^th  of 
an  inch.  The  straight  portion  of  the  tubes  of  whicji 
the  pyramida  are  compoeed  ia  lined  with  epithe- 
lium, which  approaches  more  nearly  to  the  ecalf 
or  tesBelated  variety,  and  which  seems  to  serve  am 
a  protecting  layer,  rather  than  to  take  part  in  tbe 
function  of  secretion.  The  tnbea  unite  with  one 
another  to  a  great  degree  as  they  pass  throng  the 
structure  of  the  pyramids,  so  that  at  the  base  of  « 
pyramid  there  may  be  many  thousand  tabes,  while 
the  number  of  openings  at  the  extremity  of  a  ptLpill* 
are  comparatively  few. 

It  now  remains  to  consider  the  respedive  fooo- 
tiona  of  these  two  essential  elements  <H  Uie  kidney 


«, 


Malpighian  bodies  and  the  tubes.  From  the  admir- 
able researches  of  Mr  Bowman  [PhUoaoplticai  TVmw- 

adioitt,  1S42),  and  from  the  labours  of  aubaniient 
anatomists,  it  appears  that  in  >niiii»l«  in  which  the 
urinary  excretion  is  passed  in  an  almost  solid  fonn 
(as  in  birds  and  reptiles),  the  tufts  are  small  and 
simple  as  compared  with  those  in  the  kidneyi  of 
animals  which  (like  man  and  moat  m«n-in.-l.)  pa_ 
the  urinary  constituentB  dissolved  in  a  large  quantity 
of  water.  On  these  grounds,  as  well  as  from  ths 
fact,  that  the  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  tofts  ia 
well  calculated  io  favour  the  escape  of  water  from 
the  blood,  Mr  Bowman  arrives  at  the  candnsiaa, 
that  the  function  of  the  Malpighian  bodies  ia  to 
furnish  the  fluid  portion  (the  water)  of  the  nrins. 
The  arrangement  of  tbe  convoluted  portion  of  the 
tubes,  with  a  capiUaiy  net- work  on  one  side  of  their 
basement  membrane,  and  secreting  epithelial  ceUa 
on  tbe  other,  is  tbe  exact  counterpart  of  the  arrange- 
ment in  otber  secreting  glands,  and  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  functions  of  Uie  cells  in  Uie  ocxl- 
voluted  portion  of  the  tubes  ia  to  separate  from  the 
blood  the  various  organic  constituenta  (urea,  nric 
acid,  creatinine,  Ac)  and  inorganic  salta  (chloride  of 
sodium  and  phosphate  of  so^  Jtc),  which  collect- 
ively form  the  solid  constituents  oi  the  urine.  It 
does  not  necessarily  follow  that  these  secavting  cells 
undereo  rapid  decay  and  renewal ;  it  is  more  prob- 
able that  they  have  the  power  of  selecting  certain 
materiala  from  the  blood,  and  of  tranamittiDg  than, 
without  the  disintegratioD  of  their  own  stmcture,  to 
the  interior  of  the  tube. 

The  physical  and  chemical  characters  of  tlis 
secretion  yielded  by  the  kidneys  will  be  considered 
n  the  article  Urine. 

DuBASis  or  THB  ICinyiTS.— The  most  important 
ijfeotion  of  the  kidneys  is  Brighl't  Diteam  [a.  v.), 
the  symptoms  of  which  have  already  been  described. 
On  eiaminiufi  the  kidneys,  in  a  cose  of  death  from 
this  disease,  it  is  found  that  there  is  a  great  increaaa 
'"  the  size  and  number  of  the  oil-alobules  whid 
at  in  small  quantities  in  the  epithelial  cdla  of 
the  healthy  gland.  Tbe  urinaiy  tubes  beooming 
thus  gorged  and  distended,  compress  the  capillary 
veaseli  on  their  exterior;  and  hence,  in  consequence 
of  passive  congertioD  of  the  Ma]|>ighian  vtoaels, 
which  gives  rise  to  obstruction  ^  t£e  citvnUlkn, 
the  serum  of  tbe  blood  exudes  in  pUoe  of   pun 


t.Googlf 


KIDBON— KIEL. 


water,  (ad  get*  mizsd  irith  the  urine,  vhidi 
thoB  bacomei  albnininona  ia  thia  dueaia.  Ittflam- 
mafi&n  qf  Ote  Kidniyt,  or  tfephritU,  a  not  uocom- 
mon.  In  acuta  i&flamnution,  there  is  a  deep-seated 
psJQ  in  the  unill  of  the  back,  on  one  or  npon  bctli 
■idea,  often  extendhig  doimwaRl  towarda  the  inaide 
of  the  thigh.  Thia  pftin  is  inoMaeed  by  preaanre, 
aadden  chMige  of  poiitioii,  con^hinf;,  Ac  Tho  urine 
ia  BCanty,  hi^-coloored,  albununoua,  or  blood;,  and 
often  depoai^  y\a  and  wdimentiiry  matter  on  atond- 
ing.  There  «  more  or  less  fever,  preceded  by 
Hgon ;  Dsuaea  and  vomiting  are  freqaent,  and  the 
bowels  are  naually  cooEtipnted.  In  t^ironio  inflam- 
DutioD,  most  of  the  above  aymptoms  are  present, 
but  in  a  milder  form,  and  there  u  little  or  do  fever. 
In  both  the  acute  and  chronic  form,  the  blood  maj 
become  cootamtn&ted,  as  in  Bright'e  Diaeaae  (i).  v.), 


The  caoaea  of  inflammation  of  the  kidney  are 
variouB.  It  may  be  due  to  mechanical  viol 
expoBore  to  cold  and  wet,  and  to  the  ingestion  of 
substances  which  have  the  property  of  irritating  the 
kidneys,  as  cantharides,  oil  of  turpentine,  &(x  A 
gouty  diathesis  and  the  presence  at  concretions  may 
also  be  noticed  as  causes.  Any  affection  capable  of 
producing  retention  of  imne,  may,  by  distending  the 
pelvis  of^the  kidney,  occaaion  inflammation,  as,  for 
example,  stricture  of  (he  urethra  and  affections  of  the 
spinal  cord  producing  paralysis  of  the  uiinaiy  organs. 

The  treatment  must,  on  the  whole,  be  autiphlo- 
giatic  (or  lowering)  in  the  early  stage  of  the  disease, 
but  most  be  considerably  modified  in  accordance 
with  the  origin  of  the  disease. 

NejJtralgta,  or  Pain  ia  the  Kiibiey  vnUitnd  Infiam- 
matioti,  which  usually  but  not  invariably  depends 
upon  the  passage  of  a  concretion  through  the  ureter, 
ia  one  of  the  most  punful  oSections  to  which  the 
human  frame  ia  anbject.  It  usually  comes  on  when 
the  concretion  makes  its  way  from  the  pelvis  of  the 
kidney  into  the  nreter,  and  does  not  cease  till  it  has 
passed  into  the  bladder.  Ihiring  an  ordinary  Gt  of 
gravel  [see  Ltthiask),  or  even  in  appM-ent  health,  a 
severe  pain  is  suddenly  felt  in  the  loins,  extending 
to  the  groin,  tlii^  or  abdomen,  and  sometime* 
aimnlatiug  colic  The  pain  comes  on  in  paioxytma, 
with  intervening  perioda  of  comjiaratiTe  ease.  The 
paroxysm  is  usually  accompanied  by  vomiting,  a 
small  and  feeble  pube,  and  a  profuse  sweat.  There 
ia  a  freonent  desire  to  pasa  urine,  but  tie  effort  ia 
nsaaJly  fntile.  At  length,  usually  after  some  houn, 
or  even  one  or  two  days,  the  concretion  escapes  into 
the  Uadder,  and  the  pain  snddeuly  ceases. 

This  affection  may  be  readily  diatinsuiahed  from 
indammation  by  the  sudden  acceaa  and  paroxyamal 
charooter  of  the  pain  and  by  the  absence  of  fever. 

As  the  disease  is  one  which  ia  very  liable  to 
return,  the  patient  should  know  what  ateps  to  take 
before  advice  can  be  obtained.  Opium  ia  our  abeet- 
anchor  in  this  affection.  The  patient  (aasnming  that 
he  is  an  adult]  may  take  two  grains  of  opium,  or  an 

Snivalent  dqse  (3S  or  40  minims)  of  laudanum  or 
Intion  of  muriate  of  morphia,  when  the  attack 
cornea  on,  and  may  repeat  the  medicine  in  balf-dOB« 
every  hour  or  two  hours,  until  the  pain  is  somewhat 
alleviated,  or  aigns  of  tiie  narcotio  influence  of  the 
drug  begin  to  manifnt  themselves.  Should  the 
stomach  t>e  so  irritable  as  to  reject  the  medicine,  a 
drachm  of  laudanum  in  a  little  thin  starch  may  be 
injected  into  the  reotom.  Hot  fomeatstions  to  tbe 
abdomen  and  loins  alao  nve  partial  reliel  Chloro- 
form may  be  inhaled  with  great  benefit  dnrin^  the 
paroxysma,  but  only  nnder  the  superintendenr*  '' 

Supprttiioa  of  Urine,  or  Itdmria  rtimli*,  i 
kff^ctioit  in  which  there  is  either  a  oom]  ~ 


of  the  secreting  action  of  the  kidney,  or  M  oon- 
siderable  a  diminution  as  to  be  clearly  morbid. 
It  is  undoubtedly',  in  most  cases,  a  mere  symptom 
of  aoms  other  disease,  but  occasionally  no  other 
diaocder  is  obvious,  and  it  must  be  leguded  as  am 
independent  or  idiopathic  affection.  If  no  urine 
be  aepanted  from  the  blood,  coma  (intense  stupe- 
faction) and  death  rapidly  supervene  from  UiB 
retention  of  urea  (or  of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  into 
which  it  readily  breaka  np)  in  the  blood,  which  thus 
becomes  impure,  and  acts  as  a  poiaon  on  the  Insin. 
The  treatment,  which  is  aeldiun  oaocessful,  is  too 
purely  professional  for  notice  in  these  pages. 

For  further  information  on  diaeaaes  of  uie  kidneys 
and  allied  affections,  aee  the  articles  BsiaHT'a 
DmEAfflt,  DiABim,  Drofst,  and  Lmiiaflia. 

EIDRON,  or  KEDRON.    See  Jebo6HAPBAT. 

KIEF,  or  KIEV,  the  chief  town  of  the  govern- 
ment of  that  name,  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Dnieper,  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  Russian  towna, 
and  was  formerly  the  capital  In  864,  it  was  taken 
from   the  Khaxars  by  two  Norman   chiefs. 


(when  it  ceased  to  be  the  capital),  it  was  nearly 
dstroyed  by  Batfi,  Khan  of  Kiptchak.  Christiani^ 
was  first  proclaimed  in  Russia  at  E.  in  ^88.  In 
tlie  ]4tb  c,  it  was  seized  by  Oedimin,  Oraiid  Dnks 
of  Lithuania,  and  annexed  to  Poland  in  1569,  bnt 
in  16S6  was  restored  to  Russia.  The  E.  of  the  [ire- 
weaX  time  ia  one  of  the  largest  towns  in  the  empire, 
powening  (1867]  10,091  mhabitaots,  one-third  of 
whom  are  Poles.  It  ia  strongly  ftntifisd,  haa  a 
remarkable  suspension-brit^  over  the  Dnieper,  one 
of  the  beat  nniversitiea  in  Euaaia,  a  military  and  an 
ecclesiBSticaJ  school.  In  its  nei^ibauiliood  is  the 
convent  of  Kievo-Petchertk,  a  celebrated  Kuasian 
sanctuary,  which  onauaUy  attraeta  thousaiida  of  pil- 
ninis  from  the  moat  remote  oomsrs  of  the  empire. 
K.  ia  not  an  industrial,  but  a  oommercial  oenW*  7 
large  furs  take  place  here  annually,  the  most  oels- 
bratedof  which  is  the  'Contracts'  during  ttie  vinter, 
which  ia  attended  by  all  the  sumnindiiut  praprietoTs, 
and  by  many  foreign  merehauts,  'Hie  trade  ia 
chiefly  with  Odessa,  Poltava,  and  Anatria. 

KIEKIE  {FrtyeitK^  Banln!),  a  shrub  of  the 
natnral  ocder  Pandanacea,  yielding  an  edible,  aggrv- 
gated  fruit,  laid  to  be  the  finest  indigenous  miit 
of  New  Zealand.     The  species  of  this  genus   are 

apical   Asiatic,  or   Polyneaian   climbing   shrub^ 

ith  sheathing,  long,  rather  grassy  leaves,  nsual^ 
spinous  tff  serrated  on  the  margin  ;  and  terminal 
solitary,  or  clustered  apadioes  of  nnisexnal  flowen. 
The  K.  is  found  in  the  northern  part  of  New 
Zealand.  It  olimba  the  loftiest  trees,  biwiching 
oopiooaly.  The  leaves  are  two  or  three  feet  long. 
The  spadiocs  are  doatered.  The  fruit  is  a  mass  of 
fleshy  bsfries.  Tlie  jelly  mads  of  it  taste*  like 
preserved  stnkwberriea. 

KIEL,  capital  city  o!  the  Fnunan  province  of 
SlesvigSolsttdn,  lying  on  a  deep  fjord  or  bay  of 
the  Mtio,  which  adnuti  large  ahipa  to  anchor  close 
to  the  town,  is  the  statdon  of  the  g^test  portion  of 
the  Oerman  navy,  and  ia  sitoated  in  lat  54'  20'  H., 
and  long.  10°  T  E.  Pop.  (1871)  32,899.  K.  is  the 
seat  oE  tie  Supremo  Court  of  Appeal  for  the  provinp^ 
and  of  a  university,  which  was  founded  in  1666,  and 
hM  a  Lbrary  of  80,000  vdatnes,  an  obaervatoty,  a 
botanic  garden,  %  natar^  hirtory  museom,  and  a 
good  ooUectaoD  of  northern  antiquitie*.  In  1872 
an  imperial  order  was  issued  that  an  academy  for 
the  beneflt  of  all  seafarers  should  be  established  at 
K.  The  town  has  two  bridges,  connecting  the 
northern  or  older  part»  with  the  r^diy  mcreaamg 
■ootturo  *nburb&      The  most  anoieot  of  ita  five 


hyGoogIc 


KIEV-KILBARE. 


chuTchea  ii  St  Nicholai,  which  dktea  from  the  13th 
century.  The  cutis  hia  &  good  eculpture-gillBry, 
oontuiBiiig,  unonj;  other  copies  of  the  best  vorks  of 
Art,  CHtt  of  the  Elgin  marbles,  and  ofThorwoldsea's 
best  productions.  The  public  gwdena  and  the 
wooded  shores  of  the  fjord,  tc^etber  with  the  woods 
of  DUstembrook  {where  a  bathing  setablishment  has 
existed  since  1622),  kffonl  numerons  pleasant  walks, 
X.,  which  became  a  member  of  the  Eanaeatio 
League  in  the  I4th  c,  was  formerly  the  chief  mart 
for  the  fann  and  dairy  produce  of  the  Danish 
islands ;  and  the  very  ancient  annual  fair,  which 
was  held  for  four  weeks  after  Epiphany,  was 
attended  by  buyers  of  all  dassea  from  every  part 
of  the  duchie*.  K.  has  manufactures  of  tobacco, 
oH-colours,  snmr,  machineiy,  ironmonger;,  Jbc. 
Butter  ia  eztensiTely  exported.  It  is  an  unportaat 
link  in  the  line  of  oommnnicatioit  between  Oermany 
and  the  Baltic  ialands  and  ports ;  and  (team-packets 

ports  of  the  ^tic  and  Nortil  Sea. 

KIEV,  a  govemment  of  Little  Ruwia,  lies  immo. 
diately  north  of  the  government  of  Kherson, 
and  IS  bounded  on  the  iic»th-east  by  the  river 
Dnieper.  Area,  19,646  ■qoare  milea,  more  than 
one-half  of  which  is  aisblD,  and  one-tifth  under 
wood-  Pop.  (1867)  2,144,27&  In  the  northern 
poridona,  Uie  sorCace  ia  fiat  and  marshy ;  tile 
south  is  covered  with  rangea  oE  hills,  branche*  of 
Hie  Carpathian  Monntaina,  running  fnin  north-west 
to  south-east  The  chief  river  is  the  Dnieper, 
with  it*  tributaries,  the  Pripat  and  the  Teterev. 
The  soil,  chiefly  loam,  and  putly  clav  and  sand,  is 
very  fertile  j  ao  that,  although  a^cuitare  is  back- 
ward, the  rtitums  are  considerable.  The  climate 
is  exceedingly  mildj  everything  is  in  blossom  in 
April,  andfiotts  do  not  set  in  tifl  November.  Agri- 
outore  and  horticulture  are  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  inhabitants.  Wheat  is  extensively  exported 
to  OdMaa.  IJiere  are  numerous  distilleries,  and 
beet-root  aunr,  tobacco,  doth,  china,  and  delft  are 
manufactured.  Lai^  cargoes  of  timber  and  fire- 
wood are  floated  down  the  Dnieper  to  the  ports  of 
the  Black  Sea  aimually. 

KI'LDA,  St,  a  small  island,  lying  off  the 
eoast  of  Scotland,  in  Ut.  CT  49"  20"  N.,  l__ 
miles  west  of  the  peninanla  of  Harria,  to  the  parish 
of  which  it  ia  reckoned  as  belonpng-  It  presents 
bold  and  lofty  precipices  to  the  sea,  except  at  two 
points,  one  on  the  south-east,  the  other  on  tbs 
west  aide  of  the  i^and.  At  each  of  these  points 
tiiere  is  a  buy  with  a  low  shore.  BesidoB  the 
main  island,  there  are  several  small  islets,  and  the 
whole  group  has  an  area  of  from  3000  to  4000 
acres.  Pop.  (1871)  71.  Situated  in  the  m 
the  Gulf  Stream,  St  K.  enjoys  a  mild  climate, 
although  the  weather  is  often  boisterous.  On  the 
main  iSand,  there  are  eighty  or  ninety  head  of  black 
cattle,  and  nearly  2000  sheep  (among  which  is  a 
Spanish  breed,  whose  wool  is  highly  prized)  — 
grazed  on  it  and  oa  the  surrDnnding  isleta  Immi 
numbera  of  wild-fowl  are  killed  onnuallv,  the  flesh 
of  which  is  very  generally  eaten  and  the  feathers 
sold.  The  sea  abounds  in  delicious  tlah,  easily 
caught  from  the  rocky  shore  without  the  nae 
boats.  The  inhabitants  formerly  were  able 
export  more  i»  less  grain  annoally;  but  although 
the  popiilatioQ  has  decreased  within  late  yean, 
they  now  consnma  all  the  eenti  produce  of  the 
island,  besides  an  additional  quantity,  which  they 
import  The  preaent  inhabitaato  habitually  con- 
sume much  more  farinaoeoui  food  than  their  fore- 
fathers did.  They  do  not  receive,  nor  do  they 
require,  any  wgolar  gratuitoi 
proprietor,  "  '-  -"°-  — ™— 


KILDA'BE  (Hib.  KUldara,  Church  of  tha 
Oaks],  an  ancient  episcopal  and  market  town  in 
the  county  of  the  same  name  in  Ireland,  25  milea 
itt-weat  of  Dublin.  It  owed  its  origin  to  a 
— mastery,  founded,  according  to  the  annalista,  in 
the  end  of  the  5th  c,  by  St  Brideet.  the  ■^»"g*'tT 
of  an  Irish  chieftain,  who  received  the  veil  from  St 
Patrick  himself.  Around  the  monastery,  a  town  d 
some  importanoe  sprang  up,  which,  as  well  as  the 
abbey,  was  repeat^Dy  plundered  by  the  Danest 
After  the  yjig'i'h  invasion,  it  rose  to  considerable 
importance,  and  a  parliament  was  held  in  it  in 
1309.    In  the  wars  of  Elizabeth,  and  subtequeotly 

the  Crreat  Civil  War,  it  suffered  almoct  com- 
plete ruin,  from  which  it  bnt  partially  recovered. 
Prior  to    the  Union,  E.    returned   two   members 

the  Irish  parliament.  At  preaent,  it  is  much 
decayed,  consisting  of  bnt  246  hoosea.  "Die  popu- 
lation in  1S51  wasl298 ;  it  U  now  slightly  increawd, 
being  (1371)  1333.  The  aee  <rf  £.,  toaether  with 
that  of  Leighlin,  in  the  Protestant  (Siurch,  is  nnited 
to  that  of  Dublin.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  tlie  nnited 
sees  of  Eildare  and  Leighlin  form  a  distinct  dioceae. 
Notwithstanding  its  present  decayed  condition, 
V     i.    a: — 1_   ;.. 1; —  (_  ,(,    antiqoitiea. 


and  a  Carmelite  abbey,  a  portion  of  the  chapel  of 
St  Bridget,  popularly  called  '  The  Firehouse,'  from 
a  perpetual  fire  anciently  maintained  there,  and, 
above  all,  the  round  tower,  130  feet  in  height, 
which  crowns  the  elevation  on  whioh  the  town  ia 
built,  and  is  seen  from  a  great  distance. 

KILDABE,  an  inUnd  conn^  of  the  province  << 
Leioster,  Ireland,  distant,  at  its  eastern  bonier, 
about  14  miles  west  from  tiie  Ekiglish  CluuiueL     Ita 

iteit  length  from  north  to  sontii  is  40  miles ; 

1  eaat  to  west,  27  miles;  uea,  45f^436  acrea, 
of.which  356,787  are  arable.  Its  surface  ia  almost 
one  unvaried  plain,  with  the  exception  of  the  sonth- 
eaat  border,  which  meets  the  range  of  Dublin 
Hills,  and  the  southern  border,  which  likewise  ia 

~itly  elev^ed.      Its   principal    riven    are    tlia 

IT  and  the  Barrow,  the  Iatt«r  of  which  foima  in 
part  its  boundanr.  The  Boyne  has  its  source  in  K., 
a«  haa  also  the  Black  water.  It  is  traversed  br  tha 
Grand  and  Boyal  Canals.  The  moat  ranantabk 
featorea  of  K.  are  the  celebrated  plun  called  tha 
'Curraghof  Eildare' — an  undulating  down,  aix  miles 
long,  and  two  broad,  the  site  of  the  well-known 
race-course,  the  Newmarket  of  Ireland — and  the  Bog 
of  Allen.  The  solitary  hill  called  AUsa,  which  riaea 
in  the  great  central  limeatone  phun,  is  a  maas  at 
'  ' '  ~npact  greenstone  and  portihyry,  with 
idstone  conglcunerate,  \rhich  is  qoarried 
for  millstones.  The  aoil  is  generally  a  ricti  loam, 
resting  on  limestone  or  alata  The  total  extent  cf 
land  under  tUlaM  in  1853,  waa  140,837  aorea ;  bnt 
the  nroportion  ol  partoM  land  to  tillage  haa  been 
noon  inoreased,  the  acrea  nudac  erop  in  1872  betng 
July  131,29a  The  pop,  (1671)  was  84,198,  of  whom 
71,972  were  Roman  Catholics,  lO^lS  Eraaooiialiasi^ 
«t  of  other  denominatiraiB.  loe  prinoqnl 
Haas.  AtJiy,  and  Eildare ;  but  fiw  num. 


ber  of  minor  towns  is  beyond  tha  average  of  Iiiah 
oonnties.  K.  sends  two  county  memboa  to  the 
imperial  parliameat  In  antiquities  of  all  histori- 
oal  periods,  K.  is  peculiarly  rich.  In  the  taine  of 
Geratdns  Cambrensis,  the  plain  of  tile  Curr^h  had 
a  stone  circle  similar  to  that  of  Stonehange.  Of  the 
round  tower  there  are  no  fewer  than  five  exaaples. 
Some  stone  crosses  also  are  still  preserred,  and 
many  caatles  of  the  An^o-Normau  period,  three  at 
which  ate  still  inhabited    The  well-known  Boman 


tyCoogle 


EILIA— EILLAKfET. 


Catholio  oollsge  of  Maynooth  (q.T.)  U  titnatad. 
ttuB  canaty,  aa  ia  alao  th«  Jetait  collc^  of  CloDgowea 

EI'LIA,  ■  fortified  tom  of  European  Turkey,  __ 
the  province  of  Besaarabia,  ia  dtnated  on  the  Mt 
bank  of  the  Kilia  branch  of  the  Danube,  2§  milea 
DOrth-eaat  of  Ismail  Commeroe  ia  carried  on  here 
to  tome  extent,  and  there  is  a  populatioD  of  &100. 

EI'LIAIf,  a  saint  of  the  Boman  Catholio  Church, 
and  Biahoii  of  WUrzbors  in  the  7th  century.  He 
waa  a  oatiTe  of  Ireland,  and  a  member  of  that 
diattngniahed  body  of  Irish  missionaries  among  the 
Teutonic  nationB,  to  whose  labours,  in  the  6th  and 
7th  c,  ChriBtianity  and  civiliaatioa  were  so  largely 
indebted  in  the  southern  and  soutb-eaEtem  conn&e« 
of  Europe.  Ho  was  of  a  noble  family,  and  while 
yet  young,  entered  the'  monastic  life  m  his  native 
countiT.  Having  undertaken,  in  company  with 
MVeral  of  his  fellow-moi;ke,  a  pilgrimage  to  Some, 
he  was  seized  in  his  journey  through  the  atil]  pagan 
province  of  Tiiaringia,  with  a  de«ire  to  devote 
himself  to  its  convenion,  and  being  joined  by  1^ 
fellow-pilgrims,  Colman  and  Donatus,  he  obtained 
for  the  project  at  Borne,  in  687,  the  saDOtioD  of 
the  then  pope,  Conoo,  by  whom  li^  wss  ordained 
bishop.  On  his  return,  he  succeaded  in  converting 
the  Doke  Oosbert,  with  many  of  his  subjects,  and 
in  opening  the  way  for  the  complete  conversion  of 
Thuringia;  bnt  having  pmvakeil  the  enmity  of 
Oeilana,  who,  although  the  widow  of  Gosberfs 
brother,  had  been  married  to  Gosbert,  by  declaring 
the  marriage  invalid,  and  inducing  Ooabert  to 
separate  bvai  her,  he  waa  mnrderea  at  har  insti- 
graoD,  daring  Qie  absence  of  Oosbert,  in  789, 
together  with  both  hjj  feltow-missionariea.  The 
work  which  E.  commenced  was  comjdeted  some 
years  later  by  Boniface  and  his  fellow-    " 


KILIM  AK  J  ABO'  (the  Great  Mountain),  snppMed 
./O  be  the  highest  known  mountain  of  Africa,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  western  border  of  Zanzibar,  in  lat 
3*  4ff  S.,  and  long.  36"  E.  It  ia  coveied  with  i>er- 
petnal  snow,  and  is  supposed  to  reach  an  elevation 
of  20,000  feet  above  sea-IeveL 

KILKE'NHY,  Crrr  o»  (Gael  'Chnroh  of  St 
Kenny,  or  Canioe'),  the  capital  of  the  county  of 
that  name,  and  a  county  o!  itself,  is  situated  on 
the  river  Nore,  81  milea  »outh-south-we«t  from 
Dublin  fay  the  Great  Southern  and  Weotem  Bail- 
way.  Pop.  in  isai,  14,081.  In  1871,  it  had  de- 
creaaed  ten  per  cent,  having  fallen  to  12,664;  of 
whom  11,315  were  Roman  Catholics,  11S8  EpiKso. 
palian*,  and  the  rest  Frotestanta  of  other  denomina- 
tions. The  county  of  the  city  comprises  an  area 
of  17,012  acrea,  of  which  1G,091  are  external  to  the 
city.  K.  returns  one  member  to  the  imperial 
parliament.  This  city  owes  its  origin  to  the  cathe- 
diol  church  of  the  dioceae  of  Ossory,  which  dates 
from  the  12th  century.  Almost  from  the  time  of 
the  invasion,  E.  waa  a  strong  seat  of  the  EocUsh 

e'er,  its  castle  dating  from  the  time  of  WilUMn, 
1  of  Pembroke,  in  lISS.  From  an  early  date,  E 
was  a  place  of  much  political  importance,  a*  well 
M  the  seat  of  numerous  religious  establishments. 
Being  seated  on  the  sonthem  frontier  of  the  Pale, 
it  was  strongly  walled  in  the  end  of  the  liOi  c, 
and  several  parliaments  were  held  in  it,  of  which  the 
meet  notable  was  that  of  1367,  in  which  was  enacted 
the  well-known  '  Statute  of  Kilkenny,'  the  great 
nucleus  of  all  the  distinctively  English  legislation 
for  Ireland.  The  cathedral  dates  in  part  Sum  the 
1 3th  c  J  and  the  abbey  church  of  St  John's,  called 
the  Black  Abbey,  has  been  partially  restored,  and  is 
one  of  the  ve^  few  ancient  Irish  chnrchea  now  in 
actual  occupation  for  the  religious  nse  of  the  Boman 
Catholics.    A  handsome  Boman  CalJiolio  cathedral 


also  haa  been  recently  completed.  The  ao-called 
college  or  grammar-school  of  K.  was  founded  by  the 
Butlen  in  the  16th  o^  and  was  farther  endowed 
by  the  great  Duke  of  Ormond.  St  Kyran's  College 
is  on  educational  establishment  for  the  Roman 
Catholics,  and  is  interesting  as  one  of  the  fli«t 
opened  by  that  religions  commimity  after  the  repeal 
of  the  law  which  made  CathoLc  education  penal  in 
these  conntriea.  E.  formerly  possessed  conaideruble 
manufactures  of  blankets  uid  coarse  woollen  and 
linen  cloths,  but  of  late  they  have  much  declined.  It 
is  the  seat  of  tolerably  extensive  marble-worka,  and 
has  a  large  and  active  provision-trade,  the  chief 
outlet  of  which  is  Waterford.  with  which  E.  is 
connected  both  by  river  and  by  the  Kilkenny  and 
"Waterford  Railway, 

EILKBNTv  Y,  an  inland  oounty  of  file  province 
of  Leinster,  in  Iraluid,  bounded  on  the  S.  by  Wat«i- 
ford,  ia  46  miles  In  its  greatest  length  from  N.  to  8., 
and  24  in  its  greatest  width  from  £.  to  W.  Ita  area 
is  796  sqnare  mUes,  or  009,732  acres,  of  which 
470,102  are  arable.  The  population  hat  been 
steadily  decreasing  since  1841,  when  it  waa  189,312. 
In  1861  it  was  138,775;  in  1S6I  it  had  &Uen  to 
110,341,  and  in  1871  to  96,633 ;  of  whom  91,697 
were  Boman  Catholics.  4514  Episcopalians,  and 
the  rest  of  other  denominations.  The  surface  of 
eonnty  is  very  varied,  the  southern  portion  being 
especially  elevated,  the  hills  rising  to  a  height  of 
1696  feet  in  the  summit  of  Moant  Brandon.  In 
the  western  district  are  situated  the  Walah  Moun- 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Nore,  which 
a  the  whole  length  from  north  to  south- 
east, and  fslls  into  the  Barrow ;  the  Barrow,  and 
Snir,  which  form  the  eastern  and  southern  boQuda^. 
The  snrface  of  E.,  except  the  mountains  in  the  a., 

mainly  of  the  limeetone  formation,  overlaid 


city  of  K,,  a  valua^e  blaok  muble,  interapenad 
wiUi  fossil  shelle,  is  quanied,  of  whidi  a  conaider* 
able  monofactuie  of    chimney-pieces  and   similai 


number  of  acrea  under  crop 
w»s°171,027.  The  live-stock  in  1872  was— hones, 
16,552;  catUe,  112,377;  sheep,  109,284;  pigs, 
56,966.      The    capital   is   the    city    of    Kilkenny 

a'  ,  v.),  The  towns  of  secondary  importance  are 
dlan,  ThomaatowD,  Freshfoid,  Urhngford,  and 
Castlecomer,  which  is  the  centra  of  the  ooal-dia- 
triot      K.    boa    two    county   members,    and   the 

Norman  familieB  cd  Fitzgerald,  Butler,  Orace,  Fur- 
cell,  and  others,  has  been  the  scene  of  much  of  the 
conflict  of  the  English  and  Irish  moea,  and  is  still 
thickly   studded   with  ivmains    of    the    military 
>ngholdi  of  the  Eudiah  settlera.    The  ecdesi- 
cal  remains  are  no  leM  nnmarona ;   and  it  pos- 
ies five  round  towers,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  raths  or  tumuli,  cums,  stone-circles,  and  pillars. 
The  moat  remarkable  natoral  curiosity  i*  the  cava 
of  Dnnmote,  between  Castlecomer  and  Kilkenny, 
opening  by  a  natural  arch  of  50  feet  in  height,  ai^ 
containma  several  chambers  encmated  with  stalac- 
tites,    ft  IS  traversed  by  a  subterranean  stream. 
KILLAItNBT  a  small  markets  town  of  Ireland, 
the  CO.  Kerry,  Mnnater,  is  sitnatad  H  mile  from 
the  Lower  Idke  of  the  same  name,  17  miles  S.E. 
of  Tralee,  and  46  milea  W.N.W.  of  Cork.    It  con- 
tains on  imposing  Roman   Catholic    cathedral,   a 
Dominican  fnary.  and  a  nunnery,  has  little  trade, ' 
'      ■  ■dulli       


n  winter,  thon^  it  wakes  up  i 

tyCoogle 


EILLABNET— EIN. 


kdnwtiaii  in  iprmg  and  »ammer,  when  it  ia  Tistted 
by  olowda  of  tonri^  attracted  by  the  beauty  of  the 
Bceaery  in  the  vicinity.     Fop.  (1871)  5064. 

KILLABNET,  Laek  of,  a  series  of  three  con- 
nected lalcea,  near  the  centre  of  the  county  of  Kerry, 
Ireland.  The  eurplug  waters  are  conveyed  by  the 
nver  Lease  north-west  to  Csstlemain  Harbour. 
Tbe  Upper  Lake  U  2)  milea  long  and  |tbs  of  a 
mQe  brood,  and  containa  HeveiaJ  ial^da.  The  Long 
Kange  River,  leading  to  (he  Middle  I^ke,  is  about 
three  miles  in  length.  The  Middle  Lake  ia  2  milee 
long  by  1  mile  broad ;  and  the  Lower  Lake,  with 
about  thirty  ialands,  is  G  miles  long  by  3  broad. 
The  beauty  of  the  acenery,  which  Ib  widely  cele- 
brated, consists  in  the  gn^ulnew  of  tbe  mountain 
outlines,  the  rich  and  varied  coloiuingof  the  wooded 
Bliores,  deepening  through  gray  rock  and  light-green 
arbntua  to  brawn  mountain  Wtk  and  dork  firs. 

KILLIBCRA'N KIE,  Bi.iTU  O*.  See  Gusui, 
JoHM,  Viflcoujrr  Dphdie. 

KILHAI'NHAM  HOSPITAL,  an  ertahliah. 
ment  near  Dublin  for  the  reoeption  of  wounded  and 
peosioned  soldiers.  It  waa  originally  founded  by 
King  Charles  II.,  and  ia  conducted  on  simitar  prin- 
ciplea  to  the  aiater  inatitution,  Chelsea  Hospita] 
{q.  v.).  £.  H.  ia  maintained  by  an  annnal  parlia- 
mentary grant,  and  provides  everything  necesaary 
for  the  comfort  of  upwards  of  250  veterans  and 
officers.  The  general  commanding  the  forces  in 
Ireland  for  the  time  being  is  ex  officio  the  master  of 
K.  H.,  and  has  his  residence  on  the  estate. 


the  Glasgow  and  South-western  Sailway,  is  aitu- 
ated  on  a  amall  atream  of  the  same  name,  12  milea 
north-north-east  of  Ayr.  K.  was  once  celebrated 
for  it«  manufaeture  of 'cowls;'  in  tbe  days  of  hand- 
loom-weaving,  the  '  Kilmarnock  wabatera '  were  a 
notable  class,  and  have  reoeired  from  the  satiric 
pen  of  Bums  a  not  altosether  cmviaUe  immortality ; 
but  the  introduction  of  machinery  haa  reduced  the 
olsu  to  iosigaificaocaL  Later,  the  Iowa  became 
one  of  the  chief  seats  of  calico-printing  in  Scotland  ; 
but  though  thia  manufacture  is  still  carried  on,  it 
baa  ceaaed  to  be  aa  important  as  formeriy.  It 
baa  also  aeveral  large  engineering  establiahmenta, 
woollen  mills,  caipet  manufactories,  tanneries, 
breweriM,  Ac  Tbe  country  round  about  ia  one 
of  the  richest  in  Sootland  in  coal  and  iron,  and  its 
dairy  produce  is  also  extensive.  The  largest  cheese 
show  m  Sootland  is  held  hera.  In  1872,  the  value 
of  the  cbeeae  exhibited  and  aold  amounted  to 
nearly  £211,000,  K.  is  a  parliamentary  burgh,  ^d 
unites  with  Sutherglen,  Dumbarton,  Port-Ghtsgow, 
and  Benfrew  in  aending  one  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  (1871)  22,952. 

EILOGBAHMK  SeeGRAiofK. 
KILRU'SH,  a  small  market  and  sesfiort  town  of 
Ireland,  in  the  coouty  of' Clare,  ia  Mtuated  on  an 
inlet  of  the  same  name,  on  the  northern  ahore 
of-  the  estnary  of  the  Shannon,  60  milea  west  of 
Limerick.  It  is  muoh  resorted  to  for  aea-bathing, 
has  a  good  harbonr  with  secure  anchorage  from 
westerly  gales,  and  carries  on  considerabS  trade 
in  com,  butter,  pigs,  fish,  featben,  hides,  flags,  Irish 
moss,  and  in  turf  cut  in  the  vicinity.  Stone  and 
slate  are  quarried  here,  aud  there  are  manufactures 
of  ftanaela,  friezes,  and  linen-sheetings.  Fop.  (1871) 
4118. 

KILSYTH,  a  burgh  of  barony  in  Stiriingshire, 
Scotland,  is  distant  about  12  miles  north-east  from 
Glasgow,  with  which  it  ia  connected  by  railway. 
There  are  here  several  factto'iea,  and  coal  and  iron 
worka.    Pop.  (1871)  4B95L 


chiefly  of  one  long, 
Btreet  Hand-loom  weaving,  which  at  ons  hub 
was  carried  on  to  a  large  extent,  ia  now  oompai*- 
tively  nothing.  EaDd-sewing  or  embroidery,  intio- 
duced  about  a  century  a<o,  was  the  sonroe  frolD 
which  a  large  portion  of  the  female 


perity  of  the 
numerous  coat-pita  in  its  vicinitr,  and  on  it* 
proximity  to  the  Bglinton  Ironworks,  which  alone 
aSord  employment  to  1700  miners  and  othera.  The 
pariah  churcii,  built  in  1775,  occupiea  part  of  the 
site  of  the  famous  Abbey  of  Kilwiiming.  Tike  town 
is  noted  aa  being  the  birthplace  of  freemasonry  is 
Scotland,  and  until  the  institution  of  the  Cr>iui 
Lodge  in  1736,  all  other  lodges  in  Scotland  nceived 
their  charters  from  'Mother  Kilwinning  ;'  evaiaft^ 
1736,  down  to  1807,  when  the  disputes  between 
the  two  lodgea  were  adjusted,  many  charters  wers 
isBued  by  the  mother-lodg&  It  is  also  celebrated 
for  ita  archery,  and  is  the  only  place  in  SooUaad 
where  shooting  at  the  papingo  ia  practised.  Popk. 
in  1871,  369a  About  a  mUe  and  a  half  to  tb» 
aouth-east  of  the  town,  in  the  midst  of  extenBT* 
and  beautiful  policies,  atanda  Eglinton  Castle,  tlia 
principal  residence  of  the  family  of  Hontgomerie^ 
EarIa  of  Eglinton,  and  the  aoene  of  the  renownad 
'Toaniament'  in  1839. 

KIMCHI,  Datid  {generally  quoted  by  Ilia  ioi- 
Ijola,  ReDaJC],  the  moet  eminent  Jewish  gramma- 
rian and  exegete,  waa  l>om  towards  the  end  of  tha 
12th  c,  probably  at  Nart>oniie,  where  he  spent  the 
greater  port  of  his  life.  He  died  iu  Pravence  about 
1240.  His  fattier,  Joseph  Eimchi,  was  tlte  outhoc 
of  a  number  of  commentaries  and  other  theological 
works.  His  brother  Moees  ia  renowned  for  wmte 
of  a  siiuilar  description,  more  especially  »  Hebrew 
Gnuomor,  Ma/uiiaA  ShebOe  ha-Daat,  of  which  then 
are  severil  editions.  His  own  celebrity,  howevov 
isa  exceeds  theirs.  His  Qrsmmor,  AficMol,  and  hia 
Lexicon,  ShonuMm,  have,  to  a  certain  de^jree,  been 
the  basis  of  all  subsequent  Hebrew  grammars  and 
lexicons.  He  wrote  also  commcDtariee  on  almost 
all  t^e  IxxikB  of  ths  Old  Testament,  most  of  which 
tisve  been  seporstely  printed,  and  translated  into 
Latin  b^  Nelo,  Fontsco,  Leusden.  Muis,  Janvier, 
Ac,  besides  several  polemical  works,  such  aa  tlie 
l^itudcA,  TViki^rA  i^  Vektiir,  ftc  Hewasalsonuda 
arbiter  in  the  great  Maimonides  Oontroveisy  (1232). 

KrMMEBfDGE  CLAY,  tbe  lowest  aeriei  tA 
the  Upper  Oolite,  consista  chiefly  of  a  bituminona 
shale,  in  some  places  paaains  into  an  impni«  brown 
ahaly  coal,  and  in  othera  having  beds  of  sand  or 
calcareous  grit,  with  layen  of  nodulea  of  aeptaria 
scattered  tlirough  them.  The  series  attains  a  maxi- 
mum  thickness  of  500  or  600  feet^  The  beda  oocnr 
in  the  vale  of  IHckering,  in  Yorkshire,  and  continna 
ai  a  narrow  bond  Soutn  through  Lincoln  and  H<a- 
folk,  then  south-east  ttirough  Huntingdon,  Buckinit- 
hom,  and  Wilts,  to  Cora^  where  they  terminate 
near  Wej'inoutli,  and  eastward  at  tbe  village  of 
Eimmcridge,  wliich  has  ^ven  ita  name  to  the 
series  The  fossils  are  duetly  mollusca,  with  a  few 
plocoid  and  omoid  fish,  and  several  reptiles.  In 
many  places,  layers  of  an  oyster  [Oifrra  dtlioidea), 
witlioat  any  other  onnnic  remain,  occur  in  broad 
continuous  floors  paraSel  to  the  stratification :  the 
valves  are  usnotly  together,  and  young  apecimenB 
ore  occaaionotly  attached  to  the  older  onea. 

KIN,  NiKT  or.  When  a  peisou  dies  intestate 
leaving  personal  property,  auch  pn^ierty  darolvea 
upon  and  Iielongs  to  the  next  of  kin,  who  an  the 
blood-relatives   of   the   <T»-aa«»^       The    law   has 


t.Google 


KtBA  BALU— KWCARDINESHIBB. 


deoUred  »  cartun.  order  of  , ..        „  _..   . 

of  kin,  wMch  is  not  ciAoUy  the  suue  in  the  three 
kingdoiitf.  The  degreei  of  kindred  sm  divided 
into  line*!  Bud  coUateraL  The  lioeal  coiuiEtc  of 
the  Mcendiag,  such  as  fikther,  mother,  grandfather, 
Erandmotlier,  utanul  and  matenul,  and  so  on  oil 
•n^nittnn  ,-  and  the  deaoeiiding,  such  as  son,  daoghter, 
srandioD,  gnuddaoghtar,  and  »o  oa.  ad  infimtum. 
lie  ocjlsterat  kind^  conaiata  of  brotheia,  aistera, 
nnclea,  aunts,  and  the  children  of  anch  ad  in^itt- 
(um.  The  mode  bj  which  the  civil  \a.w  oompnted 
the  pro[Niiqnity  of  degree  wsa  this;  it  allowed 
one  degree  for  each  person  ia  the  line  of  descent 
•zcloHively  of  him  ttnm  whom  the  computation 
begina,  aod  in  the  direct  line  counted  the  d^T-eea 
from  the  deceaaed  to  hia  relative ;  but  as  rq;ards 
collaterals,  it  counted  the  sum  of  the  d^(teea  from 
the  deceased  to  the  common  ancestor,  anil  from  the 
common  ancestor  to  the  relativea.  Thus,  a  brother 
was  in  the  second  degree,  coantuig  one  to  the  father, 
and  one  from  the  father  to  the  brother;  a  nephew, 
and  alao  an  uncle,  a  great-grandfather  and  a  great- 
grandson,  were  ail  in  the  third  degree ;  a  ton  and 
a  father  were  in  the  first  daffee ;  and  so  on.  This 
mode  of  computing  the  dwreea  of  kindred  has  been 
adojited  in  the  law  of  Ehigland  and  Ireland. 

When  a  peraoD  dies  intestate^  leaving  personal 
propeitj,  there  are  two  classes  of  rights  to  which 
the  next  of  kin  are  entitled :  one  is  tlie  light 
to  administer  the  estate,  or  to  take  out  letters  of 
administntion  ;  the  other  is  the  right  to  a  share  of 
the  property  itself.  Aa  regards  the  right  of  admin- 
ittratioQ,  the  widow  or  neit  of  kin  may  be  selected, 
both  or  either.  But  among  the  next  of  kin,  those 
are  to  be  prefeired  who  are  oeaiest  in  degree  accord- 
ing to  the  above  computation  :  thna,  a  sou  or  father 
is  preferred  to  a  brother,  grandfather,  or  grandson ; 
and  Uiesa  to  a  nephew,  uncle,  great-grandaon,  or 
great-nandfather ;  and  so  on.  As  rtsanla  the  more 
valuable  right  of  a  share  in  the  property,  the  rule 
is,  that  if  uere  is  a  widow  surviving,  and  aUo  Jasne 
of  the  deceased,  who  are  in  that  case  the  next  of 
kin,  then  two-thirds  of  the  property  go  to  the  next 
of  kin  ;  if  there  are  no  issue,  but  a  widow  survivea, 
then  ooe-half  only  goes  to  the  next  of  kin ;  but  if 
there  is  no  widow  surviving,  then  the  whole  goes  to 
the  next  of  kin.  But  the  next  of  kin  take  aocordiog 
to  the  statnta  of  Distributions,  which  slightly  differs 
from  the  order  of  the  civil  law  as  to  the  degrees 
of  priority  :  thus,  the  children  exclusively  take  the 
whole,  if  children  survive ;  if  some  of  the  childion 
are  dead,  leaving  issue,  then  the  issue  oollectivelj^  of 
each  dead  child  take  an  equal  share  with  the  living 
children,  by  what  is  called  the  principle  of  Represen- 
tation. If  there  are  none  nearer  than  grandchildren, 
ail  take  an  equal  share,  and  the  iaaue  of  a  deceaaed 
m'andchild  also  take  one  of  anch  shares.  After  all 
the  children  and  grandchildren  are  dead  without 
issue,  then  the  father,  if  alive,  is  entitled  to  the 
whole.  If  he  also  is  dead,  then  the  mother,  the 
living  brothers  and  sisters  (together  with  the  issue 
of  deceased  brothers  and  sisters  collectively),  take 
each. one  share.  After  these  are  dead,  then  grand- 
fathers and  grandmothers,  paternal  Uid  maternal, 
tmd  nephews  and  nieces,  if  alive,  take  each  a  share. 
The  right  of  representation,  L  e.,  the  right  of  the 
children  of  a  deceased  person  being  one  of  a  class 
(and  who,  if  alive,  woold  have  been  one  of  t^s 
next  of  kin),  to  represent  him,  and  take  his  share, 
applies  as  for  aa  the  children  of  brothers  and  sisters, 
but  no  further.  The  heir-at-law,  if  of  eqnal  degree, 
is  ons  of  tiie  next  of  kin,  and  takes  his  share  with 
the  rest,  though  he  also  gets  all  the  real  estate. 
The  half-blood  counts  among  the  next  of  kin  equally 
with  Uie  whole  blood. 

In  Scotland,  the  rules  of  priority  among  Uie  next 


of  kin  vary  considerably  from  the  above  order, 
which  prevails  in  Enghuid  and  Ireland.  The  chil- 
dren bein^  entitled  to  an  absolute  l^a]  share  called 
Legitim  (g.  v.),  take  the  fatlter's  property  in  two 
chaJw^ra — one  part  as  legitim,  the  other  as  being 
next  of  kin — and  the  result  is  often  difiTerent 
from  what  obtains  in  England-  Moreover,  in  Scot- 
land, though  the  heir-at-law  may  be  one  of  the  next 
of  kin,  stul  he  ia  not  entitled  to  take  aoch  share 
unlera  he  Collate  (q.  v.)  the  heritable  estate.  The 
degrees  of  kindred  are  not  counted  in  exactly  the 
same  way.  The  father  never  can  take  more  than 
one-half,  nor  the  mother  tbaa  one-third,  while  any 
of  the  brothers  and  sisters,  or  their  issue,  are  alive. 
The  half-blood  does  not  share  equally  with,  bat  in 
an  inferior  degree  to  the  foil  blood. 

EINA  BAliV,  an  interesldng  mountain  in  the 
northern  angle  of  the  island  of  Borneo,  reaches  a 
height  of  13,000  feet  It  was  twice  ascended  by 
Mr  Spenser  St  John,  P.KG.S.,  author  of  lA/e  in  CA« 
Forntt  of  the  Far  Kajit. 

KIITBn'RN,  a  small  fort  of  South  Bussia,  in 
the  government  of  Kherson,  is  situated  at  the 
extiemi^  of  a  long  narrow  sand-bank,  which  forma 
the  aoutbeni  bouncuuy  of  the  estuary  of  the  Dnieper. 
Duiiiu;  the  Crimean  War,  it  fell  before  •  naval 
expedition  of  the  allies,  October  17.  1855.  About 
a  mile  from  the  fort  standa  the  litUe  fisUog-village 
of  Kinbum. 

KINCA'EDINESHIRB,  or  TEE  UEAKNS,  a 
maritime  county  of  Scotland,  with  Aberdeenshire' 
and  the  Dee  on  the  north,  Forf  ar^iiire  and  the  North 
Esk  on  the  south  and  we«t^  and  the  North  Sea  on 
the  east.  The  rocks  are  granite,  gneiss,  sandstone, 
conglomerate,  mica-slate^  clay-slate,  limestone,  and 
trap.  Area,  252,250  acres,  of  which  IIS.TOO  ore  in 
cultivation,  and  23,153  acres  in  wood.  The  county 
may  be  divided  into  five  sections — viz.,  the  Coast, 
Oarvock,  the  'How  o'  the  Meanis,'  the  Qrampians, 
and  Deeside.  The  coast-land  and  much  ot  the 
'  How '  is  of  superior  quality,  and  rents  from  £S  tO' 
£3,  10>.  an  acre.  The  'How'  forma  port  of  the 
Valley  of  Strathmore  (o.  v.).  The  Grampians,  run- 
ning across  the  county  from  east  to  west,  parallel  to 
the  Dee,  with  an  average  breadth  of  from  seven  to- 
eight  rodes,  cover  about  80,000  acres.  One  of  th« 
peaks,  Mount  Battock,  ia  2565  feet  high.  The  Dee- 
side  portion  of  the  county  is  a  comparatively  narrow 
strip  of  light  sharp  soil.  The  ramfall  is  from  2$ 
to  27  inches  i  in  1872,  it  was  50  per  cent  abovs 
the  average.  The  produce  of  the  county  and  tha 
condition  of  the  inhabitants  have  improved  vastly 
since  the  middle  of  the  18th  c,,  whan  there  waa 
little  to  be  seen  but  poor  huts  and  starved  cattle, 
and  when  the  value  of  the  largest  ox  waa  not 
mora  than  20#.  In  1672,  K.  had  1216  acres  wheat, 
12,111  acres  barley  and  bere,  31,618  acres  oats,  MI 
acm  ry^  630  acre*  beans,  61  acres  peas,  3226  acres, 
potatoes,  19,227  acres  tumipa.  Of  hve-stock,  there 
were  43S6  hones,  28,179  catOe,  28,339  sheep,  and 
3090  swine.  There  are  few  manufaetures  u  tha 
county.  The  principal  towns  and  villagea  are  Stone- 
haven (q.  v.],  tbe  county  town ;  BotvIc^  a  royal 
burgh ;  Lawrencekirk,  a  burgh  of  barony ;  and 
Johnshaven.  In  the  beginning  of  tha  19th  c,  about 
1  in  GO  of  the  population  was  on  the  poor-roll,  tha 
averogeeipenditureforeAch  being  £1,  16s.  In  187% 
17  parishes  of  the  19  in  K.  were  assessed  for  tha 
poor,  and  had  1630  pau^rs,  costing  £8549.  Of  the 
objects  of  autiqiianan  interest,  the  most  noted  ia 
Dunnottar  CosUe  (q.  v.).  E.  was  the  birthplace  of 
Georae  Wishart,  Robert  Barclay,  Bishop  Burnett, 
Dr  f.  Beattie,  and  Dr  Thomas  Reid.  The  pop.  i» 
1871  was  34,651,  who  return  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment.   Valued  rent,  i230,623  in  1872—1873. 


hyLiOogle 


KING— EINQ-AT-ABMS. 


KINO  (Staoii,  Ci/nkta;  Banacrit,  Oanaia,  fither, 
from  ths  root  Oon,  to  b«get :  '  wb&t  the  hiubaiid 
ma  in  Uia  home,  Vbe  lord,  tde  strong  protector,  the 
Ui^  irw  among  fail  people ' — Max  MliiUr),  the 
penon  vested  with  ■Dpreme  power  in  a  itate. 
Aocordiue  to  feudal  mages,  the  King  waa  the  gonrce 
from  whtah  *U  command,  honoor,  and  aathority 
flowed ;  and  he  delented  to  his  followeiB  the  power 
1^  which  thts  eiercujed  enbordinate  rule  in  certain 
diBtricta.  The  kingdom  wbs  divided  into  separate 
baioniea,  in  each  of  which  a  boron  rnled,  lord  both 
of  the  lands,  which  ha  held  under  ths  obligation  of 
rendering  military  service  to  the  king,  and  in  uuuiy 
casea  also  of  tJie  people,  who  were  vaBsals  of  the 
•oil,  and  hia  lic^  snbjecta.  In  modem  times,  the 
"  '  I  only  a  limited  mea- 
constitutional  checks 
being  in  operation  in  different  countries  to  control 
the  royal  preiocative.  The  king  may  succeed  to 
the  throne  by  descent  or  inhentByOce,  or  be  may 
be  elected  by  the  suffrages  of  the  nation,  or 
by  the  snffrsges  of  some  body  of  persons  selected 
oat  of  tlis  nation,  a*  was  thA  case  in  Poland. 
Ev«D  when  the  kingly  power  is  hereditary,  some 
form  is  n>ne  through  on  the  accestlou  of  a  new  king, 
to  signify  a  recognition  by  the  people  of  hit  tight, 
and  a  claim  that  he  afaoiild  pledge  himself  to  per- 

' —     -.  i.^-    ^Q(j^^   accompanied  """   "   ~"'" 

which  BDointing  with 
his  head  are  included  as  acta.  "By  the 
anointing,  a  certain  sacredaess  is  snpposed  to  be 
thrown  round  the  royal  person,  while  the  coronation 
symbolises  his  supremacy.  I^ere  is  now  no  very 
clearly-marked  distinction  between  a  king  and  an 
""  eroT  (q.  v.],  A  queen-regnant,  or  princess  who 
_ . .  inherited  the  sovereign  power  m  countries 
where  female  euocesdon  to  the  throne  is  recognised. 


of  the  peopl 
to  govern  according  to  law,  to  cause  justice  to  be 
administered,  and  to  maintain  the  Froteatant  Church. 
He  is  the  source  from  which  all  bereditary  titles 
are  derived,  and  he  nominates  judges  and  other 
officers  of  state,  officers  of  the  army  and  navy, 
governors  of  colonies,  bishops  and  deans.  He  mmt 
concur  in  every  legislative  enactment,  and  sends 
embassies,  makes  treaties,  and  even  entm  into  wara, 
vitbout  consulting  parliament  1!he  royal  person 
is  sacred,  and  the  king  cannot  be  called  to  account 
for  any  of  his  acts ;  bat  he  can  only  act  politically 
by  his  ministers,  who  ore  not  protected  by  the  same 
irresponsibility.  A  further  control  on  the  royal 
prerogative  is  exercised  by  the  continual  necessity 
of  applying  to  parliament  for  supplies  of  money, 
which  piacticaUy  renders  it  necessary  to  obtain  the 
sanction  of  that  body  to  every  important  public 
measure, 
The  Crown  (q.  v.)  now  in  use  as  the  emblem  of 
sovereignty  differs  coiuiderably  in 
tonn  in  diffennt  countries  of  modem 
Europe ;  but  in  all  cssea  it  is  dis- 
tbguished  from  the  coronets  of  the 
notelity  in  being  dosed  above.  The 
royal  crown  of  Great  Britain,  here 
fL^^  .  represented,  is  described  under  article 
GiiSaiSL  C«>w».  Tb,  iOma  pl««i  by 
the  sovereign  over  his  arms  is  of 
burnished  gold,  open-faced,  and  with  bars.  For  the 
arms  of  the  sovereign,  see  Gsxat  Britaim. 
KIHTG-AT-ARMS,  or  KIKO-OF-AKMS.  The 
cijial  heraldic  officer  of  any  coantiy.  There  are 
kings-at-arms  in  England,  named  respectively 


Oarter,  Clarendeuz,  Karmy,  and  Bath,  but  the  fiisb 
three  only  are  members  of  the  College  of  Anna. 

Gatt«r  princfpal  king-of-HiM  was  instituted,  hy 
Henry  V„  1417  A-TL,  for  the  service  of  the  rads  of 
the  Garter.  His  duties  include  the  rwdatim  of 
the  arms  of  peers  and  the  knights  of  the  Bath.  In 
the  capacity  of  king-of-arms  ol  the  order  ot  the 
Oarter,  he  has  apartments  within  the  eattlA  of 
Windsor,  and  a  mantle  of  blue  satin,  with  the  mths 
of  St  George  on  the  left  shoulder,  besides  a  badge 


and  sceptre.    His  official  costume  as  principal  king- 

Tfas  inugnia 
borne  by  Garter  impaled  with  his  patenul 


of  England  it  k  sunoat  of  velvet,  r 
embroidered  with  the  aims   of   the  soveiidm, 
crown,  and  a  collar  of  8S.    Tba  inugnia  A  tl 


Eles    a    ducal  coronet   mcircled  with   i 
tween  a  lion  of  Englaiid  on  the  dexter 
a  fleur-de-lis  on  the  sinister,  all  or. 

Clarencienz  and  Ntsroy  are  provincial  kingB-<d- 
arms,  with  jurisdiction  to  the  south  and  nmih  <d 
the  Trent  respectively.  They  art*Dge  and  register 
alone  or  conjointly  with  Oarter  l£e  arms  of  all 
below  the  rank  of  the  peerage.  The  official  arms 
of  Clarencieax  are  argent  St  George's  croa^  <ki  a 
chief  galea  a  lion  of  £ngland  dacally  crowned  or. 
Those  of  Norroy  are  argent  St  Geone's  cnm,  on  a 
chief  per  pale  azure  and  gules  a  lion  of  TtngUjwl 
dncally  crowned  between  a  fleur-de-lis  on  the  dexter 
side,  and  a  key,  wards  in  chief,  on  Uto  sinister,  all 
or.  Both  pro vinoial  kinns  have  a  crown  collar  and 
sorcoat.    The  crowa  is  of  silver  gilt. 

The  crown  of  a  kiag-of-arms  is  of  silver  giU, 
and  conaists  of  a  circle  inscribed  with  the  word^ 
Miaeren  met  Dttu  teaaidum  magnam  miterieoniiiaK 
tuam,  supporting  IS  oak  leaves,  each  alternate 
leaf  higher  than  the  rest  Within  the  cti>wn  is 
a  cap  of  crimson  satin  turned  up  with  ennine, 
and  surmounted  by  a  taasal  wrought  of  gold  silk. 
Kings-of-arms  were  formerly  entitled  to  wear  tbeir 
crowns  on  all  occasions  when  tiie  sovereign  wore  his ; 
now  they  assume  them  only  irtieit  peers  put  mi  their 
ooroneta.  The  installatioii  of  kisn-at-arms  aodoitiy 
took  place  with  great  state,  and  always  on  a  Sunday 
or  festival-day,  the  ceremony  being  performed  1^ 
the  king,  the  earl-manhal,  or  some  other  pentm 
duly  appointed  by  royal  warrant 

Bath  King-of-arms,  though  not  a  member  <it  the 
college,  takes  precedence  next  after  CUrter.  Hb 
office  was  created  in  ITSfi  for  the  service  of  the 
order  of  the  Bath.  On  the  14th  January  1726,  be 
was  constituted  OloQcester  King-of-arms  (an  office 
originally  crested  by  Richard  III.,  in  whose  reign 
it  also  became  eitmct),  and  principal  herald  of 
Wales.  He  was  at  the  same  time  empowered, 
either  alone,  or  jointly  with  Oarter,  to  grant  arms 
to  persona  residing  within  the  Prindpolity. 

The  chief  heraldic  officer  for  Scotland  is  called 
Lyon  Eong-of-arms  [q.  v.),  who  since  the  Unioa  has 
ranked  next  to  Garter.  His  title  is  derived  from  the 
lion  rampant  in  the  Scottish  royal  insignia,  and  he 
holds  his  office  immediately  from  the  sovereign,  and 
not  as  the  English  king-at-onns,  from  the  Eul  Mai^ 
shaL  His  ofBcisl  costome  incladea  a  crimson  velvet 
robe  embroidered  with  the  royal  arms,  a  triple  row 
of  gold  chains  round  the  neck  with  on  ovkl  boM 
medal,  with  the  royal  arms  on  one  side,  and  St 
Andrew's  cross  on  the  other ;  and  a  baton  of  gold 
enamelled  green,  powdered  with  the  badges  ot  tbe 
kingdom.  His  crown  is  of  the  same  form  with  tba 
Imperial  crown  of  the  hingdcffli,  but  not  set  with 
stones.  Before  the  Revolution  he  was  cromted  by 
the  sovereign,  or  his  commissioner,  on  entry  on  office. 

There  is  one  king-of-arms  in  Ireland,  T»»»nji^ 
Ulster.    In  the  14th  c,  there  existed  a  king-«f.«nu 


t.LiOogle 


EIKG-CBAB-'EINOPOST. 


ctUed  Ireland,  but  the  office  seenu  to  luve  become 
eitinot,  and  Edward  TL  created  Ulgtar  to  «upplv 
the  deSciencf.    Hi*  annB  are  argent,  St  George  t 
on»s,  npon  a  chiefsolet  a  lion  between  a  harp  and  ■ 
poitcoIliB,  all  or.   The  royal  ordinance  relatiTe  to  tiie 
order  of  8t  Patrick,  inned  I7th  May,  1833,  declaree 
that  in  all  ceremonials  and  aaaembliea,  Dlster  King- 
>f-amu  ihall  have  place  immediatelj  afier  the  Lyon. 
EING-CRAB  (Limuluf),  a  genos  of  CruJtacro, 
ranked  by  Cuvier  among  the  EnUmuutmca ;  but 
Id  widely  differing  from  all  the  rest  of  the  Crvtlacea, 
that  Uilne-Edwarde  makes  it  a  sub-doss  by  itaell 
The  head  and  thona  are 
united  together,  and  are 
covered  by  a  shield,  which 
18     convex     above,    and 
con  cave     beneath.        The 
abdomen  IH  more  or  less 
I   hexagonal,  no  division  into 
I  rings  appears  in  it,  and  it 
I  is  covered  by  a  shield  not 
BO  broad  as  that  of  the 
head    and    thorax.      On 
each  side  it  haa  along  the 
margin  six  movable  spines 
directed    backward    and 
outwards;    and  attached 
to  it  is  a  tail,  which  forms 
a  long  and  strong  dagger- 
Ijke  spine,  sometiines  ex- 
ceeding   in    length     the 
whole  body  of  the  "''"'»l 
The    legs    are    not    targe 
enough     to     be    visibls 
beyond  the  shield  when 
the  animal  moves   along 
Eine-Cimb  (£rt'niiil«i      the    ^nimd. — These    re- 
Poli/phemiu) !  markable       ftnim>T«      ue 

Civuii  taTn  ifiM  crifmii^  found  Only  on  the  ahoree 
,^po.lUon^of  H..  t-o  Bnooth  (,(  tropical  Aaia,  the 
tym't  «,'e'  nipiruoij^mj^  Asiatic  Archipelago,  and 
torn.  tropical  America.     They 

feed  on  animal  food;  aiul 
ra  said  to  be  themielvea  leas  agreeable  food  than 
crabs  or  lobsters.  Some  of  tbem  exceed  two  feet 
length,  and  the  strong  and  jagged  spine  is  a 
[oidablo  weapon.  In  some  of  theAsiatic  islands, 
I  spine  is  often  used  for  pointing  arrows.  In 
tropical  America,  the  K.  is  called  CasteroU  Fiih, 
and  the  shell  is  used  as  a  ladle.  The  number 
of  species  of  K-  is  not  great— Fossil  species  are 

C.J  numeroua.      Trilobitea  are  supposed  to  have 
allied  to  the  JAmvli, 


is  often  extended  to  the  whole  family;  the  only 
British  and  almost  the  only  European  ipeoies  of 
which  is'the  Commoo  E.  (A.  itjMa),  a  bird  not 
mndi  la^er  than  a  sparrow,  in  brilliancy  of  oolonr 


rivalling  the  Guest  tropical  birds — bine  and  green 
being  me  prevailing  colours.  The  E.  is  generally 
distributed  over  Britain  and  Ireland,  but  ii  not  ao 
common  in  Scotland.  It  ii  not  a  bird  of  passage, 
althoDgh  in  many  places  it  appears  only  as  an  occa- 
sional visitant.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of  Enrope 
except  the  moat  northern,  and  over  a  great  part  of 
Asia  and  Africa.  It  frequenta  the  bai^  ^f  rivers 
and  streams,  and  is  often  seen  Sying  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  Its  food  consists  of  small  fishes, 
such  as  minnows,  aticklebacks,  and  trout  or  salmon 
fry,  and  of  leeches  and  water-insecta.  When  it 
has  caught  a  fiih,  it  often  kills  it  by  heating  on 
a  branch,  and  always  Bwallows  it  head  foremost. 
The  indigestible  parte  are  afterwards  disgorged. 

It  seems  probable,  altboogh  not  quite  certain, 
that  the  K.  IS  the  Hatcyon  of  the  ancients,  about 
which  many  wonderful  tables  were  cnrrent  among 
them  :  of  ito  having  power  to  quell  storms,  of  its 
floating  nest,  and  the  stillness  of  the  winds  during 
the  time  neceasary  for  its  Safety,  &c.  Shakspeare 
makes  repeated  allusion  to  the  popular  notion,  that 
if  the  stuffed  skin  of  a  K.  or  Halcyon  is  hung  up 
by  a  thread,  the  bill  will  always  point  to  the 
direction  from  which  the  wind  blows. 

The  Belted  E.  (Ateedo  Halcycnt  or  CeryU 
Hakyoa)  of  North  America  is  a  much  larger  bird 
than  the  K.  of  Britain,  being  fully  twelve  inches  in 
length.  It  is  common  on  moat  of  the  rivers  of 
North  America,  to  the  67'  N.  lat.  tn  summer,  but 
migrates  southward  in  winter,  and  it  then  to  be 
found  in  the  West  Indies.  Ita  coluoia  are  dull 
when  compared  with  those  of  the  common  king- 
Many  species  of  E.  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  world.  Some  of  them,  forming  the  genus 
Cqfx,  want  the  hind  toe.  The  common  European 
E.  may  he  regarded  as  the  type  of  the  family,  which 
belongs  to  the  group  called  Syndaet^  SinU,  and 
is  characterised  by  the  much-united  toes.  The  form 
ia  bulky ;  with  long,  straight,  quadrangular,  sharp, 
hcron-like  bill,  short  wings,  very  short  square  tail, 
short  legs,  and  small  feet 

KINO  GEORGE'S  SOnSS,  an  inlet  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  at  the  south-west  angle  of  Australia. 
Independently  of  an  excellent  roadstead,  it  contains 
two  landlocked  receaaea,  Princeas  Boyal  and  Oyster 
Harbours.  The  entrance  is  in  lat  80°  6'  S.,  and 
long.  11S°  1'  E 

EINGLAKE,  Aixtisvts.  WnxuH,  was  ban 
at  Taunton,  Somersetshire,  in  1602,  studied  at  Eton 
and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and — having  cboeea 
the  law  as  a  prefession — was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1S3T-  His  practice  soon  became  very  great;  never- 
theless, he  found  time  to  make  a  tour  in  the  east 
of  some  length,  the  result  of  which  was  a  book 
entitled  EolKai,  descriptive  of  his  adventures  and 
impressioos.  It  was  published  in  1344.  and  at  once 
attained  an  astonishing  popularity,  passing  through 
many  editions  both  In  England  and  America,  and 
being  also  extensively  translated  on  the  contijient 
The  graceful  vigour  and  liveliness  of  the  style  have 
made  Eolhen  a  model  for  subsequent  works  of  a 
similar  kind,  but  none  have  yet  reached  the  exqui- 
site talent  of  the  originaL  In  13JI7,  K.  entered 
rliament  as  member  ^r  Bridgewater.  Vols.  L  and 
of  his  Inwuion  of  the  Crimea  appeared  in  1883, 
and  fully  sustained  bis  literary  reputation  ;  but  the 
virulent  antipathv  shewn  towards  the  French 
emperor  and  all  the  actors  in  the  eovp  tPflat  waa 
not  calculated  to  beget  confldence  in  him  aa  a  his- 
torian. Vols.  III.  and  IV.  were  published  in  1S6& 
and  VoL  V.  in  1875.    In  1868,  he  waa  again  elected 

fmr  Bndgewater,  but,  on  petition, '* 

EINOPOST.    See  Boor. 


hyGOOgIC 


KIKQWOOD— KINO'S  EVIDENCR 


KINOWOOD,  a  very  be&atifiil  wood,  in  imAll 
pieces,  used  for  oniameDtal  work.  It  is  bronaht 
m>m  Brazil,  and  is  believed  to  be  the  wood  <A  a 
Bpeoiea  of  'Friftolomia  (oat  ord.  LtffmniiuME,  Bub- 
ord.  Papilionaaa), 

KINGS,  Books  or  (AfdaHm),  the  Dame  given  to 
two  of  the  caaonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Originally,  thej  were  but  one,  and  were  Snt  separ- 
«tedby  the  Seventy,  by  whom  they  are  desi^ated 
'the  third  and  fouivi  of  the  kingdoms' — the  Books 
of  Samnel  formiag  the  fint  and  second.  This  divi- 
sion was  copied  by  the  Vulgate,  and  passed  thence 
into  the  general  mage  of  Chmtendom.  The  exact 
titles  of  these  boolu  in  the  English  Authorised 
Version  are — The  First  Book  ofUte  Kings,  commonly 
ixilled  the  Third  Boob  of  the  Kinga,  and  The  Second 
Book  ef  the  Kings,  commonly  called  Ihe  Fourth 
Book  afUie  Kings.  They  emtraoa  (1)  the  reign  of 
Solomon,  (2)  the  history  of  the  divided  kingdoms 
of  Judah  and  Israel,  (3)  the  history  of  the  ki^edom 
of  Judoh  after  the  dispersion  of  Israel,  until  the 
Babylonian  captivity — a  period  of  abont  STO  years 
in  aU.  The  Ixraks  do  not  appear  to  be  merely  vagne 
compilatioofl  from  royal  an^ala  and  other- — rather 
contradictory — sonrcee,  as  is  held  by  some,  but 
rather  the  diligent  work  of  a  historian — with  a 
clear  and  distinct  tendency — who  gathered  together 
all  the  written  and  miwrittea  informationjprovided 
it  could  be  made  useful  for  his  purpose,  llie  unity 
of  style  and  language  is  indeed  palpable  through- 
oat,  nor  are  any  later  alterations  of  consequence 
apparent  The  principal  eoureea  quoted  are  a  Book 
[of  the  Chronicles]  of  Sotomon,  further  a  Book  of  Ihe 
ChrtmideM  of  tie  Kings  qflfrad,  and  another  of  the 
Kings  of  Judah.  The  Talmud,  and  some  of  the 
earher  Christian  theoloffiaos,  ascribe  it  to  Jeremiah ; 
ttii*  view  is  also  nuintauied  by  ffivemick  in  modem 
tjmea.  Hnet  and  Calmet  are  io  favour  of  Ezra,  but 
all  that  can  be  safely  assraW  it,  that  the  compiler 
lived  during  the  second  half  of  the  Captivity,  and 
after  the  death  of  Joiachin,  and  probably  in  Babylon. 
The  spirit  erf  the  work  is  Oieocralieo-prophetic  in 
a  high  degree  (its  historioal  fidelity  with  respect  to 
the  politi^  events  is  generallyreoognised,  but  the 
atonea  rdating  to  the  pn^eta  EUjah  and  Elisha  are 
tv  moat  oritica  reterred  to  the  provinoe  of  legend) ; 
mile  that  <^  ChTonialM  [which  goes  over  miuh  the 
mnw  ground]  is  hdd  to  b«tT*y  the  predominance 
qS  priestly  influence.  One  of  the  best  modem  oom- 
mentariea  is  that  by  Thenio*  (Leip.  1S4S). 

KIITO'S  BENCH.     See  Qdioem's  Bkncs. 

KINO'S  COIiLEQE,  Cambridge,  was  founded 
in  1441  by  Henry  VL,  for  a  provost,  seventy  fellows 
and  scholars,  three  ohaplains,  with  clerks,  choris- 
ter*, servitors,  and  poor  scholars — in  all.  140.  Its 
revenues  were  serioiuly  diminished  by  Edward  IV. 
The  chspel  is  the  work  of  the  three  Henriea,  VL, 
VIL,  VIIL  The  architpot  is  supposed  to  have 
been  Nicholas  Cloot,  or  Klaus,  FeUow  of  the 
collie,  and  Bishop  of  Lichfield,  or,  as  others  say, 
his  &ther.  It  is  perhap*  the  finest  specimen  of 
perpendicular  Qothic  in  the  world.  Its  internal 
dimensions  are  290  feet  long,  4fi  wide,  and  TS  high. 
There  is  an  inner  roof  of  stone,  which,  though  of 


■  provost.     Twenty-four  of  the   schola] 


appropriated  to  the  scholars  of  Eton  College.    The 

fellowships  are  open  to  all  members  of  the  college 

scholarship  of 

establishaa  tor 


fellowships  are  open  to  all  members  o 
of  sufficient  standing.    In  1871i  a  scholarship 
£80,  tenable  for  thne  yean,  ■v"   —'-'-'--'--'  ' 
natural  science. 


KINO'S    COLIiEQE,   London,   a    ^vprietary 

institution  occupying  the  east  wing  Ot  Someiaet 
Bouse,  and  founded  in  1S28  on  the  fundamcntat 
principle ;— '  tliat  instruction  in  the  Christian  reli- 
gion ought  to  fonn  an  indispenaable  part  of  every 
system  of  general  education  for  the  youth  of  a 
Christian  community.'  The  college  being  sfarictlv 
in  connection  with  the  Church  of^gland,  diaich 
service  is  a  r^ular  part  of  its  routine.  The  ooone 
embracee  theology,  aeaeral  literature  and  sdenoe, 
applied  sciences,  and  medicine.  A  limited  number 
of  matriculated  students  reside  within  the  walla. 
The  museum  contains  the  calculating-machine  of 
Ur  Babbage,  and  George  IIL's  collection  of 
mechanical  models  and  philosophical  instrnme 
the  latter  presented  by  the  Queen.  There  i 
school  in  connection  with  the  college. 

KING'S  or  QUEEN'S  COUNSEL  are  ceri 
barristers  at  law,  in  Encland  and  Ireland,  who 
have  been  appointed  by  letters-patent  to  be  her 
Majesty's  CounheL  The  offioe  is  entirely  hon<H«r% 
but"  -■ '-'^'  -' "'- -  -"  "^ "- 

ment  proctically  belongs  to  the  Lord  Chancellor. 
Thongh  called  her  Majesty's  Counsel,  they  ate  not 
prevented  from  being  retuned  and  acting  for  ordi- 
nary olients,  except  Uiat  in  defending  pnaoners  and 
acting  in  suits  against  the  crown,. they  require  a 
special  licence  from  the  crown,  which,  is  howevo', 
never  refused.  In  Scotland,  there  is  no  diatinctioa 
of  Queen's  Counsel,  but  the  Lord  Advocate  and 
Solicitor-general  are  so  in  reali^.  The  B[fimiit- 
ment  of  Queen's  Counsel  is  for  life,  but  in  case  of 
disgraceful  conduct,  the  letters- patent  are  rerc^ted, 
as  was  done  in  1862  to  Edwin  James,  who,  in  187% 
applied  in  vain  for  restitntion. 

KING'S  COUNTY,  an  inland  connty  of  Ireland, 
is  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Kildare,  and  on  the  W.  by 
the  Shannon,  which  separates  it  from  Roscomman 
and  Oalway.  Area,  493,9S5  statute  acres,  of  which 
337,256  are  arable  and  8258  in  plantatious.  ~ 
1S72,  123,725  acres  were  under  crops,  and  only  1430 


75,781 ;  of  whom  67,301  were  Boman  Oatbolies,  7561 
Episcopalians,  and  the  reat  of  other  deuominstiont. 
The  stu^ace  is  in  general  flat ;  it  includes,  howerer, 
in  the  south,  a  portion  of  the  Slieve  Bloom  Hoon- 
tsJns,  from  which  a  line  of  low  limestone  hilli 
extends  north-esat  through  the  centre  of  the  connty, 
forming  a  water-shed  between  the  basin  of  the 
Shannon  on  the  west,  and  those  of  the  Boyne  and 
Barrow  on  the  e«st.  The  soil,  a  light  loam  ' 
medium  depth,  resting  on  limestone  gravel,  is  __ 
average  fertility.  The  Bog  of  Allen  (q.  v.)  eitemds 
from  west  to  east  the  whole  length  of  the  count 
The  Grand  Canal  traverses  the  north  portion 
this  county.  Notwithstanding  great  tracts  of  bo^ 
the  climate  is  not  unhealthy.  Two  members  mn 
returned  to  the  imperial  pamament  for  the  county. 
La  Uie  north-west  of  tns  oounty  are  the  mina  xi. 
the  abbey  Clonmaenoiae,  founded  m  54S,  ezceedinsly 
rich  in  ancient  monnmentol  remuns,  and  forming 
one  of  the  most  interesting  of  those  ruined  eccle- 
siastical stractures  in  which  Ireland  is  so  lidi.  Tba 
county  contains  also  many  other  religious  founda- 
tions, as  well  as  nomeroai  feudal  castles,  chiefiT 
of  the  Elizabethan  period,  and  some  of  them  sttll 
inhabited. 

KING'S  EVIDENCE  (or  Queen's),  the  na 
given  to  a  peison,  who,  having  been  an  acoinnplice 
m  some  crime,  lias  confeMed,  and  offered  to  giva 
evidence,  and  make  fall  oonfession.  The  nnial 
practice  of  the  crown,  in  such  oases,  is  to  pardon 
the  person  so  actinf^  though  he  is  not  abMlotely 


tyCoogle 


KtHCa  BVIL-KINGSTON. 


■imil&r  practioe  ezuts  m  Scotland,  uie  paDlio  pro- 
Mcntor  baviiig  tlie  power  ftad  discr«tian  to  aomit 
the  confesMng  pMrl?. 

KINO'S  EVIL.    See  SoBoroLA. 

EIITO'SLYinT.    SeaLTKN. 

KINO'S  SILTEB,  an  aacieat  fine  ^d  to  the 
king,  in  the  Coact  of  Conuam  Pleaa 
cjienation  of  certaiit  ittad*. 

KINO'S  YELLOW  is  the  tanti  applied  to  a 
[Hgment  which  is  a  mixture  of  orpimeat  (tenulphidf 
of  aiseoic)  a—"  -— ' ■•" 


ue,  DeTonahiie,  in  1819.  He  antered  Magdalen 
<MOe^  Csmhridn  in  I84(^  where  he  highly  dia- 
tingniahed  himself  in  claaaice  and  ntathematica.  Id 
18m,  he  became  curate,  and  shortly  after,  rector  of 
Evenley,  in  Hampshire.  In  the  same  year,  he  pnb- 
lished  y'illage  Sermoii^  characteriaed  as  honest, 
downriglit  wisdom,  conreved  in  a  plain  and  simple 
«^le.  In  1848,  appeared  The  Siunl'a  Tragedy,  or 
liu  Trvt  SlOTV  of  EVaabdK  of  Hungary,  an  admic- 
kble  and  trolj  catholic  representation  of  medieval 
piety.  The  neit  two  of  three  jrears  of  his  life  were 
devoted — in  company  with  hia  friend  Mr  Maurice 
and  othetfl — to  a  «enes  of  efTorts  for  the  ameliora- 
tion and  christianiiation  of  the  working- clasaes. 
To  these  cEFortB  may  be  traced  the  origin  of  thoso 
co-operative  assodations  in  which  the  workmen  are 
also  the  masters,  the  results  of  which  have  proved 
in  every  way  bcneGciaL  His  opinions  on  the  social 
anarchy  of  modern  times  are  to  be  found  in  his 
Alton  Locke,  TaOor  and  Poet  (1849),  a  novel  of 
extraordinary  power  and  fateination,  the  hero  of 
which  is  sought  for  iu  a  London  workshop.  This 
was  foUowet?  in  ISSl,  by  Fecut,  a  PrcAlem,  in 
which  K.  handles,  among  other  questions,  the  con- 
dition of  the  English  agricultural  labonrer;  and  in 
1863,  by  HypaUa,  or  Nem  Foe»  icilh  an  Old  Face, 
a  moat  vigorous  and  brilliant  delineation  of  Chris- 
tianity in  conflict  with  rude  Gothic  paganism  and 
the  expiring  philosophy  of  Greece,  in  the  eaily  part 
of  the  6th  centnry.  Both  of  tbeae  works  appeared 
In  Frater'a  Magaane.  Two  years  after,  he  pub- 
lished Wealumra  Ho  t  probably  the  greatest  of  his 
works.  Itl  glowing  pictures  of  South  American 
forests  are  said  to  nave  excited  the  admiration  of 
Humboldt,  who  had  himself  really  wm  what  K.  only 
imagaitd.  Other  works  of  his  are — Menage  of  the 
Church  to  Labotiring  Hen;  Sermmu  on  Jfalional 
BtAieeta,  preached  in  a  ViUage  Church;  Pkatthon, 
or  Loom  Thoaghtifor  Look  TldrJKn;  Alexandria 
atid  hir  SchooU ;  Sermont  for  the  Timti ;  Olaucat, 
or  Vie  Wonderi  of  the  Shore;  The  Heroet,  or  Greek 
Fairy  Taiea;  Two  Yeart  Ago ;  Good  Neu>a  qf  Ood. 
He  also  pnbhshed  Hereioard,  the  Laxt  of  th^  Englieh 
<1866)  i  The  Hermiu  (1867)  i  How  and  Why  (1869) ; 
At  La»t,  a  ChrUlmai  in  the  West  Indies  (1871).  He 
was  appointed  Professor  of  Modem  History  at  Cam- 
bridge, in  1669 ;  and  after  reaigninx  that  post,  was 
nade^  in  1869,  Canon  of  Chester.  He  died  in  1B76. 
KI'NGSTOS,  chief  town  of  the  county  of 
Frontenac,  and  tlie  fiftk  city  of  Upper  Canada, 
Ues  in  lat  44°  ff  30",  long.  76'  SO  1",  on  the  north- 
east shora  of  Lake  OnUuio,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Cataraqui  and  of  the  Bav  of  Qointf,  where  the 
waters  of  the  Canadian  lakes  issae  into  the  St 
Lawrence.  It  is  distant  from  Montreal  198  miles ; 
from  Toronto,  165 ;  and  from  New  York,  274.  A 
g^hering-place  of  old  to  the  neighboarins  Indian 
&ibes,  occupied  by  a  French  fort  from  1S73  till 


1768,  it  b»an  to  be  Settled  fay  the  British  abont 
1783,  was  Uid  out  in  1793,  was  iacorporater>  —  - 
town  in  1S38,  and  as  a  city  in  1846.  On  the 
of  the  two  Canodaa,  in  1840,  the  seat  of  government 
wa«  established  at  K.,  bnt  was  removed  again  i 
I84S.  The  city  has,  in  consequence,  grown  more 
slowly  than  many  others  in  the  New  World,  but  it 
numbers  already  among  its  buildings  some  of  the 
finest  in  Canada.  Its  harbonr,  sheltered  by  Wolfe 
and  Garden  Islands,  which  lie  two  or  three  miles 
off.  lined  with  a  row  of  about  twenty  wharfs,  fur- 
nidied  with  a  grain-elevator  capable  of  unloading 
3000  bushels  per  hour,  is  always  busy,  while  navi- 
gation is  open,  especially  with  the  transhipment  of 
cargoes  between  the  vesaela  which  ply  on  the  lakes 
and  those  of  the  St  Lawrence  and  the  Bideau 
CanaL  The  ship-building  of  K.  is  second  in  Canailn 
only  to  that  of  Quebec  The  Canadian  Engine  and 
Machinery  Company  manufactures  railway  rolling- 
stock  on  the  most  approved  principles.  Besides  it, 
there  are  several  large  foundries  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  engines,  locomotive  and  stationary,  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  edge-toola,  ailea,  naila.  ftc 
There  are  also  large  tanneriea  and  breweriea. 
Besidea  its  outlets  by  water,  K.  commanicatea  with 
all  parts  of  the  cottntry  by  the  Grand  Trunk  Rail- 


ministry,  has  since  instituted  the  additional  facul- 
ties of  Law  and  Medicine,  is  now  eqnipped  with  II 
profeaaora  and  lectoretti,  and  attended  by  an  averajje 
of  ISO  stndents.  There  are  alao  a  Bcmoa  Cathohc 
institntion,  called  Begiopolis  College  the  county 
grammar-school,  and  the  common  sctooU,  besides 
several  private  academies.  In  1862,  K.  became  the 
seat  of  iJie  new  English  bishopric  of  Ontario.  Its 
population  in  1871  was  about  1G,000,  who  rehira 
one  member  to  the  ptovinciol  parliament.  The 
valne  lA  the  yearly  exports  and  importa  for  1872 

KINGSTON,  a  township  and  village  of  New 
York,  n.a.,  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Hudson  River,  at  the  terminus  of  the  Delaware 
and  Hudson  Canal,  67  miles  below  Albany.  The 
township  contains  3  villages,  18  churches,  3  bonks, 
4  newspaper  offices,  and  has  a  laixe  commerce  in 
coal,  atone,  ice,  lime,  and  cement  The  village  was 
burned  in  1777  hy  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  Its  populo- 
'"an  in  1870  waa  6315. 

KINGSTON,  the  commercial  capital  of  Jamaica 
(q.  v.),  stands  on  the  north  aide  of  a  landlocked 
barboar,  the  best  in  the  island,  and,  for  its  si 
of  the  best  in  the  world.  It  was  f  ouaded  ii 
after  the  neighbonring  town  of  Poit  Royal  had  been 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  From  ^is  place,  after- 
wards robnilt,  it  is  separated  by  its  noble  haven; 
with  Spanish  Town,  towards  the  interior,  it 
1646,  been  connected  by  a  railway  of 


K.  contains  about  *_,__. 
inhabitants.  Thoagh  the  city,  as  a  whole,  is  like 
the  generality  of  mere  seaports,  filthy  and  dis- 
orderly,, it  yet  preaents  Several  handsome  features. 
A  large  square,  called  the  Parade,  contains  spacious 
barracks,  a  Wesleyan  chapel,  a  theatre,  and  soma 
tolerable  dwelling-houses.  The  negro  market  for 
fruits  and  vegetables  is  described  oa  a  lively  and 

-_. 1^_    —  .    mi._  tampCTjtnre^  which  is  gener- 

e  immediate  margin  of  the 


ally  oppreasira  on  tlie  i 


t.LiOogle 


KINOSroM— Koro. 


bay,  becomn  grttdaoUy  mitigated  towarda  tlie 
head  of  the  Bloping  atraets,  which  rise  into  the 
legioa  of  the  ■aa-breeMS.  Moat  of  the  trade  of 
Jamaica  panes  through  Kingtton. 

KINGSTON,  OT  KmOStOVrs,  capital  of  the 
Britiah  ialaad  of  St  Vinoent,  in  the  West  Indie*; 
Kttatda  on  the  Bonth-ireat  coaat,  with  a  popnlatioD  of 
abontSOOa 

KINOSTON-ON-HULL.     See  Hdll. 

KINGSTON -UPON -THAMES,  a  municipal 
boiongh  and  market-town  of  England,  in  the  county 
of  Soirey,  is  dtnated  10  miles  south-west  of  London, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  here  crossed  by 
two  handiioine  bridges,  oce  of  stone,  and  the  otter 
an  iron  viaduct  an  the  London  and  South-weatem 
branch  railway  connecting  Twickenham  with 
Wimbledon,  ^e  county  spring  assizes  are  hebi  in 
E.,  alternately  with  Croydon  aod  Onildford.  Edu- 
cational and  benevolent  mstitutions  are  nujnerous  i 
there  are  floor,  cocoa-nut  fibre,  and  oil  mills,  and 


JOB,  on  t 

and  South-weatem  ItMlway,  distant  abont  a  mile 
and  a  half  from  Kingston  market-place,  has  grovra 
np,  since  1838,  the  elegant  snbarb  of  SnrbitOD,  now 

Kined  to  the  town.  In  the  neighbourhood  ore 
ampton  Court  Palace,  and  Bnihy  and  Riohmond 
Piirka.  Nomerou*  Roman  remains  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  vicinity  of  E.,  and  during  the  Saxon 
period  it  bod  already  risen  into  importanoe.  Here, 
m  838,  a  great  council  wm  held  under  Egbert  of 
Weesex  and  Ethelwolf  of  Kent,  and  a  treaty 
agreed  to  ;  and  here  also  seven  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kings  were  crowned.  The  name  is  said  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  stone  on  which  the  ceremony  was  per- 
formed, which  stands  in  one  of  ihe  streets,  encloaed 
by  a  railing.  Hampton  Wick  (pop.  2207)  it  really 
port  of  K.,  being  connected  by  the  bridge,  though 
situated  acme*  the  Thamea,  and  in  Middlesex. 

KINGSTOWN,  a  thrivinK  and  important  seaport 
of  Irelonil  on  the  3.  shore  ^  Dublin  Bay,  six  miles 
3.E,  of  the  city  of  that  name.  Freviona  to  1817, 
when  the  harbour-works  were  commenced,  it  was 
merely  a  fishing-village.  At  the  visit  of  George  IV. 
in  September  IS21,  its  former  name  Z>ut>leary,  was 
changed  to  ICuigstown.  The  area  of  the  harbour  is 
290  acres,  with  a  depth  of  from  13  to  ^  feet.  The 
situation  of  the  town,  and  the  invigoratingoir,  have 
made  K.  an  important  watering-_plac&  The  mail- 
packets  sail  from  K.  to  Holyhead  twice  a  day,  and 
there  is  tegnlar  conununicatioii  by  steamer  between 
it  and  the  principal  Irith  and  BritiEh  seaports. 
Coal,  iron,  and  timber  are  imported,  and  cattle, 
com,  lead  ore,  and  gtanite  ore  exported.  Abont 
14S0  Teasels  of  220,000  toiu  on  an  average  anchor 
in  the  hocboDF  yearly.  Fop.,  whioh,  in  1861,  had 
been  11,581,  had  risen  in  1871  to  16,378-  Thehomea 
nnmbered2961 

KI'NIC  or  QUINIO  ACID  (2H0,C.,H,,0,,) 
is  an  add  existing  in  combtoatioa  with  qumia  in 
the  bark  of  the  cinchonas. 

KINK,  a  twist  in  a  rope  or  cord,  caused  by  the 
tightness  of  the  coil,  and  a  relaiation  of  pressure 
in  the  direction  of  its  length.  The  beat  rope, 
however,  rarbly  kinks. 

KI'NKAJOU  {CercoliyiUi  candivolmiia),  a  quad- 
ruped of  the  family  Urtida,  and  allied  to  the 
racoons  and  coatis.  By  some  naturalists  it  is  referred 
to  Vxaerrida.  It  has  six  incison,  one  canine  tooth, 
and  five  molars  in  each  jaw,  the  three  hinder  molara 
tuberculous.  The  K.  is  laiger  than  a  pole-cat,  haa 
a  yellowish  woolly  fur,  dimbe  trees,  feeds  on  frnits, 
honey,  kc,  as  well  as  on  small  animals,  and  from 
it*  ravagea  among  the  nests   of   wild-bees,  is  in 


Einkajou  {Cemlcptet  candiiolvalat). 

transferred  to  it  the  name  Potto,  from  a  lemnrine 
animal  of  Africa.    It  is  easily  tamed- 

KINKEIi,  JOHAiTN  OoTTnuED,  a  German  anthor, 
bom  at  Oberkaasel,  Ilth  August  1815.  He  studied 
theology  at  Bonn,  and  was  for  some  time  a  distin- 
guished Protestant  preacher ;  but  becoming  icvDlred 
in  the  revolutionary  movements  of  18^,  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  fortress  of  Spondau,  whenoe,  how- 
ever, he  escaped  K.  then  went  to  America,  bat  mxm 
after  returned  to  London,  where  he  has  since  tended 
OS  a  public  teacher.  Both  as  a  poet  and  as  a  writer 
on  art,  K.  holds  a  distinguished  ranL  His  principal 
works  aia—Prtdiglen  flier  aiugeioOi^  ffCeicAnuac 
ttnd  BMredea  Chridi  (Cologne,  1843);  OtdidtU 
(Stutt  1843) ;  Otto  dtr  Sekah,  einc  RhAi.  GeaMdtte 
in  aeOif  AbenUuem  (Stutt  1843,  Mb  edit.  1S5S),  a 
very  beaatiful  narrative  poem;  Dit  AUdiTulUehe 
Kuntl  [Bomi,  1845),  which  forma  the  firat  part  of 
a  still  unfinished  OadiidiU  der  bildtndat  KQnMe 
bei  den  C/iriHiidira  VUlhem;  Die  Ahr,  Landtdufft, 
GenJtiiAle  vnd  VoO^idien  (Bono,  1846) ;  yimnd, 
aa  Trauertpitl  (Hamb.  1857).— K.'i  wife,  Josamiu 
K.,  a  distinguished  mnsician,  wrote  Ada  Brirfe 
flier  den  ClavierunierricAt  (Stutt.  1849)  ;  and 
together  with  her  husband,  EndAlangen  (Statt 
1849).  After  her  death  (in  1859)  appeared  ba 
novd.  Ham  IbeUe  ia  London  (Stntt.  1860). 

KINNAI'RD'S  HBAC,  a  promontoi?  witb  a 
light-house,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland,  near  Fraoerbnrsh,  in  lat.  67°  42*  N_  Iodjz. 
2°W. 

EI'NO,  an  astringent  snbatance,  resembling 
CuTCHir  (q.  V.)  and  OuiBUt  (q.  v.],  the  concrete 
exudation  of  certain  tropical  trees,  especially  of 
PteroooTjnu  martupium,  a  native  of  the  »iuinnt.«in^ 
of  Coromandel,  which  yields  East  Ihduh  K.,  and 
of  P.  erinaceaa,  a  native  of  Gambia,  whi<^  yieldj 
AnucAU  KiKO.  Hie  genus  Piaroearpiu  beloon  to 
the  natural  order  Ltgammoia,  sub-order  Pa^lion- 
acea,  and  has  a  S-toothed  calyx,  and  an  irr^olar, 
nearly  rarbioular  one-seeded  pod,  sorrounded  wiUi 


£i^ 


Indian  K.  is  the  kind  which  now  ohiefi; 
B  in  commerce,  and  is  the  ordinary  K.  or 
jHno  of  the  shops.      It  is  in  small  angular 


almost  Uock.      Thin 


d  by  Google 


Mtringent  inl 

See  BuTEA-    It  haa  been  found  CKpabli 

cinAl  uses  of  true  kino.      Botany  Bi.t  K.  U  the 

{voduce  of  Sucalyptut  ream/era.    See  £uaAl.YFTU&. 

The  utringeDCy  of  kino  is  munlj  due  to  its 
containmg  tannia  uid  catechuio  acid,  and  in  oonie- 
^nence^tlug prt^erty, it  is  employed  in  medicine 
in  certain  forma  of  diurhcea  (especially  when  a  flnz 
■eenu  to  be  kept  m  by  want  of  tone  in  the  intes- 
tinal capillariea),  the  Deat  mode  of  praaciilung  it 
bein^  ai  eompoimd  Uho  povder,  which  is  a  miztnra 
of  kmo,  dmumm,  and  opimn,  aod  the  dose  for  an 
adult  ranging  fiom  ten  nsimi  to  &  scruple.  There 
is  also  a  tiaetun  qfkino,  which,  when  prapeiij  diluted 
with  water,  forms  an  excellent  gargle  for  rela^iation 
of  the  uTnIa. 

Kino  is  employed  to  a  considenble  extent  in  the 
East  Indies  as  a  cotton  dye,  giving  to  the  cotton  the 
yellowish-browa  oolonr  known  as  nankeen. 

KINRCSS-SHIRE,  after  Claokmannanahire,  the 
smallest  ooonty  of  Scotland,  liea  between  the  coun- 
ties of  Perth  and  Fife.  Arsa,  49,812  aorea.  Pop. 
(1S71)  7198.  It  is  12  milss  in  length  from  east  to 
west,  uid  abont  10  miles  in  l^eadtb.  Of  its  entire 
area,  30,000  acres  are  arable,  3000  in  wood,  and 
4600  under  water.  See  Loch  LavBir.  Its  surface 
is  elevated  and  gently  undulating ;  its  bonndaries 
are  hilly,  with  occatdonal  level  openings.  On  the 
north  and  north-west  are  the  Ochil  TTiIIb  ;  on  the 
north-east,  ^  Locoondt;  and  on  the  south-east 
and  ttmth,  Benar^  and  tlie  Cleiah  Hills.  The 
sttvams  flow  into  Loch  Leven  (q.  v.),  and  issue  b^ 
the  river  Leven.  The  soil  inclinee  to  gravel,  bnt  is 
clayey  in  the  districts  north  and  west  of  the  loch. 
Excellent  pasture  oconn  cm  the  moorUndt.  For  the 
year  1872,  the  total  acreage  under  all  kinds  of  orop^ 
MK  and  fallow  gnus,  was  34,424 ;  under  com  crops, 
9262;  under  green  crops,  4685;  the  number  of  cattle 
returned  was  7082;  aheep,  28,627 ;  pigs,  722.  This 
county  unites  with  that  of  Clackmanl 
with  portions  of  Perthshire,  in  »»"■^'"g 
ber  to  parliament.  The  capital  of  i^e  county 
is  the  town  of  Kinross,  with  a  population  (1871) 
of  1926,  who  are  emph^^  chiefly  m  the  weaving 
of  tartan  shawls,  and  in  spinninf^  sconring,  ana 
dyeing. 

KIIfSA'LE,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
boTond)  and  •eoport  of  Ireland,  iu  the  coonty  in 
Cork,  IS  at  the  head  of  Kinsale  harbour,  which  is 
formed  by  the  estnary  of  the  river  Bandon,  four- 
teen n^Ues  south-south-weet  of  Cork.  A  railway  to 
CoA  was  opened  here  ou  the  16th  May  1S63,  and 
the  foundatum-stona  of  a  lai^  marine  hotel,  with 
floating  baths  attached,  was  laid  on  the  tame  day. 
The  harbour,  which  is  landlocked,  is  abont  two  miles 
long,  half  a  siila  in  average  breadth,  and  it  capable 
of  containins  300  ships.  K.  exports  i^cnltoral 
produce,  and  imports  coal,  iron,  and  tunber;  its 
trade,  however,  owing  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
Cork,  is  small  YaloabU  fisheries,  estimated  at  £000 
per  wesk  in  valne,  are  carried  on  in  the  district- 
On  Qie  Old  Head  of  Einiale,  a  promontOTy  stretch- 
ing Boathward  into  the  Atlantic,  is  a  light-house, 
seen  from  a  distance  of  twenty-three  nautaoal  miles. 
Pop.  (1871)  8248. 

KIKTT'REL    See  Curmtx. 

KIO'LBK,  or  KJOLEN,  an  extensive  plateau  in 
Scandinavia  (q.  v.). 

KlCyS^  a  small  ornamental  pavilioa,  mnch  nted 
in  India  in,  the  decoration  of  the  tomba,  g^ta, 
dams,  and  other  works.  It  consists  of  a  dome,  tnp- 
ported  on  four  or  more  detached  colunuu,  the  space 
under  the  dome  being  left  open,  like  the  open  niches 
under  canopies  in  Gnhic  architeotnie. 


KIPTCHA'K,  or  KEPTCHAK,  a  term  which, 
in  the  middle  ages,  deawnated  that  vast  territory 
stretching,  north  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  from  the  Don 
to  Turkeetsn,  and  occupied  by  the  Kumans  and 
Polovises.  liiiB  tract  formed  one  of  the  fonr 
empires  into  which  the  huge  dominion  of  Genghis 
Khan  waa  divided,  and  was  the  portion  of  his 
eldedt  son  J&jy,  under  whose  son  and  suocesaar, 
Battl  Khan,  it  became  the  terror  of  Western 
Kurope,  and  held  Bnssia  in  iron  tobjectjon  from 
1236  tin  1362.  BatA  also  oonoaered  Bulraria,  and 
invaded  Htmgary,  Austria,  and  Eastern  Oemiany, 
but  made  no  permanent  conqneela  in  this  direction. 
This  extensive  empire  "Was  dismembered  towards 
the  end  of  the  ISth  c,  and  save  rise  to  the  khanats 
of  Kazan,  Aatntkhan,  and  Erim-Tartary.  The 
MoiwoU  of  K.  were  also  known  as  the  '  Qolden 
Honui.'  Ruins  of  viliases  are  to  be  seen  in  many 
places,  especially  near  uie  Volga,  and  have  been 
visited  and  described  by  Pallas,  Elaproth,  Gfibel, 
fto.  l^iejr  no  doubt  partly  belong  to  the  era  of  the 
K.  enqdre,  but  many  are  of  mare  ancient  date, 

EIBATABJUNtYA,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
oelebrated  poems  of  Sanscrit  literature.  Its  author 
is  Bhiravi,  and  its  principal  subject  is  the  conflict 
of  Arjvna  with  the  god  Siva  in  hit  disgnise  of  a 
f  tnUo,  or  mountaineer. 

EIRBY,  Rkv.  WmjAn;  an  eminent  BtucUth 
naturalist,  was  bom  at  Witnesham  Hall,  Somilk, 
I9th  September  1769.  He  was  educated  at  CaJoa 
College,  Cambridge,  and  was  afterwards  appointed 
to  the  curacy  of  Barham,  which  he  held  for 
fourteen  years,  when  he  was  preferred  to  the 
rectory.  This  office  he  held  nntQ  his  death, 
which   happened  on  the  4th  of  July  1860,  when 


he  had  nearly  reached  the  great  age  of  91. 
I*incipal  works  are  Monegraplua  Apurn   A^lia 
(Ipswich,    1802),    and   /nfroducCion    U)   Enbtmolo^ 


both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  at  once  sacnred  for 
K.  a  distinguished  place  among  European  savants. 
The  second  work  is  written  in  the  form  of  letten, 
and  was  and  still  a  remarkably  popular.  E.  alto 
contributed  a  variety  of  very  important  entomo- 
logical papen  to  the  T  jim»»n  ll^ansaotions.  Hit 
^catest  (fisoovery  in  this  department  of  sdenoe  is 
that  of  the  genus  Stglop* — the  tjye  of  a  new  order 
of  inaecto,  livmg  for  a  time  pantitically  in  the  bodies 
of  bees.  He  also  wrote  one  of  the  Bridgewatec 
Treatises,  entitled  HabUa  and  /tuttnct^  qf  AmmaU. 
K.  was  one  of  the  first  members  ol  the  Tiinntran 
Society  (founded  in  17S8),  honorary  president  of  the 
EntomologieBl  Society  (founded  in  1833),  and  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  and  6eol^;ical  SocietiEs. 

KI'RUUENTAO,  an  association  of  ministers  and 
laymen  of  the  Lutheran,  German  Reformed,  United 
Evangelical,  and  Moravian  Chnndiea  in  Gennain', 
for  the  promotion  of  the  intereet*  of  religfon,  iriu* 
ont  reference  to  their  den(Mmn>tioo«l  difien 
It  hidds  an  »"""^l  meeting; 


10  jtlaoa  ol 


changed  from  year  toyeu'.  The  mat  meeting  to 
place  in  1848,  at  Wittenberg,  in  the  ehnroh 
which  Luther  affixed  his  theses.  Its  disoDstions  ana 
resolations  have  exerciaed  a  considerable  influence 
in  Owmsny. 

KIBOHIUor  KHtQHlS-KAISAKI.orCowAOM 
or  TBB  Srspna,  a  people  wanaA  over  the  iamepj* 
territory  bounded  oy  the  VoUsi  desert  of  OMi* 
tchei  (in  50*  N.  let),  the  Irtish,  Chinese  TnAes- 
tan,  Aia-Tau  Mountauis,  the  Sir-Daria,  and  Aral, 
and  Caspian  Seas.  A  few  tribes  of  Kalmuokt  also 
live  within  these  boundaries.  Over  this  vast  tract 
reigns  a  dismal  monotony ;  the  counby  has  tcaiody 
any  important  elevation  or  dgprciioii,  no  river  M 


..Guu^le 


KntKOALDY— KIHKDrnLLOOH. 


omueqnenM  niiu  ttnmgk  it,  no  grut  forert  bnaki 
the  anifomuty  of  tiie  Boene  ;  it  ii  a  VMt  steppe, 
aontBining  600,000  E^i^uh  sqiUTe  mileB,  «t(VUe, 
■bony,  tuul  stroualeas,  and  coT^ed  with  rank 
Iierbage  of  five  het  high.  It  aboonda  in  lakes  and 
marahn,  the  mter  of  which  is  genenllj  brackiBh 
and  unserviceable,  and  in  the  aouthem  portion  lies 
the  Kara-Kum,  an  extenaive  salt  deeert— The  K. 
are  a  Turkish  race,  and  Bpeak  the  dialect  of  the 
TJtbeka,  from  whom  iiey  profera  to  be  descended. 
They  have,  from  time  immemorial,  beeo  divided  into 
the  Oreat,  MiddU,  and  LitOt  Hordea.  _  The  firet 
of  these  wanden  in  the  sontii-weet  portion  of  the 
Enaaian  ileppo,  wutly  in  the  Riuaian  prorinoos 
north  of  the  Ala-Tau,  and  nartlj  in  the  territories 
of  China  and  Khokan.  Tney  are  aubjeet  to  the 
mien  wiiiin  whose  bonnds  they  dwdL  The  Middle 
Holde  possesses  the  territory  (called  the  wmnery  of 
(iU  Siberian  KirgKita)  between  the  Ishim,  Irtish, 
Lake  BalUash,  Khokan,  and  the  territory  of  the 
Little  Horde;  uld  also  a  Rrest  portion  of  the 
Rusnaa  province  of  Semipoutinsk.  Russia  hsa 
g^aallT  abaorbed  them,  the  resnlt  being  finally 
achieved  bj  the  viotoi;  over  Shiva  in  1S73,  and 
tho  formation  of  the  new  province  of  Amn  Daiia, 
The  Little  Horde  <now  more  numerons  than  the 
other  two  together)  ranges  over  the  ooontiT  bounded 
by  Oie  Una,  Xobol  Iberian  E.,  and  Turkeatan. 
Idke  the  Hidole  Eorda,  thej  are  claimed  as  subjects 
of  tlifl  oar,  tiumgh  complrtel;  independeat.  Thii 
lunda  is  partly  apiooltunL  partly  nomad.  A  small 
offiihoot  Si  tiie  LitUa  Horde  has,  Hnoe  1601,  wandered 
Tolga  and  the  Uial  tiver,  and  nsed 
.  of  tte  


1m  Dndermleol 


le  goventor  of  Astrakhan.     Sonth 


Eirghis.  The;  ars  called  by  their  neighbonia 
Eaca-E.  or  Blaok  E.,  and  are  of  UandshOr  stock. 
All  of  them  are  now  snbject  to  Rnssi&  Their 
OolleetiTtt  numbers  are  estimated  at  upwards  of  1( 
milliMi  of  sool^  more  than  half  of  whom  belong  to 
the  little  Hwcde. 

KIBKC AIiDT,  a  royal  and  parliamenUry  barDh, 
se^rart,  and  market-town  in  the  country  of  FSe, 
Scotland,  a  plaoe  of  growii^  commercial  importance. 
Including  the  saburbe  of  Linktown  and  Newtown  of 
AUxitahAll  on  the  west,  and  Pathkead,  St  Chur- 
town,  sad  Gallatown  on  tlie  north-east,  it  is  fully 
^IM  milM  in  length ;  henoe  the  name  of  the  '  Lang 
Tonn.'  Its  harbour  ia  eomroodious,  and  there  is  wet- 
dock  aooommodation  for  ships  of  considerable  burden. 
Then  is  regolar  communication  by  steamers  with 
London,  Newcastie,  Leith,  and  Glawow.  Its  mann- 
(aotores  are  spinning  flax,  tow,  and  jnte,  and  bleach- 
ing and  weaving  Hnot  yun&  whi(^  are  extensively 


eerinv  m  a  vest  wale ;  iron-founding ;  brewing ;  and 
taimmg.  Thers  are  also  several  potteries.  The 
■nannfaotiue  of  floor-cloth  and  wax-cloth  has  been 
noently  AvfixmtA  into  a  great  trade,  and  E,  is  the 
oUtf  seat  of  this  powing  and  important  maanfao- 
toie;  Tluss  IS  a  very  ample  simply  of  water  by 
gravitation.  In  187%  661  vwds  of  38^923  tons 
sntared  and  cleared  tin  pmi.  FOpt  of  pari  bnrrii 
in  1871, 12,422.  K.  u  the  lorthplace  of  ttie  anthor 
of  the  TFeaUft  iff  IfaHont;  and  mora  rsosutly, 
Edward  Irving  sad  ^ubum  Oarlyls  wste  tsaohers 
hen. 

EntKOUIDBBIOHTSHIBB,  more  properlv  tlie 
Stewirtry  ol  Eiikcudbright,  a  coonty  in  Scotiand, 
oamprehending  tiie  east^Ti  district  of  Oalloway, 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  N.E.  by  tiie  counties  of 
Ayr  and  Dnmfiies,  on  the  B.  and  S.  by  the  Solway 
^tk  and  the  Irish   Sea,  and  on  the  W.  by  the 


county  of  Wiffton.    Its  length  trcaa  east  to  west  ia 
from  45  to  Kl  miles,  and  its  b«ad&  is  about  40 


ompoaedof  hiD; 
bich  there  ia  o 


QTops  Hid  grsas.     The  rf 

mossy  ground,  and  lakea,  of  vrtuoh 

almost  every  parish.    8<»iie  of  the  hills,  one-fooith   , 

of  which  are  of  granite,  are  of  consideraUe  sltatnde ; 

\  are  Meyri' 
2597  feet ;  and  Crittd,  1867'fe 
considerable  rivers,  the  principal  of  vAieh  are  iba 
Cree  and  the  Dee ;  the  latter  of  whi^  is  navigabla 
fen'  two  milee  above  EiAcudbright. 

Tbere  are  upwards  of  400  landownen,  many  of 
whom  possess  small  bounds,  and  ft«n  th^  own    I 
land.    One-half  of  the  land  is  under  entaiL    Hie 
occnpante  number  1377.    The  valued  rent  fc  1674   : 
waa  £9549.    The  valuation  for  187Z-I87S  (enliwive   I 
of  royal  Inudu)  was  £3^792;  that  of  nilways  | 
was  £29,460.    In  th*  J>ear  1872  Uie  total  acnsage   | 
under  all  kinds  of  orops,  bare  and  fallow  [iisia.  was 
168,735 ;   under  oom  crops,  34,223 ;   under  grem   : 
crops,  18,800.    The  total  number  of  oatlle  t«tanied 
was  40.030:   sheep,  390,610}    w,  89S4j   braass   , 
used  solely  for  agnenltatre,  BI14  THie  oooditioB  of 
the  rural  inhabitants,  and  tiie  stats  of  uricaltore  of 
ip  to  almost  the  end  of  ust  fKntorr, 
;  the  principal  food  irf  tiw  peopM   | 
ui  yuo  Buly  part <rf  Ibe  oeotuiy,  waakail.aiM  oati  ' 
ground  in  querns  tamed  I^  the  hand,  and  dried  in 
a  pot ;  but  aisble  hnsbaadn  has  been  iiMroved  of    i 
late,  while  great  attttitiati  iaWng  paid  to  the  rearing 
of  cattle.    The  principal  towns  an  Eirk      "   -  -  ■     ' 


Oalloway,    Creetown,  ^,  __, 

Ac.  Before  the  Reformation,  the  steWMtry  poa- 
seased  more  monasteries  tban  uiy  otber  oonnty  of 
Scotland.  There  hare  been  a  few  etninent  men  irf 
letters  connected  with  this  oonnty,  of  whom  the 
most  celebrated  were  Dr  Alexander  Murray,  the 
linguist,  and  Dr  Thomas  Brown.  Ilie  popala&on  in 
1871  was  41,809.  The  constitaency  number  2014, 
irtio  return  one  member  to  parliament. 

EIltEDALE  CATS,  near  Eiikdalo  Chnrdv  in 
the  vale  of  Pickerin^YM^ahiie,  ia  &mons  for  tbo 
numerous  remains  of  TsrtiaiT  "■"'"flf  which  have 
been  found  in  it.  It  was  discovered  in  1821,  in  the 
cutting  back  of  an  oiditio  limestone  rook  in  which 
it  is  situated.  It  was  exaroined  by  Buddaad,  and 
folly  described  by  hint  in  his  S^mkt  Dibuiamt^ 
Its  greatest  length  is  stated  at  2u  feet,  and  its 
hei^t  generally  to  be  so  fnoonsideratile,  ^at  there 
ate  rady  two  or  thi«e  jdaoes  where  a  man  can  stand 
erect  ^le  fosnl  bonea  are  conUned  in  a  depoat 
of  mud  that  lies  on  the  floo  rf  the  oave ;  tihis  ia 
oovered  b^  stalannite  formed  by  the  watv,  hi^y 
chafed  with  carbonate  of  lime,  drop[dng  from  the 
rooL  1^  remains  of  the  following  «niTn«I«  have 
been  discovered :  hyvna,  tiger,  bear,  wolf,  wcaad, 
elephant,  t4unoc«ros,  hippopotamus,  horse,  ox,  deer, 
hare,  rabbit,  water-rat,  raven,  pigeon,  Utk,  and  dock. 

KI'RKHAM,  a  market-town  of  Ekigland,  in  the 
county  of  lAncaster,  is  situated  on  a  small  tributary 


west  of  Preston,    Ssil-doth,  _ 

cotton  fabrics  axe  manofaotDred.    Pop.  <1871] 

KIREINTI'LLOOH,  a  borrii  of  barony  and 
market- town  in  Dumbartonshire,  Scotland,  is  situated 
on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  about  nx  milea  north. 
north.east  of  Glasgow.  It  had  its  origin  ia  a  fwt 
on  Antoninus'  Wall,  and  is  said  to  have  been  called 
at  flnt  CcKrpciXKiaol  (the  fort  at  Ou  and  of  the 
ridge],  of  whidi  its  preaent  name  is  ai^Maed  to  ba 
a  cormptatm.  It  beoame  a  fanr^  cf  barony  ia  the 
time  of  William  tlia  Zoon.    Hata  and  oottn  dotiM 


uoiizcdtgGoogIc 


EiEE-BOAD— KisaraaEH. 


are  mAniifBCtiired  hsr^  and  then  &re  bleMhing 
and  printing  works,  coUieriea,  iron-atona  mineB,  imd 
quairie*.    Fop.  (1871)  6139. 

KIBK-ROAD,  ui  tlie  Law  of  Scotland,  dmmu  a 
road  tued  by  the  inhabitanta  of  a  diatrict  (generally 
•  ihoit  eat)  for  the  purpoM  ol  going  to  churoh. 
SbcI)  a  right  to  a  road,  if  anoient,  ia  reoogniaed 
OS  valid  in   Scotland,   and  lUao  in   En^and  and 

KIBK-SSSBIOH,  in  Scotland,  fto.,  the  lowest 
oonrt  in  Preabjlaiaii  chnrchea;  b«uig  th«  goTenunj 
body  ot  a  paitioular  congr^ation,  and  compoaod  o 
th« '  minirter*  and'elden'  of  the  oKigragatioiL  At 
npfnaX  nuv  be  taken  from  the  kirk-BsMion  to  thi 
^Mbvteiy,  and  thenoe  to  the  higher  oonrta  of  thi 
oharen.  Subject  to  this  appeal  the  kirk-M 
exercises  discipline  id  regaia  to  all  n      * 


loroh ;  and  qneationi 


leatmieo  to  the 
ions  of  uiia  kind 


prwiUget 

must  originate  in  the  kirk-aeamon,  and  be  minuuily 
determined  there.  The  functions  of  the  kiik-sesaion 
were,  in  former  times,  too  often  inqniaitorially 
ciaed ;  but  this  is  now  leas  frequentlj 
and  the  danger  of  it  is  eontinually 
through  the  growth  ol  an  enlightened  publio  opinion. 
In  f<mner  fames,  aJw,  the  kuk-aesaion  in  Scotland 
often  imposed  fines,  ohieflr  for  offences  against  Oui 
serenlh  oommandmcot ;  but  this  practice  had  no 
Teco{|mtioa  in  civil  nor  even  in  e(»]esiasticsl  law, 
and  w  now  wholly  relinquiehed.  Ths  kirk-weaion 
of  the  firtafalished  Church  in  each  parish  is  fully 
reoemiaed  in  Soottiah  law  as  having  oertain  rights 
and  dotieB  witii  respect  to  the  poor,  but  recent  legis- 
lation has  Tsry  much  deprived  it  of  ite  former 
importance  in  this  relation. 

KIUKWALL,  a  royal  and  municipal  bm^h, 
port,  and  market-town  of  Scotland,  capital  of 
county  of  Orknev,  is  situated  on  Uie  north-east 
coast  of  Mainland,  about  26  miles  north-norUi-east 
of  John  O'Groat's  Eonse.  Ita  chief  building  ia  the 
cathedral  of  St  Uagnns,  a  fine  cruciform  stmcti^ 
in  mixed  Honnan  a^  Gothic,  dating  from  about  the 
^ear  1138.  In  the  choir  of  this  cathedral,  service 
IB  still  held.  Around  it  aia  the  ruin*  of  the  King's 
Castle,  the  Earl's  Palace,  and  tiie  Biahop'e  Palace. 
The  town  has  been  greatiy  ImHovad  within  recent 
yean.  Numerous  shops  have  oeesi  establiijied,  bo 
that  the  commercial  transactions  are  now  not  con- 
fined to  the  annual  fair  in  August,  aa  they  were 
fbrmra'Iy.  The  export-trade,  chiefly  in  agritmltnral 
prodnoe,  is  increasing  rapidly.    E.  onttee  with  the 


at  the  valuation  1872-1S73  waa  jCTOlL    Popt 
of  parliamentary  burgh,  3434. 

KIR8ANOTF,  a  town  ot  Great  Euagia,  in  the 

SVBfiiment  of  Tambov,  in  Ut  52°  37  N,.  long.  44= 
'  E.  Horses  and  fine  fieeced  sheep  are  reared 
here,  oommon  cloth  is  manufactured,  and  there  are 
two  annual  fairs.    Pop.  (1867)  7204. 

KIltSOHWASaEB  (Oer.  oherty-watar)  ia  a 
liqueur  made  from  cheniee,  and  fauhly  esteemed 
in  Oermany.  The  cherries,  gatherM  wben  quite 
ripe,  and  freed  from  their  stalkt,  are  pounded  m  a 
wo^eo  vessel,  but  ao  that  the  stoiMB  are  not  broken. 
They  are  then  left  to  ferment,  and  when  feim«ita- 
tiou  has  began,  the  man  is  stimd  two  or  tfane 
times  a  day.  lie  stones  are  afterwarda  brokto, 
and  the  kernels  iMoken  and  thrown  in.  Sy  distil- 
lation, kiiBchwUMT  is  obtained:  Einohwasser  is 
Bometimea  called  Cherrv  Brands,  but  tiie  common 
ah«n7  brandy  is  made  oy  mudiig  brandy  with  the 
juice  of  chernea. 


KI8PALUDT,  Sanimr  (Alkundsb),  a  Hun- 
garian poet,  who  exeroiBed  a  great  influence  on  the 
development  of  the  language  and  literature  of  his 
native  country,  was  born  at  SUmegh  (county  of 
SzaUd),  22d  8^)tember  1772.  He  studied  at  Ea^ 
and  Presburg,  and  after  serving  for  several  years  ia 
tite  Austrian  army,  retired  to  his  paternal  estate^ 
to  devote  himself  to  literature  ana  fanning.  Tha 
first  part  of  his  lyrical  ntaster-pieoe,  Hin^&erdmd 
(Hii^r's  Lovej,  which  appeared  anonymoualy  in 
1800,  was  received  with  unbounded  applause.  EL. 
was  spoken  of  aa  the  'Great  Unknown.'  On  the 
publication  of  the  second  part  in  1S07,  the  author 
threw  aaide  his  mask.  In  the  same  year,  he  pub- 
lished his  tCegflc  A  Magyar  SUHdlObBl  (Legentb  of 
the  Olden  Titoe  in  Hungarr),  which  are  iruuked  by 
depth  of  feeling,  and  by  elegance  and  simplicity  of 
style.  E.  now  attempted  tr^edy,  and  took  Schiller 
aa  his  modeL     Some  of  his  mstorical  dramaa 


iTlnstrating  the  family 
among  the  best  on  the 
plete  edition  of  his  writingg  Appeared  at  Perth,  in 
8  vols.,   1833~183S.      He   di^  at  SOmegh,  SOtit 
October  1344 
ElSPALtTDT,    Eabolt    (Chablu),    younger 


secured  for  him  tiie  hi 


brother  of  the  pieceding,  was  bom  I9th  Marcii 
1790.  He  it  of  greater  importance  in  coonectdon 
with  the  devdopmeot  of  the  Hunraiian  ti>ei^ 
than  his  brother,  being  raraided  as  tbe  foouder  of 
the  national  diuna.  In  1817,  he  took  up  hi*  tesi- 
dence  iu  Pesth,  and  published  in  rapid  snoeesaion  a 
'  poems,  tale^  dramaa,  and  omnedie*,  whioh 
'--  the  hi^tsat  pomdsrity  a*  an  author. 
"  -  "^  far  the  moet  v«ltiaU& 
nslated  into  Qerman  by 
Oaal  {lieater  der  Magfomi,  Bonn,  1830).  E.  died 
at  Pesth,  21at  November  18Sa— The  Ki^aludt 
Society,  ao  named  in  honour  of  tbe  brotiierB,  was 
established  in   1817,  ud  has  rendered  impcctant 

rrices  to  Hungarian  literataie. 

KISHM  (the  ancieot  Oiwatta),  an  lalaod  of 
Ferna,  belim^ng  to  the  t""""^  of  Mnsoat,  is 
situated  at  the  moutii  of  the  Pernan  Gulf,  and  ia 
about  70  milea  in  length  by  12  in  awage  breadth. 
It  is  separated  from  tile  m^nland  hf  a  deep  ami 
dangeroua  strait,  in  which  are  several  small  wooded 
islete.  K.  yields  in  abundanoe  grain,  timber,  datea, 
and  vegetables,  and  si^iports  numerous  cattle.    At 

its  eastern  extremit *" 

the  capital  of  the  is 


!&itirepop.  eetJsaatsd  at 


EI8S,  AcorsT,  a  distinguished  Qeman  ecnlptor, 
was  bom  at  Fleaz,  in  Upper  Silesia,  lltb  October 
1802.  He  studied  under  Bauch  at  Beriin,  and 
gradually  acquired  a  hi^  reputation,  which  was 


Amazon  attacked  by  a  Panther,'  for 

tion  of  wtiicb  in  bronze,  now  the  ornament  of  the 
Maaenm  Stain  in  Berlin,  the  nun  ot  40,000  Hirers 
waa  subscribed  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm  on  the 
part  of  the  public.  Among  his  other  weak*  are 
'St  Michael  overthrowing  uie  Dragon,'  'A  Twer 
destroying  a  Serpent,'  and  a  statue  <k  Freden^ 
tlieOieat.    He  died  in  1865. 

EI'SSINOBN,  a  town  ot  Bavaria,  tn  Lower 
PiBDOMiia,  odebrated  for  ita  mineral  wateis,  is 
Btuated  in  the  valley  tt  the  Saale,  30  milea  north* 
— 'h-eaat  of  Wunburgi  Of  ita  three  mineral  springy 
RaJtoecg  and  the  Pandur  furnish  aaliae  and 
chalybeate  waten,  the  MaaJtrvimea  we  aoiduloua 
and  alkaline.  A  spring  called  the  Soolen-SpwdtU 
is  ronuwkabU  fcr  the  periodical  ebb  and  Sow  of  ita 


t.Googli 


KI3TNAH— KITE. 


diBcluu-ge  o£  carboDio  acid  gu.  __ 

both  drank  mid  med  ai  baths  by  tlie  patieiita,  and 
are  conaidered  apecially  efScacious  in  casea  of 
chroaio  duease,  gout,  tc  Mnd  batha,  of  the 
Bediment  of  aome  oE  the  Bpriaga,  are  also  in  use. 
Since  1848,  gnming-tableB  have  been  forbidden  here 
by  the  Bavarian  govennneot.    Pop.  (1871)  5931. 

Kl'STNAH,  or  KRI-SHNA,  a  river  of  the  penin- 
aula  of  Hiaduatan,  rises  within  40  miles  of  the 
Anbian  Sea,  at  a  height  of  4500  feet,  in  lat  18°  1'  N., 
and  flowiog  eBstword,  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
•Iter  a  oourae  of  800  miles.  It  farms  a  oonsiderablc 
delta  at  its  mouth. 

7  Unguagc,  the  eqaiptneat  Ie 
a  shirts,  boots,  brusbes,  Jciv,  of 
a  soldier,  but  not  applicable  to  his  nnifonn,  arms, 
r  accoutrements.  Formerly,  a  high  bounty  was 
iven,  and  then  severely  encroached  upon,  by  making 
-Jie  recruit  pay  for  his  kit.  The  fairer  principle  is 
now  adopted  of  issuiag  a  free  kit  to  each  recruit, 
with  a  smaller  bonaty.  The  soldier  has  stiU  to 
replace  neceauries,  worn  out  or  lost,  at  hit  own 

rnse,  but  he  obtains  the  articles  at  wholesale, 
very  low,  prices.  As  these  neceasariea  ore  so 
cheaply  procured,  it  is  held  a  very  heavy  military 
offence  va  malce  away  with  them. 

KIT,  a  small  oarroff-bodied  Tiolin,  aboat  IS 
inches  long,  capable  of  being  carried  )n  the  coat- 
pocket,  and  used  chieQy  by  teachers  of  dancing. 

KIT-CAT  CLUB,  an  aasodation  iostitated  in 
London  in  1703,  oonsiating  of  noblemen  and  gentle. 
men  favourable  to  the  succession  of  the  House  of 
Hanover,  and  whose  ostensible  object  was  the 
enooaragement  of  literature  and  the  line  arta. 
Jacob  Tonson,  an  eminent  publisher,  was  fonader 
and  secretary.  The  club  denved  its  name  from  hav- 
ing met  for  some  time  in  the  house  of  Christopher 
Cat,  a  pastrycook.  The  club  was  dissolved  atmut 
1720,  previous  to  which  each  of  the  members  pre- 
sented bis  portrait  (half-length  figure)  to  Tonson, 
painted  a  umform  size  by  Sir  GodA^y  Kneller. 
These  interesting  portraits,  forty -two  in  number,  are 
low  in  possession  of  Mr  W.  lU  Bsker,  Hertfordshire. 

KITCHEN-GARDEN,  a  garden  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  culinary  vegetables,  or  that  port  of 
i  laige  garden  which  is  speciaUy  appropriated  to 
this  use.  As  the  crops  of  the  tutchen-f^iden  are 
not  generally -very  pleaong  to  the  eye,  care  is  taken, 
if  pooible,  that  it  may  not  be  within  view  of  the 
principal  windows  of  a  mansion-house,  or  otherwise 
obtruded  on  notice.  But  regard  must  also  be  had, 
n  the  selection  of  a  situation  for  the  kitchen-garden, 
a  eiposnre,  shelter,  Ac,  in  which  it  needs  and 
deserves  everr  advantage  that  can  be  obtained.  Nor, 
in  order  to  hide  it  from  view,  ought  it  to  be  so 
surrounded  with  tree*  as  to  deprive  it  either  of 
sonslune  or  of  free  access  of  air. 

The  general  remarks  made  in  the  article  Gabdht- 
—       'o  soil  and  the  preparation  of  it,  manuring. 


close  beside  it,  is  always  allotted  to  compost  heaps 
and  the  processes  connected  with  them.  The  suc- 
oeasful  cultivation  of  a  kitchen -garden  requires  con- 
stant care  and  labour.  Many  crops  require  frequent 
gins  and  hoeing  dnring  the  period  of  their  growth, 
r  the  ground  must  be  kept  free  of  weeds  as 
perfectly  as  in  the  flower-garden  itself.  A  rotation 
{  crops  is  of  as  much  importance  in  the  kitclien- 
^•arden  as  in  the  farm ;  cabbages  and  their  congeners, 
potatoes,  legominous  crops,  Ac.,  ^ust  not  from  year 
to  year  be  grown  on  the  same  groand.  But  there 
are  some  perennial  plants  which  occupy  the  same 
ground    for   years,  ■•  artichoke. 


sea-kale,  and  attention  must  be  paid  to  this  in  laying 
oat  the  garden. 

The  crops  cultivated  depend,  of  eouise,  on  dimate. 
It  will  be  enough  to  enumerate  here  the  moat 
important  kitchen-garden  crops  of  Britain,  t«ten-ing 
for  further  information  to  each  as  a  separate  heBaT 
The  capitals  indicate  those  moat  generally  cnlti- 
vatcd.  The  varieties  of  Braimca  Stracea;  Kale, 
Cabbaok,  Colkwobts,  SAvora,  Brcsselo  Spbodts, 
CAnuTLowKR,  Bboooou.  Kohl-rabi,  Ac  Potato, 
Jerubaixm  Artichokk.  Tubntp,  Cakbot,  Parshif, 
Radish,  Rid  Beet,  Skirret,  Saisajty,  Soorzonera, 
BsAN,  Pea,  Kidhet-Be4K,  ScABLsr-BmniKn, 
Onion,  Leek,  Garlic.  Shallot,  Bocambole,  Wdsh 
Onion,  Spinach,  Wldte  Beet,  AAPARAOtm,  S>a- 
KALZ,  Articbokz,  LnTDCE,  Ck^  Uvstabd, 
Sonel,  Corn-salad,  Endive,  Cilbrt,  Pabslbt, 
HonsB-KADiSH,  Reubabb. 

Sweet  herfoa  ore  to  b»  found  in  almost  aD  nr- 
dens,  as  Thyme,  Lavender,  Sage,  Spearmint,  Bum, 
Marjoram,  Savory,  Ac  The  cultivation  of  the 
pumpkin,  vegetable  marrow,  and  all  kinds  of  gourds, 
and  of  the  melon  and  cucumber,  is  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  kitchen-garden ;  whidi  also  con- 
tains the  honsca  or  pits  employed  f or  jbrcMjf  both 
vegetables  and  fruits.  And  the  hothouses  in  which 
frmta  are  grown  for  culinary  use,  ore  venr  getieially 
placed  in  the  kitchen-garden.  The  onltivktioii  of 
mushrooms,  whether  in  beds  or  otherwise,  bdon^ 
to  the  kitchen-garden. 

KITE  {MObus),  a  genns  ot  Fakomdit,  or  a  mb- 
family  including  Elanets,  Ac,  of  which  only  oimi 
species  is  a  common  native  of  Britain,  and  another 
is  amongst  its  rarest  visitants.  The  kites  havB 
much  weaker  bill  and  talons  than  the  falcons  and 


Eite  {Miinu  vulgarU). 

hawks,  but  the  wings  are  much  longer,  and  the  tail 
is  rather  long  and  forked.  Their  legs  bm  short. 
They  ore  remarkable  for  their  gracefulness  ot  flight, 
and  power  of  sailing  and  wbe^ing  about,  or  ^i£ng 
in  the  tit.  A  Scotch  and  local  English  name  <3 
the  CoHMOH  Kite  (Jf.  truigarit),  Gleui  or  Glsd, 
is  bdiered  to  be  from  the  same  root  with  glirU. 
The  common  K.  is  found  in  almost  all  pwfa  of 
Europe,  the  north  and  centre  of  Asia,  and  the  north 
of  Ahica.  It  is  fully  two  feet  in  length,  from  the 
tip  of  the  bill  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  the  plumage 
mostly  brown,  of  various  shades,  in  some  psrts 
mixed  with  gray.  It  feeds  on  reptiles,  mice,  moles, 
and  other  small  quadrupeds,  and  the  young  of 
birds,  MOtchuig  for  ita  prey  on  ths 


t.Guu^k — ' 


"  KimWAKE— KLAPKA. 


ground,  and  often  from  do  imall  elevation  in  the 
air.  It  ■ometimea  catches  liah.  la  former  times, 
irhen  it  was  mach  more  pleatifol  in  Britain  tliaii 
now,  it  WM  the  scourge  of  poultryjards,  pouncing 
on  foong  chickens.  It  was  slao  the  scavenger  ol 
London  and  other  T-^ngTiiph  towns,  devouiing  Ute 
offikl,  as  it  still  does  in  some  of  the  towns  of  Eaetem 
Europe,  and  performing  its  office  fearleaaly  even  in 
the  midst  of  the  people.  This  continued  to  be  the 
case  in  London  to  die  time  of  Hemy  TIIL  The 
K-'s  nest  is  nsnaUy  in  the  fork  of  a  tree  in  a  thick 
wood.  It  i«  easily  tamed. — A  very  rare  Britii^  tiitd 
is  the  Swallow-Uiled  £.  {Kauclenu  fwealut),  a 
smaller  bird  than  the  common  K.,  abundant  in 
many  parte  of  North  America.— The  QoyjsvA.  K. 
[M.  Oovinda)  is  common  in  India. — Other  species 
are  found  in  differeot  parts  of  the  world. 

KITxrWAKB  (Lotus  tridactytui,  or  L.  riata), 
spedea  of  Gtnj,  (q.  v.],  interesting  on  account  of  i 
abundance  in  very  northern  r^ons,  and  its  impoi 
ance  to  their  inhabitants.  In  addition  to  what  _ 
stated  in  the  article  OuLi^  it  may  be  mentioned 
that'theyoongof  the  E.  has  dark  markings  in  ' 
plunuige  whiota  disappear  in  the  adult,  is  kuown 


KitUwaJco  {LaruM  tridactsliu}. 

tome  parts  of  tiie  British  coasts  as  the  Tarrock, 
and  was  for  some  time  regarded  by  naturalists  as 
a  distinct  species ;  also  that  the  flesh  of  the  K.  is 
much  more  pleasant  than  thi^  of  most  gulls,  and 
its  eggs  very  good;  that  it  lays  usually  three  eggs. 
whi^  are  fully  two  inches  in  length.  It  is  found 
p]en<^ul]y  in  all  the  noithem  parts  of  the  world, 
wherever  the  coast  is  High  and  rock^,  migrating 
southwards  in  winter,  and  eiteudiiw  its  range  as 
far  south  as  the  Mediterranean  and  Madeira.  It 
is  found  on  the  Caspian  Sea. 

KITTO,  Dr  John,  a  most  industrious  and 
respectable  writer  on  biblical  subjects,  was  bora  at 
Plymouth,  December  i,  1804.  In  his  12th  year,  he 
lost  bis  power  of  hearing,  in  consequence  of  a  fall 
from  a  height  of  3t>  feet  His  father's  circnmatancea 
were  at  this  time  so  wretched,  thatyoung  K.  waa 
soon  after  sent  to  the  workhouse.  Here  he  learned 
the  trade  of  skoemaking,  and  waa  also  enabled  to 
indulge  that  taste  for  reading  which  had  marked 
him  from  his  earliest  yean.  la  1S24,  he  went  to 
Exeter  to  learn  dentistry  with  a  Mr  Grove,  who 
had  known  him  in  Plymouth,  and  who  took  a 
warm    interest    in   the   unfortunate   youth. 


Islington,  to  be  trained  for  some  useful  employment 
abroad.  In  May  1829,  he  accompanied  "Si  Qrove 
and  family  on  a  tour  to  the  East,  viaiting  in  the 
course  of  nis  travels  St  Peteiiburg,  Astraluian,  the 
Kalmuck  Tartars,  the  Caucasus,  Armeaia,  Persia, 
and  Bagdad.  He  letomed  to  England  in  ]833. 
The  rest  of  his  life  waa  spent  in  the  service  of  the 
bookseller^  chiefly  in  that  of  Mr  Charles  Enight, 
by  whom  he  waa  liberally  treated.  He  died  at 
Cannstadt,  in  WUrtembec);,  whither  he  had  gone  for 
the  benefit  of  his  health,  November  25,  185*.  His 
principalworksare— raePi<*>ria;£iMe(1838;  new 
edition  by  W.  and  E.  Chambers,  1865),  PieloricU 
Hittory  of  Pcdafm  (1839—1840),  Hittory  <^ 
Paiutiae  (18*3),  The  Zott  Seaifa—Ikiifnai  and 
Btindnat  (18*S).  Joumai  o/  Sacred  Literature  (1848 
—1863),  and  Daily  BibU  lUiulrationi  (1849—1853). 
He  also  edited  the  Osel<wadia  of  Biblicat  Literatura 
(published  by  A.  and  C.  Black).  K.'s  biography 
has  been  written  by  Dr  J.  E.  Eyiand  (1856) ;  a  later 
and  better  bi<u;rBphy  is  t^t  by  Professor  Eadie 
of  Glasgow.  In  1844,  the  university  of  Qiessen 
conferred  on  him  the  tiUe  of  D.D. 
KIDNG-CHAU',   chief  city   of   the   island   of 

TT«innn  (q.V.). 

KI'ZIL-EUH  (Bed  Sand),  a  sandy  desert  in  the 
north  of  Turkestan,  lyins  between  tiie  Amu-Duia 
and  3ir-Dana,  and  strebdiing  from  the  Sea  of  Aral 
to  Khokan,  in  bt  41°— 46°  aff  N.,  and  long.  60°— 
69°  E.  A  continnatdon  of  this  desert  northwards 
across  the  Sir-Daria  is  called  Eaki-Edu  (Black 
Sand)  and  forms  portion  of  the  Kirghis  Steppe. 

KIZLIAlt,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Aaiatio 
Russia,  in  the  district  of  Terek,  is  situated  about 
40  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Terek,  in  lat. 
43°  57  N.,  ions.  4G°  43'  K  It  contains  a  fortress, 
many  vineyard,  tanneries,  and  eilk.worm  nurseries, 
and  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  wine,  brandy, 
and  fish.  A  model  vineyard  and  a  school  for  in- 
struction in  wine-making  have  been  established 
here.    The  climate  is  unhealthy.    Pop.  (1867)  TT4S. 

KLA'OEHPUBT,  a  town  of  Austria,  capital  of 
the  crownland  of  Carinthlo,  is  situated  on  t^  river 
Glan,  two  miles  east  of  the  WOrihtee,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  means  of  a  canal,  and  about  80  miles 
north  .north-east  of  Trieste.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
Prince-bishop  oC  Gurk,  and  has  a  library  of  50,000 
vols.  E.  has  a  white-lead  factory — the  largest  in 
Austria — and  manufactures  woollen,  silk,  aud  cotton 
fabrics.  An  active  transit  trade  is  here  carried  on. 
Pop.  (1869)  16,200.  Heru  the  Hungarian  general 
'^rgei  has  been  confined  since  his  surrender  to  the 
ussians  at  Vlligoa  in  1849. 

ELAFEA,  OvoBOY  (Georok),  one  of  the  most 
heroic  and  skilful  generals  of  the  Hungarian  war, 

' '  a  son  of  the  Durgomastor  of  Temeevar,  and 
bom  Tth  April  1820.  In  1838,  he  entered 
the  Austrian  army,  and  had  attained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel  when  the  revolution  of  1848 
bnrst  out  E.  instantly  placed  himself  at  the 
service  of  the  Hungarian  government,  and  took 
a  prominent  part  &roughout  the  struggle.  The 
plui  of  the  Hongarian  campaign  in  the  opening 
of  18*9,  which  was  carried  out  with  such  great 
saccess,  was  K.'s  work.  In  several  of  the  battles, 
the  fortune  of  the  day  was  decided  by  the  troops 
under  his  command.  But  the  crowning  glory  of  his 
patriotic  career  waa  his  defence  of  Cmnom  (q.  v.). 
at  the  close  of  the  revolution.  His  famous  ssjly  on 
the  6th  of  August  was  perhaps  the  most  splendid 
deed  of  arms  in  the  whole  war.  The  Austrian  army 
beeie^ng  the  fortress  was  utterly  routed,  losing  "" 

pieces  of  artillery,  3000  muskets,  va-' '"■-— 

provinona,  and  about  2000  head  of 


^ 


-egw 


ELAFKOTH— EIAPTOMANU. 


nrep«T«d  to  out^  the  mr  into  Aiufarui  of  Styru, 
W  thB  newB  of  the  torrsader  of  GOrgm,  nuA  Oxa 
&gbi  ol  KoBEuth,  p(u>IftQd  Ui  action.  He  held 
oin,  horerer,  until  the  2Tth  Septeniber,  when  he 
cajntul&ted  to  Genend  HkynaQ,  on  oouditioti  that 
the  nniaoD  should  retain  their  Uvea  Knd  libertlea. 
K.  then  proceeded  to  Engluid,  but  afterwardji  to 
Oeno&.  In  1S99,  he  wu  requeeted  by  the  Sardi- 
nian eoremmBnt  to  form  a  Hungarian  L^on,  to  be 
need  m  the  war  ^ainit  Austria,  but  the  peaoe  of 
Villafranca  destroyed  his  hopes  of  aotiTe  serrioe. 
K.  has  wiittcni,  amoDg  other  works,  T^NaHmal 
War  In  Himgars  and  JVaniyhmiia  (2  toIs.  Leip. 
1851),  one  of  the  beat  and  most  authentic  works 
on  the  subject ;  and  The  War  m  Ifit  Stut,  tc. 
(Lond.  1856).  K.'s  ludicioiu  proolamation  in  1862, 
when  Garibaldi  made  a  rash  and  unfortunate  at- 
tempt on  Rome,  kept  Hunsarian  tighten  at  home. 
In  1860,  after  the  defeat  of  Auitria  at  Eoniggrtitz, 
he  endeavonred  to  eETect  a  revolution  in  Hungary ; 
but  failed,  and  fled  to  Oderber^ 

KIiAPBOTH,  HuKKiCH  Julius  vom,  was  the 
son  of  Martin  Heinrich  Klaproth,  an  eminent 
chemist,  and  WM  bom  at  Berlin,  October  11,  1783. 
He  betook  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Chinees 
ige,  when  only  a  boy  of  fourteen.  In  1601,  he 
d  Uie  university  of  Halte.  Here  he  pabliahed 
riaHteha'  Magtvan,  which  gave  him  a  bizh 
reputationi  Having  gon*  to  RuMia  in  1800,  no 
— a  appointed  interprater  to  the  Rnisian  embastf 
to  China,  the  embai^  proceeding  nearlv  200 
miles  into  Hongolia,  was  ordered  by  the  Chineoa 
en^roc  to  return,  but  K.  took  the  opnor- 
fainity  of  erploriuA  Iberia.  He  was  soon  ^Fter 
despatched  o&  a  scientiflo  mission  to  the  Caucasus  : 
the  results  of  his  valuable  ezplorstions  are  con- 
tained in  his  Rom  in  dm  Kaukomt  vnd  Otorgiea 
iadeaJ.  1807  vad  1808  [2  volt.  HsUe,  1812— 18U ; 
n^bch,  with  numerous  additions.  Parts,  1S23). 
While  in  RoBsia,  he  reoeived  man^  honoor*.  In 
1812,  he  left  the  RossiBa  service,  and  retomed  to 
Germany;  but  finally  settled  at  Paris  in  181S, 
where  he  died,  20th  Angust  1835.  K.'s  literuy 
activity,  especially  after  1810,  was  someOdng  pro- 
digious i  yet,  strange  to  lay,  it  was  accompanied 
by  an  exoenive  love  of  pleasure,  for  the  giatiflca- 
tion  at  which  Puis  afforded  hijn  only  too  isany 
faculties.  Hil  writings  relate  to  the  langnagM  and 
history  of  the  East,  more  particnlaTly  of  China,  and 
to  tiie  geography  of  the  Rosiian  empire  ;  they  are 
marked  by  fmmeuM  learning  and  extraordmaiy 
acttteness,  bat  nnfortooately  (bey  also  contain  Uie 
most  virulent  attacks  on  other  scholars.  Among 
his  works,  we  may  mention  OeegrapAiidi-lii^oritdu 
BatJereOnrng  da  OaUidien  Kauituui  (Weim.  1814) ; 
Baehrtibung  der  Siut.  Proamm  ticutAen  dan 
Katpitee  tmd  Sdueantn  Mtart  (BerL  1814) ;  Yer- 
wiehiM  der  OUnea.  und  JfamfrihiiseJOT  ilucAer  nnd 
MoMferipU  da-  KOni^  BtbUoOA  in  BtrUn  (Paris, 
1822) ;  A^  PolnlMa  (with  UUe«  1823 ;  2d  edit, 
Paris,  1829,  with  a  life  of  Bnddba  according  to  the 
Mongolian  legends),  a  work  in  which  the  various 
Aaiatui  nations  are  classified  according  to  the 
affioitisi  of  their  langoages,  and  the  beginning  of 
their  Bsthentie  history  determined ;  Tai&aaslaflo- 
rigvtt  de  VAAt  d4puii  la  MowtrchU  de  Ovnujvtipi'A 
notjoun  (4  vds.  Paris,  IS24— 1S26,  wiUi  24  ms^} ; 


Oritiatu  dtt  Trmtaix  de  M.  CJiampoUion  jtune  rur 
la  liiirotimMa  (Paris,  1832) ;  Jfotia  dvne  llappe- 
monde  tl  attnt  Ootmographie  Chinoita  pitblita  m 
CMne,  Tuns  en  1730,  Fautn  en  1793  (Paha.  1833). 

ELATTATT,   a  town  of  Bohemia,  in  a  fertile 
district,  68  miles  sonUi-west  of  Pr»ga&    It  oontsina 


KLAU'SEITBUBG,  a  town  of  Anstria,  capita]  of 
Uie  orownland  of  Tiansylvania,  is  titnated  on  ths 
Little  Szamos,  SO  miles  east-sontb-eaat  <A  Qnas- 
wardein.  It  is  surrounded  by  old  walli,  and  is 
divided  into  the  old  and  the  new  town.    Among  its 

tublic  buildings  are  a  Ivcenm,  a  gymnasium,  severs! 
ospitali  and  other  institutions,  benevolent  sad 
educatiouaL  Woollens,  earthenware,  and  paper  at« 
manofactiired.  The  b'ade  of  E.  is  not  important. 
Pop.  (1869)  26,382. 
KLAU'STHAL,  a  celebrated  mining-town  of 


miles  north-east  of  Gtittingen.  Sit 
above  sea-level,  so  that  the  potato  is  the  <diief  crop 
that  can  be  cultivated  with  sucoees,  the  inhabit- 
ants find  their  principal  employment  in  the  mincB 
and  foundries.  The  ores  raised  are  silver,  lead,  zinc, 
copper,  and  iran.  2000  workmen  are  employed  in 
the  mines,  and  1000  in  the  foundries.  In  the  mint^ 
14,000  thajem  (equal  to  £2027)  are  coined  weekly. 
Although  the  siTangements  and  appointments  of 
the  mines  are  very  complete,  yet  th^  prodnoe  has 
greatly  declined,  and  scarcelv  repays  the  manage- 
ment of  government,  into  whose  hands  they  have 
ahnost  alTfaUen.    Pop.  (1871)  9138. 

ELEBER,  Jeax  BAnrTTE,  a  diatingnished  genenl 
of  the  French  B«wiblic^  bom  6th  March  17S3,  at 
Strasburg,  where  his  fitther  was  a  rauden-laboioer. 
Having  received  a  good  education,  tie  entered  Uie 
Austrian  army,  but  returned  to  France,  and 
embracing  the  cause  of  the  Revolution,  r^odly  roae 
to  high  mihtary  rank.  He  aooompanied  Baaiptite 
to  ECTpt  as  a  general  of  division,  was  dai^erouaty 
wounded  at  the  capture  of  Alexandria,  but  recovered 
BO  as  to  take  part  in  the  expedition  to  Syria,  and 
won  the  battle  of  Mount  Tabor.  When  Bonapgkrte 
left  Beypt,  he  intrusted  tiie  chief  command  there  to 
E,  who  conelnded  a  convention  witb  Commodore 
Sidnev  Smith  for  its  evacuation ;  but  on  Adminl 
Eeilh  B  refusal  to  ratify  this  conventuni,  K.  sdopted 
the  bold  resolution  of  reconquering  it,  and  destroyed 
the  Turkish  army  at  HeLopolis.  During  an  attempt 
to  conclode  a  treaty  with  the  Tn»B,  E.  was 
aawasinated  by  a  Turkish  fanatio  at  Cairo,  14tih 
June  1800. 

KLEKZE,  XiKO   nmfViT.rgn  vox,  a  t^igfcingtiwlMA 

Oemian  architect,  was  bom  in  1TS4,  in  the  prin- 
cipality of  Eildesh^m,  and  having  stodied  archi- 
tecture In  Berlin  and  Paris,  was  appcnnted  architect 
to  Eing  Jerome  of  Weat^thalia  in  1808;  held  a 
similar  position  at  the  oonrt  of  Bavaria  fitm 
1816  to  1839,  and  in  1833  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  hereditary  nobility  in  that  kingdom.  In  1834, 
he  was  sent  to  Athens,  to  superintend  the  recon- 
struction of  that  capital,  and  in  1839  went  to  St 
Petersbiu^  to  execute  some  worka  for  the  Eb^mor 
of  Russia.  Many  of  the  finest  buildiiigs  reMntly 
erected  on  the  continent  of  Eiuape  •»  monwDenta 
of  E's  geoiiia.  such  ss  the  Glyptothek,  the  Pina- 
kotiiek,  the  Wslhalla,  and  many  other  strvcturea 
in  Monioh,  tiie  Imperial  Museum  at  St  Petera- 
bn^  and  several  hnildinga  in  Athens.  E.  is  the 
author  of  several  woriu,  chiefiy  on  the  subject  ot 
architeotDre.    He  died  in  1864. 

ELBPTOMAinA  (Or.  Uq>(,  to  steal).  Ammw 
the  ordinary  phomnena  of  minds  that  are  not 
regarded  sa  insane  or  criminsl  are  observed  inordi- 
nste  tendencies  to  aognire,  to  oolleot,  to  board.  So 
long  as  SDch  an  impnlse  does  not  interfere  with  tlM 
rights  end  property  of  others,  or  involve  a  fla^mit 
bresch  of  law,  it  is  readily  adinitted  as  an  indioatiaa 
of  disease,  or  ss  an  ahaut&tv  and  <«centrioity  iri^^ 
may  fairly  consign  the  in^vidnal  to  an  aqinu  or 


t._iOOQ  111 


ELUZUA— KNARE8B0B0UGH. 


0  contempt,  but  conoenu 

veT  the  unoimt  of  the  olqeot  approjaiBted,  oi  the 

he  nutter  into  »  oonit  of  law,  tb  act  U  b«i^M 
B  a  theft,  and  paniBhed.  In  many  rmma,  however, 
uob  oondoot  ia  th«  obviona  re«iiH  at  diBeaio.    The 

"of 


manyioTma  of  mental  dialer:  it 
a^ptom  of  many  othen,  where  violence,  or  deln- 
nonB,  or  incoherence,  leave  no  doabt  ai  to  the  Bonroe 
from  which  it  springs.  Bat  there  ore  other  caaea  in 
which  the  morbid  origin  cannot  be  bo  dearly  demon- 
Btrated — where  the  mind  ia  clear  and  cogent,  tlie 
morala  pure,  and  where  theft  is  the  only  proof  of 
inaani^.  There  it  erideitoe,  howerer,  in  favour 
of  the  opinion,  that  the  'pitypeaa.ty  to  acqiiire  may 
become  w  irradatible,  and  the  wQI  so  impotent, 
that  Hie  aj^iroptiation  is  invuhurtary,  and  the 
peipetrator  ureepiMuible.  Hm  entdfioation  of  the 
impqlse  i>  foundT  aasooiated  wi4£  phviical  changea 
and  conditions  which  may  be  regarded  aa  incom- 
patible with  the  healthy  djscharge  of  the  functions 
of  tibe  nervons  Bvstem )  but  the  Mmnection  ia  not 
iavariable,  and  tdie  beet  mode  of  eatabliahing  the 
reality  of  such  a  diBeaae  it  to  conaider  marked  cases 
in  relation  to  the  character,  intereati,  and  previoiu 
deportment  of  the  indiriduil — to  the  nfttore  of  the 
articles  taJcen— and  to  the  motivea  whidh  eeeiu  to 
have  determined  the  action.  A  baronet  oE  Une 
fbrtuoe  Btole,  while  on  the  continent,  pieces  of  old 
iron  and  of  broken  crockery,  and  in  siiah  quantitiea, 
that  tona  of  Umm  oollectimiB  were  preaented  to  the 
mstom-hODBe  officera.  A  clergyman  of  reopeotable 
bearing  and  great  naefalneeB  atetracted  from  book- 
shoge  and  itaUa  hundreds  of  ooiueB  oE  the  Bible, 
perbapa  with  the  intention  of  distribution.  A 
physician  pocketed  some  small  object  whenever  be 
entered  tiw  mtbnent  of  a  patient ;  anotlier  member 
of  this  pcoEenion  stole  nothing  bat  table-dotlu. 
The  inooQgmitiea  in  such  namtdvea  point  to  the 
eiistenee  of  de^seated  nnhealth.  Althoogh  each 
case  moat  be  tested  on  its  own  merits,  there  aro 
various  features,  oommon  to  a  nnmbei  of  even 
doubtful  cases,  whioh  shoold  be  embraced  wherever 
a  jndgment  is  formed.  The  objects  are  often 
Btolen  oatentutioQBly,  or  without  any  adequate 
precantioiis  to  conceal  the  attempt;  thOT  are  of 
no  value  in  themselves,  or  useleas  to  the  thief;  the 
act  is  Bolitary,  iadepeodent,  without  motdye,  and 
promptly  and  spODtaneonsly  avowed,  and,  if  over- 
looked,  repeated.  The  article  acquired  is  restored, 
or  altogeuier  diBrc«anteiI ;  and  olthoush  money  is 
rarely  taken,  bright  and  coloured  objects  most 
generally  eicite  cupidity.  It  is  observed  in  eitrema 
youth ;  it  is  associated  with  pM^nancy ;  it  is  here- 
ditary; and  often  follows  atfectioDS  of  the  braio, 
and  those  critical  and  cmcial  change*  iu  diBposition 
which  are  only  explicable  on  the  sapfXieitioD  of 
corresponding  alterations  in  the  oivanisation.— -d 
Manual  of  PsyehologkaL  Mrdiane,  by  Dis  Bnck- 
neU  and  Tuke,  pp.  224  d  sej.,-  AfOL.  Med.  PrgAoL, 
t.  v.  p.  666  (1853). 

KLIA'ZMA,  a  river  of  Kuuia,  an  afanent  of  the 
Oka,  rises  in  the  government  of  Moscow,  and  flows 
cast  through  those  of  Vladimir  and  Nijni-Novgorod, 
joining  the  main  stream  near  the  town  of  Qorbatof, 
after  a  oonne  of  X!T  miles,  for  the  last  150  of 
which  it  is  navigable.  Passiag  through  the  most 
indoatrial  government*  of  Russia,  it  is  one  of  the 
principal  commsrdal  arteries  of  Idie  empire. 

KLnHKET,  a  term  in  Fcoiifioation,  ngnifying  a 
small  postern  or  gate  in  a  palisade. 

KLOFSTOOK,  TsiKDiiiaH  GoTTUm,  a  German 
poet,  was  boru  2d  July  172^  at  Qnedlinbnis,  and 
went  to  Jena  in  1741^  to  (tndy  tbedogy.    Be  bad 


already  formed  the  I'ctolation  to  vrita  a  great  vpa 
^omt,  and  thought  of  Henry  the  Fowler  a*  a  good 
■nbjeot  Ua  one ;  and  at  Jena  he  oomposed  the 
first  canto*  of  his  Mraaah.  In  1716,  be  passed 
to  Leipaio,  and  there  became  acqnaint«d  with  the 
editors  of  the  BrmiiaiM  BatrOge,  in  which  the 
Sist  three  cantos  of  the  Messiah  appe*t«d  in  174& 
They  attracted  great  attention ;  the  author  was 
pronounced  a  rel^Dapoet  of  the  highest  order.  He 
waa  now  invited  to  Copenhagen,  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  minister  Bemstorff,  and  introduced 
to  the  king,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  travels. 
In  1771,  K.  settled  in  Hamburg,  with  a  sinecure 
appointment  and  a  pension  from  the  Danish  govern- 
ment, and  subsequently  received  sa  honorary  title 
and  a  pension  from  Hie  Markgntf,  afterwards  Grand 
Duke,  of  Baden.  In  17TS,  the  last  five  cantos  of 
his  Matiah  were^  published  at  Halle.  He  died  14th 
.^s  name  has  (or  rather  perhaps 
Aad)  averyhif^  place  in  Qemuui  literature.  Who- 
ever may  be  thought  of  the  intrinsio  value  of  lua 
poetry,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  be  exmxised  a  very 
— iportant  and  beneficial  influence  on  the  nation^ 

ite.  The  greats  of  his  successors,  Qoethe, 
acknowledged  this,  though  he  also  expressed  the 
opinion,  that  EL.  bad  beoome  rather  obaolete,  or  at 
least  that  bis  oonception  of  poetry  had  become 
sa  When  K.  firat  began  to  write,  the  literature 
aod  social  life  of  Germany  were  penetrated  by 
French  influences.  A  cold,  correct,  unimaginative 
spirit  ^raimised  over  the  tlionght  and  hatnta  of 
the  people.  K.  broke  looee  at  once  front  tU* 
shaUow  dc^Krtiam,  and  breathed  tjis  ur  rA  Freedom 
into  German  poetry.  Odea,  tragedies — in  which 
he  introduces  Hermann  (q.  v^  the  Chemseiaii  ai 
a  national  hero — and  biluical  dnunas,  with  soma 
hymns,  which  etill  find  a  f^ace  in  collections,  oon- 
Etitnte  the  remainder  of  K.'s  ^try.  !^  works 
were  Collected  and  published  in  12  vols.  (Leip. 
1709—1817),  in  16  vola.  (1823—1626),  in  9  volL 
(1S39).  The  Maaiak  haa  been  translated  both  in4« 
verse  and  prose  in  I'JngH**', 

KN  AFP,  AI.BEBT,  a  German  poet,  author  of  many 
of  the  best  modem  German  hymns,  was  a  native 
of  Wtlrtemberg,  and  was  bom  in  I79&  He  stodied 
for  the  churah,  and  became  the  principal  detgyman 
in  Stuttaart  K.  breiithed  a  new  life  into  that 
long-neglected  branch  of  poetry  —  the  religious 
tiymn  Many  of  his  efFuidons  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Ckrittottrpe,  a  periodical  edited  by  him  since 
1S33.  His  CkrMUcU  OtdicAte,  m  2  vols.  (Stuttg. 
"  18*3),  to  which  a  third  we* 
added  under  the  title  of  Neum  QedidUt  (Stuttg. 
published  by  his  friends. 
■  ■     ■  ■     hiBf? - 


KiriAe  uivj  Haui  (2  vols. 

1837)  is  B  valnable  oolleotion  of  Cbristisii  hymn*  of 

aU  ages,  to  which  his  CfiritttnUtder  (8tat^]841) 

'rmsasplendidsup^ement.  The BUder derVoTweU 

>peared  in  1862.    His  ffohoMbm/m  tStuttg.  1839) 

a  cycle  of  reUgious  poems.     He  died  in  1^4. 

EN  A'PSAOK,  a  lug  of  canvas  or  skin,  containing 

a   soldier's    neceaaaries,  and  worn    suspended   by 

strus  between  his  shoulders.    Those  wed  in  the 

Britisb  army  are  ordinarily  of  black  painted  canvas; 

but  some  other  natioos,  as  the  3wiat,  make  tbem  <^ 

ttdck  goat-skin,  dreased  with  the  luur  on.     The 

knuiHwk  affords  by  far  the  easiest  way  of  canning 

li^t  pencwal  luggage  during  a  rr""*^  —  -~iu.~™^ 


fc  walking. 


KNAPWEED.    See  CKST^usxa. 

KNA'RESBOROUOH,  •  parKamentarybcrougli 
and  market-town  of  Endand,  in  the  Wcvt  Biding  of 
Torkibin,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nldd,  18  imki 


1,'GoOgll 


KNAVESHIP— KMIOHT. 


wcot-north-west  of  York.  8t  Boberf  ■  Cace,  ii 
viciiiity,  is  well  knomi  for  the  mnrder  committed 
there  by  Eugene  Aram  in  1746.  Manufactures  of 
linen  and  cotton  i;aodB  are  carried  on  hsre.  K, 
Ktumed  two  members  to  the  Houee  of  Common) 
till  1867.    It  now  retunia  one.    Pop.  (1671)  5203. 

KNAVESHIP,  in  the  L»w  of  Scotland,  a  a  pro- 
portioD  of  the  grain  given  to  the  miller's  servuit 
who  performs  the  work  of  the  mill,  such  mill  being 
ui  ancient  mill  to  which  a  right  of  thirlage  is 
attaohed.    See  Thirlaqb,  Insdcken  Hdltcfbbs. 

KNEE,  in  Ship-bnilding.  an  angular  piece  of  wood 
or  iron  used  to  connect  the  deck-beams  with  the 
ribs  of  the  vessel's  aides.    The  knees  are  fastened  on 


framework  of  the  ship. 

KXEE-JOIN'T,  The,  is  the  articulation  between 
the  femur  or  thigh-bone,  above,  and  the  tibia  or 
■Un-bune,  below.  A  third  bone,  tiie  patella,  or  knee- 
cap— one  of  the  Sesamoid  Bones  (q.  v.),  and  not  a 
true  bone  of  the  skeleton— also  enters  into  the 
rtructnre  of  Uua  joint  anteriorly.  The  articular 
sarfac«s  of  these  bonee  are  covered  with  cartilage, 
lined  b;  a  synovial  membrane  or  sac,  which  is  &e 
lorsost  and  most  extensive  in  the  body,  and  con- 
nected together  by  ligaments,  some  of  which  lie 
eitemal  to  the  joint,  while  others  occupy  its 
interior. 

The  moat  important  of  the  ertema!  ligaments 
ate  the  anterior  or  JAgamentum  PaitUa,  which  is 
in  reality  that  portion  of  the  Quadrkept  Eatengor 
Orurit  which  ia  oontinned  from  the  knee-cap  to 
the  tubercle  of  the  tibia  (see  figure) ;  one  internal, 
aad  two  external  lateral   ligaments ;    a  posterior 


Internal  view  of  the  Sight  Knee-jobt 
(Pi™G«,'.ff™i»J»-««.j,.) 
a,  the  msnr ;  »  uid  e,  ihc  Internal  Bnil  th>  ntmiBl  0Dnd(1«s: 
d  and  >,  tha  two  crncltl  llgunenu ;  /  *nd  r,  tlM  HtcmiU  and 
intcnial  Mmllusu'  urttligM;  l:and  I,  tba  upper  puLariba 
fltiDla;  j,  Iha  appet  pari  of  the  tibia. 

ligament ;  and  a  capsular  ligament,  which  surrounds 
the  joint  in  the  intervals  left  by  the  preceding  liga- 
ments. The  positions  of  these  ligaments  are  sofi- 
ciently  indicated  by  their  names.  Of  the  internal 
ligaments,  the  two  crucial,  so  called  becanse  they 
cross  one  another,  are  the  most  importanti  Their 
position  is  shewn  in  the  figure.  The  external  and 
internal  semilnnor  cajtilages  ore  usually  placed 
amoi^st  the  internal  ligaments  ;  they  are  two  cres- 
centnc  plates  of  cartilage.  The  outer  port  of  each 
""    ■'"""  is  thick;  the  inner  free  bolder  thin.    Eaoh 


cartilEua  ia 


cortilaga  covers  nearly  the  outer  two-thirds  of  the    t 
corresponding  articulu'  sorface  of  the  tibia,  and  by 
ita  form  deepens  these  surfaces  for  finner  a>tical»- 
tion  with  the  condyles  of  the  femur.  | 

The  chief  movements  of  this  joint  are  those  of  a    { 
hinge-joint — namely,  flexion  and  extension,  but  it  ia    . 
also  capable  of  slight  rotatoir  motion  when   the 
knee  is  half-flexed.     During  flexion,  the  articular    ' 
surfaces   of   the  tibia  glide  backwards  upon   tfaa    i 
condyles  of  the  femur;  while  in  extension,  they  glide    | 
forwards.    The  whole  ranf[e  of  motion  of  this  joint,    . 
from  extreme  flexion  to  extreme  extension,  is  about 
150°.   Judging  from  ita  articular  surfaoes,  which  have    ' 
comparatively  Uttla  adaptation  for  each  other,  it    i 
might  be  inferred  that  this  was  a  weak  and  inaeeore 
joint ;  and  yet  It  ia  very  rarely  dislocated.    Its  t«al 
strength  depends  on  the  large  size  of  the  articular    ' 
ends  of  the  bones,  on  the  number  and  strength  of 
the   ligaments,  and  on  the  powerful  muscles  and 
fasclffi  by  which  it  ia  invested. 

KyELLER,  Sir  GoDrRxv,  an  eminent  portrait- 
painter,  was  bora  at  Llibeck  in  IMS,  and  studied 
painting  under  Rembrandt  and  Feidlnand  BoL     He 
at  liist  chose  historical  subjocta,  but  afterwards  gave     i 
himself  entirely  to   portrait-painting.     In  1674,  be 
went  to  London,  and,  on  the  death  of  Sir  Peter    I 
Lely  in  1680,  was  appointed  court-painter  to  Charles 
IL    In  1634,  he  \isited  Paris,  ^  the  invitation  of    I 
Louis  XIV.,  and  painted  portraits  of  the  king  and 
royal  family.    He  retained  hia  office  at  the  £^liah 
court  during  the  reign  of  James  IL,  and  continued 
to  fill  it  after  the  Kevolution.    Inl692,  William  HL    ' 
bestowed  on  him  the  honour  of  knighthood,  which 
he    afterwards  received    also   from    the   £in[ieror    . 
Joseph  L;  and  in  1716,  George  L  made  him  a  baronet.    | 
He  died  in  1725,  or,  according  to  others,  in  1726, 
and  a  monument  was  erected  f«  him  in  Westminster    . 
Abb^,  with  a  highly  laudatory  insciiptian  by  Pope. 
K.'b  best-known  productions  are  the  '  Beauties  of 
Hampton  Court'  (painted  by  order  of  William  UL),    I 
and  nia  portraits  of  Uie  *  KItOat  Club,'    He  paintad 
avowedly  for  the  love  of  money,  and  hence  never    i 
did  justice  to  the  talent  be  possessed,  so  Uiat  it 
is  difficult  for  posterity  to  understand  his  repnta- 


Usher  and  author,  was  bom 
where  his  father  carried  on  the  buainesa  of  a  book- 
seller. X.  was  brought  up  to  the  same  profesvion, 
but  early  turned  nis  attention  to  publishing. 
Among  hia  first  attempts  in  this  department  was 
Tht  j^kmian,  a  periodical  supported  by  t^  Eton 
boys,  and  which — in  spite  of  its  juvenility — obtained 
a  conaiderable  reputation.  He  next  started  (1S23) 
Knigli£a  QvaTUrttj  Afagaaae,  and  continued  it  for 
some  time  in  London,  to  which  he  removed  in  the 
following  year.  The  whole  of  hia  honourable  career 
was  devoted  to  popular  literature,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  earliest  and  most  accomplished  advocates. 
He  died  March  9,  IS73.  Among  the  works  which 
K.  published  or  edited  are  the  Peann  Magastie 
no-in  1845)^  which  was  started  only  a  month 
3  after  C/utmberi'i  Edinburgh  Jountal, 
one  time  enjoyed  a  circnlatiou  of  nearly 
200,000  copies  weekly  ;  the  Briliah  Almanac,  and 
'^'-npaniim  to  the  Almanac;  Pawy  Cydmadia 
.  vols.  1833—1856) ;  LfbrnTyo/EnUrtainiag Know- 
ledge—the volnme  on  the  Elenliant  (1831)  being 
written  by  himself ;  PiOorial  Hittorg  of  Engtaud  - 
Pictorial  Bible  (1838),  now  the  property  of 
Measts  Chambers ;  Pictorial  Boot  of  Coimum 
Prayer  [l^as\i  London  PidorMUs  JUvMraled  {&  Tola. 
1341—1844) ;  Old  JSngland,  a  Pidoriai  Mtueum  of 
Jfalional  Antiquiatt  (2  vols.  1845) ;  Hdif-koun 
vith  Oe  Bed  AuUior*  (4  toU  1847— lS4fi):    The 


Li;|li.,;lll]vClOO*^IC 


KNlQHTS-KNI&mrS  SKRVIOE. 


Load  %M  Liee  in  (4  Tolt.  1848) ;  Cydopadia  of  tU 
IndltMn/i^aU  JTaiUmt  (ISSl);  knd  TAt  EngliA 
Oj/dimaidia  (22  -toIl  1854—1861),  which  u  baaed 
am  the  Potny  C]/elop(tdia,  bnt  u  a  Kie»t  advance 
even  on  that  adminbte  vork,  and.  in  fact,  forma  one 
of  the  moat  complete  and  accurate  cyclopudiM 
in  the  world.  EL  baa,  in  addition,  wan  a  highly 
Teepeotahle  poaition  aa  an  author  by  hia  Pietorial 
ShaJaipm,  which  ia  accompanied  by  a  '  Biogrnpb? ' 
and  a  'Hiatoir  of  Opinion,  with  DoubttiU  Pkya,' 
4o.  {8  Tola.  1839—1841);  library  edition  (12  vola. 
1842—1844} ;  national  edition,  with  '  Biography ' 
and  'Studies'  (8  vol*  1851—1853),  Lift  ^Ccaton 
(1844)  j  Piay  aad  Poena,  tuith  Olonanai  Notxi 
(Tth  ed.  18S7J;  KaovUdge  w  Pmxr  (1855);  and 
above  all,  by  bu  Pomdar  Hiitory  <if  England,  an 
lUutlraUd  Mistory  qf  Soei^y  and  Oovernmenl  from 
the  EaAU-t  Period  to  our  ovnt  Tiiiua  (1856—1862). 
This  work  is  probably  the  very  best  hirtory  of 
Ezigland  that  we  poegew — '  He  hiitory,'  according 
to  the  Timea, '  for  English  youth.' 

KKIGHTS  (SaioD,  Onijit,  a  aemnt  or  attendant), 
originaliy  mea-at-arms  bound  to  the  petformauce 
of  certain  duties,  anions  othen  to  attend  their 
■oTereign  or  feudal  superior  on  horseback  in  time 
of  war.  The  institution  of  knighthood,  aa  con- 
ferred by  investiture,  and  with  certain  oatha  and 
ceremomea,  arose  gradually  throughout  Europe  as 
tu  sdjnnt^  of  the  feudal  syitem  (see  Feudal 
Sybteu;  Ceivaisy).  The  character  of  the  knight 
was  at  once  military  and  religioua.  The  defence 
and  recovery  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  the  protec- 
tion of  pilgrinui.  were  the  objecta  to  which,  in  the 
early  times  of  the  instituCion,  he  eapeciallj'  devoted 
himselL  The  system  of  knight-service,  introduced 
into  England  by  William  the  Conqnenir,  empowered 
the  king,  or  even  a  superior  lord  who  was  a  sub- 

Cb,  to  compel  every  holder  of  a  certiun  artent  of 
d,  called  a  knight's  fee,  to  become  »  mem- 
ber of  the  koigiitly  order ;  his  investitnie  being 
accounted  proof  tlwt  he  poaaasaed  tiie  requisite 
urns,  and  was  aafacientlT  trained  in  their 
I '  Statute  of  Knighti,'  of  the  6i«t  year  of 
Edward  IL,  r^nlating  the  csoaes  that  were  to  he 
held  valid  to  excuse  a  man  from  knidttly  service, 
shews  that  in  the  14th  c  the  knightly  ofGce  was 
not  olwaya  eagerly  coveted ;  yet  ita  social  dignity 
was  very  considerable,  for  even  dukes,  if  not 
admitteii  into  the  order,  were  obli^red  to  yield 
precedence  in  any  roy^  pageant  or  pnUio  ceremony. 


e  of  VI 


was  bound  to  attend 


the  king  for  forty  days,  computed  from  the  day 
when  the  enemy  arrived  in  the  country.  After  the 
long  war  between  France  and  England,  it  became 
tlie  practice  for  the  sovereign  to  receive  money 
compensations  from  subjects  who  were  unwilling 
to  receive  knighthood,  a  system  out  of  which  grew 
a  aeries  of  grievances,  leading  eventually  to  the  total 
abolition  of  knight- service  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 

Knighthood,  originally  a  military  distinction. 
c«me,  in  the  16th  c,  to  be  occoHiouall]'  conferred  on 
civilians,  as  a  reword  for  valuable  services  rendered 
to  the  crown  or  commnnity.  The  first  civil  knight 
in  England  was  Sir  William  Walworth,  lord  mayor 
of  London,  who  won  that  distinction  by  slaying  the 
rebel  Wat  Tyler  in  presence  of  the  king.  Since  the 
abolition  of  kuight^service,  knighthood  has  been 
conferred  without  any  regard  to  property,  as  a  mark 
of  the  sovereign's  esteem,  or  a  reward  for  services 
of  any  kind,  civil  or  military.  In  recent  timee,  it 
has  lieen  bestowed  at  least  as  often  on  scholars, 
lawyera,  ai-tists,  or  citizens,  as  on  soldiers,  and  in 
many  csaes  for  no  weightier  service  than  carrying 
a  congratulatory  address  to  court 

The  ceremonies  practised  in  conferring  knight- 
hood have  varied  at  different  penoda.    In  general, 


fasting  and  bathing  were  in  early  times  necessary 
prepuittives.  In  the  11th  c;,  the  creation  of  a 
knight  was  fireoeded  by  solemn  confession,  and  a 
midnight  vigil  in  the  diurch,  and  followed  br  the 
reception  of  the  euchorist.  The  new  knight  offered 
bis  sword  on  the  altar,  to  signify  his  devotion  to  the 
church,  and  determination  to  lead  a  holy  life.  The 
Bwerd  was  redeemed  in  a  sum  of  money,  had  a 
benediction  prononnoed  over  it,  and  waa  guded  on 
by  the  higbest  ecdesiaatic  present.  The  title  was 
conferred  oy  binding  the  sword  and  spurs  on  the 
ramdidate,  after  whiui  a  blow  waa  dealt  nim  on  the 
cheek  or  shoulder,  as  the  Isst  affront  which  he  was 
to  receive  unrequited.  He  then  took  an  oath  te 
protect  tihe  distressed,  maintain  right  u^oinst  might, 
and  never  by  word  or  deed  to  stain  his  character 
as  a  knight  or  a  Christian.  A  knight  might  be 
deraaded  for  the  infringement  of  any  part  of  his 
oaui  (an  event  of  very  rare  occurrence),  in  which 
esse  his  spurs  were  chopped  off  with  a  hatchet,  his 
sword  broken,  hia  eecutebeou  reveracid,  and  some 
reliflous  obeervancee  were  added,  during  which 
each  piece  of  armour  was  taken  off  in  succession, 
and  cast  from  the  recreant  knight- 
It  has  been  said  that  knigh^ood  could  originally 
be  conferred  by  any  person  of  knightly  condition, 
but  if  80,  the  right  to  bestow  it  was  early  restricted 
to  persons  of  ruik,  and  afterwards  to  the  sovereign 
or  his  representative,  as  the  commander  of  an  army. 
In  England,  the  sovereign  now  bestows  knighthood 
by  a  verbal  declaration,  accompanied  witii  a  simple 
ceremony  of  imposition  of  the  sword,  and  without 
any  patent  or  written  instrument.  In  some  few 
instances,  knighthood  has  been  conferred  by  patent, 
when  the  persons  knighted  could  not  conveniently 
come  into  the  presence  of  royalty,  as  in  the  case  of 
governors  of  colonies,  or  other  persons  occupying 
prominent  situations  abroad,  llie  lord-lieatenant 
of  Ireland  alao  occasionally  but  rarely  exercises  a 
delegated  pow^  of  conferring  knighthood.  The 
monosyllable 'Sir' is  prefixed  to  the  ^iristian  names 
of  knights  and  baronets,  and  their  wives  have  the 
legal  iHsignation  of  '  Dame,'  which  in  common  inter- 
course becomes  '  Lady.' 

Persons  who  are  smiply  knights  without  belong- 
ing to  any  order,  are  culed  m  Eneland  Knigbte 
Bat^lort,  a  name  probably  corrupted  tioja  hai  <&va- 
tier.  Eni^thood  of  this  kind  is  now  only  conferred 
in  Great  Britain.  A  degree  of  knighthood  called 
Banneret  formerly  eiirted  in  England  and  Franco, 
which  was  given  on  the  field  of  lattle  in  reward  for 
the  performance  of  some  heroic  act.  For  the  mode 
in  which  that  dignity  wo*  conferred,  sea  BANincBn'. 
No  knight-banneret  has  been  created  in  the  £<dd 
since  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  when  that  honour  waa 
bestowed  OB  one  Sir  John  Smith,  for  rescuing  the 
royal  standard  from  the  hands  of  the  rebels.  George 
III.  twice  conferred  the  title  on  occasion  of  a  review, 
but  the  proceeding  was  considered  irregular,  and 
the  tank  of  the  knwhta  not  generally  reoogniaad. 

The  form  of  heunet  which  the  requirementi  of 
the  later  heraldry  have  appropriated  to  knights, 
entitling  them  to  place  it  over  their  arms,  is  full- 
faced,  of  steel,  decorated  with  ban,  and  with  tlta 
visor  a  little  open.  It  is  repreeented  under  the 
article  Hblmkt. 

KNIGHT'S  FEE.  See  Ksiohts. 
KNIGHTS  OF  THE  SHIBB,  otherwise  adled 
in  England  Knights  of  Parliament.  They  were 
knights  formerly  chosen  by  the  freeholdets  of  every 
county  to  represent  the  county  in  urliameut,  and 
were  originally  inhabitants  of  the  places  for  which 
they  were  chosen.    Sea  Pabuament. 

KNIOHT-S  SERVICE,  one  ot  the  ancient 
tenures   in   England   (see   KxiQim),   whioli   waa 


jbjCuu^l' 


ENiamS  TBBIPLABS-KNOT& 


a  of  Oharlea  II.,  and  DOorertad 
into  Freahold  (q.  v.). 

ENIOHTS  TEUPLAB6.    See  Teupusa. 

KNIPPERDOLLIITQ,  Beshard,  a  Dot«d  leader 
of  tbe  fuutic&l  AnabaptiBtt  of  the  16th  century. 
See  AjUBAnnsis. 

KNITTINQ,  an  art  alUed  to  wearing,  but  of 
oomparatively  modem  date.  The  time  and  filace 
''  'ts  ioTention  aie  diapated.  Some  histodiuii  maiat 
iQ  Scotland  having  the  honour,  at  a  date  Bome- 
it  before  the  year  1600;  othen  assert  that  it 
le  from  Spain,  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. ;  but 
there  is  no  proof  that  the  silk  stockirtgB  which  were 
worn  by  that  monarch  were  knitted,  and  tn  the 
absence  of  such  proof,  the  weight  of  evidence 
smains  in  favour  of  Scotland.  KoittinK  conalsta 
1  using  a  dngle  thread,  and  with  it  forming  a 
continual  aerieB  of  loops  across  the  whole  fabric ; 
^  B  through  these,  and  thev  in 
their  turn  receive  acothei  set,  until  the  whole  is 
completed.  Knitting  is  only  employed  to  make 
small  articles,  such  as  stockings,  ^ovee,  ftc. ;  and 
as  it  furnishes  an  easy  and  amusing  employment 
for  the  hands,  without  engagibg  the  attention  much, 
it  fonns  a  useful  and  desu^le  occupatiou  for  ladies 
and  othem  who  do  not  require  knitted  articles  as 
necessaries,  for  the  knittmf- machines  hare  now 
rendered  it  impossible  for  hand-work  to  compete 
with  them  in  point  of  economy  or  beauty  of 
workmanship^    See  HoaiZRr. 

KNOT,  an  axpreaaion  used  in  speaking  of  a 
ship's  wa^  thmndi  the  water,  and,  aa  mch,  repre- 
senting nules.  The  log-line  is  divided  by  knots 
into  lonaths,  each  of  which  ia  to  a  geographical 
mile  aa  naif  a  minute  is  to  an  hoar— l  e.,  as  1  to 
120.  The  las  being  cast  overboard,  note  ia  care- 
fully taken  M  how  many  of  these  knoti  run  out  in 
a  liaU  minnte,  and  it  follows  that  the  veaael  is 
passing  through  the  water  at  the  same  number  of 
geographical  mile*  per  hour.  The  proportion  of  a 
geographical  to  a  statute  mile  being  nearly  that 
of  7  to  6  (see  Mili),  a  vessel  making  12  knots 
an  hour,  is  in  reality  travelling  at  the  rate  of  14 
statute  "lil™ 

KNOT,  a  twist  or  loop  in  a  rope  or  cord,  so 
made  that  the  motion  of  one  piece  c^  the  line  over 
the  other  shall  be  itopped.  The  knot  owes  its 
power  of  paaaiTa  reslatance  to  the  friction  of  the 
rope.  The  use«  of  knots  are  infinite;  in  the 
commonest  occasions  of  life,  one  or  two  simple 
knots  are  indifipenaable ;  in  building,  mining,  and 
almost  every  land  occupation,  knot^  of  curioua 
form  are  employed ;  while  on  shipboard,  knots  ma^ 
be  almost  numbered  by  the  dozen,  and  each  is 
appropriated  to  a  Bpecific  duW.  The  accompanying 
diagrams  of  some  of  the  simpler  knots  may  be 
generally  useful  In  these,  the  position  of  the  rope 
or  cord  is  shewn  before  tightening,  so  that  the  mode 
of  formation  may  be  mora  readily  understood. 

"  ■  rtkuot "     " 


the 'overhand'  (fig.  1). 


Kg.  1.  Fig.  2. 

use  ii  t«  form  a  knob  ia  a  rope  to  stay  it  from 
■lipping.    By  a  ili^t  alteraUoiv  the  ■  single  sling,' 


or  slip  knot  (fig.  2),  is  obtaiaed,  ahnqv  io  tba 
middle  of  the  rop&  More  oomnlicated,  bnt  rtiQ 
more  usefol,  is  the 'double  bUu'  [Oft  3),  for  tu^ead- 
ing  a  beam  in'  bar  horiiontalfy.  Ilie  bowline  knot 
(lig.  4)  serves  to  give  a  ti^t  grasp  round  a  pole  or 
beam,  which  w<rald  occupy  ue  loop  a,  or,  dnwB 
close  on  the  rope,  it  forms  a  large  knobt  to  prarent 
the  rope  paasmg  a  hole.    The  sheepshank  (fig.  fit 


affords  a  means  of  shortening  a  rope  temporarily, 

without  diminiabing  its  power  of  rectilineal  tenaion. 
All  the  foregoing  have  been  at  the  double  or  middle 
parts  of  the  rope ;  for  the  end  of  the  cordage,  Gg.  6 
shews  an  admirable  shp-knot,  which  in«iTjtj;n«  xtg 
l(ripe  until  loosened  In'  hand ;  a  is  a  common  over- 
land knot  at  the  end  of  the  string,  to  prereot  it 


XI 


The  sailor't  knot  (Gg.  S)  has  the  adv»a- 

L  properly  mode,  of  reaisttng  all  aepuoUns 

Btrain  on  Uie  two  ropes,  and  at  the  same  time  <3 


t^e,  whan  pi 


being  loosened  immeiUotely  by  a  pull  at  one  of  th* 
short  ends.  Foronintei^ 
lacing  of  two  donbied 
ropes,  the '  Corrick  bend' 
(fig.  9)  has  no  superior; 
the  point  of  junction  can- 
not Blip,  and  the  moment 
the   tenaion   ceases,    the  p^,  g^ 

two  ropes  are  again  free 

from  each  other.   Knots  have  mauy  technical  nainM, 
tuch  OS  bight,  hitch,  &c 

KNOT-GRASS.     See  Poltoombm. 

KKOTS  of  different  kinda  are  bone  fay  different 


i!vGooglc 


A 


KKOOT— KNOX. 


•oma  of  them  appear  to  be  numtted  by  the  i 
letter  of  the  nuna  or  title  olihe  beftrar.  In  the 
Wake  and  Onnonda  knot  (fig.  1),  it  !■  not  dlKoolt 
to  trace  a  W  and  two  Oa.  The  Bonidiier  knot, 
M  seen  on  &«  tomb  o(  Archbiahop  Bourchier,  at 
(^nterbuiy,  beara  »  reeembLanee  to  two  Bt,  ai  ' 
the  Stafford  knot  to  two  S&  The  Laoy  knot  (00. 
contains  within  it »  reboi  mi  the  fbnr  letten  ot  t 
name  Lacy. 

EITOUT,  a  soonrge  compoted  of  many  thongi 
■kin,  plaited,  and  intarwoTen  with  wire,  which  w 


Tha  offender  wa«  tied  to  two  atakei,  itaipped,  and 
received  oa  the  back  the  ipecified  number  <u  lashes; 
100  oc  120  were  eqDiralent  to  aentenca  of  d""^ 
bat  in  auny  oaaei  tha  victim  died  nnder 
operatiDiL  long  before  thia  number  waa  oompletad. 
lliis  pnniibinent  is  at  the  present  time  ii^cted 
only  upoa  ordinal^  oriminals,  such  as  incendiaries 
or  amasBnl.  It  is  no  lon^  in  use  in  the  army, 
except  when  a  soldier  is  dismissed  for  iS  conduct, 
in  wbioh  case  three  to  ten  Isshea  are  given,  in 
order  to  disgrace  the  soldier,  rather  than  pnnish 
him.  Hie  whiming  is  inflicted  by  a  oiiniinal,  who 
prefers  this  offioe  to  exile  to  Siberia,  and  who  is 
constantly  kqit  in  priaon,  except  when  his  servicea 
•re  reqnirad.  The  nobility  are  legally  exempt  from 
the  knoui^  bnt  tiiis  privil^e  hss  not  always  beem 
respected. 

EKOWLEDGH.  Tbig  tenn  of  aommon  use  is 
associated  with  the  greateet  problems  and  oontro- 
veisiee  of  philosophy.  The  Perceptioii  of  the 
Bxtemal  or  Matenal  Worid  (see  CoMnon  Sensk, 
Pbacxption),  the  iiBtnre  oC  Bdief  (see  Biuxr),  tiie 
ultimate  ottfiymi  of  a  Proposition  or  Judgment  (see 
Jddomeut),  ore  all  involved  in  the  discussion  of 
what  is  meant  by  knowledge.  Moreover,  vre  may, 
in  connection  witb  this  woro,  take  up  the  consider- 
ation of  Tlionjtht  or  Intelligence  on  the  whole,  in 
contrast  to  tbe  feelines  and  volitions  (see  IflTZLUHTT). 
In  a  still  different  pEose  of  meaning,  we  may  be  led 
to  consider  the  nature  of  Soienoe  or  Philosophy, 
which  is  a  species  of  knowledge  diatingnisbed  by  the 
two  features  of  being  geaaruiied,  ss  distinct  from 
individual  or  particulaT  facta,  and  being  verified  or 
attested  by  careful  evidence,  in  contoast  to  the 
loose  assertions  that  satis^  the  ordinary  ran  of 
mankind. 

A  distinction,  conndared  1^  Sir  W.  Homillon  and 
others  to  be  of  great  impottanoe  in  metaphyiioal 
philosophy,  is  that  of  Immediate  or  Presentative, 
and  Mediate  or  Representative  Knowledge.  The  one 
is  tha  knowledcje  or  cognizaoce  that  we  have  of  the 
modifications  o?  our  own  minds,  so  to  speak,  with- 
out inferring  aaj'thing  beymid,  m  in  our  various 
sensations  and  emotions.  Wben  we  are  affected  by 
cold  or  beat,  hunger,  thirsts  odour,  or  sound,  ws 
are  conscioim  of  a  something,  which  may  be  sud  to 
be  wholly  contained  in  our  own  minds;  but  when 
a  present  modification  of  the  mind  is  looked  upon 
not  for  its  own  sake,  but  as  bodying  forth  something 
more  than  itself,  as  in  memory,  our  knowledge  is 
then  said  to  be  mediate.  Thus,  an  actual  sensation 
is  immediate,  but  a  recollection,  or  idea,  or  imagina- 
tion is  mediate  and  representative,  Mr  Muiael 
makes  this  distinction  the  basis  of  his  division  of 
the  mind.  *  Conscionsneas,'  he  says, '  in  its  relation 
to  the  person  conscious,  is  of  two  kinds ;  or  rather, 
is  composed  of  two  elements — the  preeentative,  or 
intuitive ;  and  the  representative,  or  rededive.  The 
phenomena  of  the  former  class  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  general  name  of  Intuititytu;  those  of  the 
latter,  bv  that  of  ThoughlM.' 

It  will  appear  from  the  above  remaiks  that  there 


ns  of  the  philosophy  of  mind 
that  severally  sugsest  each  in  it 
.  of  confosing  a  mumtude  togetht 


instead  of  confosing  a  mnmtude  togetht 

KNOWLES,  Jahs  Shmkisaii,  an  Tfngii«b 
dramatiBt,  was  the  son  of  James  Knowlee,  an 
eminent  teacher  of  elocution,  and  author  of  a 
DidxoiuiTT)  of  tht  EngliA  Language.  Ha  was  bom 
at  Cork  in  17S1.  The  family  removed  to  London 
in  1792,  and  here  young  K.  received  hi*  edacatdon. 
After  holding  for  some  time  a  commission  in 
the  army,  he  Became  on  actor,  and  made  his  finit 
appearance  at  the  Crow  Street  Theatre,  Dublin; 
bat  he  never  attained  much  eminenoe  in  this  pro- 
fession. Subsequently,  he  lived  for  (Etver«l  years 
in  Belfast  and  (3hMgow,  as  a  teacher  a!  eloentiMi, 
and  it  was  at  this  time  he  lud  the  foundation  of 

first  performed  at  Belfast  in  ISIS.  It  was  followed 
by  Virgiaiua,  his  most  effective  irieoe,  afterwarda 
recast  for  tbe  London  stage,  where  Maoresdy  took 
the  principal  port.  He  wrote  thirteen  other  plaji^ 
but  none  of  his  productiona  aihibit  great  gebius  ; 
they  ore,  however,  unqueBtionably  the  best  acting 
playB '  produced  by  an  Engl  jab  man  in  modem  times. 
About  the  year  IBiS,  be  relinqniBhed  the  stage  from 
religioas  scruples,  and  in  1BS9  joined  tbe  Baptirt 
bo(^.  He  latterly  distingnisbad  himself  by  hia 
religions  aeaL  In  1B51,  ha  published  a  little  con- 
troversial work,  displaying  considerable  aonteueM 
and  ability,  The  Idol  BemoUAed  bg  U»  otni  Prlal, 
in  answer  to  Curdinol  Wisemwi's  Lectwee  on  &an« 
subetantiatdon.  K.  died  at  Torquay,  in  Devonshire 
in  December  1862. 

KNOWLTCyiflA,   a   genus  of   South   African 

Slants,  of  the  natural  order  Rammadaaa,  with 
owers  resembling  those  of  AdoaU,  and  aucculeut 
fruit  K.  veticaioria,  which  has  bi-temate  leutbeiy 
leaves,  and  fiowers  in  few-flowered  nmbeU,  U 
'    "     '      its  acridi*  

Hope  instead  o 


half  an  hour,  and  it  keeps  open  a  long 
seems  to  be  still  more  powetfiiL 

KNOX,  JOHH,  the  great  Scottish  reformer,  waa 
bom  in  tiie  year  1S06,  in  a  suburb  of  Haddington 
called  Oifibid  Gate,  where  a  small  field  ttill  ^oe« 
by  the  name  of  '  Knox's  Croft.'  The  social  poatiOD 
of  his  parcots  is  not  very  clearly  asceitained.  His 
own  statement  is,  that '  his  great-erandfather,  gude- 
eehir,  and  father  served  under  t£e  Earls  of  Both- 
welL'  He  is  supposed  to  have  oome  of  an  old 
and  respectable  fomily,  the  Enoxes  of  Ranfurly,  in 
Renfrewshire.  He  received  his  early  education  at 
the  grammar-school  of  Haddington,  and  in  the  yeal' 
1021  went  to  the  university  ol  Glasgow.  He  wu 
them  a  pupil  nnder  Major,  and  soon  proved  )iiTn«al> 
an  apt  and  distinguished  disputant  in  the  scHolaatio 
theouigy.  He  was  considered  as  likely  to  rival  hia 
the  subtleties  of  the  dialactio  art.  From 
teacher,  he  no  doubt  derived  his  first 
impolse  to  that  freedmn  of  political  opinion  and 
im^^eadenoe  of  thon^t  that  aft«rwiuds  charao- 
twised  him.  He  is  aoid  to  have  been  ordained 
before  tlw  year  1630,  about  which  time,  or  shortly 
ottmnuds,  he  went  to  St  Andrew^  and  b^on  ba 
teach  therb  There  is,  however,  at  this  suge  of 
his  life  a  gap  of  twelve  yeara,  or  nearly  so,  which 
the  moat  careful  research  has  hitherto  failed  to 
till  up.  Hia  attachment  to  the  Homiah  Chnrdi  is 
supposed  to  have  been  shaken  chiefly  by  ike  study 
of  tne  Fathen,  about  IfiSfi ;  but  ha  did  not  openly 
profess  himself  a  Protaatut  till  about  10*3.    He 


LiOQt^lC 


VIM  degraded  from  his  ordets,  wid  being  evt 
du^r  of  uuniD&tioD,  took  Tefnge  with  Dooglaa 
of  Longniddry,  and  there  remained  till  the  end  of 
15*8. 

Cardinal  Beaton  wm  at  thia  time  in  the  height 
of  hia  power :  after  aeiziiig  Qeons  Wiahart  at 
Onniatoii,  he  bad  him  tovaght  to  S  Andreiri,  and 
burned  there,  in  front  of  his  cattle,  Match  1646. 
K.  fint  clearly  appean  npon  the  scene  of  the  Befor- 
mation  as  the  oompanion  of  Wiihart.  While  the 
latter  proaecnted  hii  oareer  ae  a  preacher  in  Lothian, 
K.  watted  upon  him,  bearing  before  him,  he  tells 
He,  a  *twa-handed  sword.'  He  already  coveted  the 
post  of  danger,  and  full  of  enthusiasm,  was  ready 
to  defend  his  zealoni  friend  at  the  peril  of  his  own 
life.  After  Wishart's  seizure  and  death,  be  with- 
drew for  a  while  again  into  retirement  He  would 
fain  have  clung  to  the  martyr,  and  shared  bis  fate, 
but  the  latter  woold  not  have  it  so.  'Nay,'  be 
■aid  1  '  return  to  your  baimea,  and  God  hless  you  : 
ane  is  sufficient  tor  a  sacrifice.'  Knox's  'bairnes' 
were  hii  pupils,  the  roqs  of  the  Lairda  of  Longniddry 
and  Onnistou.  He  contiDQed  In  charge  of  them 
fiw  aome  years,  till  Uw  great  event  which  ere  long 
followed  the  martyrdom  of  Wiahart  opened  up  a 
moreprominent  career  for  him.  On  the  morning  of 
the  29th  May  1646,  Cardinal  Beaton  was  murdered 
in  his  castle,  from  the  windows  of  which  he  had 

itemplated  the  suAerings  of  the  martyr.    Tahen 


poaaeasion  of  by  the  band  of  nobles  and  others  who 

had  succesafully  accomplished  so  andauioua  a  design, 

at  St  Andrews  become  the  temporarv 


stronghold  of  the  Befonning  interest.  K.  took 
refuge  in  it  with  hia  two  pupils.  Here  his  great 
— " i  a  preacher  were  Brst  discoTcred;  and  havina 


voice,  denouncing  the  errors  of  popery.  Hia 
at  this  time,  however,  was  soon  cnt  short  by  the 
(urrender  of  the  fortress,  and  hia  imprisonment  in 
the  French  galli^ 

For  two  years  he  remained  a  prisoner,  and  under- 
went, in  the  course  of  this  time,  many  privations- 
He  waa  then  liberated,  and  allowed  to  depart  to 
England,  where  he  resided  for  four  years,  from 
1S49  to  the  beginning  of  1SS4,  a  time  of  great  and 
fruitful  Bctivitv  to  him.  He  waa  appointed  one 
of  Edward  VI.  a  chapluna,  and  lived  on  terms  of 
intimate  intercourse  with  Cranmer  and  others 
of  the  English  reformers.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
had  consideisble  inflnence  on  the  course  of  the 
English  Beformation,  especially  in  lemrd  to  the 
Uberal  changes  introdnced  into  the  service  and 
Prayer  Book  of  the  Church  of  England,  in  the 
close  of  Edward's  re^n.     He  was  much  ei^wed  In 


The  accession  of  Mai;  drove  him  and  others  to 
the  continent.  He  was  reluctant  to  flee,  but '  partly 
by  advice  and  putly  by  tears,'  be  was  compelled 
to  consult  his  safety.  He  settled  temporarily  at 
Dieppe,  whence  we  hear  of  him  writing  an  Admcmi- 
Hon  to  lie  Pra/atora  of  OoiTi  FtaiK  in  Engbaid. 
He  then  went  into  Switzerland,  and  returning 
settled  tor  some  time  at  Frantfurt-on-the-Maine, 
where  he  is  notable  in  connection  with  what  are 
known  as  the  '  Frankfurt  Troubles,'  oert^n  diqnitea 
as  to  the  use  of  King  Edward's  Sra^ce-Book  in  the 
congr^;ation  of  Engluh  Protestants  there.  Towards 
the  end  of  1SS5,  he  made  a  rapid  visit  to  Scotland, 
where  he  did  much  to  encourage  the  cause  of  the 
Beformation.  Convinced,  however,  that  the  'time 
of  deliverance '  waa  not  yet  come  for  his  country, 
he  retired  once  more  to  Qeneva,  where  he  settled 
'  T  nearly  three  yean, 


which  wtm  amiHi^  tha  quietest,  and  ^aobably  tha    i 
bApjaest  yean  of  his  life.  ' 

Becalled  to  Sootland  in  May  IfiGQ,  he  then  mtend 
upon  bis  triumphant  course  as  a  reformer.    Political 
neoeasities  had  driven  tha  Queen-regent  to  temporiM    i 
with  tiie  '  Lords  of  the  Congregation,'  or  the  reiann* 
ing  noblea.     Having  somewhat  re-established  her    ^ 
power,  aha  wished  to  withdiBW  ho'  oonosssiona ;  bat 
the  leiaraang  impulse  had  gathered  a  strength  that    I 
could  no  longer  be  redsted.    The  heads  at  the  party 
assembling  at  Dundee,  under  Ecikine  of  Dun,  pro-    i 
ceeded  to  Perth.    There  the  pent-up  enthndasn    | 
which  had  been  long   collecting  waa  mued  into 
furious  action  by  a  sermon  of  K.  on  the  iddata^    . 
of  the  mats  aad  of  image-worthip.    A  riot  eoand 
The  '  rascal  multitude,'  as  K.  himsdl  called  them,    | 
broke  all  bounds,  and  destroysd  the  elmrcbea  and 
monasteries.    Similar  disturbuioea  followed  at  Star-    i 
ling,  Lindoies,  St  Andrews,  and  elMwhjn«.     "Bto 
flame  of  religions  revolution  was  kiudUd  thmngli-     j 
out  tha  oountiy,  aggravating  the  civil  war  ab-e^m 
raginff.    At  length  the  assistance  of  EUabeth  and    i 
the  death  of  the  Queen-r^nt  brought  maUen  to    I 
a  crisis  ;  a  tmoe  was  proclaimed,  and  a  £re«  pailia-    i 
ment  summoned  to  settle  differences.     The  resolt 
of  the  parliament,  niiich  met  in  August  IS60;  was 
the  overthrow  of  Uie  old  religion,  and  the  establish-    j 
ment  of  the  Beformed  kirk  in  Scotland.    In  all  thia,    | 
K.  was  not  only  an  active  agent,  but  (Ae  HSP^ 
above  all  othen.    The  original  Cm^saton  Qf  F<uA    I 
of  tiie  Beformed  Kirk  and  the  Fbrtt  Book  of  Dita-    ' 
pline  bear  the  impress  of  his  mind.    He  was  fax    i 
from  attaining  all  bia  wiahes,  especially  as  to  the    { 
provision  for  the   suf^rt  of  tlw  chuTch  and  of    i 
education  throughout  the  country ;  be  soon  found    | 
that  many  of  the  noblea  were  far  more  maloua  foe 
destruction  than  for  reformation ;  still,  he  aooom- 

Sliahed  a  great  and  radical  work,  which  waa  only 
eatined  to  be  consolidated  after  many  years. 

The  arrival  of  the  youthful  Queen  Mary,  in  the 
course  of  1S61,  brought  msny  forebodings  to  the 
B^ormer ;  he  »prebend«d  great  dangers  to  tha 
Beformed  cause  from  her  character  and  her  well- 
known  devotion  to  the  Bomiah  Church.  The 
Beformer'a  apprehensions  scarcely  permitted  >ii'T 
to  be  a  fair,  certainly  net  a  toleiaut  judge  of  Mary's 
conduct-  Misundeistandings  very  soon  sprang  up 
between  t^m,  and  be  reutea,  with  a  somewhi^ 
harsh  bitterness,  his  several  interviews  with  ho-. 
At  length  he  came  to  an  open  rupture  with  the 
queen's  party,  including  Murray  and  Maitland,  and 
many  of^his  former  friends-  He  took  up  an  attitude 
of  unyielding  opposition  to  the  court,  and  in  hia 

ions  and  prayers,  indulged  fraeiy  in  the  exprea- 

□f  hia  feelings.    The  result  waa  his  tanp<Hvr7 

lation  from  the  more  moderate  Protestant  party, 

who  tried  to  govern  the  oounlry  in  the  queeifs 

une.    For  a  while,  from  1563  to  IS65,  he  retired 

to  comparative  privacy. 

The  rapid  series  of  events  which  followed  Mary's 
marriage  with  Damley— the  revolt  of  the  dissatisfied 
nobles,  with  Murray  at  their  head,  the  murder  of 
Bizsio.  and  then  the  murder  of  Darnley  (1567),  the 
queen's  marriage  with  Bothwell,  her  defeat  and 
imprisonment,  served  once  more  to  bring  Knox  into 
"'-  -  "  '  1  He  was  reconciled  with  Mniray,  and 
abetted  him  in  all  hia  schemes  of  policv 
during  hia  regency.  Further  reforms  were  efiected 
by  the  parliament  which  convened  under  his  sway 
in  tiie  close  of  1567.  The  sovereign  waa  taken 
bound  to  be  a  Protestant,  and  some  provision, 
although  still  an  imperfect  one,  was  made  for  the 
support  of  the  Protestant  clergy.  K.  seemed  at 
length  to  see  his  great  work  accomplished,  and  is 
said  to  have  entertained  the  idea  of  retiring  to 
Geneva.    But  the  bright  proapect  Murtiicb  he  gaied 


L,  Google 


KNOXVILLE-KODIAK. 


for  >  littlo  WM  •oon  orercart — Mnrrsy'i 

tioa,  aud  the  confmioii  and  discord  wMcli  Bproni 
oat  of  it,  plunged  the  Beformer  into  profaiutd  grief 
Ho  once  more  became  an  object  of  anapicion  ani. 
hostility  to  the  dominant  nobles,  and  miannder- 
atandings  even  sprung  np  between  him  and  soma 
of  his  brethren  in  the  General  Anemblj.  He  retired 
Andrews,  for  a  while,  to  escape  the  danger  of 
dnation  with  which  be  had  been  threatened. 
There,  although  luffering  from  extreme  debility,  he 
roused  himBelf  to  preach  once  more,  and  in  the 
panah  church  where  he  had  begun  hig  ministry, 
made  hii  voice  to  be  heaid  again  with  something 
of  ita  old  power.  Assisted  by  his  servant,  the 
*  good,  godly  Richard  Ballenden,'  into  the  pulpit, 'he 
behoved  to  lean  npon  it  at  his  first  entry ;  but  ere 
he  was  done  with  liia  sermon,  be  waa  so  active  and 
vigorous,  that  he  vxu  If/be  to  ding  l/i« pidpU  ■  •'  • 
and  flic  oni  o/'i*.' 

In  the  end  of  1572,  he  returned  to  Edinbnrgh  to 
die ;  bis  strength  was  exhausted ;  he  was  '  weary 
of  the  world,'  he  said ;  and  on  the  24th  of  Novemh^ 
he  quietly  tell  asleep^ 

K.'s  cliaracter  is  distinguished  by  firmness  and 
decision,  and  a  plain,  somewhat  barsb  sense  of  reality. 
He  was  a  man  of  strong,  and  even  stem  convictions, 
and  he  felt  no  scruples,  and  recognised  no  dangers 
in  caitTing  out  hii  convictions.  He  waa  shrewd, 
penetrating,  inevitable  in  his  perceptions  and 
purposes.      No    outward    show,    or    conventional 

Eretence,  deceived  him;  he  went  straight  to  the 
eort  of  everything ;  and  consistently  with  this 
clear  and  rough  uirewdness  of  perception,  his 
language  is  always  plain,  homely,  and  many  will 
Bay  hush.  He  had  learned,  be  himself  says,  'to 
call  wickedness  by  its  own  terms — a  fig,  a  fie ;  a 
spade,  a  spade.'  Above  all,  he  was  fearless ;  nouiina 
daunted  him ;  his  spirit  rose  high  in  the  midst  m 
danger.  The  Earl  of  Morton  said  of  him  truly,  aa 
they  lud  him  in  the  old  ehnrcbyard  of  St  Giles : 
'  He  never  feared  tiie  face  of  man.'  In  Scotland, 
K.,  no  doubt,  accomplisbed  a  great  work.  Whether 
the  work  would  not  nave  been  better  if  it  had  been 
leas  violently  done,  if  the  spirit  of  love  and  moder- 
ation, as  well  as  tiie  spint  of  power,  had  presided 
over  it,  is  a  question  regarding  which  there  may 
be  much  division.  But  even  it  we  Hhonld  take 
exception   to   some   things   he   did  oi  , 

we  may  admire  the  coniiiHtcnt  boldness,  the  deep 
eomestnesB,  and  the  self-denying,  nnfUncliing  xeal 
of  the  great  Kef  ormer. 

KirO'XVILLE,  a  city  of  Tennessee,  United  States 
of  America,  on  the  uort£  bank  of  the  Holston  Biver, 
at  the  head  of  steam-bokt  navigation,  18S  miles  east 
of  Nashville.  It  is  the  principal  and  oentral  town 
of  East  Tennessee,  on  the  East  Tennessee,  Qeorjpa, 
and  Virfpnia  Railway.  It  is  the  site  of  tiie 
university  of  Eaat  Tennessee,  tiie  state  Deaf  and 
Dumb  Asylum,  and  has  3  acadconirs,  S  churches, 
4  newspapers,  and  several  fionring-mills  and  glass 
factories.    Pop.  (1870)  S602. 

ENU'TSFOOD,  a  small  maAst-town  of  Cheshire, 
23  milea  eaat-north-east  of  tlie  ei^  of  Chester. 
Pop.  (1871)  3fi97.  The  name  is  said  to  ba  derived 
frmn  King  Canute,  or  Ennt,  having  with  bit  atuy 
forded  the  BoUin  bore. 

KCALA  [PhoKOlaTtto*  cincreiM),  a  morsapial 
quai^ped,  commonly  referred  to  the  family  Fkalan- 
qitUda,  and  pretty  nearly  reaembling  Qie  pholongers 
in  dentition,  but  having  the  molar  teeth  much 
larger.  The  toes  of  the  fore-feet  are  in  two  opposable 
groups,  of  two  and  three,  a  character  not  found  in 
any  other  quadruped,  but  well  adapted  to  grasping 


with  ita  back  undermost,  li 


Koala  [Pluucolarcloi  cinertxu). 

carries  her  young  on  her  back,  for  a  hmg  time  i 
it  is  capable  of  leaving  her  pouch. 

KO'BBE,   a    town    of    Central    Africa. 

DutCDR. 

KOBOLDa  See  Goblins  aso  Boolis. 
KOCH,  Kakl  HxDrmcH  "EaiUkSWL,  a  celebrated 
traveller  and  naturalist,  was  bom  at  Weimar  in 
1S09.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of  WOrzburg 
and  Jena,  and  in  1836,  undertook  a  soientifia  journey 
to  Southern  Russia,  completing  his  researches  ij 
lecond  jonmey,  which  he  performed  in  1B43,  t 
time  visiting  also  Turkey,  Armenia,  Foatus,  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  the  range  of  the  Caucasus.  ' 
'.S39,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Botany  in  t 
iniversity  of  Jens.  The  moat  important  of  his  works 
vre^Monogmphia  gtntrit  Veronica  (WUrzburg, 
1833) ;  RriK  durch  Rutiland  nach  dera  KauJauitchen 
Jithmut  (Journey  through  Russia  as  far  as  the 
Isthmus  of  the.  Caucasus,  Stntteart,  lSi2— 1&13). 
His  second  journey  snp^ied  the  materials  for 
Wandtrvngen  im  Oritnle  (Wanderings  in  the  East, 
Weimar,  1840—1847),  the  third  vdiune  of  which 
reprinted  in  ISM  under  the  title  of  The  Crimea 
Odetta.  Besideathese,hehaawrittenabout  nine 
other  works  on  geography,  botany,  and  topography. 
KOCK,  CnASLra  Paui.  ds,  a  Frencb  novelist, 
dramatist,  and  poet,  bom  at  Plaaay,  near  Paris,  in 
1794,  waa  the  son  ol  a  Dutch  banker  who  perished 
on  the  scaffold  during  the  French  Revolution. 
Originally  intended  for  a  mercantile  career,  he 
devoted  himself  to  literature  against  the  wishes  of 
his  relatives  His  novels^  though  dia;daying  no 
*~~  of  nal  genius,  aoqaired  a  vs^  nnenviable  noto- 
by  the  Ueeotiini*  freedom  of  tlieirrepresenta- 
K.  oompoeeditpwarda  of  fifty  novd%  besides  a 
ra^t  nnmber  of  vaudevillea  and  stories  in  Terse. 
His  earlier  works  are  oonsiderad  taperior  to  his  later 
ones.  Amo^  other*,  we  may  mention  Oeorgetle,  ou 
iai/iieedii  TabeOuM ;  Qutlave,  oa  U  mauvait  8i^; 
Lt  Barbier  dt  Paris ;  La  Femmt,  U  Mart  et 
FA  jiumt ;  Maurt  Parinennes.  He  died  in  August 
1871.— Hehki  db  Eock,  son  of  the  preceding,  like 
Dumss  JiU,  hsa  unhappily  followed  his  father's 
footsteps,  if  we  may  judge  horn  the  titles  of  some  of 
his  novels :  Le  Soi  det  Etadiantt  et  la  Peine  des 
OriMUei,  Lei  AmmUt  de  ma  Maltrtue,  LortOet  tt 
Oentilthtnnmei,  tc 

KO'DIAK,  an  island 
peninsula   of   Alaska   (q. 
settlement  in  Russian  An 
least  from  the  Aleutian  Archipelago. 
better  than  an  irregularly  shaped  moss  oi  monniains, 
i^  7S  miles  by  «K    The  chief  value  of  E. 
I  m  the  tolerable  harbour  of  St  Paul,  on  ita 

«1 


hv(jOOglc 


KOHAT— TtftTrTrTTCBR. 


KOHA.T,  »  town  of  the  Ponjab,  atanda  in  laL 
ST  32"  N.,  M.d  long.  71°  27'  E.,  in  a  unaU  but  fertile 
and  populoiu  moontaiu-Talle^  of  the  ume  name, 
rtrative  dlatrict.  A  fow 
miles  to  the  east  of  it  ore  tpriligs  of 
rich  and  extenmve  depoeits  of  snlpl 
travenad  1^  two  important  loutes — Uie  route  from 
Pediawnr  to  Kala  Bagh,  and  another  by  Bungnah 


KOH-I-NUB  (MoontaJn  of  Light),  the  name 
a  large  diamond  now  in  the  poBseAiion  of  Her 
Majesty  Qnaen  Victoria.  Acootding  to  Hindu 
legend,  it  waa  found  in  a  Qolconda  mine,  and 
its  poeaesson  have,  vith  few  eiceptiong,  been  the 
rolera  of  Hindaetan.  After  belonging  Bncceuively 
to  the  Bahmani,  Khilji,  Lodi,  and  Mogul  kings,  it 
1739,  into  the  hands  of  Nadu  Shah,  who 


whom,  Shah  Sujah,  gave  it  to  Runfeet  _  . 
ruler  of  the  Punjab  On  the  abdication  of  the 
Maharajah  Dhuleep  Singh,  and  the  tumexstion  of 
the  Punjab  in  1S49,  it  was  surrendered 
aovereicn  of  Great  Britain.  It  ia  sud  to  have 
weighed  ariaiDally  900  catata,  bnt,  after  being  cnt, 
was  redaced  to  279  carats.  It  waa  reduced  b; 
rocutting  to  186  Carats,  and  In  this  state  was  siiewu 
at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851 ;  aince  which  timi 
was  sgBJD  recut  in  1352,  and  now  weighs  about 
123caratH,  and  has  been  valued  at  £120,ti64.  The 
Kob-i-abr  is  rose-cut. 

KOHL,  JoHANK  Orobs,  an  eminent  Gennan 
tiaveUer  and  antiior,  waa  born  at  Bremen,  April 
28,  ISOS ;  studied  at  GSttingen,  Heidelb^  and 
Munich:  and  settled  in  Drwden,  in  183^ from 
which  place  as  a  starting-poin^  he  made  excunionB 
in  all  Erections,  visiting  every  important  district  of 
Europe,  and  on  his  return  troin  eaoh  expedition, 

tnbhahed  his  experience  in  a  serie*  of  works.  In 
&5*,  he  went  to  America,  where  be  b«velled  for 
four  yean,  and  returned  to  Germany.  His  works 
on  Europe  are  bo  numerous  and  veil  known  that 
a  full  detail  of  them  is  nnneoeBsary ;  sufEoe  it  to 
say.  that  he  has  deecribed  tie  ooontriea  of  Aaatria 
(1842),  Bavaria  (1S42),  England  (1842  and  1844), 
Russia  (1846-1847),  Denmark  (184«  and  1847). 
Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  Montenegro  (1861),  to.  The 
reenllB  of  his  Amerioan  experience  were  published 
in  Travda  tn  Canada  (1S55).  TraseU  in  lAe  United 
State*  (1857),  and  Kiiahi-Oami,  or  TaXet  from  Lait 
Superior  (1860).  Other  works  of  K.  are  The  Two 
Oidett  Maps  of  America,  taxoiiiedin  the  yeon  1527 — 
1629(1860);  ^isEiitory ^ (he Diaaoverg (tf Avutriea 
(1361),  aa  English  translation  oE  wbi^  was  ynb- 
lished  in  1882 ;  On  tJu:  Way  (1866) ;  and  HMory 
of  tilt  Ovif  Stream  a/ad  the  Invetfigaiiam  rtgarA- 
ing  Ufrom  the  SarUtsl  TivKe  (1868). 

KOHIi-BABI,  or,  more  properly,  KOHL-RlJBfi 
(Germ.  KaJe-tumip,  similarly  caUod  Chou  Ravi  by 
the  French),  a  cmtiTated  variety  of  the  Kale  or 
Cabbage  [Braatiea  ideracea),  diatinguiahed  by  the 
swelling  of  the  stem  just  above  the  ground,  in  a 
globular  fonn,  to  the  aiae  of  a  man's  fist,  or  lai^er, 
kaf-atalks  apringing  from  the  swollen  part,  and 
adding  to  the  pecnlWity  of  its  appearance.  This 
is  the  part  which  ia  uted,  and  its  osea  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  turnip.  In  qoality,  it  more  nearly 
resemblea  the  Swedish  than  the  common  hunip, 
and  the  use  of  it  for  feeding  cows  doea  not  give  tiieir 
milk  a  dissfreeable  flavour,  as  wfaen  they  are  fed  on 
turnips.  £.  is  very  hardy,  its  leafree,  aa  well  as  its 
■tern  and  root,  enauiing  the  most  severs  winters, 
although  in  Britain  its  (raltivation  has  hitherto  bem 
chiefly  in  the  south  of  England.    It  is  a  oomnum 


field-orop  in  Sweden.  In  the  cultivation  of  K.,  it  is 
usual  to  sow  it  on  aeed-beda,  and  to  transplant  by 
dibbling  into  fields  ;  but  this  is  perhaps  not  the  beat 
mode.  It  ought,  Imwever,  to  b«  sown  earlier  tiiau 
even  Swedish  turnip ;  and  raised  drills  are  nnsnitable 
for  it,  owing  to  the  effect  of  winds.  It  ifi  more  K^id 
and  more  nntritious  Uian  any  kind  of  turnip  of  tbs 
same  mze.  There  are  numerous  sub-varieties.  K., 
like  all  the  varieiiee  of  Bnutiea  olsroceo,  ddighta 
in  a  strong  rich  soil  and  abundant  maanra. 

KOKBA  WOOD,  or  OOCUS  WOOD,  the  wood 
of  an  Indian  tree,  Lepidoatadiyt  Roxbitrgkii,  whieh 
belongs  to  a  very  small  natiual  order,  iScgncaiF, 
lOmarkably  aUiol  at  once  to  Eufiutrfnaeeit  and  to 
Amentaeea.  K.  W.  it  im^rted  mto  Britain  in  logs 
of  six  or  eight  inches  m  diameter,  having  the 
heart- wood  of  a  rich  deep  brown  colour  and  very 


The  Kokra-tree 


hard. 

and  other  moaioal  inBtruinentB. 

has  leathery,  altemato  leaves. 

KO'LA,  a  place  of  scarcely  800  inhabitants,  but 
worthy  of  notice  as  the  most  nortbem  town  of 
European  Russia,  and  exoept  WardSe,  in  Norway, 
the  most  northran  in  Europe.  It  is  situated  between 
the  Eola  and  its  tributaiy,  the  Tuloma,  not  far 
from  UiQ  Icy  Sea,  and  has  a  secure  and  capacious 
harbour.  The  inhabitants  are  Russians,  lAppa, 
and  Finns,  and  are  chiefly  occupied  with  walrna, 
whale,  and  cod  fishery. 

KOLA  NUT.    See  Cola  Not. 

KOLAPCB,  the  chief,  or  rather  Uie  only  tows 
of  a  protected  state  of  the  sAne  name  within  tbe 
preaidency  of  Bombay,  130  miles  to  the  sonth  of 
Poona.      llie   popolation  has  not  even  been  esti- 


mated.   The  nu,  or  state,  is  estimated  to  contain 
344SsqQare  miles  and  000,000  inhabit    ' 
of  Mahrattas  andBamusis.    Since  1 
East  India  Company  virtually  took  ,    . 
has  considerably  advanced  in  proaperity. 

KOLIAZI'M  or  KALASIN.  a  town  in  the 
government  of  Tver,  European  Rnnia.  situated  oa 
the  right  of  the  Volga,  carries  on  an  extensive  trade 
in  oom,  tallow,  and  linen.     Pop.  (18671  7630. 

KOLLAB,  Joict,  one  of  Uie  most  c<mspicuoni 
Slavic  poets  and  scholais,  waa  bom,  in  1793,  at 
Moschowze,  in  the  north-west  of  Hungary,  studied 
at  Freebnrg  and  Jena,  and  in  1819  became  pastor 
of  a  Protestant  congrwatiDn  at  Pesth.  His  fint 
work  was  a  volume  of  songs  and  poems  entitled 
Basne  (Foema,  Prague,  1821);  this  was  followed 
by  his  Slawy  Doau  (The  Daught^  of  Glory, 
Buda,  1824;  3d  ed.,  Pesth,  1832),  regarded  by  ba 
countrymen  as  his  greatest  work ;  and  Soapnatr)  i 
ImenaiA  (Treatises  on  the  Name  and  Antiijnities 
of  the  Slavic  People  and  their  RamiSeations,  Bnda, 
1830).  K.'8  fame,  however,  rests  more  on  his  bejng 
-  a  ol  the  eodieat  and  most  lealons  advoootea  M 

nslaTism  (q.v.).  nu  work  in  irtiiahthia  tendency 
first  app«an  was  written  in  Oermui,  and  is  entitled 
CTeAer  die  litemrucAe  WeAtdaMgteit  iwiKtot  dot 
atammat  tmd  MmtdarleK.  dsr  Slan  JITolim  (Pesth, 
1831).  The  revolution  in  Hnnniy  oonip*lled  Iiis 
to  abandon  his  ocantry.  He  witiidrsw  to  Vteana, 
where  he  was  made  PnrfeaBor  of  Aitdusfdogf  in  1S4& 
He  died  January  29,  1862. 

KOLLIKBR,  Albbmiht,  a  Oennan  idijnidogiB^ 

la  bom  in  1817,  and  ia  at  prsseot  Fnteanr  of 
Anafanny  and  Phyridogy  in  tiw  nnivenri^  of  Wttn- 
burr.  He  ia  prineipally  distingniafaed  1^  hia  Uwun 
in  tiie  department  ot  euoDSciqnB  aaatomy,  and  oa 
the  develf^imBnt  of  the  embryo ;  but  his  oontribn- 
^'--B  to  natoral  hiatoty  generally  are  by  no  meaiw 

nportant    Amoof  bu  principal  wwfel '  *- 

led  hia  Mikroekoputie  Anatontie; 


t.Coogle 


KOLLm— EdHIOSBERa. 


OaweMcVs  del  Me«aAe»  (irhich  hu  been  tnnalited 
for  tlie  Sydenham  Booie^  by  Bnik  and  Hnxley, 
ODder  the  title  of  A  Manual  nf  Hmrnm  HitMojy, 
iu  two  TDlnmea) ;  IMe  BipltonMhora  odtr  BeKxaiimt- 
potgpen  ton  Mtmaa;  uid  EnfaidcelungigtiMehle 
Aa  Mtnmiteit  >.  d.  hsitatn  TTatra.  In  mooiation 
with  Von  Si^iold,  ho  ia  alao  the  edit<v  of  Zatichriji 
Jtr  (oinenjchf/HMs  Zooloffie,  the  most  important 
•cientifio  natiml-hiltory  jonnial  of  Gtennany. 

KOIXrif ,  OF  NXU-EOLIN,  a  town  of  Bohemia, 
on  the  Elb&jtboiit  36  miles  east  of  Prague,  with  a 
pop.  of  (1867)  M6IX  !a  noted  for  tiia  groat  battle 
fought,  June  18, 171^,  in  ita  vicinity,  between  60,000 
Anstriani  nnder  MawthiJ  Dann,  and  32,000  Prtu- 
Biaoi  under  Frederick  IL  Tie  latter  were  defeated 
in  Bpite  of  the  obatinate  valour  of  their  monanJi, 
who  charged  at  the  head  of  his  cavahy  aeven  time* 


KOLOUE'A,  a  town  of  Aiutrian  Oalioia,  h 
aUd  on  the  Prath,  at  the  base  of  the  Oarpaliiian 
Mountaina,  112  miles  sonth-sontil-eBst  of  Lemberg. 
It  is  a  very  old  town,  and  fbnnerly  csirfed  <hi  bo 
extensive  trade.  Pottery  is  still  Iwgely  mum&c- 
tared.    Fop.  13,400,  half  of  vhom  are  Jew& 

EOLO'MN  A,  &  district  town  of  Great  Russia,  in 
the  goTemment  of  Moscow,  is  situated  62  miles 
•onth-eait  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the  river 
Uoskn.      It  o(nitains.(lS67)   19,89U   inhabitaots. 


in  tiie  direct  line  through  Riaian,  from  Moscow  to 
the  sea  of  Azov,  which  has  very  greatl;  iooreased 
tile  trade  of  the  district.  Weaving  siLk-spinning 
and  oottoQ-piioting  are  carried  on,  with  manufac- 
tures of  ootton  anil  leather. 

EOLTHA',  a  river  ia  Eastern  Siberia,  flowing 
from  the  Stanovoy  Mountains,  among  which  it  takes 
its  riM  in  Ut.  6l'  S'  N.  After  a  nortit-out  course 
of  1000  milea,  it  falli  into  the  Arotio  OoMn  in  lat. 
69*  WN. 

KOLTVA'N,  a  town  in  tiie  govemmeut  c^  Tomsk, 
in  Siberia,  situated  on  the  liver  Ob,  lat.  fifi°  21'  N., 
and  long,  8&°  4ff  K,  is  nmaikable  for  the  extensive 

rrrtei  of  jaspei'  in  iti  neighbonrhood.     There  is 
a  large  mannfaotory  of  jasper  ornaments,  which 
belongs tothaSiusiangovemment.  FopL  (1867)  33S2. 

KOLZOW,  AiHD  Vawhjfvioh,  a  Russian 
poet,  prematurely  cut  off  in  the  early  bloom  of  hts 
genius,  most  of  whoee  Bonge  are  among  the  choicest 
pearis  of  Eossian  poetry,  was  the  son  of  a  cattle- 
dealer,  and  was  bom  in  Voronesh  jo  1809.  After 
a  merely  rudimentary  educatiim,  he  was  employed 
by  his  father  in  feeding  cattle  on  tiie  steppes  in 
summer,  aud  in  winter  m  attending  the  markets. 
His  familiarity  with  the  scenes  ef  the  steppes 
appears  in  all  his  poetry.  His  b™  of  poetry  was 
Mu-ty  developed,  and  the  talent  diardayed  in  some 
ot  his  earlier  effusions,  obtained  for  nim  ihe  patron- 
age of  some  of  the  most  zealous  ctkltivators  of 
Russian  literature.  He  was  just  about  to  settle  in 
St  Petersburg,  and  to  devote  himself  eiclnsively  to 
hterary  pursuits,  when  he  suddenly  died,  in  1842 
A  complete  edition  of  his  poems,  with  a  biography 
of  the  author,  was  published  by  Belinsky  in  1846. 

KONG,  a  name  awlied  to  a  mountain-range,  a 
district,  and  a  town,  tZQ  of  whieh  «i  "* 

ward  from  the  ooBst  distridi,  in  the 


ward  from  the  ooBstdistridi,  in  . 
AMea. — Hie  mountain*  extend  from  west  to  east 
the  distance  of  about  200  mHw  from  the  shops  of 
the  Gulf  ot  Guinea,  and  are  said  to  be  an  irfCket  from 
the  high  table-land  of  Seaegambia.  little  JM  known 
regar£ng  them.  The  highm  known  summita  reach 
an  elevation  of  only  2800  feet— Begsrding  the 
E.  district,  all  we  know  is,  that  it  is  remarkable 


fi^  the  industry  of  its  inhabitants,  and  for  the 
gold-trade  which  is  there  carried  on. — The  town  of 
K.,  in  lat.  8°  53'  N.,  and  long.  3°  30*  W.,  is  situated 
among  hiUs  640  milce  south  of  Timbfihtu.  It  is  a 
large  town,  consLsting  entirely  of  clay-houaea,  and 
is  uie  centre  of  numerous  converging  caravan  routes. 
The  inhabitants,  who  ara  chiefly  Mandingoea,  and 
of  the  Mohammedan  religion,  manufacture  cotton- 
cloths  extensively. 

KO'WIBH,  a  large  town  of  AsiatJo  Turk^, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Earaman,  situated  in  a 
rich,  well-watered  plain,  in  lat.  37°  61'  N.,  and  long; 
32°  40'  E.  It  is  Hurronnded  by  walla  from  two  to 
three  miles  in  drcnit,  built  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 
3eljuk  edificee,  and  surmouDted  by  square  towers. 
Its  numerous  nuiuu«ta,  and  its  mosqnea  and  other 

Eublio  buildings,  give  it  an  imposing  appearance, 
ut  like  most  ot  the  town*  of  Asia  Mmor,  it  is 
now  in  a  sadly  ruinous  oraiditioD.  Many  intereatinK 
remains  of  Soracenio  architectnre,  however,  are  stiu 
to  be  met  with.  K.  is  the  chief  emporinm  for  the 
prodnota  of  tiis  interior.  Carpet*  and  coloured 
morocco  leather  are  manufactured,  and  Ootton,  wo<d, 
and  skina  are  exported  to  Smyrna.  Pop.,  iuoluding 
the  labnrbs,  60,000. 

K.,  the  ancient  Itonium,  was  famous  in  ancient 
timea  as  &e  oiqiital  of  Lycaonia.  From  1087  to 
1299,  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Seljuk  sultanate.  On 
December  20,  183%  a  battle  was  fought  here,  in 
which  Ibrahim  Pasha  completely  deiFeated  tho 
Turkish  army. 

KOniQ,  FamiKiCH,  the  inventor  of  the  steam- 
raen,  was  the  eon  of  a  respectable  citizen  i^ 
Elsleben,  and  was  bom  thei&  Ifth  April  177tL  He 
became  a  printer,  and  was  also  for  a  ahmt  time  a 
bookseller,  but  was  unsaoceasful  in  this  business. 
He  eagwly  prowouted  literary  and  soentiSc  studies. 
Havmg  devoted  himaelf  to  tiie  invention  of  meaoa 
of  printing  by  machinery,  he  ai^lied  in  vain  for  the 
necessary  pecuniary  aasutance  m  various  quarten, 
bis  Bchemea  being  rejected  as  impracticable  ;  bat  at 
last  Thomas  Bcinsley,  a  printer  in  London,  came 
forward  to  bis  sawort,  a  compare  was  formed,  and 
was  obtained  on  29th  March  IBIO,  for  a 
press  which  printed  Hke  the  hand-preea  by  two  flat 
plates,  and  in  1811  it  was  first  used  to  print  part  of 
the  Ammal  Begider.  A  second  patent  was  obtained 
on  SOth  October  1811  for  a  oylinder-pitaa,  a  third 
in  1613  for  inf«ovemants  ^on  it.  "Out  improved 
was  soon  adi^ited  by  t^  raoprietors  of 
the  Timtt.  In  the  latter  part  of  hk  life,  E.  was  a 
partaur  in  a  OMiqwiy  for  matdng  tteam  rainttng- 
-- eases  at  ObetzeU,  near  Wllnbnrg,  in  Bavaria, 
e  died  17th  January  1833. 

KO'NIGGRATZ,  a  town  and  fortnn  of  Bohemia, 

I  the  left  bank  of  the  Vibe,  at  the  confluence  of 

the  Adler  with  that  river,  S4  mile*  east-DOfih-east 

of  Prune.    It  is  the  seat  oE  a  bish^  and  ha*  a 

beautiful  cathedral      The    immediate  nei^boor- 

hood  can  in  any  emei^ency  be  covtted  wiUi  water. 

Cloth,  musical  instnimeDtB,  shoes,  and  wax-candlca 

the  staple  artictea  of  maiiufactDr&    lliiB  town 

become  funous  in  history  on  aeootuit  of  the 

lal  victory  gained  by  the  Fnusiana  over  the 

A^tiana  m  1M6.    Pop.  (1869)  fiSlS. 

KO'NIGINHOP,  a  i 
Bohonia,  on  the  L  ' 

north  of  KOnignttx.    Unen-weavin^  tanutnc,  ai 
nuuiDAtetarei  of  hats  and  aunr,  an  tba  pr&iaipal 
branches  of  industry.    Pop.  (m»)  «a2I. 

KO'SIOSBEBQ,  a  small  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
province  of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Bflrike,  4^  miles 
north  of  Fraokfurt-on-the-Oder.  Tanning  and  dis- 
.  the  chief  branches  of  indus&y.    Pop. 


UooqIp 


KONIGSBEEO— KONEAD  VON  WtfEZBURO. 


(1B71)  6338.    NamBToni  other  pUoea  in  Gennaaj 
bear  thia  luune. 

KOIT  lOSBERQ,  an  important  town  and  fortress 
of  Pruuio,  in  the  province  of  Eut  PruBain,  ia  sitaated 
on  both  banlu  of  the  Fregel,  and  on  on  island  in  that 
river,  four  toilea  from  its  entrsnca  into  the  Frisches 
HsS  It  congista  of  the  Old  Town  and  the  LObenicht 
on  the  north  bonk  (the  latter  of  which,  in  its  sAen- 
storied  and  gabled  boiiHeH.  and  trteep  side-lonea, 
still  preienta  a  completely  Hanseatic  appearance), 
the  Kneiphof  on  the  ialand  (also  one  of  the  oldest 
ports),  and  nomerons  suburhe.  The  Pregel  is  here 
crossed  by  seven  bridges.  The  origin  of  the  town 
dates  from  the  erection  of  a  castle  by  Ottokor,  king 
of  Bohemia,  in  1257.  £.  became  a  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League  in  1366,  and  was  the  residence  of 
the  Rrand-moater  of  the  Tentonic  Order  from  1457 
to  1B28.  In  1701,  Frederick,  Elector  of  Btsnden- 
borg,  was  crowned  here,  with  the  title  of  Frederick 
I.,  King  of  Prnssia.  Its  chief  bnildings  are  the 
catbednl,  containing  the  tomb  of  Eont ;  the  nni- 
■versity,  founded  in  1644,  and  attended  now  b^  abont 
3fl0  rtodents  ;  the  onited  Boyal  and  Dniveraity 
libnuy,  with  160,000  Tolumee;  and  the  obeBrvatory. 
There  are  also  three  gymnasia,  with  nnmerons  other 
educational  and  benevolent  instttntioni.  Important 
manufactures  of  woollens,  silk,  leather,  and  tobacco 
ore  earned  on.  Wine,  fniits,  ^coal,  salt,  and  sugar 
are  imported ;  grain  is  the  chief  article  of  export 
K.  occupies  the  fourth  rank  among  Prussian  towns 
in  respect  of  population.    Pop.  (1871)  112,123. 

KONRAD  or  CONRAD  L,  king  of  liie  Ger- 
mans (a  title  identical  with  the  subsequent  one  of 
'Emperor  of  Germany'],  was  the  son  of  Konrad  of 
Fritzlor,  Connt  of  I^^conio,  and  the  nephew  of  the 
Emperor  Amolf.  On  the  extinction  ot  the  direct 
line  of  the  Carlovingians,  the  GFermans  resolved  ' 


his  wife  Oisala  were  anointed  wnperor  mid  empt«M 
of  the  Bomana  by  the  pope.  He  was  soon  reeled 
to  Germany  to  put  down  four  fonuidable  rcvtdta,  in 
which  he  succeeded  so  well,  that  by  1033  peace  waa 
restored.  In  1032,  he  had  succeeded  to  the  kingdom 
of  Burgundy,  which  he  annexed  to  the  empire.  ' 
1036,  a  Tebellion  in  Italy  again  compelled  him 
oross  the  Alps ;  but  liis  efforts  to  reatore  his  authority 
were  this  tune  unsuoceaaful,  and  he  was  foroed  to 
grant  various  privileges  to  hia  Italian  subjects. 
Shortly  after  hu  return,  he  died  at  Utrecht,  4th 
June  103(k  E.  was  one  of  the  moat  teiiuu^ble  of 
the  earlier  monorohs  of  Germany,  He  repressed  the 
more  obnoxious  features  of  the  feudal  ayatem,  and 
by  conferring  the  great  duchies  of  Bavona,  Sw>bia, 
and  Catinthia  on  his  son,  reduced  the  dangraviia 
power  of  the  great  duke*  of  the  ei 

KONRAD  III.,kingoftheGeimaiu,thefaaiider 
of  the  Hohenitaufen  (q.  v.)  dynasty,  was  the  son  of 
Frederick  of  Swabia,  ajid  was  bom  in  1093.  While 
under  20  years  of  age,  K.,  with  ^  elder  brotber 


authori^  c 


family,  offered  the  crown  to  Otho  the  lUuBbions, 
Duke  of  Saxony,  who  refused  it,  hut  recommended 
E..  who  was  Bcoordingly  eleci«d  in  911.  The 
gradually  re-establiahed  the  imperial 
:  most  of  the  German  princes,  carried 
esifnl  war  with  Fiance,  and  at  last 
fell  mortally  wounded  at  Quedlinbuis  (918),  in  a 
battle  with  the  Hun^rians,  who  hu  repeatedly 
invaded  hia  ddminions.  He  lies  buried  at  Fuldo. 
On  his  deathbed,  he  enjoined  his  brother  Eberhard 
to  carrythe  imperial  insignia  to  his  mortal  enemy, 
Duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  son  of  Otho  the  Illus- 
trious, with  whom  he  had  been  continually  at 
s.,  and  accompanied  the  gift  with 
'  "  'he  wished  to  render 
ved  from  the  fattier.' 
s  reign  was  a  remarkable  epoch  in  the  History 


I ;  the  mino^  lords  U  the  soil  became  vaMols, 
not  to  the  king,  aa  formerly,  but  to  thor  dokea ;  and 
finally,  the  crown-londa  in  each  dnchy  were  taken 


KONRAD  II.,  king  of  the  Germans,  and  Roman 
•mperor,  waa  elected  after  the  extinction  td  the 
SaiOD  imperial  family  in  1024.  He  was  ihe  son 
of  Henry  Dnke  of  Franconia,  and  ia  b^  many  con- 
siderad  aa  tiia  (onnder  of  th«  Francoman  dvnos^. 
Inmudiately  ^ter  Ua  deetion,  he  commenoea  a  tour 
thnindt  OermoDy,  to  administer  jnatice  and  acquaint 
himseU  with,  and,  if  necessair,  to  ameliorate,  the 
condition  of  hia  subjects.  WiUi  a  view  to  this  last, 
he  instituted  the  GotF*  Trua  (q.v.)-  1°  10%  he 
eroaaed  the  Alps,  cluatisBd  the  rebellitras  II 


e  princa 
„  ,     ^jnderano  ,      .,   ..__ 

attracted  by  his  brilliant  courage,  moderation,  and 
goodness,  oQered  K.  the  crown,  and  he  was  oecord- 
mgly  formally  elected  at  Aix-lo-Chapells,  2lBt  Feb- 
ruary 1138.  He  was  immediately  involved  in  a 
quarrel  with  Henry  the  Proud,  Duke  of  Bavaria  and 
Saxony,  and  head  of  the  GueU  party  in  GerTtany  ; 
and  tne  struggle  was  continued  under  Henry's 
■on  and  successor,  Henry  the  Lion  (q.v.).  Whila 
Germany  was  thus  convi^sed,  the  stat«  of  Italy  was 
not   a   whit  more   peaceable.      The  several  belli- 

rnts  besought  K.  s  assiatanoe,  but  he  well  knew 
natural  inconstancy  of  the  Italians,  and  det^ 
mined  to  stand  aloof.  Soon  after  this,  St  Beraotd  of 
Clairvaux  commenced  to  preach  a  new  crusade,  and 
K.,  seised  with  the  general  infatuation,  set  out  for 
P^estine  at  the  headof  a  large  arn^  (see Cnnajui^ 
in  company  with  bis  old  enen^,  Guelf  of  Bavaria. 
Guelf  returned  to  German^r  before  K.,  and  with  his 
nephew,  Henry  the  Lion,  mimediately  renewed  tbs 
attempt  to  gaiu  posseoion  of  Bavaria,  bnt  their 
army  being  defeated  at  Flochberg,  they  were  con- 
pelled  to  sue  for  peace.  K.  was  now  called  npOD 
to  aid  the  Duke  of  Poland  agunst  his  rebelhona 
subjects,  and  the  pope  and  the  northern  Italians 
^amat  Roger  of  Sicily ;  but  while  preparins  for  this 
latter  expedition,  he  was  poisoned,  l6th  Febraatr 
11S2,  at  Bambeig.  K.  was  largely  endowed  with  i 
the  virtues  necessary  for  a  great  monarch,  and  I 
though  himself  onlearned,  was  a  warm  patron  o(  | 
science  vid  letters.     His  marriage  with  a  Greek 

lymboliaed  by  the  two-headed  ea^     i 
which  figured  on  the  arms  of  the  Emperor  of  Ger-    | 
many,  and  now  appears  on  the  amii  of  tlie  sovereign 
'  Austria,  as  heir  to  the  German  emperors.  I 

KONRAD  VON  WURZBURG,  one  of  the  moat 
celebrated  poets  of  the  middle  ages,  died  at  BmoI  in    | 
1287-    E.  IS  fertile  in  imagination,  learned,  and —    i 
atthiongh  maiking  the  decline  of  medieval  H^-    ' 
German  poetay  by  hia  prolix  and  artificial  s^^e —    I 
[aobably  the  moat  perfect  master  d  German  veirrifi- 
that  had  appeared  up  to  his  own  day.     Hia    { 
em,  which  he  left  in  an  unfinished  coDdition, 
:  its  subject  The  Tngan  War,  and  is  printed 
part]  in  Muller's  Sammlung  aUdaOmAer  OtditAtK.    | 


-....  ...  t  E.  appears  to  moat  advantsi 

IS  crowned  at  Uilan  as  king  of  Italy,  and  he  and    narrative  poems,  ot   which  the  t 


dhyCiUOylL' 


KOKRADUr  OF  SWABIA.— KORAs. 


frepnnted  by  Haapt  at  Leipcio  in  1S44,  from  on 
old  and  Bcaroe  impreanon).  Next  to  thii  may  bo 
Tanked  hii  OUo  fail  dtm  Bart  (reprinted  by  Hahn 
at  Quedlinb.  and  Leip.  IS38| ;  Der  Wdt  Lohn  (by 
Koth,  Fkr.  18i3) ;  Tie  LegauU  of  SyleeOer  {by  W. 
"  rimm,  Ofitt.  1S41)  and  of  Alexiiu  (by  Mf 

);  Die  OoUU 

TTi»  tongs  I 
o  be  found  in  Eagen'i  MiaattiBger, 
KONRADIN  OF  SWABIA.  the  last  dcscaid- 
ant  of  the  imperial  Hoiue  of  Eohenitanfen  (q.  v.), 
-was  the  son  of  Kanrad  IV.,  and  waa  born  tn  I2S2, 
two  yean  before  hiji  failier'i  death.  Innocent  IV. 
immediately  leized  upon  the  young  prince's  Italian 
poBBeBdona,  on  the  plea  Ihai  the  aim  of  a  prinet  wAo 
flies  (xeommvniealea  ka»  no  hertditaryrighU ;  and 
the  other  enemies  of  the  House  of  Hohenitanfen 
rejoiced  to  follow  the  pope's  example.  K.  was  not 
left,  howerer,  totally  fnendleas.  Hia  ancle  Man- 
fred took  np  arms  m  his  beholt  drove  the  pope 
from  Naples  and  Sicily,  and  in  order  to  coniolidate 
hia  nephew's  anthority,  declared' himself  king  till 
the  young  prince  came  of  age.  The  pope'B  invet- 
erate hatred  of  the  Hohenstanfena  mduced  him 
to  offer  the  crown  of  the  Two  SidheB  to  Charlea 
of  Anjou,  a  consummate  warrior  and  able  politi- 
cian. Charles  immediately  invaded  Italy,  met  hia 
antagonist  in  the  plain  of  Grandella,  where  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Manfred,  in  1266,  gave  him 
undisturbed  possession  of  the  kingdom.  But  the 
Neapolitans,  detesting  their  new  master,  sent  depu- 
tiuB  to  Bavaria  to  invite  K.,  then  in  his  16th  year, 
to  come  and  asaert  bis  hereditaiy  rights.  E.  accord- 
ingly made  hia  appearance  in  Italy  at  the  head  of 
10,000  men,  and  being  joined  by  the  Neapolitans  in 
large  niuabers,  gained  several  victories  over  the 
French,  but  was  Unally  defeated,  and  along  with 
his  relative,  Frederick  of  Austria,  taken  prisoaer 
near  Tagliacozzo,  22d  August  1SS8.  The  two  unfor- 
tunate princes  were,  with  the  consent  of  the  pope, 
executed  in  the  market-place  of  Naples  on  the 
20th  October. '  A  few  minatea  before  his  execution, 
E.,  on  the  scaffold,  took  off  his  glove,  and  threw 
it  into  the  midst  of  the  crowd,  as  a  gage  of  venge- 
ance, requesting  that  it  might  be  carried  to  hia 
heir,  Feter  of  Aragon.  This  duty  was  ondertakeu 
by  Vaa  Chevalier  de  Waldburg,  who,  after  many 
hair-breadth  escapes,  succeeded  in  fiUSlling  his 
prince's  last  command     See  Sicilian  Vespebs. 


Edodoo  {AnIUope  Urtpticer«t). 


general  form  is  not  so  li^t  and  elegant  as  that  of 
many  of  the  antelopes.  The  height  is  abont  four 
feet,  and  the  lenrth  fully  eight  feet,  exclusive  oE  the 
tail,  which  is  moderately  loDg,and  terminate*  in  a  tuft 
like  that  of  an  ox.  The  male  is  furnished  with  great 
horns,  nearly  four  feet  long,  and  beautifully  twisted 
in  a  wide  spiral  of  two  tama  and  a  half,  very  thick 
at  the  base,  and  there  wrinkled  and  ringed.  The 
femi^e  is  smaller  than  the  male,  and  homlets.  The 
geomal  colour  ia  grayish  brown,  with  a  narrow 
white  stripe  alon^  Uie  middle  of  the  back,  and  eidit 
or  ten  similar  stnpea  proceeding  from  it  down  uae 
sides.  The  K.  lives  in  small  families  of  four  or  five, 
inhabiting  t^iiefly  the  wooded  parts  of  South  Africa. 
It  is  easify  domesticated,  and  is  one  of  the  animals 
which,  probably,  man  has  not  yet  dons  enough  to 
reduce  to  his  service. 


of  the  family  Bqw^ce,  a  native  M  Nottil 
Africa,  and  inhabiting  mountain  woods.  It  is  tea 
or  ten  and  a  half  hands  high ;  with  a  broad  deep 
head  ;  no  forelock,  but  long  woolly  hair  down  to  Uie 
eyes ;  long  black  mane ;  toil  more  like  that  of  • 
horse  than  of  on  ass ;  the  oolour  a  uniform  rsddiab 
ba^,  without  mark  or  streak.  Colonel  Hamilton 
Smith  supposes  that  it  may  be  the  Bmyu  of 
Herodotus,  and  Hippagnu  of  Oppiao. 

KOO'RIA  HOO^IA  ISLANDS,a  group  of  six 

islands,  on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia,  are  situated 
abont  21  miles  from  the  coast,  about  lat.  17°  33*  N., 
and  long.  66°  6'  E.  The  surface  of  these  islands  is 
sterile,  and  the  only  one  which  is  inhabited  supports 
only  from  20  to  30  fishermen.  They  were  ceded  to 
England  in  1854  Guano  of  an  inferior  quality  is 
obtained  from  them.  . 

KO'PEK,  a  Kuuian  money  of  account,  the  -^lil 
part  of  a  Itouble  (q.  v.),  and  equivalent  to  1} 
farthing  of  sterling  money. 

KO'BAN  (Arab.,  from  Icaraa,  to  read),  [=  Hebr. 
MUcra,  the  written  Book,  or  that  whiim  con  and 
ought  to  be  read  : — the  Old  Testament,  in  contra- 
distinction to  JfuHnoA,  or  the  Code  of  the  Oral 
Law],  Tht  Reading,  by  way  of  eminence;  a  term 
first  applied  to  every  single  portion  of  Mohanmied's 
'  Bevelations  ; '  at  a  lat^  period,  used  for  a  greater 
number  of  these ;  and  finally  for  their  whole  body, 
^thered  ti^ether  into  the  one  book,  which  forms 
the  religious,  social,  civil,  commercial,  military,  and 
legal  cmie  of  Islsm.  The  Koran  is  also  known 
o^er  the  name  of  Fortan  (Ohald.  Salvation,  not 
from  Hebr.  Pent,  Division,  a*  eironeonaly  sup- 
posed) ;  further,  of  Al-Mosh»f  {Tile  Volume),  oc 
Al-KiUb  {The  Book,  in  the  sense  of  'Bible'),  or 
Al-Dhikr  (' the  Reminder,'  or  'the  Admonition'), 
The  Koran  is,  according  to  the  Moalam  creed,  coeval 
with  God,  uncreated,  etvnal.  Ita  first  binscript 
was  written  from  the  beginning  in  rayi  of  linit 
— in  a  gigantic  tablet  resbng  by  the  tluone  of  the 
'  ;htyi  and  upon  this  tablet  are  also  found 
'  '"linM  DOst  and 
silk. 


ivine   decrees    relating  to   thinf^s   post 
future.     A  copy  of  it,  in  a  book  bonnd  m  white 
'      .Id  


jewels,  and  gold,  was  brouf^t  down  to  the  lowest 
Wven  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  in  the  bUssful  and 
mysterious  night  of  Al-Ehadr,  in  the  month  of 
"""  ''  "'^  '  '■  """  luring  a  space  of 
i  trMo> ' 


jnunicated  t< 


botli  at  Mecca  and  Medina,  either  by  Gabriel  in 
human  shape,  >  with  the  sound  of  bells,'  or  throorii 
inspiratiiHis  from  the  Holy  Ghost '  in  the  FropheVs 
breast,'  or  by  God  himself, '  veiled  and  unvcdled,  in 
waking  or  in  the  dreams  of  night'  Traditions  var^ 
with  respect  to  the  length  of  uie  individual  portions 
revealed  at  a  time,  between  single  letters,  verses, 
and  entire  chapten  or  Snmhs  (fetm  Hebr.  *liurai. 


,,'Gorrgle 


Uub).  Tba  fint  nvdktipii  fonni,  In  ths  pntmt 
unngMDeiit  of  the  book.  Tones  \—ti  of  ntnui  zovL, 
and  besiiu  with  tha  woida :  '  Bead  rpreMili],  in  the 
name  ^&y  Lead,  who  hu  oraated  mil  tiiingi  I ' 

Mohammed  dictated  his  inapiiatioiia  to  ■  Bcribe, 
not,  indMd,  in  broken  Tensi,  hnt  in  finished  chqiteTB, 
ULd  from  this  oopr  tha  foUowan  at  the  Prophst 
procured  other  oopges— nnleaa  thev  ^ttemd  learn- 
vig  Uie  oradca  b^  heart  front  tb»  maitei'i  own 
mouth.  The  origmal  fragmanta  were,  without  any 
attempt  at  a  ohJonolopoal  or  other  arran/"™-"* 
piomiscnooalj  thrown  into  a  box,  and  a 
DOniber  were  entirelf  btt.  A  ^ear  after  the  death 
of  Mohammed,   the    (cattered    portion*   — ~    ''' 


copies  to  be  made  from 

original  fragmeata,  in  which  all  the  varuuits 

9  to  De  expunged,  without,  however,  any  further 

alteration,  such  ae  the  euppreBsion  of  certain  poa- 

■agea,  ka.,  being  introduced;  and  the  old  oojnee  were 

air  consigned  to  the  Qames.     With  respect  to  the 


but  thsy  were  placed  side  by  aide  accoraing  to  their 
respective  length! ;  ao  tb»K  immediately  after  the 
btrodoctory  fattah  or  exoidinm,  fbllowi  the  longest 
(liapter,  and  the  others  are  ranged  after  it  in 
decreasing  aize.    They  are   not  numbered   in  the 

' '"'"   but   bear   distinctive,  often   strange- 

"-—   --    the  Cow,  Oongealad  Blood, 

' ■■-'-»,  the  Poet*,  4c„ 

r  person  treated 
Irery  chapter  or 

.„__   ry  formuli:    'In 

le  of  Ood,  the  Merdfol,  the  Compassionate,' 


chapter  is  subdivided  into  smidler  portims  {Af/alh, 
Heor.   Olhj  iign,  letter),  vaiTing   m   the   ancient 


alighteat  attempt  at  moulding  them  into  shape 
ssqoeno^  toaether  with  all  the  variants,  the  repeti- 
titUM,  and  the  g»pa.  This  volume  was  intrusted  tc 
the  keeping  of  HiJaa,  one  of  the  Prophet's  wives, 
tiie  dMWMr  of  Omar.  A  second  redaction  was 
instihrtea  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  the  Hedjrah,  by 
Calif  OUunaa,  not  for  the  sake  of  arranging  aod 
eoiTeotins  the  text,  but  in  order  to  rertore  iU  unitv : 
many  different  readinn  being  carrent  among  ue 
"" "  ■  "    orderedui  -     ■    ■  •     ' 


primitive   copies  M  Medina 
(two),  Mecca,  Enfa,  Basra,  Syria,  and  the  '  Volgar 

Edition  1 — reduced  1^  Nfildeke  to  four  editions — 
between  0000  and  0036.  The  number  of  words  in 
the  whole  book  is  77,639,  and  an  enumeration  of  the 
letters  shew*  an  amount  of  323,0IS  of  theee.  Other 
— encyciioal — diriHioui  ot  the  book  are  r  into  thirty 
ajit  and  into  sixty  abdb,  for  the  use  of  devotiomd 
readings  in  and  out  of  the  moaqne.  Twentv-nine 
Surahs  commence  with  certain  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  supposed  to  be  ot  mystical  purport. 

The  contents  of  the  Koran  as  the  buis  of  Moham- 
medanism will  be  considered  under  that  head,  while 
for  question*  more  closely  connected  with  anthor- 
ship  and  obronok«y,  we  must  refer  to  Moeauisd. 
Briefly,  it  nu^  be  stated  here,  that  the  chief 
doctrine  laid  down  in  it  is  tha  unity  of  Qod,  and 
of  bat  one  true  reliraon,  with  chaoge. 
iea.  When  mankind  turned  from  it  at 
different  times,  Ood  lent  prophets  to  lead  them 
back  to  truth :  Mosea,Chriit,aodMohsmmed  being 
the  most  distinguished.  Both  punishments  for  the 
sinner  and  rewards  for  the  pious  ore  depicted  with 
great  diffusaneas,  and  exempliiied  chiefiy  by  stories 
nken  from  the  Bible,  the  Apocryphal  writings,  and 


loiiinatiwi    to 
Ood'a  will  (see  Islui),  luonds,  prinoipaliy  nittiag 
to  the  patriarohs,  and,  umost  without  sEoqitiDn, 
borrowed   from   the  Jewish   writing!  {known    to 
Mdiammed  by  oral  communiutiim  Mly,  a  drenns- 
atanoe  which  aooonnte  lor  their  oft«i  odd  ooafii- 
!ion),  form  the  bulk  of  flie  book,  which  thnnglMat 
bears  the  moat  pslpahle  bans  of  Jewidt  inJtMXie. 
Thna,  of  ideas  and  notions  tsken  bodily,  with  Otmz 
Arabioised  deajgoations,   from  Judaism,  we  may 
mention— Koran  =  Mikrah  (Beadinir) ;  FoikaB  (Sal- 
vation) ;  the  intiodnctoiy  foimnk,  Bismillah  (in  tlte 
name  of  Ood) ;  Torah  (Book  of  Law):  0>n  Eden 
(Paradise);    Oehinnom    (Hell);    Habar    (Master); 
Darash  (to  search  the  Soriptajes) ;  BobU  (Teadier) 
Sabbath  (Day  of  Kot);  Shechinoh  (Hajeatrof  God). 
Mishnah  (Rnietition,  or  Oral  Law),  Ac  Tba  genwal 
tendency  and  aim  of  tha  Koran  is  found  pRtty 
clearly  indicated  in  tha  beginning  of  the  aeoond     i 
chapter:  'Tiiis  is  the  hook  in  which  than  is  no    I 
doubt;   a  guidance  for  tJie  pion^  who  believe  in    i 
the  mjwferiM  o/Jiulh,  who  perform  thur  projfert, 
Dve   oinw   from   what  we   have   botowed    open    | 
them,  who  believe  in  the  ratlatio*  which  we  nude    i 
unto  thee,  which  was  sent  down  to  the  propluU 
b^ort  Ate,  and  who   believe   in    On  J^^itrt    lift, 
&0.'     To  unite  the  three  prineipal  relif^oas  fonns    ■ 
which    he   found  in  his  time  and   caimtrv — via.    i 
Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Heathen 


read,  disdosea  oonstanUy  the   alternate  i 
and  threats  aimed  at  each  of  the  three  partiea.    No    j 
less  sre  certain  alwogations  en  tlia  put  ol  tbe    i 
Prophet  hiTii»i>lf,  of  qwdal  passages  in  tbe  Koran, 
due  to  the  vaciliating  nlatioit  in  which  be  at  fast 
stood  to  Uie  differani  creeds,  and  the  conowiioui 
first  made,  and  then  revoked.   WitneaaUie'Eflilah,' 
or  tbe  place  where  the  beliJaver  was  to  turn  in  his 
prayer,  first  being  Jerusalem  j  fastins,  baing  at  firat 
iDstituted  in  the  ancdent  manner ;  rorbearanoe  to    I 
idolaters  forming  one  of  the  original  pieoeple,  Ac 

The   language    of   the   Koran   ia   of  ampaasing 
elegance   and   purity,    io    muoh   ao,   that  it  ha*    i 
beoorae  the  id^  of    Arabia  claaaicalitw,  and  no 
human   pen    is  sup;po«ed   to    be  citable  of   pro- 

''""■'"'-  -"ythina  sinular  1 — i   '""      ■"■ **       "" 

mmed  ^imfwlf  as 
The  style  varies  considerablj ; 
and  bold,  HubliniB  and  majestic,  in 
fluent,  and  hannonioas ;  it  at  other  tin 

'erbose,    Bententious,   obscnie,   tame,   and  prosy; 

>nd  on  this  difference  modem  investigates  have 
endeavoured  to  form  a  chronological  amBgement 
of  the  Koran,  wherever  other  dates  fsiL  But  none 
of  these  sttempts   can  ever  be   BuaoesrfuL      Poll 

are  not  things  so  essily  toaaed  in  the  writinga  of 
a  man  like  MohammeiL  Tie  Kenn  ia  written  in 
prose,  yet  the  two  or  more  links  of  iriiich  gMienlly 
a  smitance  is  ctunposed,  rhyme  with  ea«h  other,  a 
peonlisri^  of  qkeeoh  uised  by  the  andent  sootii- 
s^ers  (Kuhhin  H  Cohen)  ct  Aiabsa: — only  tbat 
luihamiaed  used  his  own  diseretloa  In  TemadelUng 
its  form,  and  freeing  it  from  oonvcntional  fetter* ; 
and  thus  tha  rhyme  ot  the  Koran  became  so  entirely 
distinctive  rhyme.  Refrsina  ore  introduced  in  aotna 
surahs;  and  plays  upon  words  are  not  disdained. 
The  outward  reverence  in  which  the  Koran  is 
;ld  throughout  Mohammedanism,  is  exoeedin^j 
great.  It  is  never  held  below  the  ^rdl%  never 
touched  without  previous  purification ;  andaninjunc- 
tioD  to  that  efiect  is  generally  found  on  the  cover 
which  overlaps  tlie  boards,  acoording  to  TTaiih  i  ii 
binding.     It   is   consulted   on  wei^^  mMan; 


t.CoogIc 


KOKDOFAN— K0B0IU8K0. 


•antanoM  from  it  its  ioMtibed  tai  baimen,  dooit, 
tea.  Oraat  UTiihneaa  ia  mlao  dupUysd  upon  tlie 
mattsul  utd  the  binding  of  the  Mimid  Tolome.  Ths 
ooTHee  for  the  wealthy  mre  ■ametiniga  Trittan 
gold,  and  the  coren  blaia  iritb  gold  and  predt 
■tonaa.  Nothing  alao  ia  more  hateful  in  the  n  __ 
of  a  Moalem  than  to  aee  the  book  in  the  handi  otan 

lie  EoiM)  haa  be«n  oommanted  npon  oo  oftan 
that  tha  nuoef  of  the  aommentatora  alone  would 
fill  Tolomea.  Tina,  the  library  of  Tripoli,  in 
Syria,  ia  reported  to  have  once  contained  no  Ism 
than  20,000  differeat  commeatariea.  The  moat 
renowned  are  thoae  of  Sunaohihari  (died  639  H.|, 
Beidhavi  (died  686  or  716  B.],  Mahalli  (died  S70 
H.},  and  Soyuti  (died  911  H.).  The  principal 
editiona  are  thoae  of  HiTilr»l.iitt.in  (Hambnig,  16M), 
Maraod  (Padua,  ISOS),  FIQ^  (3d  «d.  1838),  beaidea 
many  edidona  [of  aniall  mtiral  Tilae)  printed  in 
St  Fetenbnrg,  Kaaan,  Teheran,  Calcutta,  Cawnpore, 
Serampore,  and  the  many  nawly-erected  Indian 
preaaea.  The  firet,  but  very  imperfect,  Latin 
version  of  iha  Koran  waa  made  by  Jtobertui 
Betenaia,  an  Engliahman,  in  1143  (ed.  Baale,  1543). 
The  principal  trscalationB  Are  those  of  Maraoci, 
into  LatJD  (1698)  ;  Sole  (flnt  ed.  1734)  and  Rod- 
well  {J862).  into  Eogliah;  Savarr  (1763),  Oarcin 
de  Taaay  (1829),  Kanminki  (1S40),  into  French; 
Megeriin  (1772), /Wahl  (182S),  DUmann  (1840), 
iata  Oemuui ;  beudea  the  great  number  of  Persian, 
Turkiah,  M^y,  Einduitanee,  and  other  tranala- 
tiom  jnade  for  the  benefit  of  the  Tarioua  eaatera 
Moelemt.  Of  ooncordancea  to  the  Koran  may  be 
mentioned  that  of  FlUgel  (Leip.  1U2),  and  the 
Koojoom-ool-Foorkan  (Calcutta,  18II).  Of  authori- 
ties whoae  works  may  be  consulted  on  the  Koran, 
we  will  chieBy  name  Maracci,  Sale,  Savaiy,  Wnhl, 
Geiger,  Aman,  Sprenger,  Muir,  Weil,  NBldeke. 


1  the  1 


by  the  Wbite   Nile,   which   aeparatee 


Darfor  by  a  strip  of  desert.  It  extends 
from  10*  to  15'  20*  N.,  and  the  area  of  ita  more 
or  lees  cultivated  portion  haa  been  estimated  at 
12,000  square  miles,  and  ita  population  at  400,00a 
The  provinoe  ia  traversed  by  no  riven;  wella, 
however,  abound,  water  being  found  almost  every- 
when^  at  a  comparatiTely  suwlt  depth.  In  the 
south,  the  aurfaea  is  nndulatinK,  and  ths  aoil 
argillaceous  and  productive;  and  here  donira  and 
maize  are  grown.  Ia  the  north  and  west,  the 
surface  is  an  etemted  plateau,  and  the  soil  sandy, 
but  peouliari]'  fitted  for  iiiB  cultivation  of  millet, 
which  is  the  staple  article  of  food.  The  emplov; 
meots  of  the  people  are  chiefly  agricnltnraL  In 
the  aonth,  horned  cattle  and  horses  are  extensively 
reared,  but  in  the  north  and  west,  the  nomad 
inhabitants  depend  for  support  entirely  upon  their 
large  herda  of  camels,  which  are  hired  out  for  the 
transport  of  prodoce  and  merchandise.  The  chief 
trsei  are  acacjaa,  yieldinf;  gum-arabic  Iron  ore  is 
obtained  and  wrought  m  the  country.  Slavery, 
which  had  formerly  been  general,  and  had  formed 
an  important  branch  of  trade  in  K.,  was  aboliehed 
in  ISt^  by  Said  Faaha,  the  Egyptian  viceroy.  The 
people  are  Uohammedans. 

The  inhabitants  are  partly  Arabs,  partly  a  rotied 
Arab  and  negro  race.  The  capital  it  Iiobeid  or 
U-Obeid  (q.  vj.  In  1770,  AdUn,  king  of  Senuaar, 
made  a  conquest  of  K.,  and  about  six  years  after, 
the  Sultan  of  Darfnr  overran  the  province,  and 
annexed  it  to  his  territories.  TJnd^  the  sultan. 
the  ii^Utants  were  but  lij^tly  taxed ;  trade  was 
opened  up  with  the  Sudan  and  Arabia  j  and  the 
markets  ot  U-Obeid  and  Ban,  the  otuef  towu. 


were  stored  with  the  produce  of  Arabia,  India, 
and  Abyssinibi  liuM  peoiod  of  proaperily,  how- 
ever, was  broo^t  to  a  dose  by  the  invaaion  of  £., 
in  1821,  by  an  £^yptian  umy-  Siuce  than  K.  has 
remained  a  provmoe  of  tke  Turkish  empire,  under 
the  viceroy  of  Egypt, 

KORNER,  Tbrodob,  •  patriotio  German  poet, 
was  bom  at  Dresden,  2Sd  September  1791,  and 
after  the  publication  of  a  oolleotion  of  iromatnre 
verse*  in  ISIO,  betook  himself  to  the  ooivernty  ot 
Leipeic.  Here  the  young  author,  who  had  no 
aptitude  for  serious  and  solid  studies,  was  led  into 
several  irr^ularities,  which  oecessitated  his  leaving 

IV.  — ; 1_     ^Hf^j  g,  short  reaidenoe  in  Berlin, 

ieima,  and  began  to  write  for  the 
stage.  His  Der  OrUnt  Domino  (The  Qreen  Domino), 
i>li!  Smut  (The  Bride),  uid  Der  tfaehtaOdUa-  (The 
Night-watchman),  are  among  the  best  Gerinaa 
comedies.  His  two  mo«t  im^rtant  dramas,  Zriny 
""■"  ""tamundt,  thongh  deititnte  of  that  sagacity 
^t  and  knowledge  of  mankind  which  or* 
.  to  the  permanent  success  of  such  works, 
of  noble  enthusiaem.  The  uprising  of  the 
German  nation  against  the  despotism  of  Napoleon, 
inspired  K.  with  patriotio  ardour.  He  joined  the 
army  of  liberation,  and  displayed  heroic  courage  in 
many  encounters.  The  songs  which  he  now  wrote — 
sev^al  of  them  in  the  camp — and  published  under 
the  title  of  Ltier  und  Scmoert  (Lyre  and  Sword), 
stirred  his  countrymen  mightDy.  Their  chief 
power,  however,  probably  lies  in  their  impassioned 
nationality ;  foreigners  at  least  fail  to  recognise  in 
them  tnuoh  more,  yet  the  Germans  legaid  them 
with  a  kind  ot  sacred  admiration  thJat  forbids 
criticism.  The  moat  famoua  of  these  pieoes  is  his 
Sc/uiirrl-Lifd  (Sword-Song).  K,  was  kilbd  in  hattta 
near  liosenb^,  26th  August  1813.  A  collected 
edition  of  hu  works  (SOmmtiiche  Werke,  1  vol  BerL 
1834 ;  4  vols.  1342, 4tli  edit.  18(3)  was  published  by 
Streckfuss.  A  biography  of  the  poet,  written  by 
his  father,  lias  been  translated  into  English,  '  with 
selections  from  his  poems,  tales,  and  dramas,'  by 
O.  F.  Richardson  (Loud.  2  vols.  184fi). 

KOB&S,  Naot,  or  GREAT  KOrOS,  an  import- 
ant market-town  of  Hungary,  in  the  oounly  of  I^ath, 
'~  situated  in  a  sandy  dlatiict,  49  miles  south-esat 


is  grown.  Fop,  (1869)  20,091— Kish  Kohos,  or 
Little  KtirCe,  is  a  small  town,  situated  38  milea 
south-west  of  the  foregoing,  and  also  engaged  in  the 
production  of  wine.    Fop.  (1869)  6510. 

_3S0IUSK0,  TABiuac,  a  gnat  Polish  geneitl 
and  patriot,  bom  about  the  middle  of  lost  oentury, 
in  the  province  of  Minsk,  Western  Russia,  was 
descended  from  an  ancient  and  noble,  but  not 
wealthy  Lithuanian  family.  He  became  a  captain 
in  the  Polish  army,  went  to  America,  imd  served  in 
the  War  of  Independgnce.  He  rstnined  to  Poland 
in   1780,   with   the   rank   of  genersl    lA  brigade. 


0  Rotsiana,  althoa^  he  had  had  only  twenty- 
four  hours  to  fortify  i^  and  finally  withdrew  ma 
troopa  without  much  lo»  This  brilliant  feat 
of  anna  laid  the  foundation  of  his  military  lepu- 
tatioTL  When  King  Stanislaus  submitted  to  the 
will  of  tlie  Empress  Catharine,  K.  resigned  his 
command,  and  retired  to  Leipsio ;  but  returned  in 
1794,  and  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  national 
movement  in  Ctscow,  and  afterwards  in  Warsaw. 
With  20,000  regular  troops,  and  40,000  ill-armed 
peasants,  ha  teaiirtad  for  months  the  united  Russian 
and  Pmsiian  army  of  150,000  man.-  Ha  wa«  proof 
alao  againat  Uie  mott  tempting  propcMk  oit  tlw 


J^aoogk 


KOSLQT— KOTZEBUE. 


part  of  the  ProMiMi  king.  He  vaa  at  lart  orer- 
powered  b;  laperior  nnmbera  in  the  battle  of  Itlwiie- 
jowice,  lOtii  Octobec  17^  uul  fell  from  Ilia  horne, 
ooTered  witii  woundu,  and  uttering;  tlie  words  '  Finis 
Pdonia.'  He  wm  kept  a  prisoner  till  after  the 
tkCcenion  of  the  Emperor  Psul,  who  reltored  him 
to  liberty,  p.yv  him  an  estate  witb  1600  pMaants, 
and  tuuideato  him  his  sword,  which  K.  dtxliiied  to 
reeeivo,  Jaying :  '  I  have  no  more  need  of  a  sword, 
as  I  have  do  longer  a  country.'  Ho  afterwards 
resigned  the  estate,  and  sent  back  from  Loodon  tbe 
money  whioh  he  had  received  from  the  emperor. 
He  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  chiefly  in 
Franoe,  aod  his  chief  enjoyment  was  in  agricul- 
taral  puisnits.  Wlien  Napoleon,  in  1806,  formed  a 
plan  for  the  restoration  of  Poland,  K.  felt  himself 
restrained  from  taking  an  active  part  in  it  by  his 
promise  to  the  Emperor  Paul.  The  address  to  the 
Poles,  published  in  his  name  in  the  ilonUewr,  was 
a  fabrication.  In  1814,  he  wrote  to  the  Emperor 
Alexander,  entreating  him  to  grant  an  amneity  to 
the  Poles  in  foreign  ccnntries,  ud  to  make  himself 
constitutional  king  of  Poland.  He  released  from 
■ervitnde.  in  1817,  the  peasants  on  his  own  estate 
in  Poland-    His  death  took  place  on  16th  October 

1817,  in  consequence  of  his  home  falling  over  a 
precipice.  Hia  remuoi  were  ronoved  to  Cracow 
try  the  Emperor  Alexander,  and  were  laid  side  by 
nde  with  those  of  John  SobieakL  See  Falkenstein^ 
K.  naeh  lanea  hSMdvJien  und  OffenlHiJitn  LAta 
(2d  edit  Leip.  1834). 

KdSLI'N,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Prussia,  in 
the  province  of  Pomerania,  on  the  Mtthlanbach,  7 
miles  from  tlie  Baltic  Sea,  and  SS  mile*  north-east 
from  Stettin.  There  are  iron-foundries,  and  mana- 
factnres  of  tobacco,  paper,  ftc    Pop.  (1S71)  13,38a 

KOSSUTH,  Lajos  (Louis),  the  leader  of  the 
Hnngariau  revolution,  was  boni  in  1802  at  Monok, 
in  the  county  of  Zemplin,  in  Hungary.  His  faouly 
is  of  noble  rank,  but  his  parents  were  poor,  as 
studied  law  at  the  Protestant  college  of  Sarospatak, 
and  practiBed  first  in  his  native  oounty,  aud  after- 
words in  Pesth.  In  1S32,  he  oommencxd  his  poli- 
tical career  at  the  diet  of  Presburg  as  editor  of  a 
liberal  paper,  which,  owing  to  the  state  of  the  law, 
was  not  printed,  but  transcribed  and  circulated. 
The  subsequent  publication  of  a  lithographed  paper 
led,  in  May  1837,  to  K.'s  imprisonment.  He  was 
liberated  in  1840,  and  became  again  the  editor  of  a 
paper,  in  which  he  advocated  views  too  eitreme  for 
many  of  the  liberal  party  amongst  the  nobles,  but 
irtiich  took  strong  hold  of  the  people  in  general, 
especiaUy  of  the  youth  of  the  coontiy.  In  Novem- 
ber 1847,  he  was  sent  by  the  oonntv  of  Pesth  as 
deputy  to  the  diet,  and  soon  distjjiguiflhed  himself  as 
a  speaker,  and  became  the  leader  of  tiie  opposition. 
He  advocated  the  emancipation  of  the  peasants. 
the  elevatiim  of  the  citlsen  class;  the  freedom  of 
the  press,  Ac,  and  after  the  French  revolution  of 

1818,  openly  demanded  an  independent  government 
ior  Hnngaiy,  and  constitotional  government  in  the 
Austrian  hereditary  territories.  To  hia  speeches 
must  in  great  part  be  ascribed  not  only  the  Hun- 
garian revolution,  bnt  the  insurrection  in  Vienna 
*n  Uarck  1848.  On  the  dissolntion  of  the  ministry 
ji  September  1S4B,  be  found  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  unnmittee  of  National  Defence,  and  now  prose- 
cuted with  extraordinary  energy  the  meaaorea  neces- 
sary for  carrying  on  the  war.  To  pat  an  end  to  all 
the  hopes  and  schemes  of  the  moderate  par^,  he 
induced  the  National  Aaaembly  at  Debreczm,  in 
April  1849,  to  declare  the  independence  of  Hun«iiy, 
and  that  the  Hapsborg  dynasty  had  forfeited  the 
throne.    He  was  now  appomted  provisional  sovemor 

nppointed  in  his  hopes  for 


of  EungMy ;  but  being  di 


the  national    . ,    ,     , 

KuEsia  on  the  scene  of  acticm,  he  endesvoared 
arouse  the  people  to  a  more  desperate  aSbrt     Hie 
attempt  was  vain.     Finding  that  the  iliiisiiiaiiiiiii 
between  himself  and  04r^  ('I-*')  ""^"^ 


on  9th  August  1849,  he  found  himself  cranpelled  to 
abandon  his  position,  and  to  flee  into  l^iikey,  where, 
however,  he  was  made  a  prisoner ;  bnt  thou^  hia 
eitraditioQ  was  demanded  both  by  Austria  aad 
Knssia,  the  Porte,  true  to  the  principle  of  hospi- 
tality, rwsted  all  their  denutnds.  In  Sntember 
1 851  be  was  Uberated,  and  the  government  of  Ftanoe 
refusing  him  a  passage  throu^  their  tenibtry,  he 
sailed  in  an  American  frigate  bo  &i^and,  whoe  he 
was  received  with  every  deuKmstration  of  puUic 
respect  and  sympathy.  In  December  of  the  Baine 
year  hs  landed  in  the  TTnited  States,  whm«  he  met 
with  a  most  enthosiastio  reception.  He  retnnied 
in  June  18S2  to  Endand,  and  there  he  eUefly 
resided,  until  the  Itdian  war  broke  out  against  I 
Anstoia,  when  almost  the  whole  of  the  Ennganan  i 
emignuilB  left  for  Italy  with  Eosautii.  'Hit  now 
(1876)  resides  in  Turin.  | 

KOSTRO'MA,  capital  of  the  government  of  that 
name,  in  European  Russia,  is  situated  near  the 
junction  of  the  Eoatroms  wiUi  the  Volga,  and  SG4 
miles  from  St  PetersbniK.  It  was  founded  in  the 
middle  of  the  I2th  c,  ana  sntftewd  mneh  bom  the 
invasions,  &«t  of  the  Tartars,  afterwaids  of  the 
Poles.  K.  has  considerate  mann&otares.  chiefly  of 
linen,  and  trades  in  com,  tallow,  timber,  linseed  oil, 
and  leather.     Pop.  (1867)  23;453.  ! 

KOSTROMA,  a  government  of  Great  Susaia,  is 
bonnded  on  the  W.  by  the  government  of  Janalav, 
.  the  K  W  the  district  of  Kazan.  Area, 
square  mil^ ;  pop,  (1S67)  1,101,099l  The 
surface  is  generally  fiat,  marshy,  interspersed  with 
lakes,  and,  especiuly  in  the  north  and  east,  with 
eit«nsive  and  dense  forests.  Ilie  greater  part  of 
the  soil  is  uncultivated.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Volga,  with  its  tributaries  the  Ktetroma,  the  tJnja, 
and  the  Vetluga.  The  climate  is  severe.  Agricul- 
ture is  the  prindpat  occupation  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  grain  is  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  for 
local  cousumptiou.  Flax  and  hemp  are  exten- 
sively cultivated ;  mats,  pitch,  tar,  and  p 
largely  manuf  actni«d  and  ei]  '  ' 
flonriuiing  trade  in  timber. 

KOTAH,  the  chief  town  of  a  protected  state  of 
the  same  nam^  is  situated  ia  Sajpootans,  in  lat. 
26°  Iff  N.,  and  long.  75°  52'  E,  It  u  on  the  ri^ 
bank  of  tiie  Cbumbul,  and  is  fortified  with  a  ram- 
part and  a  ditch.  The  town  is  toleiably  wealthy, 
being,  moreover,  of  consideisble  size,  and  of  » 


1  eipOTted;  and  there  ii 


architectural  pretensiooa.    In  1867,  notwithstanding 

^ty  of  the  rajah  to  the  British  government 

E.  fell  under  the  power  of  the  mutineer*,  remaining 


the  fidelity  i 


their  poGsession  until  30th  Match  1868,  when  a 

B  stormed  by  Genera]  Boberts.    The  ^indpelity 

itains   4400    square   miles,   with   an   estimated 

population  of  440,OOa 

KOTZEBUE,  Auaun  Frikdrich  Fisi>iiiA>n> 

>H,  a  most  prolific  German  dramatist,  was  bom  at 

Weimar  on  3d  Hay  1761,  and  after  a  eheckervd 

spent  liist  in  Russia,  and  afterwards  in  Anabia 

Germany,  was  assassinated  at  MmnKinm    23d 

March  1819,  on  account  of  his  bostility  to  the  liberal 

Among  his  dramatic  peiformancea  (the 

chief   merit  of   whicb  consists  m  their   superior 

knowledge  of  stage-effect),  may  be  mentioned  Die 

Indianer  in  En^nd  (The  Indivis  in  EWand),  JVea- 

adienhoM  und  Rtue  (Misanthropy  m  ' 


LiOOglC 


KOUBA— KEEFELD. 


— the  laHo',  imler  ths  title  of  TKe  Stranger,  being 
mil  known  on  the  T^"g^''*'  boards — IHa  btiden 
K&ngAerg  (The  Two  Klingsbergi),  Die  Bpamer  in 
Peru,  ftc.  K.  wrote  do  fewer  than  ninety-eight 
dramaa,  which  h»ve  been  collected  in  editiona  of 
28  (Lflip.  1797—1823)  uid  of  44  vols.  (1827—1829). 
Several  of  them  h»ve  been  truulated  into  English. 

KOTJ'BA,  a  town  in  the  sootli  of  Asiatic  KnatdA, 
on  the  eastern  dope  of  the  Caucasiu,  in  the  govern. 
ment  of  Baku,  SC  mQeB  sonth-soath-east  of  the  town 
of  tint  name,  lat  41°  22"  N.,  long.  48°  31'  E.  Agri- 
oultnre,  '^■'''"g.  the  rearins  of  lilkwonna,  and  trade 
with  Astrakhan  and  Persia,  ahiefl}r  employ  the  in- 
habitanla.  Pop.  (1S67)  11,247.  It  wm  anneied 
Kuwift  in  1806. 

KOUBA'N,  a  river  in  the  sonth  of  Buvia,  ru-. 
on  the  declivity  of  Hoimt  Elbnra,  and  flown  firat 
north,  then  west,  sepMating  the  govemmentg  of 
Stavropol  and  the  Couaoks  of  the  Black  Sea  from 
Ciicataoa.  It  ia  about  400  miles  in  length,  exclusive 
of  its  windings,  and  it  falls  partly  into  the  Black 
Sea,  partly  into  the  Sea  of  Auif. 

KOUSNE'TZK,  a  town  of  Rouda,  on  the  northern 
border  of  the  government  of  Saratov,  110  miles 
north-north-east  of  the  town  of  Uiat  name.  Pop. 
(1867)  13,954,  who  are  employed  chiefly  in  ' 
keeping  and  in  woollen  manufactures. 

KOTSO,  capital  of  Hie  govemaent  of  the 
name,  in  Europeaa  Bujnta,  n«ar  the  confluent 
the  Villa  and  ine  memeu,  was  founded  in  the  lOth 
c,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  bloody  oonflicta 
between  the  Teutonic  Knighia  and  the  Poles  during 
the  14th  and  lOth  centnnea.  Its  comtuerae,  not- 
withstanding its  advantages  of  situation — being  not 
only  near  the  confluence  of  two  navusble  nvers, 
but  also  on  (he  great  railway  from  St  Petersburg  to 
Berlin— ia  very  insignificant     Pop.  (1867)  34,612. 

EOVNO,  a  government  of  West  Russia,  lies 
immediately  south  of  the  province  of  Conrland, 
and  is  bonnded  on  the  souUi-west  by  Prussia  and 
Poland.  Area,  16,116  square  miles,  not  more  than 
one-third  of  which  is  cultivated,  and  about  oue-third 
under  wood.  Flaz  and  boueyare  important  pro- 
duoU.  Pop.  (1867)  1,131,24&  The  surface  is  flat  and 
maishy,  and  there  are  numerous  l^es.  The  chief 
riven  ate  the  Niemen,  with  its  tribntaries  the  Vilia. 
Heveja,  and  Doabissa.  Plica  Polonies  (q.  v.)  is 
common  among  the  peaiontiy.  Previous  to  1343, 
this  government  fonued  a  part  of  that  of  Wiln^ 

KOZEI'LSK,  a  district  town  of  Great  Bussia,  in 
the  government  of  Kalnga,  and  40  miles  south-west 
of  the  town  of  that  name,  stands  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  rivet  Jisdra.  Pop.  (1867)  7224  It  carries  on 
a  great  trade  in  hemp,  and  an  eiteusive  manofao- 
ture  of  sailcloth.  K.  is  famous  in  history  for  the 
braye  but  unsacoeasfnl  resistanos  made  here  to 
Batn-Ehan  of  Eiptchak. 

KOZLO'F,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Tambov,  is  advantageously  situated  on  the 
Voroneti^  in  Ut.  E2°  53'  N.,  fong.  40°  31'  E.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Czar  Michael  Fedtaovitch  as  a  strongs 
hold  against  the  Tartars.  It  is  a  flourishing  town, 
has  numerous  'woollen,  linen,  and  other  factories, 
and  a  pop.  of  (1867)  24,616,  who  areemployed  largely 
in  sgncultarQ,  and  in  horse  and  sheep  Dreeding- 

KRAJO'VA,  a  town  of  WsUaehia,  in  littie 
Wallaohia,  near  the  eastern  bank  lA  tho  Sehyl, 
120  miles  west  of  Bucharest    It  is  ^'■-     --■'-- 


pop.  of  2S,000. 
KRA'KBIf,  a  fabulous  animal,  flrst  deaoribed  by 
Pontoppidan  in  his  JTofuroJ  Hittory  ^  Nonaay, 
and  from  time  to  time  said  to  have  beian  seen  in  ' ' 

Norwegian 


to  it ;  it  is  said  to  rise  from  the  sea  like  an  island, 
to  stretoh  out  mast-like  arms,  by  which  ships  are 
readily  drawn  down,  and,  when  it  sinks  a^ain  into 
the  deep,  to  caose  a  whirlpool,  in  which  large 
vessels  are  involved  to  their  destruction.  The  faUe 
of  the  K.  has  considerable  analogy  to  the  mor 
recent  stories  of  the  Oreat  Sea  Serpent  (q.  v.).  I 
is  not,  however,  to  be  summarily  rejected  as  mer 
immingled  fable.  There  may,  perhaps,  be  somi 
foundation  for  it  in  the  occasional  appearance  o 
huge  oephalopods,  to  the  general  characters  o 
which  the  desiaiption  given  of  its  form  and  mon 
strons  arms  sn^ciendy  agrees,  great  e 


t  exaagerstio 
'or.     Large  a 


seas,  there  are  reasons  fi         ,  „  -     -  

of  liiia  kind  do  exist  much  larger  tlum  any  that 
have  been  accurately  described ;  and  stories,  similar 
to  the  Norw^ian  ones  recorded  by  Pontoppidan 
and  others,  are  cnnent '  in  diflTerent  parts  tx  the 
world.  Such  is  the  story  told  by  Pliny  conoemins 
a  vast  »"i""1  with  prodigious  arms  which  impeded 
the  navigation  of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  See 
Chamberit  Editthtar^  Journal,  flrst  series,  zL  228. 

KRAMTHTtTA      See  Rattikt  Root. 

KBASTfOIA'RSK,  chief  town  of  the  ^'berian 
government  of  Teniseisk,  is  sitnated  on  the  great 
road  from  Europe  to  Bast  Siberia,  at  a  distance  of 
S1B7  mile*  from  8t  Fetersbnrg.  It  contained,  in 
1667,  11,238  inhabitanta,  chiefly  Cossacks,  some  of 
whom  posssas  nnmarons  herds  of  cattle  and  horses. 
There  is  a  considerable  bade  in  fnrs,  and  there  are 
about  thirty  tan-yards  and  other  faotoriea. 

KBAZIirSKI,  Couht  Talkruit,  a  scion  of  an 


Being  poeseased  of  great  oatnral  alulitiea,  which 


were  improved  and  matured  by  a  thorou^  eduoa> 
tion,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  chief  <^ciab  in 
the  bniMHi  of  Public  Instmction  for  Poland.  He 
strennoDBly  exerted  WtniW  to  promote  education 
among  the  various  classes  d  diaseniers,  and,  wiQi 
a  view  to  this,  introduced,  at  great  expense  to 
himself,  the  process  of  stereotypmg.  When  the 
Poles  rebelled  in  1830,  and  set  up  an  independent 
it,  K.  was  sent  as  their  representative  to 
here,  from  1831,  he  remained  as  an  exile 
for  twenty  years,  and  then  removed  to  Edinburgh, 
where  he  died,  Z2d  December  ISS6.  Being  a  man 
of  extensive  learning,  and  possessiog  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  history  and  literature  of  the 
SUvonio  nations,  his  iroAa  ai«  of  considerable 
authority.  The  dhtef  are— TAe  Rite,  Progrtit,  and 
Dedim  of  At  B^ormaiion  in  Pohma  (Loud.  2  vols. 
1839—1840),  Ledvre*  on  1M  £e(MoM  Blatoryi^at 
SUtBonie  Na&nu  (Lond.  1849),  Mtmlattgro  and  EAe 
jSIartnuoM  bt  Turkey  (Edio.  1863),  togeOieT  with 
some  translations,  i^^oos  works,  ami  poUtiotl 
pamphlets  on  the  subject  of  Poland. 

EREASOTK    See  CBZAaoTB. 

KREIATINB.    See  Ckuidik. 

KBETELD,  an  important  mannlaoturing  town 
oE  Rhenish  Prussia,  twelve  miles  north-west  of 
DUsseldoil  It  owes  its  importance  to  the  settiemsnt 
here,  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  of  numerous 
refugees,  who  were  driven  from  the  neidiboiuing 
countries  by  religiaos  persecation,  and  who  estab- 
lished here  the  silk  and  velvet  manufactures  for 
which  K.  is  now  the  most  noted  town  in  Pmssin, 
In  1870,  the  qoauti^  of  sOk  '  ' 
'  -  ,100,000  lbs,  and  iba 


c;oogif 


KBEUENOHUQ— E^TBLAI  EHAS'. 


yarn,  oottoa  goods,  maohinety,  Mtd  ch«mkala.    Pop. 

il871)  07il2^  three-fonrtliB  of  vhom  mra  Bom&n 
^atholio*. 

KREMENOHtra,  >  district  town  of  littla 
Bnssia,  in  tbe  goveniment  d  Poltara,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Dnieper,  ninety  milet  kbova  Ek&ter- 
inoaliT.  It  wa*  fonnded  in  the  leth  □.  by  Segia- 
mnnduB-Aogiutul,  king  ol  Foluid,  ■■  m  binier 
•aaiiut  the  Tartan.  During  the  reign  of  CatluuiDe 
IL,  it  vu  the  chief  town  of  New  Aiuuria,  and  it 
U  now  the  seat  of  great  industrial  and  commercial 
euterprisE^  containing  34  factories,  cbieSy  for  molt- 
ing billow  and  for  rope-making.    Pop.  (1867}  20,251, 

KBEHEKBTZ,  a  diitrict  town  of  West  Rmvia, 
in  the  government  of  Volyn  fVolhjuia),  is  stoated 
130  mi^  west  of  Jitomir,  and  about  SO  miles  from 
the  frontier  of  Anitrian  OoIiciK  It  bod,  in  1867, 
10,963  iobabitonta,  and  seven  ■"""«!  fairs  ors  held 
bere,  bnt,  owing  to  the  want  of  river-oooununioa- 
tiOD,  the  commerce  is  limited. 

KBE'MHITZ,  a  town  of  Hnngwjr,  in  the  oountf 
of  Bara,  JD  »  deep  gloom;  valley,  twelve  miles  weat- 
soutb-west  of  Nenaohl.  It  is  famous  for  its  gold 
aad  silver  minsa,  wbiob,  bowever,  are  leaa  productive 
DOW  than  formerly.  Fop.  (1869)  SM2,  who  are 
almost  entirely  of  Qermon  origin. 

KBBUS,  a  town  of  Lower  Austria,  in  *  pictur- 
esque diatriot  on  the  Danube,  at  the  cooflaanoe  oE 
the  Erems  with  that  river,  38  milaa  weat-north.weat 
of  Vienna.  It  manafaotoMt  mnatard  and  powder, 
and  trades  in  win&    Pop.  (1869)  6114. 

LREU'ZEB— -from   the   cross  (trwHc)  formerij 

iSpicaons  upon  it — a  sniall  coppw  ooin  cmrrent  in 

Soathsm  Genoony,  tbe  60th  jMirt  of  the  gulden  or 
Florin  (q.  v.). 

KREU'ZKAOH,  a  town  in  the  provinoe  of 
Kheuiab  Pnusia,  on  the  Nahe,  a  few  mitea  from  its 
junction  with  the  Rhine,  and  38  mile*  aoath-sonth- 
east  of  Cobleatft  It  ht»  crooked  narrow  streets, 
and  old-faahioned  houses,  with  a  pop.  in  1871,  of 
12,674.  It  dates  its  existenoe  from  about  the  9th 
century.  It  i*  chiefly  notably  however,  for  its  salt 
springs,  which  wen  discovered  in  1478,  and  which, 
contaming  iodine  and  bromine^  are  serviceable  in 
many  diiirnnm  It  is  thereforo  moeh  freqaented. 
Tbe  springs  rangs  from  4H'  to  84°  F. 

KRIMMIT30HAD',  a  town  of  Baionv,  about 
37  miles  aoutb  of  Leipeic,  on  the  railway  between 
that  place  and  Hot  It  is  a  busy  mannfactoring 
town,  the  industrial  product*  being  woollen  yam, 
woollen  and  cotton  fabric*,  buttons,  needles,  Jtc 

Pop.  (1871)  is,a»a 

ERTSHITA,  the  eighth  Avattra  or  incamatiaQ  of 
tbe  Einda  god  Vishnn.    Sea  VmHMti. 

KROLOWB'Z,  a  town  of  Little  Boatia,  in  the 
government  of  Tobemigor,  i*  situated  100  miles 
east  of  tbe  town  of  that  name.  A  famous  annual 
market  is  held  hen.     Pop.  (1867)  8198. 

KBO'SSEIT,  a  walled  tovrn  of  Pmiaia,  on  tba 
left  bank  of  tbe  Oder,  32  miles  south-east  of  Frank- 
furt. There  are  manufactures  of  wooUee,  linen, 
leather,  md  earthenware.    Pop.  (1871)  6S77. 

KRUDENBR,  JuLiABA  vol),  a  leligioos  visiona^ 
and  enthusiast,  daughter  of  Baron  von  VietinghoS, 
was  bom  at  Biga  m  1766.  When  she  was  bat  14, 
^le  tnuried  the  Baron  von  ErQdener,  a  Livonian 
nobleman,  who  held  the  post  of  Russian  ambassador 
at  Venice.  Her  momed  lif^  however,  was  unhappy, 
and  after  tbs  birth  tA  a  son  and  daughter,  she  was 
divorced  from  Jus  hnsbaad.  The  succeeding  inci- 
dent* of  her  stormy  career  are  nmposed  to  form  the 
(rroondwork  of  the  no^  of  ViU^ie,  which  she  pab- 
Ud)*d  in  1803.    After  many  adventures,  U.  ron  K. 


le  to  Beriin,  where  she  was  admitted  to  tbe  dott 


have  distnibed  tbe  bolaoea 
and  from  that  dote  she  became  a  nolons  disi^Je  of 
the  celebrated  pietist,  Jang  fitellin^  and  nltiiutdy 
gave  herself  up  to  religions  mysticism  in  its  most 
exaggerated  form.  From  Berlin  she  movnd  to  Paii^ 
where  she  appeai«d  as  a  propheteas,  and  the  benU 
of  a  new  religions  era ;  and  she  attncted  such 
notice  b^  the  fulfilment  of  certain  of  bar  predictions 
of  pubUo  events,  as  of  the  fall  of  Kapoleon,  his 
retam  from  Elba,  and  IJie  final  ori*i*  of  Waterloo,  aa 
to  obtain  aoceaa  to  the  Emperor  Aleiander,  and 
eventually  to  acquire  much  influence  over  fain. 
Her  gigantic  schemes  for  the  elevatioa  of  tbe  social 
and  moral  condition  of  Uie  world,  conaed  bv  to 
appear  a  dangerous  character  in  tbe  eyes  of  pecaona 
in  authority,  and  she  was  obliged  to  withdraw  frmn  , 
France  and  other  countries  in  succession.  In  OMiae- 
quence,  she  retired  to  one  of  bar  paternal  •states 
near  Riga,  where  she  entered  into  relations  with  tba 
Eermhllter  or  Moravian  Brethren  ;  bnt  ber  mtfcaa 
disposition  soon  carried  her  into  freeb  enterpriseo, 
the  latest  of  which  was  the  formation  of  a  great 
correctional  eetablishment  in  the  Crimea  for  tbs 
reformation  of  criminals  and  persnis  of  enl  life. 
In  the  midst  of  her  eSiMa  far  this  object,  she  died 
at  Ean-8Q-ba*ar,  Deoember  13, 1324.  Betidea  tbe 
novel  already  named,  her  only  otiier  work  was  a 
pamphlet  entitled  Le  Camp  da  YtrlMt  (Pads,  1815)  ; 
but  many  onrioos  details  of  her  oonvenatioa  and 
opinions  an  preserved  in  Krng's  Convenatio^m  wiA 
"oikcma  mm  JTrtldaner,  publish  at  Leipdo  in  1818.    | 

KRO'MAX:,  a  small  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the 
Moldau,  14  miles  sonth-sonth-west  of  Badwna.     Its    , 
castle,  a  fine  atnict^ire  placed  on  a  rock,  contains 
separate  oonrts,  and  is  sunnoonted  by  nunerous 
ers  and  pionade*.  There  is  some  manafaetiirins    , 
industry.     Pop.  G17a 

KBUMHACHER,  Fmeducs   Wilhkcm,   Oe 
._n    of    F.    A.    Kmmmacber,  a    elergymnn   who   , 
distinguished  himself  by  bis  seal  for  old  Lutlier. 
anism,  and  also  as  an  opponent  of  tbe  Bationolista. 
Some  of  hia  workfk  particularly  bis  discontae*  on  tbe   i 
history  of  Elijah  ike  TiMAte,  have  not  only  acquired 
a  great  popolority  in  Germany,  but,  by  means  of 
truuLtations,  in  Britain  and  America.    Alons  with 
this  may  be  named  his  discouraes  on  the  Life  Ol   i 
Elisha.      In  1843,  be  was  called  a*  preacher  to  a   [ 
Qerman  Beformeil  conmeRation  in  New  York,  bol 
returned  to  Bremen  in  1S4T,  and  nbaeqaenUy  held  I 
tbe  office  of  chaplain  of  tbe  Pmsaian  oonrt  at  Pots-  \ 
dam.    E.  was  considered  a  moat  eloqnoit  preacher.  | 
He  died  Deo.  10,  18e& 

KRU'HMHOBN(ItBLa»'monie)isthename«f  ! 
a  very  old  wind-inatmment  made  of  wood,  tbe  nndcr  | 
port  of  which  is  bent  ontwards  in  a  dronlar  ore — 
Kmmmbom  is   also  the  name  of  an  organ-atoii,  ' 
found  in  almost  all  German  organs  and  g«DNa%  i 


of  eight  fi 


t  intoh.     The  I 


the  hodv  or  sanndnig 


partly  shut  st  the  -agper  end.  The  Italian  i: 
of  earmom*  has  been  oompted  by  EagUab  at 
builders  into  eremono,  which  is  ue  sam*  *to 


English  organs.  The  sound  of  the  knunmhorn  aa 
—I  organ-sb^  is  soft  and  quiet ;  but  it  i*  defectite 

.  not  keeping  in  tone  so  well  aa  otbsr  reed-atopa. 

ESHATRITA,  the  second  or  militaiy  eosbe  ia 
the  social  system  of  the  Brabmonical  Eindns.    See 


iiiz..ii-,-Gooi^lc 


KDESLUS— KUH-HOEN. 


OF  &«iid  Khjui  of  the  UongoU,  and  E>mparoT  ol 
China,  wu  the  nandton  of  G«iulua  Ehan  throodk 
hi*  fourth  eon,  Xul;  Khan.  Bemg  oidared  by  biM 
brother  MuigQ,  then  KbwjUi  of  the  MonstJe,  to 
■ubjug&te  the  Corea  and  China,  £.,  availing  nimeeU 
of  an  application  made  by  Si-Teans  of  Ute  Song 
dynMty  to  aid  him  in  ezpelliikg  the  Mantohbi, 
entered  China  (1260)  -with  an  immazkae  anny,  drove 
oat  these  Tartan  (or  Kin  dynasty),  and  took  poMeS' 
■ion  of  North  China.  E.,  who  was  an  able  and 
energetio  piinae,  adopted  the  ChineM  mode  of  eirili- 
■ation,  and  endeared  himaelf  to  his  tat^eota  I^  hii 
attcniaontomen  of  letten;  and  tlie  hononn  which  ha 
bertowed  on  the  memoiT  of  Ukeir  former  renowned 
monarohe.  In  1279,  lie  completed  the  nun  of  the 
Song  dynastr  by  invading  uid  anbdning  Southern 
China,  and  tonnding  a  naw  dynasty— £at  of  the 
Toen  (the  first  foreign  race  of  kings  that  ever  ruled 
in  China).  From  ISAd,  K.  had  been  the  Khagan  of 
the  Mongohi,  ao  that  hil  dominioDS  now  extended 
from  the  Frcfflen  Ooean  to  the  Strait  of  Malacoa,  and 
from  the  Corea  to  Asia  Minor — an  extent  of  terri- 
tory tite  like  of  which  had  never  before^  and  haa 
never  lince,  been  governed  by  any  one  monarch.  He 
waa  also  the  lait  grand  khan  whoae  li^t  of  inzar- 
ainty  waa  recognised  over   all  the  conntriea  con- 

Snered  by  the  Mongol  aims.  His  conrt  waa  attended 
y  the  learned  men  of  India,  Penia,  Transoxiana, 
and  some  even  from  Europe,  among  whom  ii  found 
the  celebrated  Marco  Polo.  Towu^  the  close  of 
his  life,  he  sent  an  expedition  agaioat  Japan,  bat  it 
totally  failed.  Irritated  by  this  diaaeter,  ne  indem- 
nified himself  b^  the  conqoeat  of  Mautchnria  and 
other  Deighbounng  diatriuti ;  bat  eoon  after  died 
at  Pekin  m  1201  The  grand  dnkea  of  Roaaia  were 
among  hi*  tributaries. 


KU'FIO  COIIfS  i«  the  name  of  the  earUert 
Mohammedan  ooina,  inaoribed  with  ths'XnSo  or 
anwent  Anbio  character  (aea  the  followtog  article). 
Aoooiding  to  Makrisi,  the  first  were  strack  in 
the  18th  year  of  the  Hedjrah  (638  a.  s.),  nnder 
Calif  Omar,  who,  wishing  to  make  lalam  entirely 
independent  of  foreign,  chiefly  Byzantine  and 
Penian,  inflnence,  even  in  the  province  of  money, 
caoaed  '  Mohanunedon '  coins  to  be  struck,  in  the 
shape  of  those  Penian  and  Bviantine  ones  which 


ha/b^ 


culating  among  his  subjects  till  then, 
and  he  caused  them  to  be  inscribed  with  Eoranio 
pasBsgea.  According  to  other  Arabic  writers,  how- 
ever (Al-Makm,  Soyuti,  Ibn  Eoteiba,  £c).the  earliest 
Knfio  money  date*  from  the  time  of  C^if  Abd  Al- 
Malek  (76  H.  =  695  i-D.),  a  period  much  more  prob- 
able, oonaideriag  that  no  Kafio  coins  have  hitherto 
been  diaoovered^anterior  to  77  BL  They  were  firit 
of  gold  and  ailver,  the  former  being  dinar*  (cor- 
rupted from  denarius — a  name,  moreover,  wrongly 
applied),  of  the  value  of  about  10s.  8d. ;  Uie  latter, 
dirhemt  (drachma),  worth  aboat  Hd.  Not  before 
118  H.  wen  oopper  ooins,  /dg  (foUisT  obolual), 
intradaeed,  and  toe  material  for  them  ma  taken  I^ 
the  ocdar  of  Calif  WiUd  fii»n  a  ooloMsl  bronze  statiie 
of  an  idol  ingiiTe*,  honuui  ot  otherwiM,  are  rarely 
met  with  OB  the**  win*.  The  legend  generally  ran* 
eiUur  aroond  the  margin,  or  i*  enoloeed  br  a  ring. 
The  oUeet  dinar,  nf  77  H. — i*  jwtaoTM  in  the 
Milan  Moaanm  (tormeilT  Oar.  MOhngen'*  oolleotitai). 
Next  come*  the  Stoeknolm  Aaadany,  with  a  dinar 
of  79  H.  The  ddeat  dirbem  f<nmd  a*  yet,  dat«d  82 
H.,  is  likewise  in  Milan,  in  the  MtMeo  di  Stefano  di 
MainonL     One  of  the  riohest  ocUeotion*  of  Kufio 


In  tiie  middle  ages.  Kot  before  the  7th  o.  E.  were 
the  Knfio  ohanioten  snperseded  by  the  modem 
Neehki,  upon  ooins ;  While  for  book^,  &o.,  they  had 
Ions  fallen  into  disuse.  The  beet  authoritiee  on  this 
mbjeot  are  Makrizi,  Adler,  the  Tychaens,  Keiske, 
De  Sacy,  Castilioni,  Cataneo,  Frlihn,  Lindber^ 
PietraszewikL 

KUFIC  WRITINO,  an  aniuent  form  of  Arabia 
characters,  which  came  into  use  shortty  before 
Mohammed,  and  was  chiefly  current  among  the 
inhabitants  of  Horthem  Axabia,  while  those  of  the 
eouth-weetem  parts  employed  the  Himjaritic  or 
Moenad  (clipped)  oharaoter.  The  Kufio  is  taken 
from  the  old  Syriac  oharaoter  (Bstnueelo},  uid  is 
said  to  have  been  first  introduced  by  Moramer  or 
Morar  ben  Uorra  of  Anbar.  The  first  copiea  of  tiie 
Koran  were  written  ia  it  and  Knfa,  a  oi^  in  Ink- 
Arabi  (Psshalic  of  Bagdad),  being  the  one  whioh 
contained  the  most  expert  and  nnmacon*  oopyists, 
the  writing  itMlf  was  wiled  after  it.  The  alphabet 
waa  arranged  Uke  the  Hebrew  and  Syriao  («hence 
its  dsaisnatioa,  ABOaD  EeVtS),  and  thia  order, 
ahhough  now  superseded  bv  another,  is  atiU  used 
for  numerical  ptupoaee.  The  KoEc  character,  of 
a  somewhat  unmsy  and  ungainly  shape,  benu  to 
tall  into  diwue  after  about  100DA.t>.;  Ebn  Morla 
□f  Bagdad  (d.  938  A.D.}  having  invented  the  current 
or  so-called  Neehki  {natlu£,  to  copy)  character, 
which  was  still  further  improved  by  Eba  Bawwab 
(d.  1031).  and  which  now — deservedly,  a*  one  of 
the  prettiBBt  and  esaisst — reicm*  supreme  in  Eaet 
and  West.  It  is  only  in  MEEl.  of  Uie  Koran,  and 
in  title-pagea,  that  the  Enfio  i*  stQl  empltrnd.  A 
peculiar  bad  of  the  Enfio  is  the  ao-eaUed  Karma- 
tisn    of  a  aonswhat  mora  elender  shape — in  whiclh 


oonmation-mantla  preserved  in  Nxiram- 
berg.  The  Kufle  ia  written  with  a  atyle,  while 
lot  the  Neshki,  slit  reeda  are  employed.  BiOlarent 
kinda  of  the  latter  charaotv  ^  which  the  alpha- 
>>^  "   -iTranged  acoocdiiu   to  the   ontirerd  suni- 


(Western 


...  &0.),  the  TUIk  (chiefly  used  in  Persian), 
the  Thsoletki  (threefold  or  very  large  chaiactar], 
Jakuthi,  Bihini,  *c 

KUOLBR,  Fbuiz  Thbodoii,  a  German  historian 
of  art,  was  bom  at  Stettio,  January  19, 1808,  and 
studied  at  the  oniversity  of  Berlm.  After  the 
completion  of  a  very  diversified  conns  of  study, 
he  devoted  hJTn— If  to  the  study  of  the  fine  art& 
Id  I33S,  be  became  a  profeeaor  in  Berlin,  where 
he  died,  March  16,  18M.  His  most  valoable  works 
are  a  HcauUiveh  der  QrtthitAtt  der  Ualerti,  Jtc 
(Manual  of  the  History  of  Painting  from  the  Time 
of  OoDstantine  the  Cheat  to  the  Presmt  Day,  1837], 
whioh  has  been  tranilated  into  &irii*h— ins  part 
ralatiiw  to  Ib^ian  aii  hy  Sir  Chanel  and  I^y 
Eaetlake,  and  that  nlating  to  the  German,  8paiu*b, 
French.  Dnteh,  and  Fbrnieh  seliools,  undn  tite 
editorship  of  Sir  Bdmnnd  Head ;  and  a  StmditiA 


KITB-HORN,  sometimee  called  A1.PHORK,  ia  a 
ind-instniment  much  used  by  fhe  herdamao  in  the 
onntainons  oountrisa  of  Oennany.  It  oonaiBla  of  a 
tube  about  tiaree  feet  In^  sod  a  little  bent,  and 
gradually  widening  out  into  a  kind  of  bcJl,  like  a 
fiaMOon.  It  i*  mada  of  wood,  or  vl  the  bark  of  the 
willow,  wrou^t  togother,  and  bound  by  a  pitched 
oord.  The  sound  w  the  knh-hom  is  produced  by 
a  mouth-fdeoe  like  that  of  a  trombone.  It  has 
gcmerally  only  five  noteSp  but  extending  over  nearly 


J 


KDILENBURG^-KUPFEBSGHIEFEE, 


KU'ILENBUBG.    See  Culenzoro. 

KUKAWA,  an  important  town  of  Central  Africa, 
oapital  of  Bomn,  ia  aitnated  in  a  level  district  on 
tlie  western  shore  of  Lake  Tiad,  in  laL  12°  SS 
a.,  and  lon^  13°  26'  W.  It  consiats  of  two  dia- 
tinct  town*,  each  auiTonnded  by  ita  own  waJl,  and 
■epainted  by  a  apace  of  abont  half  a  niile.  A  great 
fair  or  market  i»  hald  here  weekly.  The  principal 
articlaa  offered  for  lale  are  com,  dried  fish,  oxen, 
hoiacB,  cornels,  BlsTet,  clotb,  beads,  earthenware 
Upwards  of  lOO  camels  are  soroetuneE  sold  here  in 
one  day.  Fram  12,000  to  16,000  people  are  often 
crowded  together  in  the  market-place. 

KTTLA,  a  town  of  Aoatria,  in  the  Servian  Wca- 
wodsdiaft,  on  the  Ftanzeoa  or  Bacs  Canal,  26  milea 
north-weat  of  Neosatz.    Fop.  (1869)  7867. 

KU'LDJ A,  also  called  lu,  or  Eelek,  an  important 
town  in  the  Chineae  frontier  territory  of  Djungaria, 
in  kt  43"  Off  N.,  and  in  long.  80*  68'  E.,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Hi,  a  conaidetable  river,  which, 
liaing  in  the  'Dian-Shan  Mountains,  flows  westward 
into  I^e  Balkhash,  after  a  coutae  at  about  300 
milea.  A  Urge  market  ia  held  at  E.,  and  it  is  the 
reaideoce  at  a  dignitary  called  the  Kee  Soy,  or 
Taian-Tiung.    Pop.  70,000. 

ETTLM,  ■  tmall  village  of  Bohemia,  16  miles 
norUi-norUi-west  of  Leitmeritz,  was  the  scene  of 
two  bloody  conflicts  between  the  ITrench  and  allies 
on  the  2&th  and  30th  August  18ia  The  Frenoh, 
ntimbering  30,000  men,  were  commanded  W  Qeoeral 
Vandamme;  the  RuuiukB,  during  the  unt  daVs 
conflict,  were  17,000,  and  were  commanded  by 
General  Ostermann-ToIatoL  Dnrine  ibe  >ught,  the 
latter  were  heavily  reinfcvcMl,  ana  on  the  seoond 
day  Barclay  de  Tolly  assumed  Qie  command  with 
10,000  troops.  The  result  was  the  complete  wreck 
it  the  French  army,  r"-""-  '-"  --  "-—  ■—  ' 
little  short  of  20,000 
not  lose  half  of  that  numoer. 

KUMAaif  U  a  dUtrict  of  Britiah  India,  in  the 
North-west  Province  of  the  aame  name,  in  lat.  29° 
—31°  N,,  and  long;.  78°— 81°  E.  It  lie*  chiefly  on 
the  south  slope  of  uie  Himalaya,  comprising  upwards 
of  thirty  aummits  in  that  range,  which  vary  in 
altitude  from  about  18.000  feet  to  nearly  26,000. 
With  the  exception  of  a  oelton  its  sonthem  frontier, 
which  is  from  2  miles  to  16  miles  broad,  the  whole 
country  Is  one  mass  of  monntaius  and  forests.  It 
contains  mines  of  gold,  copper,  and  lead,  which, 
however,  have  never  yet  been  profitably  worked. 
Throughout  the  Bouthem  belt  above  mentioned,  it 
prodocfs,  geaerally  in  two  crop*  a  year,  whrait, 
barley,  oats,  millet,  pMoe,  beans,  Ac,  with  rice, 
cotton,  indigo,  sugar,  ginger,  turmerio,  to.  More 
lately,  too,  K.  hu  become  the  rival  in  India  of 
Assam  tot  th«  oulldvation  of  the  tea-plant  The 
climate  is  unhealthy.  Area,  6000  aq.  milea ;  pop. 
(1871)  432,888.  The  prinot[«l  towns  are  Almorah, 
Mandi,  and  Eaaipocr.  The  province  of  K.  has  an 
area  of  11,600  ag.  m.,  and  a  pop.  (1871)  of  743,170. 

KUHA&ASAMBHATA  ia  the  name  of  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  poems  of  tiie  TTinilTi«      its 

[lUted  BDthoT  is  irjHrfUsa  (see  EaudIu],  and  its 


reputed  BDtl 
snbieet  it  tl 


Y  history  connected  with  tl 


a  KtiiTTiKnA.     It  conaista  of  22  cantos. 


but  only  8  have  hitherto  been  published  in  the 
original  Sanaorit.  The  firct  7  have  been  el^antly 
rcDdered  in  Engliah  verse  by  Mr  R.  T,  H.  Orii&th, 
at  present  Principal   of  the  Benares   Govemmelit 

College. 

KUHBU'K  {PaUaplera  fomentOM),  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Combraacea,  a  native  of  the  £s«t 
Indiea.  It  is  a  noble  tree,  and  produoes  dniabte 
tunher.  Sir  James  £.  Tennent  deacribea  a  K.  tree 
ia  Ceylon,  46  feet  in  circumference  close  to  the 
ground,  and  21  feet  at  12  fest  above  tiie  ground, 
which  serves  as  a  landmark  for  boatmen,  towering 
high  above  forests  of  cocoa-palm,  and  diaoeraible  at 
a  distance  of  20  milea.  ^e  bark  of  tiu  £.  yields 
a  blaok  dye^  and  contains  so  much  lime,  that  it* 
aabes  are  commoidv  used  as  lime  for  chewinir  witfa 
betel 

KU'MIfiS,  an  intoricating  beveTaae  mud 
esteemed  by  the  Ealmucka.  It  is  made  from  the 
soured  and  fermented  milk  of  marea.  It  haa  an 
acidulous  taste.  A  spirit  ia  obtained  irom  it  I^ 
distillation. 

KTTMMEL.    See  Liqckub. 


KUMQUAT  {Citra*  Japonica),  a  imaU  species  of 
orange,  a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  and  mcu^   | 
cultivated  in  these  countries.     It  has  Ix 


duoad  into  Australia.     It  endures  more  frost  thai> 
any  other  of  the  genus,  and  will  probably  ptrive  a   | 
valuable  aoqnisition  to  many  parta  of  Emope  and    i 
America.    Tlie  pLant  ia  a  sbjub  aometimea  six  feet 
high,  but  in  cultivation  it  is  not  allowed  to  exceed 
the  height  of  a  gooBsbeTTy-buah.    The  &uit  is  oval,    ' 
and  abont  the  sine  of  a  lai^  gooseberry  ;  the  rind  is    I 
sweet,  and  the  juice  add.     It  ia  very  delicious  and 
refre^ung.    The  Chinese  make  an  eioellent  "sweet- 
meat by  preserving  it  in  sugar. 

KUVEBSDORF,  a  village  of  Brandenburv,  in 
Pmaaia,  neariy  4}  miles  north-east  of  Frankfurt- 
an-the-Oder,  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  battles  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  foudit 
on  the  12th  August  1769,  in  which  Frederick  the 
Qreat  waa  completely  defeated  by  a  combined  attack 
of  Ruwiana  Under  SoltikoE,  and  Ausbiana  under 
Laudon.  The  loss  on  the  Frossian  side  was  26,000 
men,  with  almost  all  their  artillery  and  bsg^ge, 
while  their  opponents  lost  34,000  men. 

KUNGTJ'R,  a  town  in  the  south  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Penu,  European  Busaia,  and  141S  miles 
from  St  Petersburg,  is  renowned  f<u-  its  tanneries,  in 
which  the  best  quality  of  Rnsna  leather  ia  pn>- 
duoed.  In  the  neighbouring  district  are  several 
large  ironworks.    Pop.  (J867)  11,971. 

KUNIGU'NDE,  St,  wife  of  the  Emperor  Henry 
IL,  was  the  dsu^iter  of  Count  Segbied  of  Luiem- 
bnig.  Her  husband,  Dnke  Henry  of  Bavaria,  was 
crowned  ki^  of  Uie  Oemuns  in  1002,  and  emparor 
in  1014,  Her  reputation  having  been  unjustly 
assailed,  ahe  vindicated  hrasdf  by  walkirw  bare- 
footed over  hot  plonghahares.  After  the  <£ath  of 
her  husband  in  1024,  the  retired  into  the  convent 
of  Eanfungen,  near  Caaael,  which  ahe  had  founded. 


spent  the  remainder  of  her  days  m  pious  ■mt 
and  died  on  3d  Uarch  1040.  Pope  Hmocetit 
gave  her  a  plaoe  amongst  the  sainta  in  1200. 


UL 


b,COO^If 


KTJRA— XttSTTENIiAKD. 


oowdtti  ot  beds  of  dark  iluJe  wiUi  copper  on 
(hence  the  oune),  and  oontuning  beautinillj  pre- 
■erved  fiah,  of  spedea  neulj  allied  to  those  of  the 

CoklMeMun*. 

KU'RA,  or  sun  (anc  Cynu),  the  prmeip*! 
liver  of  tha  Ceucuna,  rim  in  the  SahaDln  ob*iD, 
■ud  after  a  Math-uiteni  courae  of  635  milea,  fallt 
into  the  Caspian  3ea  hy  several  shallow  oluuinela, 
•boat  60  nules  north  of  the  Persian  bonndu?. 
Its  chief  triutftries  are  the  Aras  (one.  Araxa),  the 
Alazan,  and  the  Yon.  The  K.  haa  so  lapid  ■ 
conne,  and  cbangea  its  chancel  so  frequently,  that 
to  bridge  it  is  almost  impoesible. 

KUEDISTATf  {'  the  Countrj;of  the  Knrfsl,  an 
extensive  region  of  'Western  Asia,  running  north- 
west and  south-east,  between  lat  31*— 40°  N. 
and  long.  36°— 48°  E.,  bounded  on  the  N.E.  side 
I^  Armenia,  Azerbijan,  and  Irak-Ajemi,  and  on 
the  S.W.  by  the  Tigris  and  Aljezira,  belongs  to 
the  Turkish  and  Ferdan  momutJiiea,  chie^  to 
the  former,  and  contains  about  100,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  amounting,  according  to 
Chesney's  estimate,  to  3,000,000— doubtleea  a  very 
great  exaggeration,  though  we  have  no  means  oi 
disproviag  it  The  country,  with  the  exception  of 
the  tract  bordering  on  the  Tigris,  is  very  monn- 
tainons,  some  of  the  peaks  being  nearly  13,000  feet 
above  the  sea-level ;  these  mountain-ran^  divide 
the  surface  of  the  country  into  fertile  vijleys  and 
table-lands.     The  sonthran  port   i 


traversed  by  i£e  Eaphrates,  Tigris,  Zab-Alo,  Zab- 
Asfal,  and  Diyala  or  Shirvan,  and  contains  several 
lakes,  the  chief  of  which  are  Van  and  Urumiah. 
FouT-Qfths  of  the  inhabitants  are  Kurds  (anc 
CarduAi  and  Oordyaa),  a  race  partly  nomad  and 
partly  agricultural,  who  occupy  themselves  chiefly, 
however,  with  the  breeding  of  cattle,  sheep,  goata, 
andhonea.  A  great  trade  ia  oarried  on  with  Turkey 
and  Penia,  eapedallT  in  horses,  the  Kurdish  breed 
beine  so  famed  for  its  sinrit  and  endnianct^  as  to 
be  aJmoBt  exclusively  employed  by  the  Turkish  and 
Perdon  cavalry.  Tlie  settled  portion  of  the  popula- 
tion consists  of  Kurds,  Turks,  and  Fernans,  who  ore 
engsged  In  agricultural  employments.  A  remark- 
abfe  product  of  this  countiy  is  a  substance  found 
on  the  leaves  of  the  tamarisk  aud  other  shmba, 
which  closely  corresponds  to  the  desoription  given  of 
'manna'  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  is  aapposed  to 
reeoit,  like  ook-nlls,  from  the  puncture  of^tiie  leaf 
by  on  insect.  The  coontty  is  deficient  in  mineral 
wealth.      The  inhabitant^  with  the  exception  of 


the  Nestocions  (q.  v,),  who  inhabit  the  vallay  of  the 
^Hgris,  profess  a  debaaed  form  of  Mohammedanism. 
The  chief  towns  in  Turkish  K.  are  Bitiis  (q.  v.),  Vsn, 
Urumia,  Mardin  (anc  Mardeia),  Mush,  Korknk, 
Diorbekir,  Malatia,  and  M«r««>>  The  Persian  por- 
tion of  K.  does  not  form  a  distinct  movince,  but  is 
indnded  in  Azerbijan,  Ardelan,  and  Irak-AJcmi 

KUItlLE  ISHANDS,  a  line  of  islands  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  extend  between  the  south 
extremity  ot  Kamtchatka  and  the  Japanese  island 
of  Teaso.  They  ate  under  the  government  of  the 
RuBso-American  Compuiy,  and  are  22  in  number, 
10  of  them  belonging  to  Russia.  Area  of  the 
i^ands  possessed  by  Kussia,  3843  square  miles;  pop. 
between  200  and  300.  Since  1781,  do  tribute  has 
been  eolleoted  her«.  The  K.  I.  ore  all  volcanic. 
The  vegetatioD  is  poor;  the  principal  productions 
b^g  the  foni  of  foxes,  wolves,  seals,  uid  beavers. 
Navigation  near  the  islands  is  difficult. 

KUTIISCHES  HAFF,  an  extansiTe  higoon,  sepa- 
rated from  the  Baltic  Sea  by  a  ridge  of  sand  from 
one  to  two  milea  in  width.    It  extends  nearly  sixty 


miles  along  the  ooast  of  Esst  Pmssia  from  I^iau 
to  Memel,  where  it  enters  the  Baltic  by  the  *  Memel 
Deeps,'  a  channel  abont  1000  fast  wide,  and  12  feet 
deep.  Its  greatest  breadth  at  the  sonthem  estre- 
mi^  is  abont  28  milea,  but  its  average  breadth 
'  not  above  U  miles.  The  waters  of  the  K.  H. 
I  fresh.  Its  depth  is  very  variable,  and  hence 
its  navigatioa,  accomplished  by  means  of  large  flat 
boats,  is  both  diffioolt  and  dangerous.  The  belt  ot 
land  is  called  the  'Knrische  Neerung,'  and  has  a 
few  villages  upon  it. 

KURNU'L,  the  chief  town  ot  a  district  of  the 
name,  in  the  presidency  ot  Madras,  in  lat.  "* 
.  imil  Irniir.  "JR*  IT  K.    Pnn.  mitjinafatd  at  SO.n 


7470  square  milee,  and  in  IS7I  had  a  population  of 
966,068.    The  country  possess  sa  aonsiderable  worit* 


KUBRACHI',  the  only  port  in  Sinda  tor  «ea- 

Soing  ships,  lies  about  twelve  miles  north-west  of 
le  most  westerly  mouth  of  the  Indus,  in  lal  24°  Gl' 
N.,  and  long.  6r  2'  K  It  vas  tskea  by  the  British 
in  1839,  and  haa  since  advanced  with  rapid  strides 


is  virtually  the  terminus  for  the  traifia  on  that 
The   anchoram   is 
docks,  and  otoer  fan] 


ywittiE^dera 


vement*  ai«  in 
of  the  Indua  Sssun  Flo&lla  Com- 


^derabad, 


iKVven 
is  connected^  the^ndeEaili 

thence,  by  meana  of  the  Indua 

pony's  vessel^  with  Sakar  and  MUtan,  and  frtnn  the 
latter  place  by  ^le  Punjab  Bailway,  with  Lahore, 
Amritair,  Peabawuj,  Ac  Since  January  1860,  it 
boa  had  direct  communication,  by  submarine  tele- 
graph, with  Muscat  and  Alexandria. 
of  K.  are  camels,  fish,  hides,  tallow,  e] 
salt,  indigo,  cotton,  and  grain ;  and  tue  imports, 
metals,  hardware,  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen  goods. 
K.  has  an  active  inland  trade  with  Caabnere, 
Turkestan,  Afghanistan,  and  Tibet.  It  contains  an 
'^lUglish  church  and  school. 
E.VR8K,  one  of  the  a 


e  enorts 


1  of  Orel,  ci 

of  which  is 
province  is  watered  by  feeders  of  the  Dnieper  and 
of  the  Don.  The  soil  being  vary  fertile,  large  crops 
of  com  are  raised,  and  even  in  scanty  years,  K.  can 
supply  the  neidibouring  provinces.  The  pop.  in 
1867,  was  1366359,  of  whom  the  greater  pirt  are 
employed  in  farm-tillage,  thongh  a  large  number 
devote  themselves  to  cottle-braeding  and  orchonl- 
gardening.  The  principal  mannfaotnrea  are  spirits, 
bather,  soap,  and  saltpetre,  and  tiia  priiiducts  are 
largely  exported.  Hemp  and  honee  also  form 
important  items  in  the  export  trade  of  the  province. 
KURSK,  the  chief  town  of  the  government  of 
that  name,  on  the  tiaht  bonk  of  tha  Seim,  a  branch 
of  the  Dezn^  dates  uom  the  9th  c-  It  suffered  con- 
siderably fam  the  ravages  of  the  Tartars  aud  Poles, 
but  is  still  a  flourishing  town,  numbering  (1667) 
28,021  inhabitants,  and  carrying  on  a  considerable 
trade  in  tallow-meltii^  rope-making,  and  tanning. 


s  also  celebrated  li 


M  orchards,  the  fruit  m 


□f  commodities^  are  disposed  of,  the  chiet  being 
mannfactured  silk  and  woollen  talnics,  sugar,  tea, 
horees,  4c. 

KURU,  a  name  of  ^eat  celebriw  in  the  amrient 
or  legendary  history  oflndia.     See  MabIbhIkata. 

KU'STENLAND  (L  e.,  Cbost  DubicU,  Ital  JAl- 
oraie),  a  crovm-land  of  Austria,  consisting  of  the 
oonnly  of  GUn   and  f^adiska. 


iiizcdtgGoogIc 


KUflTEm— KYTHUt* 


btau,  Mid  Uia  town  of  Trierta  with  iti  tarritoiy. 
It  lie*  between  the  crown-land  of  CarnioU  on  tha 
north-oeit  and  the  Gulf  of  Vanioe  on  the  »outh-w«rt, 
Ana,  3048  aq.  m. ;  pop.  (1860)  aCK^SSS.  Ti^etlier 
with  llie  crown-londB  of  Cuinthik  taA  CvnioU,  it 
constituted  in  former  times  tha  kingdom  of  IUyri». 
The  >iirf*oe  ii  moimtwnoiu.  The  chief  TiTera  are 
the  Iionio  uid  Uie  Qoieto.  The  loil  in  gapaiBl  i* 
froitfnl ;  figs  ripen  wkhoot  almoat  any  onltivation, 
and  wine  ii  extuuivelf  made.  la  the  moontainool 
diBtricti  in  the  north  and  north-eait  tha  breeding 
of  oattle  ii  the  chief  branch  of  industry.  Conunoroe 
b  extaniivslj  carried  on  at  the  varioui  aeaports. 

KiJSTRI'N,  a  town  of  Pnu«ia,  and  a  fortreM  of 
the  third  rank,  u  ntnated  in  the  midit  of  extensive 
moneMa,  at  the  oonfluenoe  of  the  Warthe  witii 
the  Oder,  twenty  milei  north  of  Fnmkfnrt.  Fop. 
(ISTI)  10,122. 

KUTAI-BH,  KDTAHIA,  or  KUTATA  {the 
anramit  Cbtwuin),  an  important  town  of  Aaiatio 
Turkey,  in  Anatolia,  capital  of  the  eyalet  in  which 
it  ia  litnated,  ttandi  aeventy  milea  «ouU>-eaat  of 
Bmaa,  on  the  Pnmk,  a  tribntar;  of  the  Sakaria — 
the  ancient  Sangarioa.  It  ia  lud  to  hare  a  good 
trade,  and  a  popolation  of  aboat  fiO,000. 

KUTAI'S.    See  TuKWUHCiau. 

KUTTBNBERO,  a  mining  town  of  Bohemia, 
aboat  fortv  milea  eait-ionth-eaat  d  Pragae.  Here, 
in  1237,  ailver  woa  fonnd,  and  the  lilTer-niinea  were 
flnt  worked.  The  flrat  ailver  grotchen  were  atruck 
here  in  I30a  The  aUver-mines  have  not  been 
worked  for  abont  300  yean,  the  chief  mineral  pro- 
dnota  of  tiie  diitrict  being  now  copper  and  lead. 
Cotton-ipinning,  cotton-printing,  and  bleaching,  are 
alao  earned  on.    Pop.  (1869)  12.747. 

KUTUBOW,  MiCHAKL  LiCRJONOWriBCH  GOLET- 

riBCHKw,  Piince  of  Smolanakoi,  a  Hneiian  field- 
iDarahal,  bom  in  174S,  early  entered  the  Rolaian 
armv,  and  in  1787  was  appointed  goTemor-general 
of  Uie  Crimea.  He  diatrnguished  himself  m  the 
Turkish  war,  and  after  ranoua  other  services,  was 
appointed  in  1805  to  the  command  of  the  Unt  oarp» 
^armft  againat  the  French.  On  18th  and  19th 
November  of  that  year,  he  waa  victoiiooa  over 
tlarahal  Mortier  at  DOreniteiD.  He  was  second  in 
command  of  the  allied  army,  of  which  the  Emperor 
Alexander  himaelf  waa  commander-in-chief,  at  Aiis- 
tcriiti.  In  1811 — 1812,  he  oommanded  the  Rnaaian 
army  in  the  war  against  tiia  Tnrk%  and  notwith- 
standing hfa  advanoed  age,  ha  laoceeded  Barclay  de 
Tolly  in  1812,  aa  ocnmnandar-in-ohief  of  the  army 
against  the  French,  and  obtained  a  S^'''^  victory 
over  Davout  and  Key  at  Smolensk.    He  carried  on 


the  cwnpaign  to  xti  moceaaful  b^iumauwi  -f  mu  mw 
sbmgtti  waa  exhtuuted,  and  be  died  at  Bonslati, 
28^April  1813. 

KUTERA,  the  Hindn  PIntna,  or  god  of  wealUi. 
He  owea  hie  name — which  literally  meant  'having  a 
wretched  {hi)  body  (oeni)'— to  the  defonuitiee  with 
which  he  is  inveitad  by  Hindu  mythido^.  He  i* 
rapeeaented  aa  having  three  heada,  three  lap,  and 
but  eight  teeth ;  hie  eyea  are  green,  and  in  the  {dam 
of  one  he  has  a  yellow  mark ;  he  wears  an  earring, 
but  only  in  one  ear  ;  and  though  be  is  properly  of  a 
black  colour,  bia  belly  ii  whitened  hy  a  leprous 
taint  He  is  seated  in  a  oar  [poApaka),  which  ia 
drawn  bv  hobgoblina.  Gis  reeidenoe,  .^loM,  ia 
situated  m  the  mines  of  Mount  Kailtaa,  and  he  is 
attended  by  the  Yakthu,  Miyoa,  Kinnaraa,  and 
other  impe,  anxiously  guarding  the  entrance  to  his 
garden,  Cluitraratha,  Uie  abode  of  all  richea.  Nine 
treasure* — apparently  precioua  ^ema — are  eapeciaJly 
intniated  to  hit  care. — His  wife  is  a  hobgoblin, 
YakM,  or  YaXAM,  and  their  children  are  two 
eons  and  a  daugbt^.  As  one  of  the  divinitiea 
that  preaide  over  the  regions,  he  is  oonsidered  also 
to  be  the  protector  of  the  north. 

KTANIBINO,  the  moat  eScadona  method  of 
preserving  ahipa  from  Dry  Bot  (q.  v.),  by  injecting 
Into  the  pores  of  the  wood  a  aoEutiioi  of  corroaiTa 
sublimate,  waa  invented  by  John  H.  Kyan,  who 
waa  bom  in  Dublin,  November  27,  1774,  and  died 
inlSSO. 

KTIiB,  a  district  of  Ayrshire  (q.  v.). 

KT^lS  ELEI'SON  (Glr.  Kyrie  daton.  Lord  bav« 
mercy),  a  form  of  prayer  which  occurs  in  all  Uie 
ancient  Greek  liturglea,  and  it  retained  in  the  Bomso 
Catholic  masa.  It  follows  immediately  after  the 
Introit,  and  forms  the  introductian  to  the  hymn 
of  piaiae,  '  Qloria  in  excelais  Deo '  (Glory  to  God  on 
high).  The  retention  of  the  Greek  language  in 
this  prayer,  is  cue  of  many  evidencea  of  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  Greek  element  in  tbe  early  Roman 
Church  (Milman's  Lalm  CkTwHaniis,  i.  lOK  lite 
same  peculiarity  occurs  in  a  few  others  of  the  Kunan 
Bcrvicea,  especially  tboae  of  the  Holy  Week. 

KYTHU'L.  the  ohief  town  of  tEe  Indian  district 
of  the  same  name,  about  1000  mile*  to  the  nrath- 
wert  of  Calcutta,  in  Ut.  29*  49*  N..  and  long.  76*  28* 
£.    It  is  aabstaatially  built  of  brick,  having  a  lofty 
palaoe,  which  looks  down  from  a  beautiful  grove 
on  a  anacious  sheet  of  water.     It  waa  only  in  I84S    l 
,       [1  to  the  English  East  India    I 
having   lapsed  through   the  failure  of    i 
tiien  oompnsed  more  than  MO  villwe^ 
witL  a  revenue  of  £M,000.  | 


Company, 


tyi^ioogle 


TH£  tweUQi  letter  of  our  klpluibet, 
wu  called  Lamed,  L  a.,  '  ox-goad,' 
by  the  Hatnem,  doabtleai  from  it^ 
rsMmblancs  to  that  implament — a 
raaamblanoa  itiJl  traceable  in  the 
FluBmouuL  L.  belonn  to  the  order 
of  conaoDMita  caUed  Liqoida,  and  baa 
the  olowat  affinity  to  K.  In  *oine 
(M,  then  ia  only  one  lign  for  both, 
Peldwi ;  and  in  othera,  the  one  oc 
ouid  ia  alb^ether  vanting.  Hanoe 
ona  lubititution*  of  the  one  loimd  for 
the  othsr  in  the  Aryan  Ungoages.  Thuo,  !Gn«. 
plum,  Qer.  jj/lavm^  Erom  La£  pnutat;  Eng.  pu- 
grim,  Lat.  per^rinm;  Qr.  or  Lat.  tpitMa,  Fr. 
jjollrc ;  the  Swiaa  peaaanta  pronounce  Sir<Ae, 
KUeAe;  and  the  Lat.  termination  -oiw  beoomes, 
after  I,  -arit — aa,  materi-oju,  famili-orii:  L  ia  alio 
interohangeabla  irith  n — aa,  Qr.  pncunuHs  Lat 
pulmo;  and,  rather  ittangely,  vitb  H  {q.  v.).  In 
'  1  combinationa,  the  I  of  Latin  worda  has 
e  1  in  Italian — at.  plimiu,  piano;  Fbtrentia, 
F'traoK.  In  Enff.  I  i*  often  inut«^  u  in  ealm,  yoli, 
thould.  In  the  Saottisb  dialect,  it  ii  mostly  mnte 
in  the  end  of  worda — aa,  fa',  Ju',  a',  for  Jati,  /ail, 
ail.  Similar  to  thii  ia  the  h^uent  uuJting  of  I 
into  u  in  modem  "French — thus,  d  le  haa  bMome 
an  ;  ditvaU,  ekevaux. 
LA.    8e«  SOUDUTIOH. 

LAA'LAND,  or  LOLLAND  (Le.,  ha  land],  a 
Danish  island  in  the  Baltic,  at  the  southern  entnuice 
to  the  Great  Belt.    Area,  452  sq.  m. ;  pop.  vitb  Fal- 


0  square  miles.    The 


harbour,  and  considerable  trade. 

the  Nysted  Fiord,  there  ia  the  largest,  and 

Kata  the  riches^  private  garden  in  the  whole  of 
nmark. 

LA'BABUM  (derivatioQ  uncertain),  the  famous 
standard  of  the  Boman  emperor  Constantine, 
deaigned  to  commemorate  the  miraculous  Tisioa 
of  Oie  cross  in  the  sky,  which  is  said  to  bave 
appeared  to  him  on  his  way  to  attack  Maientius, 
and  to  have  been  the  moTing  caujw  of  hii  couvenion 
to  Christianity.  It  was  a  king  pike  or  lance,  with 
a  short  transverse  bar  of  wood  attached  near  its 
extremity,  so  as  to  form  something  like  a  cross. 
On  the  point  of  the  lance  waa  a  golden  crown 
sparkling  with  gems,  and  in  its  centre  the  myste- 
nouB  monogram  of  the  cross  and  the  initial  letters 
of  the  name  of  Christ,  with  the  occasional  addition 
of  the  Greek  letters  A  and  n.  From  the  cross- 
beam depend^  a  square  purple  banner,  decorated 
with  precious  stones,  and  surrounded  by  a  rich 
border  of  gold  embroiderv.  The  cross  was  substi- 
tuted for  the  eagle,  which  had  formerly  been 
depicted  on  the  Roman  standards,  and  there  were 
sometimes  other  emblems  of  the  Saviour.  In  the 
space  between  the  crown  and  the  cross  were  heads 


figOTB  of  Ctirist  woven  in  gold. 

LABEL.    See  Dsirarotn. 

LABEL  (Ft.  Unnitau,  a  strip  or  shred),  the 
ribbon  pendent  at  the  sides  of  a  mitre  or  coronet 

LABEL,  LAMBEL,  or  FILE,  in  Heraldry,  the 
mark  of  cadency  which  distingtiishea  the  eldest  son 
in  bit  father'a  lifetime,  fanmiar  to  ns  from  ita 
entering  into  the  compodlioo  of  the  arms  of  the 
Frinoe  of  Walea  and  other  membera  of  the  royal 

family.     It  oonsislH  of  a  hotismtal     . 

stripe  or  fillet,  with  three  points  /^— ,  r— rX 
depending  from  it  (6g.  1).  When  Li  LA  Ll 
the  mark  of  cadenoy  itself  ia  desig-  j^  ^ 
natad  a  JiU,  its  paints  are  called 
IdMs.  It  ia  said  that  the  eldeaC  ton's  eldest  son 
should  wear  a  label  of  five  points  in  his  grand- 
father's lifetime,  and,  slmitarly,  the  great-grandson 
a  label  of  seven  points,  two  iwiata  being  ^ded  for 
each  generation.  The  label  extended  orieinally 
quite  acroea  the  shield,  and  sometimes  occupied  the 
upper,  though  now  it  ia  always  plaoed  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  chief :  tine  points,  at  first  rectanfmlar, 
Bsaumed  in  lat«r  times  the  form  called  pattte,  dove- 
tailed, or  wedge-shaped ;  and  more  recently,  the 
label  ceased  to  be  connected  with  the  ed^  of  tlie 
shield.    Edward  L,  in   his  father's  lifetime,   bore 

the  arms  of  England  within  a   , 

label  not  of  three,  but  of  five 

E lints  azure,  joined  to  tbe 
ead  of  the  shield,  and  inter- 
laced with  the  tail  of  the  upper- 
most lion  (fig.  2) ;  EdwardlL, 
when  Prince  of  Wales,  used 
indifferently  the  label  of  three 
or  of  five  points,  at  also  did 
Edward  lU. ;  but  from  the 
time  of  the  Black  Prince 
downwards,  the  eldest 


Fig.  2. 


the  king  of  England  has  invariably  differenced  hia 
arms  with  a  label  of  three  points  argent^  and  the 

Sractice  has  been  for  the  yonnger  aosm  also  to  bear 
ibels,  which  are  sometimes  M  other  colonis  and 
more  points,  and  differenced  by  being  charged 
with  fleurs-de-lis,  castles,  torteaux,  hearte,  crosses, 
Ac,  as  directed  by  the  sovereign  by  sign-manual 
registered  in  the  CoII^  of  Anns.  The  practice 
of  differencing  by  the  ubel  which  is  thns  in  viridi 
obterraitlia  in  our  own  and  other  royal  fooiiliea, 
ia  less  used  by  subjects,  Like  other  marks  of 
cadency,  labels  are  sometimes  borne  as  permanent 
distinctions  by  a  particular  branch  of  a  family. 

LABIA'T.^  {Lamiaaa  of  Lindle^,  a  natnral 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  containing  almost  2600 
known  species,  mosUy  nativea  of  temperate  climates. 
They  are  herbaceous,  or  more  rarely  half-shrubby, 
and  have  4-comered  stems  and  oppomte  branches  ; 


receptacles  of  volatile  oil  The  Sowers  ore  often  in 
OTmes  or  heads,  or  in  whorls ;  sometimes  solitary. 
"iba  oalyx  ia  inferior,  with  fire  or  ten  teeth,  or 


tyCuuyk 


IJBORATOKT— LABOITREHa 


2-lipped.  Tha  oorolla  ia  hTpogynmu,  2-lipped,  the 
Itnrar  lip  3-lobed.  The  ttamens  are  four,  two  Iodr 
uid  two  ihort,  or  by  (ibortioa  only  two,  in»ertod 
into  the  corolla,  "ftie  ovniy  a  deeply  *-lobed. 
Mated  in  a  fleshy  dub,  each  lobe  coabuiiinB  a  i'  ' 
ovule ;  there  ia  a  ringle  style  with  a  bifid  eti^ 
The  fruit  oonsirts  of  1 — i  achmia,  enclosed  within 
the  peraiatont  calyi. — A  genetftl  characteristic  o£ 
this  order  it  an.  aromatic  fnigraDce,  which  in  many 
■pedea  ia  very  a^eeable,  and  makes  them  favourites 
in  our  gardens.  Some  are  weedi  with  an  nnpleasant 
odour.  Maa^  are  natives  of  Britain.  Some  are 
naad  in  medione,  and  others  in  cookery  for  flavour- 
ing. Mint,  Bfarjoram,  Roeemary,  Lavender,  Sage. 
Baail,  Savory,  Thyme,  Horehouhd,  Balm,  Fatobouli, 
Oennander,  and  Dead  Nettle,  are  eiamplea  of  this 


LA'BORATORT,  RotjlJ,  an  eitensivs  militair 
manufacturing  department  in  Woolwich  Anen^ 
Although  it  Das  existed  for  many  yean,  it  was 
only  in  1855  that  the  present  veiy  large  eatablish- 
ment  was  organised.  Here  are  toim£iea  for  the 
oai^c  of  ahot,  shell,  grape,  kc  ;  apparatua  for  the 
manumctura  of  percunion-caps,  which  are  formed 
— hundreda  at  a  time — oat  of   the  copper  aheet ; 

gesaea  where  rifle-bullets  are  squeezed  into  shape  ; 
aea  in  all  stages  of  manufacture ;  and  a  thonaand 
other  itutances  of  combined  ingenuity  and  power. 
Conapicnoua  among  the  mechaniam  may  be  men- 


tioned the  makinic  of  p«per  for  cartridges,  and  aub- 
aeqnently  the  muiing  aiul  filling  of  tne  caitrid^ 
themaelves.     Oovemment  libardly  grants  peimia- 


iderably, 

according  to  the  accumulation  of  atorea.  In  adiu- 
tion  to  lAie  Royal  Laboratory,  there  are  also  labora- 
toriea — thongh  on  a  comparatively  amall  scale — at 
Fortstnoath  and  Devonport. 

LABOUR,  in  Political  Economy,  a  term  ao 
dependent  for  its  meaning  on  the  circunutancea  in 
which  it  ia  ased.  that  any  scientiflc  deflnition  of  it 
would  load  to  miaunderatanding.  The  beat  service, 
in  fact,  towards  rendering  it  intelligible,  ia  to  clear 
away  aome  attempts  that  have  been  made  to  subject 
ft  to  scientiGc  analyais  and  definition.  It  has  been 
separated  into  productive  and  unprododdve,  but  no 
such  division  can  be  fixed.  A  turner  who  puts  a 
piece  of  wood  on  hia  lathe  and  makes  s  top  is  of 


cotinte  a  produdive  labomer.  Hie  lanie  quality 
cannot  be  denied  to  tiie  man  who  beams  a  web  for 
the  loom ;  but  if  he  shares  in  the  praduotion  of  the 
cloth,  ao  doe*  the  ovoneer  who  walks  about  and 
adjust*  ttie  indnstiial  •iran^eiDents  of  the  mann- 
factoiv.  Having  inoloded  him,  we  cannot  well  aay 
that  the  policeman,  who  keeps  oider  in  the  district, 
and  enables  its  mannfactures  to  go  on,  should  be 
eidoded.  Again,  the  man  who  oontribulei  to 
make  a  book,  of  coune  appeals  aa  a  productive 
labourer ;  but  what  the  author  contribntea  is  not 
matter,  but  intdleot ;  aod  it  would  be  difficult  to 
mainbun  that  ha  eeasoa  to  be  prodnctire  if  he 
deliver  such  matter  in  an  oration  or  a  BBimon.  We 
can  hardly  count  the  distiller,  who  makes  a  glass 
of  whiaky,  a  pcoductiTe  labonrar,  and  exclude  the 
musician,  who  produces  another  and  leas  dsngerons 
excitement.  It  is  equally  impoaaible  to  draw  the 
line  between  bodily  and  intellectual  labour,  since 
there  ia  scaroely  a  work  to  which  man  can  put  his 
hand  which  does  not  .  require  aome  amount  of 
thought.  A  distinction  between  capital  and  labour  | 
has  often  been  attempted  to  be  eetablished  with  l 
ver^  fallacious  and  dangerous  tetnltB.  Capital  in 
active  operation  infen  uiat  ita  owner  labonrs.  If  i 
the  capital  is  not  laboored,  the  owner  must  be  | 
content  to  let  it  tie  at  ordinaiy  interest.  If  he 
want  proflt  from  it,  he  must  labour,  and  often  ' 
Bevetely.  In  s  large  mannfactoiy,  where  the  faro- 
prietor  is  auppoMcT  to  be  a  gentieman  at  Isif^ 
drawing  hia  fortune  from  the  aweat  of  the  binw  of 
his  fellow-men,  be  is  often  the  most  anxioas  and  tha 
hardest- worked  man  in  tiie  whole  establishment. 

LABOURBRS.    The  only  peculiar  laws  affecting 
labourers  are  where  they  come  within  the  dssciiption    i 

handicraftamen,  miners,  odliers,  keelmen,  pitmen, 
glaasmen,  pottms,  labourers,  or  other  parscms' — the    i 
word  'labourer'  allying  to  a  descriptun  of  employ- 
ment which,  thou^  comprehenaiva,  ia  difficolt  to 
be  defined.    There  must  be  a  contract  of  aervice  of 
some  kind.     The  peculiarity  consistti  in  a  anmmary     i 
remedy  being  provided  for  and  against  them  bdore 
justices  of  the  peace,  who  mav  compel  them  to  aorve    I 
out  the  time  Qiey  contracted  for,  under  a  penalty     ' 
of  fine  or  impriaonment,  and  On  the  other  hand,  may 
order  the  maat«ra  to  pay  the  wiwea.    See  SxnvAins. 
Labourera'  wages  ate  prohibited  from  being  paid  in 
kind  or  with  goods,  by  the  IVnck  Act  (q.  v.). 


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